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diff --git a/42997-0.txt b/42997-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6e275ef --- /dev/null +++ b/42997-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13290 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42997 *** + + CASTES AND TRIBES + OF + SOUTHERN INDIA + + By + + EDGAR THURSTON, C.I.E., + + Superintendent, Madras Government Museum; Correspondant Étranger, + Société d'Anthropologie de Paris; Socio Corrispondante, Societa, + Romana di Anthropologia. + + Assisted by + + K. Rangachari, M.A., + of the Madras Government Museum. + + + + Volume VII--T to Z + + Government Press, Madras + + 1909. + + + + + + + + + + + CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA. + + VOLUME VII. + + +T + + +Tabelu (tortoise).--A sept of Aiyarakulu, and section of Gazula Kapu +and Koppala Velama. + +Taccha Kurup.--Barbers who shave Malabar Kammalans. + +Tacchan.--The name of the carpenter sub-division of Kammalans, and +further returned, at the census, 1891, as an occupational sub-division +by some Paraiyans. Taccha Karaiyan has been recorded as a name for some +members of the Karaiyan fishing caste. The Tacchasastram, or science +of carpentry, prescribes in minute details the rules of construction. + +Tacchanadan Muppan.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Reports, 1891 and +1901, as a sub-division of Kuricchans, and of Kurumbas of the Nilgiris. + +Tadan.--See Dasari. + +Tagara.--A section of Poroja. + +Takru.--A class of Muhammadan pilots and sailors in the Laccadive +islands. (See Mappilla.) + +Talaivan (a chief).--A title of the Maravans. Jadi or Jati Talaivan +is the name of the hereditary chief of the Paravas of Tinnevelly, who, +at times of pearl fisheries, receives a fixed share of the 'oysters.' + +Talamala.--A sub-division of Kanikar. + +Talayari.--The Talayari (talai, head) or chief watchman, or Uddari +(saviour of the village), is a kind of undepartmental village +policeman, who is generally known as the Talari. Among other duties, +he has to follow on the track of stolen cattle, to act as a guard +over persons confined in the village choultry (lock-up), to attend +upon the head of the village during the trial of petty cases, to +serve processes, and distrain goods. In big villages there are two or +three Talayaris, in which case one is a Paraiyan, who officiates in +the Paraiya quarter. In parts of the Telugu country, the Mutrachas, +who are the village watchmen, are known as Talarivallu, or watchman +people, and, in like manner, the Bedars are called Talarivandlu in +the Kurnool and Bellary districts. + +It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district (1906), that +"from the earliest years of the British occupation of the country, +fees were paid to the talaiyari or village watchman. He was probably +survival of a state of society in which kavalgars did not exist, and +his duties were, it seems, to look after the villagers' fields and +threshing floors. At any rate, he continued in existence even after +the abolition of the kaval system (see Maravan), and was declared by +the early Police Regulation (XI of 1816) to be part of the regular +police establishment. Practically he did little real police duty, +and in 1860, when the mufassal police was reorganised, all claims +to the services of the talaiyari as a servant of the State were +formally abandoned, the Inspector-General of Police having reported +that any attempt to utilise the talaiyari body would be fruitless +and unpopular. Talaiyaris still continue to be employed and paid by +the ryots (cultivators) as the private guardians of their crops and +harvested grain. Recently, however, the district was brought into +line with the rest of the Presidency by the creation of a new force +of talaiyaris, who now perform the police duties assigned to such +persons elsewhere. They are provided with lathis (sticks) and badges, +and are a useful auxiliary to the police." + +Tali.--"The tali," Bishop Caldwell writes, [1] "is the Hindu sign of +marriage, answering to the ring of European christendom. I have known +a clergyman refuse to perform a marriage with a tali, and insist upon +a ring being used instead. A little consideration will show that the +scrupulous conscience can find no rest for itself even in the ring; +for, if the ring is more Christian than the tali, it is only because +its use among Christians is more ancient. Every one knows that the +ring has a Pagan origin, and that, for this reason, it is rejected by +Quakers." "The custom," Wagner informs us, [2] "of wearing the wedding +ring on the fourth finger of the left hand had unquestionably a Pagan +origin. Both the Greeks and the Romans called the fourth left-hand +finger the medicated finger, and used it to stir up mixtures and +potions, out of the belief that it contained a vein, which communicated +directly with the heart, and therefore nothing noxious could come in +contact with it, without giving instant warning to that vital organ." + +The marriage badge, as it occurs in Southern India, is, broadly +speaking, of two types. The one in use among the Tamil castes is oblong +in shape, with a single or double indentation at the base, and rounded +at the top. The corresponding bottu or sathamanam of the Telugu and +Canarese castes is a flat or cup-shaped disc. The tali in use among +various Malayalam castes at the tali-kettu ceremony is a long cylinder. + +Tali-kettu kalyanam (tali-tying marriage).--A ceremony gone through by +Nayar girls, and girls of some other Malayalam castes, in childhood. Of +those who gave evidence before the Malabar Marriage Commission, some +thought the tali-kettu was a marriage, some not. Others called it a +mock marriage, a formal marriage, a sham marriage, fictitious marriage, +a marriage sacrament, the preliminary part of marriage, a meaningless +ceremony, an empty form, a ridiculous farce, an incongruous custom, +a waste of money, and a device for becoming involved in debt. "While," +the Report states, "a small minority of strict conservatives still +maintain that the tali-kettu is a real marriage intended to confer on +the bridegroom a right to cohabit with the bride, an immense majority +describe it as a fictitious marriage, the origin of which they are at +a loss to explain. And another large section tender the explanation +accepted by our President (Sir T. Muttusami Aiyar), that in some +way or other it is an essential caste observance preliminary to the +formation of sexual relations." In summing up the evidence collected +by him, Mr. Lewis Moore states [3] that it seems to be proved beyond +all reasonable doubt that "from the sixteenth century at all events, +and up to the early portion of the nineteenth century, the relations +between the sexes in families governed by marumakkathayam (inheritance +in the female line) were of as loose a description as it is possible +to imagine. The tali-kettu kalyanam, brought about by the Brahmans, +brought about no improvement, and indeed, in all probability, made +matters much worse by giving a quasi-religious sanction to a fictitious +marriage, which bears an unpleasant resemblance to the sham marriage +ceremonies performed among certain inferior castes elsewhere as a +cloak for prostitution (see Deva-dasi). As years passed, some time +about the opening of the nineteenth century, the Kerala mahatmyam +and Keralolpathi were concocted, probably by Nambudris, and false +and pernicious doctrines as to the obligations laid on the Nayars by +divine law to administer to the lust of the Nambudris were disseminated +abroad. The better classes among the Nayars revolted against the +degrading system thus established, and a custom sprang up, especially +in North Malabar, of making sambandham a more or less formal contract, +approved and sanctioned by the Karnavan (senior male) of the tarwad +[4] to which the lady belonged, and celebrated with elaborate ceremony +under the pudamuri (female cloth cutting) form. That there was nothing +analogous to the pudamuri prevalent in Malabar from A.D. 1500 to 1800 +may, I think, be fairly presumed from the absence of all allusion +to it in the works of the various European writers." According to +Act IV, Madras, 1896, sambandham means an alliance between a man +and woman, by reason of which they, in accordance with the custom +of the community to which they belong, or either of them belongs, +cohabit or intend to cohabit as husband and wife. + +Tambala.--The Tambalas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as "Telugu-speaking temple priests. Their social position differs +in different localities. They are regarded as Brahmans in Godavari, +Kistna and Nellore, and as Sudras in the other Telugu districts." It +is noted, in the Census Report, that the Tambalas are described by +C. P. Brown as a class of beggars, who worship Siva, and who beat +drums; secular priests, etc. These men are generally Sudras, but +wear the sacred thread. "It is said that, during his peregrinations +in the north, Sankaracharya appointed Tamil Brahmans to perform +temple services in all the Saiva shrines. Hence the Telugu people, +in the midst of whom the Tamilians lived, called them the Tambalas +(Tamils). They are not now, however, regarded as Brahmans, whatever +their original position may have been. They will eat only with +Brahmans. Most of them are Saivites, and a few are Lingayats. The +Smarta Brahmans officiate as their priests at birth, marriage, +and death ceremonies. They do not eat animal food, and all their +religious rites are more or less like those of Brahmans. Their usual +titles are Aiya and Appa." + +Tamban.--One of the divisions of Kshatriyas in Travancore. (See +Tirumalpad.) + +Tambi (younger brother).--A term of affection in the Tamil country, +used especially when a younger person is being addressed. It is also +recorded as an honorific title of Nayars in Travancore, and a suffix +to the names of Nayar sons of Travancore sovereigns. + +Tambiran.--The name for Pandaram managers of temples, e.g., at +Tiruvadudurai in Tanjore and Mailam in South Arcot. + +Tamburan.--For the following note on the Rajahs or Tamburans, I +am indebted to the Travancore Census Report, 1901. "They form an +endogamous community of Kshatriyas, and live as seven families in +Travancore. They are distinguished by the localities in which they +reside, viz., Mavelikkara, Ennaikkat, Kartikapalli, Mariappalli, +Tiruvalla, Praikkara, and Aranmula. They are all related by blood, +the connection between some of them being very close. Like the +Koiltampurans, all the members of their community observe birth +and death pollution with reference to each other. Their original +home is Kolattunat in North Malabar, and their immigration into +Travancore, where the reigning family is of the Kolattunat stock, was +contemporaneous, in the main, with the invasion of Malabar by Tippu +Sultan. The first family that came into the country from Kolattunat was +the Putuppalli Kovilakam in the 5th century M.E. (Malabar era). The +Travancore royal family then stood in need of adoption. The then +Rajah arranged through a Koiltampuran of Tattarikkovilakam to bring +from Kolattunat two princesses for adoption, as his negotiations +with the then Kolattiri were fruitless. The Puttuppali Kovilakam +members thus settled themselves at Kartikapalli, the last of whom +died in 1030 M.E. The next family that migrated was Cheriyakovilakam, +between 920 and 930 M.E. They also came for adoption. But their right +was disputed by another house, Pallikkovilakam. They then settled +themselves at Aranmula. The third series of migrations were during +the invasion of Malabar by Tippu in 964 M.E. All the Rajahs living +there at the time came over to Travancore, of whom, however, many +returned home after a time. + +The Rajahs, like the Koiltampurans, belong to the Yajurveda section of +Dvijas, but follow the sutra laid down by Baudhayana. Their gotra is +that of Bhargava, i.e., Parasurama, indicating in a manner that these +are Kshatriyas who were accepted by Parasurama, the uncompromising +Brahmin of the Hindu Puranas. They have all the Brahminical Samskaras, +only the Brahmin priest does most of them on their behalf. Chaulam, or +tuft ceremony, is performed along with Upanayanam. The Samavartanam, +or termination of the pupil stage, is celebrated on the fourth day +of the thread investiture. Instruction in arms is then given to the +Kshatriya boy, and is supposed to be kept up until the requisite skill +has been obtained. The tali-tying (mangalya dharanam or pallikkettu of +a Raja lady) is done by a Koiltampuran, who thereafter lives with her +as her married husband. The Kanyakadanam, or giving away of the bride, +is performed by the priest who attends also to the other Sastraic +rites. The males take Sudra consorts. If the first husband leaves +by death or otherwise, another Koiltampuran may be accepted. This is +not called marriage, but kuttirikkuka (living together). + +At Sradhas (memorial services), the Karta, or performer of the +ceremony, throws a flower as a mark of spiritual homage at the feet +of the Brahmins who are invited to represent the manes, and greets +them in the conventional form (namaskara). The priest does the other +ceremonies. After the invited Brahmins have been duly entertained, +oblations of cooked rice are offered to the ancestors by the Karta +himself. + +They are to repeat the Gayatri ten times at each Sandhya prayer, +together with the Panchakshara and the Ashtakshara mantras. + +Their caste government is in the hands of the Nambutiri Vaidikas. Their +family priests belong to the class of Malayala Pottis, known as +Tiruveli Pottis. + +Besides the ordinary names prevalent among Koiltampurans, names such as +Martanda Varma, Aditya Varma, and Udaya Varma are also met with. Pet +names, such as Kungaru, Kungappan, Kungoman, Kungunni, Unni and Ampu +are common. In the Travancore Royal House, the first female member +always takes the name of Lakshmi and the second that of Parvati. + +Tamoli.--A few members of this North India caste of betel-leaf sellers +have been returned at times of census. I am unable to discover in +what district they occur. Tambuli or Tamuli is recorded as a caste +of betel-leaf sellers in Bengal, and Tamboli as a caste carrying on +a similar occupation in the Bombay Presidency. + +Tanamanadu.--A sub-division of Valaiyan. + +Tanda.--The word literally refers to a settlement or encampment of +the Lambadis, by some of whom it is, at times of census, returned as +a tribal synonym. + +Tandan.--It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "in +Walluvanad and Palghat (in Malabar) Tandan is a distinct caste. The +ceremonies observed by Tandans are, in general outline, the same +as those of the southern Tiyyans, but the two do not intermarry, +each claiming superiority over the other. There is a custom which +prohibits the Tandan females of Walluvanad from crossing a channel +which separates that taluk from Mankara on the Palghat side." The +Tandans of Malabar are described by Mr. F. Fawcett as a people allied +to the Izhuvans, who observe the custom of fraternal polyandry, +which the Izhuvans abhor. + +For the following note on the Tandans of Travancore, I am indebted +to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. + +The castemen are known as Uralis to the south of Varkallay, and Tandans +to the north of it. In some places to the east of Kottarakaray, +they were popularly termed Mutalpattukar, or those who receive +the first perquisite for assistance rendered to carpenters. In the +days when there were no saws, the rough instruments of the Tandan +served their purpose. Hence some members of the caste were called +Tacchan (carpenter). Tandan is derived from the Sanskrit dandanam or +punishment, as, in ancient times, men of this caste were employed to +carry out the punishments that were inflicted by the authorities upon +offenders. For the execution of such punishments, the Tandans were +provided with swords, choppers and knives. As they were also told off +to guard the villages (ur) of which they happened to be inhabitants, +they acquired the title of Urali. In some places, Tandans are also +called Velans. Males and females have respectively the title Muppan +and Muppatti, meaning an elder. In addressing members of higher castes, +the Tandans call themselves Kuzhiyan, or dwellers in pits. + +The Tandans are said to have once belonged to the same caste as the +Izhuvans, but to have fallen away from that position. They must, +in times gone by, have joined the military service of the various +States in Malabar. They were, in some places, given rent-free lands, +called Urali parambu, in return for the duties they were expected to +perform. With the return of peaceful times, their occupation changed, +and the climbing of palm trees, to extract the juice thereof, became +their most important calling. They are also largely engaged in the +manufacture of ropes. Many families still receive the mutalpattu, +or allowance from the carpenters. + +The Tandans are divided into four endogamous sections, called Ilanji, +Puvar, Irunelli, and Pilakkuti. + +The ornaments of the women are, besides the minnu, wreaths of red +and red and black beads. Nowadays the gold gnattu of the Nayars is +also worn. Tattooing is popular. Even males have a crescent and a dot +tattooed on the forehead, the corresponding mark in females being a +line from the nasal pit upwards. Among the devices tattooed on the +arms are the conch shell, lotus, snake, discus, etc. In their food +and drink the Tandans resemble the Iluvans. + +The priests of the Tandans are called Tanda Kuruppus, and they are +also the caste barbers. The chief deity of the Tandans is Bhadrakali, +at whose shrines at Mandaikkad, Cranganore, and Sarkkaray, offerings +are regularly made. At the last place, a Tandan is the priest. The +chief days for the worship of this deity are Bharani asterism in March +and Pattamudayam in April. November is a particularly religious month, +and the day on which the Kartikay star falls is exclusively devoted to +worship. The first Sunday in January is another religious occasion, and +on that day cooked food is offered to the rising sun. This is called +Pogala. Maruta, or the spirit of smallpox, receives special worship. If +a member of the caste dies of this disease, a small shed is erected +in his memory either at his home or near the local Bhadrakali shrine, +and offerings of sweetmeats and toddy are made to him on the 28th of +Makaram (January-February). Chitragupta, the accountant of Yama, the +god of death, is worshipped on the full-moon day in April-May. Ancestor +worship is performed on the new-moon day in July. + +A girl's tali-tying ceremony, which is called kazhuttukettu, takes +place when she is between seven and twelve years old. The bridegroom +is a relative called Machchampi. The Kuruppu receives a money present +of 2 1/2 fanams for every tali tied in his presence. Though more than +one girl may go through the ceremony in the same pandal (booth), each +should have a separate bridegroom. The relations between the bride +and bridegroom are dissolved by the father of the former paying the +latter sixteen rasi fanams. The daughter of a man's paternal aunt +or maternal uncle may be claimed as murappen or lawful bride. The +sambandham, or actual marriage, takes place after a girl has reached +puberty. A family is regarded as out-caste, if she has not previously +gone through the tali-tying ceremony. + +Only the eldest member of a family is cremated, the rest being +buried. Death pollution lasts for ten days. The anniversary of a death +is celebrated at the sea-shore, where cooked food, mixed with gingelly +(Sesamum) is offered to the departed, and thrown into the sea. + +Tandan.--The Tandan is the hereditary headman of a Tiyan tara +(village), and is a Tiyan by caste. He is appointed by the senior +Rani of the Zamorin's family, or by some local Raja in territories +outside the jurisdiction of the Zamorin. The Tandan is the principal +person in the decision of caste disputes. He is expected to assist +at the tali-tying, puberty, marriage and pregnancy ceremonies of +members of the caste. His formal permission is required before the +carpenter can cut down the areca palm, with which the shed in which +the tali is tied is constructed. In cases of divorce, his functions +are important. When a new house is built, a house-warming ceremony +takes place, at which the Tandan officiates. Fowls are sacrificed, and +the right leg is the Tandan's perquisite. He is a man of importance, +not only in many affairs within his own caste, but also in those of +other castes. Thus, when a Nayar dies, it is the Tandan's duty to get +the body burnt. He controls the washerman and barber of the tara, and +can withdraw their services when they are most needed. He officiates, +moreover, at marriages of the artisan classes. + +Tangalan.--A sub-division of Paraiyan. The word indicates one who +may not stand near, in reference to their belonging to the polluting +classes. + +Tangedu.--Tangedu or Tangedla (Cassia auriculata) has been recorded +as an exogamous sept of Kapu and Padma Sale. The bark of this shrub is +one of the most valuable Indian tanning agents, and is, like myrabolams +(Terminalia fruits), used in the manufacture of indigenous dyes. + +Tantuvayan (thread-wearer).--An occupational name used by various +weaving castes. + +Tapodhanlu.--The name, meaning those who believe in self-mortification +as wealth, adopted by some Telugu mendicants. + +Tarakan.--See Muttan. + +Tartharol.--The name, recorded by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, [5] of a +division of the Todas. Tartal is also given by various writers as a +division of this tribe. + +Tarwad.--Defined by Mr. Wigram [6] as a marumakkathayam family, +consisting of all the descendants in the female line of one common +female ancestor. + +Tassan.--A Malayalam synonym for the Telugu Dasari. + +Tattan.--The goldsmith section of the Tamil and Malayalam Kammalans. + +Teivaliol.--The name, recorded by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, [5] of a +division of the Todas. + +Telaga.--"The Telagas," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [7] "are a Telugu +caste of cultivators, who were formerly soldiers in the armies of +the Hindu sovereigns of Telingana. This may perhaps account for the +name, for it is easy to see that the Telugu soldiers might come to be +regarded as the Telugus or Telagas par excellence. The sub-divisions +returned under this name show that there has been some confusion +between the Telagas proper, and persons who are members of other Telugu +castes. The Telagas are Vaishnavites, and have Brahmans for their +priests. Their customs closely resemble those of the Kapus. They eat +flesh, but are not allowed to drink liquor. They are usually farmers +now, but many still serve as soldiers, though their further recruitment +has recently been stopped. Their common titles are Naidu and Dora." + +In a note on the Telagas and Vantaris (strong men), it is suggested +that they should be classed with the Kapus, of which caste they are +an offshoot for the following reasons:--"(1) Members of the three +classes admit that this is so; (2) a collation of the intiperulu or +septs shows that the same names recur among the three classes; (3) +all three interdine, and intermarriage between them is not rare. A +poor Telaga or Vantari often gives his daughter in marriage to a rich +Kapu. The Telagas and Vantaris are highly Brahmanised, and will have +a Brahman for their guru, and get themselves branded at his hands. A +Kapu is generally content with a Satani or Jangam. Though they do not +differ in their marriage and funeral rites from the Kapus, they usually +marry their girls before puberty, and widow remarriage and divorce are +disallowed. A Kapu is invariably a cultivator; a Vantari was in olden +days a sepoy, and, as such, owned inam (rent-free) lands. Even now +he has a prejudice against ploughing jirayati (ordinarily assessed) +lands, which a Kapu has no objection to do. Similarly, a Telaga takes +pride in taking service under a Zamindar, but, unlike the Vantari, +he will plough any land. Kapu women will fetch their own water, and +carry meals to the fields for their fathers and husbands. The women +of the other classes affect the gosha system, and the men carry their +own food, and fetch water for domestic purposes, or, if well-to-do, +employ Kapus for these services. It may be added that rich Kapus +often exhibit a tendency to pass as Telagas." + +Telikula.--The Telikulas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as "a Telugu oil-presser caste, which should not be confused +with Tellakula, a synonym for Tsakala, or with Telli, a caste of Oriya +oil-pressers." Telikula is a synonym for the Ganiga or Gandla caste +of oil-pressers, derived from the oil (gingelly: Sesamum indicum), +whereas the names Ganiga and Gandla refer to the oil-mill. In the +Northern Circars, the name Telikula is used in preference to Ganiga +or Gandla, and the oil-pressers in that part of the country are +known as Telikula-vandlu. The Telikulas are Onteddu, i.e., use a +single bullock for working the oil-mill, whereas, among the Ganigas, +there are both Onteddu and Rendeddu sections, which employ one and +two bullocks respectively. + +Tellakula (white clan).--Recorded, in the Census Report, 1901, +as a synonym for Tsakala. According to the Rev. J. Cain, [8] the +Tellakulas are Telugu washermen (Tsakalas), who, in consequence +of having obtained employment as peons in Government offices, feel +themselves to be superior to other members of their caste. + +Telli.--The Tellis are the oil-pressers of the Oriya country, +whose caste name is derived from telo, oil. They are apparently +divided into three endogamous sections, named Holodia, Bolodia, and +Khadi. The original occupation of the Holodias is said to have been +the cultivation and sale of turmeric. They may not carry turmeric and +other articles for sale on the back of bullocks, and consequently use +carts as a medium of transport thereof. And it is further contrary to +their caste rules even to assist in loading or unloading packs carried +by bullocks. The Bolodias receive their name from the fact that they +carry produce in the form of oil-seeds, etc., on pack bullocks, bolodo +being Oriya for bullock. The Khadis are mainly engaged in expressing +various oils in oil-mills, and this occupation is also carried on +by some members of the other sections. All Tellis seem to belong to +one gotra, called Karthikeswara. The caste title is Sahu. In social +position the Tellis, unlike the Tamil Vaniyans (oil-pressers), are on +a par with the agricultural castes, and are one of the panchapatako, +or five castes from which individuals are selected to decide serious +issues which arise among the Badhoyis. The headman of the Tellis is +called Behara, and he is assisted by a Bhollobaya, and in some places +apparently by another officer called Pento. + +It is considered by the Tellis as a breach of caste rules to sail in a +boat or ship. If a cow dies with a rope round its neck, or on the spot +where it is tethered, the family which owned it is under pollution +until purification has been effected by means of a pilgrimage, +or by bathing in a sacred river. The Holodias will not rear male +calves at their houses, and do not castrate their bulls. Male calves +are disposed of by sale as speedily as possible. Those Holodias who +are illiterate make the mark (nisani) of a ball of turmeric paste +as a substitute for their autograph on documents. In like manner, +the nisanis of the Bolodias and Khadis respectively are the leather +belt of a bullock and curved pole of the oil-mill. Among nisanis used +by other Oriya castes, the following may be noted:-- + + + + Korono (writer caste), style. + Ravulo (temple servants), trident. + Bavuri (basket-makers and earth-diggers), sickle. + Dhoba (washermen) fork used for collecting firewood. + Brahman, ring of dharba grass, such as is worn on ceremonial + occasions. + + + +In their marriage ceremonies, the Tellis observe the standard Oriya +type, with a few variations. On the day before the wedding, two young +married women carry two new pots painted white on their heads. To +support the pots thereon, a single cloth, with the two ends rolled +up to form a head-pad, must be used. The two women, accompanied by +another married woman carrying a new winnowing basket, and mokkuto +(forehead chaplet), proceed, to the accompaniment of the music of a +chank shell and pipes, to a temple, whereat they worship. On their +way home, the two girls, according to the custom of other Oriyas +castes, go to seven houses, at each of which water is poured into their +pots. During the marriage ceremony, after the ends of the cloths of the +bride and bridegroom have been tied together, they exchange myrabolams +(Terminalia fruits) and areca nuts. Until the close of the ceremonies, +they may not plunge into a tank (pond) or river, and, in bathing, +may not wet the head. + +Most of the Tellis are Paramarthos, and follow the Chaitanya form +of Vaishnavism, but some are Smartas, and all worship Takuranis +(village deities). + +Telugu.--Telugu or Telaga is used as a linguistic term indicating a +person who speaks that language. It has, at recent times of census, +been returned as a sub-division of various classes, e.g., Agasa, +Balija, Banajiga, Bedar, Bestha, Devanga, Holeya, Kumbara, Rachewar, +Tsakala, and Uppara. Further, Telugu Vellala appears as a synonym of +Velama, and Telugu Chetti as a synonym of Saluppan. + +Ten (honey).--Ten or Jen has been recorded as a sub-division or +exogamous sept of jungle Kurumbas and Holeyas. Some Irulas style +themselves Ten Padaiyachi or Ten Vanniyan, Padaiyachi and Vanniyan +being a title and synonym of the Pallis. + +Tendisai (southern country).--Recorded as a division of Vellalas in +the Madura and Coimbatore districts. + +Tene (millet: Setaria italica).--An exogamous sept of Holeya. + +Tengina (cocoanut palm).--The name of a section of Halepaiks, who +tap the cocoanut for extracting toddy. + +Tennam.--Tennam (cocoanut) or Tennanjanar (cocoanut tappers) is +recorded as the occupational name of Shanan. Tenkayala (cocoanut) +occurs as an exogamous sept of Yanadi, and the equivalent Tennang as +a tree or kothu of Kondaiyamkotti Maravans. + +Tennilainadu.--A territorial sub-division of Kallan. + +Terkattiyar (southerner).--A term applied to Kallan, Maravan, +Agamudaiyan, and other immigrants into the Tanjore district. At +Mayavaram, for example, it is applied to Kallans, Agamudaiyans, +and Valaiyans. + +Tertal.--A division of Toda. + +Teruvan.--A synonym of the Malabar Chaliyans, who are so called +because, unlike most of the west coast castes, they live in streets +(teru). + +Tevadiyal (servant of god).--The Tamil name for Deva-dasis. Tevan +(god) occurs as a title of Maravans. + +Teyyambadi.--A section of Ambalavasis or temple servants in Malabar, +the members of which dance and sing in Bhagavati temples, and perform +a song called nagapattu (song in honour of serpents) in private houses, +which is supposed to be effective in procuring offspring. [9] + +Thadla.--Thadla or Thalla, meaning rope, is an exogamous sept of +Devanga and Karna Sale. + +Thakur.--About a hundred members of this caste are returned, in +the Madras Census Report, 1901, as belonging to a Bombay caste of +genealogists and cultivators. It is recorded, in the Bombay Gazetteer, +that "inferior in rank to Marathas, the Thakurs are idle and of +unclean habits. Though some of them till and twist woollen threads +for blankets, they live chiefly by begging and ballad singing. At +times they perform plays representing events mentioned in the Purans +and Ramayan, and showing wooden puppets moved by strings." + +Thalakokala (female cloths).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Thalam (palmyra palm).--An exogamous sept or illam of Kanikar. + +Thamballa (sword bean: Canavalia ensiformis).--An exogamous sept of +Tsakalas, members of which will not eat the bean. + +Thamburi.--A class of people in Mysore, who are Muhammadans, dress +like Lambadis, but do not intermarry with them. (See Lambadi.) + +Thanda Pulayan.--For the following note, I am indebted to +Mr. L. K. Ananthakrishna Aiyar. [10] The Thanda Pulayans constitute +a small division of the Pulayans, who dwell in South Malabar and +Cochin. The name is given to them because of the garment worn by the +females, made of the leaves of a sedge, called thanda (apparently +Scirpus articulatus), which are cut into lengths, woven at one end, +and tied round the waist so that they hang down below the knees. The +following story is told with regard to the origin of this costume. A +certain high-caste man, who owned lands in those parts, chanced to sow +seeds, and plant vegetables. He was surprised to find that not a trace +of what he sowed or planted was to be seen on the following day. With +a view to clearing up the mystery, he kept a close watch during +the night, and saw certain human beings, stark naked, come out of a +hole. They were pursued, and a man and a woman were caught. Impressed +with a sense of shame at their wretched condition, the high-caste man +threw his upper garment to the male, but, having nothing to give as a +covering for the woman, threw some thanda leaves over her. The Thanda +Pulayans are also called Kuzhi Pulayans, as they were found emerging +from a pit (kuzhi). The leafy garment is said to be fast going out of +fashion, as Mappillas, and others who own the Pulayans, compel them to +wear cotton cloths. According to the Rev. W. J. Richards, a division of +the Pulayans, who are called Kanna Pulayans, and found near Alleppey, +wear rather better, and more artistically made aprons. [11] + +The following legend is current regarding the origin of the Thanda +Pulayans. In the south, the Pulayans are divided into the eastern +and western sections. The former were the slaves of Duryodhana, and +the latter were attached to the Pandus. These formed the two rival +parties in the war of the Mahabaratha, and the defeat of Duryodhana +was the cause of their degradation. + +The Thanda Pulayans appear to have been the slaves of the soil till +1854, when they were emancipated. Even now, their condition has not +undergone much material improvement. Though they are left more to +themselves, they still work for farmers or landlords for a daily wage +of paddy (unhusked rice). If they run away, they are brought back, +and punished. There is a custom that, when a farmer or landlord wants +a few Pulayans to work in the fields, he obtains their services on +payment of fifteen to twenty rupees to them, or to their master. When +a Pulayan's services are thus obtained, he works for his new master +for two edangalis of paddy a day. They can obtain their liberation +on the return of the purchase-money, which they can never hope to +earn. Having no property which they can claim as their own, and +conscious perhaps that their lot will be the same wherever they go, +they remain cheerful and contented, drudging on from day to day, +and have no inclination to emigrate to places where they can get +higher wages. The Cherumars of Palghat, on the contrary, enjoy more +freedom. Many go to the Wynad, and some to the Kolar gold-fields, +where they receive a good money-wage. The Thanda Pulayans work, as has +been said, for some landlord, who allows them small bits of land. The +trees thereon belong to the master, but they are allowed to enjoy +their produce during their residence there. When not required by the +master, they can work where they like. They have to work for him for +six months, and sometimes throughout the year. They have little to do +after the crop has been garnered. They work in the rice-fields, pumping +water, erecting bunds (mud embankments), weeding, transplanting, and +reaping. Men, women, and children may be seen working together. After +a day's hard work, in the sun or rain, they receive their wages, +which they take to the nearest shop, called mattupitica (exchange +shop), where they receive salt, chillies, etc., in exchange for a +portion of the paddy, of which the remainder is cooked. The master's +field must be guarded at night against the encroachment of cattle, +and the depredations of thieves and wild beasts. They keep awake by +shouting aloud, singing in a dull monotone, or beating a drum. Given +a drink of toddy, the Pulayans will work for any length of time. It +is not uncommon to see them thrashed for slight offences. If a man is +thrashed with a thanda garment, he is so much disgraced in the eyes +of his fellow men, that he is not admitted into their society. Some +improve their condition by becoming converts to Christianity. Others +believe that the spirits of the departed would be displeased, if they +became Christians. + +The Thanda Pulayan community is divided into exogamous illams, +and marriage between members of the same illam is forbidden. Their +habitations are called matams, which are miserable huts, supported on +wooden posts, sometimes in the middle of a paddy field, with walls +of reeds, bamboo mats or mud, and thatched with grass or cocoanut +leaves. A few earthen pots, bamboo vessels, and cocoanut shells +constitute their property. They are denied admission to the markets, +and must stand at a distance to make their purchases or sales. + +Pulayan girls are married either before or after attaining puberty, +but there is special ceremony, which is performed for every girl +during her seventh or eighth year. This is called thanda kalyanam, +or thanda marriage. It consists in having the girl dressed at an +auspicious hour in the leafy garment by a woman, generally a relative, +or, in her absence, by one selected for the purpose. The relations and +friends are entertained at a feast of curry and rice, fish from the +backwater, and toddy. Prior to this ceremony, the girl is destitute +of clothing, except for a strip of areca bark. + +At the marriage ceremony, the tali (marriage badge) is made of a piece +of a conch shell (Turbinella rapa), which is tied on the bride's neck +at an auspicious hour. She is taken before her landlord, who gives +her some paddy, and all the cocoanuts on the tree, beneath which she +happens to kneel. When the time has come for her to be taken to the +hut of the bridegroom, one of her uncles, taking her by the hand, +gives her into the charge of one of her husband's uncles. On the +third morning, her paternal and maternal uncles visit her at the hut +of the bridegroom, by whom they are entertained. They then return, +with the bride and bridegroom, to the home of the former, where +the newly-married couple stay for three days. To ascertain whether +a marriage will be a happy one, a conch shell is spun round. If it +falls to the north, it predicts good fortune; if to the east or west, +the omens are favourable; if to the south, very unfavourable. + +The Thanda Pulayans follow the makkathayam law of inheritance (from +father to son). They have their tribal assemblies, the members of which +meet together on important occasions, as when a woman is charged with +adultery, or when there is a theft case among them. All the members +are more or less of equal status, and no superior is recognised. They +swear by the sun, raising their hands, and saying "By the sun I did +not." Other oaths are "May my eyes perish" or "May my head be cut +off by lightning." + +Every kind of sickness is attributed to the influence of some +demon, with whom a magician can communicate, and discover a means +of liberation. The magician, when called in professionally, lights +a fire, and seats himself beside it. He then sings, mutters some +mantrams (prayers), and makes a discordant noise on his iron plate +(kokkara). The man or woman, who is possessed by the demon, begins to +make unconscious movements, and is made to speak the truth. The demon, +receiving offerings of fowls, sheep, etc., sets him or her free. A +form of ceremonial, called urasikotukkuka, is sometimes performed. At +a place far distant from the hut, a leaf, on which the blood of a fowl +has been made to fall, is spread on the ground. On a smaller leaf, +chunam (lime) and turmeric are placed. The person who first sets eyes +on these becomes possessed by the demon, and sets free the individual +who was previously under its influence. In the event of sickness, +the sorcerer is invited to the hut. He arrives in the evening, +and is entertained with food, toddy, and betel. He then takes a +tender cocoanut, flower of the areca palm, and some powdered rice, +which he covers over with a palm leaf. The sick person is placed in +front thereof, and a circle is drawn round him. Outside the circle, +an iron stylus is stuck in the ground. The demon is supposed to be +confined within the circle, and makes the patient cry out "I am in pai +(influence of the ghost) and he is beating me," etc. With the promise +of a fowl or sheep, or offerings thereof on the spot, the demon is +persuaded to take its departure. Sometimes, when the sorcerer visits +a house of sickness, a rice-pan containing three betel leaves, areca +nuts, paddy, tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), sacred ashes, conch and cowry +(Cypræa moneta) shells, is placed in the yard. The sorcerer sits in +front of the pan, and begins to worship the demon, holding the shells +in his hands, and turning to the four points of the compass. He then +observes the omens, and, taking his iron plate, strikes it, while +he chants the names of terrible demons, Mullva, Karinkali, Aiyinar, +and Villi, and utters incantations. This is varied by dancing, to +the music of the iron plate, sometimes from evening till noon on the +following day. The sick person works himself up into the belief that +he has committed some great sin, and proceeds to make confession, +when a small money fine is inflicted, which is spent on toddy for +those who are assembled. The Thanda Pulayans practice maranakriyas, +or sacrifices to certain demons, to help them in bringing about the +death of an enemy or other person. Sometimes affliction is supposed +to be brought about by the enmity of those who have got incantations +written on a palm leaf, and buried in the ground near a house by the +side of a well. A sorcerer is called in to counteract the evil charm, +which he digs up, and destroys. + +When a member of the tribe has died an unnatural death, a man, with +a fowl and sword in his hands, places another man in a pit which has +been dug, and walks thrice round it with a torch. After an hour or +two, the man is taken out of the pit, and goes to a distance, where +certain ceremonies are performed. + +The Thanda Pulayans worship the gods of Brahmanical temples at a +distance of nearly a quarter of a mile. A stone is set up in the +ground, on which they place tender cocoanuts and a few puttans (Cochin +coins). A temple servant takes these to the priest, who sends in return +some sandal paste, holy water, and flowers. They worship, as has been +already hinted, demons, and also the spirits of their ancestors, by +which small brass figures of males and females representing the pretas +(ghosts) are supposed to be possessed. They worship, among others, +Kandakarnan, Kodunkali, Bhairavan, and Arukola pretas, who are lodged +in small huts, and represented by stones. In the month of May, they +celebrate a festival, which lasts for several days. Chrysanthemum and +thumba (apparently Leucas aspera) flowers are used in the performance +of worship, and paddy, beaten rice, tender cocoanuts, toddy, etc., +are offered up. There is a good deal of singing, drum-beating +and devil-dancing by men and women, who on this occasion indulge +liberally in toddy. The Pandavas, whom they call Anju Thamburakkal, +are favourite deities. They devise various plans for warding off the +evil influence of demons. Some, for example, wear rolls of palm leaf, +with incantations written on them, round their necks. Others hang +baskets in the rice fields, containing peace offerings to the gods, and +pray for the protection of the crop. Wherever there is a dense forest, +Matan and Kali are supposed to dwell, and are worshipped. From the end +of November to April, which is the slack season, the Thanda Pulayans +go about dancing from hut to hut, and collecting money to purchase +fowls, etc., for offerings. Club-dancing is their favourite amusement, +and is often indulged in at night by the light of a blazing fire. The +dancers, club in hand, go round in concentric circles, keeping time +to the songs which they sing, striking each other's clubs, now bending +to ward off a blow on the legs, or rising to protect the head. + +The dead are buried, and lighted torches are set up all round the +grave, on to which the relations of the dead person throw three +handfuls of rice. Near it, squares are made in rice flour, in each +of which a leaf with rice flour and paddy, and a lighted torch or +wick is placed. The chief mourner, who should be the son or nephew, +carrying a pot of water, goes several times round the grave, and breaks +the pot over the spot where the head rests. A few grains of rice are +placed at the four corners of the grave, and a pebble is laid on it, +with mantrams to keep off jackals, and to prevent the spirit from +molesting people. Every morning the chief mourner goes to the grave, +and makes offerings of boiled rice, gingelly (Sesamum indicum) seeds, +and karuka grass. On the fourteenth day, he has an oil-bath, and, on +the following day, the Pulayans of the village (kara) have a feast, +with singing and beating of drums. On the sixteenth day, which is +pulakuli or day of purification, the chief mourner makes offerings +of rice balls, the guests are fed, and make a present of small coin +to the songster who has entertained them. Similar offerings of rice +balls are made to the spirit of the deceased person on the new-moon day +in the month of Kartigam. During the period of pollution, the chief +mourner has to cook his own food. The spirits of deceased ancestors +are called Chavar (the dead), and are said to manifest themselves +in dreams, especially to near relations, who speak in the morning of +what they have seen during the night. They even say that they have held +conversation with the deceased. The Rev. W. J. Richards informs us that +he once saw "a little temple, about the size of a large rabbit-hutch, +in which was a plank for the spirits of the deceased ancestors to come +and rest upon. The spirits are supposed to fish in the backwaters, +and the phosphorescence, sometimes seen on the surface of the water, +is taken as an indication of their presence." [12] + +The Thanda Pulayans will not eat with the Ulladans or Parayans, but +stand at a distance of ninety feet from Brahmans and other high-caste +people. They are short of stature and dark-skinned. Like the Cherumans, +the women adorn their ears, necks, arms and fingers with masses of +cheap jewellery. + +Thappata (drum).--An exogamous sept of Odde. + +Thathan (a Vaishnavite mendicant).--The equivalent of the Telugu +Dasari. + +Thatichettu (palmyra palm).--An exogamous sept of Karna Sale and Odde. + +Thavadadari.--The name of a section of the Valluvans (priests of the +Paraiyans), who wear a necklace of tulsi beads (thavadam, necklace, +dhari, wearer). The tulsi or basil (Ocimum sanctum) is a very sacred +plant with Hindus, and bead necklaces or rosaries are made from its +woody stem. + +Thelu (scorpion).--Thelu and Thela are recorded as exogamous septs +of Padma Sale and Madiga. The Canarese equivalent Chelu occurs as a +sept of Kuruba. + +Thenige Buvva.--A sub-division of Madigas, who offer food (buvva) +to the god in a dish or tray (thenige) at marriages. + +Thikka (simpleton).--A sub-division of Kuruba. + +Thippa (rubbish heap).--An exogamous sept of Karna Sale. + +Thogamalai Korava.--Recorded [13] as a synonym of a thief class in +the southern districts of the Madras Presidency. In a recent note on +the Koravas, Mr. F. Fawcett writes that "a fact to be noted is that +people such as the members of the well-known Thogamalai gang, who +are always called Koravas by the police, are not Koravas at all. They +are simply a criminal community, into which outsiders are admitted, +who give their women in marriage outside the caste, and who adopt +children of other castes." + +Thogaru (bitter).--An exogamous sept of Musu Kamma. + +Thoka (tail).--An exogamous sept of Yerukala. + +Thonda (Cephalendra indica).--An exogamous sept of Musu Kamma, and +gotra of Janappans, members of which abstain from using the fruit or +leaves of the thonda plant. + +Thumma (babul: Acacia arabica).--An exogamous sept of Mala and Padma +Sale. The bark, pods, and leaves of the babul tree are used by tanners +in the preparation of hides and skins, or as a dye. + +Thumu (iron measure for measuring grain).--An exogamous sept of +Mutracha. + +Thupa (ghi, clarified butter).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Thurpu (eastern).--A sub-division of Yerukala and Yanadi. + +Thuta (hole).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Tigala.--Tigala is summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as +"a Canarese synonym for the Tamil Palli; applied also by the Canarese +people to any Tamil Sudras of the lower castes." In parts of the Mysore +country, the Tamil language is called Tigalu, and the Canarese Madhva +Brahmans speak of Tamil Smarta Brahmans as Tigalaru. + +Some of the Tigalas, who have settled in Mysore, have forgotten +their mother-tongue, and speak only Canarese, while others, e.g., +those who live round about Bangalore, still speak Tamil. In their +type of cranium they occupy a position intermediate between the +dolichocephalic Pallis and the sub-brachy cephalic Canarese classes. + +The difference in the type of cranium of the Tigalas and Tamil +Pallis is clearly brought by the following tabular statements of +their cephalic indices:-- + + +a. Tigala-- + + 68 * + 69 + 70 + 71 * + 72 ***** + 73 **** + 74 * + 75 * + 76 ***** + 77 **** + 78 ***** + 79 *** + 80 *** + 81 **** + 82 * + 83 + 84 ** + + +b. Palli-- + + 64 * + 65 + 66 + 67 ** + 68 * + 69 * + 70 * + 71 **** + 72 ***** + 73 ******* + 74 **** + 75 ******** + 76 * + 77 * + 78 * + 79 ** + 80 * + + +The Tigalas are kitchen and market gardeners, and cultivate the betel +vine. They apparently have three divisions, called Ulli (garlic or +onions), Ele (leaf), and Arava (Tamil). Among the Ulli Tigalas, +several sub-divisions, and septs or budas named after deities or +prominent members of the caste, exist, e.g.:-- + + + I. Lakkamma-- + Tota devaru (garden god). + Dodda devaru (big or chief god). + Dodda Narasayya. + Dodda Nanjappa. + II. Ellamma-- + Narasayya. + Muddanna. + III. Sidde devaru. + + +The Tigalas have a headman, whose office is hereditary, and who +is assisted by a caste servant called Mudre. Council meetings are +usually held at a fixed spot, called goni mara katte or mudre goni +mara katte, because those summoned by the Mudre assemble beneath a goni +(Ficus mysorensis) tree, round which a stone platform is erected. The +tree and platform being sacred, no one may go there on wearing shoes +or sandals. The members of council sit on a woollen blanket spread +before the tree. + +Like the Pallis or Vanniyans, the Tigalas call themselves Agni Vanni, +and claim to be descended from the fire-born hero Agni Banniraya. In +connection with the Tigalas who have settled in the Bombay Presidency, +it is noted [14] that "they are a branch of the Mysore Tigalas, who +are Tamil Palli emigrants from the Madras Presidency, and, like the +Palli, claim a Kshatriya origin." The Tigalas possess a manuscript, +said to be a copy of a sasana at Conjeeveram (Kanchi), from which the +following extracts are taken. "This is a Kanchi sasana published by +Aswaththa Narayanswami, who was induced to do so by the god Varadaraja +of Conjeeveram. This sasana is written to acquaint the descendants +of the Mahapurusha Agni Banniraya with the origin, doings, and gotra +of their ancestor Banniraya. This Banniraya sprang from fire, and +so is much beloved by Vishnu the many-armed, the many-eyed, and the +bearer of the chank and chakram, and who is no other than Narayana, +the lord of all the worlds great and small, and the originator of +the Vedas and Vedanta.... All those who see or worship this sasana +relating to Agni Banniraya, who obtained boons from the Trimurthis, +Devatas, and Rishis, and who is the ancestor of the Tigalas, will be +prosperous, and have plenty of grain and children. Those who speak +lightly of this caste will become subject to the curses of Banniraya, +Trimurthis, Rishis, and Devas. The glory of this sasana is great, +and is as follows:--The keeping and worshipping of this purana will +enable the Tigalas of the Karnataka country to obtain the merit of +surapadavi (the state of Devas), merit of doing puja to a thousand +lingams, a lakh of cow gifts, and a hundred kannikadanams (gifts of +virgins for marriage)." The sasana is said to have been brought to +the Canarese country because of a quarrel between the Pallis and the +Tigalas at the time of a Tigala marriage. The Tigalas were prevented +from bringing the various biruthus (insignia), and displaying them. The +sasana was brought by the Tigalas, at an expenditure of Rs. 215, +which sum was subsequently recovered from the Pallis. + +Tigala occurs further as the name of a sub-division of Holeya. + +Tikke (gem).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Ti (fire) Kollan.--A sub-division of Kollan. + +Tinda (polluting).--A sub-division of Kanisan. Tinda Kuruppu, meaning +a teacher who cannot approach, is a synonym of the Kavutiyan barber +caste. + +Tiperum (ti, fire).--A sub-division of Kollan blacksmiths. + +Tiragati Gantlavallu (wandering bell hunters).--Stated, in the Manual +of the Vizagapatam district, to repair hand-mills, catch antelopes, +and sell the skins thereof. In hunting, they use lights and bells. + +Tirlasetti (the name of a Balija Chetti).--An exogamous sept of Yanadi. + +Tirumalpad.--Tirumalpad has been summed up as "one of the four +divisions of Kshatriyas in Travancore. The term, in its literal sense, +conveys the idea of those who wait before kings. In mediæval times the +Tirumalpads were commanders of armies." By Mr. Wigram [15] Tirumalpad +is defined as a member of a Royal Family. In the Madras Census Report, +1891, it is stated that "there are two Tirumalpads, one a Samanta, +and the other a so-called Kshatriya. The former observes customs and +manners exactly similar to Eradis and Nedungadis. In fact, these are +all more or less interchangeable terms, members of the same family +calling themselves indifferently Eradi or Tirumalpad. The Kshatriya +Tirumalpad wears the sacred thread, and the rites he performs are +similar to those of Brahmans, whose dress he has also adopted. He has, +however, like Nayars, tali-kettu and sambandham separately. His females +take Nambudiri consorts by preference, but may have husbands of their +own caste. Their inheritance is in the female line, as among Nayars +and Samantas. Generally the females of this caste furnish wives to +Nambudiris. The touch of these females does not pollute a Nambudiri +as does that of Nayars and Samantas, and, what is more, Nambudiris +may eat their food. The females are called Nambashtadiri." + +For the following note on Tampans and Tirumalpads, I am indebted +to the Travancore Census Report, 1901. "The Tampans and Tirumalpats +come under the category of Malabar Kshatriyas.The word Tampan is a +contraction of Tampuran, and at one time denoted a ruling people. When +they were divested of that authority by the Ilayetattu Svarupam, they +are said to have fallen from the status of Tampurans to Tampans. Their +chief seat is the Vaikam taluk. The Tirumalpats do not seem to have +ruled at all. The word Tirumulpatu indicates those that wait before +kings. There is an old Sanskrit verse, which describes eight classes +of Kshatriyas as occupying Kerala from very early times, namely +(1) Bhupala or Maha Raja, such as those of Travancore and Cochin, +(2) Rajaka or Rajas, such as those of Mavelikara and Kotungallur, +(3) Kosi or Koiltampuran, (4) Puravan or Tampan, (5) Sripurogama or +Tirumulpat, (6) Bhandari or Pantarattil, (7) Audvahika or Tirumalpat, +(8) Cheta or Samanta. From this list it may be seen that two classes +of Tirumulpats are mentioned, namely, Sripurogamas who are the waiters +at the Raja's palace, and the Audvahikas who perform Udvaha or wedding +ceremony for certain castes. Both these, however, are identical people, +though varying in their traditional occupations. The chief seats of +the Tirumulpats are Shertallay and Tiruvalla." + +The Tampans and Tirumulpats are, for all purposes of castes, identical +with other Malabar Kshatriyas. Every Tampan in Travancore is related +to every other Tampan, and all are included within one circle of +death and birth pollution. Their manners and customs, too, are +exactly like those of other Kshatriyas. They are invested with the +sacred thread at the sixteenth year of age, and recite the Gayatri +(hymn) ten times thrice a day. The Nambutiri is the family priest, +and (death) pollution lasts for eleven days. The Kettukalyanam, or +tali-tying ceremony, may be performed between the seventh and the +fourteenth year of age. The tali is tied by the Aryappattar, while +the Namputiris recite the Vedic hymns. Their consorts are usually +Namputiris, and sometimes East Coast Brahmans. Like all the Malabar +Kshatriyas, they follow the marumakkathayam system of inheritance +(through the female line). Tampans and Tirumulpats are often the +personal attendants of the Travancore Maharajas, whom they serve with +characteristic fidelity and devotion.The Tirumulpats further perform +the tali-tying ceremony of the Nayar aristocracy. + +The names of the Tirumulpats and Tampans are the same as those of other +classes of Kshatriyas. The title Varma is uniformly added to their +names. A few families among these, who once had ruling authority, +have the titular suffix Bhandarattil, which is corrupted into +Pantarattil. The Tampans call themselves in documents Koviladhikarikal, +as they once had authority in kovils or palaces. + +Tiruman (holy deer).--An exogamous section of Kallan. + +Tirumudi (holy knot).--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, +as "bricklayers, whose women are usually prostitutes; found chiefly in +Salem and Coimbatore. They are either Vettuvans or Kaikolans. Kaikolan +women, when they are dedicated to the temple, are supposed to be +united in wedlock with the deity. + +Tiruvalluvan.--A sub-division of Valluvan. Tiruvalluvar, the author +of the Kural, is said to have belonged to the Valluva caste. + +Tiru-vilakku-nagarattar (dwellers in the city of holy lamps).--A name +assumed by Vaniyans (oil-pressers). + +Tiyadi.--A synonym of the Tiyattunni section of Ambalavasis (see Unni). + +Tiyan.--The Tiyans, and Izhuvans or Iluvans, are the Malayalam +toddy-drawing castes of Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore. The following +note, except where otherwise indicated, is taken from an account of +the Tiyans of Malabar by Mr. F. Fawcett. + +The Tiyans in Malabar number, according to the census returns, +512,063, or 19·3 per cent. of the total population. The corresponding +figures for the Izhuvans are 101,638, or 3·8 per cent. The Tiyans +have been summed up [16] as the middle class of the west coast, who +cultivate the ground, take service as domestics, and follow trades +and professions--anything but soldiering, of which they have an +utter abhorrence. + +The marumakkatayam system (inheritance through the female line), which +obtains in North Malabar, has favoured temporary connections between +European men and Tiyan women, the children belonging to the mother's +tarvad. Children bred under these conditions, European influence +continuing, are often as fair as Europeans. It is recorded, in the +Report of the Malabar Marriage Commission, 1894, that "in the early +days of British rule, the Tiyan women incurred no social disgrace +by consorting with Europeans, and, up to the last generation, +if the Sudra girl could boast of her Brahman lover, the Tiyan +girl could show more substantial benefits from her alliance with a +white man of the ruling race. Happily, the progress of education, +and the growth of a wholesome public opinion, have made shameful +the position of a European's concubine; and both races have thus +been saved from a mode of life equally demoralising to each." On +this point, Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer writes as follows. [17] +"It is true that there is an elevation both physically and mentally +in the progeny of such a parentage. On making enquiries about this, I +learn from a respectable and educated Tiyan gentleman that this union +is looked upon with contempt by the respectable class of people, and +by the orthodox community. I am further informed that such women and +children, with their families, are under a ban, and that respectable +Tiya gentlemen who have married the daughters of European parentage are +not allowed to enjoy the privileges of the caste. There are, I hear, +several such instances in Calicut, Tellicherry, and Cannanore. Women of +respectable families do not enter into such connection with Europeans." + +It is commonly supposed that the Tiyans and Izhuvans came from +Ceylon. It is recorded, in the South Canara Manual, that "it is well +known that both before and after the Christian era there were invasions +and occupations of the northern part of Ceylon by the races then +inhabiting Southern India, and Malabar tradition tells us that some +of these Dravidians migrated again from Iram or Ceylon northwards to +Travancore and other parts of the west coast of India, bringing with +them the cocoanut or southern tree (tengina mara), and being known as +Tivars (islanders) or Iravars, which names have since been altered to +Tiyars and Ilavars. Dr. Caldwell derives Iram from the Sanskrit Simhala +through the Pali Sihala by the omission of the initial S." It is noted +by Bishop Caldwell [18] that there are traces of a common origin of the +Iluvans and Shanars, Shanar (or Shener), for instance, being a title +of honour amongst the Travancore Ilavars. And it is further recorded +[19] that there is a tradition that the Shanars came originally from +Ceylon. The Izhuvans are supposed to derive their caste name from +Izha dwipa (island) or Simhala dwipa (both denoting Ceylon). In a +Tamil Puranic work, quoted by Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer, mention is +made of a King Illa of Ceylon, who went to Chidambaram in the Tamil +country of Southern India, where a religious discussion took place +between the Buddhist priests and the Saivite devotee Manickavachakar +in the presence of King Illa, with the result that he was converted +to the Saivite faith. From him the Iluvans are said to be descended. + +The Tiyans are always styled Izhuvan in documents concerning land, +in which the Zamorin, or some Brahman or Nayar grandee, appears as +landlord. The Tiyans look down on the Izhuvans, and repudiate the +relationship. Yet they cannot but submit to be called Izhuvan in their +documents, for their Nayar or Brahman landlord will not let them have +the land to cultivate, unless they do so. It is a custom of the country +for a man of a superior caste to pretend complete ignorance of the +caste of an individual lower in the social scale. Thus, in the Wynad, +where there are several jungle tribes, one is accustomed to hear +a man of superior caste pretending that he does not know a Paniyan +from a Kurumba, and deliberately miscalling one or the other, saying +"This Paniyan," when he knows perfectly well that he is a Kurumba. It +is quite possible, therefore, that, though Tiyans are written down as +Izhuvans, the two were not supposed to be identical. State regulations +keep the Izhuvans of Cochin and Travancore in a position of marked +social inferiority, and in Malabar they are altogether unlettered +and uncultured. On the other hand, the Tiyans of Malabar provide +Magistrates, Sub-Judges, and other officials to serve His Majesty's +Government. It may be noted that, in 1907, a Tiya lady matriculate +was entertained as a clerk in the Tellicherry post-office. + +A divagation must be made, to bring the reader to a comprehension of +the custom surrounding mattu, a word signifying change, i.e., change of +cloth, which is of sufficient importance to demand explanation. When +a man or woman is outcasted, the washerwoman (or man) and the barber +of the community (and no other is available) are prohibited from +performing their important parts in the ceremonies connected with +birth, death, and menstruation. A person who is in a condition of +impurity is under the same conditions; he or she is temporarily +outcasted. This applies to Nambutiris and Nayars, as well as to the +Tiyans. Now the washerwoman is invariably of the Tiyan caste. There are +Mannans, whose hereditary occupation is washing clothes for Nambutiris +and Nayars, but, for the most part, the washerwoman who washes for +the Nayar lady is of the Tiyan caste. A woman is under pollution after +giving birth to a child, after the death of a member of her tarvad, and +during menstruation. And the pollution must be removed at the end of +the prescribed period, or she remains an outcaste--a very serious thing +for her. The impurity is removed by receiving a clean cloth from the +washerwoman, and giving in exchange her own cloth to be washed. This is +mattu, and, be it noted, the cloth which gives mattu is one belonging +to the washerwoman, not to the person to be purified. The washerwoman +gives her own cloth to effect the purification. Theoretically, the +Tiyan has the power to give or withhold mattu, and thus keep any one +out of caste in a state of impurity; but it is a privilege which is +seldom if ever exercised. Yet it is one which he admittedly holds, +and is thus in a position to exercise considerable control over the +Nambutiri and Nayar communities. It is odd that it is not a soiled +cloth washed and returned to the person which gives purification, but +one of the washerwoman's own cloths. So the mattu may have a deeper +meaning than lies in mere change of cloth, dressing in a clean one, +and giving the soiled one to a person of inferior caste to wash. This +mattu is second in importance to no custom. It must be done on the last +day of pollution after birth and death ceremonies, and menstruation, +or the person concerned remains outcasted. It is noteworthy that the +Izhuvans know nothing of mattu. + +An Izhuvan will eat rice cooked by a Tiyan, but a Tiyan will not eat +rice cooked by an Izhuvan--a circumstance pointing to the inferiority +of the Izhuvan. A Nayar, as well as a Tiyan, will partake of almost +any form of food or drink, which is prepared even by a Mappilla +(Malabar Muhammadan), who is deemed inferior to both. But the line is +drawn at rice, which must be prepared by one of equal caste or class, +or by a superior. An Izhuvan, partaking of rice at a Tiyan's house, +must eat it in a verandah; he cannot do so in the house, as that +would be defilement to the Tiyan. Not only must the Izhuvan eat the +rice in the verandah, but he must wash the plates, and clean up the +place where he has eaten. Again, an Izhuvan could have no objection +to drinking from a Tiyan's well. Further, there is practically no +mixture in the distribution of Tiyans and Izhuvans. Where there are +Izhuvans there are no Tiyans, and vice versâ. [In a photograph of +a group of Izhuvan females of Palghat eating their meal, which was +sent to me, they are all in a kneeling posture, with the buttocks +supported on the heels. They are said to assume the same attitude +when engaged in grinding and winnowing grain, and other occupations, +with a resultant thickening of the skin over the knees.] + +Differences, which might well come under the heading marriage, may be +considered here, for the purpose of comparison between the Tiyans and +Izhuvans. During the preliminaries to the marriage ceremony among the +Tiyans, the date of the marriage having been fixed in the presence of +the representatives of the bride and bridegroom, the following formula +is repeated by the Tandan or headman of the bride's party. Translated +as accurately as possible, it runs thus. "The tara and changati of +both sides having met and consulted; the astrologer having fixed an +auspicious day after examining the star and porutham; permission +having been obtained from the tara, the relations, the illam and +kulam, the father, uncle, and the brothers, and from the eight and +four (twelve illams) and the six and four (ten kiriyams); the conji +and adayalam ceremonies and the four tazhus having been performed, +let me perform the kanjikudi ceremony for the marriage of ... the son +of ... with ... daughter of ... in the presence of muperium." This +formula, with slight variations here and there, is repeated at every +Tiyan marriage in South Malabar. It is a solemn declaration, giving +validity to the union, although, in the way that custom and ritual +survive long after their original significance has been forgotten, +the meaning of many of the terms used is altogether unknown. What, +for instance, is the meaning of muperium? No one can tell. But a few +of the terms are explainable. + +Tara. The tara was the smallest unit in the ancient government system, +which, for want of a better term, we may style feudal. It was not +exactly a village, for the people lived apart. Each tara had its +Nayar chieftain, and also its Tiyan chief or Tandan, its astrologer, +its washerman, its goldsmith, and other useful people, each serving +the community for the sake of small advantages. Each tara was its +own world. + +Changati (friend). The friends of both parties which negotiated +the marriage. + +Porutham (agreement). Examination of the horoscopes of the boy and +girl makes it possible to ascertain whether there is agreement between +the two, and the union will be propitious. + +Illam. Here intended to mean the father's family. + +Kulam. The name, derived from kula a branch, here denotes the mother's +family. + +Twelve illams, ten kiriyams. The word illam, now used exclusively for +the residence of a Nambutiri, is supposed to have been used in days +of old for the house of a person of any caste. And this supposition is +said to find support in the way that a Tiyan coming from the south is +often greeted in South Canara. Thus, a Malabar Tiyan, travelling to +the celebrated temple at Gokarnam in South Canara, is at once asked +"What is your illam and kiriyam?" He has heard these terms used in +the foregoing formula during his own or another's marriage ceremony, +but attached no meaning to them. To the man of South Canara they +have genuine meaning. One should be able to answer the question +satisfactorily, and thus give a proper account of himself. If +he cannot, he gets neither food nor water from the South Canara +Tiyan. This also holds good, to some extent, in the case of a southern +Tiyan visiting the northern parts of the Cherakal taluk of Malabar. + +The ten illams of South Malabar are as follows:-- + + + Tala Kodan. + Nellika (Phyllanthus Emblica). + Paraka or Varaka. + Ala. + Ten Kudi or Tenan Kudi. + Padayan Kudi. + Kannan. + Varakat. + Kytat inferior. + Puzhampayi or Bavu + + +The illams of North Malabar are said to be-- + + + Nellika. + Pullanhi. + Vangeri. + Koyikkalan. + Padayam Kudi. + Tenan Kudi. + Manan Kudi. + Vilakkan Kudi. + + +Marriage is strictly forbidden between two persons belonging to +the same illam. The bride and bridegroom must belong to different +illams. In fact, the illams are exogamous. Members of some of the +illams were allowed certain privileges and dignities. Thus, the men +of the Varakat illam (Varaka Tiyans) were in the old days permitted to +travel in a mancheel (a hammock-cot slung on a pole). They were allowed +this privilege of higher caste people, which was prohibited to the +Tiyans of other illams. But, should one of them, when travelling in a +mancheel, happen to see a Rajah or a Nayar, he was obliged to hang one +of his legs out of it in token of submission. The Varaka Tiyans were +further allowed to wear gold jewels on the neck, to don silken cloths, +to fasten a sword round the waist, and to carry a shield. The sword +was made of thin pliable steel, and worn round the waist like a belt, +the point being fastened to the hilt through a small hole near the +point. A man, intending to damage another, might make an apparently +friendly call on him, his body loosely covered with a cloth, and to +all appearances unarmed. In less than a second, he could unfasten the +sword round his waist, and cut the other down. The well-known Mannanar +belonged to the Varakat illam. Those who know Malabar will recall to +mind the benevolent but strange institution which he initiated. He +provided a comfortable home for Nambutiri women who were thrown out +of caste, and thus in the ordinary course of events doomed to every +misery and degradation to be found in life. On being outcasted, +the funeral ceremonies of Nambutiri women were performed by her own +people, and she became dead to them. She went to the Mannanar, and her +birth ceremonies were performed, so that she might begin life anew +in a state of purity. If, on arrival, she entered by the left door, +she was his wife, if by the front door, his sister. It is said that, +when their chief, Mannanar of the Aramana, is destitute of heirs, +the Tiyans of Kolattanad go in procession to the Kurumattur Nambutiri +(the chief of the Peringallur Brahmans) and demand a Brahman virgin +to be adopted as sister of Mannanar, who follows the marumakkatayam +rule of succession. This demand, it is said, used to be granted by +the Nambutiris assembling at a meeting, and selecting a maiden to be +given to the Tiyans. + +Kiriyam is said to be a corrupt form of the Sanskrit word griham +(house), but this seems rather fanciful. There are said to have been +about two kiriyams for each village. The names of only three are known +to me, viz., Karumana, Kaita, and Kampathi. There is a village called +Karumana, near the temple of Lakshmipuram in South Canara. Karumana is +applied as a term to signify a Tiyan during the ordinary devil-dancing +in temples, when an oracular utterance is delivered. The oracle always +addresses the Tiyan as "my Karumana," not as "my Tiyan." The only other +use of the word is in Karumana acharam (the customs of the Tiyans). + +Other outward and visible differences between Tiyan and Izhuvan +marriages are these. The South Malabar Tiyan bridegroom, dressed as +if for a wrestling match, with his cloth tied tight about his loins, +carries a sword and shield, and is escorted by two companions similarly +equipped, dancing their way along. The Izhuvan does not carry a sword +under any circumstances. The chief feature of his wedding ceremony +is a singing match. This, called the vatil-tura-pattu, or open the +door song, assumes the form of a contest between the parties of the +bridegroom and bride. The story of Krishna and his wife Rukmini +is supposed to be alluded to. We have seen it all under slightly +different colour at Conjeeveram. Krishna asks Rukmini to open the +door, and admit him. She refuses, thinking he has been gallivanting +with some other lady. He beseeches; she refuses. He explains, and at +length she yields. The song is more or less extempore, and each side +must be ready with an immediate answer. The side which is reduced to +the extremity of having no answer is beaten and under ignominy. + +I pass on to the subject of personal adornment of the Tiyans:-- + + +(a) North Malabar, Males-- + + + 1. A horizontal dab made with white ashes on either side of the + forehead and chest, and on the outside of each shoulder. + 2. Two gold ear-rings (kadakkan) in each ear. A silver chain + hanging from the sheath of his knife, and fastened with a boss. Two + tambak (copper, brass and silver) rings on the ring finger of + the left hand. + 3. A gold kadakkan in each ear, and an iron ring on the ring + finger of the left hand. + 4. A thorn in each ear (another was similarly ornamented). Not + married. + 5. A gold ear-ring in each ear. An iron ring on the little finger + of the left hand. Two silver rings, in which is set a piece of hair + from an elephant's tail, on the little finger of the right hand. + + +A few individuals wore brass rings, and some had ear-rings, in which +a red stone was set. Amulets were worn by some in little cylindrical +cases on a string, to protect the wearer against enemies, the evil +eye, or devils. One man wore a silver girdle, to which an amulet in +a case was fastened, underneath his cloth, so that it was not in view +to the public. One individual only is noted as having been tattooed, +with a circular mark just above his glabella. The arms of a good many, +and the abdomen of a few, bore cicatrices from branding, apparently +for the purpose of making them strong and relieving pains. + + +(b) South Malabar, Males. + +In the country parts, the waist cloth is always worn above the +knee. About a third of the individuals examined wore ear-rings. The +ears of all were pierced. Those who were without ear-rings had no +scruples about wearing them, but were too poor to buy them. + + + 1. Blue spot tattooed over the glabella. + 2. Silver amulet-case, containing fifteen gold fanams, at the + waist. He said that he kept the coins in the receptacle for + security, but I think it was for good luck. + 3. Ear-ring (kadakkan) in each ear. A copper amulet-case, + containing a yantram to keep off devils, at the waist. + 4. Four silver amulet-cases, containing yantrams on a copper + sheet for curing some ailment, at the waist. + 5. Two gold kadakkans in each ear. A white spot over the glabella. + + +(c) North Malabar, Females. + +In olden days, the women used to wear coloured and striped cloths round +the waist, and hanging to the knees. The breast was not covered. The +body above the waist was not allowed to be covered, except during the +period of death pollution. Nowadays, white is generally the colour to +be seen, and the body is seldom covered above the waist--never one may +say, except (and then only sometimes) in the towns. The Izhuvan women +in Malabar always wear blue cloths: just one cloth rolled tightly +round the waist, and hanging to the knees. Of late, they have taken +to wearing also a blue cloth drawn tight over the breast. + +Ornaments. The thodu, which is now sometimes worn by Tiyan women, +is not a Tiyan ornament. The ear-rings, called kathila and ananthod, +are the Tiyan ornaments, and look like strings of gold beads with +pendants. Discs of white metal or lead are used to stretch and keep +open the dilated lobes of the ears, in which gold ornaments are worn +when necessary or possible. Venetian sequins, real or imitation, +known in Malabar as amada, are largely used for neck ornaments. There +is a Malabar proverb that one need not look for an insect's burrow in +amada, meaning that you cannot find anything vile in a worthy person. + +Turning now to the subject of marriage. In the ordinary course of +things, a marriage would not be made between a Tiyan girl of South +Malabar and a Tiyan man of North Malabar, for the reason that the +children of such a marriage would inherit no property from the family +of either parent. The husband would have no share in the property +of his family, which devolves through the women; nor would the wife +have any share in that of her family, which is passed on through the +men. So there would be nothing for the children. But, on the other +hand, marriage between a girl of the north and a man of the south is +a different thing. The children would inherit from both parents. As a +rule, Tiyans of the north marry in the north, and those of the south +in the south. + +It was generally admitted that it was formerly the custom among the +Tiyans in South Malabar for several brothers--in fact all of them--to +share one wife. Two existing instances of this custom were recorded. + +The arrangement of a marriage, and the ceremonial which will now +be described, though pertaining strictly to the Calicut taluk +of South Malabar, are sufficiently representative of a Tiyan +marriage anywhere. There is, however, this difference, that, in +North Malabar, where inheritance through females obtains, and the +wife invariably resides in her own tarwad or family home, there is +never any stipulation concerning a girl's dowry. In South Malabar, +where inheritance is through the males, and where the wife lives in +her husband's house, the dowry in money, jewels, or furniture, is as a +rule settled beforehand, and must be handed over on the wedding day. In +the Calicut taluk, we find an exception to this general rule of South +Malabar, where the subject of the dowry is not usually mentioned. In +North Malabar, gifts of jewels are made in proportion as the bride's +people are wealthy and generous. What is given is in the way of a gift, +and forms no feature in the marital agreement. + +The first step to be taken in connection with marriage is examination +of the horoscopes of the boy and girl, in order to ascertain whether +their union will be one of happiness or the reverse. While this is +being done by the Panikkar (Malabar astrologer), the following persons +should be present:-- + + +(a) On the part of the bridegroom-- + + 1. Tandan, or chief of the tara. + 2. Father, or other elder in the family. + 3. Uncle, i.e., the mother's brother. In Malabar the word uncle + means maternal uncle. + 4. Sisters' husbands. + 5. Four or more friends or companions. + 6. Any number of relations and friends. + + +(b) On the part of the bride-- + + 1. Tandan of her tara. + 2. Father,or other guardian. + 3. Uncle. + 4. Four or more friends. + 5. The astrologer of her tara. + 6. Friends and relations. + + +The ceremony must be performed at the house of the girl's family. Her +father's consent is necessary, but his presence is not essential +at this or the two subsequent ceremonies in connection with the +marriage. The Tandan, it may be noted, is the caste governmental head +in all matters affecting his own caste and the artisans. He is a Tiyan, +and his office, which is authorised by the local Rajah, or rather by +his senior Rani, is hereditary. In exceptional cases, however, the +hereditary right may be interrupted by the Rani appointing some one +else. The Tandan of the tara is required to assist at every ceremony +connected with marriage, at the ceremony when a girl attains puberty, +at that of tying the tali, and at the fifth and seventh months of +pregnancy. His formal permission is required before the carpenter +can cut down the areca palm, with which the little shed in which the +tali is tied is constructed. In cases of divorce, his functions are +important. When a new house is built, there must be a house-warming +ceremony, at which the Tandan officiates. Fowls are sacrificed, and +the right leg is the Tandan's perquisite. He is a man of importance, +not only in many affairs within his own caste, but also in those of +other castes. Thus, when a Nayar dies, it is the Tandan's duty to get +the body burnt. He controls the washerman and barber of the tara, and +can withdraw their services when they are most needed. He officiates, +moreover, at marriages of the artisan class--carpenters, braziers, +goldsmiths and blacksmiths. + +A group of taras forms what is called a desam, the koyma or +"sovereignty" of which is represented by a Nayar tarwad. It is through +the head or Karnavan (really the chieftain) of this tarwad that the +Tandan approaches the Raja in matters of appeal, and the like. The +Tandan is to some extent under his guidance and control, but he +must provide the Tandan with a body-guard of two Nayars on occasions +of marriages. In the old days, it may be mentioned, the Tandans of +the taras within the rule of the Zamorin were always appointed by +his senior Rani. The term Tandan must not be confounded with the +Tandars, a people of the Palghat taluk, who appear to be allied to +the Izhuvans. These Tandars observe the custom of paternal polyandry, +while the Izhuvans abhor it. + +The procedure observed in the examination of horoscopes is as +follows. The Tandan of the bride's tara gives a grass or palmyra palm +leaf mat to the astrologer to sit on, and supplies mats or seats for +the bridegroom's party. The common sleeping mat of wild pine leaves, +or a wooden stool, must, on no account, be given for the astrologer +to sit on. It may be day or night when the ceremony takes place, +but, whatever the hour may be, a lamp having five, seven, nine, or +eleven cotton wicks, must be burning in front of the astrologer. The +Tandan's wife puts it in its place. Then the boy's uncle hands over +the boy's horoscope to his Tandan, who passes it on to the girl's +Tandan. The girl's father hands her horoscope to their Tandan, who, +when he has received them both, passes them on to the astrologer. The +two horoscopes should agree on twenty-one points--a requirement +which might prove awkward, were it not that a balance in favour of +beneficent influences is generally allowed to admit of the marriage +taking place. In the case of agreement, the boy's uncle, through +his Tandan, then pays two fanams [20] (eight annas)--one for each +horoscope--to the astrologer. When there is disagreement, the girl's +uncle pays the money. The horoscopes (which have been privately +examined beforehand to make sure of no disagreement) are returned +to their respective owners. After the examination of the horoscope, +there is a feast with plenty of sweetmeats. The next item is the conjee +(rice gruel) ceremony, at which the following should be present:-- + + +(a) On the part of the boy-- + + 1. Father, his brother, or some one representing him. + 2. Husbands of all married sisters. + 3. Uncle. + 4. Tandan of his tara. + 5. Neighbours and friends. + + +(b) On the part of the girl-- + + 1. Uncle. + 2. Relations of married sisters. + 3. Relations of married brothers. + 4. Tandan of her tara. + 5. Astrologer of her tara. + 6. Relations and friends. + + +The horoscopes are again formally examined by the astrologer, who +announces that their agreement augurs a happy wedded life. The boy's +uncle pays him two fanams. The girl's uncle takes the two horoscopes, +which have just been tied together, from the astrologer, and hands them +to the Tandan of the girl's tara, who passes them on to the Tandan +of the boy's tara. They are handed by him to the boy's uncle. The +astrologer then writes on a palmyra leaf a note for each party to the +marriage, stating the auspicious day and hour for the final ceremony, +the hour at which the bride should leave her house, and the hour for +her arrival at the house of the bridegroom. The following programme +is then gone through. In the verandah, facing east, before the front +door, is spread an ordinary sleeping mat, over it a grass mat, and +over that a plain white cloth which has been washed and is not a new +one. On the floor close by, the following articles are placed:-- + +A lamp, having an odd number of cotton wicks, which is kept lighted +whatever the hour of day it may be; + +A measure, called nazhi, made of jak tree (Artocarpus integrifolia) +wood, filled to overflowing with rice, and placed on a flat bell-metal +plate (talika); + +A plain white cloth, washed but not new, neatly folded, and placed +on the metal plate to the right (south) of the rice; + +A small bell-metal vessel (kindi), having no handle, filled with water. + +The lamp is placed on the south side of the mat, the plate next to it +(to the north), and the kindi at a little distance to the left (the +north). The people who sit on the mat always face the east. The mat +having been spread, the various articles just mentioned are brought +from the central room of the house by three women, who set them +in their places. The Tandan's wife carries the lamp, the eldest +woman of the house the bell-metal plate, and some other woman the +kindi. The Tandan of the boy's tara, the boy's sister's husband, +and a friend then sit on the mat covered with a cloth. If the boy +has two brothers-in-law, both sit on the mat, to the exclusion of the +friend. The senior woman of the house then hands three plates of rice +conjee to the Tandan of the girl's tara, who places them in front +of the three persons seated on the mat. To the right of each plate, +a little jaggery (unrefined sugar) is placed on a piece of plantain +leaf. Each of those seated takes about a spoonful of conjee in his +right hand. The Tandan repeats the formula, which has already been +given, and asks "May the conjee be drunk"? He answers his question by +drinking some of the conjee, and eating a little jaggery. All three +then partake of the conjee and jaggery, after which they rise from +the mat, and the plates and mat are removed. The place is cleaned, +and the mats are again put down, while betel is distributed. The two +Tandans then sit on the mat. The girl's Tandan picks up a bundle of +about twenty-five betel leaves, and gives half to the boy's Tandan. The +Tandans exchange betel leaves, each giving the other four. The boy's +Tandan then folds four fanams (one rupee) in four betel leaves, +which he hands to the girl's Tandan, saying "May the conjee ceremony +be performed"? The Tandans again exchange betel leaves as before, +and distribute them to all the castemen present, beginning with the +uncles of the boy and girl. The proceedings in the verandah are now +over. The next part of the ceremony takes place in the middle room +of the house, where the mats, lamp, and other articles are arranged +as before. The two Tandans sit on the mat with the boy on the right +and the girl on the left, facing east. The boy's uncle stands in +front of the Tandans, facing west, and the girl's uncle behind +them, facing east. The boy's father gives to the boy's uncle two +new plain white cloths, with twenty-one fanams (Rs. 5-4) placed on +them. When presenting them, he says "Let the Adayalam be performed" +three times, and the girl's uncle says thrice "Let me receive the +Adayalam." The Tandans again exchange betel leaves, and distribute +them among the castemen. Then follows a feast, and more betel. The +date of the wedding has now to be fixed. They congregate in the middle +room once more, and the Tandans sit on the mat. The girl's Tandan +shares a bundle of betel leaves with the boy's Tandan, who, taking +therefrom four leaves, places two rupees on them, and gives them to +the girl's Tandan. The boy's party supplies this money, which is a +perquisite of the Tandan. When handing over the leaves and the coins, +the boy's Tandan says "On ... (naming a date) ... and ... (the bride +and bridegroom), and friends, and four women will come. Then you must +give us the girl, and you must prepare the food for that day." The +other Tandan replies "If you bring six cloths and forty-two fanams +(Rs. 10-8) as kanam, and two fanams for the muchenan (the girl's +father's sister's son), the girl will be sent to you." The cloths +should be of a kind called enna kacha, each four cubits in length, +but they are not now procurable. Kanam is a term used in land tenures, +for which there is no precise equivalent in English. It is a kind +of mortgage paid by a tenant to a landlord. The former is liable to +eviction by the latter, when he obtains better terms for his land from +another tenant--a condition of modern growth breeding much mischief and +bad blood. But, when a tenant is evicted, he is entitled, according +to law, to the value of certain improvements on the land, including +eight annas for each tree which he has planted. The kanam is paid by +the boy's sister or sisters. His Tandan addresses his brother-in-law +or brothers-in-law in the words "On ... (mentioning a date), you must +come early in the day, with Rs. 10-8 as kanam," and gives him or them +four betel leaves. Those assembled then disperse. The boy's people may +not go to the girl's house before the day appointed for the marriage. + +The next item in connection with a marriage is the issue of invitations +to the wedding. The senior women of the boy's house, and the Tandan, +invite a few friends to assemble at the house of the bridegroom. The +mat, lamp, and other articles are placed in the middle room. The +bridegroom (manavalan) sits on the mat, with a friend on either side +of him. He has previously bathed, and horizontal daubs of sandal paste +have been placed on his forehead, breast, and arms. He wears a new +cloth, which has not been washed. His Tandan has adorned him with +a gold bracelet on his right wrist, a knife with a gold or silver +handle at the waist, and a gold or silver waist-belt or girdle over +the loin-cloth. The bracelet must have an ornamental pattern, as +plain bracelets are not worn by men. The girdle is in the form of a +chain. Besides these things, he must wear ear-rings, and he should have +rings on his fingers. His sister who pays the kanam dresses in the same +style, but her cloths may be of silk, white without a pattern in the +border, and she wears gold bracelets on both wrists. All enjoy a good +meal, and then set out, and visit first the house of the Tandan. He and +his wife walk in front, followed by the boy's elder sisters, if he has +any. Then comes the bridegroom with a friend before and behind him, +with a few women bringing up the rear. At the Tandan's house there +is another meal, and then three, five, or seven houses are visited, +and invitation to the wedding given in person. The proceedings for +the day are then over, and, after three days, the brother-in-law, +uncle, and all others receive invitations. + +On the occasion of the marriage ceremony, the barber first shaves the +bridegroom's head, leaving the usual forelock on the crown, which is +never cut. He performs the operation in a little shed to the east +of the house, and a plantain leaf is placed so that the hair may +fall on it. As a rule, the barber sits in front of the person whose +hair he is shaving, while the latter, sitting cross-legged on the +ground, bends forward. But, on this occasion, the bridegroom sits +on a low wooden stool. Close by are a lamp and a measure of rice +on a plantain leaf. The barber also shaves the two friends of the +bridegroom (changathis), and receives a fanam and the rice for his +trouble. The three youths then bathe, smear themselves with sandal +paste, and proceed to dress. The bridegroom must wear round the +loins a white cloth, new and unwashed. Round the top of the loin +cloth he wears a narrow waist-band (kacha) of silk, from 14 to 21 +cubits in length, with the ends hanging in front and behind. Over +the shoulders is thrown a silk lace handkerchief. He puts in his ears +gold ear-rings, round the neck a necklace called chakra (wheel) mala, +[21] on the right wrist a gold bracelet, gold rings on the fingers, +a gold or silver chain round the loins, and a gold or silver-handled +knife with a sheath of the same metal. The two companions are dressed +in much the same way, but they wear neither necklace nor bracelet. The +women wear as many ornaments as they please. Sisters of the bridegroom +must wear bracelets on both wrists, a necklace, and a silk cloth +(virali) on the shoulders. The bracelet worn by men is called vala, +and must be made of one piece of metal. Those worn by women are +called kadakam, and must be made in two pieces. When all are ready, +mats, and other things are once more placed in the middle room, and +the bridegroom and his two companions sit on the mats. They at once +rise, and proceed to the little shed which has been erected in the +front yard, and again seat themselves on the mats, which, with the +other articles, have been brought thither from the middle room. Then +the Tandan gives betel to the bridegroom and his two companions, who +must chew it. The Tandan's wife, the elder woman of the house, and the +bridegroom's sisters sprinkle rice on their heads. The Tandan gives a +sword to the bridegroom and each of his companions. The procession then +starts. In front walk two Nayars supplied by the Koyma of the desam +(represented by the Nayar landlord). Then come the Tandan and a few +elders, followed by the Tandan's wife and some of the elder women, +the bridegroom with his two companions, his sisters, and finally +the general crowd. As the procession moves slowly on, there is much +dancing, and swinging of swords and shields. At the bride's house, +the party is received by the wife of the Tandan of the tara holding a +lighted lamp, the oldest woman of the family with a plate containing +a measure of rice and a folded cloth, and another woman, who may be +a friend, with a kindi of water. They sprinkle a little rice on the +heads of the party as they enter the yard. The bridegroom sits on a +mat, close to which the lamp and other articles are set. The bride's +Tandan takes charge of the swords, betel is distributed, and a hearty +meal partaken of. The six cloths, which the bridegroom is required +to bring are in reality three double cloths, one of which is for the +use of the bride. It is the privilege of the bridegroom's sisters and +the Tandan's wife to dress her. Her waist-cloth is tied in a peculiar +way for the occasion, and she is enveloped from head to foot in a +silken cloth, leaving only the eyes visible. The bridegroom, after +his arrival at the bride's house, has to put on a peculiar turban +of conical shape, made of a stiff towel-like material, tied round +with a silk handkerchief. The bridegroom's sister leads the bride +to the little shed (pandal) in the yard, and seats her behind the +bridegroom. The kanam, and the remaining four cloths are then given +by the bridegroom's sister to the bride's mother, and they, having +tied a silk handkerchief across the body like a Brahman's thread, +stand behind the bridegroom, the mother to the right and the sister +to the left. The latter says three times "Let the kanam be given," +and hands it to the bride's mother, who, as she receives it, says +thrice "Let me receive the kanam." The mother at once hands it +over to her husband, or the senior male member of the family. The +Tandan then places plantain leaves, for use as plates, before the +bridegroom and his two companions, and, facing the bridegroom, +holds a vessel of cooked rice in front of him. The bride's mother, +standing behind him, serves out thrice some rice out of the pot on +to the leaf in front of the bridegroom, and the Tandan does the same +for his two companions. The bride's mother then mixes some plantains, +pappadams (large thin biscuits), sugar, and ghi (clarified butter) +with the rice on the bridegroom's leaf-plate, and offers the food to +him three times. She will not, however, allow him to taste it. It is +taken from his lips, and removed by the washerwomen. The bridegroom's +sister has the same play with the bride. The rice, which has thus been +made a feature of the ceremony, is called ayini. A few days prior +to the marriage, two small bundles of betel leaves, each containing +areca nuts, half a dozen tobacco leaves, and two fanams are given +by the bridegroom to the Nayar chieftain of the desam as his fee for +furnishing an escort. In return for these offerings, he gives a new +cloth to the bridegroom. Three measures of raw rice, ten or twelve +pappadams, plantains, a cocoanut, and some dry uncooked curry-stuff +are given by the bridegroom to each of the Nayars provided as escort +on the eve of the marriage. When they arrive on the scene on the +wedding day, they are given some beaten rice, rice cakes, cocoanuts, +plantains, and a drink of arrack (spirit). When the bride's parents and +relations come for the Vathil ceremony, the same escort is provided, +and the same presents are given. Just as the bridegroom and all are +ready to leave, the bride's father's sister's son called the machunan, +steps forward, and demands two fanams from the bridegroom's party +in return for permission to take away the bride. He gets his money, +and the party starts for the bridegroom's house, after rice has been +sprinkled over the heads of the contracting couple, the sisters of +the bridegroom leading the bride. The swords, which have been returned +by the Tandan, are again used in flourishing and dancing en route. + +It is a prevalent custom throughout Southern India that a +girl's father's sister's son has the first right to her hand in +marriage. This obtains not only among the Dravidian peoples, but +also among Brahmans. The Malayalam word for son-in-law (marumakan) +means nephew. If a stranger should marry a girl, he also is called +nephew. But the unmarried nephew, having the first admitted right +to the girl, must be paid eight annas, or two fanams, before he will +allow her to be taken away. The argument is said to be as follows. A +sister pays forty-two fanams as kanam for her brother's wife. When +the product, i.e., a daughter, is transferred to a stranger, the son +claims compensation on his mother's investment at the same rate as +that at which a cocoanut tree is valued--eight annas. At all events, +the nephew has the first right to a girl, and must be compensated +before she can be taken away by another. + +At the bridegroom's house, the party is received by the wife of +the Tandan and the lady of the house. Following the bride should +come her parents and other relations, two Nayars representing the +chieftain, and the Tandan of his tara. The formalities with mats and +rice are gone through as before. Rice is sprinkled over the heads, +the Tandan receives the swords, and all sit in the shed. The ayini +rice ceremony is repeated for the bride by the bridegroom's mother +and sisters. The happy pair then proceed to the inner room of the +house, where sweetmeats are served to them. Then is observed, as a +rule, the asaram or gift ceremony. Relations are expected to give 101 +fanams (Rs. 25-4), but the poorest of them are allowed to reduce the +gift to 21 fanams (Rs. 5-4), and the others give according to their +means. These gifts are supposed to be repaid with interest. The Tandan +sees that a regular account of all the gifts is made out, and handed +over to the bridegroom, and receives eight annas for his trouble. The +accountant who prepares the accounts, and the person who tests the +genuineness of the coins, each receives a bundle of betel leaves, +four areca nuts, and two tobacco leaves. Betel leaves, areca nuts, +and tobacco, are also given to each giver of gifts. After this, there +is the vatil or house ceremony. Two large bundles of betel leaves +are prepared, each of which contains a thousand or fifteen hundred +leaves, and with them are placed forty or fifty tobacco leaves, and +seventy to a hundred areca nuts. The bride's Tandan pays two or four +rupees as vatil kanam to the Tandan of the bridegroom, who hands +the money to the bridegroom's father. The bridegroom then places +one bundle of betel leaves, with half the tobacco and areca nuts, +before the bride's father, and the other before her mother, and they +are distributed by the Tandan of the girl's tara and his wife among +the men and women who are present. Sweetmeats are then distributed, +and the marriage ceremony is concluded. A formal visit must be made +subsequently by the women of the bride's house to the bridegroom's, +and is returned by the bride and bridegroom. The first visit is +paid by a party consisting of the bride's mother, her uncle's and +brother's wives, the wife of the Tandan, and other relations. They +are expected to bring with them plenty of sweetmeats and bread for +general distribution. When the return visit is made by the bride and +bridegroom, the sister of the latter, and other relations and friends, +should accompany them, and they should take with them a lot of betel +leaves, areca nuts, tobacco, and sweetmeats. This exchange of visits +does not, however, complete those which are de rigueur. For, at the +next Onam and Vishu festivals, the newly married couple should visit +the house of the bride's family. Onam is the beginning of the first +harvest, and Vishu the agricultural new year. On these occasions, the +bridegroom takes with him the inevitable betel leaves, and presents +a new cloth to the parents of the bride and every one else in the +house. When the annual Tiruvathira festival takes place between the +betrothal and marriage ceremonies, the bridegroom is expected to +send to the temple, through his Tandan and one of his own relations, +a quantity of ripe and unripe plantains. + +The ceremonies which have been described differ considerably from +those of the Tiyans of North Malabar, where the marumakkatayam law +of inheritance obtains. These are very simple affairs. + +In the Calicut taluk, a man can marry only one wife at a time. But, +when a wife is barren, a leper, or suffering from incurable disease, +her husband may, with her formal permission, marry another wife. A +bride may be of any age. Where there is no stipulation as to dowry, it +is a point of honour to give the girl as many jewels as the bridegroom +can afford. Widows may remarry. + +Divorce is admissible, when the grounds for it are sufficient. And, +when we find that incompatibility of temper is among these, it is +safe to say that it is fairly easy of accomplishment. No specific +reason need, in fact, be assigned. When it is the man who wishes to +get rid of his wife, he must pay her all her expenses towards the +marriage, as assessed by persons of the caste who fill the rôle +of mediators. He has to give up jewels received from his wife's +family, and must, in some cases, pay the discarded wife something on +account of her loss of virginity--a circumstance, which might make +it difficult for her to obtain another husband. If the wife wishes +to get rid of her husband, she must pay up all his expenses towards +the marriage. The party found to be in the wrong must pay a fee of +five to twenty rupees to the Tandan and all present, the relations +excepted. The amount is distributed then and there. The procedure to +be adopted in effecting divorce is as follows. The Tandans of both +sides, uncles and relations, and sometimes the fathers, assemble at +the house of the wife, the Tandan, or one of the relations. To the +left of a burning lamp are placed two small wooden stools. On one +of these are laid a small towel with four fanams (one rupee) tied +up in a corner of it, and another towel with a little rice and four +fanams tied up in it. Close by is the other stool, on which the wife's +uncle stretches a single thread taken from his own cloth. The husband +carries this stool to the gate, and says three times to the wife's +brother, father, or uncle--"Your sister's (daughter's or niece's) +matrimonial connection is severed." He then blows away the thread, +throws the stool down, and departs for ever. This little ceremony +cannot be performed at the husband's house, as it would involve +perpetual banishment from his own house. The coins in the cloths go +to the Tandans. It is the uncle who gives these cloths, because it +was he who received the two cloths at the conjee ceremony. A marriage +cannot be dissolved unless both parties agree. + +A girl is under pollution for four days from the commencement of the +first menstrual period. During this time she must keep to the north +side of the house, where she sleeps on a grass mat of a particular +kind, in a room festooned with garlands of young cocoanut leaves. Round +the mat is a narrow ridge made of paddy (unhusked rice), rice, and +flowers of the cocoanut and areca palms. A lamp is kept burning, near +which are placed the various articles already described in connection +with marriage. Another girl keeps her company and sleeps with her, but +she must not touch any other person, tree or plant. She further must +not see the sky, and woe betide her if she catches sight of a crow or +cat. Her diet must be strictly vegetarian, without salt, tamarinds, or +chillies. She is armed against evil spirits with an iron knife carried +on her person, or placed on the mat. On the first day, she is seated on +a wooden stool in the yard to the east of the house. The fresh spathe +of a cocoanut is cut in front of her. The bunch of blossoms is placed +in a copper pot painted with perpendicular lines of chunam (lime), +and a horizontal line at the top and bottom. The spathe of an areca +palm is similarly treated, and, if the contents of both spathes are +plentiful, it is regarded as a good augury of fertility. The wife of +the girl's uncle, or, if she is married, her husband's sister pours +some gingelly (Sesamum) oil over her head, on the top of which a gold +fanam has been placed. Failing such relations, the wife of the Tandan +officiates. The operation is repeated by two other women, relatives +if possible. The oil is poured from a little cup made from a leaf +of the jak tree (Artocarpus integrifolia), flows over the forehead, +and is received with the fanam in a dish. It is a good omen if the +coin falls with the obverse upwards. Rice is cooked with jaggery, +and given to the girl. The other women partake thereof, and then have +a feast by themselves. The anointing with oil is the only bath the +girl has until the fourth day. On the third day, she is not allowed +to eat rice in any form, but she may partake of any other grain in +the form of cakes. Her uncle's wife, husband's sister, and other +relations, give her presents of cakes and bread. During the night, +the mattu, or cloth-changing ceremony, takes place. First of all, +the washerman comes along with the washerwoman, carrying two washed +cloths. In the front yard of the house a lamp with an odd number of +wicks is burning. In a bamboo basket are a small measure (edangali) +of paddy heaped up on a plantain leaf, a measure of rice on another +leaf, two separate quarter measures thereof, a piece of turmeric, +a little straw, a piece of coir (cocoanut fibre), and a cocoanut. As +soon as he enters, the washerman, using the straw and coir skilfully, +makes a bundle of the contents of the basket, and places it near the +lamp, which is standing on a wooden stool. A cocoanut is cut in half, +and placed, half on each side, by the stool. Thereon is set a flat +bell-metal dish, containing a little rice and seven rolls of betel +leaves and areca nuts. The washerwoman, having received the mattu +from the woman, places it on his head and proceeds to sing a song, +at the conclusion of which he says solemnly three times "Let me place +the mattu." He then places the cloths on the bundle, which is on the +stool. The girl's uncle's wife, and four other women, have by this time +emerged from the middle room of the house, carrying a lighted lamp, +a plate with a measure of rice, and a kindi as before. The uncle's +wife, having covered her breast with a silk cloth, and wearing all her +ornaments, leads the other four women as they walk thrice round the +mattu. She then places a fanam (or a four-anna piece) on the mattu, +lifts the stool, bundle and all, with one hand on the mattu and the +other below the stool, and leads the procession of the women, with +the lamp and other articles, to the room where the girl has been +sleeping. She deposits her burden near the spot where the girl has +laid her head. A general feast then takes place, and the washerman +appropriates the fanam, and the paddy and rice spread in the yard. So +ends the third day of these strange observances. On the fourth day, +the girl bathes in a neighbouring pool, with some ceremonial. Before +she leaves the house, the washerman fixes in the ground a branch +of a certain tree, to the top and bottom of which he ties the two +ends of a long line of thin coir rope or yarn. This is supposed to +represent the bow of Kama, the Indian Cupid. He erects a miniature +temple-like structure of young cocoanut leaves, with the stems +of young plantains near it, by the side of the pool. Close to it, +he places a burning lamp, and a small quantity of rice and paddy, +each on a separate plantain leaf. Near them he sets a cocoanut, which +has been blackened with charcoal, on some rice spread on a plantain +leaf, a cocoanut reddened with turmeric and chunam on raw rice, and +another on a leaf, containing fried paddy. [22] He further deposits +a few plantains, and two other cocoanuts. Before the girl leaves +the house, clad in one of the cloths brought on the previous night, +she is well rubbed all over with oil, and the four or six women [23] +who accompany her are similarly treated. Leading the way, they are +followed by a number of women to the pool, where the girl and her +companions bathe. After the bath, they stand by the side of the pool, +facing east and holding lighted cotton-wicks in their hands, and +go round the miniature temple three times, throwing the wicks into +it. The washerman again breaks out into song, accompanying himself by +striking a bell-metal plate with a stick. When he has finished, and +gone through a little more business on his own account, the girl's +husband or brother (if she is unmarried) appears on the scene. He +holds aloft the coir string, under the lower end of which a cocoanut +has been placed on the ground. The girl passes three times forwards +and backwards without touching it. Two cotton wicks, lighted at both +ends, are laid on the cocoanut, and the girl should cut the wicks and +the cocoanut through, completely severing them, with one blow of a +strong knife or chopper. If she is successful, the omen is considered +good. The girl, with her party, then bathes a second time. As she comes +out of the water, she kicks out backwards like a mule, and sends the +stem with the single cocoanut attached flying into the water with her +right foot. The second mattu cloth is then brought, and she is clad in +it. Then she is full dressed and ornamented and led back to the house +with a silk canopy over her head. She is taken to the middle room, +and cakes and rice are given to her to eat. A feast is then held. The +girl has so far been purified as regards most affairs of life, but she +cannot touch any cooking-vessel until she has undergone yet another +ceremony. This takes place on the seventh or ninth day after the first +appearance of the menses. Every day until then the girl is rubbed with +gingelly oil and turmeric. Three ordinary earthenware cooking-pots are +piled, one above the other, in the kitchen. The uppermost pot contains +cooked rice, the middle one rice boiled with jaggery, and the lowest +curry. The pots must be new, and are marked with perpendicular daubs +of chunam. Seated on a low wooden stool to the west of the pots, the +girl, facing the east, touches each pot with a knife. When the first of +all these menstruation ceremonies has taken place at the house of the +girl's husband, her mother brings some cakes on this last day. If it +has been performed at her father's house, her husband's sister should +bring the cakes. They are distributed among all present, and a small +meal is partaken of. All the expenses of the first, and seventh or +ninth day ceremonies, are borne by the people of the house, who may +be those of the family of the girl's father or husband. The expenses +of the ceremonial of the fourth day are defrayed by the girl's husband +if they have been performed at her father's house, and vice versâ. + +The young wife has an easy time of it until the fifth month of +her pregnancy, when she must again submit to becoming the subject +for ceremonial. Then takes place the Belikala, for the purpose of +appeasing some of the many malignant spirits, who are unceasing +in their attempts to destroy infants in the womb. This consists +for the most part of offerings, which are repeated in the seventh +month. They are performed by members of the Mannan (washerman) +and Panan (exorcists and devil-dancers) castes. At the commencement +thereof, there is a feast. A structure, in shape something like a +Muhammadan taboot, [24] about five feet in height, is erected in the +front yard of the house. It is made of stems of young plantain trees, +and festooned with leaves of young cocoanut palms. The floor of the +little edifice, and the ground outside it to the west, are strewn +with charcoal made from paddy husk, on which are made magic squares +of white rice flour, intermingled with red, green, and yellow, each +colour being compounded with specified substances. The squares are +not always the same, but are prepared for each occasion, so as to +suit the particular spirit which is to be invoked and appeased. The +pregnant woman, with six female companions, leaves the middle room +of the house, carrying the usual lamp and other articles, and they +walk seven times round the edifice. Before completing the last round, +each throws into it a burning wick. They then stand to the west of it, +facing east, and sit down. The Mannans invoke the spirit in song, +accompanied by the clang of metal plates beaten with sticks. Drums +must not be used. The music and weird devil-dancing go on more or +less all night, and by morning some of the most nervous of the women, +overcome by the spirit, go into fits. The fees for the devil-dancing +are paid by the pregnant woman's father. Last of all, a live cock is +held against the forehead of the woman, mantrams (magical formulæ) +are repeated, and rice is thrown over her head. If she should have +a fit, the head of the cock is cut off, and the blood offered to the +demon spirit. If, however, she does not suffer from undue excitement, +the cock is simply removed alive. She is left in peace for the next +two months, when she goes to her father's house, at which there is +more devil-dancing at another Belikala ceremony. The fees are paid +by the woman's husband. They vary from five to thirty-two rupees, +according to the cost of the edifice which is erected, and the quality +of the dancing. The invocation of some of the devils requires specially +trained dancers who must be paid high fees. On the morning following +the dance, the tamarind juice drinking ceremony takes place at the +house of the woman's father. The fees in connection with this are +debited to the husband. Taking advantage of an auspicious moment, the +husband and two companions bathe in the early morning, and make a neat +toilette, the husband wearing a necklace. They then go to the nearest +tamarind, and pluck three small leafy twigs, which they bring to the +house. The husband's sister pounds the leaves in a mortar in a little +shed or pandal in the front yard. The juice is then strained through a +new double cloth eight cubits in length by the husband's sisters. If he +has no sisters, this should be done by his and his wife's mothers. Rice +conjee is then prepared with water, in which the tamarind juice has +been mixed. The husband, and his two companions, sit under the pandal, +where the usual lamp and other articles have been placed, with the +wife behind him. Her brother then feeds him thrice with the conjee +from a small gold spoon. The husband's sister feeds the wife in like +manner. One of the three twigs is planted by the husband in the front +yard, and his wife waters it every day until the child is born. In the +ninth month, the husband's sister presents his wife with a couple of +pounds of cummin seed and jaggery. The woman who brings this little +gift should be given some cakes and sweetmeats. During pregnancy, +a woman always wears an amulet concealed within a cylindrical tube +on her neck, to protect her against malignant spirits. + +The young wife's child is born at her father's house, where she is +under the care of her mother. When the child is born, the brother of +the newly made mother goes out into the yard, and strikes the ground +three times with the stem of a dry cocoanut palm leaf. If the child +is a boy, he emits a long drawn out ku-u-u-u in high falsetto as he +does so. It is then the duty of the brother and the midwife to go and +inform the father of the event. The midwife receives from him her fee, +and a present of a cloth, and other presents from his sisters. If +the child is a boy, the brother receives a cloth, and, if a girl, +a cloth and a bell-metal plate. + +The event of the birth of a child carries with it, as in the case of +death, pollution to every one in the house. This is partially removed +by ceremonies on the third day, and wholly by further ceremonies on the +ninth or eleventh day, whichever happens to be the more auspicious--a +Tuesday for example. Any one coming to the house before the first +ceremonies have taken place must bathe and wash his or her cloth to +remove the pollution. Any one visiting the house after the first, but +before the second ceremony, need not bathe, but cannot eat any food +in the house. The men of the household can get no rice at home until +after the second ceremony has been performed, and they are consequently +compelled to board elsewhere for the time being. A washerwoman carries +out the purification rites, assisted by a barber woman. First of all, +the floors of all the rooms are smeared with cow-dung. All clothes +in use are given to the washerwoman. The women rub their bodies all +over with oil, and the washerwoman brings mattu for them. The barber +woman sprinkles a mixture of cow's milk and karuka grass leaves over +the women, who then go to a pool and bathe. When the milk is about +to be sprinkled, the usual lamp, rice on a metal plate, and kindi of +water are produced. The barber woman takes the rice and one fanam, +and receives also some cocoanut and gingelly (Sesamum) oil. Much +the same things are given to the washerwoman. The second ceremony +is just like the first, but, even after its completion, the women of +the house cannot touch any cooking-vessels until after the fifteenth +day. The ceremony of touching the cooking pots, as at the time of the +first menstrual period, is then performed. These three purificatory +ceremonies must be performed after every birth. + +On the twenty-seventh or fortieth day after the birth of a child, +the mother and the infant are taken back to the husband's house, +and cow's milk is for the first time given to the child. This event, +which has all the solemnity of a regular function, takes place in +the middle room, where the lamp, mat and other articles have been +arranged. The child's paternal grandfather, father's elder brother, +or other senior man administers the milk, which has been boiled. A +gold bracelet is dipped in it, and the drops of milk are made to +fall into the child's mouth. As this is being done, the celebrant +whispers in the child's right ear the name which will be formally +given to it in the sixth month. The eldest son is always named after +the paternal grandfather, and the second after the father. In like +manner, the eldest girl is named after its own mother. Relations and +friends take this opportunity to make presents of bracelets and other +articles to the infant. A feast is then held. After the ceremony is +over, the parents of the child's mother have to send about half a +bag of rice flour mixed with jaggery to her husband's house. + +For the first six months of its life, a child's food consists of +nature's fount and cow's milk. It is then, before the sixth month is +over, given boiled rice for the first time. The ceremony takes place +either in the middle room of its father's house, or at a temple. The +child's grandfather, or the eldest male member of the family, sits +on a mat, and takes the child in his lap. With a gold ring he applies +honey three times to its mouth, and then gives it a little rice three +times. Female relations who are present follow his example, giving +the child first honey, and then rice. Several women, with the lighted +lamp and other articles, carry the child into the yard, to show it +the sky. They go round a cocoanut tree, and stand before the front +door, facing west. An elder among the women of the house stands at +the front door, calls out the name of the child three times, and asks +it to come inside. The relations give little presents of ornaments, +and there is a feast. + +It will be observed that even a child's life is not entirely free from +ceremonial. When it has grown up, it undergoes more of it, and, when it +has lived its course on earth, is the subject of still more ceremonial +long after it is dead. All these affairs involve some expenditure, but +the one which literally runs away with money is marriage. The others +are not extravagances, nor are they as costly as might be implied from +the continual feasting of a large number of people. We must not think +of these feasts as of a banquet at the Carlton, but as simple affairs, +at which simple people are content with simple though pleasing fare. + +When a child is provided by nature with teeth, it is the subject +of a little ceremony, during which it is expected to disclose its +natural propensities. The usual mat and other articles are arranged, +and there are in addition a large flat bell-metal plate containing +a rice cake, a knife, a palmyra leaf grantham (book), a cocoanut, +and a gold ornament. The child is let loose, and allowed to pick out +anything from the plate. If it takes the cake, it will be greedy; if +the knife, brave; if the book, learned; if the cocoanut, a landlord; +and, if the gold ornament, rich. + +A child's head is shaved in the third or fifth year. The barber, who +performs the operation, is allowed to take away the rice which, with +the lamp, is at hand. He also receives a fanam and a new cloth. The +people of the child's mother bring rice cakes. + +The last day of the Dasara festival in the fifth year of a child's +life is that on which instruction in the alphabet begins. A teacher, +who has been selected with care, or a lucky person holds the child's +right hand, and makes it trace the fifty-one letters of the Malayalam +alphabet on raw rice spread on a plate. The fore-finger, which is the +one used in offering water to the souls of the dead and in other parts +of the death ceremonies, must not be used for tracing the letters, +but is placed above the middle finger, merely to steady it. For +the same reason, a doctor, when making up a pill, will not use the +fore-finger. When, later on, the child goes to the village school, +the fifty-one letters are written one by one on its tongue with a +gold style, if one is available. As each letter is formed, the child +has to repeat the sound of it. + +The lobes of both a child's ears are bored with a golden pin or a +thorn. The helix of the ear is not bored for the purpose of inserting +ornaments in it, but is sometimes bored as a remedy for disease, +e.g., hernia. Everywhere else in Southern India, it is common for +people of almost every class to have the helix of the left ear bored. + +The tali-tying ceremony must be performed before a girl attains +puberty. The Tiyan tali is usually of gold, and worth about +half-a-crown. It is not the one which is worn in every day life, but +the one which is used in the ceremony about to be described. Throughout +Southern India, the tali is the ordinary symbol of marriage among +Hindus, and it is even worn by Syrian Christians. In Malabar, and the +Native States of Cochin and Travancore, it is a symbol of marriage, +with which a girl is ceremoniously adorned, as a rule before she is +affianced. The ceremony occupies three days, on the last of which the +tali is tied. On the first day, a shed or pandal is erected in the +front yard. Within it a similar structure is prepared with the leaves +of an areca palm, which has been cut down at an auspicious moment, and +with the formal sanction of the Tandan of the tara. This inner pandal +is tastefully decorated with pictures and flowers. It is important +to note that this little pandal must not be begun until the first +day of the ceremony. On this day, the carpenter of the tara brings +a low wooden seat, rather long and narrow, made from the pala tree +(Alstonia scholaris), which must be cut at an auspicious moment, for +which he receives one fanam. This seat is called mana. [25] A grass mat +is spread in the middle room of the house, with a white cloth over it, +on which the mana is placed. A lamp, vessel of water, and the usual +paraphernalia are arranged on the ground to the south close by. When +these preliminaries have been completed, the girl is brought by the +uncle's wife to the pandal, and seated on a stool. In front of her, +a lamp, and other things which are a feature in all ceremonials, and +a measure of paddy are placed on the ground, a gold fanam is put on +her head, and over it gingelly oil is poured. As the coin falls from +the forehead, it is caught in a cup. It is important which side falls +uppermost. The girl is then taken to a pool for bathing, and returns +to the pandal. She is conducted to the middle room of the house in +procession, with a silk canopy over her head and women carrying lamps, +etc. She is confined in this room, which is decorated in the manner +described when speaking of the menstruation ceremony, until the third +day. She sleeps on a mat, surrounded by a little ridge of rice and +paddy, cocoanut and areca palm flowers, and near her head is a copper +pot marked with vertical daubs of white. The blacksmith of the tara +brings a little stick, called charathkot, with an iron blade at one +end, which is supposed to represent an arrow of Kama. This the girl +keeps constantly at her side, and carries in her hand when compelled +by nature to leave the room. While confined in the room, she is not +allowed to eat fish, flesh, or salt, or see any animals, especially +a cat, dog, or crow. On the third day, the tali is prepared on the +spot by the village goldsmith. The girl's uncle gives him the gold, +which he melts, and works at in the pandal at an auspicious moment. The +paddy and rice, which, with the lamp and vessel of water, have been +in evidence during the operations, are given to the goldsmith, with a +fanam for his labour. A weaver brings two new cloths, of a particular +kind called mantra-kodi, for which the girl's uncle pays. One is worn +by the girl, and the mana is covered with the other. The girl is taken +to bathe, and, after the bath, is richly dressed and ornamented, and +brought in procession, with a canopy over her head, to the house, +where she is conducted to the inner room. The mana is then placed, +with the cloth near it, on a grass mat in the inner pandal. The +uncle's wife sits on the mat, and the uncle lifts the girl, carries her +three times round the pandal, and deposits her in his wife's lap. The +astrologer, who is present, indicates the moment when the tali should +be tied. The girl's father gives him a fanam, and receives from him a +little rice, called muhurtham (auspicious time). When the psychological +moment has arrived he sprinkles the rice on the girl's head, saying +"It is time." The tali is then tied round the girl's neck by the +uncle's wife. At the upper end of the tali is a ring, through which +the thread passes. The thread which is used for the purpose is drawn +from the cloth with which the mana has been covered. [It is odd that +there are some families of Nayars, who are not allowed to use a tali +with a ring to receive the string, and are therefore obliged to make +a hole in the tali itself.] As soon as the tali has been tied on the +girl's neck, a number of boys burst into song, praising Ganapathi +(the elephant god), and descriptive of the marriage of King Nala +and Damayanti, or of Sri Krishna and Rukmani. Every one joins in, +and the song ends with shouts and hurrahs. A mock feeding ceremony +is then carried out. Three plantain leaves are spread in front of +the girl in the pandal, and rice, plantains, and pappadams are spread +thereon. The uncle's wife offers some of each to the girl three times, +but does not allow her to touch it with her lips. The girl is then +taken to a temple, to invoke the God's blessing. + +The description which has just been given is that of the ceremony which +is performed, if the girl has not been affianced. If a husband has been +arranged for her, it is he who ties the tali, and his sister takes +the place of the uncle's wife. Otherwise the ceremony is the same, +with this difference, however, that, when the husband ties the tali, +there can be no divorce, and the girl cannot remarry in the event of +his death. + +In North, as in South Malabar, the tali-tying ceremony is always +performed before puberty, and occupies four days. This is the orthodox +procedure. The girl wears a cloth provided by the washerwoman. She is +taken from the middle room of the house to the yard, and there seated +on a plank of pala wood. Placed in front of her are a small measure +of rice and paddy, a washed white cloth, and a small bell-metal vessel +(kindi) on a bell-metal plate. The barber pours cocoanut water on her +head, on which a silver and copper coin have been placed. One of her +relations then pours water from a vessel containing some raw rice +over her head, using two halves of a cocoanut as a spout. The girl +is then taken back to the middle room, where she remains for three +days. There is a feast in the evening. On the fourth day, a pandal is +erected in the front yard, and decorated. The girl is taken to bathe +at a neighbouring pool, preceded by women carrying a lamp, a kindi of +water, and other things which have been already described. During her +absence, the barber performs puja to Ganapathi in the pandal. After +bathing, she cuts a cocoanut in half, and returns in procession, +with a silk canopy over her head, amid music and singing, and enters +the middle room of the house. The barber woman ties a gold ornament +(netti pattam) on her forehead, which she marks with sandal paste, +and blackens her eyes with eye-salve. The uncle's wife, preceded by +women bearing a lamp and other articles, carries the mana, covered with +cloth, from the middle room to the pandal. She walks three times round +the pandal, and places the mana on a grass mat, over which has been +spread some paddy and some rice where the girl will put her foot. The +women who have carried the lamp, etc., return to the room, and escort +the girl to the pandal. She walks thrice round it, and takes her seat +on the mana. The barber hands her a little rice, which she throws on +the lighted lamp, and articles which have been used in the puja to +Ganapathi, and on the post supporting the south-west corner of the +pandal. This post should be of pala wood, or have a twig of that tree +tied to it. More rice is handed to the girl, and she throws it to +the cardinal points of the compass, to the earth, and to the sky. A +small earthen pot containing rice, a cocoanut, betel, and areca nuts, +is placed near the girl. Into this a variety of articles, each tied +up separately in a piece of plantain leaf, are placed. These consist +of a gold coin, a silver coin, salt, rice, paddy, turmeric, charcoal, +and pieces of an old cadjan leaf from the thatch of the house. The +mouth of the pot is then covered over with a plantain leaf tied with +string. The girl sprinkles rice three times over the pot, makes a hole +in the leaf, and picks out one of the articles, which is examined +as an augur of her destiny. Betel leaves and areca nuts are then +passed twice round her head, and thrown away. She next twists off a +cocoanut from a bunch hanging at a corner of the pandal. Then follows +the presentation of cloths called mantra-kodi. These must be new, +and of a particular kind. Each of her relations throws one of these +cloths over the girl's head. Half of them (perhaps ten or twelve) +go to the barber, who, at this point, pours cocoanut water from the +leaf of a banyan tree on her head, on which a silver and copper coin +have been placed. The astrologer is then asked whether it is time +to tie the tali, and replies three times in the affirmative. The +barber woman hands the tali strung on a thread to the girl's uncle's +wife, who ties it round the girl's neck. The barber woman then pours +water on the girl's hands. Three times the water is flung upwards, +and then to the east, west, south, and north. A cotton wick, steeped +in oil, is then twisted round a piece of bamboo, and stuck on a young +cocoanut. The girl is asked if she sees the sun, looks at the lighted +wick, and says that she does. She is then taken to a cocoanut tree, +preceded by the lamp, etc. She walks three times round the tree, +and pours water over the root. The ceremony is now concluded, and +the girl is marched back to the middle room. + +A variation of the tali-tying ceremony, as performed in Chavakad +on the coast between Calicut and Cochin, may be briefly described, +because it possesses some interesting features. It is always done +by the intended husband, or some one representing him. Seven days +prior to the beginning of the ceremony, the carpenter of the tara, +with the permission of the Tandan (here called Avakasi), cuts down an +areca palm, and fixes part of it as the south-east post of the booth, +at which the tali will be tied. On the sixth day, the girl is formally +installed in the middle room of the house. The carpenter brings a mana +of pala wood, the cost of which is paid by the father, and does puja +to it. The bridegroom's party arrive. A lamp is lighted in the booth, +which is at this time partly, but not entirely, made ready. Near the +lamp are placed a measure of paddy, half a measure (nazhi) of rice, +a looking-glass, a kindi of water, and a wooden cheppu (a rude vessel +with a sliding cover). The wives of the Tandan and uncle, together +with some other women, bring the girl, and seat her on the mana. The +uncle's wife parts her hair, and places a gold fanam on her crown. The +Tandan's wife then pours a little oil on it over a leaf of the jak +tree three times. The other women do the same. The girl is then taken +to a pool, and bathed. Before her return, the mana should be placed +ready for her in the middle room of the house. In the evening there +is a feast. On the day but one following, the tali is tied. The last +post of the booth is put up, and it is completed and decorated on the +tali-tying day. A lamp, looking-glass, and other things are put in +it. A grass mat is spread on the floor, and a kambli (blanket) and a +whitewashed cloth are placed over it. On either side of it is placed +a pillow. The bridegroom and his party wait in an adjoining house, +for they must not appear on the scene until the psychological moment +arrives. The Tandan of the bridegroom's tara, with a few friends, +comes first, and hands over two cloths and ten rupees eight annas to +the bride's Tandan. The girl is dressed in one of these cloths, and +led to the booth, the bridegroom's sister holding her by the hand. She +sits on the mana, which has been brought, and placed on the cloth, +by her uncle. The bridegroom comes in procession, carried on his +uncle's shoulders. The girl is still a child, and he is only a few +years her senior. His uncle puts him down on the right side of the +girl, after walking thrice round the booth. The girl's uncle's wife +sits close to her, on the other side, on the mana. Her father asks the +astrologer three times if it is the proper time to tie the tali, and is +answered thrice in the affirmative. Then the boy bridegroom ties the +tali on the girl's neck. The boy and girl sing out a chorus in praise +of Ganapathi, and end up with three loud shouts and hurrahs. Then +the boy seats himself on the ground, outside the pillow. The girl is +taken inside the house, and, after a general feast, is brought back, +and seated on the mana, and rice and flowers are sprinkled. No money +is paid to the uncle's son, as at Calicut. The boy bridegroom pays +eight annas to his sister for leading the bride by the hand. When the +marriage has been done by proxy, the boy bridegroom is selected from a +tarwad into which the girl might marry. He stays at the girl's house +for three days, and, on the fourth day, the boy and girl are taken +to a temple. A formal divorce is effected, and the boy is taken away. + +It will not be worth while to attempt a description of the marriage +ceremony of the Tiyans of North Malabar, because there is none, or +next to none. There the Tiyans and all classes, including even the +Muhammadan Mappillas, follow the rule of marumakkatayam, or inheritance +through females from uncle to nephew. The children have no right to +their father's property. Either party may annul the marital union +at will, without awarding any compensation; and, as its infraction +is easy and simple, so is its institution. Nor is there any rigid +inquiry as to the antecedents of either party. It is an affair of +mutual arrangement, attended with little formality. Proceeding to the +girl's house, accompanied by a few friends, the intending husband +takes with him a couple of cloths, one for the girl, and the other +for her mother. In parts of North Malabar, the Tiyan women wear an +ornament called chittu (ring) in a hole bored in the top of the helix +of each ear. The holes are bored in childhood, but the chittu is not +worn until the girl forms a marital union with a man. The chittus +are made on the spot at the time, in the marriage pandal erected for +the occasion, the girl's uncle providing the gold. They are never +removed during life, except in cases of dire distress. "To sell +chittu" is equivalent to having become a pauper. It is supposed that, +in olden days, the marriage ceremonies lasted over seven days, and +were subsequently reduced to seven meals, or three and a half days, +and then to one day. Now the bridegroom remains the first night at +the bride's house, and then takes her to his home. Before they leave, +a cocoanut, the outer husk of which has been removed, is placed on +a stool of pala wood, and one of the bridegroom's party must smash +it with his fist. Some of the more orthodox in North Malabar observe +the formality of examining horoscopes, and a ceremony equivalent to +the conjee-drinking ceremony which has been described, called achara +kaliana, and the payment of kanam in the shape of forty-one fanams, +instead of forty-two as in South Malabar. In connection with fanams it +may be noted that the old gold fanam is reckoned as worth four annas, +whereas five silver or velli fanams make a rupee. Everywhere in rural +Malabar, calculations are made in terms of velli fanams thus:-- + + + 10 pice (1/12 of an anna) = 1 velli. + 5 vellis = 1 rupee. + + +Bazaar men, and those who sell their small stock at the weekly markets +all about the country, arrange their prices in vellis. + +When the death of a Tiyan is expected, all the relations draw near, and +await the fateful moment. The person who is about to die is laid on the +floor of the middle room, for it is inauspicious to die on a cot. We +will suppose that the dying man is a parent and a landlord. Each of +the sons and daughters gives him a little conjee water, just before +he passes away. At the moment of death, all the women bawl out in +lamentations, giving the alarm of death. The Cheruman serfs in the +fields join in the chorus, and yell out an unintelligible formula of +their own. Absent relations are all formally invited. From the houses +of the son's wife and daughter's husband are sent quantities of jak +fruits, unripe plantains, and cocoanuts, as death gifts. One half of +the husks of the cocoanuts is removed, and the other half left on the +shell. After the cremation or burial, these articles are distributed +among those present by the Tandan, who receives an extra share for +his trouble. When life is extinct, the body is placed with the head +to the south, and the thumbs and big toes are tied together. It is +then taken out into the yard, washed, bathed in oil, dressed in a new +cloth, and brought back to the middle room. A cocoanut is cut in two, +and the two halves, with a lighted wick on each, are placed at the +head and foot. The house-owner spreads a cotton cloth over the corpse, +and all the relations, and friends, do the same. Any one who wishes +to place a silk cloth on the corpse may do so, but he must cover it +with a cotton cloth. The body is then removed for burial or cremation, +and placed near the grave or funeral pyre. It is the rural rule that +elderly persons and karnavans of tarwads are cremated, and others +buried. The barber, whose function it is to perform the purificatory +rites, now removes, and retains as his perquisite, all the cloths, +except the last three covering the corpse. As it is being borne away +to the place of burial or cremation, water mixed with cow-dung is +sprinkled behind it in the yard. The eldest son, who succeeds to the +property and is responsible for the funeral ceremonies, then tears +crosswise a piece of the cloth which has been placed over the corpse +by the people of the house, and ties it round his forehead. He holds +one end of the cloth while the barber holds the other, and tears off +the piece. The barber then cuts three holes in the remainder of this +cloth covering the body, over the mouth, navel, and pubes. A little +water and rice are poured over a gold fanam through the slit over the +mouth. All who observe the death pollution, i.e., sons, grandsons, +nephews, younger brothers and cousins, offer water and rice in the +same manner, and walk three times round the grave or pyre. The barber +then breaks a pot of water over the grave. No other ceremonial is +observed on this day, on which, and during the night, rice must not be +eaten. If the body has been cremated, a watch is kept at the burning +ground for five days by Panans, who beat drums all night to scare away +the evil spirits which haunt such spots. Early on the second day, +all who are under pollution are shaved. The operation is attended +with some ceremonial, and, before it is commenced, a lighted lamp, +a measure of rice and paddy on a plantain leaf must be at hand. The +paddy and rice are a perquisite of the barber. Those who have been +shaved bathe, and then follows the crow-feeding ceremony. Rice is +boiled in a bell-metal vessel over a hearth prepared with three +young cocoanuts. The eldest son, who tore the cloth of succession +from the corpse, makes the rice into two little balls, places them +on a plantain leaf, and offers them to the spirit of the departed by +pouring libations of water on them over a blade of karuka grass. Men +and women who are under pollution then do the same. The rice balls +are eaten by crows. This little ceremony is performed daily until the +eleventh or thirteenth day, when the period of death pollution comes +to an end. If the eleventh day happens to fall on a Tuesday or Friday, +or on any inauspicious day, the period is extended to the thirteenth +day. When the period of death pollution is partly in one month, +and partly in another, another death in the house within the year is +expected. Preceding the sanchayanam, which occupies the fifth day, +there is the lamp-watching on the previous night. In the south-east +corner of the middle room, a little paddy is heaped up, and on it +is placed a bell-metal plate with an iron lamp having five or seven +lighted wicks on it. Under the lamp is a little cow-dung, and close +to it is a bunch of cocoanut flowers. The lamp must be kept burning +until it is extinguished on the following day. In the case of the +death of a male, his niece watches the lamp, and in that of a female +her daughter, lying near it on a grass mat. The sanchayanam is the +first stage in the removal of death pollution, and, until it is over, +all who come to the house suffer from pollution, and cannot enter their +own house or partake of any food without bathing previously. When the +body has been cremated, the fragments of calcined bones are collected +from the ashes, and carried in procession to the sea, or, if this is +far away, into a river. The members of the family under pollution +then rub their bodies all over with oil, and the barber sprinkles +a mixture of cow's milk over their heads, using a blade of karuka +grass as a spout. They then bathe, and the eldest son alone observe +mattu. The crow-feeding ceremony follows, and, when this is over, the +three cocoanuts which were used as a hearth are thrown away. A large +bell-metal vessel filled with water is now placed in the front yard +before the door of the house. The barber carries the still burning +lamp from the middle room, and sets it on the ground near the pot of +water. The women who are under pollution come from the middle room, +each carrying a lighted wick, walk thrice round the pot, and throw the +wicks into the water. The woman who has watched the lamp puts four +annas into the pot, and the others deposit a few pies therein. The +eldest son now lights a wick from the iron lamp which is about to be +extinguished, and with it lights a lamp in the middle room. The barber +then dips the iron lamp in the water, and picks out the money as his +perquisite. The water is poured on the roots of a cocoanut tree. The +bell-metal vessel becomes the property of the woman who watched the +lamp, but she cannot take it away until she leaves the house after the +pula-kuli ceremony. When the lamp has been extinguished, a woman, hired +for the occasion, is seated on a cocoanut leaf in the front yard. The +Tandan pours oil on her head three times, and she receives a little +betel and two annas. She rises, and leaves the place without turning +back, taking the pollution with her. Betel is then distributed. Those +who provided the death gifts on the day of the death must on this day +bring with them a bag of rice, and about four rupees in money. They +have also to give eight annas to the barber. A folded handkerchief is +first presented to the barber, who formally returns it, and receives +instead of it the eight annas. Before the people disperse, the day of +the pula-kuli is settled. Pula-kuli, or washing away the pollution, +is the final ceremony for putting off the unpleasant consequences of +a death in a family. First of all, the members thereof rub themselves +all over with oil, and are sprinkled by the barber with cow's milk +and gingelly oil. They then bathe. The barber outlines the figure +of a man or woman, according to the sex of the deceased, with rice +flour and turmeric powder, the head to the south, in the middle +room of the house. The figure is covered with two plantain leaves, +on each of which a little rice and paddy are heaped. Over all is +spread a new cloth, with a basket containing three measures of paddy +upon it. The eldest son (the heir) sits facing the south, and with a +nazhi measures out the paddy, which he casts to the south, east, and +west--not the north. He repeats the performance, using the fingers +of the left hand closed so as to form a cup as a measure. Then, +closing the first and fourth fingers firmly with the thumb, using +the left hand, he measures some paddy in the same manner with the two +extended fingers. Rice is treated in the same way. A nazhi of paddy, +with a lighted wick over it, is then placed in a basket. The eldest +son takes the nazhi in his left hand, passes it behind his body, and, +receiving it with his right hand, replaces it in the basket. The wick +is extinguished by sprinkling it with water three times. At the head +of the figure on the floor is placed a clean cloth--the washerman's +mattu. It is folded, and within the folds are three nazhis of rice. On +the top of it a cocoanut is placed. In the four corners a piece of +charcoal, a little salt, a few chillies, and a gold fanam are tied. The +eldest son, who is always the protagonist in all the ceremonies after +death, lifts the cloth with all its contents, places it on his head, +and touches with it his forehead, ears, each side and loins, knees and +toes. He does this three times. The plantain leaves are then removed +from the figure. A little turmeric powder is taken from the outline, +and rubbed on the forehead of the eldest son. He then bows thrice to +the figure, crossing his legs and arms so that the right hand holds the +left ear, and the left the right ear, and touches the ground with the +elbow-joints. It is no joke to do this. All this time, the eldest son +wears round his forehead the strip torn from the cloth which covered +the corpse. There is nothing more to be done in the middle room for +the present, and the eldest son goes out into the yard, and cooks +the rice for the final feed to the crows. Three nazhis of this rice +must be pounded and prepared for cooking by the woman who watched +the lamp on the fourth night after death. Having cooked the rice, +the eldest son brings it into the middle room, and mixes it with some +unrefined sugar, plantains and pappadams, making two balls, one large +and one small. Each of these he places on a plantain leaf. Then some +puja is done to them, and offerings of rice are made over a gold +fanam. The balls are given to the crows in the yard, or, in some +cases, taken to the sea or a river, and cast into the water. When +this course is adopted, various articles must be kept ready ere +the return of the party. These comprise a new pot containing water, +a branch of areca blossoms, mango leaves, a kindi containing a gold +fanam or gold ring, a little salt and rice, each tied up in a piece +of cloth, and a few chillies. The mouth of the pot is covered with a +plantain leaf, and secured. There are also two stools, made of pala +and mango wood. The eldest son sits on one of these, and places his +feet on the other, so that he does not touch the ground. The water in +the pot is sprinkled with mango leaves by the barber to the north, +south, east and west, and on the head of the son. The remainder of +the water is then poured over his head. The barber then sprinkles him +with cocoanut water, this time using areca blossoms, and makes him +sip a little thereof. The barber makes a hole in the plantain leaf, +and picks out the contents. The eldest son bathes, and after the bath +there is a presentation of gifts. The barber, sitting in the verandah +beside the son, first gives to each person under pollution a little +salt and raw rice, which they eat. He then gives them a little betel +leaf and a small piece of areca nut, and receives in return a quarter +of an anna. The eldest son chews the betel which he has received, +and spits into a spittoon held by the barber, whose property it +becomes. Then to the barber, who has been presented with a new mat to +sit on and new cloth to wear before he seats himself in the verandah, +are given an ear-ring such as is worn by Tiyan women, a silk cloth, a +white cotton cloth, and a few annas. If the deceased has been cremated +he is given six fanams, and, if buried, five fanams as the fee for +his priestly offices. On an occasion of this kind, several barbers, +male and female, turn up in the hope of receiving presents. All who +help during the various stages of the ceremonial are treated in much +the same way, but the senior barber alone receives the officiating +fee. It is odd that the barbers of the four surrounding villages are +entitled to receive gifts of new cloths and money. Those under death +pollution are forbidden to eat fish or flesh, chew betel, or partake +of jaggery. The restriction is removed on the pula-kuli day. The last +act for their removal is as follows. The barber is required to eat some +jaggery, and drink some conjee. After this, the eldest son, the Tandan, +and a neighbour, sit on a mat spread in the middle of the house, +and formally partake of conjee and jaggery. The pula-kuli is then over. + +It is a sacred duty to a deceased person who was one of importance, +for example the head of a family, to have a silver image of him +made, and arrange for it being deposited in some temple, where it +will receive its share of puja (worship), and offerings of food and +water. The new-moon day of the months Karkitakam (July-August), Tulam +(October-November), and Kumbham (February-March) is generally selected +for doing this. The temples at Tirunelli in Wynad and Tirunavayi, which +are among the oldest in Malabar, were generally the resting-places of +these images, but now some of the well-to-do deposit them much further +afield, even at Benares and Ramesvaram. A silver image is presented +to the local Siva temple, where, for a consideration, puja is done +every new-moon day. On each of these days, mantrams are supposed to +be repeated a thousand times. When the image has been the object of +these mantrams sixteen thousand times, it is supposed to have become +eligible for final deposit in a temple. It is this image which rests +in the temple at Tirunavayi, or elsewhere. + +An annual sradh ceremony is performed for the sake of the spirit +of the deceased, at which crows are fed in the manner already +described, and relations are fed. On the night of this day, some +sweetmeats or cakes, such as the deceased was fond of during life, +are offered to the spirit. A lamp is placed on a stool, and lighted +in the middle room of the house, with a kindi of water and a young +cocoanut near it. The cakes or sweetmeats are placed in front of the +stool. Children sprinkle rice over it, and the door is shut for a +quarter of an hour. The individual who feeds the crows should partake +of only one meal, without fish or flesh, on the previous day. Another +ceremony, which is necessary for the repose of the dead, is called +badha-velichatu-variethal, or bringing out the spirit. It cannot be +performed until at least a year after death, for during that period +the spirit is in a sort of purgatory. After that, it may be invoked, +and it will answer questions. The ceremony resembles the nelikala +pregnancy ceremony. The performers are Panans or washermen. Some little +girls are seated in front of a booth in the yard. The celebrant of +the rite sings, invoking the spirit of the deceased. Late at night, +one of the girls becomes possessed by the spirit, and, it is said, +talks and acts just like the deceased, calling the children, relations +and friends by name, talking of the past, and giving commands for the +future conduct of the living members of the family. After this, the +spirit is severed from earthly trammels, and attains heavenly bliss. + +The wood used for the purpose of cremation is that of a mango tree, +which must be cut down after the death. A little sandalwood and +cuscus (grass) roots are sometimes added to the pyre. In these days, +when the important and interesting features of ceremonial are fast +disappearing, it is not surprising that dried cakes of cow-dung are +superseding the mango wood. + +Among other ceremonies, there is one called kutti puja, which is +performed when a newly built house is taken charge of. Vastu Purusha +is the name of the supreme being which, lying on its back with +its head to the north-east and legs to the south-west, supports +the earth. Or rather the earth is but a small portion of this +vast body. Forests are its tiny hairs, oceans its blood-vessels, +and the wind its breath. In this body are fifty-three deities, +who are liable to disturbance when the surface of the earth is dug, +when trees are felled, foundations laid, and a house built. These +angry beings must be propitiated, or there will be untimely deaths, +poverty, and sickness among the inmates. The ceremony is performed in +the following manner. A square with fifty-three columns is made with +rice flour in the middle room of the house, and each column is filled +with yellow, red, and black powder. A plantain leaf is placed over +it, and a few measures of paddy are set on the top of the leaf. On +this is placed another leaf, with various kinds of grain, plantains, +cocoanuts, and jaggery on it. The carpenter, who is the architect +and builder of the house, then performs puja with flowers, incense +and lights, and the troublesome imp-spirit Gulikan is propitiated +with toddy and arrack, and a fowl which is decapitated for him. Then +all the workmen--carpenters, masons, and coolies--walk thrice round +the house, breaking cocoanuts on the walls and doors, and howling in +order to drive away all evil spirits which may by chance be lurking +about the place. After this, they are all fed until they cry out "We +are satisfied, and want no more." They are given cloths and other +presents, and the chief feature of the ceremony takes place. This +is the formal handing over of the house by the carpenter. He hands +it over to a third person, and never directly to the owner. It is +not always easy to find a third person who is willing to undertake +the responsibility, and who is at the same time suitable for the +Gulikan who is dispossessed of the house, and pursues him henceforth, +following him who first receives charge of the house. He should +be a man who brings luck, cheerful and contented, having a family, +and not labouring under any disorder or sickness of body. There is, +or was a few years ago, an old Nayar living not far from Calicut, who +was much sought after to fulfil the functions of third person on these +occasions, and all the houses he received prospered. The third person +is generally a poor man, who is bribed with presents of cloths, money +and rice, to undertake the job. He wears one of the new cloths during +the ceremony. When the carpenter's ceremonies have been completed, +this man is taken to the middle room of the house, and made to stand +facing the door, with each foot on a plantain leaf. Pieces of the +thatch are tied to the four corners of his cloth. He shuts the door, +opens it, and shuts it again. The carpenter calls from without, asking +him whether he has taken charge of the house. He replies evasively +"Have the carpenters and workmen received all their wages? If they +have, I take charge of the house." The carpenter does not answer the +question, for, if he did so, the mischief would be transferred to +him through the house-owner. So he says "I did not ask you about my +wages. Have you taken charge of the house?" The man inside answers +as before, adding "otherwise not." The carpenter again says "I did +not ask you about my wages. Answer me straight. Have you, or have +you not taken charge of the house?" The man inside replies "I have +taken charge of the house," and opens the door. Taking in his hands +the plantain leaves on which he stood, he runs away as fast as he can +without looking back. This he must not do on any account. The people +pelt him with plantains, and hoot at him as he runs, and water mingled +with cow-dung is sprinkled in his path. After all this, cow's milk is +boiled with a little rice in the house, of which every one partakes, +and the owner assumes charge of his house. + +In the pre-British days, a few of the well-to-do families of +Tiyans lived in houses of the kind called nalapura (four houses), +having an open quadrangle in the centre. But, for the most part, the +Tiyans--slaves of the Nayars and Nambutiris--lived in a one-roomed +thatched hut. Nowadays, the kala pura usually consists of two rooms, +east and west. + +Toddy-drawing, and every thing connected with the manufacture and +sale of arrack (country liquor) and unrefined sugar, form the orthodox +occupation of the Tiyan. But members of the community are to be found +in all classes of society, and in practically all professions and +walks of life. It is interesting to find that the head of a Tiyan +family in North Malabar bears the title Cherayi Panikar, conferred +on the family in the old days by a former Zamorin. A title of this +kind was given only to one specially proficient in arms. Even in +those days there were Tiyan physicians, bone-setters, astrologers, +diviners, and sorcerers. + +It is easy to identify the toddy-tapper by the indurated skin of +the palms, fingers, inner side of the forearms, and the instep. The +business of toddy-tapping involves expert climbing, while carrying +a considerable paraphernalia, with no adventitious aid other than +can be got out of a soft grummet of coir to keep the feet near +together, while the hands, with the arms extended, grasp the palm +tree. The profession is rarely adopted before the age of eighteen, +but I have seen a man who said he began when he was twelve years +old. It is very hard work. A tapper can work about fifteen trees, +each of which he has to climb three times a day. In the northern +districts of the Madras Presidency, among the Telugu population, +the toddy-drawers use a ladder about eight or nine feet in length, +which is placed against the tree, to avoid climbing a third or a +fourth of it. While in the act of climbing up or down, they make use +of a wide band, which is passed round the body at the small of the +back, and round the tree. This band is easily fastened with a toggle +and eye. The back is protected by a piece of thick soft leather. It +gives great assistance in climbing, which it makes easy. All over the +southernmost portion of the peninsula, among the Shanans and Tiyans, +the ladder and waist-band are unknown. They climb up and down with +their hands and arms, using only the grummet on the feet. The Tiyan +toddy-tapper's equipment consists of a short-handled hatchet, about +seven inches square, of thin iron, sheathed in a wooden case, and +fastened to a waist-belt composed of several strings of coir yarn, +to which is hung a small pot of gummy substance obtained by bruising +the leaves of the aichil plant. A vessel holding a couple of gallons, +made out of the spathe of the areca palm, is used for bringing down the +toddy. Tucked into the waist-belt is a bone loaded with lead at either +end, which is used for tapping the palm to bring out the juice. A man +once refused to sell at any price one of these bones--the femur of a +sambar (Cervus unicolor), which had such virtue that, according to +its owner, it would fetch palm juice out of any tree. The garb of +the tapper at work consists of a short cloth round the loins, and +(always during the rains, and often at other times) a head-covering +somewhat pointed in shape, made of the leaves of the cocoanut palm +placed together as in a clinker-built boat, or of a rounded shape, +made out of the spathe of the areca palm. The toddy-tapper should go +through the show of reverence by touching the cocoanut tree with the +right hand, and then applying his hand to the forehead, every time +he prepares to climb a tree. + +In connection with toddy-drawing, the following note occurs in +the Gazetteer of Malabar. "The tapper and the toddy shopkeeper are +generally partners, the former renting the trees, paying the tree-tax, +and selling the toddy at fixed prices to the latter. Sometimes the +shopkeeper pays both rent and tax, and the tapper is his servant paid +by the bottle. The trees are rented half yearly, and the rent varies +between Re. 1 and Re. 1-8-0 per tree. They are fit for tapping as soon +as they come into bearing, but four years later and in the succeeding +decade are most productive. They are seldom tapped for more than six +months in the year, and the process, though it shortens the life of the +tree, improves the yield of nuts in the rest of the year. The tapper's +outfit is neither costly nor elaborate. A knife in a wooden case, +a bone weighted with lead (the leg bone of a sambhur for choice), +a few pots, and two small rings of rope with which to climb complete +the tale. Operations begin when the spathe is still enclosed by its +sheath. Once a day the spathe is gently bruised on either side with +the bone, and on the third and following days a thin slice is cut +off the end twice a day. On the fifteenth day drawing begins, and the +bruising ceases. Sheath and spathe are swathed for the greater part +of their length in a thick covering of leaves or fibre; the ends are +still cut off twice or three times a day, but, after each operation, +are smeared with a paste made of leaves and water with the object, it +is said, of keeping the sap from oozing through the wound and rotting +the spathe. The leaves used for this purpose are those of the éechal or +vetti tree, which are said to be one and the same (Aporosa Lindleyana); +but in British Cochin, where the tree does not grow, backwater mud +is utilised. Round the space between the end of the sheath and the +thick covering of leaves a single leaf is bound, and through this +the sap bleeds into a pot fastened below. The pot is emptied once a +day in the morning. The yield of sap varies with the quality of the +tree and the season of the year. In the hot months the trees give +on an average about a bottle a day, in the monsoon and succeeding +months as much as three bottles. In the gardens along the backwaters, +south of Chettuvayi, Messrs. Parry & Co. consider that in a good year +they should get a daily average of three bottles or half a gallon of +toddy per tree. A bottle of toddy sells for three or four pies." + +In connection with the coir industry, it is noted, in the Gazetteer of +Malabar, that "the husks of the cocoanuts are buried in pits as near +as possible to the waterline of rivers, backwaters and creeks, and +are left to soak for six months, a year, or even eighteen months--the +longer the better. The colour of the yarn, and thereby the quality, +depends very much on the water in which the husks are steeped. It +should be running water, and, if possible, fresh water. If the water +be salt, the yarn may at first be almost white, but in a damp climate +it soon becomes discoloured and blotchy. As soon as the husks are taken +out of the pits, the fibre is beaten out with short sticks by Tiyattis +(Tiyan females) and women of the Vettuvan caste. It is dried in the +sun for twelve hours, and is then ready for sale to native merchants +at Calicut and Cochin, who in their turn deal with the European +firms. The fibre is twisted into yarn by Tiyattis and other women, +and in that form the greater part of the coir made in Malabar is +exported from Cochin to all parts of the world, but chiefly to the +United Kingdom and Germany." + +It has been said that "in North Malabar the preparation of coir is +a regular cottage industry of the most typical kind. Throughout the +year, wherever one goes, one hears the noise of the women hammering +out the fibre, and sees them taking, in the evening, that part of it +which they have rolled into yarn to the nearest little wayside shop, +to be exchanged for salt, chillies, paddy, etc. But, in the north of +the district, nothing of the kind goes on, and the coir is commonly +used as fuel." + +It has been already stated that marumakkatayam, or inheritance through +nephews, is the invariable rule in North Malabar, being followed even +by the Muhammadan Mappillas. In South Malabar, where the Tiyans do not +observe marumakkatayam, the property devolves through the sons. All +sons share alike. Daughters have no share. The practice of polyandry, +which still exists in Malabar among the Tiyans (and other classes), +and which was probably once general, tends to prevent dispersion of the +family property. Although theoretically all sons share the property +of their father, it is the eldest son who succeeds to possession +and management of the tarwad property. The others are entitled to +maintenance only, so long as they remain in the same tarwad house. It +is the same among the Izhuvans. + +Beef, as in the case of all Hindus, is forbidden as an article of +diet. The staple food is rice with fish curry. The common beverage +is conjee, but this is being supplanted by tea, coffee, lemonade, +and soda-water. + +A loin-cloth, which should not reach to the knees, with a Madras +handkerchief on the shoulders, is the orthodox dress of the males, +and a double loin-cloth that of females. Women were not allowed to wear +anything above the waist, except when under death pollution. Any colour +might be worn, but white and blue are most common. A ring, composed +of hollow gold beads, called mani-kathila, is the proper ornament for +a Tiyan woman's ear. Twenty or thirty, with a pendant in the middle, +might be worn. Gold or silver bracelets could be worn. Hollow silver +bracelets were worn by girls until the birth of their first child. But +times have changed, and nowadays Tiyan women wear the ornaments which, +strictly speaking, appertain to Nayar and Brahman women. Their mode of +tying the hair, and even their dress, which is inclined to follow the +fashion of the Christians, has changed. In olden days, a Tiyan woman +could wear an ornament appropriate for a Nayar on a special occasion, +but only with the permission of the Nayar landlord, obtained through +the Tandan, on payment of a fee. + +In North Malabar a good round oath is upon Perumal Iswaran, the God +of the shrine at Kotiyur. In South Malabar it is common to swear by +Kodungallur Bhagavati, or by Guruvayur Appan, local deities. + +The Tandan is the principal person in the tara, to decide all caste +disputes. In South Malabar, he is, as a rule, appointed by the senior +Rani of the Zamorin. A fee of anything up to 101 fanams (Rs. 25-4-0) +must be paid to this lady, when she appoints a Tandan. When there +is a problem of any special difficulty, it is referred to her for +decision. In territories other than those within the power of the +Zamorin, the local Raja appoints the Tandan, and gives the final +decision in special cases. As we have seen, the Tiyan is always to +some extent subordinate to a Nayar overlord, but he is not bound to +any particular one. He can go where he likes, and reside anywhere, and +is not bound to any particular chief, as is the Nayar. It is noted by +General E. F. Burton, [26] in connection with bygone days, that "such +was the insolent pride of caste that the next (and very respectable) +class of Hindus, the Teers, were not allowed to come near the Nairs, +under penalty of being cut down by the sword, always naked and ready." + +In connection with the religion of the Tiyans, I may commence with +an old tradition, which is no doubt from a Brahmanic source. Once +upon a time there were seven heavenly damsels, who used to bathe +every day before dawn in a lake situated in a forest. Siva found +this out, and appeared as a fire on the bank, at which the girls +warmed themselves. Having thus lured them, the God made all of them +mothers. Seven beautiful boys were born, and Siva presented them to +Parvati, who treated them as if they were her own sons. They were taken +to mount Kailasa, and employed in preparing toddy for the mysterious +and wonderful Sakti worship. Daily they brought the toddy at the +moment when it was required for the golden pot. Parvati embraced the +boys all at once, and they became one. On a certain day, this boy sent +the sacred toddy in charge of a Brahman, who became curious to know +the virtues of the mysterious liquid. As he rested on a river bank +thinking about it, he drank a little, and filled the vessel up with +water. Then he reached Kailasa too late for the daily worship. Siva +was angry, and ordered the Saunika boy (Parvati's name for him) to +be brought before him. But the boy had been told what had happened, +and cut off the head of the Brahman, who had confessed to him. Seeing +the boy coming along carrying a Brahman's head, Siva was astonished, +and commanded him to approach nearer. The boy explained that it was +not a heinous crime to cut off the head of one who had prevented +the Sakti worship. Siva said that the killing of a Brahman was the +worst of crimes, and put the perpetrator out of caste. He would not +listen to the boy, who replied that whoever prevented Sakti worship +was a Chandala, and condemned him. The boy asked for death at Siva's +hands. The request pleased the God, who forgave him. The boy had to +remain out of caste, but was initiated into the mysteries of Sakti +worship as the surest means of salvation, and to him was given the +exclusive privilege of performing Sakti worship with liquor. He +was commanded to follow, and imitate the Brahmans in everything, +except in the matter of repeating the sacred mantrams. By tantrams +(signs with the hands) he eventually obtained the merit of making +puja with mantrams. He was the first Tiyan. + +It is pretty safe to say that all the ideas of the Tiyans connected +with pure Hinduism--the Hinduism of the Vedas--and of tradition, +of which we see very little in Southern India, and which in Malabar +is more perverted in confused ideas than perhaps elsewhere, those +relating to re-birth, karma, pilgrimages to Benares and distant +temples are borrowed from the Brahmans. In the ceremonies which have +been described, notably in those connected with marriage and death, +we have seen the expression of many Hindu ideas. Not so is all that +relates to offerings to the dead. That is the common property of all +the children of men. + +A main feature in the religion of the Tiyan is that it is largely +connected with Sakti worship. Some Brahmans indulge therein, but they +are unable, like the Tiyans, to use arrack in connection with it, and +are obliged to use, instead of this requisite, milk or honey. Siva, +not exactly a Vedic entity, and Sakti, are supposed to be the two +primordial and eternal principles in nature. Sakti is, perhaps, more +properly the vital energy, and Sakti worship the worship of the life +principle in nature. We are not considering the abstract meaning of +the term Sakti; nor are we now thinking of the Siva of Monier Williams +or Max Müller. We are in Malabar, where the Hinduism of the Vedas is +in almost hopeless confusion, and mingled with animism and nearly +every other kind of primitive religious idea. It is not therefore +at all an easy task to represent in words anything like a rational +conception of what the religion of the Tiyan really is. The poor and +ignorant follow, in a blind ignorant way, Hinduism as they know it and +feel it. Their Hinduism is very largely imbued with the lower cult, +which, with a tinge of Hinduism, varied in extent here and there, +is really the religion of the people at large all over Southern +India. The Tiyans have a large share of it. To the actions of evil +and other spirits are attributable most, if not all of the ills and +joys of life. The higher Hinduism is far above them. Nevertheless, +we find among them the worship of the obscure and mysterious Sakti, +which, unfortunately, is practiced in secret. Nobody seems to be in +the least proud of having anything to do with it. In fact, they are +rather ashamed to say anything about it. Those who, so to speak, go +in for it are obliged to undergo preliminary purificatory ceremonies, +before the great mystery can be communicated to them. The mantram, +which is whispered by the guru (religious preceptor) in the ear of +the devotee is said to be "Brahma aham, Vishnu aham, Bhairavu aham" +(I am Brahma, I am Vishnu, I am Bhairavan). It is believed that each +individual is a spark of the divinity. Having in him the potentiality +of the Supreme Being, he can develop, and attain godhood. There is no +distinction of caste in Sakti worship. The devotees may belong to the +highest or to the lowest castes, though I doubt very much whether the +Nambutiri Brahmans indulge in it. The novices, of whatever caste, +eat and drink together during the period of puja. Men and women +participate in the secret rites. A solemn oath is taken that the +mystery of Sakti will not be revealed, except with the permission of +the guru, or on the death-bed. The spirit of the goddess (for Sakti is +thought of as the female principle) must be withdrawn from the body +of the Sakti worshipper when he is at the point of death. A lamp is +lighted beside him. A few leaves of the tulsi plant (Ocimum sanctum), +a little rice, and a lighted wick are given to the dying man. Holding +these things, he makes three passes over his body from head to foot, +and, as it were, transfers the spirit to the next man, at the same time +communicating his wishes about continuing the worship, and so on. When +a man dies before this separation or transfer has been accomplished, +a Brahman must be called in, who, with a silver image representing +the deceased, makes symbolic transference of the Sakti spirit. It +must be done somehow, or the soul of the deceased cannot attain +salvation. It is said that, like many other things in this land, +Sakti worship has undergone degeneration, that such lofty ideas and +feelings as may have once pervaded it have more or less disappeared, +and that the residue is not very edifying. Be this as it may, in +every tara there is a Bhagavati temple for Tiyans, where Tiyans +officiate as priests. The Komaram (oracle) of the Bhagavati temple +is clothed in red, and embellished with red sandal paste mixed with +turmeric. Bhagavati is always associated with various jungle spirits +or gods, whose Komarams always wear black. There is no daily worship +in Tiyan temples, with the exception of a few in the neighbourhood +of Cannanore. But there is an annual celebration of puja during the +mannalam (forty day) period, commencing on the first of the month +Vrischikam (15th November). Lamps are lighted, and worship is begun on +this day, and continued for forty days. At its conclusion, the jungle +gods retire to the jungle until the next year. A death in the family +of a Komaram involves, I believe, some postponement of the rites. The +period is supposed to be first part of the functional activity of the +earth, which ends somewhere about the 21st of June. It is during this +period that Sakti worship is carried on. + +The temple of Subramania at Palni in the Madura district is a +favourite objective for Tiyan pilgrims. The subject of pilgrimages +to this temple has been touched on in my note on the Nayars (see +Nayar). The Bhagavati temple at Kodungallur in Cochin territory on the +coast is another favourite place of pilgrimage among the Tiyans. All +classes of people, with the exception of Brahmans, undertake this +pilgrimage. Everyone under a vow, proceeding to the festival, +which takes place in February or March, carries with him a cock, +which is beheaded at the shrine. Under the Perumals, pilgrimage to +Kodungallur was somewhat compulsory. This temple was a fruitful source +of revenue to the State, for not only the Tiyans, but the fisherman +and artisan castes had their own temple in every tara in the land, +and the Muppan--the Komaram--of each temple was under an obligation +to contribute yearly gifts to the temple at Kodungallur. Rent for the +temple lands was set at a nominal figure--a mere pepper-corn rent as +acknowledgment of sovereign right. Rent might not be paid in times of +trouble, but the gifts eked out of superstition were unfailing. It is +not surprising, therefore, that learning and advancement among the +inferior castes did not receive much encouragement from the rulers +of those days. + +The temple of Kotiyur in North Malabar is also a shrine to which +Tiyans make pilgrimage. Indeed, it may be said that they follow +Hinduism generally in rather a low form, and that Sakti worship is +perhaps more peculiarly theirs than others', owing to their being +able to use arrack, a product of the palm, and therefore of their own +particular métier. The highest merit in Sakti can be reached only +through arrack. The Sakti goddess, Bhagavati, the Tiyans look upon +as their own guardian spirit. + +As instancing the mixture and confusion of religious ideas in Malabar, +it may be mentioned that Mappillas have been known to indulge in +Sakti worship, and Tiyans to have made vows, and given offerings at +Mappilla mosques and Christian churches. Vows to the well-known mosque +at Mambram are made by people of almost every caste. It is not uncommon +to present the first fruit of a jak tree, or the milk of a cow when +it brings forth its first calf, to the local Tangal or Mappilla priest. + +In many, perhaps in most Tiyan houses, offerings are made annually +to a bygone personage named Kunnath Nayar, and to his friend and +disciple Kunhi Rayan, a Mappilla. It is probable that they excelled in +witchcraft and magic, but, according to the story, the Nayar worshipped +the kite until he obtained command and control over all the snakes +in the land. The offerings are made in order to prevent accidents +from snakes. The snake god will also give children to the family, and +promote domestic prosperity. Men without offspring worship him. Leprosy +and the death of a child are believed to be the consequence of killing +a snake. There are Mappilla devotees of Kunnath Nayar and Kunhi Rayan, +who exhibit snakes in a box, and collect alms. There is a snake mosque +near Manarghat, at the foot of the Nilgiri hills, which has its annual +festival. The alms are collected ostensibly for this mosque. + +An interesting story, which is the legendary account of the +exodus of the artisans from Malabar, and their return with the +Tiyans, is narrated by the Panans. There were, in olden times, five +recognised classes, which includes the Asaris (carpenters), Musaris +(workers in bell-metal), Thattans (goldsmiths), and Perin-Kollans +(blacksmiths). The fifth class is unknown. When an individual of the +artisan classes dies, the Panan of the tara must bring a death gift to +the house, which consists of cocoanuts and jak fruits or plantains. The +Panan places the gift in the yard and repeats a long formula, which +he has learnt by heart. It is very likely that he knows little or +nothing of its meaning. But he reels it off, and at its conclusion +the gifts are accepted. The same formula is also always repeated +among the carpenters, goldsmiths, and blacksmiths during wedding +and tali-tying ceremonies. It relates how the artisans deserted the +land of Cheraman Perumal, and sought an asylum in the country of the +Izhuvans with the island king, and how the Perumal sent the Panan +to bring them back. Every one knows this old story, and believes +it firmly. It must be learnt by heart, and the Panan gives it in +the yard when a member of the artisan classes dies. The story is to +the following effect. During the four Yugams, Kreta, Treta, Dwapara, +and Kali, many kings reigned over the earth. Parasu Raman destroyed +the Kshatriya kings on twenty-one occasions, and was obliged to make +atonement in expiatory ceremonies. He worshipped Varuna, the ocean +god, and recovered from the sea a hundred and sixty kathams of land, +consisting of Kolanad (?), Venad (Travancore), Kanya Kumari (Cape +Comorin), Cheranad, and Malayalam up to Changala Vazhi beyond the +Anaimalai hills. Cheraman Perumal was the ruler of this land, in +which were the four castes. His capital was at Tiruvanja Kolam. One +day, Veluthedan [27] Chiraman was washing the Perumal's cloths in +a tank. He beat the cloths on a stone which was flat on the ground, +and held one of the cloths in his hand. A girl of the carpenter caste, +Ayyesvari by name, was just then going to the tank to bathe after her +monthly period. She called out "Ho! Kammal. [28] That is not the way +to wash cloths. Put a small stone under one end of your washing stone, +so as to make it slope a little. Then hold both ends of the cloth +in your hand, and beat the middle of the cloth on the stone." The +Veluthedan did so, and found that he washed better, and the cloths +were whiter. The Perumal asked him "Were you not washing the cloths +before? Who washed them to-day?" To which the Veluthedan replied +"Oh! Tamburan (chief or lord), a carpenter girl instructed your slave +to-day how to wash cloths properly. May Perumal be pleased to order +the girl to be given to your slave as his wife." Perumal then said +"To whatever caste she may belong, you may take her by force, and +will not lose your caste." Having received the king's permission, +Veluthedan Chiraman concealed himself near the carpenter's house, +and, when the girl opened the door to sweep the yard at dawn, he +seized her, and carried her off to his house. Carpenter Sankaran of +Tiruvanja Kalam went to the Perumal, and complained that Veluthedan +Kammal had carried away his daughter, and disgraced him. He asked the +Perumal whether he would give him an armed guard to rescue her. To +which the Perumal replied "I will not help either party with armed +men. You must fight it out among yourselves." Then the five classes +of artisans consulted one another, and made common cause. The Panans, +Perin Malayans, and Chen (red) Koravans joined the artisans. The +Ven Thachans, Velans, Paravans, Vettuvans, Kanisan Panikars, and the +Pandi Pulluvans of Vellalanad joined the other side. There was war +for twelve years. In the end, the artisans were defeated. They said +among themselves "We have been defeated by the fourteenth caste of +Veluthedan Nayar, who carried away our daughter. Let us leave this +country." So 7,764 families, with the women and children, tied up their +mats, and left Cheraman Perumal's country, and went to Izhuva land, +which was beyond it. They went before the Izhuva king (island king), +and told him their story. Now Cheraman Perumal used to be shaved +every fifteen days. When the barber (Velakathalavan) was sent for, +he came without his knife (razor), as his wife had buried it. He +said "Oh! Tamburan, have mercy on your slave. Your slave's knife +was given to the blacksmith to be mended, and he took it away with +him. He gave me this piece of iron, saying "If you want the knife +made ready for use, you must come to the Izhuva land for it, and we +will mend it on our return." So Perumal had to go without shaving, +and his hair grew like a Rishi's. As there were neither carpenters nor +smiths to make implements, agriculture was almost at a standstill; +and, as there were no goldsmiths, the tali-tying ceremonies could +not be performed. Nor could the rice-giving ceremony be done, for +want of the "neck-rings." Then Cheraman Perumal obtained advice, +and resolved to send the Mannan (washerman of the Tiyans), who was +included in the fourteenth caste, and the Panan, who belonged to the +eleventh caste. The Perumal gave to each of them a thousand fanams, +and told them to go to the Izhuva country, and bring back the Kammalans +(artisans). They wandered over various countries, stopping wherever +they found a house. The Panan, being clever, was able to live by his +wits, and spent no money of his own. The Mannan, on the contrary, spent +all his money. They passed Ramapuri, and reached Trichivampuri. Then +the Mannan asked the Panan for a loan, which was refused. On +Friday at noon, the Mannan left the Panan, saying "The Panan is no +companion for the Mannan." He returned to the Perumal and reported +his failure, and the Panan's refusal to lend him money. The Panan +went on, crossing rivers, canals, and ferries, and at last reached +the Izhuva king's country. He entered the reception hall. At that +moment, the king's goldsmith, who had just finished making a golden +crown for him, had put it on his own head, to test its suitability +for wearing. The Panan thought he was the king, and made obeisance +to him. The Kammalans recognised him. He discovered his mistake too +late, for he had addressed the goldsmith as Tamburan. So, to this +day, the Panans, when addressing goldsmiths, say Tamburan. The Panan +told the Kammalans of his mission, but they refused to return unless +full reparation was made for the abduction of the carpenter girl, +and certain social disabilities were removed. The 7,764 families of +Kammalans asked the Izhuva king his advice, and he said that they +should not go away. So the Kammalans sent the Panan back, and gave +him the following presents, in order to demonstrate to the Perumal +that they were in comfortable circumstances:-- + + + Gold valam-piri (a sort of string worn over the right shoulder); + Silver edam-piri (a similar sort of string worn on the left + shoulder); + Gold netti-pattam (to be tied on the forehead); + Gold bracelet; + Gold ornament for the hair. + + +The Kammalans sent word to the Perumal that they would not return, +unless they were given a girl in place of the carpenter's daughter, +who had been abducted, and certain privileges were granted to them. At +the same time, they promised the Panan that they would share their +privileges with him, if he was successful. So the Panan returned, +and appeared before the Perumal, who asked him where the Kammalans +were. The Panan removed his gold cap, and put it under his arm, and +replied that they were prosperous, and not anxious to return. Saying +so, he placed before the Perumal the rich presents given by the +Kammalans, and told the king that they would not return, unless they +were given a girl and certain concessions. The Perumal told the +Panan to go back, and invite the Kammalans to return on their own +terms. He said they would catch the first girl they met on the way +to his palace, and all their demands were granted. The Panan arrived +again in the Izhuva country, and told the Kammalans what the Perumal +had said. They went to the Izhuva king, and obtained his permission +to return to their own country. Then they caught an Izhuva boy, and +confined him. The king asked them why they did so. They replied that +they had lived for twelve years [29] as his subjects, and would never +recognise any other king, so they wanted the Izhuva boy to represent +him. The king consented. When they started, the boy began to cry. A +Nasrani, [30] by name Thomma (Thomas), was taken to accompany and +protect the boy. The Kammalans travelled to their own country, and +appeared before Cheraman Perumal. On the way, they found a girl of +the Variar caste plucking flowers, and caught her by the hand. All +the five classes claimed her. At last it was resolved to unite her +with the Izhuva boy, their Tandan, who represented their king, and +treat her as their sister. Cheraman Perumal confirmed his promise, +and granted the following privileges to the Kammalans:-- + +1. To make ceilings for their houses. + +2. To make upstairs houses to live in. + +3. To put up single staircases, consisting of one pole, in which +notches are cut, or pegs are stuck alternately, for the feet. + +4. To have a gate-house. + +5. To perform the tali-tying ceremonies of their girls in a booth +having four posts or supports; to place within it, on a stool, a +looking-glass with a handle, and the Ramayana; and to place a silk +cloth on the girl's head. + +6. To do arpu at the conclusion of the tali-tying ceremony +(Vel! Arpu! is yelled out by the boys). + +7. To cook rice in copper vessels on occasions of marriage and other +ceremonies, and to serve sugar and pappadams at their feasts. + +8. To hold the umbrella and taza (a sort of umbrella), which are +carried in front of processions. + +9. To clap hands, and dance. + +10. To keep milch-cows for their own use. + +Permission was further granted for the Kammalans to wear the following +ornaments. + +1. Netti-pattam, worn on the forehead during the tali-tying ceremony. + +2. Ananthovi, a ear ornament named after Anandan, the endless, +the serpent on which Vishnu reposes. The serpent is sometimes +represented with its tail in its mouth, forming a circle, an endless +figure. Ananthovi is the central pendant of the ear-ring worn by Tiyan +women among their kathila (ordinary gold ear-rings). It resembles a +serpent in form. It is worn by men of the Tiyan and artisan castes +on special occasions. + +3. Waist zone or girdle. + +4. Bracelets. + +5. Anklet with two knobs, formed of two pieces screwed together. + +6. Puli-mothiram, or tiger's claws mounted in gold, worn by children. + +7. Podippu, a knot of cotton-thread at the end of the string on which +coins are hung as ornaments. + +8. Kalanchi, a gold knob above the podippu, which represents a flower. + +9. Necklace. + +10. Edakam and madkam-tali, neck ornaments, in one of which are set +twenty-one stones. + +11. Cotton thread above the gold thread on the neck. + +The Perumal conferred like privileges upon the family (Tiruvarankath) +of the Panan who brought back the Kammalans. He wore all his ornaments, +and made his obeisance to the Perumal. He had, however, taken off +his gold cap. The Perumal said "What you have removed, let it be +removed." So he lost the privilege of wearing a gold cap. The Perumal +blessed the Kammalans, and they returned to their villages. They made a +separate house for the Izhuva boy and the Variar girl, and maintained +them. The Izhuva boy, who was the first Tiyan to come to Malabar, +brought with him the cocoanut, and retained the right to cultivate +and use it. To this day, the people of the serf castes--Cherumans, +Kanakans, and the like--use the word Varian when addressing Tiyans, +in reference to their descent from the Variar girl. + +The orthodox number of classes of Kammalans is five. But the artisans +do not admit the workers in leather as of their guild, and say there +are only four classes. According to them, the fifth class was composed +of the copper-smiths, who did not return to Malabar with the others, +but remained in Izhuva land. Nevertheless, they always speak of +themselves as the Aiyen kudi or five-house Kammalans. + +There is a variant of the legend of the exodus, told by the Asaris +(carpenters), which is worth narrating. Their version of the story is +repeated among themselves, and not by the Panan, at every marriage +and tali-tying ceremony. They identify the village of the Perumal's +washerman as Kanipayyur. This is the name of a Nambutiri's illam in +the Ponani taluk of Malabar. The Nambutiri is, it may be mentioned, +considered to be the highest extant authority in architecture. Disputed +points relating to this subject are referred to him, and his decision +is final, and accepted by all carpenters and house-builders. The +washerman's stone is said to have been lying flat in the water. The +girl Ayyesvari was also of Kanipayyur, and was carried off as in +the former story. But there was no request for an armed guard to +rescue her. The Perumal was, instead, asked to make the washerman +marry her, and thus avoid disgrace. He consented to do so, and +all the 7,764 families of the five classes of Kammalans assembled +for the wedding. An immense booth, supported on granite pillars, +was erected. The washerman and his party were fed sumptuously. But +the booth had been so constructed that it could be made to collapse +instantaneously. So the Kammalans went quietly outside, and, at a given +signal, the booth collapsed, and crushed to death the washerman and his +friends. After this, the Kammalans fled, and remained one year, eight +months and eleven days in the Izhuva country. Negotiations were carried +on through the Izhuva king, and the Kammalans returned under his +guarantee that their demands would be complied with. The Izhuva king +sent his own men and the Nasrani to the capital of the Perumal. The +story of the exodus and the return was inscribed on granite stone with +solemn rites, and in the presence of witnesses. This was buried at +the northern gate of the Tiruvanchakulam temple on Friday, the eighth +of the month of Kanni. It was resolved that, in any case of doubt, +the stone should be unearthed. And it was only after all this had been +done that the Izhuva king's envoy returned to him. Then the Kammalans +came back to Malabar. According to the carpenters, the copper-smiths +did not return. They say that eighteen families of Asaris remained +behind. Some of these returned long afterwards, but they were not +allowed to rejoin the caste. They are known as Puzhi Tachan, or sand +carpenters, and Patinettanmar, or the eighteen people. There are +four families of this class now living at or near Parpangadi. They +are carpenters, but the Asaris treat them as outcastes. + +There is yet another variant of the story of the exodus, which is +obviously of recent manufacture, for a Pattar Brahman is brought in, +and gives cunning advice. We know that the Pattars are comparatively +new comers in Malabar. + +The Tiyans have recently been summed up as follows. [31] "The Tiyas +have always been characterised by their persevering and enterprising +habits. A large percentage of them are engaged in various agricultural +pursuits, and some of the most profitable industries of Malabar have +from time out of mind been in their hands. They are exclusively engaged +in making toddy and distilling arrack. Many of them are professional +weavers, the Malabar mundu being a common kind of cloth made by +them. The various industries connected with cocoanut cultivation are +also successfully carried on by the Tiyas. For example, the manufacture +of jaggery (crude sugar) is an industry in which a considerable +number of the Tiyas are profitably engaged. The preparation of coir +from cocoanut fibre is one of their hereditary occupations, and this +is done almost wholly by their women at home. They are very skilful +in the manufacture of coir matting and allied industries. Commercial +pursuits are also common among them. Apart from their agricultural and +industrial inclinations, the Tiyas give evidence of a literary taste, +which is commendable in a people who are living under conditions which +are anything but conducive to literary life. They have among them good +Sanskrit scholars, whose contributions have enriched the Malayalam +literature; physicians well versed in Hindu systems of medicine; +and well-known astrologers, who are also clever mathematicians. In +British Malabar, they have made considerable progress in education. In +recent years, there has been gaining ground among the Tiyas a movement, +which has for its object the social and material improvement of the +community. Their leaders have very rightly given a prominent place +to industry in their schemes of progress and reform. Organisations +for the purpose of educating the members of the community on the +importance of increased industrial efforts have been formed. The +success which has attended the Industrial Exhibition conducted by +the members of the community at Quilon, in 1905, has induced them to +make it a permanent annual event. Some of their young men have been +sent to Japan to study certain industries, and, on their return, +they hope to resuscitate the dying local industries, and to enter +into fresh fields of industry awaiting development. Factories for the +manufacture of coir matting and allied articles have been established +by the Tiyas in some parts of Travancore and Cochin." + +In 1906, the foundation stone of a Tiya temple at Tellicherry was +laid with great ceremony. In the following year, a very successful +Industrial Exhibition was held at Cannanore under the auspices of +the Sri Narayan Dharma Paripalana Yogam. Still more recently, it was +resolved to collect subscriptions for the establishment of a hostel +for the use of Tiya youths who come from other places to Tellicherry +for educational purposes. + +Tiyoro.--The Tiyoros are described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, +as "Oriya fishermen, who also make lotus-leaf platters. They have four +endogamous sections, viz., Torai, Ghodai, Artia, and Kulodondia." It +has been suggested that the caste name is a corruption of the Sanskrit +tivara, a hunter. (See Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Tiyar.) + +Toda.--Quite recently, my friend Dr. W. H. Rivers, as the result of +a prolonged stay on the Nilgiris, has published [32] an exhaustive +account of the sociology and religion of this exceptionally +interesting tribe, numbering, according to the latest census +returns, 807 individuals, which inhabits the Nilgiri plateau. I +shall, therefore, content myself with recording the rambling notes +made by myself during occasional visits to Ootacamund and Paikara, +supplemented by extracts from the book just referred to, and the +writings of Harkness and other pioneers of the Nilgiris. + +The Todas maintain a large-horned race of semi-domesticated buffaloes, +on whose milk and its products (butter and ney) [33] they still +depend largely, though to a less extent than in bygone days before +the establishment of the Ootacamund bazar, for existence. It has +been said that "a Toda's worldly wealth is judged by the number of +buffaloes he owns. Witness the story in connection with the recent +visit to India of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. A clergyman, +who has done mission work among the Todas, generally illustrates Bible +tales through the medium of a magic-lantern. One chilly afternoon, +the Todas declined to come out of their huts. Thinking they required +humouring like children, the reverend gentleman threw on the screen +a picture of the Prince of Wales, explaining the object of his tour, +and, thinking to impress the Todas, added 'The Prince is exceedingly +wealthy, and is bringing out a retinue of two hundred people.' 'Yes, +yes,' said an old man, wagging his head sagely, 'but how many buffaloes +is he bringing?'" + +The Todas lead for the most part a simple pastoral life. But I have +met with more than one man who had served, or who was still serving +Government in the modest capacity of a forest guard, and I have +heard of others who had been employed, not with conspicuous success, +on planters' estates. The Todas consider it beneath their dignity to +cultivate land. A former Collector of the Nilgiris granted them some +acres of land for the cultivation of potatoes, but they leased the +land to the Badagas, and the privilege was cancelled. In connection +with the Todas' objection to work, it is recorded that when, on one +occasion, a mistake about the ownership of some buffaloes committed +an old Toda to jail, it was found impossible to induce him to work +with the convicts, and the authorities, unwilling to resort to +hard remedies, were compelled to save appearances by making him an +overseer. The daily life of a Toda woman has been summed up as lounging +about the mad or mand (Toda settlement), buttering and curling her +hair, and cooking. The women have been described as free from the +ungracious and menial-like timidity of the generality of the sex in +the plains. When Europeans (who are greeted as swami or god) come to a +mand, the women crawl out of their huts, and chant a monotonous song, +all the time clamouring for tips (inam). Even the children are so +trained that they clamour for money till it is forthcoming. As a rule, +the Todas have no objection to Europeans entering into their huts, +but on more than one occasion I have been politely asked to take my +boots off before crawling in on the stomach, so as not to desecrate +the dwelling-place. Writing in 1868, Dr. J. Shortt makes a sweeping +statement that "most of the women have been debauched by Europeans, +who, it is sad to observe, have introduced diseases to which these +innocent tribes were once strangers, and which are slowly but no +less surely sapping their once hardy and vigorous constitutions. The +effects of intemperance and disease (syphilis) combined are becoming +more and more apparent in the shaken and decrepit appearance which +at the present day these tribes possess." Fact it undoubtedly is, +and proved both by hospital and naked-eye evidence, that syphilis has +been introduced among the Todas by contact with the outside world, +and they attribute the stunted growth of some members of the rising +generation, as compared with the splendid physique of the lusty +veterans, to the results thereof. It is an oft-repeated statement that +the women show an absence of any sense of decency in exposing their +naked persons in the presence of strangers. In connection with the +question of the morality of the Toda women, Dr. Rivers writes that +"the low sexual morality of the Todas is not limited in its scope +to the relations within the Toda community. Conflicting views are +held by those who know the Nilgiri hills as to the relations of the +Todas with the other inhabitants, and especially with the train of +natives which the European immigration to the hills has brought in +its wake. The general opinion on the hills is that, in this respect, +the morality of the Todas is as low as it well could be, but it is a +question whether this opinion is not too much based on the behaviour +of the inhabitants of one or two villages [e.g., the one commonly +known as School or Sylk's mand] near the European settlements, and +I think it is probable that the larger part of the Todas remain more +uncontaminated than is generally supposed." + +I came across one Toda who, with several other members of the tribe, +was selected on account of fine physique for exhibition at Barnum's +show in Europe, America and Australia some years ago, and still +retained a smattering of English, talking fondly of 'Shumbu' (the +elephant Jumbo). For some time after his return to his hill abode, +a tall white hat was the admiration of his fellow tribesmen. To this +man finger-prints came as no novelty, since his impressions were +recorded both in England and America. + +Writing in 1870, [34] Colonel W. Ross King stated that the Todas had +just so much knowledge of the speech of their vassals as is demanded +by the most ordinary requirements. At the present day, a few write, +and many converse fluently in Tamil. The Nilgiri C.M.S. Tamil mission +has extended its sphere of work to the Todas, and I cannot resist +the temptation to narrate a Toda version of the story of Dives and +Lazarus. The English say that once upon a time a rich man and a poor +man died. At the funeral of the rich man, there was a great tamasha +(spectacle), and many buffaloes were sacrificed. But, for the funeral +of the poor man, neither music nor buffaloes were provided. The English +believe that in the next world the poor man was as well off as the +rich man; so that, when any one dies, it is of no use spending money +on the funeral ceremonies. Two mission schools have been established, +one at Ootacamund, the other near Paikara. At the latter I have seen a +number of children of both sexes reading elementary Tamil and English, +and doing simple arithmetic. + +A few years ago a Toda boy was baptised at Tinnevelly, and remained +there for instruction. It was hoped that he would return to the hills +as an evangelist among his people. [35] In 1907, five young Toda women +were baptised at the C.M.S. Mission chapel, Ootacamund. "They were +clothed in white, with a white cloth over their heads, such as the +Native Christians wear. A number of Christian Badagas had assembled +to witness the ceremony, and join in the service." + +The typical Toda man is above medium height, well proportioned +and stalwart, with leptorhine nose, regular features, and perfect +teeth. The nose is, as noted by Dr. Rivers, sometimes distinctly +rounded in profile. An attempt has been made to connect the Todas +with the lost tribes; and, amid a crowd of them collected together +at a funeral, there is no difficulty in picking out individuals, +whose features would find for them a ready place as actors on the +Ober Ammergau stage, either in leading or subordinate parts. The +principal characteristic, which at once distinguishes the Toda from +the other tribes of the Nilgiris, is the development of the pilous +(hairy) system. The following is a typical case, extracted from my +notes. Beard luxuriant, hair of head parted in middle, and hanging in +curls over forehead and back of neck. Hair thickly developed on chest +and abdomen, with median strip of dense hairs on the latter. Hair +thick over upper and lower ends of shoulder-blades, thinner over +rest of back; well developed on extensor surface of upper arms, +and both surfaces of forearms; very thick on extensor surfaces of +the latter. Hair abundant on both surfaces of legs; thickest on +outer side of thighs and round knee-cap. Dense beard-like mass of +hair beneath gluteal region (buttocks). Superciliary brow ridges +very prominent. Eyebrows united across middle line by thick tuft +of hairs. A dense growth of long straight hairs directed outwards +on helix of both ears, bearing a striking resemblance to the hairy +development on the helix of the South Indian bonnet monkey (Macacus +sinicus). The profuse hairy development is by some Todas attributed +to their drinking "too much milk." + +Nearly all the men have one or more raised cicatrices, forming +nodulous growths (keloids) on the right shoulder.These scars are +produced by burning the skin with red-hot sticks of Litsæa Wightiana +(the sacred fire-stick). The Todas believe that the branding enables +them to milk the buffaloes with perfect ease, or as Dr. Rivers puts it, +that it cures the pain caused by the fatigue of milking. "The marks," +he says, "are made when a boy is about twelve years old, at which age +he begins to milk the buffaloes." About the fifth month of a woman's +first pregnancy, on the new-moon day, she goes through a ceremony, +in which she brands herself, or is branded by another woman, by +means of a rag rolled up, dipped in oil and lighted, with a dot on +the carpo-metacarpal joint of each thumb and on each wrist. + +The women are lighter in colour than the men, and the colour of the +body has been aptly described as of a café-au-lait tint. The skin +of the female children and young adults is often of a warm copper +hue. Some of the young women, with their raven-black hair dressed +in glossy ringlets, and bright glistening eyes, are distinctly +good-looking, but both good looks and complexion are short-lived, +and the women speedily degenerate into uncomely hags. As in Maori +land, so in Toda land, one finds a race of superb men coupled to +hideous women, and, with the exception of the young girls, the fair +sex is the male sex. Both men and women cover their bodies with +a white mantle with blue and red lines, called putkuli, which is +purchased in the Ootacamund bazar, and is sometimes decorated with +embroidery worked by the Toda women. The odour of the person of the +Todas, caused by the rancid butter which they apply to the mantle +as a preservative reagent, or with which they anoint their bodies, +is quite characteristic. With a view to testing his sense of smell, +long after our return from Paikara, I blindfolded a friend who had +accompanied me thither, and presented before his nose a cloth, which +he at once recognised as having something to do with the Todas. + +In former times, a Badaga could be at once picked out from the other +tribes of the Nilgiri plateau by his wearing a turban. At the present +day, some Toda elders and important members of the community (e.g., +monegars or headmen) have adopted this form of head-gear. The men who +were engaged as guides by Dr. Rivers and myself donned the turban in +honour of their appointment. + +Toda females are tattooed after they have reached puberty. I have +seen several multiparæ, in whom the absence of tattoo marks was +explained either on the ground that they were too poor to afford +the expense of the operation, or that they were always suckling or +pregnant--conditions, they said, in which the operation would not be +free from danger. The dots and circles, of which the simple devices +are made up, [36] are marked out with lamp-black made into a paste +with water, and the pattern is pricked in by a Toda woman with the +spines of Berberis aristata. The system of tattooing and decoration +of females with ornaments is summed up in the following cases:-- + +1. Aged 22. Has one child. Tattooed with three dots on back of left +hand. Wears silver necklet ornamented with Arcot two-anna pieces; +thread and silver armlets ornamented with cowry (Cypræa moneta) +shells on right upper arm; thread armlet ornamented with cowries on +left forearm; brass ring on left ring finger; silver rings on right +middle and ring fingers. Lobes of ears pierced. Ear-rings removed +owing to grandmother's death. + +2. Aged 28. Tattooed with a single dot on chin; rings and dots on +chest, outer side of upper arms, back of left hand, below calves, above +ankles, and across dorsum of feet. Wears thread armlet ornamented with +young cowries on right forearm; thread armlet and two heavy ornamental +brass armlets on left upper arm; ornamental brass bangle and glass +bead bracelet on left wrist; brass ring on left little finger; two +steel rings on left ring finger; bead necklet ornamented with cowries. + +3. Aged 35. Tattooed like the preceding, with the addition of an +elaborate device of rings and dots on the back. + +4. Aged 35. Linen bound round elbow joint, to prevent chafing of +heavy brass armlets. Cicatrices of sores in front of elbow joint, +produced by armlets. + +5. Aged 23. Has one child. Tattooed only below calves, and above +ankles. + +The following are the more important physical measurements of the +Toda men, whom I have examined:-- + + + Av. Max. Min. + cm. cm. cm. + + Stature 169.8 186.8 157.6 + Cephalic length 19.4 20.4 18.2 + Do. breadth 14.2 15.2 13.3 + Do. index 73.3 81.3 68.7 + Nasal height 4.7 4.9 4.6 + Do. breadth 3.6 3.8 3.4 + Do. index 74.9 79.9 70. + + +Allowing that the cephalic index is a good criterion of racial or +tribal purity, the following analysis of the Toda indices is very +striking:-- + + + 69 ** + 70 ******* + 71 *********** + 72 ******* + 73 ************** [37] + 74 ********************* + 75 ********* + 76 ****** + 77 * + 78 * + 79 * + 80 + 81 * + + +A thing of exceeding joy to the Todas was my Salter's hand-dynamometer, +the fame of which spread from mand to mand, and which was circulated +among the crowd at funerals. Great was the disgust of the assembled +males, on a certain day, when the record of hand-grip for the morning +(73 lbs.) was carried off by a big-boned female, who became the +unlovely heroine of the moment. The largest English feminine hand-grip, +recorded in my laboratory note-book, is only 66 lbs. One Toda man, +of fine physique, not satisfied with his grip of 98 lbs., went into +training, and fed himself up for a few days. Thus prepared, he returned +to accomplish 103 lbs., the result of more skilful manipulation of +the machine rather than of a liberal dietary of butter-milk. + +The routine Toda dietary is said to be made up of the following +articles, to which must be added strong drinks purchased at the +toddy shops:-- + +(a) Rice boiled in whey. + +(b) Rice and jaggery (crude sugar) boiled in water. + +(c) Broth or curry made of vegetables purchased in the bazar, wild +vegetables and pot-herbs, which, together with ground orchids, the +Todas may often be seen rooting up with a sharp-pointed digging-stick +on the hill-sides. The Todas scornfully deny the use of aphrodisiacs, +but both men and women admit that they take salep misri boiled in milk, +to make them strong. Salep misri is made from the tubers (testicles +de chiens) of various species of Eulophia and Habenaria belonging to +the natural order Orchideæ. + +The indigenous edible plants and pot-herbs include the following:-- + +(1) Cnicus Wallichii (thistle).--The roots and flower-stalks are +stripped of their bark, and made into soup or curry. + +(2) Girardinia heterophylla (Nilgiri nettle).--The tender leafy shoots +of vigorously growing plants are gathered, crushed by beating with a +stick to destroy the stinging hairs, and made into soup or curry. The +fibre of this plant, which is cultivated near the mands, is used for +stitching the putkuli, with steel needles purchased in the bazar in +lieu of the more primitive form. In the preparation of the fibre, +the bark is thrown into a pot of boiling water, to which ashes have +been added. After a few hours' boiling, the bark is taken out and +the fibre extracted. + +(3) Tender shoots of bamboos eaten in the form of curry. + +(4) Alternanthera sessilis. Pot-herbs. + Stellaria media. + Amarantus spinosus. + Amarantus polygonoides. + +The following list of plants, of which the fruits are eaten by the +Todas, has been brought together by Mr. K. Rangachari:-- + +Eugenia Arnottiana.--The dark purple juice of the fruit of this tree +is used by Toda women for painting beauty spots on their faces. + +Rubus ellipticus. Wild raspberry. +Rubus molucanus. +Rubus lasiocarpus. + +Fragaria nilgerrensis, wild strawberry. + +Elæagnus latifolia. Said by Dr. Mason to make excellent tarts and +jellies. + +Gaultheria fragrantissima. + +Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, hill gooseberry. + +Loranthus neelgherrensis. Parasitic on trees. +Loranthus loniceroides. + +Elæocarpus oblongus. + +Elæocarpus Munronii. + +Berberis aristata. Barberry. +Berberis nepalensis. + +Solanum nigrum. + +Vaccinium Leschenaultii. + +Vaccinium nilgherrense. + +Toddalia aculeata. + +Ceropegia pusilla. + + +To which may be added mushrooms. + +A list containing the botanical and Toda names of trees, shrubs, etc., +used by the Todas in their ordinary life, or in their ceremonial, +is given by Dr. Rivers. [38] + +Fire is, in these advanced days, obtained by the Todas in their +dwelling huts for domestic purposes from matches. The men who came +to be operated on with my measuring instruments had no hesitation in +asking for a match, and lighting the cheroots which were distributed +amongst them, before they left the Paikara bungalow dining-room. Within +the precincts of the dairy temple the use of matches is forbidden, and +fire is kindled with the aid of two dry sticks of Litsæa Wightiana. Of +these one, terminating in a blunt convex extremity, is about 2' 3'' +long; the other, with a hemispherical cavity scooped out close to +one end, about 2 1/2'' in length. A little nick or slot is cut on the +edge of the shorter stick, and connected with the hole in which the +spindle stick is made to revolve. "In this slot the dust collects, and, +remaining in an undisturbed heap, seemingly acts as a muffle to retain +the friction-heat until it reaches a sufficiently high temperature, +when the wood-powder becomes incandescent." [39] Into the cavity in the +short stick the end of the longer stick fits, so as to allow of easy +play. The smaller stick is placed on the ground, and held tight by +firm pressure of the great toe, applied to the end furthest from the +cavity, into which a little finely powdered charcoal is inserted. The +larger stick is then twisted vigorously, "like a chocolate muller" +(Tylor) between the palms of the hands by two men, turn and turn +about, until the charcoal begins to glow. Fire, thus made, is said +to be used at the sacred dairy (ti), the dairy houses of ordinary +mands, and at the cremation of males. In an account of a Toda green +funeral, [40] Mr. Walhouse notes that "when the pile was completed, +fire was obtained by rubbing two dry sticks together. This was done +mysteriously and apart, for such a mode of obtaining fire is looked +upon as something secret and sacred." At the funeral of a female, +I provided a box of tändstickors for lighting the pyre. A fire-stick, +which was in current use in a dairy, was polluted and rendered useless +by the touch of my Brahman assistant! It is recorded by Harkness +[41] that a Brahman was not only refused admission to a Toda dairy, +but actually driven away by some boys, who rushed out of it when +they heard him approach. It is noted by Dr. Rivers that "several +kinds of wood are used for the fire-sticks, the Toda names of these +being kiaz or keadj (Litsæa Wightiana), mors (Michelia Nilagirica), +parskuti (Elæagnus latifolia), and main (Cinnamomum Wightii)." He +states further that, "whenever fire is made for a sacred purpose, the +fire-sticks must be of the wood which the Todas call kiaz or keadj, +except in the tesherot ceremony (qualifying ceremony for the office +of palol) in which the wood of muli is used. At the niroditi ceremony +(ordination ceremony of a dairyman), "the assistant makes fire by +friction, and lights a fire of mulli wood, at which the candidate +warms himself." It is also recorded by Dr. Rivers that "in some Toda +villages, a stone is kept, called tutmûkal, which was used at one +time for making fire by striking it with a piece of iron." + +The abode of the Todas is called a mad or mand (village or hamlet), +which is composed of huts, dairy temple, and cattle-pen, and has been +so well described by Dr. Shortt, [42] that I cannot do better than +quote his account. "Each mand," he says, "usually comprises about +five buildings or huts, three of which are used as dwellings, one +as a dairy, and the other for sheltering the calves at night. These +huts form a peculiar kind of oval pent-shaped [half-barrel-shaped] +construction, usually 10 feet high, 18 feet long, and 9 feet +broad. The entrance or doorway measures 32 inches in height and 18 +inches in width, and is not provided with any door or gate; but +the entrance is closed by means of a solid slab or plank of wood +from 4 to 6 inches thick, and of sufficient dimensions to entirely +block up the entrance. This sliding door is inside the hut, and so +arranged and fixed on two stout stakes buried in the earth, and +standing to the height of 2 1/2 to 3 feet, as to be easily moved +to and fro. There are no other openings or outlets of any kind, +either for the escape of smoke, or for the free ingress and egress +of atmospheric air. The doorway itself is of such small dimensions +that, to effect an entrance, one has to go down on all fours, and even +then much wriggling is necessary before an entrance is effected. The +houses are neat in appearance, and are built of bamboos closely laid +together, fastened with rattan, and covered with thatch, which renders +them water-tight. Each building has an end walling before and behind, +composed of solid blocks of wood, and the sides are covered in by +the pent-roofing, which slopes down to the ground. The front wall or +planking contains the entrance or doorway. The inside of a hut is from +8 to 15 feet square, and is sufficiently high in the middle to admit +of a tall man moving about with comfort. On one side there is a raised +platform or pial formed of clay, about two feet high, and covered with +sambar (deer) or buffalo skins, or sometimes with a mat. This platform +is used as a sleeping place. On the opposite side is a fire place, +and a slight elevation, on which the cooking utensils are placed. In +this part of the building, faggots of firewood are seen piled up from +floor to roof, and secured in their place by loops of rattan. Here +also the rice-pounder or pestle is fixed. The mortar is formed by a +hole dug in the ground, 7 to 9 inches deep, and hardened by constant +use. The other household goods consist of three or four brass dishes or +plates, several bamboo measures, and sometimes a hatchet. Each hut or +dwelling is surrounded by an enclosure or wall formed of loose stones +piled up two or three feet high [with openings too narrow to permit +of a buffalo entering through it]. The dairy is sometimes a building +slightly larger than the others, and usually contains two compartments +separated by a centre planking. One part of the dairy is a store-house +for ghee, milk and curds, contained in separate vessels. The outer +apartment forms the dwelling place of the dairy priest. The doorways +of the dairy are smaller than those of the dwelling huts. The flooring +of the dairy is level, and at one end there is a fire-place. Two or +three milk pails or pots are all that it usually contains. The dairy +is usually situated at some little distance from the habitations. The +huts where the calves are kept are simple buildings, somewhat like +the dwelling huts. In the vicinity of the mands are the cattle-pens or +tuels[tu], which are circular enclosures surrounded by a loose stone +wall, with a single entrance guarded by powerful stakes. In these, +the herds of buffaloes are kept at night. Each mand possesses a herd +of these animals." It is noted by Dr. Rivers that "in the immediate +neighbourhood of a village there are usually well-worn paths, by which +the village is approached, and some of these paths or kalvol receive +special names. Some may not be traversed by women. Within the village +there are also certain recognised paths, of which two are specially +important. One, the punetkalvol, is the path by which the dairy man +goes from his dairy to milk or tend the buffaloes; the other is the +majvatitthkalvol, the path which the women must use when going to +the dairy to receive butter-milk (maj) from the dairy man. Women are +not allowed to go to the dairy or to other places connected with it, +except at appointed times, when they receive buttermilk." + +In addition to the dairies which in form resemble the dwelling-huts, +the Todas keep up as dairy-temples certain curious conical edifices, +of which there are said to be four on the Nilgiri plateau, viz., at the +Muttanad mand, near Kotagiri, near Sholur, and at Mudimand. The last +was out of repair a few years ago, but was, I was informed, going to be +rebuilt shortly. It is suggested by Dr. Rivers as probable that in many +cases a dairy, originally of the conical form, has been rebuilt in the +same form as the dwelling-hut, owing to the difficulty and extra labour +of reconstruction in the older shape. The edifice at the Muttanad mand +(or Nodrs), at the top of the Sigur ghat, is known to members of the +Ootacamund Hunt as the Toda cathedral. It has a circular stone base +and a tall conical thatched roof crowned with a large flat stone, and +is surrounded by a circular stone wall. To penetrate within the sacred +edifice was forbidden, but we were informed that it contained milking +vessels, dairy apparatus, and a swami in the guise of a copper bell +(mani). The dairyman is known as the varzhal or wursol. In front of +the cattle-pen of the neighbouring mand, I noticed a grass-covered +mound, which, I was told, is sacred. The mound contains nothing +buried within it, but the bodies of the dead are placed near it, and +earth from the mound is placed on the corpse before it is removed to +the burning-ground. At "dry funerals" the buffalo is said to be slain +near the mound. It has been suggested by Colonel Marshall [43] that the +"boa or boath [poh.] is not a true Toda building, but may be the bethel +of some tribe contemporaneous with, and cognate to the Todas, which, +taking refuge, like them, on these hills, died out in their presence." + +Despite the hypothesis of Dr. Rivers that the Todas are derived from +one or more of the races of Malabar, their origin is buried among the +secrets of the past. So too is the history of the ancient builders +of cairns and barrows on the Nilgiri plateau, which were explored +by Mr. Breeks when Commissioner of the Nilgiris. [44] The bulk of +the Breeks' collection is now preserved in the Madras Museum, and +includes a large series of articles in pottery, quite unlike anything +known from other parts of Southern India. Concerning this series, +Mr. R. Bruce Foote writes as follows. [45] "The most striking objects +are tall jars, many-storied cylinders, of varying diameter with round +or conical bases, fashioned to rest upon pottery ring-stands, or to be +stuck into soft soil, like the amphoræ of classical times. These jars +were surmounted by domed lids. On these lids stood or sat figures +of the most varied kind of men, or animals, much more rarely of +inanimate objects, but all modelled in the rudest and most grotesque +style. Grotesque and downright ugly as are these figures, yet those +representing men and women are extremely interesting from the light +they throw upon the stage of civilization their makers had attained +to, for they illustrate the fashion of the garments as also of the +ornaments they wore, and of the arms or implements carried by them. The +animals they had domesticated, those they chased, and others that +they probably worshipped, are all indicated. Many figures of their +domestic animals, especially their buffaloes and sheep, are decorated +with garlands and bells, and show much ornamentation, which seems to +indicate that they were painted over, a custom which yet prevails in +many parts." Among the most interesting figures are those of heavily +bearded men riding on horses, and big-horned buffaloes which might +have been modelled from the Toda buffaloes of to-day, and, like these, +at funerals and migration ceremonies, bear a bell round the neck. + +Two forms of Toda dairy have so far been noticed. But there remains +a third kind, called the ti mand, concerning which Dr. Rivers writes +as follows. "The ti is the name of an institution, which comprises +a herd of buffaloes, with a number of dairies and grazing districts, +tended by a dairy-man priest called palol, with an assistant called +kaltmokh. Each dairy, with its accompanying buildings and pasturage, +is called a ti mad, or ti village. The buffaloes belonging to a ti +are of two kinds, distinguished as persiner and punir. The former are +the sacred buffaloes, and the elaborate ceremonial of the ti dairy +is concerned with their milk. The punir correspond in some respects +to the putiir of the ordinary village dairy, and their milk and its +products are largely for the personal use and profit of the palol, and +are not treated with any special ceremony. During the whole time he +holds office, the palol may not visit his home or any other ordinary +village, though he may visit another ti village. Any business with +the outside world is done either through the kaltmokh, or with people +who come to visit him at the ti. If the palol has to cross a river, +he may not pass by a bridge, but must use a ford, and it appears that +he may only use certain fords. The palol must be celibate, and, if +married, he must leave his wife, who is in most cases also the wife +of his brother or brothers." I visited the ti mand near Paikara by +appointment, and, on arrival near the mand, found the two palols, +well-built men aged about thirty and fifty, clad in black cloths, +and two kaltmokhs, youths aged about eight and ten, naked save for a +loin-cloth, seated on the ground, awaiting our arrival. As a mark of +respect to the palols, the three Todas who accompanied me arranged +their putkulis so that the right arm was laid bare, and one of +them, who was wearing a turban, removed it. A long palaver ensued in +consequence of the palols demanding ten rupees to cover the expenses of +the purificatory ceremonies, which, they maintained, would be necessary +if I desecrated the mand by photographing it. Eventually, however, +under promise of a far smaller sum, the dwelling-hut was photographed, +with palols, kaltmokhs, and a domestic cat seated in front of it. + +In connection with the palol being forbidden to cross a river by a +bridge, it may be noted that the river which flows past the Paikara +bungalow is regarded as sacred by the Todas, and, for fear of mishap +from arousing the wrath of the river god, a pregnant Toda woman +will not venture to cross it. The Todas will not use the river water +for any purpose, and they do not touch it unless they have to ford +it. They then walk through it, and, on reaching the opposite bank, +bow their heads. Even when they walk over the Paikara bridge, they +take their hand out of the putkuli as a mark of respect. Concerning +the origin of the Paikara river, a grotesque legend was narrated to +us. Many years ago, the story goes, two Todas, uncle and nephew, went +out to gather honey. After walking for a few miles they separated, +and proceeded in different directions. The uncle was unsuccessful in +the search, but the more fortunate nephew secured two kandis (bamboo +measures) of honey. This, with a view to keeping it all for himself, +he secreted in a crevice among the rocks, with the exception of a +very small quantity, which he made his uncle believe was the entire +product of his search. On the following day, the nephew went alone to +the spot where the honey was hidden, and found, to his disappointment, +that the honey was leaking through the bottom of the bamboo measures, +which were transformed into two snakes. Terrified at the sight thereof, +he ran away, but the snakes pursued him (may be they were hamadryads, +which have the reputation of pursuing human beings). After running +a few minutes, he espied a hare (Lepus nigricollis) running across +his course, and, by a skilful manoeuvre, threw his body-cloth over +it. Mistaking it for a man, the snakes followed in pursuit of the hare, +which, being very fleet of foot, managed to reach the sun, which +became obscured by the hoods of the reptiles. This fully accounts +for the solar eclipse. The honey, which leaked out of the vessels, +became converted into the Paikara river. + +In connection with the migrations of the herds of buffaloes, Dr. Rivers +writes as follows. "At certain seasons of the year, it is customary +that the buffaloes both of the village and the ti should migrate from +one place to another. Sometimes the village buffaloes are accompanied +by all the inhabitants of the village; sometimes the buffaloes are only +accompanied by their dairy-man and one or more male assistants. There +are two chief reasons for these movements of the buffaloes, of which +the most urgent is the necessity for new grazing-places.... The other +chief reason for the migrations is that certain villages and dairies, +formerly important and still sacred, are visited for ceremonial +purposes, or out of respect to ancient custom." For the following +note on a buffalo migration which he came across, I am indebted to +Mr. H. C. Wilson. "During the annual migration of buffaloes to the +Kundahs, and when they were approaching the bridle-path leading from +Avalanche to Sispara, I witnessed an interesting custom. The Toda +family had come to a halt on the far side of the path; the females +seated themselves on the grass, and awaited the passing of the sacred +herd. This herd, which had travelled by a recognised route across +country, has to cross the bridle-path some two or three hundred yards +above the Avalanche-Sispara sign-post. Both the ordinary and sacred +herd were on the move together. The former passed up the Sispara path, +while the latter crossed in a line, and proceeded slightly down the +hill, eventually crossing the stream and up through the sholas over +the steep hills on the opposite side of the valley. As soon as the +sacred herd had crossed the bridle-path, the Toda men, having put +down all their household utensils, went to where the women and girls +were sitting, and carried them, one by one, over the place where the +buffaloes had passed, depositing them on the path above. One of the +men told me that the females are not allowed to walk over the track +covered by the sacred herd, and have to be carried whenever it is +necessary to cross it. This herd has a recognised tract when migrating, +and is led by the old buffaloes, who appear to know the exact way." + +The tenure under which lands are held by the Todas is summed up as +follows by Mr. R. S. Benson in his report on the revenue settlement of +the Nilgiris, 1885. "The earliest settlers, and notably Mr. Sullivan, +strongly advocated the claim of the Todas to the absolute proprietary +right to the plateau [as lords of the soil]; but another school, led +by Mr. Lushington, has strongly combated these views, and apparently +regarded the Todas as merely occupiers under the ryotwari system in +force generally in the Presidency. From the earliest times the Todas +have received from the cultivating Badagas an offering or tribute, +called gudu or basket of grain, partly in compensation for the land +taken up by the latter for cultivation, and so rendered unfit for +grazing purposes, but chiefly as an offering to secure the favour, +or avert the displeasure of the Todas, who, like the Kurumbas (q.v.), +are believed by the Badagas to have necromantic powers over their +health and that of their herds. The European settlers also bought land +in Ootacamund from them, and to this day the Government pays them the +sum of Rs. 150 per mensem, as compensation for interference with the +enjoyment of their pastoral rights in and about Ootacamund. Their +position was, however, always a matter of dispute, until it was +finally laid down in the despatch of the Court of Directors, dated 21st +January, 1843. It was then decided that the Todas possessed nothing +more than a prescriptive right to enjoy the privilege of pasturing +their herds, on payment of a small tax, on the State lands. The Court +desired that they should be secured from interference by settlers +in the enjoyment of their mands, and of their spots appropriated to +religious rites. Accordingly pattas were issued, granting to each +mand three bullahs (11.46 acres) of land. In 1863 Mr. Grant obtained +permission to make a fresh allotment of nine bullahs (34.38 acres) +to each mand on the express condition that the land should be used for +pasturage only, and that no right to sell the land or the wood on it +should be thereby conveyed. It may be added that the so-called Toda +lands are now regarded as the inalienable common property of the Toda +community, and unauthorised alienation is checked by the imposition of +a penal rate of assessment (G.O., 18th April 1882). Up to the date of +this order, however, alienations by sale or lease were of frequent +occurrence. It remains to be seen whether the present orders and +subordinate staff will be more adequate than those that went before +to check the practices referred to." With the view of protecting +the Toda lands, Government took up the management of these lands in +1893, and framed rules, under the Forest Act, for their management, +the rights of the Todas over them being in no way affected by the +rules of which the following is an abstract:-- + +1. No person shall fell, girdle, mark, lop, uproot, or burn, or strip +off the bark or leaves from, or otherwise damage any tree growing on +the said lands, or remove the timber, or collect the natural produce of +such trees or lands, or quarry or collect stone, lime, gravel, earth +or manure upon such lands, or break up such lands for cultivation, +or erect buildings of any description, or cattle kraals; and no person +or persons, other than the Todas named in the patta concerned, shall +graze cattle, sheep, or goats upon such lands, unless he is authorised +so to do by the Collector of Nilgiris, or some person empowered by him. + +2. The Collector may select any of the said lands to be placed under +special fire protection. + +3. No person shall hunt, beat for game, or shoot in such lands without +a license from the Collector. + +4. No person shall at any time set nets, traps, or snares for game +on such lands. + +5. All Todas in the Nilgiri district shall, in respect of their +own patta lands, be exempt from the operation of the above rules, +and shall be at liberty to graze their own buffaloes, to remove fuel +and grass for their domestic requirements, and to collect honey or +wax upon such lands. They shall likewise be entitled to, and shall +receive free permits for building or repairing their mands and temples. + +6. The Collector shall have power to issue annual permits for the +cultivation of grass land only in Toda pattas by Todas themselves, +free of charge, or otherwise as Government may, from time to time, +direct; but no Toda shall be at liberty to permit any person, except +a Toda, to cultivate, or assist in the cultivation of such lands. + +In 1905, the Todas petitioned Government against the prohibition by the +local Forest authorities of the burning of grass on the downs, issued +on the ground of danger to the sholas (wooded ravines or groves). This +yearly burning of the grass was claimed by the Todas to improve it, and +they maintained that their cattle were deteriorating for want of good +fodder. Government ruled that the grass on the plateau has been burnt +by the inhabitants at pleasure for many years without any appreciable +damage to forest growth, and the practice should not be disturbed. + +Concerning the social organisation of the Todas, Mr. Breeks states +that they are "divided into two classes, which cannot intermarry, +viz., Dêvalyâl and Tarserzhâl. The first class consists of Peiki +class, corresponding in some respects to Brahmans; the second of the +four remaining classes the Pekkan, Kuttan, Kenna, and Todi. A Peiki +woman may not go to the village of the Tarserzhâl, although the women +of the latter may visit Peikis." The class names given by Mr. Breeks +were readily recognised by the Todas whom I interviewed, but they gave +Terthal (comprising superior Peikis) and Tarthal as the names of the +divisions. They told me that, when a Terthal woman visits her friends +at a Tarthal mand, she is not allowed to enter the mand, but must stop +at a distance from it. Todas as a rule cook their rice in butter-milk, +but, when a Terthal woman pays a visit to Tarthal mand, rice is cooked +for her in water. When a Tarthal woman visits at a Terthal mand, she +is permitted to enter into the mand, and food is cooked for her in +buttermilk. The restrictions which are imposed on Terthal women are +said to be due to the fact that on one occasion a Terthal woman, on +a visit at a Tarthal mand, folded up a cloth, and placed it under her +putkuli as if it was a baby. When food was served, she asked for some +for the child, and on receiving it, exhibited the cloth. The Tarthals, +not appreciating the mild joke, accordingly agreed to degrade all +Terthal women. According to Dr. Rivers, "the fundamental feature of +the social organisation is the division of the community into two +perfectly distinct groups, the Tartharol and the Teivaliol [=Dêvalyâl +of Breeks]. There is a certain amount of specialisation of function, +certain grades of the priesthood being filled only by members of the +Teivaliol. The Tartharol and Teivaliol are two endogamous divisions of +the Toda people. Each of these primary divisions is sub-divided into a +number of secondary divisions [clans]. These are exogamous. Each class +possesses a group of villages, and takes its name from the chief of +these villages, Etudmad. The Tartharol are divided into twelve clans, +the Teivaliol into six clans or madol." + +When a girl has reached the age of puberty, she goes through an +initiatory ceremony, in which a Toda man of strong physique takes +part. One of these splendid specimens of human muscularity was +introduced to me on the occasion of a phonograph recital at the +Paikara bungalow. + +Concerning the system of polyandry as carried out by the Todas, +Dr. Rivers writes as follows. "The Todas have long been noted as +a polyandrous people, and the institution of polyandry is still in +full working order among them. When the girl becomes the wife of a +boy, it is usually understood that she becomes also the wife of his +brothers. In nearly every case at the present time, and in recent +generations, the husbands of a woman are own brothers. In a few cases, +though not brothers, they are of the same clan. Very rarely do they +belong to different clans. One of the most interesting features of +Toda polyandry is the method by which it is arranged who shall be +regarded as the father of a child. For all social and legal purposes, +the father of a child is the man who performs a certain ceremony +about the seventh month of pregnancy, in which an imitation bow and +arrow are given to the woman. When the husbands are own brothers, +the eldest brother usually gives the bow and arrow, and is the +father of the child, though, so long as the brothers live together, +the other brothers are also regarded as fathers. It is in the cases +in which the husbands are not own brothers that the ceremony becomes +of real social importance. In these cases, it is arranged that one +of the husbands shall give the bow and arrow, and this man is the +father, not only of the child born shortly afterwards, but also of +all succeeding children, till another husband performs the essential +ceremony. Fatherhood is determined so essentially by this ceremony +that a man who has been dead for several years is regarded as the +father of any children born by his widow, if no other man has given +the bow and arrow. There is no doubt that, in former times, the +polyandry of the Todas was associated with female infanticide, and +it is probable that the latter custom still exists to some extent, +though strenuously denied. There is reason to believe that women are +now more plentiful than formerly, though they are still in a distinct +minority. Any increase, however, in the number of women does not +appear to have led to any great diminution of polyandrous marriages, +but polyandry is often combined with polygyny. Two or more brothers +may have two or more wives in common. In such marriages, however, +it seems to be a growing custom that one brother should give the bow +and arrow to one wife, and another brother to another wife." + +The pregnancy ceremony referred to above is called pursutpimi, or bow +(and arrow) we touch. According to the account given to me by several +independent witnesses, the woman proceeds, accompanied by members +of the tribe, on a new moon-day in the fifth or seventh month of her +pregnancy, to a shola, where she sits with the man who is to become +the father of her child near a kiaz tree (Eugenia Arnottiana). The +man asks the father of the woman if he may bring the bow, and, on +obtaining his consent, goes in search of a shrub (Sophora glauca), +from a twig of which he makes a mimic bow. The arrow is represented +by a blade of grass called nark (Andropogon Schoenanthus). Meanwhile +a triangular niche has been cut in the kiaz tree, in which a lighted +lamp is placed. The woman seats herself in front of the lamp, and, +on the return of the man, asks thrice "Whose bow is it?" or "What +is it?" meaning to whom, or to which mand does the child belong? The +bow and arrow are handed to the woman, who raises them to her head, +touches her forehead with them, and places them near the tree. From +this moment the lawful father of the child is the man from whom she +has received the bow and arrow. He places on the ground at the foot of +the tree some rice, various kinds of grain, chillies, jaggery (crude +sugar), and salt tied in a cloth. All those present then leave, except +the man and woman, who remain near the tree till about six o'clock in +the evening, when they return to the mand. The time is determined, in +the vicinity of Ootacamund, by the opening of the flowers of Onothera +tetraptera (evening primrose), a garden escape called by the Todas +aru mani puv (six o'clock flower), which opens towards evening. [46] +It may be noted that, at the second funeral of a male, a miniature +bow and three arrows are burnt with various other articles within +the stone circle (azaram). + +A few years ago (1902), the Todas, in a petition to Government, +prayed for special legislation to legalise their marriages on the +lines of the Malabar Marriage Act. The Government was of opinion that +legislation was unnecessary, and that it was open to such of the Todas +as were willing to sign the declaration prescribed by section 10 of +the Marriage Act III of 1872 to contract legal marriages under the +provision of that Act. The Treasury Deputy Collector of the Nilgiris +was appointed Registrar of Toda marriages. No marriage has been +registered up to the present time. + +The practice of infanticide among the Todas is best summed up in the +words of an aged Toda during an interview with Colonel Marshall. [47] +"I was a little boy when Mr. Sullivan (the first English pioneer of the +Nilgiris) visited these mountains. In those days it was the custom to +kill children, but the practice has long died out, and now one never +hears of it. I don't know whether it was wrong or not to kill them, +but we were very poor, and could not support our children. Now every +one has a mantle (putkuli), but formerly there was only one for the +whole family. We did not kill them to please any god, but because it +was our custom. The mother never nursed the child, and the parents +did not kill it. Do you think we could kill it ourselves? Those tell +lies who say we laid it down before the opening of the buffalo-pen, +so that it might be run over and killed by the animals. We never did +such things, and it is all nonsense that we drowned it in buffalo's +milk. Boys were never killed--only girls; not those who were sickly +and deformed--that would be a sin; but, when we had one girl, or in +some families two girls, those that followed were killed. An old woman +(kelachi) used to take the child immediately it was born, and close +its nostrils, ears, and mouth with a cloth thus--here pantomimic +action. It would shortly droop its head, and go to sleep. We then +buried it in the ground. The kelachi got a present of four annas +for the deed." The old man's remark about the cattle-pen refers to +the Malagasy custom of placing a new-born child at the entrance to a +cattle-pen, and then driving the cattle over it, to see whether they +would trample on it or not. [48] The Missionary Metz [49] bears out +the statement that the Toda babies were killed by suffocation. + +At the census, 1901, 453 male and 354 female Todas were returned. In a +note on the proportion of the sexes among the Todas, Mr. R. C. Punnett +states [50] that "all who have studied the Todas are agreed upon the +frequency of the practice (of infanticide) in earlier times. Marshall, +writing in 1872, refers to the large amount of female infanticide in +former years, but expresses his conviction that the practice had by +that time died out. Marshall's evidence is that of native assurance +only. Dr. Rivers, who received the same assurance, is disinclined to +place much confidence in native veracity with reference to this point, +and, in view of the lack of encouragement which the practice receives +from the Indian Government, this is not altogether surprising. The +supposition of female infanticide, by accounting for the great +disproportion in the numbers of the sexes, brings the Todas into +harmony with what is known of the rest of mankind." In summarising +his conclusions, Mr. Punnett notes that:-- + +(1) Among the Todas, males predominate greatly over females. + +(2) This preponderance is doubtless due to the practice of female +infanticide, which is probably still to some extent prevalent. + +(3) The numerical preponderance of the males has been steadily +sinking during recent years, owing probably to the check which foreign +intercourse has imposed upon female infanticide. + +In connection with the death ceremonies of the Todas, Dr. Rivers +notes that "soon after death the body is burnt, and the general +name for the ceremony on this occasion is etvainolkedr, the first +day funeral. After an interval, which may vary greatly in length, +a second ceremony is performed, connected with certain relics of the +deceased which have been preserved from the first occasion. The Toda +name for this second funeral ceremony is marvainolkedr, the second day +funeral, or 'again which day funeral.' The funeral ceremonies are open +to all, and visitors are often invited by the Todas. In consequence, +the funeral rites are better known, and have been more frequently +described than any other features of Toda ceremonial. Like nearly +every institution of the Todas, however, they have become known +to Europeans under their Badaga names. The first funeral is called +by the Badagas hase kedu, the fresh or green funeral, and the term +'green funeral' has not only become the generally recognised name +among the European inhabitants of the Nilgiri hills, but has been +widely adopted in anthropological literature. The second funeral is +called by the Badagas bara kedu, the 'dry funeral,' and this term +also has been generally adopted." The various forms of the funeral +ceremonies are discussed in detail by Dr. Rivers, and it must suffice +to describe those at which we have been present as eye-witnesses. + +I had the opportunity of witnessing the second funeral of a woman +who had died from smallpox two months previously. On arrival at a +mand on the open downs about five miles from Ootacamund, we were +conducted by a Toda guide to the margin of a dense shola, where +we found two groups seated apart, consisting of (a) women, girls, +and brown-haired female babies, round a camp fire; (b) men, boys, +and male babies, carried, with marked signs of paternal affection, +by their fathers. In a few minutes a murmuring sound commenced +in the centre of the female group. Working themselves up to the +necessary pitch, some of the women (near relatives of the deceased) +commenced to cry freely, and the wailing and lachrymation gradually +spread round the circle, until all, except little girls and babies +who were too young to be affected, were weeping and mourning, some +for fashion, others from genuine grief. In carrying out the orthodox +form of mourning, the women first had a good cry to themselves, and +then, as their emotions became more intense, went round the circle, +selecting partners with whom to share companionship in grief. Gradually +the group resolved itself into couplets of mourners, each pair with +their heads in contact, and giving expression to their emotions +in unison. Before separating to select a new partner, each couple +saluted by bowing the head, and raising thereto the feet of the other, +covered by the putkuli. [I have seen women rapidly recover from the +outward manifestations of grief, and clamour for money.] From time +to time the company of mourners was reinforced by late arrivals from +distant mands, and, as each detachment, now of men and now of women, +came in view across the open downs, one could not fail to be reminded +of the gathering of the clans on some Highland moor. The resemblance +was heightened by the distant sound as of pipers, produced by the +Kota band (with two police constables in attendance), composed of +four Kotas, who made a weird noise with drums and flutes as they drew +near the scene of action. The band, on arrival, took up a position +close to the mourning women. As each detachment arrived, the women, +recognising their relatives, came forward and saluted them in the +manner customary among Todas by falling at their feet, and placing +first the right and then the left foot on their head. Shortly after the +arrival of the band, signals were exchanged, by waving of putkulis, +between the assembled throng and a small detachment of men some +distance off. A general move was made, and an impromptu procession +formed, with men in front, band in the middle, and women bringing +up the rear. A halt was made opposite a narrow gap leading into the +shola; men and women sat apart as before; and the band walked round, +discoursing unsweet music. A party of girls went off to bring fire from +the spot just vacated for use in the coming ceremonial, but recourse +was finally had to a box of matches lent by one of our party. At this +stage we noticed a woman go up to the eldest son of the deceased, +who was seated apart from the other men, and would not be comforted +in spite of her efforts to console him. On receipt of a summons from +within the shola, the assembled Toda men and ourselves swarmed into +it by a narrow track leading to a small clear space round a big tree, +from a hole cut at the base of which an elderly Toda produced a piece +of the skull of the dead woman, wrapped round with long tresses of her +hair. It now became the men's turn to exhibit active signs of grief, +and all of one accord commenced to weep and mourn. Amid the scene +of lamentation, the hair was slowly unwrapt from off the skull, and +burned in an iron ladle, from which a smell as of incense arose. A +bamboo pot of ghi was produced, with which the skull was reverently +anointed, and placed in a cloth spread on the ground. To this relic +of the deceased the throng of men, amid a scene of wild excitement, +made obeisance by kneeling down before it, and touching it with their +foreheads. The females were not permitted to witness this stage of the +proceedings, with the exception of one or two near relatives of the +departed one, who supported themselves sobbing against the tree. The +ceremonial concluded, the fragment of skull, wrapt in the cloth, was +carried into the open, where, as men and boys had previously done, +women and girls made obeisance to it. A procession was then again +formed, and marched on until a place was reached, where were two +stone-walled kraals, large and small. Around the former the men, +and within the latter the women, took up their position, the men +engaging in chit-chat, and the women in mourning, which after a +time ceased, and they too engaged in conversation. A party of men, +carrying the skull, still in the cloth, set out for a neighbouring +shola, where a kedu of several other dead Todas was being celebrated; +and a long pause ensued, broken eventually by the arrival of the +other funeral party, the men advancing in several lines, with arms +linked, and crying out U, hah! U, hah, hah! in regular time. This +party brought with it pieces of the skulls of a woman and two men, +which were placed, wrapt in cloths, on the ground, saluted, and mourned +over by the assembled multitude. At this stage a small party of Kotas +arrived, and took up their position on a neighbouring hill, waiting, +vulture-like, for the carcase of the buffalo which was shortly to be +slain. Several young men now went off across the hill in search of +buffaloes, and speedily re-appeared, driving five buffaloes before +them with sticks. As soon as the beasts approached a swampy marsh +at the foot of the hill on which the expectant crowd of men was +gathered together, two young men of athletic build, throwing off +their putkulis, made a rush down the hill, and tried to seize one +of the buffaloes by the horns, with the result that one of them +was promptly thrown. The buffalo escaping, one of the remaining +four was quickly caught by the horns, and, with arms interlocked, +the men brought it down on its knees, amid a general scuffle. In +spite of marked objection and strenuous resistance on the part of +the animal--a barren cow--it was, by means of sticks freely applied, +slowly dragged up the hill, preceded by the Kota band, and with a +Toda youth pulling at its tail. Arrived at the open space between +the kraals, the buffalo, by this time thoroughly exasperated, and +with blood pouring from its nostrils, had a cloth put on its back, +and was despatched by a blow on the poll with an axe deftly wielded +by a young and muscular man. On this occasion no one was badly hurt +by the sacrificial cow, though one man was seen washing his legs in +the swamp after the preliminary struggle with the beast. But Colonel +Ross-King narrates how he saw a man receive a dangerous wound in the +neck from a thrust of the horn, which ripped open a wide gash from +the collar-bone to the ear. With the death of the buffalo, the last +scene, which terminated the strange rites, commenced; men, women, and +children pressing forward and jostling one another in their eagerness +to salute the dead beast by placing their hands between its horns, +and weeping and mourning in pairs; the facial expression of grief +being mimicked when tears refused to flow spontaneously. + +The ceremonial connected with the final burning of the relics and +burial of the ashes at the stone circle (azaram) are described in +detail by Dr. Rivers. + +A few days after the ceremony just described, I was invited to be +present at the funeral of a young girl who had died of smallpox five +days previously. I proceeded accordingly to the scene of the recent +ceremony, and there, in company with a small gathering of Todas from +the neighbouring mands, awaited the arrival of the funeral cortége, +the approach of which was announced by the advancing strains of +Kota music. Slowly the procession came over the brow of the hill; +the corpse, covered by a cloth, on a rude ladder-like bier, borne +on the shoulders of four men, followed by two Kota musicians; the +mother carried hidden within a sack; relatives and men carrying bags +of rice and jaggery, and bundles of wood of the kiaz tree (Eugenia +Arnottiana) for the funeral pyre. Arrived opposite a small hut, +which had been specially built for the ceremonial, the corpse was +removed from the bier, laid on the ground, face upwards, outside +the hut, and saluted by men, women, and children, with the same +manifestations of grief as on the previous occasion. Soon the men +moved away to a short distance, and engaged in quiet conversation, +leaving the females to continue mourning round the corpse, interrupted +from time to time by the arrival of detachments from distant mands, +whose first duty was to salute the dead body. Meanwhile a near +female relative of the dead child was busily engaged inside the hut, +collecting together in a basket small measures of rice, jaggery, sago, +honey-comb, and the girl's simple toys, which were subsequently to be +burned with the corpse. The mourning ceasing after a time, the corpse +was placed inside the hut, and followed by the near relatives, who +there continued to weep over it. A detachment of men and boys, who +had set out in search of the buffaloes which were to be sacrificed, +now returned driving before them three cows, which escaped from their +pursuers to rejoin the main herd. A long pause ensued, and, after a +very prolonged drive, three more cows were guided into a marshy swamp, +where one of them was caught by the horns, and dragged reluctantly, +but with little show of fight, to the strains of Kota drum and flute, +in front of the hut, where it was promptly despatched by a blow on +the poll. The corpse was now brought from within the hut, and placed, +face upwards, with its feet resting on the forehead of the buffalo, +whose neck was decorated with a silver chain, such as is worn by Todas +round the loins, as no bell was available, and the horns were smeared +with butter. Then followed frantic manifestations of grief, amid +which the unhappy mother fainted. Mourning over, the corpse was made +to go through a form of ceremony, resembling that which is performed +during pregnancy with the first child. A small boy, three years old, +was selected from among the relatives of the dead girl, and taken +by his father in search of a certain grass (Andropogon Schoenanthus) +and a twig of a shrub (Sophora glauca), which were brought to the spot +where the corpse was lying. The mother of the dead child then withdrew +one of its hands from the putkuli, and the boy placed the grass and +twig in the hand, and limes, plantains, rice, jaggery, honey-comb, +and butter in the pocket of the putkuli, which was then stitched with +needle and thread in a circular pattern. The boy's father then took +off his son's putkuli, and replaced it so as to cover him from head +to foot. Thus covered, the boy remained outside the hut till the +morning of the morrow, watched through the night by near relatives +of himself and his dead bride. [On the occasion of the funeral of an +unmarried lad, a girl is in like manner selected, covered with her +putkuli from head to foot, and a metal vessel filled with jaggery, +rice, etc., to be subsequently burnt on the funeral pyre, placed for +a short time within the folds of the putkuli. Thus covered, the girl +remains till next morning, watched through the dreary hours of the +night by relatives. The same ceremony is performed over the corpse +of a married woman who has not borne children, the husband acting as +such for the last time, in the vain hope that the woman may produce +issue in heaven.] The corpse was borne away to the burning-ground +within the shola, and, after removal of some of the hair by the +mother of the newly wedded boy, burned, with face upwards, amid the +music of the Kota band, the groans of the assembled crowd squatting +on the ground, and the genuine grief of the nearest relatives. The +burning concluded, a portion of the skull was removed from the ashes, +and handed over to the recently made mother-in-law of the dead girl, +and wrapped up with the hair in the bark of the tud tree (Meliosma +pungens). A second buffalo, which, properly speaking, should have +been slain before the corpse was burnt, was then sacrificed, and +rice and jaggery were distributed among the crowd, which dispersed, +leaving behind the youthful widower and his custodians, who, after +daybreak, partook of a meal of rice, and returned to their mands; +the boy's mother taking with her the skull and hair to her mand, +where it would remain until the celebration of the second funeral. No +attention is paid to the ashes after cremation, and they are left to +be scattered by the winds. + +A further opportunity offered itself to be present at the funeral of +an elderly woman on the open downs not far from Paikara, in connection +with which certain details possess some interest. The corpse was, at +the time of our arrival, laid out on a rude bier within an improvised +arbour covered with leaves and open at each end, and tended by some +of the female relatives. At some little distance, a conclave of Toda +men, who rose of one accord to greet us, was squatting in a circle, +among whom were many venerable white-turbaned elders of the tribe, +protected from the scorching sun by palm-leaf umbrellas. Amid much +joking, and speech-making by the veterans, it was decided that, +as the eldest son of the deceased woman was dead, leaving a widow, +this daughter-in-law should be united to the second son, and that +they should live together as man and wife. On the announcement of the +decision, the bridegroom-elect saluted the principal Todas present +by placing his head on their feet, which were sometimes concealed +within the ample folds of the putkuli. At the funeral of a married +woman, three ceremonies must, I was told, be performed, if possible, +by a daughter or daughter-in-law, viz.:-- + +(1) Tying a leafy branch of the tiviri shrub (Atylosia Candolleana) +in the putkuli of the corpse; + +(2) Tying balls of thread and cowry shells on the arm of the corpse, +just above the elbow; + +(3) Setting fire to the funeral pyre, which was, on the present +occasion, done by lighting a rag fed with ghi with a match. + +The buffalo capture took place amid the usual excitement, and with +freedom from accident; and, later in the day, the stalwart buffalo +catchers turned up at the travellers' bungalow for a pourboire in +return, as they said, for treating us to a good fight. The beasts +selected for sacrifice were a full-grown cow and a young calf. As +they were dragged near to the corpse, now removed from the arbour, +butter was smeared over the horns, and a bell tied round the neck. The +bell was subsequently removed by Kotas, in whose custody, it was said, +it was to remain till the next day funeral. The death-blow, or rather +series of blows, having been delivered with the butt end of an axe, +the feet of the corpse were placed at the mouth of the buffalo. In the +case of a male corpse, the right hand is made to clasp the horns. [It +is recorded by Dr. Rivers that, at the funeral of a male, men dance +after the buffalo is killed. In the dancing a tall pole, called +tadri or tadrsi, decorated with cowry shells, is used.] The customary +mourning in couples concluded, the corpse, clad in four cloths, was +carried on the stretcher to a clear space in the neighbouring shola, +and placed by the side of the funeral pyre, which had been rapidly +piled up. The innermost cloth was black in colour, and similar to that +worn by a palol. Next to it came a putkuli decorated with blue and +red embroidery, outside which again was a plain white cloth covered +over by a red cotton cloth of European manufacture. Seated by the +side of the pyre, near to which I was courteously invited to take a +seat on the stump of a rhododendron, was an elderly relative of the +dead woman, who, while watching the ceremonial, was placidly engaged +in the manufacture of a holly walking-stick with the aid of a glass +scraper. The proceedings were watched on behalf of Government by a +forest guard, and a police constable who, with marked affectation, +held his handkerchief to his nose throughout the ceremonial. The +corpse was decorated with brass rings, and within the putkuli were +stowed jaggery, a scroll of paper adorned with cowry shells, snuff +and tobacco, cocoanuts, biscuits, various kinds of grain, ghi, honey, +and a tin-framed looking-glass. A long purse, containing a silver +Japanese yen and an Arcot rupee of the East India Company, was tied +up in the putkuli close to the feet. These preliminaries concluded, +the corpse was hoisted up, and swung three times over the now burning +pyre, above which a mimic bier, made of slender twigs, was held. The +body was then stripped of its jewelry, and a lock of hair cut off by +the daughter-in-law for preservation, together with a fragment of the +skull. I was told that, when the corpse is swung over the pyre, the +dead person goes to amnodr (the world of the dead). In this connection, +Dr. Rivers writes that "it would seem as if this ceremony of swinging +the body over the fire was directly connected with the removal of the +objects of value. The swinging over the fire would be symbolic of its +destruction by fire; and this symbolic burning has the great advantage +that the objects of value are not consumed, and are available for use +another time. This is probably the real explanation of the ceremony, +but it is not the explanation given by the Todas themselves. They say +that long ago, about 400 years, a man supposed to be dead was put on +the funeral pyre, and, revived by the heat, he was found to be alive, +and was able to walk away from the funeral place. In consequence of +this, the rule was made that the body should always be swung three +times over the fire before it is finally placed thereon." [Colonel +Marshall narrates the story that a Toda who had revived from what +was thought his death-bed, has been observed parading about, very +proud and distinguished looking, wearing the finery with which he had +been bedecked for his own funeral, and which he would be permitted +to carry till he really departed this life.] As soon as the pyre was +fairly ablaze, the mourners, with the exception of some of the female +relatives, left the shola, and the men, congregating on the summit of +a neighbouring hill, invoked their god. Four men, seized, apparently +in imitation of the Kota Devadi, with divine frenzy, began to shiver +and gesticulate wildly, while running blindly to and fro with closed +eyes and shaking fists. They then began to talk in Malayalam, and offer +an explanation of an extraordinary phenomenon, which had appeared in +the form of a gigantic figure, which disappeared as suddenly as it +appeared. At the annual ceremony of walking through fire (hot ashes) +in that year, two factions arose owing to some dissension, and two sets +of ashes were used. This seems to have annoyed the gods, and those +concerned were threatened with speedy ruin. But the whole story was +very vague. The possession by some Todas of a smattering of Malayalam +is explained by the fact that, when grazing their buffaloes on the +northern and western slopes of the Nilgiris, they come in contact +with Malayalam-speaking people from the neighbouring Malabar district. + +At the funeral of a man (a leper), the corpse was placed in front of +the entrance to a circle of loose stones about a yard and a half in +diameter, which had been specially constructed for the occasion. Just +before the buffalo sacrifice, a man of the Paiki clan standing near the +head of the corpse, dug a hole in the ground with a cane, and asked +a Kenna who was standing on the other side, "Puzhut, Kenna," [51] +shall I throw the earth?--three times. To which the Kenna, answering, +replied "Puzhut"--throw the earth--thrice. The Paiki then threw some +earth three times over the corpse, and three times into the miniature +kraal. It is suggested by Dr. Rivers that the circle was made to do +duty for a buffalo pen, as the funeral was held at a place where there +was no tu (pen), from the entrance of which earth could be dug up. + +Several examples of laments relating to the virtues and life +of the deceased, which are sung or recited in the course of the +funeral ceremonies, are given by Dr. Rivers. On the occasion of +the reproduction of a lament in my phonograph, two young women were +seen to be crying bitterly. The selection of the particular lament +was unfortunate, as it had been sung at their father's funeral. The +reproduction of the recitation of a dead person's sins at a Badaga +funeral quickly restored them to a state of cheerfulness. + +The following petition to the Collector of the Nilgiris on the subject +of buffalo sacrifice may be quoted as a sign of the times, when the +Todas employ petition-writers to express their grievances:-- + +"According to our religious custom for the long period, we are bringing +forward of our killing buffaloes without any irregular way. But, +in last year, when the late Collector came to see the said place, +by that he ordered to the Todas first not to keep the buffaloes +without feeding in the kraal, and second he ordered to kill each +for every day, and to clear away the buffaloes, and not to keep the +buffaloes without food. We did our work according to his orders, and +this excellent order was an ample one. Now this ----, a chief of the +Todas, son of ----, a deceased Toda, the above man joined with the +moniagar of ---- village, joined together, and, dealing with bribes, +now they arose against us, and doing this great troubles on us, and +also, by this great trouble, one day Mr. ---- came for shooting snapes +(snipe) by that side. By chance one grazing buffalo came to him, push +him by his horns very forcely, and wounded him on his leg. By the help +of another gentleman who came with him he escaped, or he would have +die at the moment. Now the said moniagar and ---- joined together, +want to finish the funeral to his late father on the 18th instant. For +this purpose they are going to shut the buffaloes without food in the +kraal on the 18th instant at 10 o'clock. They are going to kill the +buffaloes on the 19th instant at 4 o'clock in the evening. But this +is a great sin against god. But we beg your honour this way. That is, +let them leave the buffaloes in the grazing place, and ask them to +catch and kill them at the same moment. And also your honour cannot +ordered them to keep them in the kraal without food. And, if they +will desire to kill the buffaloes in this way, these buffaloes will +come on us, and also on the other peoples one who, coming to see funs +on those day, will kill them all by his anxious. And so we the Todas +begs your honour to enquire them before the 18th, the said funeral +ceremony commencing, and not to grant the above orders to them." + +A Whit Monday at Paikara was given up to an exhibition of sports +and games, whereof the most exciting and interesting was a burlesque +representation of a Toda funeral by boys and girls. A Toda, who was +fond of his little joke, applied the term pacchai kedu (green funeral) +to the corpses of the flies entrapped by a viscous catch'em-alive-oh +on the bungalow table. To the mock funeral rites arrived a party of +youths, as from a distant mand, and crying out U, hah, in shrill +mimicry of their elders. The lad who was to play the leading part +of sacrificial buffalo, stripping off his putkuli, disappeared from +sight over the brow of a low hillock. Above this eminence his bent and +uplifted upper extremities shortly appeared as representatives of the +buffalo horns. At sight thereof, there was a wild rush of small boys +to catch him, and a mimic struggle took place, while the buffalo was +dragged, amid good-tempered scuffling, kicks, and shouting, to the +spot where the corpse should have been. This spot was, in the absence +of a pseudo-dead body or stage dummy, indicated by a group of little +girls, who had sat chatting together till the boy-beast arrived, +when they touched foreheads, and went, with due solemnity, through +the orthodox observance of mourning in couples. The buffalo was slain +by a smart tap on the back of the head with a cloth, which did duty +for an axe. As soon as the convulsive movements and twitchings of the +death struggle were over, the buffalo, without waiting for an encore, +retired behind the hillock once more, in order that the rough and +tumble fight, which was evidently the chief charm of the game, might +be repeated. The buffalo boy later on came in second in a flat race, +and he was last seen protecting us from a mischievous-looking member +of his herd, which was grazing on the main-road. Toda buffaloes, it +may be noted, are not at all popular with members of the Ootacamund +Hunt, as both horses and riders from time to time receive injuries +from their horns, when they come in collision. + +While the funeral game was in progress, the men showed off their +prowess at a game (eln), [52] corresponding to the English tip-cat, +which is epidemic at a certain season in the London bye-streets. It +is played with a bat like a broomstick, and a cylindrical piece of +wood pointed at both ends. The latter is propped up against a stone, +and struck with the bat. As it flies off the stone, it is hit to a +distance with the bat, and caught (or missed) by the out fields. + +At the Muttanad mand, we were treated to a further exhibition of +games. In one of these, called narthpimi, a flat slab of stone is +supported horizontally on two other slabs fixed perpendicularly in +the ground so as to form a narrow tunnel, through which a man can +just manage to wriggle his body with difficulty. Two men take part +in the game, one stationing himself at a distance of about thirty +yards, the other about sixty yards from the tunnel. The front man, +throwing off his mantle, runs as hard as he can to the tunnel, pursued +by the 'scratch' man, whose object is to touch the other man's feet +before he has squeezed himself through the tunnel. Another sport, +which we witnessed, consists of trial of strength with a heavy +globular stone, the object being to raise it up to the shoulder; +but a strong, well-built-man--he who was entrusted with slaying the +funeral buffalo--failed to raise it higher than the pit of the stomach, +though straining his muscles in the attempt. A splendidly made veteran +assured me that, when young and lusty, he was able to accomplish the +feat, and spoke sadly of degeneration in the physique of the younger +members of the tribe. + +Mr. Breeks mentions that the Todas play a game resembling +puss-in-the-corner, called karialapimi, which was not included in +the programme of sports got up for our benefit. Dr. Rivers writes +that "the Todas, and especially the children, often play with +mimic representations of objects from practical life. Near the +villages I have seen small artificial buffalo-pens and fireplaces +made by the children in sport." I have, on several occasions, come +across young children playing with long and short pieces of twigs +representing buffaloes and their calves, and going solemnly through +the various incidents in the daily life of these animals. Todas, +both old and young, may constantly be seen twisting flexible twigs +into representations of buffaloes' heads and horns. + +Of Toda songs, the following have been collected:-- + + + Sunshine is increasing. Mist is fast gathering. Rain may + come. Thunder roars. Clouds are gathering. + Rain is pouring. Wind and rain have combined. + Oh, powerful god, may everything prosper! + May charity increase! + May the buffaloes become pregnant! + See that the buffaloes have calves. + See that the barren women have children. + Go and tell this to the god of the land. + Keygamor, Eygamor (names of buffaloes). + Evening is approaching. The buffaloes are coming. + The calves also have returned. + The buffaloes are saluted. + The dairy-man beats the calves with his stick. + Milk has been offered to the bell. + It is growing dark. + This is a buffalo with beautiful horns. + A buffalo stupidly given away by the Badaga. + A buffalo brought to the Kandal mand. + Innerovya (name of buffalo). + Like this buffalo there is no other. + Parkur (name of a Toda). + Like him there is no man. + The sun is shining. The wind is blowing. + Rain is coming. The trees are in flower. + Tears are falling. The nose is burning. + He is coming, holding up his umbrella. + He is coming, wearing a good body-cloth. + He is coming, wearing a good under-cloth. + He (the palol) is coming, wearing a black cloth. + He is coming, holding his walking-stick of palai wood. + I have a god. What is to become of me? + I am inclined to cry, my heart being heavy. + Oh, my child! Do not cry. It is still crying. + Thuree. Thuree. See. Be quiet. + A robust bull buffalo. Ach! Ach! + A big buffalo not intended for killing. Ach! Ach! + Is leading the cow buffalo. Ah! Ah! + Two or three men are driving it. Ah! Ah! + + +Song in honour of the arrival of the Maharani-Regent of Mysore at +Ootacamund. + + + All we Todas go to her house, and dance before her. + She gives us fifteen rupees. + She comes near our women, and talks to them. + She gives cloths to us. + Next day we take milk, eight bottles in the morning, four in + the evening. + Month by month she pays us for our milk. + She goes back to Mysore, and, when she goes, we stand in a row + before her. + She gives us presents; cloths and three rupees. + The women cut their hair, and stand before her. + + +Marriage Song. + + + Boys and girls are singing. + Much money are they spending. + To the girl her father is giving five buffaloes. + The husband tells his wife that she must curl her hair. + If her hair is curled, all the people will rejoice. + The buffalo is slain, and now we must all dance. + Why are not more people here? More should come. + My buffalo is big, very big. + Go quickly and catch it. + The Todas are all there. They are standing in a row. + Who will run, and catch the buffalo first? + To him will a present of five rupees be given. + I will go and catch it first. + The Todas are all fighting. + The Todas are all feasting. + People give them rice. + The buffalo is coming. Two men run to catch it by the neck. + Ten men collect the buffaloes. They pen them in a kraal. + At one o'clock we take our food. + The buffalo is running, and I hit it on the back with a stick. + It swerves aside, but I drive it back to the path. + Night comes, and we all dance. + Next morning at ten o'clock we bring out the buffalo, and slay it. + At four in the morning we wrap rice and grain in a white cloth, + and burn it. + At eleven we cut the hair of the boys and girls. + At four in the morning the priest goes to the temple (dairy). + He lights the lamp. + At eight he milks his buffaloes. + He puts on no cloth. + He places butter and ghi before the god. + Then he grazes his buffaloes, and eats his food. + Then he puts on his cloth. + At three in the afternoon he goes again to the temple. + He kindles a fire, and lights the lamp. + He puts milk in a chatty, and churns it into butter with a cane. + He mixes water with the butter-milk, and gives it to the women + to drink. + He alone may sleep in the temple. + At four in the morning he lets out the buffaloes to graze. + At seven he milks them. + The woman's house is down the hill. + The priest must not go in unto the woman. + He may not marry. + When he is twenty, he may not enter the temple. + Another is made priest in his stead. + + +The religious institutions of the Todas, including the elaborate +dairy ritual, and their religion, are described in full detail by +Dr. Rivers. The Todas have been to some extent influenced by Hinduism, +and some visit the temples at Nanjengod in Mysore, Karamadai in +the Coimbatore district, and other shrines, whereat they worship, +present votive offerings, and pray for offspring, etc. Writing in +1872, Mr. Breeks remarked that "about Ootacamund, a few Todas have +latterly begun to imitate the religious practices of their native +neighbours. Occasionally children's foreheads are marked with the +Siva spot, and my particular friend Kinniaven, after an absence of +some days, returned with a shaven head from a visit to the temple +of Siva at Nanjengudi." A man who came to my laboratory had his hair +hanging down in long tails reaching below his shoulders. He had, he +said, let it grow long because his wife, though married five years, +had borne no child. A child had, however, recently been born, and, +as soon as the second funeral of a relation had been performed, he +was going to sacrifice his locks as a thank-offering at the Nanjengod +temple. The following extracts from my notes will serve to illustrate +the practice of marking (in some instances apparently for beauty's +sake) and shaving as carried out at the present day. + +(1) Man, aged 28. Has just performed a ceremony at the ti mand. White +curved line painted across forehead, and dots below outer ends thereof, +on glabella, and outside orbits. Smeared with white across chest, +over outer side of upper arms and left nipple, across knuckles and +lower end of left ulna, and on lobes of ears. + +(2) Man, aged 21. Painted on forehead as above. Smeared over chest +and upper eye lids. + +(3) Man, aged 35. White spot painted on forehead. + +(4) Man, aged 30. Hair of head and beard cut short owing to death +of grandfather. + +(5) Boy, aged 12. Shock head of hair, cut very short all over owing +to death of grandfather. + +(6) Girl, aged 8. Hair shaved on top, back and sides of head, and in +median strip from vertex to forehead. + +(7) Boy, aged 6. White spot painted between eyebrows. Hair shaved +on top and sides of head, and in median strip from vertex to +forehead. Hair brought forward in fringe over forehead on either side +of median strip, and hanging down back of neck. + +(8) Male child, aged 18 months. White spot painted between +eyebrows. Shaved on top and sides of head. + +Todupuzha Vellala.--For the following note, I am indebted to +Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. Besides the Nanchinad Vellalas, there are, +in Travancore, two sections of the Vellala caste, inhabiting the +mountainous Todupuzha taluk. These are the Tenkanchi and Kumbakonam +Vellalas. The former are known by the popular name of Anjuttilkar, +or the five hundred, and the latter are designated Munnutilkar, or the +three hundred, in reference to the number of families which originally +settled in the taluk. Like the Nanchinad Vellalas, they take the +title of Pillai, and, in special cases, the honorific prefix Kanakku. + +The Tenkanchi Vellalas appear to have dwelt originally in the +Tenkasi taluk of the Tinnevelly district, and to have emigrated, +as the legend goes, on account of the demand of a Vaduka ruler for +the hand of a member of their community in marriage. The Vadakkumkur +Rajas were ruling over Todupuzha at the time of their migration, +and afforded them a safe asylum. The Kumbakonam Vellalas believe +that they emigrated to Travancore about the commencement of the +Malabar era from Kumbakonam in the Tanjore district. Both divisions +speak Malayalam, but there are clear indications in their speech +that their mother-tongue was once Tamil, and they always use that +language in their ceremonial writings. The Anjuttilkar women have +adopted the dress and ornaments of the Nayars. Both sections wear +the tuft of hair in front, but the Munnutilkar women do not tie the +hair on the left side like the Nayars and Anjuttilkars, but behind +like the Pandi Vellalas. Nor do the Anjuttilkar women wear a white +dress like the Tenkanchis, but a coloured cloth, sixteen cubits in +length, in orthodox Tamil fashion. Again, while the Tenkanchi women +largely resort to the todu and other Nayar ornaments, the Kumbakonam +women are more conservative, and wear only the pampadam and melidu, +though they sometimes wear jewels, such as the nagapata tali for the +neck. Both sections are Saivites, in the sense that they abstain from +flesh and fish. + +Their principal occupation is agriculture. They worship the +two mountain deities Bhadrakali and Durga. In the Kirikkot muri +of the Karikkod property there is a temple dedicated to Siva or +Unnamalanathar, with a large amount of property attached to it. This +belongs to the Tenkanchi Vellalas, and a Malayalam Brahman performs the +priestly functions. The Kumbakonam Vellalas have their own temples, +such as the Ankalamma koil, Annamala matam, Virabhadran koil, etc., +and worship, besides the principal gods of the Hindu pantheon, such +minor deities as Virabhadran, Karuppan, Bhairavan, Mariamman, and +Muttaramman. The priests of both sections are East Coast Brahmans, +who live in the Todupuzha taluk. As their profession is regarded by +other Brahmans as degrading, they, especially in the case of the +Kumbakonam Vellalas, perform their duties stealthily. The headman +of the Kumbakonam section lives in the Periyakulam taluk of the +Madura district, and, by his order, an image of Siva is worshipped +at their homes. + +Divorce is not permitted on any ground, and, in ancient days, widow +remarriage was forbidden. There is a legend that a woman of this caste, +who was a friend of the daughter of a certain Vadakkumkur Rajah, was +so aggrieved at the news of her newly married husband's death that, +at her intercession, the Rajah issued a proclamation permitting +the remarriage of widows. If no husband has been found for a girl +before she reaches puberty, certain propitiatory rites have to be +performed, at which one of her female relations represents her. On +the fourth day of the marriage ceremony, the bride and bridegroom, +before they bathe, rub each other's bodies with oil, and, going to a +large caldron containing water, throw a gold and silver ring into it, +and pick them out three times. Inheritance of both sections is from +father to son (makkathayam). A sambandham alliance does not confer +any rite of inheritance. + +The names of both sections are such as are unknown among Nayars, +e.g., Sivalingam, Arunachalam, Chidambaram, Arumukham. The Tenkanchis +are considered to be higher in the social scale than the Kumbakonam +section, as they observe only twelve days' death pollution, whereas +the latter are under pollution for sixteen days. The Tenkanchis may +enter the temple, and, like Nayars, stand on the left side of the +inner shrine, whereas the Kumbakonam Vellalas may proceed only as far +as the balikkalpura, or out-house of the temple, and not enter the +nalambalam. Again, butter-milk is freely received by Brahmans from +the Tenkanchis, but not from members of the Kumbakonam section. While +Pandi Vellalas will not receive food from the Tenkanchis, or give +their daughters in marriage to them, the latter will not intermarry +with the Nanchinad Vellalas. + +Togata.--The Togatas are Telugu weavers, most numerous in the +Cuddapah district, who manufacture the coarsest kind of cotton +cloths, such as are worn by the poorer classes. They are generally +Vaishnavites, wear the sacred thread, and have for their priests +Vaishnava Brahmans or Satanis. They eat flesh, and their widows are +allowed to remarry. Writing concerning the Togatas in 1807, Buchanan +states [53] that "widows cannot marry again, but are not expected to +kill themselves. The Panchanga, or village astrologer, attends at +births, marriages, funerals, at the ceremonies performed in honour +of their deceased parents, and at the building of a new house, and +on each occasion gets a fee of one fanam, or eight pence. On other +occasions, when a weaver wants to pray, he calls in a Satanana, who +reads something in an unknown language, and gives the votary some +holy water, which he consecrates by pouring it on the head of a small +image that he carries about for the purpose." + +As regards their origin, some Togatas claim to be sons of Chaudesvari, +who threw some rice on to the fire, from which sprang a host of +warriors, whose descendants they are. Others give Puppandaja Rishi +as the name of their ancestor. Concerning Chaudesvari, Mr. Francis +writes as follows. [54] "Connected with the margosa tree (Melia +Azadirachta) is the worship of Chaudesvari, the goddess of the +Togata caste of weavers. She is supposed to reside in margosa trees, +and either the tree itself, or a stone representing the goddess and +placed at its foot, is worshipped by the Togatas at certain seasons, +such as the Telugu New Year Day. Apparently the other weaver castes +take no share in the ceremonies. They consist largely of animal +sacrifices. Nevertheless, a particular class of Brahmans, called +Nandavarikula Brahmans, take a prominent part in the festival. This +name Nandavarikula is derived from the village of Nandavaram in +Kurnool, and doubtless many stories are prevalent there about this +sub-division. The account given at Tadpatri, where they are fairly +numerous, is as follows. Once upon a time, a king from Southern +India went on a pilgrimage with his wife to Benares. While there, +he unwittingly incurred a nameless but heinous pollution. Horrified, +he applied to some Brahmans there to purify him, promising them half +his kingdom in return. They asked for some tangible record of this +promise, and the king called upon the goddess Chaudesvari, who had a +temple near by, to witness his oath. The purification was effected, +and he departed home. Later on the Brahmans came south, and asked for +the fulfilment of his promise. The king declared that he could not +remember having made any such undertaking. The Brahmans accordingly +went to Benares, and asked Chaudesvari to come south, and bear witness +to the king's oaths. She agreed, on the usual condition that they +should go in front, and not look back at her as she came. As happens +in other stories of the same kind, they are said to have broken the +condition. At Nandavaram they looked back, and the goddess instantly +stopped, and remained immoveable. A temple was built for her there, +and the Brahmans remained in the south, and still take part in the +worship of Chaudesvari which the Togatas inaugurate, even though she +is not one of the Hindu pantheon, and delights in animal sacrifice. At +Tadpatri other castes besides the Togatas help at the festival." + +Though Chaudesvari is the patron god of the Togatas, they also worship +Poleramma, Ellamma, Kotamma, and other minor deities. + +The original occupation of the Togatas is said to have been dyeing, +but, at the present day, owing to the depression in the hand-loom +weaving industry, a large number have taken to cultivation. + +Like many other Telugu castes, they have exogamous septs, of which +the following are examples:-- + + + Patha, old. + Kambhapu, pillar. + Nili, indigo. + Madaka, plough. + Bana, pot. + Jilakara, cummin seed. + Annam, food. + Mékala, goat. + Gopalam, alms. + Samanthi, Chrysanthemum indicum. + Gurram, horse. + Perumal, a god. + Bandari, treasurer? + Gudditi. + + +Pujaris (priests) for temple worship are always elected from the +Perumal sept, and caste messengers from the Bandari sept, if they +are represented in a settlement. Torches are generally carried, at +processions, by men of the Gudditi sept. Members of the Gurram sept +are not allowed to ride on horseback. + +The panchayat (village council) system is in vogue, but, in some +places, a headman is selected, as occasion requires. In their marriage +and funeral ceremonies, the Togatas closely follow the Telugu standard +Puranic form of ceremonial. The dead are buried in a recumbent +posture. On the last day of the death rites, the Satani gives arrack +(liquor) to the Togatas, as to the Padma Sales, in lieu of holy water +(thirtham). + +Tohala.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small +class of Oriya hill cultivators and petty traders in the Ganjam Agency. + +Tolagari.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste +of Mutracha. In the North Arcot Manual the Tolagaris are described +as a small cultivating caste, who were formerly hunters, like the +Palayakkarans. + +Tolar (Wolf).--An exogamous sept of Halepaik. The equivalent Tolana +occurs as a sept of Moger. + +Tolkollan.--The Tolkollans or Tolans (skin people) are summed up in +the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "leather workers and dyers, and also +gymnasts and teachers of gymnastics. They are also called Vatti Kurup, +Chaya Kurup, and Vil Kurup. Their title is Kurup." The Tolkollans are +stated [55] to be "blacksmiths by caste, who abandoned their hereditary +trade for leather work, and they are chiefly employed by Mappillas. One +peculiar custom in this caste is that two or more brothers may have +one wife in common. Only those in good circumstances indulge in the +luxury of a private wife. The following information furnished by +Mr. S. Vaidyanadha Aiyar, the headmaster of the School of Commerce, +Calicut, gives some information regarding leather work in Malabar:-- + +(a) Boots and shoes of country make and English pattern. + +(b) Harness making. + +(c) Native shoes (ceruppu). These are of the special pattern peculiar +to Malabar, and are largely used by all classes of the Hindu and +Mappilla communities. The Arabs who visit this coast once a year +purchase a considerable number to take back with them. The price of a +pair varies from Rs. 1-8-0 to Rs. 5. Those with ornamental gold lace +work cost from Rs. 10 to Rs. 50. These shoes are generally used by +well-to-do Mappillas. White of egg is used to give a creaking sound to +the shoes. This work is mainly done by Tholperunkollans and Mappillas, +and the latter show more skill in finish and ornamental work. + +(d) Knife sheaths. Almost every Nayar, Tiyan and Mappilla carries +a knife about a foot in length, and there is a demand for leather +sheaths. These are made by Panans as well as by Tholperunkollans +and Mappillas. + +(e) Leather baskets are also made, and are largely used as receptacles +for carrying pepper, paddy (rice), and other grain. + +(f) Winnowing fans are made of leather, and are used in pepper and +paddy yards, etc. + +(g) Muttu ceruppu (clogs) are leather shoes with wooden soles. These +are largely used during the rainy season." + +Tollakkadan (one with a big hole in the lobes of his ears).--Taken, +at the census, 1901, as a sub-caste of Shanan, as those returning +the name, who are vendors of husked rice in Madras, used the Shanan +title Nadan. The equivalent Tollakadu was returned as a sub-division +of Konga Vellala. + +Tol Mestri.--A sub-division of Semman. + +Tondaman.--It is stated, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that the +Tondamans are "also called Sunnambukkaran (q.v.), a Tamil caste of +lime (chunam) burners found only in the Tinnevelly district. They are +said to be a branch of the Kallans who migrated to Tinnevelly from +Pudukkottai, or the Tondaman's country. Its members are now drummers +and pipers as well as lime-burners. Brahmans are their purohits, +but they are not allowed to go into Hindu temples. They will eat in +the houses of Maravans. Their title is Solagan." It is noted, in the +same report, that the Semman caste "has two sub-divisions, Tondaman +and Tol-mestri, and men of the former take wives from the latter, +but men of the latter may not marry girls of the former." Tondaman is +the family name of the Raja of Pudukkottai, a Native State surrounded +by the British districts of Tanjore, Madura, and Trichinopoly. The +Raja is the head of the Kallan caste. Copper coins, called amman kasu, +are current only within the State, and their greatest distribution is +during Navaratri or Dusserah, when they are issued to the people with +a dole of rice every day during the nine days of the festival. They +bear on one side the word "Vijaya," meaning victory, or more probably +having reference to our faithful ally Vijaya Ragunatha Tondaman, +in whose reign they were first struck, it is said in 1761, after the +surrender of Pondicherry to the British. + +Tondamandalam.--The name of a sub-division of Vellala, derived from +Tondanadu, the ancient Pallava country. + +Tonti.--The Tontis are said to be cotton-weavers of Bengal, who have +settled in Ganjam. [56] The name denotes threadmen, and the weaving +of rough white cloths is the traditional occupation of the caste. All +Tontis belong to a single gotra named after Kasyapa, one of the seven +important rishis, and the priest of Parasurama. Various bamsams or +exogamous septs, the names of some of which occur also as titles, +exist, e.g., Biswalo, Dasso, Palo, Bono, Chondo, Parimaniko, Korono, +Behara, and Mahapatro. The marriage and death ceremonies conform to +the standard Oriya type. On the fourth day of the marriage rites, a +Bhondari (barber) is presented with some beaten rice and sugar-candy +in a new earthen pot. These are sold to those who have assembled, +and the proceeds go to the Bhondari. The corpse of a dead person +is washed at the burning ground, instead of, in accordance with the +common custom among other castes, at the house. + +Toppa Tali.--A name applied to certain Vaniyans in the North Arcot +district, owing to the peculiar tali (marriage badge) which married +women wear. + +Torai.--A title of various Oriya castes. + +Toreya.--The Toreyas are a Canarese class, living chiefly in the +Tamil districts of Coimbatore and Salem. They are said to have been +originally fishermen and palanquin bearers, and the name is derived +from turai, a river ghat. Most of them are now cultivators, especially +of the betel vine (Piper betle). Those whom I examined at Coimbatore +were earning their living as betel and sugar-cane cultivators, vendors +of tobacco, bakers, cloth merchants, contractors, petty traders, +and police constables. + +By the Coimbatore Toreyas, the following endogamous divisions were +returned:-- + + + Elai, leaf. Betel cultivators. + Chunam, lime. Lime burners. + Gazul, glass bangle. The Toreya caste is said to have originated + from the bangles of Machyagandhi or Gandhavati, the daughter + of a fisherman on the Jumna. She was married to king Shantanu + of Hastinapur, who was one of the ancestors of the heroes of + the Mahabharata. + + +Many exogamous septs exist among the Toreyas, of which the following +are examples:-- + + + Belli, silver. May not wear silver toe-rings. + Naga, snake. The members of the sept, at times of marriage, + worship ant-hills, which are the home of snakes. + Alwar or Garuda. + Chinnam, gold. + Kansugaje, small bronze bells, tied to the legs when dancing. + Urukathi, a kind of knife. + Vajjira, diamond. + Vasishta, a Hindu saint. + Mogila, clouds. + + +Onne (Pterocarpus Marsupium). Do not mark their foreheads with the +juice from the trunk of this tree. + +Kuzhal, the flute played by shepherd boys and snake charmers. If the +sound thereof is heard during a meal, what remains of the food should +be thrown away. + +Rakshasa, a giant. Do not celebrate the Dipavali festival in honour +of the victory over, and death of, a rakshasa. + +Erumai, buffalo. + +The headman of the caste is called Ejaman, who has under him an +officer entitled Dalavayi. The caste messenger bears the name of +Kondikar. These three offices are hereditary. The Ejaman presides at +council meetings which are held at the temple of the caste. The eldest +member of each family is entitled to a seat on the council. Those +who come late to a meeting thereof prostrate themselves before the +assembly. Witnesses before the council have to take an oath, which +is administered by the Kondikar. He makes the witness stand within +a circle drawn on the ground, and makes him repeat the formula +"Before God and the elders assembled, with the sky above and the +earth beneath, I will state only the truth." The Kondikar then takes +up a pinch of earth, and puts it on the head of the witness. For +merely threatening to beat a person with shoes, the offender has +to feed twenty-five castemen. If he takes the shoes in his hands he +must feed fifty, and, if he actually resorts to beating with them, +he has to feed a hundred men. In addition, the culprit has to pay +a small fine, and both parties have to be purified at the temple. A +similar punishment is enforced for beating, or threatening to beat +with a broom. For adultery the guilty person is excommunicated, and +is admitted back into the caste only after the death of one of the +parties concerned. He then has to feed a large number of castemen, +or pay a money fine, and, prostrating himself before the assembly, +he is beaten with a tamarind switch. He further makes obeisance to +the Ejaman, and washes his feet. The Ejaman then purifies him by a +small piece of burning camphor in his mouth. + +When a married girl reaches puberty, she is taken to her father's +house, and her husband constructs a hut with branches of Ficus +glomerata. On the last day of her confinement therein, the hut is +pulled down, and the girl sets fire to it. The house is purified, and +the female relations go to the houses of the Ejaman and caste people, +and invite them to be present at a ceremonial. A small quantity of +turmeric paste is stuck on the doors of the houses of all who are +invited. The relations and members of the caste carry betel, and +other articles, on trays in procession through the streets. The girl +is seated on a plank, and the trays are placed in front of her. Rice +flour, fruits, betel, etc., are tied in her cloth, and she is taken +into the house. In the case of an unmarried girl, the hut is built +by her maternal uncle. + +Marriage is always celebrated at the house of the bridegroom, as there +is a legend that a Rajah belonging to the Toreya caste had a son, who +was taken to the house of his bride elect, and there murdered. The +bridegroom's father and relations go to the house of the bride, and +make presents of money, cloths, ornaments, etc. They also have to make +obeisance to, and feed five married women sumptuously. Pandals (booths) +are constructed at the houses of both the bride and bridegroom. Five +married women go, on behalf of each of the contracting parties, +to their houses, and pound rice there. On the second day, five such +women fetch water from a tank, and bathe the bride and bridegroom +respectively. The ten women then go to the potter's house, and bring +five decorated pots. Three of these are taken to a tank, and filled +with water. On the following day, the bridegroom and his sister take +the two remaining pots to the tank, and fill them with water. The five +pots are placed in the pandal, and represent the household gods. The +relations of the bridegroom take twelve kinds of ornaments, a new +cloth, flowers, etc., to the house of the Ejaman, and go with him +to the bride's house. She is then bathed, and decked with finery. A +Brahman does puja (worship) and ties on her forehead a mandaikettu or +bashingham (chaplet) made of gold leaf or tinsel. She is then carried +in procession to the house of the bridegroom. Meanwhile, the Brahman +ties a mandaikettu on the forehead of the bridegroom, who puts on the +sacred thread, and sits within the pandal, holding a katar (dagger) +in his hand, and closed in by a screen. The bride goes thrice round +this screen, and the Brahman does puja and gives advice (upadesam) +to the couple. The screen is then lowered slightly, and the bride and +bridegroom garland each other. The bride's parents place a few gingelly +(Sesamum) seeds in the hand of the bridegroom, and pour water thereon, +saying that their daughter belongs to him, and telling him to take care +of her. The tali, after being blessed by those assembled, is given by +the Brahman to the bridegroom, who ties it on the bride's neck. The +screen is then removed, and the couple sit side by side. The sacred +fire is lighted, their hands are linked together, and the ends of +their cloths tied together. They then leave the pandal, and, placing +their feet on a grindstone, look at the pole-star (Arundati). Entering +the pandal once more, they sit therein, and the elders bless them by +throwing rice coloured with turmeric over their heads. On the fourth +day, they again sit within the pandal, and cooked rice, coloured white, +red, yellow, green, and black, on five trays, and nine lighted wicks +on a tray are waved before them. Five married men and women, holding +a string, stand round them in a circle, within which is the bride's +brother with a twig of pipal (Ficus religiosa). The bridegroom places +his hands together, and small rice cakes are placed on the head, +shoulders, bend of the elbows and knees, and between the fingers of +the couple. They are then bathed, and, taking betel in their hands, +bow to the four corners of the earth. The bridegroom makes a namam +(Vaishnavite sect mark), or places vibhuti (sacred ashes) on the +twelve posts of the pandal, and the bride places a little cooked +rice and water before each post, to which camphor is burnt, and +puja done. They then start for the bride's house, but the bride's +sister meets them at the entrance thereto, and will not allow them +to go in until she has extracted a promise that their child shall +marry hers. The bride proceeds to a tank, sowing some paddy (rice) +on the way thither, and brings back a pot of water, with which she +washes her husband's hands and feet. Husband and wife then feed each +other with a small quantity of rice and milk. Their hands are then +cleaned, and the bride's brother puts a gold ring on the finger of +the bridegroom. A tray with betel leaves and areca nuts is brought, +and the bridegroom ties three handfuls thereof in his cloth. The +newly married couple then worship at the temple. On the fifth day, +they carry the earthen pots to a river, and, on their return, five +married women are worshipped and fed. Five men have to come forward +as sureties for the good behaviour of the couple, and declare before +those assembled that they will hold themselves responsible for it. In +the evening the pair go to the bride's house, and rub oil over each +other's head before bathing in turmeric water. On the following day +they repair to the house of the bridegroom. + +The corpse of a dead Toreya is placed in a pandal constructed of +cocoanut leaves and stems of the milk-hedge (Euphorbia Tirucalli). Sect +marks are placed on the foreheads of the corpse and the widow. The +son of the deceased dons the sacred thread. The funeral ceremonies +resemble, in many particulars, those of the Oddes. A mound is +piled up over the grave. A Paraiyan places a small twig of the arka +plant (Calotropis gigantea) in three corners of the grave, leaving +out the north-east corner, and the son puts a small coin on each +twig. As he goes round the grave with a water-pot and fire-brand, +his maternal uncle, who stands at the head of the grave, makes holes +in the pot. On the third, fifth, seventh, or ninth day, the widow, +dressed in new cloths, and bedecked with ornaments and flowers, is +taken to the burial-ground, with offerings of milk, ghi (clarified +butter), tender cocoanut, sandal, camphor, etc. Five small stones, +smeared with turmeric and lime, are set up at the head of the grave, +and worshipped. The widow goes thrice round the grave, and seats +herself near the head thereof. Her brother holds up her arms, and one +of her husband's male relations breaks her bangles. She breaks, and +throws her tali on the grave, with the flowers which adorn her. Her +ornaments are removed, and she is covered with a cloth, and taken to +a river, where she is rubbed with cow-dung and bathed. The son and +other relatives go to the temple with butter and other articles. A +Brahman does puja, and shuts the doors of the temple. The son, with +his back to the temple, throws a little butter on the doors, which are +then opened by the Brahman. This is done thrice. On the seventh day, +pollution is removed by sprinkling holy water, and the caste people +are fed. A widow remains in seclusion (gosha) for three months. Sradh +(memorial ceremony) is performed. + +The Toreyas worship both Siva and Vishnu, but consider Ayodhya Raman +as their special deity, and sacrifice sheep and fowls to Koriamma. + +Toreya.--A sub-division of the Badagas of the Nilgiris. + +Tota (garden).--Recorded as a sub-division of cultivating Balijas, and +an exogamous sept of Boya, Chenchu, Vada Balija (or Mila), Mutracha +and Bonthuk Savara. The equivalent Tota occurs as an exogamous sept +of Kapu and Yanadi. Tota Devaru, or garden god, is the name of an +exogamous sept of the Tigala gardeners and cultivators. + +Totakura (Amarantus gangeticus).--An exogamous sept of Kamma. + +Toththala or Tottadi.--A sub-division of Velama. + +Toti.--The Toti or Totti is one of the village communal servants. The +name has been derived from tondu, to dig, or tott, to go round, as +the Toti is the purveyor of news, and has to summon people to appear +before the village council. The functions of this useful person to the +community have been summed up as follows by a district official. [57] +"This individual has all the dirty work of the village allotted to +him. He is of the lowest caste, and hence makes no scruple of doing +any manner of work that he may be called upon to perform. The removal +and sepulture of unclaimed dead bodies, the cleansing of choultries, +rest-houses and the like, where travellers carrying infectious +diseases might have halted, and other gruesome duties are entrusted +to him. In spite of all this, the Toti is one of the most trusted of +the humbler servants of the village community. Considering his humble +status and emoluments, which average between Rs. 3 and Rs. 4 a month, +his honesty with regard to pecuniary matters is wonderful. He may +be trusted with untold wealth, as is often done when he is the sole +custodian of the revenue collections of his village to the tune of +several thousands at a time, when on their way from the collecting +officers to the Government Treasury." Testimony is borne to the +industry of the Toti in the proverb that if you work like a Toti, +you can enjoy the comforts of a king. + +In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Toti is returned as a sub-division +of Chakkiliyan. The Toti of Mysore is defined by Mr. L. Rice [58] as +a menial among the village servants, a deputy talari, who is employed +to watch the crops from the growing crop to the granary. + +Odiya Toti is a Tamil synonym for Oriya Haddis employed as scavengers +in municipalities in the Tamil country. + +Tottiyan.--In the Census Report, 1901, Mr. W. Francis writes that the +Tottiyans are "Telugu cultivators. The Tottiyans or Kambalattans of +the Tanjore district are, however, said to be vagrants, and to live +by pig-breeding, snake-charming, and begging. So are the sub-division +called Kattu Tottiyans in Tinnevelly. The headman among the Tinnevelly +Tottiyans is called the Mandai Periadanakkaran or Servaikaran. Their +marriages are not celebrated in their houses, but in pandals (booths) +of green leaves erected for the purpose on the village common. However +wealthy the couple may be, the only grain which they may eat at +the wedding festivities is either cumbu (Pennisetum typhoideum) or +horse-gram (Dolichos biflorus). The patron deities of the caste are +Jakkamma and Bommakka, two women who committed sati. The morality of +their women is loose. The custom of marrying boys to their paternal +aunt's or maternal uncle's daughter, however old she may be, also +obtains, and in such cases the bridegroom's father is said to take +upon himself the duty of begetting children to his own son. Divorce +is easy, and remarriage is freely allowed. They offer rice and +arrack (alcoholic liquor) to their ancestors. The Kattu Tottiyans +will eat jackals, rats, and the leavings of other people. Tottiya +women will not eat in the houses of Brahmans, but no explanation of +this is forthcoming. The men wear silver anklets on both legs, and +also a bracelet upon one of the upper arms, both of which practices +are uncommon, while the women wear bangles only on the left arm, +instead of on both as usual. Some of the Zamindars in Madura belong +to this caste. The caste title is Nayakkan." At the census, 1901, +Kudulukkaran was returned as a sub-caste of the Tottiyans in Madura and +Tinnevelly. The Urumikkaran, meaning those who play on the drum called +urumi, are said to be Tottiyans in Madura and Paraiyans elsewhere. + +"The Tottiyans or Kambalattans," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [59] "are +a caste of Telugu cultivators settled in the districts of Madura, +Tinnevelly, Coimbatore and Salem. They are probably the descendants +of poligars and soldiers of the Nayakkan kings of Vijayanagar, who +conquered the Madura country about the beginning of the sixteenth +century. As regards the origin of their caste, the Tottiyans say with +pride that they are the descendants of the eight thousand gopastris +(milkmaids) of Krishna--a tradition which seems to indicate that their +original occupation was connected with the rearing and keeping of +cattle. The most important sub-divisions are Kollar and Erkollar, the +Tamil form of the Telugu Golla and Yerragolla, which are now shepherd +castes, though probably they formerly had as much to do with cattle +as sheep. Another large sub-division is Kille or Killavar, which I +take to be a corruption of the Telugu kilari, a herdman. The bride +and bridegroom, too, are always seated on bullock saddles. They do +not wear the sacred thread. Most of them are Vaishnavites, some of +whom employ Brahman priests, but the majority of them are guided +by gurus of their own, called Kodangi Nayakkan. [It is noted, in +the Gazetteer of the Madura district, that caste matters used to be +settled by the Mettu Nayakkan or headman, and a Kodangi Nayakkan, +or priest, so called because he carried a drum.] Each family has its +own household deity, which appears to be a sort of representation of +departed relations, chiefly women who have burned themselves on the +funeral pile of their husbands, or have led a chaste and continent +life, or died vestals. Their girls are married after they have attained +maturity. Adultery is no crime when committed within the family +circle, but a liaison with an outsider involves expulsion from the +caste. It is said that their newly married girls are even compelled +to cohabit with their husband's near relatives. [It is further said +to be believed that ill-luck will attend any refusal to do so, and +that, so far from any disgrace attaching to them in consequence, their +priests compel them to keep up the custom, if by any chance they are +unwilling. [60]] The pongu tree (Pongamia glabra) is the sacred tree +of the caste. Suttee was formerly very common, and the remarriage +of widows is discouraged, if not actually forbidden. The dead are +generally burned. Both men and women are supposed to practice magic, +and are on that account much dreaded by the people generally. They +are especially noted for their power of curing snake-bites by means +of mystical incantations, and the original inventor of this mode +of treatment has been deified under the name Pambalamman. They are +allowed to eat flesh. The majority speak Telugu in their houses." + +The traditional story of the migration of the Tottiyans to the +Madura district is given in several of the Mackenzie manuscripts, +and is still repeated by the people of the caste. "Centuries ago, +says this legend, the Tottiyans lived to the north of the Tungabhadra +river. The Muhammadans there tried to marry their women, and make +them eat beef. So one fine night they fled southwards in a body. The +Muhammadans pursued them, and their path was blocked by a deep and +rapid river. They had just given themselves up for lost when a pongu +(Pongamia glabra) tree on either side of the stream leant forward, and, +meeting in the middle, made a bridge across it. Over this they hurried, +and, as soon as they had passed, the trees stood erect once more, +before the Mussulmans could similarly cross by them. The Tottiyans in +consequence still reverence the pongu tree, and their marriage pandals +(booths) are always made from its wood. They travelled on until they +came to the city of Vijayanagar, under whose king they took service, +and it was in the train of the Vijayanagar armies that they came to +Madura." [61] + +The Tottiyans are most numerous in the Madura and Tinnevelly districts, +and include two grades in the social scale. Of these, one consists +of those who are engaged in cultivation, and petty Zamindars. The +other is made up of those who wander about begging, and doing +menial work. Between the two classes there is neither interdining +nor intermarriage. In districts other than Madura and Tinnevelly, +the name Tottiyan is applied by Tamil-speaking castes to the Jogis, +who are beggars and pig breeders, and, like the Tottiyans, speak +Telugu. The following legend is current, to account for the division +of the Tottiyans into two sections. They once gave a girl in marriage +to a Muhammadan ruler, and all the Tottiyans followed him. A large +number went to sleep on one side of a river, while the rest crossed, +and went away. The latter are represented today by the respectable +section, and the begging class is descended from the former. To this +day the Muhammadans and Tottiyans of the Trichinopoly district are +said to address each other as if they were relations, and to be on +terms of unusual intimacy. + +In the Madura district, the Tottiyans are apparently divided into +three endogamous sections, viz., Vekkili, Thokala, and Yerrakolla, +of which the last is considered inferior to the other two. Other names +for the Vekkili section are Kambalattar, or Raja Kambalattar. In some +places, e.g., in Tinnevelly, there seem to be six divisions, Thokala, +Chilla or Silla, Kolla, Narasilla, Kanthikolla and Pala. Of these, +Pala may intermarry with Chilla, but the other four are endogamous. As +examples of exogamous septs occurring among the Yerrakollas may be +noted Chikala (broom), and Udama (lizard, Varanus), of which the +latter also occurs as an exogamous sept of the Kapus. + +In the neighbourhood of Nellakota in the Madura district, +the Yerrakollas have a group of seven septs called Revala, +Gollavirappa, Kambli-nayudi, Karadi (bear), Uduma, Chila, and +Gelipithi. Intermarriage between these is forbidden, as they are all +considered as blood-relations, and they must marry into a group of +seven other septs called Gundagala, Busala, Manni, Sukka, Alivirappa, +Sikka, and Madha. The names of these septs are remembered by a system +of mnemonics. + +In a note on the Tottiyans of the Trichinopoly district, +Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes as follows. "Three endogamous sub-divisions +exist in the caste, namely, the Erra (red) Gollas or Pedda Inti +(big family), the Nalla (black) Gollas or Chinna Inti (small family), +and the Valus, who are also called Kudukuduppai Tottiyans. The Valus +are said to be a restless class of beggars and sorcerers. The red +Gollas are, as a rule, fairer than the blacks (whence perhaps the +names). The women of the former wear white cloths, while those of +the latter do not. Again, they tie their hair in different ways, and +their ornaments differ a good deal. The red women carry no emblem +of marriage at all, while the black women wear the pottu. The reds +allow their widows to remarry, but the blacks do not. Both sections +have exogamous sections, called Kambalams--the reds fourteen, and the +blacks nine. The reds are divided, for purposes of caste discipline, +into nine nadus and the blacks into fourteen mandais. Each village is +under a headman called the Ur-Nayakan, and each nadu or mandai under a +Pattakaran. The former decide petty disputes, and the latter the more +serious cases. The Pattakaran is treated with great deference. He is +always saluted with clasped hands, ought never to look on a corpse, and +is said to be allowed to consort with any married woman of the caste." + +The Tottiyans are supposed to be one of the nine Kambalam (blanket) +castes, which, according to one version, are made up of Kappiliyans, +Anappans, Tottiyans, Kurubas, Kummaras, Parivarams, Urumikkarans, +Mangalas, and Chakkiliyans. According to another version, the nine +castes are Kappiliyan, Anappan, Tottiyan, Kolla Tottiyan, Kuruba, +Kummara, Medara, Odde, and Chakkiliyan. At tribal council-meetings, +representatives of each of the nine Kambalams should be present. But, +for the nine castes, some have substituted nine septs. The Vekkiliyans +seem to have three headmen, called Mettu Nayakan, Kodia Nayakan, and +Kambli Nayakan, of whom the first mentioned is the most important, and +acts as priest on various ceremonial occasions, such as puberty and +marriage rites, and the worship of Jakkamma and Bommakka. The Kambli +Nayakan attends to the purification of peccant or erring members of +the community, in connection with which the head of a sheep or goat +is taken into the house by the Kambli Nayakan. It is noted, in the +Gazetteer of the Madura district, that "persons charged with offences +are invited to prove their innocence by undergoing ordeals. These +are now harmless enough, such as attempting to cook rice in a pot +which has not been fired, but Turnbull says that he saw the boiling +oil ordeal in 1813 in Pudukkottai territory. Perhaps the most serious +caste offence is adultery with a man of another community. Turnbull +says that women convicted of this used to be sentenced to be killed +by Chakkiliyans, but nowadays rigid excommunication is the penalty." + +The Kambalam caste is so called because, at caste council meetings, a +kambli (blanket) is spread, on which is placed a kalasam (brass vessel) +filled with water, and containing margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves, +and decorated with flowers. Its mouth is closed by mango leaves and +a cocoanut. + +A correspondent writes to me that "the Zamindars in the western parts +of Madura, and parts of Tinnevelly, are known as Kambala Palayapat. If +a man belongs to a Zamindar's family, he is said to be of the Raja +Kambala caste. The marriage ceremony is carried out in two temporary +huts erected outside the village, one for the bridegroom, the other +for the bride. The tali is tied round the bride's neck by an elderly +female or male belonging to the family. If the marriage is contracted +with a woman of an inferior class, the bridegroom's hut is not made +use of, and he does not personally take part in the ceremony. A dagger +(kattar), or rude sword, is sent to represent him, and the tali is +tied in the presence thereof." + +In a zamindari suit, details of which are published in the Madras +Law Reports, Vol. XVII, 1894, the Judge found that the plaintiff's +mother was married to the plaintiff's father in the dagger form; +that a dagger is used by the Saptur Zamindars, who are called Kattari +Kamaya, in the case of inequality in the caste or social position of +the bride; that, though the customary rites of the Kambala caste were +also performed, yet the use of the dagger was an essential addition; +and that, though she was of a different and inferior caste to that of +the plaintiff's father, yet that did not invalidate the marriage. The +defendant's argument was that the dagger was used to represent +the Zamindar bridegroom as he did not attend in person, and that, +by his non-attendance, there could have been no joining of hands, +or other essential for constituting a valid marriage. The plaintiff +argued that the nuptial rites were duly performed, the Zamindar +being present; that the dagger was there merely as an ornament; and +that it was customary for people of the Zamindar's caste to have a +dagger paraded on the occasion of marriages. The Judge found that the +dagger was there for the purpose of indicating that the two ladies, +whom the Zamindar married, were of an inferior caste and rank. + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Madura district, that, when +a Tottiyan girl attains maturity, "she is kept in a separate hut, +which is watched by a Chakkiliyan. Marriage is either infant or +adult. A man has the usual claim to his paternal aunt's daughter, +and so rigorously is this rule followed that boys of tender years are +frequently married to grown women. These latter are allowed to consort +with their husband's near relations, and the boy is held to be the +father of any children which may be born. Weddings last three days, +and involve very numerous ceremonies. They take place in a special +pandal erected in the village, on either side of which are smaller +pandals for the bride and bridegroom. Two uncommon rites are the +slaughtering of a red ram without blemish, and marking the foreheads +of the couple with its blood, and the pursuit by the bridegroom, with a +bow and arrow, of a man who pretends to flee, but is at length captured +and bound. The ram is first sprinkled with water, and, if it shivers, +this, as usual, is held to be a good omen. The bride-price is seven +kalams of kumbu (Pennisetum typhoideum), and the couple may eat only +this grain and horse-gram until the wedding is over. A bottu (marriage +badge) is tied round the bride's neck by the bridegroom's sister." + +Concerning the marriage ceremonies of the Yerrakollas, I gather that, +on the betrothal day, kumbu must be cooked. Food is given to seven +people belonging to seven different septs. They are then presented +with betel leaves and areca nuts and four annas tied in a cloth, and +the approaching marriage is announced. On the wedding day, the bride +and bridegroom are seated on planks on the marriage dais, and milk is +sprinkled over them by people of their own sex. A few hours later, +the bridegroom takes his seat in the pandal, whither the bride is +brought in the arms of her maternal uncle. She sits by the side of the +bridegroom, and the Mettu Nayakan links together the little fingers +of the contracting couple, and tells them to exchange rings. This +is the binding portion of the ceremony, and no bottu is tied round +the bride's neck. At a marriage among the Vekkiliyans, two huts are +constructed in an open space outside the village, in front of which +a pandal is erected, supported by twelve posts, and roofed with leafy +twigs of the pongu tree and Mimusops hexandra. On the following day, +the bride and bridegroom are conducted to the huts, the bride being +sometimes carried in the arms of her maternal uncle. They worship the +ancestral heroes, who are represented by new cloths folded, and placed +on a tray. The bridegroom's sister ties the bottu on the bride's neck +inside her hut, in front of which kumbu grain is scattered. Betel and +a fanam (coin) are placed in the bride's lap. On the third day the +bridegroom is dressed up, and, mounting a horse, goes, accompanied +by the marriage pots, three times round the huts. He then enters +the bride's hut, and she is carried in the arms of the cousins of +the bridegroom thrice round the huts. The contracting couple then +sit on planks, and the cousins, by order of the Mettu Nayakan, link +their little fingers together. They then enter the bridegroom's hut, +and a mock ploughing ceremony is performed. Coming out from the hut, +they take up a child, and carry it three times round the huts. This +is, it is said, done because, in former days, the Tottiyan bride and +bridegroom had to remain in the marriage huts till a child was born, +because the Mettu Nayakan was so busy that he had no time to complete +the marriage ceremony until nearly a year had elapsed. + +At a wedding among the nomad Tottiyans, a fowl is killed near +the marriage (araveni) pots, and with its blood a mark is made on +the foreheads of the bride and bridegroom on their entry into the +booths. The Vekkiliyans sacrifice a goat or sheep instead of a fowl, +and the more advanced among them substitute the breaking of a cocoanut +for the animal sacrifice. + +In connection with marriage, Mr. Hemingway writes that "the Tottiyans +very commonly marry a young boy to a grown woman, and, as among the +Konga Vellalas, the boy's father takes the duties of a husband upon +himself until the boy is grown up. Married women are allowed to bestow +their favours upon their husbands' relations, and it is said to be an +understood thing that a man should not enter his dwelling, if he sees +another's slippers placed outside as a sign that the owner of them +is with the mistress of the house. Intercourse with men of another +caste is, however, punished by expulsion, and widows and unmarried +girls who go astray are severely dealt with. Formerly, it is said, +they were killed." + +At a Tottiyan funeral, fire is carried to the burning-ground by a +Chakkiliyan, and the pyre is lighted, not by the sons, but by the +sammandhis (relations by marriage). + +The Tottiyans of the Madura district observe the worship of ancestors, +who are represented by a number of stones set up somewhere within +the village boundaries. Such places are called male. According to +Mr. Hemingway, when a member of the caste dies, some of the bones are +buried in this shed, along with a coin, and a stone is planted on the +spot. The stones are arranged in an irregular circle. The circles of +the Yerrakollas are exceedingly simple, and recall to mind those of +the Nayadis of Malabar, but without the tree. The stones are set up +in an open space close to the burning-ground. When a death occurs, +a stone is erected among the ashes of the deceased on the last day +of the funeral ceremonies (karmandhiram), and worshipped. It is +immediately transferred to the ancestral circle. The male of the +Vekkiliyan section of the Tottiyans consists of a massive central +wooden pillar, carved with male and female human figures, set up in +a cavity in a round boulder, and covered over by a conical canopy +supported on pillars. When this canopy is set in motion, the central +pillar appears to be shaking. This illusion, it is claimed, is due +to the power of the ancestral gods. All round the central pillar, +which is about ten feet high, a number of stones of different sizes +are set up. The central pillar represents Jakkamma and other remote +ancestors. The surrounding stones are the representatives of those +who have died in recent times. Like the Yerrakollas, the Vekkiliyans +erect a stone on the karmandhiram day at the spot where the body was +cremated, but, instead of transferring it at once to the ancestral +circle, they wait till the day of periodical male worship, which, being +an expensive ceremonial, may take place only once in twelve years. If +the interval is long, the number of stones representing those who +have died meanwhile may be very large. News of the approaching male +worship is sent to the neighbouring villages, and, on the appointed +day, people of all castes pour in, bringing with them several hundred +bulls. The hosts supply their guests with fodder, pots, and a liberal +allowance of sugar-cane. Refusal to bestow sugar-cane freely would +involve failure of the object of the ceremonial. After the completion +of the worship, the bulls are let loose, and the animal which reaches +the male first is decorated, and held in reverence. Its owner is +presented with cloths, money, etc. The ceremony may be compared with +that of selecting the king bull among the Kappiliyans. + +Self-cremation is said [62] to have been "habitually practiced by +Tottiya widows in the times anterior to British domination; and +great respect was always shown to the memory of such as observed the +custom. Small tombs termed thipanjankovil (fire-torch temple) were +erected in their honour on the high-roads, and at these oblations +were once a year offered to the manes of the deceased heroines. Sati +was not, however, compulsory among them, and, if a widow lived at all +times a perfectly chaste and religious life, she was honoured equally +with such as performed the rite." It is noted, in the Gazetteer of +the Madura district, that "sati was formerly very common in the caste, +and the two caste goddesses, Jakkamma and Bommayya, are deifications of +women who thus sacrificed themselves. Every four years a festival is +held in their honour, one of the chief events in which is a bullock +race. The owner of the winning animal receives a prize, and gets +the first betel and nut during the feast. The caste god is Perumal, +who is worshipped in the form of a curry-grinding stone. The story +goes that, when the Tottiyans were fleeing to the south, one of their +women found her grinding-stone so intolerably heavy that she threw +it away. It, however, re-appeared in her basket. Thrown away again, +it once more re-appeared, and she then realised that the caste god +must be accompanying them." + +"The Tottiyans," Mr. Hemingway writes, "do not recognise the +superiority of Brahmans, or employ them as priests at marriages or +funerals. They are deeply devoted to their own caste deities. Some of +these are Bommaka and Mallamma (the spirits of women who committed +sati long ago), Virakaran or Viramati (a bridegroom who was killed +in a fight with a tiger), Pattalamma (who helped them in their flight +from the north), and Malai Tambiran, the god of ancestors. Muttalamma +and Jakkamma are also found. Malai Tambiran is worshipped in the +male. The Tottiyans are known for their uncanny devotion to sorcery +and witchcraft. All of them are supposed to possess unholy powers, +especially the Nalla Gollas, and they are much dreaded by their +neighbours. They do not allow any stranger to enter their villages with +shoes on, or on horseback, or holding up an umbrella, lest their god +should be offended. It is generally believed that, if any one breaks +this rule, he will be visited with illness or some other punishment." + +The Tottiyans have attached to them a class of beggars called Pichiga +vadu, concerning whose origin the following legend is narrated. There +were, once upon a time, seven brothers and a sister belonging to the +Irrivaru exogamous sept. The brothers went on a pilgrimage to Benares, +leaving their sister behind. One day, while she was bathing, a sacred +bull (Nandi) left its sperm on her cloth, and she conceived. Her +condition was noticed by her brothers on their return, and, suspecting +her of immorality, they were about to excommunicate her. But they +discovered some cows in calf as the result of parthenogenesis, and +six of the brothers were satisfied as to the girl's innocence. The +seventh, however, required further proof. After the child was born, +it was tied to a branch of a dead chilla tree (Strychnos potatorum), +which at once burst into leaf and flower. The doubting brother became +a cripple, and his descendants are called Pichiga varu, and those of +the baby Chilla varu. + +Traivarnika (third caste men).--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as a section of Komatis (who claim to be Vaisyas, or members +of the third caste of Manu), who follow the details of Brahmanical +customs more scrupulously than the others. They are described, in +the Vizagapatam Manual, as followers of the Ramanuja faith, who deal +chiefly in gold and silver, and ornaments made thereof. + +Triputa (Ipomæa Turpethum, Indian jalap).--A sept of Viramushti. + +Tsakala.--The Tsakalas, Sakalas, or Chakalas, who derive their name +from chaku (to wash), are the washermen of the Telugu country, and +also act as torch and palanquin bearers. In the Census Report, 1901, +Tellakula (the white class) is given as a synonym. The Rev. J. Cain +writes [63] that the "Tellakulavandlu are really washermen who, +in consequence of having obtained employment as peons (orderlies) +in Government offices, feel themselves to be superior to their +old caste people. In their own towns or villages they acknowledge +themselves to be washermen, but in other places they disclaim all +such connection." It is noted in the Kurnool Manual (1886) that, +in the Cumbum division, "they serve as palanquin-bearers, and are +always at the mercy of Government officials, and are compelled to +carry baggage for little or no wage. Some are Inamdars (landholders), +while others work for wages." + +The ordinary Tsakalas are called Bana Tsakala, in contradistinction to +the Guna or Velama Tsakala. Bana is the Telugu name for the large pot, +which the washermen use for boiling the clothes. [64] The Guna Tsakalas +are dyers. In a note on the Velamas, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes [65] +that "some say they form a sub-division of the Balijas, but this they +themselves most vehemently deny, and the Balijas derisively call them +Guni Sakalavandlu (hunchbacked washermen). The pride and jealousy of +Hindu castes was amusingly illustrated by the Velamas of Kalahasti. The +Deputy Tahsildar of that town was desired to ascertain the origin of +the name Guni Sakalavandlu, but, as soon as he asked the question, +a member of the caste lodged a complaint of defamation against him +before the District Magistrate. The nickname appears to have been +applied to them because in the northern districts some print chintz, +and, carrying their goods in a bundle on their backs, walk stooping +like a laden washerman. This derivation is more than doubtful, for, +in the Godavari district, the name is Guna Sakalavandlu, guna being +the large pot in which they dye the chintzes." + +Like other Telugu castes, the Tsakalas have exogamous septs or +intiperu, among which chimala (ant) is of common occurrence. Members +of the gummadi sept do not cultivate, or eat the fruit of Cucurbita +maxima (gummadi), and those of the magili pula gotra avoid the fruit +of Pandanus fascicularis. In like manner, sword beans (Canavalia +ensiformis) may not be eaten by those who belong to the thamballa +gotra. + +Among the sub-divisions of the caste are Reddi Bhumi (Reddi earth), +Murikinati, Pakanati (eastern country), Desa, and Golkonda. Of these, +some are also sub-divisions of other Telugu classes, as follows:-- + +Desa or Desur Balija--Kapu. + +Murikinati or Murikinadu--Kamsala, Mangala, Mala and Razu. + +Pakanati--Balija, Golla, Kamsala, Kapu, and Mala. + +Reddi Bhumi--Mala, Mangala. + +At the census, 1891, Odde was recorded as a sub-division of +the Tsakalas, and it is noted in the Vizagapatam Manual (1869) +that the Vadde or Odde Cakali wash clothes, and carry torches +in that district. The name Odde Tsakala refers to Oriya-speaking +washermen. Telugus call the Oriya country Odra or Odde desam and +Oriyas Odra or Odde Vandlu. + +Like the Tamil Vannans, the Tsakalas prepare for various castes torches +for processional or other ceremonial occasions, and the face cloth, +and paddy piled up at the head of a corpse, are their perquisite. The +Reddi Bhumi and other sub-divisions wash the clothes of all classes, +except Malas and Madigas, while the Desa and Golkonda sub-divisions +will wash for both Malas and Madigas, provided that the clothes are +steeped in water, and not handed to them, but left therein, to be taken +by the washerman. Every village has its families of washermen, who, in +return for their services, receive an allowance of grain once a year, +and may have land allotted to them. Whenever a goat or fowl has to +be sacrificed to a deity, it is the privilege of the Tsakala to cut +off the head, or wring the neck of the animal. When Kapu women go on +a visit to a distant village, they are accompanied by a Tsakala. At +a Kapu wedding, a small party of Kapus, taking with them some food +and gingelly (Sesamum) oil, proceed in procession to the house of a +Tsakala, in order to obtain from him a framework made of bamboo or +sticks, over which cotton threads (dhornam) are wound, and the Ganga +idol, which is kept in his custody. The food is presented to him, +and some rice poured into his cloth. Receiving these things, he says +that he cannot find the dhornam and idol without a torch-light, and +demands gingelly oil. This is given to him, and the Kapus return with +the Tsakala carrying the dhornam and idol to the marriage house. The +Tsakala is asked to tie the dhornam to the pandal (marriage booth) +or roof of the house, and he demands some paddy (unhusked rice) which +is heaped up on the ground. Standing thereon, he ties the dhornam. At +a Panta Kapu wedding, the Ganga idol, together with a goat and kavadi +(bamboo pole), with baskets of rice, cakes, betel leaves and areca +nuts, is carried in procession to a pond or temple. The washerman, +dressed up as a woman, heads the procession, and keeps on dancing +and singing till the destination is reached. At the conclusion of the +ceremonial, he takes charge of the idol, and goes his way. Among the +Panta Reddis of the Tamil country, the idol is taken in procession by +the washerman, who goes to every Reddi house, and receives a present +of money. At a wedding among the Idigas (Telugu toddy-drawers), the +brother of the bride is fantastically dressed, with margosa (Melia +Azadirachta) leaves in his turban, and carries a bow and arrow. This +kodangi (buffoon) is conducted in procession to the temple by a few +married women, and made to walk over cloths spread on the ground by +the village washerman. The cloth worn by a Kapu girl at the time of +her first menstrual ceremony is the perquisite of the washerwoman. + +The tribal deity of the Tsakalas is Madivalayya, in whose honour a +feast, called Mailar or Mailar Pandaga, is held in January immediately +after the Pongal festival. Small models of pots, slabs of stone such +as are used for beating the wet clothes on, and other articles used +in their work, are made in rice and flour paste. After they have been +worshipped, fruits, cooked vegetables, etc., are offered, and a sheep +or goat is sacrificed. Some of its blood is mixed with the food, of +which a little is sprinkled over the pots, stones, etc., used during +washing operations. If this ceremonial was not observed, it is believed +that the clothes, when boiling in the water pot, would catch fire, and +be ruined. The festival, which is not observed by the Desa and Golkonda +Tsakalas, lasts for five or seven days, and is a time of holiday. + +At the first menstrual ceremony, the maternal uncle of the girl has +to erect a hut made of seven different kinds of sticks, of which one +must be from a Strychnos Nux-vomica tree. The details of the marriage +ceremony are very similar to those of the Balijas and Kammas. The +distribution of pan-supari, and the tying of the dhornam to the pandal +must be carried out by an assistant headman called Gatamdar. On the +last day, a goat or sheep is sacrificed to the marriage pots. Liberal +potations of toddy are given to those who attend the wedding. + +The Tsakalas have a caste beggar called Mailari, or Patam, because +he carries a brass plate (patam) with the figure of a deity engraved +on it. He is said to be a Lingayat. + +Tsalla or Challa (butter-milk).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Tsanda or Chanda (tax or subscription).--An exogamous sept of Kamma +and Medara. + +Tulabharam.--In his description [66] of the Tulabharam or +Tulapurushadanam ceremony performed by the Maharajas of Travancore, +Mr. Shungoony Menon explains that the latter word is a compound +of three Sanskrit words, tula (scales), purusha (man), and danam +(gift, particularly of a religious character). And he gives the +following description of the ceremonial, for the performance of +which a Tulamandapam is erected, wherein the scales are set up, +and the weighing and other rites performed. On the eighth day +"after worshipping and making offerings, the Maharaja proceeds to +the Tulamandapam, where, in the south-east corner, he is sprinkled +with punyaham water. Then he goes to the side room, where the 'nine +grains' are sown in silver flower pots, where the acharya anoints +him with nine fresh-water kalasas. Thence the Maharaja retires to +the palace, changes clothes, wears certain jewels specially made +for the occasion, and, holding the State sword in his right hand +and the State shield in his left, he proceeds to the pagoda; and, +having presented a bull elephant at the foot of the great golden +flagstaff, and silks, gold coins, jewels and other rich offerings in +the interior, he walks round by the Sevaimandapam, and re-enters the +Tulamandapam. He walks thrice round the scales, prostrates himself +before it, bows before the priests and elderly relatives, and obtains +their sanction to perform the Tulapurushadanam. He then mounts the +western scale, holding Yama's and Surya's pratimas in his right and +left hand respectively. He sits facing to the east on a circular heavy +plank cut out of fresh jack-wood (Artocarpus integrifolia), and covered +with silk. He repeats mantras (prayers) in this position. The opposite +or eastern scale then receives the gold, both coined and in ingots, +till it not only attains equality but touches the ground, and the scale +occupied by the Maharaja rises high. The Maharaja then comes down, and, +sitting facing to the east, places the gold, the Tulupurusha pratima +and other pratimas, with flowers, sandal paste, etc., in a basin of +water, and, meditating on Brahma or the Supreme Being, he offers the +contents to Brahmans generically." Of the gold placed in the scale, +one-fourth is divided among the priests who conduct the ceremony, and +the remaining three-fourths are distributed among Brahmans. For use +in connection with the ceremony, gold coins, called tulabhara kasu, +are specially struck. They bear on one side the Malayalam legend Sri +Padmanabha, and on the other a chank shell. + +In connection with the tulabharam ceremony as performed at the temple +of Kali, the goddess of cholera and small-pox at Cranganore in the +Cochin State, Mr. T. K. Gopal Panikkar writes as follows. [67] "When +a man is taken ill of any infectious disease, his relations generally +pray to this goddess for his recovery, solemnly covenanting to perform +what goes by the name of a thulabharam ceremony. The process consists +in placing the patient in one of the scale-pans of a huge balance, +and weighing him against gold or more generally pepper (and sometimes +other substances as well) deposited in the other scale-pan. Then +this weight of the substance is offered to the goddess. This is to +be performed right in front of the goddess in the temple yard." + +In connection with weighing ceremonies, it may be noted that, at Mulki +in South Canara, there is a temple of Venkateswara, which is maintained +by Konkani Brahmans. A Konkani Brahman, who is attached to the temple, +becomes inspired almost daily between 10 and 11 A.M. immediately after +puja (worship), and people consult him. Some time ago, a rich merchant +(a Baniya from Gujarat) consulted the inspired man (Darsana) as to what +steps should be taken to enable his wife to be safely delivered. The +Darsana told him to take a vow that he would present to the god of the +temple silver, sugar-candy, and date fruits, equal in weight to that of +his wife. This he did, and his wife was delivered of a male child. The +cost of the ceremonial is said to have been five thousand rupees. + +Tulabina.--The Tulabinas are a class of cotton-cleaners, who are +scattered over the Ganjam district, and said to be more numerous in +Cuttack. It is suggested that the name is derived from tula, the beam +of a balance, and bina (or vina) a stringed musical instrument. The +apparatus used by them in cleaning cotton, which bears a fanciful +resemblance to a vina, is suspended by a rope so that it is properly +balanced, and the gut-string thereof struck with a dumb-bell shaped +implement, to set it vibrating. + +Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum, sacred basil).--A sub-division of Velama, +and gotra of Komati. The tulsi plant is planted in Hindu houses and +worshipped by women, and the wood is made into beads for rosaries. + +Tulukkar (Turks).--A Tamil name sometimes applied to Muhammadans. + +Tuluva.--Tulu, Tuluva, or Tuluvan occurs as the name of a sub-division +of the Tamil Vellalas, and of the Agasas, Billavas, Gaudas, Kumbaras, +and other classes in South Canara. The equivalent Tulumar is recorded +as a sub-caste of Mavilan, which speaks Tulu. + +Concerning the Tuluva Vellalas, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes [68] that +these are immigrants from the Tulu country, a part of the modern +district of South Canara. Mr. Nelson is of opinion that these are +the original Vellalas, who were invited to Tondamandalam after its +conquest by the Chola king Adondai Chakravarti. [69] + +Tunnaran (tailor).--An occupational sub-division of Nayar. + +Tupakala.--Tupakala or Tupaki (gun) has been recorded as an exogamous +sept of Balija, Kavarai, and Yanadi. + +Turaka.--Recorded as a sept of Kuruba. It is further a Telugu name +sometimes applied to Muhammadans. There is also a thief class, known +as Bhattu Turaka. (See Bhatrazu.) + +Turuvalar.--Recorded in the Salem Manual as a caste name, by which +some of the Vedans call themselves. "The Turuvalar are distinguished +as the Kattukudugirajati, a name derived from a custom among them +which authorizes informal temporary matrimonial arrangements." + + + + + + + +U + + +Udasi.--A few members of this Central India sect of religious +mendicants and devotees have been returned at times of census. It is +said to have been founded three hundred years ago by one Gopaldas. + +Udaiya.--Udaiya, meaning lord, is the title of many well-to-do +Lingayats and of some Jains, and Udaiya or Wodeiyar occurs as the name +of a Lingayat sub-division of the Badagas of the Niligiri hills. The +Maharajas of Mysore belong to the Wodeiyar dynasty, which was restored +after the Muhammadan usurpation of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan. The +name of the present Maharaja is Sri Krishna Raja Wodeiyar Bahadur. + +Udaiyan.--It is noted in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "the +four Tamil castes Nattaman, Malaiman, Sudarman (or Suruthiman), and +Udaiyan are closely connected. The last is probably a title rather +than a caste, and is the usual agnomen of the Nattamans, Malaimans, +and Sudarmans, as also of the potter caste (Kusavan). Nattaman means a +man of the plains, Malaiman a man of the hills, and Sudarman one who +does good, a hero. Nattampadi is another form of Nattaman. Tradition +traces the descent of the three castes from a certain Deva Raja, +a Chera king, who had three wives, by each of whom he had a son, +and these were the ancestors of the three castes. There are other +stories, but all agree in ascribing the origin of the castes to +a single progenitor of the Chera dynasty. It seems probable that +they are descendants of the Vedar soldiers of the Kongu country, +who were induced to settle in the eastern districts of the Chera +kingdom. Additional evidence of the important position they once +held is afforded by the titles Pandariyar, Pandarattar (custodians +of the treasury), which some of them still use. Some of them again +are locally styled Poligars (Palayakkaran) by the ordinary ryots, +and the title Kavalgar is not infrequent." + +In a note on the Udaiyans, Malaiyamans, Nattamans, and Sudarmans of the +Trichinopoly district, Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes as follows. "Though, +in the Census Report, 1901, they are shown as separate castes, in this +district they are endogamous sub-divisions of one and the same caste, +namely the Udaiyans. The three sub-divisions are unanimous in saying +that they are the descendants of the three Paraiyan foster-daughters +of the poetess Auvaiyar, all of whom became the wives of the king +of Tirukkoyilur in South Arcot, a certain Daivika, who was warned +that only by marrying these women could he save his family from +disaster. The Chola, Pandya, and Chera kings were present at the +wedding, and, on their blessing the bridegroom and his brides, they +were themselves blessed by the poetess, to whom the Chera kingdom +owes its unfailing rain, the Chola country its rice fields, and the +Pandyan realm its cotton. The poorness of the last blessing is due to +the fact that the Pandya king was slow to offer his good wishes. The +three sub-divisions eat together, and recognise the tie of a common +descent, but do not intermarry. The section called Arisakkara +Nattaman is looked down upon by the rest, and may not intermarry +with any of them. All have well-defined exogamous sub-divisions, +called kanis, derived from places where their different ancestors +are supposed to have lived, e.g., Kolattur, Kannanur, Ariyalur. The +Udaiyans put on sacred threads at marriages and funerals, and some +of them have recently begun to wear them always. They are generally +cultivators, and, with the exception of the Sudarmans, who are +supposed to have a turn for crime, are law-abiding citizens. One +section of the Sudarmans, the Muppans of Kapistalam in Tanjore, +have a bad reputation for criminality. A curious practice is that, +before arranging a marriage, it is customary for the bride's party to +go to the bridegroom's house, to dine with him, and test his health +by seeing how much he can eat. They allow a boy, whose suit for the +hand of a girl within certain degrees of relationship is refused by +her parents, to marry the girl, notwithstanding, by tying a tali +(marriage emblem) round her neck. They also permit the betrothal +of infants, the form observed being to present the child with a new +cloth and a mat, and to apply sacred ashes to its forehead. At their +funerals, the mourning party has to chew some rice and spit it out +on the return from the burning-ground, and, on the sixteenth day, +the widow is made to worship a light, and to touch a salt pot. The +Nattaman women do not, as a rule, cover their breasts. The lobes of +their ears are very distended, and they tattoo their chins and cheeks +in the Paraiyan fashion. This is supposed to be in recollection of +their origin. The Malaiyaman women wear their tali on a golden wire +instead of on a thread." + +"The Udaiyans," Mr. Francis writes, [70] are a caste, which is +specially numerous in South Arcot. Most of them are cultivators, and +in Kallakurchi many are also money-lenders on a large scale. They +adopt numerous different titles in an indiscriminate way, and four +brothers have been known to call themselves respectively Nayak, Pillai, +Mudali, and Udaiyan. They have three sub-divisions--Malaiyaman, +Nattaman, and Sudarman--which all admit that they are descended +from one common stock, will usually dine together, but do not +intermarry. Some of the caste, however, are now turning vegetarians, +and these will not only not eat with the others, but will not let +their girls marry them. They do not, nevertheless, object to their +sons taking brides from the meat-eating classes, and thus provide +an interesting, if small, instance of the (on this coast) uncommon +practice of hypergamy. In all general matters the ways of the three +sub-divisions are similar. Sudarmans are uncommon in this district, +and are stated to be chiefly found in Trichinopoly and Tanjore. The +Udaiyans say that the three groups are the descendants of a king +who once ruled at Tirukkoyilur, the first of whom took the hilly +part of his father's country, and so was called Malaiyaman; the +second the level tracts, whence his name Nattaman, and the third was +the scholar of the family, and learned in the holy books (srutas), +and so was called Sudarman. These Udaiyans are the caste from which +were drawn some of the kavalgars (watchmen) who, in pre-British days, +were appointed to perform police duties, and keep the country clear +of thieves; and some of the descendants of these men, who are known +to their neighbours as poligars, and still have considerable local +influence, are even now to be met with. The connection of the members +of the caste with the Vepur (criminal) Paraiyans, which is of course +confined to the less reputable sections among them, seems to have had +its origin in the days when they were still head kavalgars, and these +Paraiyans were their talaiyaris, entrusted, under their orders, with +police duties in the different villages. It now consists in acting as +receivers of the property these people steal, and in protecting them +in diverse ways--finding and feeing a vakil (law pleader) for their +defence, for instance--when they are in trouble with the police. It +is commonly declared that their relations are sometimes of a closer +nature, and that the wives of Veppur Paraiyans who are in enforced +retirement are cared for by the Udaiyans. To this is popularly +attributed the undoubted fact that these Paraiyans are often much +fairer in complexion than other members of that caste." + +The village of Mangalam in the South Arcot district is "chiefly +interesting on account of its being the only village in the +district where buffalo sacrifices on any scale are still regularly +made. Buffaloes are dedicated to the Kali shrine in Mangalam even +by persons in the Salem, Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts, and the +village is commonly known as Maduvetti Mangalam, or buffalo-sacrificing +Mangalam. When a man or any of his belongings gets seriously sick, +he consecrates an animal to this shrine, and, if the illness ends +favourably, it is sent to its fate at the temple on the date of the +annual sacrifice (May-June). When the buffalo is dedicated, a piece +of saffron-coloured cloth, in which is placed some small coin and +a cadjan (palm) leaf containing an announcement of the dedication, +is tied to its horns, and it is allowed to roam wherever it likes +through the fields. On the day of the sacrifice, fourteen of the +best of the animals which have been dedicated and brought to the +temple are selected, and seven of them are tied to an equal number +of stone posts in front of the goddess' shrine. The pujari (priest), +who is an Udaiyan by caste, then walks down the line, and beheads +them one after the other. The goddess is next taken round on a car, +and, on her return to the temple, the other seven buffaloes are +similarly killed. The animals which are not selected are sold, and +the proceeds paid into the temple treasury. There are two images in +the temple, one of Kali, and the other, which is placed at the back +of the shrine, of Mangalayachi. The latter goddess does not approve +of animal sacrifices, and, while the above ceremonies are proceeding, +a blanket is hung in front of her so that she may not see them." [71] + +It is noted by Bishop Whitehead that, a few years ago, an untoward +event occurred in connection with a Pidari festival at a village in the +Trichinopoly district. "The festival had commenced, and the pujari had +tied the kapu (cord dyed with turmeric) on his wrist, when a dispute +arose between the trustees of the shrine, which caused the festival +to be stopped. The dispute could not be settled, and the festival was +suspended for three years, and, during all that time, there could be +no marriages among the Udaya caste, while the poor pujari, with the +kapu on his wrist, had to remain the whole of the three years in the +temple, not daring to go out lest Pidari in her wrath should slay him." + +It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "the Nattamans +say they originally settled in South Arcot, and then spread to Tanjore +and Trichinopoly, and finally to Madura, and this theory is supported +by the fact that they have fifteen exogamous sub-divisions called +kanis or fields, which are all named after villages (e.g., Ariyalur, +Puththur) in the first three of these districts. A man has a right +to marry the daughter of his father's sister, and, if she is given +to another man, the father's sister has to return to her father or +brother the dowry which she received at the time of her marriage, +and this is given to the man who had the claim upon the girl. The +same custom occurs among the Kuravans and the Kallans. The eldest +son in each family has to be named after the god of the village which +gives its name to the kani or sept to which the family belongs, and +the child is usually taken to that village to be named. Marriage is +infant or adult. Widow marriage is forbidden. Brahmans are employed +for ceremonies, but these are not received on terms of equality by +other Brahmans. Both cremation and burial are practised. Vellalas will +eat with Nattamans. The caste title is Udaiyan." Another title is +Nayinar, which is also used by Pallis and Jains. There is a proverb +"Nattumuththinal Nayinar", i.e., when the Nattaman ripens, he is a +Nayinar. At the census, 1901, some Nattamans returned themselves as +Natramiludaiyan, meaning the repository of chaste Tamil; and Ur-Udaiyan +(lord of a village) was given as their caste name. Nattaman also +occurs as a sub-division of the Pallis. + +Under the name Nattamadi, the Nattamans are described in the Tanjore +Manual as "peasant population. Some are ryotwari land-holders in +their own right and possess large estates. The word is derived from +nattam, village, and is used in three forms, Nattamakkal, Nattamar, +and Nattamadi. A considerable proportion are converts to the Roman +Catholic religion, and, in the neighbourhood of Vallam, there are +very few who profess any other faith." In the Madura Manual, the +Nattambadiyans are further described as being "usually respectable +cultivators. They are said to have emigrated into the Madura country +not more than about eight years ago. They are an interesting class of +Tamils, inasmuch as very many of them have adopted the Roman Catholic +faith under the leadership of the Jesuit missionaries. They are said to +be a fine race physically; finer even than the Vellalans. They are also +called Udaiyans, and tradition says that they came from the Toreiyur +nadu or district in Tanjore, from a village called Udeiyapaleiyam. They +are chiefly resident in the great zamindaris, and contrast favourably +with the Maravans, being very orderly, frugal, and industrious." + +I am informed that Nattaman women will do cooly work and carry food +for their husbands when at work in the fields, but that Malaiman +women will not do so. + +The Sudarmans are described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, +as "cultivators chiefly found in the districts of Tanjore and +Trichinopoly. They are imitating the Brahmans and Vellalas in +their social customs, and some of them have left off eating meat, +with the idea of raising themselves in general estimation; but they +nevertheless eat in the houses of Kallans and Idaiyans. Their title +is Muppan." Some Sudarmans, I am told, have become Agamudaiyans. + +Uddari.--A synonym for the village Taliyari. + +Uddu (Phaseolus Mungo).--An exogamous sept of Kappiliyan. + +Udhdhandra.--A title conferred by Zamindars on some Kurumos. + +Uduma.--Uduma or Udumala, meaning the lizard Varanus, has been recorded +as an exogamous sept of Boya, Kapu, Tottiyan, and Yanadi. + +Ugrani.--A village servant in South Canara, appointed to watch +the store-rooms (ugrana), e.g., the village granary, treasury, or +bhuta-sthana. In 1907, the powers of village policeman were conferred +on the Ugrani, who now wears a brass badge on his arm, with the words +Village Police in the vernacular engraved on it. It is the duty of +the Ugrani to report the following to the village magistrate:-- + +1. The commission of grave crimes, such as theft, house-breaking, +robbery, dacoity, accidental deaths, suicides, etc. + +2. The existence of disputes in connection with landed property, +likely to give occasion to any fight or rioting. + +3. The arrival of Fakirs, Bairagis, or other strangers in the village. + +4. The arrival or residence in the village of any person whom the +villagers suspect to be a bad character. + +5. The commission of mischief in respect of any public property, such +as roads, road avenues, bridges, cattle pounds, Government trees on +unreserved lands, etc. + +Uliyakaran.--A synonym, denoting menial servant, of Parivaram. + +Ulladan.--It is recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, +that "the Ullatans and Nayatis are found in the low country, as well +as on the hills. At a remote period, certain Ullata families from +the plains settled themselves at Talpurakkotta near Sabarimala, and +even to-day pilgrims to Sabarimala consider this place as sacred. In +the low country, the offerings to the same deities as the Ullatans +worship are offered by the Valans. Hence the Ullatans were called by +them Kochchuvalans. The place near Sabarimala where they once dwelt is +known as Kochuvalakkuti, or the cottage of the Kochchuvalan. Most of +these Ullatans have left this place for fear of wild beasts, and are +now straying in the woods with no fixed abode. It is said that they +are the descendants from a Nambutiri woman, who, on being proclaimed +an outcast, said Ullatana, meaning that (the offence for which she +was ostracised) is true. [According to another derivation, the name +is derived from ull, within, and otunnu, runs, and means one who runs +away into the forest at the sight of a member of any of the higher +castes.] They are good hunters, and experts in the collection of wax +and other forest produce. A curious marriage custom, prevalent among +them, is thus related by Dr. Day. 'A large round building is made +of leaves, and inside this the bride is ensconced. All the eligible +young men of the village then assemble, and form a ring round this +hut. At a short distance sits the girl's father or the nearest male +relative with tom-tom in his hands, and a few more musical instruments +complete the scene. Presently the music begins. The young men, each +armed with a bamboo, commence dancing round the hut, into which each of +them thrusts his stick. This continues about an hour, when the owner +of whichever bamboo she seizes becomes the fortunate husband of the +concealed bride. A feast then follows.' [72] They subsist chiefly on +fruits, wild yams, and other forest products, and eke out a wretched +existence. When armed with guns, they make excellent sportsmen." + +It is noted by the Rev. S. Mateer [73] that the Ulladans "subsist +chiefly on wild yams, arrowroot, and other esculents, which they find +in the jungle, and for the grubbing up of which they are generally +armed with a long pointed staff. They also further enjoy the fruits +of the chase, and are adepts in the use of the bow and arrow. The +arrow they use has an iron spear-head, and an Ulladan has been known +to cut a wriggling cobra in half at the first shot. They were claimed +as the property of celebrated hill temples, or great proprietors, who +exacted service of them, and sometimes sold their services to Nairs, +Syrians, and others. A few Ulladans in the low country say they or +their fathers were stolen in childhood, and brought down as slaves." + +At Kottayam in Travancore, I came across a party of Ulladans carrying +cross-bows. These were said to be used for catching fish in rivers, +lagoons, and tanks. The arrow is between two and three feet in length, +and has an iron hook at one end. Attached to it is a thin but strong +string, one end of which is tied to the hook, while the other end +passes through a small hole in the wooden part of the arrow, and is +fastened to the cross-bar of the bow. This string is about thirty feet +in length, and serves not only to drag the captured fish out of the +water, and land it, but also to prevent the arrow from being lost. The +origin of the cross-bow, which I have not found in the possession of +any other tribe, puzzled me until the word Firingi was mentioned in +connection with it. The use of this word would seem to indicate that +the cross-bow is a survival from the days of the Portuguese on the +west coast, Firingi (a Frank) or Parangi being used by Natives for +European or Portuguese. + +For the following note on the Ulladans of the Cochin State, I +am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer. [74] "Their huts +are situated in the forest of the plains, by the side of paddy +(rice) flats, or in cocoanut gardens remote from those of the +members of the higher castes. Only Christian Moplahs are found in +the neighbourhood. Their huts are erected on short bamboo posts, +the roof and four sides of which are covered with plaited cocoanut +leaves. A bamboo framework, of the same leaves, serves the purpose of +a door. A few plaited cocoanut leaves, and a mat of their own weaving, +form the only furniture, and serve as beds for them at night. Their +vessels in domestic use consist of a few earthen pots for cooking and +keeping water in, and a few shallow earthen dishes, from which they +drink water, and take their food. Some large pieces of the bark of the +areca palm, containing salt, chillies, etc., were also seen by me. What +little they possess as food and clothing is placed in small baskets +suspended from the framework of the roof by means of wooden hooks. + +"The caste assembly consists of the elderly members of the caste. There +is a headman, who is called Muppan, and he has an assistant who +is known as Ponamban. The headman has to preside at all marriage +and funeral ceremonies, and to decide all disputes connected with +the caste. The caste assembly meets chiefly to deal with cases of +immorality. The guilty parties are summoned before the assembly. The +headman, who presides, inquires into the matter, and, in the event +of the accused parties confessing their guilt, they are taken before +His Highness the Raja, who is informed of the circumstances. The male +culprit is sometimes beaten or fined. The woman is given some water +or the milk of a green cocoanut, and this is supposed to set her free +from all sin. When a fine is imposed, it is sometimes spent on the +purchase of toddy, which is shared among the castemen present. The +headman gets a few puthans (Cochin coins) for his trouble. + +"In religion, the Ulladans are pure animists or demon worshippers. All +cases of sickness, and other calamities, are attributed to the +malignant influence of demons, whom it is necessary to propitiate. They +worship Kappiri, Thikutti, and Chathan, all of whom are represented +by a few stones placed under a thatched roof called kottil. Offerings +of rice flour, sheep, fowls, toddy, rice, cocoanuts and plantains, +are given on Fridays in the month of Kanni (September-October). One +of the castemen acts as Velichapad (oracle), and speaks as if by +inspiration. He also casts out demons from the bodies of women who are +believed to be influenced by them. When he resumes his former self, +he takes half the offerings to himself, allowing the other half for +distribution among the bystanders. They also worship the spirits of +the departed members of their families, who, they think, sometimes +appear to them in dreams, and ask them for whatever they want. They +believe that, in the event of their neglecting to give what is asked, +these spirits will cause serious calamity to their family. + +"The Ulladans generally bury their dead in special places called +chotala, but some of them bury the corpse a few yards away from their +huts. The young are buried deep in the ground, while the old ones are +buried not so deep. The dead body is placed on a new piece of cloth +spread on a bamboo bier, which is carried by the relatives to the +grave-yard. The castemen of the neighbourhood, including the relations +and friends of the deceased, accompany the bier to the burial-ground, +and return home after bathing. The members of the family fast for +the night. They observe pollution for fifteen days, and, on the +morning of the sixteenth day, the Thalippan (barber priest) comes +and cleans the huts and its surrounding, and sprinkles cow-dung mixed +with water on the members of the family as they return from bathing, +in order that they may be freed from pollution. They entertain their +castemen on that day. It is a custom among the Ulladans, Pulayas, +and other low classes, that, when they are invited to a feast, +they bring with them some rice, curry stuffs, toddy, or a few annas +to meet the expenses of the feast. Very often the above articles +are obtained as a gift from the charitably disposed members of the +higher castes. At the end of the year, a similar feast is given to +the castemen. Among the Ulladans, the nephew is the chief mourner, +for he usually succeeds to the property of the dead, and proves his +right of ownership by acting as the chief mourner. + +"The Ulladans on the sea-coast make boats, and cut timber. Their +brethren in the interior gather honey, and collect minor forest +produce, and sell it to contractors. During the agricultural season, +they engage in every kind of agricultural work, such as ploughing, +sowing, transplanting, reaping, etc. They also graze the cattle of +the farmers. They get a few annas worth of paddy (unhusked rice) +for their labour. For most of the months in the year they are in +a half-starving condition, and resort to eating wild roots, and +animals, which they can get hold of (e.g., rats, tortoises, fish, +or crocodiles). They know where rats are to be found. They thrust +a long stick into their holes, moving it so violently as to kill +them there, or forcing them to come out, when they catch and kill +them. Very often in the rural parts, both men and women are found +with long poles ready to be thrust into any holes there may be by +the side of a fence, or where bamboos are growing luxuriantly. They +also catch crocodiles. They place the carcase of a fowl, sheep, or +other animal, on the bank of a canal, or by the side of a tank where +crocodiles are to be found. Into it is thrust a pointed piece of iron, +fastened to a long cord. When a crocodile comes out of the water to +eat it, or tries to get away with it, the piece of iron is fixed +firmly into its mouth, upon which the Ulladans, who are watching, +approach and kill it with their clubs and knives. They catch fish +by means of bait, and by poisoning the water. They are also very +skilful in spearing fish swimming near the surface. They are more +trackers of game than hunters, and very often accompany Moplahs, who +go out hunting to provide themselves with meat of all kinds for feasts +during their weddings. The Ulladans are engaged only as beaters. For +this service, they are given meals during the wedding, in addition +to three annas worth of paddy for each beater. They are armed with +clubs, and seldom go with dogs, fearing that they may drive away the +game. When any animal is killed in hunting, the right side of the +back of the animal goes to the Government. It is given to the Forest +Officer, who auctions it, and the money obtained is sent to the taluk +treasury. The left side of the back goes to the member of the party +who shoots the animal. He also gets the face with the tongue. The +headman among the Ulladans also gets a share. The remainder of the +carcase is equally divided among the members who have formed the +party. Should any dispute arise regarding the division of the game, +the man who shoots the animal is entrusted with the settlement of the +dispute, and his decision is final. In cases where the hunting party +is organised by the Moplahs, the Ulladans get wages and meals for their +trouble. In places where elephant pits are dug, hunting is forbidden. + +"As regards their social status, the Ulladans, like the Nayadis, +form the Chandalas of the plains. Their approach to within a radius +of sixty-four feet pollutes Brahmans, and all higher castes, including +the Sudras (Nayars). The Ulladans cannot walk along the public roads, +or come to the bazaars. Nor can they approach the precincts of any town +or locality where the members of higher castes reside. The Pulayas +and Parayas profess to be polluted by them. It is curious to note +that the Ullada women consider it degrading to go to work like the +Pulaya woman. They say that their husbands have to provide for them." + +Ulli (onions or garlic).--A sub-division of the Tigala +market-gardeners. The equivalent Ullipoyala occurs as an exogamous +sept of Golla, and Ulligadda as a sept of Boya and Korava. + +Ulumban.--It is recorded in the Gazetteer of Malabar that "an +endogamous sub-caste (of Nayars) of foreign origin are the Ulumbans or +cowherds. According to one tradition, they were originally immigrants +from Dvaraka (Guzerat). Their original occupation still survives in the +privileges of supplying ghee (clarified butter) for the abhishegam or +libation at the great annual festival at the jungle shrine of Kottiyur, +and of supplying butter-milk to the Tiruvangad temple at Tellicherry, +which are exercised by families of this caste; and in the general +privilege of offering milk in any temple without previous ablution." + +Uluvala (seeds of horse-gram: Dolichos biflorus).--An exogamous sept +of Boya and Jogi. + +Ungara.--Ungara and Ungarala, meaning rings, have been recorded as +exogamous septs of Balija and Kuruba. + +Unittiri.--Unittiri, or Unyatiri, meaning, it is said, venerable boy, +has been recorded as a sub-division of Samantam. Unnittan appears, +in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a title of Nayars, and is +said to be derived from unni, small, tan, a title of dignity. + +Unnekankana.--A sub-division of Kurubas, who tie a woollen thread +(unne kankana) round the wrist at times of marriage. + +Unni.--For the following note on the Unnis of Travancore, I am indebted +to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The word Unni, whatever its significance may +have been of old, at present forms the common title of four castes of +the Ambalavasi group, whose manners and custom differ considerably in +their details. They are known, respectively, as Pushpakans, Brahmanis, +Tiyattunnis, and Nattu Pattars, their social precedence being in this +order. Pushpakan comes from pushpa, which in Sanskrit means either +a flower or menses. Brahmanis, more vulgarly known as Pappinis, +are so named because they perform some of the priestly functions of +the Brahmans for the Sudra population of Travancore. Tiyattunnis, +also known as Taiyampatis in British Malabar, are so called from the +peculiar religious service they perform in some Hindu temples. Nattu +Pattars are also known as Pattar Unnis and Karappuram Unnis. Unni means +a child, and is used as an honorific term to denote the male children +of a Nambutiri's household. The reason why these Ambalavasi castes came +to be so called was that they were looked upon as more respectable than +the Nayars, by whom the term must doubtless have been made use of at +first. The Pushpakans are said to be divided into three classes, namely +Pushpakans, Nambiassans, and Puppallis. The first section live only +as far south as Evur in Central Travancore, and are called Nambiyars +in the north. The Nambiyassans live in Cochin and North Travancore, +while the Puppallis are found only towards the south. There are +no sub-divisions among the Brahmanis and Karappuramunnis. But the +Tiyattunnis are divided into two classes, namely the Tiyatinambiyans +of the north, who are generally employed in the temples of Sastha, +and Tiyattunnis proper, who perform a similar function in the shrines +of Bhadrakali. Women are also known as Atovarammamar and Kovillammamar. + +Pushpakans are said to have arisen out of the union of a Brahman +woman in her menses with her husband. Parasurama set them apart, +and gave them the occupation of making garlands in the temples of +Malabar. Though this derivation is given in the Keralamahatmya, it may +be more easily believed that Pushpakan is derived from the occupation +of working in flowers. Puppalli, at any rate, is thus derived, and, +as Palli signifies anything sacred, the caste name arose from the +occupation of preparing garlands for deities. Nambiyassans, called +also Nambiyars and Nambis, must have been, as also the Puppallis +and Brahmanis, one with the Pushpakans. In some places, Nambiyassans +are known to have kept gymnasia and military training schools. The +Brahmanis must have undergone some degree of degradation because +of the religious songs which they sang during the marriages of the +Nayars, while those who did not take part therein became, as it were, +a separate sept. Another tradition, accounting for the origin of the +caste, is that, as in primitive ages early marriages prevailed among +the Malayala Brahmans, the family of the Nambutiri who first married +his daughter after puberty was excommunicated, and gave origin to +the Pushpakas. This is untrue, as, in Vedic times, adult marriage +was the rule, and the Nambutiris in this respect have been known +to follow a more primitive custom than the Brahmans of the east +coast. The Tiyattunnis are said to be the descendants of a Bhuta +or demon directed by Siva to sing songs in praise of Bhadrakali, +and appease her anger after the murder of Darika. They must from +the first have formed a distinct section of the Ambalavasis. The +Karappuram Unnis are supposed to have been elevated to their present +status by Cheraman Perumal, one of the rulers of ancient Kerala, as, +though belonging to the Sudra caste, they were obliged on one occasion +to perform Brahmanical service for him. Perumal is believed to have +permitted them to take the title of Unni, and call themselves Pattar, +by which name East Coast Brahmans are known in Malabar. Thus they came +to own the three names Nattu Pattar, Pattar Unni, and Karappuram Unni, +Karappuram or Shertallay being the territory where the sept received +the above-mentioned social elevation from their sovereign. Even now, +many of them reside in the taluks of Ambalapuzha and Shertallay. + +The house of a Pushpaka is variously known as pushpakam, pumatum, +or padodakam, the last signifying a place where the water falls +from the feet of the deity, on account of its close proximity to the +temple, where the daily avocation of the Pushpaka lies. The houses +of the Tiyattunnis and Nattu Pattars are only known by the name of +bhavanam. As in the case of the Brahmans, the Pushpanis and Brahmanis +cover their bodies with a piece of cloth, carry an umbrella, and are +accompanied by Nayar servant-maids when they go out in public. The +women have one more fold in their dress than the Nambutiris. The +neck ornament of women is the cherutali-kuttam, and the ear ornament +the katila. Bell-metal bangles are worn round the wrists. Female +Tiyattunnis and Nattu Pattars do not wear the last, and are generally +unaccompanied by Nayar servant-maids when they go out. + +Pushpakans are believed to be the most fitting caste for the +preparation of flower garlands to be used in temples. They +also assist in the preparation of the materials for the daily +offering. Nambiyassans were instructors in arms in days of old, and +kalari or gymnasia are owned by them even at the present day. Their +punyaha, or purificatory ceremony after pollution, is performed by +Pushpakans. Brahmani women sing religious songs on the occasion of +marriage among all castes from Kshatriyas to Nayars. In Kumaranallur +and other Bhagavati shrines, women are employed to sing propitiatory +songs, while the men make garlands, sweep the floor of the inner +court-yard and plinth, clean the temple vessels, and carry the lamp +when images are taken round in procession. It is only the first of +these temple services that the Pushpakas do, and their women never +go out to sing on marriage occasions. The word Tiyattu or Teyyatu +is said to be a corruption of Daivamattu, or dancing to please the +deity. According to one tradition, they were degraded from Pushpakas +for undertaking service in the temples. In more orthodox times, +tiyattu could be performed only in temples and Brahman houses, but +now Sudras also share the privilege of inviting the Tiyattunnis to +their homes for this purpose, though the ceremony cannot be performed +in their houses without a previous punyaha. The rite is extremely +popular when epidemic disease prevails. Ganapati and Bhadrakali +are, as a preliminary measure, worshipped, to the accompaniment of +musical instruments. As this has to be done in the noon, it is called +uchchappattu, or noon-day song. In the evening, an image of Bhadrakali +is drawn on the ground with powders of five colours, white, yellow, +black, green and red. At night, songs are sung in praise of that +deity by the Tiyattunni and his followers. A member of the troupe +then plays the part of Bhadrakali in the act of murdering the demon +Darika, and, in conclusion, waves a torch before the inmates of the +house, to ward off the evil eye, which is the most important item +in the whole ceremony. The torch is believed to be given by Siva, +who is worshipped before the light is waved. + +The Karappuram Unnis, unlike the other septs of their class, are +mostly agriculturists. The Unnis are all Smartas, but a partiality for +Bhadrakali is manifested by the Tiyattunnis and Brahmanis. All social +matters among the Unnis are superintended by Nambutiri Brahmans, +but, in all that directly touches the social well-being, their own +headmen are the judges. Before entering a Pushpaka's house for the +observation of any ceremony, the Nambutiris insist upon the performance +of punyaha. Though the superiority of Ilayatus is acknowledged, +they are never employed by the Pushpakas for priestly functions. The +Ilayatus are believed to have once been the priests of the Nattu +Pattars, though at the present time learned men from their own sept +are employed for this purpose. The punyaha is, however, performed +through the agency of Nambutiris. The priests of the Nambiyassans, +Tiyattunnis, and Brahmanis are Ilayatus. + +Adult marriage prevails, twelve being the earliest age of a girl when +she ceases to be single. On the evening of the day before the wedding, +the bride has a ceremonial bath, and performs the ceremony of growing +a jasmine shoot, the flowers of which she should cull and present as +an offering to the deity. On the marriage day, the bridegroom's party +arrives in procession at the house of the bride, who awaits them with +her face covered, and holding a brass mirror and garland of flowers +in her hands. Her veil is removed, and the contracting couple gaze at +each other. At the auspicious hour their hands are joined, and other +items of the marriage rites carried out. In connection with a Pushpaka +marriage, ammana attam or tossing of metal balls, kaikottikali or +the circular dance, and yatrakali are among the amusements indulged +in. Divorce was common among the Pushpakas in bygone days, but, at +the present time, the marriage tie is usually permanent, and it is +only after the first husband's death that cloths may be received from +a Malayala Brahman in token of sambandham (alliance). The Brahmanis, +however, have not given up the practice of divorce. Nambiyassans, +Puppallis, Pattar Unnis, and Brahmanis follow the marumakkattayam +system of inheritance (through the female line), while the Pushpakas +and Tiyattunnis are makkattayis, and follow the law of inheritance +from father to son. The offspring of a Brahmani by a Pushpaka woman +are regarded as issue in a makkattayam family. As is the custom among +the Nambutiris, only the eldest son marries, the other sons remaining +as snatakas, and contracting alliances with Nayar women. The Illam +Nayars, however, do not give their daughters to the Unnis. + +The jatakarma, though not strictly proper, is observed in modern +days. The namakarana takes place, along with the annaprasana, in the +sixth month after birth. The chaula is performed in the third year, +though, among the Nattu Pattars, it is a preliminary ceremony before +upanayana. The proper time for the performance of the upanayana is +between the eighth and sixteenth year. Samavartana takes place on +the fourteenth day after upanayana. Pollution lasts for only ten +days among the Tiyattunnis, whereas the Brahmanis observe twelve, +and the Nattu Pattars thirteen days' pollution. Ten gayatris (hymns) +are allowed to be recited thrice daily. + +The Pushpakas are the highest of the thread-wearing sections of the +Ambalavasis, according to their traditional origin as well as their +religious and social practices. The Pattar Unnis are the lowest, +and are only a step higher than the Kurukkals. Consecrated water +and flowers are not given to them directly by the temple priest, but +they may stand on the right side of the stone steps leading to the +inner shrine. This is the rule with all Ambalavasi divisions. Other +Ambalavasis do not receive food from the Unnis. These sections of +the Unnis which have Ilayatus for their priests accept food from +them. As the Pushpakas proper employ only Nambutiris for purificatory +purposes, the latter freely cook food in their houses, as in those +of the Muttatus. + +It is recorded by Mr. Logan [75] that the Tiyattunnis or Tiyadis (ti, +fire; attam, play) are "a class of pseudo-Brahmans in Malabar, who +derive their name from the ceremony of jumping through fire before +temples." Mr. Subramani Aiyar writes, in this connection, that "I do +not think Mr. Logan is quite right when he describes the service of +the Tiyattunnis as jumping through fire. It is dancing with lighted +wicks in the hands, to exorcise the genius representing the evil eye, +or as a propitiatory service in temples. It answers to the pallippanna +and kolantullal of the Kaniyans. A figure of Bhadrakali is drawn on the +ground with powders of different colours, and the chief incidents in +the incarnate life of the deity are recited by the Tiyattunnis. After +this, some cocoanuts are broken in two, and lighted wicks are then +placed before the presiding deity if done in a temple as a propitiatory +service, or before any particular individual or individuals, if the +object is to free him or them from the effect of the evil eye." + +Uppalavar (salt workers).--A synonym of Alavan. + +Uppara.--For the following note, I am mainly indebted to +Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. Uppiliyan, Uppara, Uppara or Uppaliga, +are different names for a class of people, who followed the same +professional occupation, the manufacture of salt (uppu), in various +parts of Southern India. The Uppiliyans live in the Tamil country, +and speak Tamil; the Upparas in the Telugu country, and speak Telugu; +while the Upparas inhabit the Mysore province and the districts +bordering thereon, and speak Canarese. The Upparas are described by +Mr. H. A. Stuart [76] as "a caste of tank-diggers and earth-workers, +corresponding to the Uppiliyans of the Tamil districts. They resemble +greatly the Oddes (Voddas or Wudders) in appearance, customs, +and manner of earning a living. Their traditional occupation is, +as the name implies, manufacturing earth-salt. They profess to be +Saivites and Vaishnavites, but practically worship village deities, +e.g., Sunkalamma, Timmappa, and Jambulamma." It is possible that the +Uppiliyans, Upparas, and Upparas were originally a homogeneous caste, +the members of which, in course of time, migrated to different parts +of the country, and adopted the language of the locality in which +they settled. The causes, which may have led to the breaking up of +the caste, are not far to seek. The original occupation thereof, +according to the legendary story of its origin, was tank, channel, +and well digging. Southern India depended in days gone by, as at the +present time, mainly on its agricultural produce, and people were +required, then as now, to secure, conserve, and distribute the water, +which was essential for agricultural prosperity. Inscriptions, such +as those quoted by Mr. V. Venkayya, [77] bear testimony to the energy +displayed by former rulers in Southern India in having tanks, wells, +and irrigation channels constructed. Uppiliyans, Upparas or Upparas, +are, at the present day, found all over the Madras Presidency, from +Ganjam in the north to Tinnevelley in the south. From early times +they seem to have, in addition to the work already indicated, been +engaged in bricklaying, house-building, the construction of forts, +and every kind of earth-work. + +Writing concerning the Telugu Upparas at the beginning of the +nineteenth century, Buchanan states [78] that "their proper occupation +is the building of mud walls, especially those of forts." A very +important occupation of these people was the manufacture of earth-salt +and saltpetre, of which the latter was an important ingredient in the +manufacture of gunpowder. "Throughout India," Dr. G. Oppert writes, +[79] "saltpetre is found, and the Hindus are well acquainted with all +its properties; it is even commonly prescribed as a medicine. India +was famous for the exportation of saltpetre, and is so. The Dutch, +when in India, traded especially in this article." + +The Uppiliyans say that they are descended from a man who was created +to provide salt for the table of their god, but lost the favour +of the deity because his wife bartered the salt for some glass +bangles. In his wrath he put his wife into the oven to kill her, +but she escaped through a hole in the back. As evidence of the truth +of the story, they point to the facts that their women wear no glass +bangles, and that their ovens always have a hole in them. The caste +further traces its descent from a mythical individual, named Sagara, +to whom is ascribed the digging of the Bay of Bengal. His story is +narrated in the Vishnu Purana, [80] and is briefly as follows. Sagara +was son of Bahu, who was overrun by the Haihayas and Talajanghas, +and consequently retired to the forest, where, near the hermitage of +Muni Aurva, one of his queens conceived. A rival queen poisoned her, +so as to prevent her from being delivered of the child. Meanwhile, +Bahu waxed old, and his pregnant wife prepared to ascend the funeral +pyre with him. But the Muni forbade her, saying that she was going +to be the mother of an universal emperor. She accordingly desisted +from the desperate act, and a splendid boy was born, and the poison +expelled along with him. The Muni, on this account, gave him the +name of Sagara, meaning with poison. As he grew up, the boy came +to know of the troubles of his father, and resolved to recover +his kingdom. He put to death nearly the whole of the Haihayas, +and made the others acknowledge his suzerainty. He had two wives, +by one of whom he had a son named Asamanja, and by the other sixty +thousand sons. He subsequently performed the asvamedha or sacrifice +of a horse, which was guarded by his sons. The animal was, however, +carried off by some one into a chasm in the earth. Sagara commanded his +sons to search for the steed, and they traced him by the impressions +of the hoofs to the chasm, which he had entered. They proceeded to +enlarge it, and dug downwards, each for a league. Coming to Patala, +they saw the horse wandering freely about, and at no great distance +from it was Kapila Rishi, sitting in meditation. Exclaiming "This is +the villain who has maliciously interrupted our sacrifice, and stolen +the horse, kill him, kill him," they ran towards him with uplifted +weapons. The Rishi raised his eyes, and for an instant looked upon +them, and they became reduced to ashes by the sacred flame that +darted from him. On learning of the death of his sons, Sagara sent +Amsumat, the son of Asamanja, to secure the animal. He went by the +deep path which his father and uncles had dug, and, arriving at the +place where Kapila was, propitiated him with an obeisance. The Rishi +gave him the horse, to be delivered to his father, and in conferring +the boon which Amsumat prayed for, said that his grandson would bring +down the divine Ganges, whose "waters shall wash the bones and ashes +of thy grandfather's sons," and raise them to swarga. Sagara then +completed his sacrifice, and, in affectionate memory of his sons, +called the chasm which they had dug Sagara. This is still the name +of the ocean, and especially of the Bay of Bengal at the mouth of the +Ganges, which, in accordance with the boon of Kapila, was brought down +to earth by Amsumat's grandson Bhagiratha, from whom it received the +name of Bhagirathi, which it retains to this day. Such is the story +of the origin of the caste, members of which often call it Sagara +kula, or the family of Sagara. As his sons excavated the ocean, so +they dig tanks, channels, wells, etc. In the Mysore Census Reports, +the Upparas are said to be called "Uppara in the eastern, Uppaliga in +the southern, and Melu (west) Sakkre in the western districts. [Some +explain that they work in salt, which is more essential than sugar, +and that Mel Sakkare means superior sugar.] This caste is divided into +the Telugu and Karnataka sub-divisions. The latter make earth-salt, +while the former work as bricklayers and builders. The well-to-do +section of the caste further undertake public works on contract, +and some of them are good architects of ordinary Hindu houses, +which do not call for much scientific precision. There are also +agriculturists and labourers among them." In the Madras Presidency, at +the present day, some members of the caste are well and tank diggers, +house-builders or bricklayers; others are agricultural labourers, +or village servants. A few are earth-work contractors, or, as at +Muthialpet near Conjeeveram, yarn dyers. Some are in the service of +Government as police constables. The women are very hard-working, +and help their husbands at their work. To this fact is said to be +due the high rate at which the bride-price is fixed. The well-kept +roads of the city of Madras are the work of a colony of Upparas, +who have settled there. The following curious custom is recorded by +the Rev. J. Cain in a note [81] on the tank-diggers of the Godavari +district. "A disturbance in a little camp of tank-diggers confirmed a +statement which I heard at Masulipatam as to the manner in which the +tank-diggers divide their wages. They had been repairing the bank of a +tank, and been paid for their work, and, in apportioning the shares of +each labourer, a bitter dispute arose because one of the women had not +received what she deemed her fair amount. On enquiry, it turned out +that she was in an interesting condition, and therefore could claim +not only her own, but also a share for the expected child. This had +been overlooked, and, when she asserted her right to a double portion, +those who had already received their money objected to part with any, +although they acknowledged that the claim was fair and just." + +By the Madras Salt Act, 1889, it is enacted that any person who-- + +(a) removes any salt without or in excess of the permits necessary +by this Act; or + +(b) except for agricultural or building purposes, excavates, collects +or possesses salt-earth in any local area where it is contraband +salt; or + +(c) manufactures contraband salt in any other way than by excavating +or collecting salt-earth; or + +(d) purchases, obtains, possesses, sells or weighs contraband salt +other than salt-earth, knowing or having reason to believe it to be +contraband; or + +(e) refines saltpetre without such license as is prescribed by the +Act; or + +(f) attempts to commit, or within the meaning of the Indian Penal +Code abets the commission of any of the above acts, + +shall on conviction be punishable for every such offence with +imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or with fine not +exceeding five hundred rupees, or with both. + +It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Bellary district, that "at the +time when the Company came into possession of the district, the salt +consumed in it was of two kinds, namely, the earth-salt manufactured +from saline soils by men of the Uppara caste, and the marine salt +made on the west coast. The latter was imported by the Lambadis and +Korachas, who brought it up the ghats by means of large droves of +pack-bullocks. The earth-salt was made in what were known as modas, +which were peculiar to the Ceded Districts, and were especially +common in Bellary. A heap of earth was piled up, and on the top of +it were hollowed out one or more circular basins, some five feet +in diameter and two feet deep. From the bottom of these basins, +channels lined with chunam (lime) ran down to one or more reservoirs +similarly lined. Salt-earth was collected in the places where it +effloresced naturally in the dry months, and taken to the moda on +pack-buffaloes. It was thrown into the basins, and then a quantity +of water was poured upon it. The brine so obtained flowed through the +channels at the bottom of the basins into the reservoirs. From these +it was baled with chatties (pots) into a set of masonry evaporating +pans, carefully levelled and plastered with chunam, where it was +left to be converted into salt by solar evaporation. Each lot of +salt-earth, which was thus lixiviated, was taken from the basins and +thrown outside them, and this process constantly repeated gradually +raised the level of the moda and the basins, which were perpetually +being re-made on the top of it. Some of the modas gradually grew +to be as much as twenty feet in height. When they became too high +for the buffaloes to carry the salt-earth up to their summits with +comfort, they were abandoned, and others started elsewhere. The +earth-salt made in this manner was neither so good nor so strong +as marine salt, but it was much used by the poorer classes and for +cattle, and thus interfered with the profits of the Government salt +monopoly, which was established in 1805. As early as 1806, therefore, +it was proposed to prohibit its manufacture. The chief arguments +against any such step were that it would inflict hardship upon the +Upparas who made the salt, and upon the poorer classes who consumed +it, and, for the next three quarters of a century, a wearisome +correspondence dragged on regarding the course which it would be +proper to pursue. In 1873, Mr. G. Thornhill, Member of the Board of +Revenue, visited the Ceded Districts, to see how matters stood. He +reported that it was not possible to check the competition of the +earth-salt with the Government marine salt by imposing an excise +duty, as the modas were numerous and scattered. For similar reasons, +and also because all the Upparas were very poor, a license-tax was +out of the question. At the same time he calculated that the loss to +Government due to the system was from eight to ten lakhs annually, and, +seeing that Government salt was obtainable in Bellary as cheaply as +in other inland districts, he recommended that the industry should be +gradually suppressed. Government agreed, and ordered that the opening +of new modas should be prohibited, and that those in existence should +be licensed, with reference to their productive capacity, at rates to +increase by annual increments until 1879, when the full duty leviable +on sea-salt should be imposed on their entire produce. These measures, +though they checked the manufacture, failed to entirely protect the +revenue, and, in 1876, the Madras Salt Commission and Board of Revenue +concurred in recommending that the manufacture of earth-salt should +be at once and entirely suppressed. The Government of India agreed, +and in 1880 orders were given that the modas should all be destroyed, +reasonable compensation being paid to their owners. The manufacture +of earth-salt in the district is now entirely a thing of the past, +though in many places the remains of the old modas may still be +seen. Some of the Upparas, however, still go annually to the Nizam's +Dominions in the dry season, and make earth-salt by the old methods +for sale there. Apparently they agree with the Nizam's Government +to pay a certain fee, one-fourth of which is paid in advance, +for the privilege. If the season is sufficiently dry, they make a +small profit, but if, on the other hand, it is wet, manufacture is +impossible, and they lose the amount of the fee, and their labour as +well." A good deal of saltpetre is still made by members of the caste +in various parts of the Madras Presidency by lixiviating the alkaline +efflorescence of the earth. For this purpose, licenses are obtained +annually from the Salt Department. Crude saltpetre is sold for manure +on coffee estates, and also used in the manufacture of fireworks. + +Speaking different languages, and living in different parts of the +country, the Uppiliyans, Upparas, and Upparas do not intermarry, +though, where they are found close together, they interdine. + +The caste recognises the authority of its headmen, who are called +Periyathanakaran, Ejaman, etc., and are assisted in some places, +for example Madras, by a Jatibidda (son of the caste), who does +the duties of caste peon or messenger, summoning members to a caste +council-meeting, and so on. The usual punishments inflicted by a caste +council are excommunication, fine, and the giving of a caste dinner. I +am informed that, among the Canarese Upparas, a woman found guilty +of adultery is punished as follows. A lock of her hair is cut off, +and she is bathed in cold water, and made to drink a little cow-dung +water. She is then taken to the temple, where the pujari (priest) +sprinkles holy water over her head. A fine is paid by her family. A +man, who is proved guilty of a similar offence, has one side of +his moustache and one of his eyebrows shaved off, and the hair of +his head is removed in three parallel lines. Seven small booths are +constructed of straw, and set on fire. Through this the man has to +pass. He is then plunged into a tank, and, after bathing therein, +he is sprinkled with holy water. I am told that a woman has also to +go through the fire ordeal. + +Girls are married either before or after puberty, but usually +after. Among the Uppiliyans and Upparas, it is customary for a man +to claim his paternal aunt's daughter in marriage. The ceremonies in +connection with marriage vary in accordance with the locality. Amongst +the Uppiliyans of Madura, the tali (marriage badge) is usually tied to +the bride's neck by a special woman, resident in her village, called +Sirkari. In some places it is tied, as among some other Tamil castes, +by the bridegroom's sister. Among the Telugu and Canarese sections, +it is tied by the bridegroom himself. By the Upparas of South Canara, +the dhare marriage rite is performed, in which the father of the bride +pours water from a vessel over the united hands of the contracting +couple. I am told that, among some Canarese Upparas, the bridegroom's +head is shaved, and, after bathing, he puts on a double brass wire +corresponding to the sacred thread of the Brahmans, which he wears +for five days. Among the Telugu Upparas there are two sub-divisions, +which are called, according to the amount of the bride-price, Yedu +(seven) Madala and Padaharu (sixteen) Madala, a mada being equal to +two rupees. Some say that mada refers to the modas (heaps of earth) +used in former times. At a marriage among some Uppiliyans, it is +customary for the bride and bridegroom to sit inside a wall made of +piled up water pots, with the ends of their cloths tied together, +while some of the women present pour water from the pots over their +heads. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and I gather that, +among the Upparas, a widow may only marry a widower, and vice versâ. + +In a note on the Uppiliyans of the Trichinopoly district, +Mr. F. R. Hemingway states that "some of the marriage ceremonies are +peculiar. They allow an unborn boy to be betrothed to his unborn +cousin. The bride has to be asked in marriage a number of times, +before consent is given, lest it be thought that she is yielding +too easily. The marriage is performed at her house, lest it should +be thought that her parents are forcing her on the bridegroom. The +caste does not use the marriage pole or paligai pots. Instead of the +usual turmeric threads, the wrists of the contracting couple are +tied together with wool. A curious custom among the Tamil section +is that, at the beginning of the ceremonies, both on the first and +second day, three matrons wash their faces in turmeric water, and +the bride and bridegroom are bathed with the water used by them. They +also have unusual observances connected with a girl's attainment of +maturity. A husband may not look into his bride's eyes until this +occurs. When she has at length attained maturity, the husband comes +to his bride's house with a sheep and some vegetables, and kills the +former. His brother-in-law then marks his forehead with the sheep's +blood. The husband eats some plantain and milk, and spits it out at his +bride, who is made to stand behind a screen. If the girl has attained +maturity before her marriage, the Tamil section of the caste make her +walk over seven wooden hoops on the wedding day. The husband has to +give his formal consent to the ceremony, and a washerman has to be +present. The Telugus perform this rite on the last day of the girl's +first menstrual period, and her maternal uncle has to be present. The +Uppiliyans allow the remarriage of widows and divorced women. A man +may not shave until he marries a virgin, and, if he does not do so, +he has to remain unshaved all his life." + +The dead are, as a rule, buried. Among the Uppiliyans, who occupy a +higher social position than the Canarese and Telugu sections, death +pollution is observed for seven days. Among the Upparas, the period +of pollution is sixteen days. + +Concerning the death ceremonies, Mr. Hemingway writes as +follows. "Widows of the Tamil section never remove their tali, but +leave it till it drops off of itself. When a man dies, his widow +is made to pretend he is still alive, and bathes him with oil, and +puts garlands on him. If a man is to be buried, the chief mourner +pretends to dig the grave. The karumantaram, or final death ceremony, +of the Tamil section consists merely in taking some milk to an erukka +(Calotropis gigantea) shrub on the sixteenth evening, just before the +jackals begin to howl. They pour it over the shrub with the help of +a barber, saying 'Go to Swarga (the abode of Indra), and make your +way to Kailasam (heaven).'" + +Some members of the caste are Vaishnavites, and others Saivites. In +some places, the former are branded by their gurus, who are Vaishnava +Brahmans. They also worship various village deities, which vary +according to the place of residence. In the Census Report, 1891, +the worship of Sunkalamma, Jambulamma, and Timmappa is noted. + +It is stated by Mr. Hemingway that "the Uppiliyans have a caste +god, named Karuvandaraya Bommadeva. He has no temple, but all the +Uppiliyans in a village join in offering him an annual sacrifice in Tai +(January-February), before the earth is scraped for the first time in +the season for making saltpetre. They use avaram (Cassia auriculata) +flowers and river sand in this worship. They also have three special +caste goddesses, called Tippanjal, who are supposed to be women who +committed sati. They have also Brahman gurus, who visit them every +year, and bless their salt pits." + +Concerning the caste organisation of the Uppiliyans, Mr. Hemingway +writes that "when a complaint of a caste offence is made, notice is +sent to the Pattakkaran (headman), and to the whole Uppiliyan community +in the neighbourhood, notifying the accusation and the provisional +expulsion of the accused. A second notice summons the community to +a panchayat (council), which is presided over by at least two or +three Pattakkarans, the caste god being represented by some avaram +flowers, a pot of water, and margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves. If +acquitted, the accused is made to touch the water pot in token of his +innocence. If he is convicted, both he and the complainant are fined, +the latter for the purification of his house, if it has been polluted +by the offence. The purification is performed by a man of the Marudur +Nadu called Rettai Vilakkukaran (man of two lights), who eats a meal +in the polluted house, with his hands held behind his back." + +It was recently noted that the Upparas are, as a rule, uneducated, and +their ignorance of the three R's often leads to bitter disputes among +themselves and with their employers in disbursing their wages. Some +years ago, one of the Madras Missions opened a school for the benefit +of this backward caste. In 1906, the Hindu Educational Mission of +Madras started a night and day school, Upparapalaiyam Arya Pathasala, +in the Upparapalaiyam quarter of Madras. + +There is a Telugu proverb to the effect that one is ruined both ways, +like an Uppara who has turned Sanyasi (ascetic), in reference to +the fact that he neither follows his ancestral occupation, nor is +tolerated in his new calling. The usual caste title is Chetti. + +Uppara occurs as a synonym of Kusa Holeya. + +Uppu (salt).--A sub-division of Balijas and Koravas, who trade in +salt, which they carry about the country in panniers on donkeys or +bullocks. It is also an occupational sub-division of Komati. The +equivalent Uppa is an exogamous sept of Kelasi. Uppukottei occurs as +a division of Maravan, Upputholuvaru (salt-carriers) as an exogamous +sept of Odde, and Uppiri (salt-earth) as a sept of Kuruba. + +Urali.--In the Madras Census Report, 1891, the Uralis are described as +"a caste of agricultural labourers found chiefly in the districts +of Madura and Trichinopoly. The word Urali means a ruler of a +village. Like the Ambalakkarans, they trace their descent from +one Mutturaja, and the only sub-division returned by any number +is Mutracha. They also assert that they were formerly employed as +soldiers. In the Wynad there is a section of Kurumbas called Urali +Kurumbas, and it is not improbable that these Uralis of the Tamil +country are an offshoot of the great Kurumba race." The Uralis are +further summed up in the same report, as "agricultural labourers in +Coimbatore, Trichinopoly, and Madura. There seems to be some connection +between the Uralis and the Ambalakkarans or Muttiriyans. Muttiriyan +is a sub-division of both Urali and Ambalakkaran, and both of these +are found in the same districts. Perhaps the Uralis are an offshoot +of the Tamil Valaiyans, which by change of occupation has transformed +itself into a distinct caste (see Ambalakkaran). The caste is split up +into a number of sub-divisions, called after the name of the tract or +nadu in Trichinopoly which each inhabits. To get back into the caste, +an excommunicated man has to kill a sheep or goat before the elders, +and mark his forehead with the blood. He then gives a feast to the +assembly, and puts part of the food on the roof of his house. If +the crows eat this, he is received back into the caste. [Brahmans +always put out portions of the sraddha offerings in the same way, +and judge whether they are acceptable or not by noting if the crows +eat them or not.] Marriage is infant or adult. A man detected in +an intrigue with an unmarried woman is fined, and has to marry her, +and at the wedding his waist string is tied round her neck instead +of a tali. The well-to-do people of the caste employ Brahmans as +priests, but others content themselves with their own elders. Widows +and divorced women may marry again. The dead are either burned or +buried. The richer members of the caste perform sraddha (memorial +service for the dead). They drink alcohol, and eat fowls, mutton, +pork, fish, rats, etc. In social position they come below the Idaiyans, +Tottiyans, and Kallans. Their title is Kavandan." + +For the following note on the Uralis of the Trichinopoly district, I am +indebted to Mr. F. R. Hemingway. "They say that they were originally +Kshatriyas living in 'Alipuram near Oudh,' and left that place in +search of adventure, or in consequence of disputes at home, leaving +their wives behind them, and finally settled in the south, where they +married serving women (pulukkachis). They say that they belong to +the Mutturaja Kuttam, a phrase they cannot explain, and protest that +the Ambalakkarans, who make a similar claim, have no ground for so +doing. They seem to eat with no other caste on equal terms, but will, +of course, accept separate meals from Vellalans. They are split into +seven nadus, which are in effect endogamous sub-divisions. These are +called after villages in the country inhabited by the caste, namely, +Vadaseri, Pilluru, Sengudi, Kadavangudi or Virali, Talakka, Paluvinji +or Magali, and Marungi. The members of the first three of these nadus +are called Vadaseri Uralis, and those of the other four Nattu-simai +Uralis, Kunduva-nattu-tokkadus, or Nandutindis. All of them will +mess together. They say that the nadus were originally intended +to facilitate the decision of caste disputes, and they are still +the unit of self-government. Each nadu has a headman, who exercises +supreme control over the villages included within it. The Uralis also +have a number of exogamous septs called karais by the Vadaseris and +kaniyacchis by the Nattu-simais, which are called after the names of +places. They are generally cultivators, but are said sometimes to be +given to crime. They wear the sacred thread on occasions of marriages +and funerals. The women can be recognised by their dress, the kusavam +being spread out behind, and a characteristic pencil-shaped ornament +(kuchu) being suspended from the neck. Some of their marriage and +funeral customs are peculiar. Among the Nattu-simais, the betrothal is +ratified by the maternal uncle of each of the pair solemnly measuring +out three measures of paddy (rice) in the presence of the other party +at their house. At their funerals, the bier is not brought into the +village, but left outside, and the corpse is carried to it. Among +the Vadaseris, while preparations are being made for the removal of +the body, a Paraiyan woman performs a dance. Among the Nattu-simais +this is done on the Ettu day. On the second day after the funeral, +the relatives of the deceased dip their toes in a mortar full of +cow-dung water placed in front of his house, and put sacred ashes +on the head. The karumantaram, or final death ceremony, is only +performed by the rich. It can take place at any time after the third +day. The Ettu ceremony is similarly performed at any time after the +third day, and is attended with a curious ritual. Both sections of +the caste erect a booth, in which three plantain trees are planted, +and the chief mourner and his cousins stand there all day to receive +the condolences of their friends. From this point the practice of the +two sections differs in small points of detail. Among the Vadaseris, +the friends come one by one, and are asked by the chief mourner, +"Will you embrace, or will you strike your forehead?" In reply, the +friend either closes the open hand of the chief mourner with his own +as a form of embrace, or flings himself on the ground in the booth, +and weeps. Each visitor then goes to a meeting of the nadu which +is being held outside the village, and a Paraiyan and three Uralis +inform the headman who have visited the booth and who have not, and +ask if it may be removed. Permission being given, the plantains are +cut down, and the woman-folk wail round a chembu (vessel) placed +there. All then proceed to the nadu meeting, where a turban is +put on a Paraiyan, a dancing-girl and a Pandaram, and the Paraiyan +(called Nattu Samban) beats his drum, and pronounces a blessing on +the nadu. Finally all repair to the house of the deceased, where the +headman puts three handfuls of kambu (millet) into the cloth of his +wife or some other member of the family, and throws a mortar on the +ground. Punishments for caste offences take some curious forms. A +margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaf is put on the house of anyone who is +excommunicated. If a man seduces a girl of the caste, an enquiry is +held, and the pair are married. The waist-string of the man is tied +round the neck of the woman, and a Tottiyan is called in to take away +the pollution which they and their relatives have incurred. They are +taken to a tank (pond), where 108 holes have been made by the Tottiyan, +and are made to bathe in every hole, sprinkling the water over their +heads. A sheep is then killed by a Tottiyan and a Chakkiliyan, its +head is buried, and the couple and their relatives are made to walk +over the spot. The blood of the animal is then smeared on their +foreheads, and they all have to bathe again. They are next given +cow's urine to drink, and then once more bathe. After that they are +given milk, and are made to prostrate themselves before the panchayat +(council). Finally they have to give a feast to the panchayat, at which +a part of the food is offered to the crows, and the purification is +not complete till the birds have partaken thereof. The Uralis are +fond of shikar (hunting). On the Sivaratri night, sacrifices are +offered to their family gods, and, on the following day, all the men +of the village go out hunting. They have a head shikari (huntsman), +called Kavettaikaran, who receives every animal which is killed, +cuts off its head, and breaks its legs. The head is given to the man +who killed the animal, and the rest is shared among the castemen." + +Of the Uralis who inhabit the hill country of Travancore, the following +account is given in the Travancore Census report, 1901. "The Uralis +are a class of hill tribes resident in the Cardamom Hills. They are +chiefly found in the tracts known as Kunnanat, Velampan, Kurakkanat, +Mannukat, Kalanat, and Periyur. The headman of the Uralis in each +of these areas is called a Kanikkaran. Tradition tells us that they +were the dependents of the kings of Madura, and that their duty was +to hold umbrellas in times of State processions. In ancient times, +many of the parts now included in the Todupuzha taluk belonged to +the kingdom of Madura. Once, when the king came to Neriyamangalam, +the ancestors of these Uralis are said to have accompanied him, +and to have been left there to rule (ali) that locally (ur). The +males dress like the low-country people, with cloths about four +cubits long extending from the hip to the knee. Another cloth, about +one or two cubits in length, is put over the back, one end of which +passes under their right arm and the other over the shoulder, both +meeting in front over the chest, where they are tied together in a +peculiar knot by folding the extremities, thus forming a bag wherein to +contain their wayside necessaries. Females wear two pieces of cloth, +nine and two and a half cubits in length respectively, and folded in +the middle. The larger is the lower garment, and the smaller upper +garment is worn with two ends tied around the neck. Males wear brass +finger and toe-rings, sometimes of silver. Some adorn their necks +with wreaths of beads, from fifteen to thirty in number. Females wear +ear-ornaments known as katumani, which are rings of metal wire, four +or five in number. Males generally allow their hair to grow, the face +alone being now and then shaven. The Uralis eat rice for six months +of the year, and subsist on roots, fruits, and other forest produce +during the remaining half. A large portion of the paddy (rice) that +the Uralis gather by cultivation goes to the low country in exchange +for clothing and salt. The flesh of most animals is eaten, but the +elephant and buffalo are held in such great respect that no Urali ever +ventures to hurt them. Even the approach of the buffalo is religiously +avoided. They begin to fell forest trees in Dhanu (December-January), +and seeds are sown by the end of Metam (April-May). They have +only a katti, which is a kind of chopping knife, for purposes of +ploughing. After cultivation they change their abodes. They put up +huts in the vicinity of the cultivated areas, and use bamboo and +reeds as materials. After leaving the old, and before putting up the +new hut, they live for several days in caves or under trees. They are +very good watchmen, and take great care in putting up fences, weeding, +and protecting cultivation from wild animals. They make excellent mats +of reed. They are clever huntsmen, and are passionately attached to +their hunting dogs. They hoard their grains in wicker baskets called +virivallam. They possess copper and brass vessels, mortar, chopping +knives, sickles, spades, flint and steel. A man after marriage lives +with his wife, apart from his parents. Pollution of a very aggravated +kind is observed during the menstrual and puerperal periods. On these +occasions a separate matam (hut), called the pattu-pandal, is put up +at a distance from the dwelling hut. Here the woman stays for three +days. After bathing on the fourth day, she shifts to another matam +still nearer, and stays there for one or two days. On the seventh day +she rejoins the family. In cases of confinement, twelve days are spent +in the remotest hut, and five days in the nearer one. But for another +period of twenty days the woman is not permitted to touch any one in +the house, or even the roofing of the hut. During these days food is +prepared by others, and given to her. The water in which those who are +confined, and those who are in their menses bathe, is considered to be +defiled beyond remedy. Hence, for bathing purposes some secluded and +out-of-the-way pool, called pattuvellam, is selected. Uralis coming +to the low country hesitate to drink water, on the score that it might +be thus polluted. When the woman delivers herself of her first child, +her husband observes three days' pollution, but none for subsequent +confinements. On all such occasions, the maternal relations of the +woman have to observe five days' pollution. On the eighteenth day after +birth, the eldest member of the family names the child, and bores the +ear. The head of the child is shaved as soon as it is able to walk, +and a tuft of hair is left in front. The corpses of the Uralis are not +burnt, but buried at a sufficient distance from the house. A new cloth +is put into the grave by each relative. After filling in the grave, +they erect a shed over it, within which the chopping knife of the +deceased, a quantity of boiled rice, and some chewing materials (betel +and nuts) are placed. After the lapse of seven years, an offering +of food and drink is made to the departed soul. Death pollution +lasts for sixteen days. The Uralis address their father as appan, +and maternal uncle as achchan. Marumakkathayam is the prevailing +form of inheritance (in the female line). Marriage is settled by the +parents. There is no tali symbol to indicate the wedded state. After +the marriage is settled, the girl is merely sent to the pandal or +hut of the husband. The Uralis intermarry with the Ulladans, and in +rare cases with Muduvans. Remarriage is permitted. An Urali, wishing +to get married into a particular family, has to wed into the family +a girl belonging to his own. The Uralis have a fine ear for music, +and sing many songs in the night before going to bed. Like the Kanis +(Kanikars), they resort to enchantments called cheppuka and chattuka +for the cure of diseases. Their would-be sorcerers have to leave the +community, and wander alone in the forest for a number of months. They +are said to then get into a trance, when their forefathers appear +before them as maidens, and teach them the mystic arts. The Uralis +bear their loads only on the back, and never on the head. They never +go to distant places without their chopping knife. They are good +forest guides." The Uralis are stated by the Rev. S. Mateer [82] +to practice polyandry like the Todas. + +Urali is further a synonym of the Tandans of Travancore, in reference, +it is said, to their having been guardians of villages (ur) in former +times. It is also the title of the headman of the Kuravas of Travancore +and a synonym of the Kolayans of Malabar. + +Urali.--The Uralis, who form the subject of the present note, +dwell at an altitude of 1,800 feet in the jungles of Dimbhum in the +Coimbatore district, where a forest bungalow, situated on a breezy +ridge overlooking the plains, formed a convenient centre from which +to study both Uralis and the more primitive Sholagas. + +The Uralis are familiar with the Badagas, who have a settlement +not many miles distant; the Todas, who occasionally migrate across +the adjacent Nilgiri frontier in search of grazing land for their +buffaloes; and the Kurumbas and Irulas, who inhabit the lower slopes +of the Nilgiris, which run down to Coimbatore. With the civilised +world they are acquainted, as they carry loads to the plains, and run +down to market at the town of Sathyamangalam, which is only seventeen +miles distant from Dimbhum. Like the Nilgiri Badagas, they are clad +in turban, and long flowing body-cloth, white (when new), or striped +with red and blue. The hair is worn long and unkempt, or shaved á +la Hindu with kudimi in mimicry of the more civilised classes. A man +was introduced to us as an expert mimic of the note of the paroquet, +peacock, jungle-fowl and other forest birds; and a small party +improvised, in front of the bungalow, a bird trap cleverly constructed +out of stones, an iron plate from the camp kitchen, bamboo, and rope +made on the spot from the bark of Ficus Tsiela. The making of fire +with flint and steel is fast disappearing in favour of safety matches. + +The Uralis say that they are men of seven kulams (i.e., having seven +posts to the marriage booth), and are children of Billayya, while +they describe the Sholagas as men of five kulams and children of +Karayya. They call themselves Uralis or Irulas, and, when questioned, +say that, as Billayya and Karayya are brothers, they may also be called +Sholagas. But there is no intermarriage between Uralis and Sholagas, +though members of the two tribes sometimes interdine. According +to another legend, the Uralis and Sholagas are both descended from +Karayan, and the Sivacharis (Lingayats) from Billaya or Madheswaram +(see Sholaga). They speak a patois of mixed Tamil and Canarese, and +have a number of exogamous septs, the meaning of the names of which is +not clear. They indulge in a large repertoire of nicknames, for the +most part of a personal nature, such as donkey-legged, big-navelled, +pot-bellied, hare-lipped, hairy like a bear or the tail of a mungoose, +toothless, lying, brought up on butter-milk. One man was named Kothe +Kallan (kotha, a stone), because he was born on a rock near Kotagiri. + +The majority of the tribe earn a modest livelihood by collecting minor +forest produce, such as myrabolams, wax and honey, and poles for use +as primitive breaks for country carts during the ascent of the ghat +road. These poles are tied to the carts by ropes, and trail behind on +the ground, so that, when the cart stops, the backward course of the +wheels is arrested. Some till the soil, and cultivate various kinds +of food-grains. Others are sheep and cattle owners. A few families +possess land, which is given free of rent by the Forest Department, +on condition that they work for the department whenever their services +are required. As a class they are not inclined to do hard work, and +they appear to get into the clutches of money-lending Chettis. Their +staple food is ragi (Eleusine Coracana). But they eat also sheep, +fowls, goat, deer, pigeons and doves, black monkeys, wild boar, +hare, hedgehogs, paroquets, quails and partridges, jungle-fowl, +woodcock, woodpeckers, and other denizens of the jungle. A man who +was asked whether they eat beef, cats, toads, bears, or white monkeys, +expectorated violently at the mention of each, and the suggestion of +the first three produced the most explosive oral demonstration. + +Tribal disputes are referred to a headman, called Yejamana, who must +belong to the exogamous sept called Sambe, and whose appointment is an +hereditary one. To assist him, three others, belonging to the Kalkatti, +Kolkara and Kurinanga septs, whose hereditary titles are Pattagara, +Gouda and Kolkara, are appointed. The Kolkara has to invite people to +the panchayat (tribal council), collect the fines inflicted, and be +present on the occasion of marriages. A woman who, after marriage, +refuses to live with her husband, is punished thus. She is tied to +a tree, and the Kolkaran empties the contents of a hornet or wasp's +nest at her feet. After a few minutes the woman is questioned, and, +if she agrees to live with her husband, she must, in token of assent, +lick a mark made on his back by the Kolkara with fowl's excrement, +saying "You are my husband. In future I shall not quarrel with you, +and will obey you." Even after this ordeal has been gone through, +a woman may, on payment of a fine, leave her husband in favour of +another man of the tribe. + +When a girl reaches puberty, she is anointed, decorated with jewelry, +and made to occupy a separate hut for seven days, during which time two +young girls keep her company. On the eighth day, all three bathe in a +pond or stream, and return in their wet clothes to the girl's home, +where they sit on a pestle placed in front of the door. A plantain +leaf is then placed in front of them, on which cooked rice and curry +are spread. A child, aged about eight or nine months, is set in the +girl's lap, and she feeds the infant with a small quantity of rice, +of which she herself swallows a few mouthfuls. Those assembled then +sit down to a meal, at the conclusion of which they wash their hands +in a dish, and the girl throws the water away. The feast concluded, +the spot is sprinkled with cowdung water, and cleaned up by the girl. + +Marriage is either infant or adult, but, as a rule, the latter. The +match-making is carried out by the boy's parents, who, with his +other relations, pay two visits, one with and one without the boy, +to the parents of the girl. At the first visit a present of ragi, +and at the second of plantains, rice, and millet pudding is made. The +party must be received with due respect, which is shown by taking +hold of the walking-sticks of the guests on arrival, and receiving +them on a mat spread inside the house. The customary form of salute +is touching the feet with both hands, and raising them, with palms +opposed, to the forehead. Before taking their seats, the guests +salute a vessel of water, which is placed on the mat, surrounded by +betel leaves and nuts. A flower is placed on the top of the stone or +figure which represents the tribal goddess, and, after puja (worship) +has been done to it, it is addressed in the words "Oh, Swami! drop +the flower to the right if the marriage is going to be propitious, +and to the left if otherwise." Should the flower remain on the image, +without falling either way, it is greeted as a very happy omen. On +the occasion of the betrothal ceremony, if the bridegroom's party, +on their way to the bride's village, have to cross a stream, running +or dry, the bridegroom is not allowed to walk across it, but must +be carried over on the back of his maternal uncle. As they approach +the bride's home, they are met by the Kolkara and two other men, to +whom the Kolkara, after receiving the walking-sticks of the guests, +hands them over. Failure to do so would be an act of discourtesy, +and regarded as an insult to be wiped out by a heavy fine. When the +procession arrives at the house, entrance into the marriage booth +is prevented by a stick held across it by people of the bride's +village. A mock struggle takes place, during which turmeric water +is thrown by both sides, and an entrance into the house is finally +effected. After a meal has been partaken of, the bridal party proceed +to the village of the bridegroom, where the bride and bridegroom +are lodged in separate houses. In front of the bridegroom's house +a booth, supported by twelve posts arranged in four rows, has been +erected. The two pillars nearest the entrance to the house are +called murthi kamba. Into the holes made for the reception of these, +after a cocoanut has been broken, ghi (clarified butter), milk, and +a few copper coins are placed. The bridal pair, after an oil bath, +are led to the booth, decorated with jewels and wearing new cloths, +and made to sit on a plank. A cocoanut is broken, and they salute a +vessel placed on a plate. The bridal party then adjourn to a pond or +stream, and do puja to their god. On the return thence the bridal +couple must be accompanied by their maternal uncles, who should +keep on dancing, while cocoanuts are broken in front of them till +the house is reached. The contracting parties then again sit on +the plank with their little fingers linked, while the bride money +(theravu) is paid to the father-in-law, and the milk money (pal +kuli) to the mother-in-law. The tali (a golden disc) is then tied +on to the bride's neck by some female relation of the bridegroom, +and the bride and bridegroom, after saluting those assembled, enter +the house, where the young wife is at once told to cook some rice, +of which she and her husband partake from the same leaf plate. + +There exists, among the Uralis, a kind of informal union called +kuduvali. A man and woman will, by mutual agreement, elope into +the jungle, and live there together, till they are discovered and +brought back by their relations. A panchayat (council) is held, +and they are recognised as man and wife if the bride money and fine +inflicted are paid. Failure to pay up would render them liable to +excommunication. To celebrate the event, a feast must be given by +the man; and, if he should die without having fed the community, any +children born to him are considered as illegitimate. In such a case, +the widow or her near relatives are asked to give food to at least +a few before the corpse is removed, so as to legitimatise the children. + +The Uralis bury their dead, and the death ceremonies are, to a +certain extent, copied from those of the Badagas. As soon as a member +of the tribe dies, the corpse is anointed, washed, and dressed in +new clothes and turban. On the face three silver coins are stuck, +viz.:--a rupee on the forehead, and a quarter rupee outside each +eye. When all have assembled for the funeral, the corpse is brought +out and placed under a car (teru) of six storeys, made of bamboo and +sticks, covered with coloured cloths and flags, and having at the top +a kalasa (brass vessel) and umbrella. To the accompaniment of a band +a dance takes place around the car, and the procession then moves on +to the burial-ground, where a cow buffalo is brought near the car, +and a little milk drawn and poured three times into the mouth of the +corpse. A cow and one or two calves are taken round the car, and the +calves presented to the sister of the deceased. The car is then broken +up, after the decorations have been stripped off. The corpse is buried +either on the spot, or taken away to distant Nirgundi, and buried +there. On the eighth day after the funeral or return from Nirgundi, +the eldest son of the deceased has his head shaved, and, together +with his brother's wife, fasts. If the funeral has been at Nirgundi, +the son, accompanied by his relations, proceeds thither after tying +some cooked rice in a cloth. On arrival, he offers this to all the +memorial stones in the burial-ground (goppamane), and erects a stone, +which he has brought with him, in memory of the deceased. He then +anoints all the stones with ghi, which is contained in a green bamboo +measure. He collects the rice, which has been offered, and one of the +party, becoming inspired, gives vent to oracular declarations as to +the season's prospects, the future of the bereaved family, etc. The +collected rice is regarded as sacred, and is partaken of by all. Each +sept has its own goppamane, which is a rectangular space with mud +walls on three sides. In cases in which the corpse has been buried +close to the village, the grave is marked by a file of stones. Two +or three years afterwards, the body is exhumed, and the bones are +collected, and placed in front of the house of the deceased. All the +relations weep, and the son conveys the bones to Nirgundi, where he +buries them. On the eighth day he revisits the spot, and erects a +stone with the ceremonial already described. + +The Uralis worship a variety of minor deities, and sacrifice sheep +and goats to Palrayan. They observe two annual festivals, viz.:--(a) +Thai nombu, when the whole house is cleaned, and margosa (Melia +Azadirachta) twigs and spikes of Achyranthes aspera are tied together, +and placed in front of the house over the roof, or stuck into the roof +overhanging the entrance. A sumptuous repast is partaken of. This +ceremonial takes place in the month Thai (December-January). (b) +In the month Vyasi (March-April) a large trough is placed close to +a well, and filled with a mixture of salt and water. The cattle, +decorated with leaves and flowers, are brought, one by one, to the +trough, and made to drink the salt water. + +Uril Parisha.--A class of Mussad. + +Uru.--Ur, Uru, meaning village, is the name of a division of Bedar, +Boya, Golla, Korava, Kuruba, Madiga, and Odde. The Bedars and Boyas are +divided into two main divisions, Uru or those who dwell in villages, +and Myasa (grass-land or forest people) who live away from villages. In +like manner, the Uru Oddes are those who have abandoned a nomad life, +and settled in villages. Among some of the Tamil cultivating classes, +the headman is known as the Ur Goundan. + +Ur-Udaiyan (lord of a village).--A synonym of Nattaman. + +Urukathi (a kind of knife).--An exogamous sept of Toreva. + +Urukkaran, a class of Muhammadan pilots and sailors in the Laccadive +islands. (See Mappilla.) + +Urumikkaran.--The Urumikkarans, or those who play on the drum (urumi), +are said [83] to be "Tottiyans in Madura, and Parayans elsewhere." The +Kappiliyans say that they migrated with the Urumikkarans from the +banks of the Tungabadra river, because the Tottiyans tried to ravish +their women. At a Kappiliyan wedding, a Urumikkaran must be present +at the distribution of betel on the second day, and at the final +death ceremonies a Urumikkaran must also be present. + +Usira (usirika, Phyllanthus Emblica).--A sept of Komati. + +Utla.--Utla or Utlavadu has been recorded as an occupational sub-caste +of Yerukala, and an exogamous sept of Boya and Padma Sale. The name +is derived from utlam, a hanging receptacle for pots, made of palmyra +fibre, which some Yerukalas make and sell. [84] + +Uttareni (Achyranthes aspera).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Uyyala (a swing).--An exogamous sept of Mala, Mutracha, and +Yerukala. During the marriage ceremonies of Brahmans and some +non-Brahman castes, the bride and bridegroom are seated in a swing +within the marriage booth, and songs called uyyala patalu (swing songs) +are sung by women to the accompaniment of music. + + + + + + + +V + + +Vada.--On the coast of Ganjam and Vizagapatam, the sea fishermen +are either Vadas or Jalaris, both of which are Telugu castes. The +fishing operations are carried on by the men, and the fish are sold +by the women in markets and villages. Various Oriya castes, e.g., +Kevuto, Kondra, Tiyoro, etc., are employed as fishermen, but only in +fresh-water. The Vadas seem to be a section of the Palles, with whom +they will interdine and intermarry. They call themselves Vada Balijas, +though they have no claim to be regarded as Balijas. Sometimes they +are called Kalasis by Oriya people. + +Socially the Vadas occupy a low position. Their language is a corrupt +and vulgar form of Telugu. The men wear a conical palm leaf cap, such +as is worn by the Pattanavan fishermen in the Tamil country. In the +presence of a superior, they remove their loin-cloth and place it round +their neck and shoulders as a mark of respect. Among many other castes, +this would, on the contrary, be regarded as an act of impertinence. + +Like other Telugu castes, the Vadas have exogamous intiperus, some +of which seem to be peculiar to them, e.g., Mailapilli, Ganupilli, +Sodupilli, Davulupilli. Other intiperus are such as are common to many +Telugu castes. The caste headmen are entitled Kularaju and Pilla, +and the appointments are apparently held by members of particular +septs. At Chatrapur, for example, they belong to the Mailapilli and +Vanka septs. There is also a caste servant styled Samayanodu. The +headmen seem to have more power among the Vadas than among other +Telugu castes, and all kinds of caste matters are referred to them +for disposal. They receive a fee for every marriage, and arrange +various details in connection with the wedding ceremonial. This is +based on the Telugu type, with a few variations. When a young man's +relations proceed to the house of the girl whom it is proposed that he +should marry, the elders of her family offer water in a brass vessel +to their guests, if they approve of the match. During the marriage +rites, the bride and bridegroom sit within a pandal (booth), and the +men of the bridegroom's party exhibit to those assembled betel leaf, +areca nuts, oil, turmeric paste, etc., in which no foreign matter, +such as fragments of paper, rags, etc., must be found. If they are +discovered, a fine is inflicted. + +There is exhibited in the Madras Museum a collection of clay figures, +such as are worshipped by fishermen on the Ganjam coast, concerning +which Mr. H. D'A. C. Reilly writes to me as follows. "I am sending +you specimens of the chief gods worshipped by the fishermen. The +Tahsildar of Berhampur got them made by the potter and carpenter, +who usually make such figures for the Gopalpur fishermen. I have found +fishermen's shrines at several places. Separate families appear to have +separate shrines, some consisting of large chatties (earthen pots), +occasionally ornamented, and turned upside down, with an opening +on one side. Others are made of brick and chunam (lime). All that I +have seen had their opening towards the sea. Two classes of figures +are placed in these shrines, viz., clay figures of gods, which are +worshipped before fishing expeditions, and when there is danger from a +particular disease which they prevent; and wooden figures of deceased +relations, which are quite as imaginative as the clay figures. Figures +of gods and relations are placed in the same family shrine. There are +hundreds of gods to choose from, and the selection appears to be a +matter of family taste and tradition. The figures, which I have sent, +were made by a potter at Venkatarayapalle, and painted by a carpenter +at Uppulapathi, both villages near Gopalpur. The Tahsildar tells +me that, when he was inspecting them at the Gopalpur travellers' +bungalow, sixty or seventy fisher people came and worshipped them, +and at first objected to their gods being taken away. He pacified +them by telling them that it was because the Government had heard of +their devotion to their gods that they wanted to have some of them +in Madras." The collection of clay figures includes the following:-- + +Bengali Babu wears a hat, and rides on a black horse. He blesses the +fishermen, secures large hauls of fish for them, and guards them +against danger when out fishing. It has been observed that "this +affinity between the Ganjam fishermen and the Bengali Babu, resulting +in the apotheosis of the latter, is certainly a striking manifestation +of the catholicity of hero-worship, and it would be interesting to +have the origin of this particular form of it, to know how long, +and for what reasons the conception of protection has appealed to the +followers of the piscatory industry. It was Sir George Campbell, the +Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, who compelled his Bengali officials, +much against their inclination, to cultivate the art of equitation." + +Samalamma wears a red skirt and green coat, and protects the fishermen +from fever. + +Rajamma, a female figure, with a sword in her right hand, riding on +a black elephant. She blesses barren women with children, and favours +her devotees with big catches when they go out fishing. + +Yerenamma, riding on a white horse, with a sword in her right hand. She +protects fishermen from drowning, and from being caught by big fish. + +Bhagirathamma, riding on an elephant, and having eight or twelve +hands. She helps fishermen when fishing at night, and protects them +against cholera, dysentery, and other intestinal disorders. + +Nukalamma wears a red jacket and green skirt, and protects the fishing +community against small-pox. + +Orusandi Ammavaru prevents the boats from being sunk or damaged. + +Bhagadevi rides on a tiger, and protects the community from cholera. + +Veyyi Kannula Ammavaru, or goddess of a thousand eyes, represented +by a pot pierced with holes, in which a gingelly (Sesamum) oil light +is burnt. She attends to the general welfare of the fisher folk. + +The chief sea goddess of the Vadas seems to be Orusandiamma, whose +image must be made out of the wood of the nim (Melia Azadirachta) +tree. She is supposed to have four arms. Many of the pot temples +set up on the sea-shore are her shrines. On no account should she +be provoked, lest the fishing boat should be upset. She is regarded +as constantly roaming over the sea in a boat at night. Associated +with her is a male deity, named Ramasondi, who is her brother. His +vahanam (vehicle) is an elephant. Orusandi is worshipped separately +by each family. At the time of worship, flowers, two cloths, a fowl, +a goat, and a bottle of toddy or arrack, are carried in procession +to the sea-shore. Before the procession starts, people collect in +front of the house of the person who is doing the puja (worship), +and tie him and the goat to a long post set up in front thereof. A +toy boat is placed before the post, and Ramasondi is invoked by a +person called Mannaru, who becomes inspired by the entrance of the +deity into him. A fowl is sacrificed, and, with the boat on his head, +the Mannaru proceeds towards the shore. Orusandi is then invoked, +but does not come so easily as Ramasondi. Repeated invocations +are necessary before some one becomes inspired. The goat, post, +and a pot shrine for the goddess are taken to the shore. A small +platform is erected there, on which the shrine, smeared with chunam +(lime), is placed, and in it the image is deposited. Worship is then +performed, and the goat sacrificed if it crawls along on all fours +and shivers. If it does not do so, another goat is substituted for +it. As every family sets up its own pot shrine, the number of these +is considerable, and they extend over several furlongs. + +The sea goddess Marulupolamma is housed in a small shed made of date +palm leaves. A goddess who is very much feared, and worshipped at the +burial-ground, is Bulokamma. Her worship is carried out at noon or +midnight. She is represented by a pot, of which the neck is removed. In +the sides of the pot four holes are made, into each of which a twig +is inserted. The ends of the twigs are tied together with thread, so +that they represent a miniature pandal (booth). The pot is carried +by a Mannaru, dressed up like a woman in black and white cloths, +together with another pot representing Enuga Sakthi. The former +is carried in the bend of the left elbow, and the latter on the +head. The pots are accompanied in procession to the burial-ground, +and on the way thither some one becomes inspired, and narrates the +following legend:--"I am Bulokasakthi. Ages ago I was in an egg, +of which the upper half became the sky and the lower half the earth, +and was released. The moon was the mark on my forehead, and the sun +was my mirror. Seven gadhis (a measure of time) after my birth, +a west wind arose. By that time I had grown into an adult woman, +and so I embraced the wind, which impregnated me, and, after nine +gadhis, Brahma was born. He grew into a young man, and I asked him to +embrace me, but he refused, and, as a curse, I caused him to become a +stone. Vishnu underwent the same fate, but Siva promised to satisfy +me, if I gave him my third eye, shoulder-bag, and cane. This I did, +and lost my power. Then all the water disappeared, and I was covered +with mud. Siva again caused water to appear, and of it I took three +handfuls, and threw them over my body. The third handful consumed +me, and reduced me to ashes. From these were created Sarasvati, +Parvati, and Bulokamma. I am that Bulokamma. I asked a favour of +Siva. He made me remain within this earth, and, drawing three lines, +said that I should not come out, and should receive offerings of +fowls and goats." At this stage, a chicken is given to the Mannaru, +who bites, and kills it. At the burial-ground worship is performed, +and a goat sacrificed. The goddess being confined within the earth, +no shrine is erected to her, and she is not represented by an image. A +small pandal is erected, and the pot placed near it. + +The goddess Kalimukkamma is represented by a paper or wooden mask +painted black, with protruding tongue. With her is associated her +brother Baithari. She is believed to be one of the sisters created +by Brahma from his face at the request of Iswara, the others being +Polamma, Maridipoli, Kothapoli, Jungapoli, Nukapoli, Runjamma, and +Kundamma. The shrine of Kalimukkamma is a low hut made of straw. At +the time of worship to her, a Mannaru, dressed up as a woman, puts on +the mask, and thus represents her. A stone slab, containing a figure +of Kalimukkamma, is carried by a woman. She is the only goddess who +may be represented by a stone. To her pigs are offered. + +Peddamma or Polamma is represented by a wooden effigy. Along with +her, Maridiamma is also worshipped. The offerings to Peddamma +consist of a goat or sheep, and a pot of milk. A pig is sacrificed +to Maridiamma. When the people proceed in procession to the place of +worship, a toy cart is tied to the person representing Maridiamma, +and some one must carry a toy boat. At a distance from the house, +the cart is detached, and a pig is killed by an abdominal incision. + +Samalamma is a mild goddess, with vegetarian propensities, to whom +animal food must not be offered. She is associated with the aforesaid +Bengali Babu riding on a horse. Her image may only be carried by +young girls, and grown-up women may not touch it. + +Of the Sakthis worshipped by the Vadas, the chief is Koralu Sakthi. The +man who performs the worship is tied to a country cart, to which a +central stake, and a stake at each corner are attached. Dressed up in +female attire, he drags the cart, with which he makes three rounds. A +chicken is then impaled on each of the corner stakes, and a pig on +the central stake. + +In former times, the images of the deities were made in clay, but it +has been found by experience that wooden images are more durable, +and do not require to be replaced so often. Along with the images +of gods and goddesses, the Vadas place figures representing deceased +relatives, after the peddadinam (final death ceremony). + +The Mannarus are very important individuals, for not only do they +perform worship, but are consulted on many points. If a man does not +secure good catches of fish, he goes to the Mannaru, to ascertain the +cause of his bad luck. The Mannaru holds in his hand a string, to which +a stone is tied, and invokes various gods and goddesses by name. Every +time a name is mentioned, the stone either swings to and fro like +a pendulum, or performs a circular movement. If the former occurs, +it is a sign that the deity whose name has been pronounced is the +cause of the misfortune, and must be propitiated in a suitable manner. + +Vadakkupurattu.--A synonym, meaning belonging to the north side of +the temple, of Marans in Travancore. + +Vadra.--Vadra, Vadrangi, or Vadla is a name of a sub-division of Telugu +Kamsalas, the professional calling of which is carpentering. It is +noted, in the Gazetteer of Tanjore, that "wood-carving of a very +fair quality is done at several places in the Tanjore district by +a class of workmen called car carpenters, from the fact that their +skill is generally exercised in carving images on temple cars. They +are found at Tanjore, Mannargudi, Tiruvadaturai and Tiruvadi, and +perhaps elsewhere. The workmen at the last-named place are Vaddis. The +Vaddis of the Godavari district are also found to do wood-carving, +sometimes with great skill." + +Vadugan.--At the census, 1891, 180,884 individuals were returned as +Vadugan, which is described as meaning "a native of the northern or +Telugu country, but in ordinary usage it refers to the Balijas." I +find, however, that 56,380 Vadugars have returned their sub-division +as Kammavar or Kammas, and that the term has been used to denote many +Telugu castes. At the census, 1901, the number of people returning +themselves as Vadugan dropped to 95,924, and the name is defined by +the Census Superintendent as a "linguistic term meaning a Telugu man, +wrongly returned as a caste name by Kammas, Kapus and Balijas in the +Tamil districts." In the Salem Manual, Vaduga is noted as including +all who speak Telugu in the Tamil districts, e.g., Odde, Bestha, etc. + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "of the same +social standing as the Kammalans are the Vadugans (northerners), +a makkattayam caste of foreigners found in Palghat and the adjoining +part of Waluvanad. They are divided into two exogamous classes, one of +which is regarded as inferior to the other, and performs purificatory +ceremonies for the caste. They cut their hair close all over the head, +and have no kudumis (hair knot)." + +It is noted by Mr. L. Moore [85] that "Xavier, writing in 1542 to +1544, makes frequent references to men whom he calls Badages, who are +said to have been collectors of royal taxes, and to have grievously +oppressed Xavier's converts among the fishermen of Travancore." [86] +Dr. Caldwell, alluding to Xavier's letters, says [87] that these +Badages were no doubt Vadages or men from the North, and is of +opinion that a Jesuit writer of the time who called them Nayars +was mistaken, and that they were really Nayakans from Madura. I +believe, however, that the Jesuit rightly called them Nayars, +for I find that Father Organtino, writing in 1568, speaks of these +Badages as people from Narasinga, a kingdom north of Madura, lying +close to Bishnaghur. Bishnaghur is, of course, Vijayanagar, and the +kingdom of Narasinga was the name frequently given by the Portuguese +to Vijayanagar. There is a considerable amount of evidence to show +that the Nayars of Malabar are closely connected by origin with the +Nayakans of Vijayanagar." (See Nayar.) + +Vadugayan (Telugu shepherd).--A Tamil synonym for Golla. + +Vagiri or Vagirivala.--See Kuruvikkaran. + +Vagiti (doorway or court-yard).--An exogamous sept of Jogi. + +Vaguniyan.--See Vayani. + +Vaidyan.--Vaidyon or Baidya, meaning physician or medicine-man, occurs +as a title of Kshaurakas, Billavas, and Pulluvans, and, at times of +census, has been returned as an occupational sub-division of Paraiyans. + +Village physicians are known as Vaidyans, and may belong to any caste, +high or low. The Vaidyan diagnoses all diseases by feeling the pulse, +and, after doing this for a sufficiently long time, remarks that there +is an excess of vatham, pitham, ushnam, and so on. His stock phrases +are vatham, pitham, ushnam, sleshmam, karakam, megham or meham, +saithyam, etc. Orthodox men and women do not allow the Vaidyan to +feel the pulse by direct contact of the fingers, and a silk cloth +is placed on the patient's wrist. The pulse of males is felt with +the right hand, and that of females with the left. Some Vaidyans +crack the finger and wrist-joints before they proceed to feel the +pulse. Some are general practitioners, and others specialists in the +treatment of fever, piles, jaundice, syphilis, rheumatism, and other +diseases. The specialists are generally hereditary practitioners. In +the treatment of cases, the Vaidyan prescribes powders and pills, +and a decoction or infusion (kashayam) of various drugs which can +easily be obtained at the village drug-shop, or with the help of the +village herbalist. Among these are ginger, pepper, Abies Webbiana, +Acorus calamus, nim (Melia Azadirachta), or Andrographis paniculata +sticks, Alpinia Galanga, etc. If the medicine has to be taken for a +long time, the drugs are compounded together in the form of a lehyam, +e.g., bilvadi, kushpanda, and purnadi lehyam. Some Vaidyans prepare +powders (basmam), such as swarna (gold) basmam, pavala (coral powder) +basmam, or sankha (chank shell powder) basmam. Special pills (mathre), +prepared at considerable cost, are sometimes kept by Vaidyans, and +passed on from generation to generation as heirlooms. Such pills +are usually intended for well-known specific diseases. These pills +are used in very minute quantities, and consequently last for a long +time. A drop of honey or butter is placed on a slab of sandstone, on +which the pill is rubbed. The honey or butter is then administered to +the patient. A standing rule of the Vaidyan is to keep his patient on +a very low diet, such as rice gruel without salt. His usual saying is +"Langanam paramoushadam," i.e., fasting is an excellent medicine. A +well-known treatment in cases of jaundice is the drinking of curds, +in which twigs of Phyllanthus Niruri have been well mashed. + +In a very interesting note [88] on couching of the lens as practiced +by native practitioners, Major R. H. Elliot, I.M.S., writes as +follows. "The ignorance and stupidity of the ryot (villager) is so +great that he will not very infrequently try one eye in an English +hospital, and one in a Vaithyan's hands. It is a very common thing for +a native patient to deny ever having visited a native doctor, when he +first comes to hospital. After the other eye has been successfully +operated on, he will sometimes own up to the fact.... Here in the +south, there appear to be two classes of operators, the resident men +who live for long periods in one bazaar, and the travellers who move +continuously from place to place. Both are Mahomedans. The former +appear to get somewhat better results than the latter, and are spoken +of as 'men of experience.' The latter seem never to stop long in one +place. They collect a number of victims, operate on them, and then +move on before their sins can find them out. Both kinds of operators +seem to be innocent of any attempt at securing asepsis or antisepsis; +they use a dirty needle or a sharp wooden skewer; no anæsthetic is +employed; a bandage is kept on for ten days, and counter-irritation +is freely resorted to, to combat iritis, etc. Many of the victims +are ashamed to come to a European hospital after the failure of their +hopes. It has been said that, if the Vaithyan did not get good results, +he would be dropped, and the practice would die out. This remark can +only have come from one who knew nothing of the Indian character, or +the crass ignorance of the lower classes of the people. It is hard +for those who have not lived and worked among them to realise how +easily the ryot falls a dupe to impudent self-advertisement. He is a +simple kindly person, whose implicit trust in confident self-assertion +will bring him to grief for many another generation. The vision of +these poor unfortunate people sitting down in a dusty bazaar to +let an ignorant charlatan thrust a dirty needle into their blind +eyes has evoked the indignation of the English surgeon from the +time of our first occupation of the country. Side by side with a +well-equipped English hospital, which turns out its ninety odd per +cent. of useful vision, there sits in the neighbouring bazaar even +to-day the charlatan, whose fee is fixed at anything from 3d. to 8 +shillings, plus, in every case, a fowl or other animal. The latter is +ostensibly for sacrificial purposes, but I understand ends uniformly +in the Vaithyan's curry-pot. Weirdest, perhaps, of all the Vaithyan's +methods is the use of the saffron-coloured rag, with which pus is wiped +away from the patient's inflamed eye. On this colour, the pus, etc., +cannot be seen, and therefore all is well. It is the fabled ostrich +again, only this time in real life, with vital interests at stake." + +It is noted [89] in connection with the various classes of Nambutiri +Brahmans that "the Vaidyans or physicians, known as Mussads, are to +study the medical science, and to practice the same. As the profession +of a doctor necessitates the performance of surgical operations +entailing the shedding of blood, the Mussads are considered as +slightly degraded." + +Further information concerning native medicine-men will be found in +the articles on Kusavans and Mandulas. + +Vaikhanasa.--Followers of the Rishi Vaikhanasa. They are Archaka +Brahman priests in the Telugu country. + +Vairavan Kovil.--An exogamous section or kovil (temple) of Nattukottai +Chetti. + +Vairavi.--The equivalent of Bairagi or Vairagi. Recorded, in the Madras +Census Report, 1901, as "a sub-caste of Pandaram. They are found +only in the Tinnevelly district, where they are measurers of grain, +and pujaris in village temples." In the Madura district, Vairavis +are members of the Melakkaran caste, who officiate as servants at +the temples of the Nattukottai Chettis. + +Vaisya.--Vaisya is the third of the traditional castes of Manu. "It +is," Mr. Francis writes, [90] "doubtful whether there are any true +Dravidian Vaisyas, but some of the Dravidian trading castes (with +the title Chetti), notably the Komatis, are treated as Vaisyas by +the Brahmans, though the latter do not admit their right to perform +the religious ceremonies which are restricted by the Vedas to the +twice-born, and require them to follow only the Puranic rites. The +Muttans (trading caste in Malabar) formerly claimed to be Nayars, +but recently they have gone further, and some of them have returned +themselves as Vaisyas, and added the Vaisya title of Gupta to their +names. They do not, however, wear the sacred thread or perform +any Vedic rites, and Nayars consider themselves polluted by their +touch." Some Vellalas and Nattukottai Chettis describe themselves +as being Bhu (earth) Vaisyas, and some Gollas claim to be regarded +as Go(cow) Vaisyas. [90] Some Ganigas and Nagartas call themselves +Dharmasivachar Vaisyas, [91] and, like the Canarese Ganigas +(oil-pressers), the Tamil oil-pressers (Vaniyan) claim to rank +as Vaisyas. Vaisya Brahman is noted [92] as being a curious hybrid +name, by which the Konkani Vanis (traders) style themselves. A small +colony of "Baniyans," who call themselves Jain Vaisyas, is said +[93] to have settled in Native Cochin. Vaisya is recorded as the +caste of various title-holders, whose title is Chetti or Chettiyar, +in the Madras Quarterly Civil List. + +Vajjira (diamond).--An exogamous sept of Toreya. + +Vakkaliga.--See Okkiliyan. + +Valagadava.--An occupational name for various classes in South +Canara, e.g., Sappaligas, Mogilis, and Patramelas, who are engaged +as musicians. + +Valai (net).--The name, said to indicate those who hunt with nets, of a +section of Paraiyans. The Ambalakkarans, who are also called Valaiyans, +claim that, when Siva's ring was swallowed by a fish in the Ganges, +one of their ancestors invented the first net made in the world. + +Valaiyal.--A sub-division of Kavarai, i.e., the Tamil equivalent of +Gazula (glass bangle) Balija. + +Valaiyan.--The Valaiyans are described, in the Manual of Madura +district (1868), as "a low and debased class. Their name is supposed +to be derived from valai, a net, and to have been given to them from +their being constantly employed in netting game in the jungles. Many +of them still live by the net; some catch fish; some smelt iron. Many +are engaged in cultivation, as bearers of burdens, and in ordinary +cooly work. The tradition that a Valaiya woman was the mother of +the Vallambans seems to show that the Valaiyans must be one of the +most ancient castes in the country." In the Tanjore Manual they are +described as "inhabitants of the country inland who live by snaring +birds, and fishing in fresh waters. They engage also in agricultural +labour and cooly work, such as carrying loads, husking paddy (rice), +and cutting and selling fire-wood. They are a poor and degraded +class." The Valaiyans are expert at making cunningly devised traps +for catching rats and jungle fowl. They have "a comical fairy-tale +of the origin of the war, which still goes on between them and the +rat tribe. It relates how the chiefs of the rats met in conclave, +and devised the various means for arranging and harassing the enemy, +which they still practice with such effect." [94] The Valaiyans say +that they were once the friends of Siva, but were degraded for the +sin of eating rats and frogs. + +In the Census Report, 1901, the Valaiyans are described as "a shikari +(hunting) caste in Madura and Tanjore. In the latter the names +Ambalakaran, Servaikaran, Vedan, Siviyan, and Kuruvikkaran are +indiscriminately applied to the caste." There is some connection +between Ambalakarans, Muttiriyans, Mutrachas, Uralis, Vedans, +Valaiyans, and Vettuvans, but in what it exactly consists remains +to be ascertained. It seems likely that all of them are descended +from one common parent stock. Ambalakarans claim to be descended +from Kannappa Nayanar, one of the sixty-three Saivite saints, who +was a Vedan or hunter by caste. In Tanjore the Valaiyans declare +themselves to have a similar origin, and in that district Ambalakaran +and Muttiriyan seem to be synonymous with Valaiyan. Moreover, the +statistics of the distribution of the Valaiyans show that they are +numerous in the districts where Ambalakarans are few, and vice versâ, +which looks as though certain sections had taken to calling themselves +Ambalakarans. The upper sections of the Ambalakarans style themselves +Pillai, which is a title properly belonging to Vellalas, but the others +are usually called Muppan in Tanjore, and Ambalakaran, Muttiriyan, +and Servaikaran in Trichinopoly. The usual title of the Valaiyans, +so far as I can gather, is Muppan, but some style themselves Servai +and Ambalakaran." + +The Madura Valaiyans are said [95] to be "less brahmanised than those +in Tanjore, the latter employing Brahmans as priests, forbidding +the marriage of widows, occasionally burning their dead, and being +particular what they eat. But they still cling to the worship of all +the usual village gods and goddesses." In some places, it is said, +[96] the Valaiyans will eat almost anything, including rats, cats, +frogs and squirrels. + +Like the Pallans and Paraiyans, the Valaiyans, in some places, live +in streets of their own, or in settlements outside the villages. At +times of census, they have returned a large number of sub-divisions, +of which the following may be cited as examples:-- + + + Monathinni. Those who eat the vermin of the soil. + Pasikatti (pasi, glass bead). + Saragu, withered leaves. + Vanniyan. Synonym of the Palli caste. + Vellamputtu, white-ant hill. + + +In some places the Saruku or Saragu Valaiyans have exogamous kilais +or septs, which, as among the Maravans and Kallans, run in the female +line. Brothers and sisters belong to the same kilai as that of their +mother and maternal uncle, and not of their father. + +It is stated, in the Gazetteer of the Madura district, that "the +Valaiyans are grouped into four endogamous sub-divisions, namely, +Vahni, Valattu, Karadi, and Kangu. The last of these is again +divided into Pasikatti, those who use a bead necklet instead of a +tali (as a marriage badge), and Karaikatti, those whose women wear +horsehair necklaces like the Kallans. The caste title is Muppan. Caste +matters are settled by a headman called the Kambliyan (blanket man), +who lives at Aruppukottai, and comes round in state to any village +which requires his services, seated on a horse, and accompanied by +servants who hold an umbrella over his head and fan him. He holds +his court seated on a blanket. The fines imposed go in equal shares +to the aramanai (literally palace, i.e., to the headman himself), +and to the oramanai, that is, the caste people. + +It is noted by Mr. F. R. Hemingway that "the Valaiyans of +the Trichinopoly district say that they have eight endogamous +sub-divisions, namely, Sarahu (or Saragu), Ettarai Koppu, Tanambanadu +or Valuvadi, Nadunattu or Asal, Kurumba, Vanniya, Ambunadu, +and Punal. Some of these are similar to those of the Kallans and +Ambalakarans." + +In the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district, it is recorded that the +Valaiyans are said to possess "endogamous sub-divisions called Vedan, +Sulundukkaran and Ambalakkaran. The members of the first are said to +be hunters, those of the second torch-bearers, and those of the last +cultivators. They are a low caste, are refused admittance into the +temples, and pollute a Vellalan by touch. Their occupations are chiefly +cultivation of a low order, cooly work, and hunting. They are also said +to be addicted to crime, being employed by Kallans as their tools." + +Adult marriage is the rule, and the consent of the maternal uncle is +necessary. Remarriage of widows is freely permitted. At the marriage +ceremony, the bridegroom's sister takes up the tali (marriage badge), +and, after showing it to those assembled, ties it tightly round the +neck of the bride. To tie it loosely so that the tali string touches +the collar-bone would be considered a breach of custom, and the woman +who tied it would be fined. The tali-tying ceremony always takes +place at night, and the bridegroom's sister performs it, as, if it +was tied by the bridegroom, it could not be removed on his death, and +replaced if his widow wished to marry again. Marriages generally take +place from January to May, and consummation should not be effected +till the end of the month Adi, lest the first child should be born +in the month of Chithre, which would be very inauspicious. There +are two Tamil proverbs to the effect that "the girl should remain in +her mother's house during Adi," and "if a child is born in Chithre, +it is ruinous to the house of the mother-in-law." + +In the Gazetteer of the Madura district, it is stated that "at +weddings, the bridegroom's sister ties the tali, and then hurries the +bride off to her brother's house, where he is waiting. When a girl +attains maturity, she is made to live for a fortnight in a temporary +hut, which she afterwards burns down. While she is there, the little +girls of the caste meet outside it, and sing a song illustrative of +the charms of womanhood, and its power of alleviating the unhappy +lot of the bachelor. Two of the verses say:-- + + + What of the hair of a man? + It is twisted, and matted, and a burden. + What of the tresses of a woman? + They are as flowers in a garland, and a glory. + + What of the life of a man? + It is that of the dog at the palace gate. + What of the days of a woman? + They are like the gently waving leaves in a festoon. + + +"Divorce is readily permitted on the usual payments, and divorcées +and widows may remarry. A married woman who goes astray is brought +before the Kambliyan, who delivers a homily, and then orders the man's +waist-string to be tied round her neck. This legitimatises any children +they may have." The Valaiyans of Pattukkottai in the Tanjore district +say that intimacy between a man and woman before marriage is tolerated, +and that the children of such a union are regarded as members of the +caste, and permitted to intermarry with others, provided the parents +pay a nominal penalty imposed by the caste council. + +In connection with the Valaiyans of the Trichinopoly district, +Mr. Hemingway writes that "they recognise three forms of marriage, +the most usual of which consists in the bridegroom's party going to the +girl's house with three marakkals of rice and a cock on an auspicious +day, and in both parties having a feast there. Sometimes the young +man's sister goes to the girl's house, ties a tali round her neck, and +takes her away. The ordinary form of marriage, called big marriage, +is sometimes used with variations, but the Valaiyans do not like it, +and say that the two other forms result in more prolific unions. They +tolerate unchastity before marriage, and allow parties to marry even +after several children have been born, the marriage legitimatising +them. They permit remarriage of widows and divorced women. Women +convicted of immorality are garlanded with erukku (Calotropis gigantea) +flowers, and made to carry a basket of mud round the village. Men +who too frequently offend in this respect are made to sit with their +toes tied to the neck by a creeper. When a woman is divorced, her +male children go to the husband, and she is allowed to keep the girls." + +The tribal gods of the Valaiyans are Singa Pidari (Aiyanar) and +Padinettampadi Karuppan. Once a year, on the day after the new-moon +in the month Masi (February to March), the Valaiyans assemble to +worship the deity. Early in the morning they proceed to the Aiyanar +temple, and, after doing homage to the god, go off to the forest to +hunt hares and other small game. On their return they are met by the +Valaiyan matrons carrying coloured water or rice (alam), garlands of +flowers, betel leaves and areca nuts. The alam is waved over the men, +some of whom become inspired and are garlanded. While they are under +inspiration, the mothers appeal to them to name their babies. The +products of the chase are taken to the house of the headman and +distributed. At a festival, at which Mr. K. Rangachari was present, +at about ten o'clock in the morning all the Valaiya men, women, and +children, dressed up in holiday attire, swarmed out of their huts, +and proceeded to a neighbouring grove. The men and boys each carried +a throwing stick, or a digging stick tipped with iron. On arrival at +the grove, they stood in a row, facing east, and, throwing down their +sticks, saluted them, and prostrated themselves before them. Then all +took up their sticks, and some played on reed pipes. Some of the women +brought garlands of flowers, and placed them round the necks of four +men, who for a time stood holding in their hands their sticks, of which +the ends were stuck in the ground. After a time they began to shiver, +move quickly about, and kick those around them. Under the influence of +their inspiration, they exhibited remarkable physical strength, and +five or six men could not hold them. Calling various people by name, +they expressed a hope that they would respect the gods, worship them, +and offer to them pongal (boiled rice) and animal sacrifices. The +women brought their babies to them to be named. In some places, the +naming of infants is performed at the Aiyanar temple by any one who +is under the influence of inspiration. Failing such a one, several +flowers, each with a name attached to it, are thrown in front of +the idol. A boy, or the pujari (priest) picks up one of the flowers, +and the infant receives the name which is connected with it. + +The Valaiyans are devoted to devil worship, and, at Orattanadu in +the Tanjore district, every Valaiyan backyard is said to contain +an odiyan (Odina Wodier) tree, in which the devil is supposed to +live. [97] It is noted by Mr. W. Francis [98] that "certain of the +Valaiyans who live at Ammayanayakkanur are the hereditary pujaris to +the gods of the Sirumalai hills. Some of these deities are uncommon, +and one of them, Papparayan, is said to be the spirit of a Brahman +astrologer whose monsoon forecast was falsified by events, and who, +filled with a shame rare in unsuccessful weather prophets, threw +himself off a high point on the range." + +According to Mr. Hemingway, the Valaiyans have a special caste god, +named Muttal Ravuttan, who is the spirit of a dead Muhammadan, about +whom nothing seems to be known. + +The dead are as a rule buried with rites similar to those of the +Kallans and Agamudaiyans. The final death ceremonies (karmandhiram) +are performed on the sixteenth day. On the night of the previous day, +a vessel filled with water is placed on the spot where the deceased +breathed his last, and two cocoanuts, with the pores ('eyes') open, +are deposited near it. On the following morning, all proceed to +a grove or tank (pond). The eldest son, or other celebrant, after +shaving and bathing, marks out a square space on the ground, and, +placing a few dry twigs of Ficus religiosa and Ficus bengalensis +therein, sets fire to them. Presents of rice and other food-stuffs +are given to beggars and others. The ceremony closes with the son +and sapindas, who have to observe pollution, placing new cloths on +their heads. Mr. Francis records that, at the funeral ceremonies, +"the relations go three times round a basket of grain placed under +a pandal (booth), beating their breasts and singing:-- + + + For us the kanji (rice gruel): kailasam (the abode of Siva) + for thee; + Rice for us; for thee Svargalokam, + + +and then wind turbans round the head of the deceased's heir, in +recognition of his new position as chief of the family. When a +woman loses her husband, she goes three times round the village +mandai (common), with a pot of water on her shoulder. After each +of the first two journeys, the barber makes a hole in the pot, and +at the end of the third he hurls down the vessel, and cries out an +adjuration to the departed spirit to leave the widow and children in +peace." It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district, that +"one of the funeral ceremonies is peculiar, though it is paralleled +by practices among the Paraiyans and Karaiyans. When the heir departs +to the burning-ground on the second day, a mortar is placed near the +outer door of his house, and a lamp is lit inside. On his return, +he has to upset the mortar, and worship the light." + +Valan.--For the following note on the Valan and Katal Arayan fishing +castes of the Cochin State, I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha +Krishna Aiyar. + +The name Valan is derived from vala, meaning fish in a tank. Some +consider the word to be another form of Valayan, which signifies +a person who throws a net for fishing. According to the tradition +and current belief of these people, they were brought to Kerala by +Parasurama for plying boats and conveying passengers across the rivers +and backwaters on the west coast. Another tradition is that the Valans +were Arayans, and they became a separate caste only after one of the +Perumals had selected some of their families for boat service, and +conferred on them special privileges. They even now pride themselves +that their caste is one of remote antiquity, and that Vedavyasa, +the author of the Puranas, and Guha, who rendered the boat service +to the divine Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana, across the Ganges in the +course of their exile to the forest, were among the caste-men. + +There are no sub-divisions in the caste, but the members thereof are +said to belong to four exogamous illams (houses of Nambutiris), namely, +Alayakad, Ennalu, Vaisyagiriam, and Vazhapally, which correspond to +the gotras of the Brahmans, or to four clans, the members of each +of which are perhaps descended from a common ancestor. According +to a tradition current among them, they were once attached to the +four Nambutiri illams above mentioned for service of some kind, +and were even the descendants of the members of the illams, but +were doomed to the present state of degradation on account of some +misconduct. Evidently, the story is looked up to to elevate themselves +in social status. I am inclined to believe that they must have been +the Atiyars (slaves) of the four aforesaid Brahman families, owing +a kind of allegiance (nambikooru) like the Kanakkans to the Chittur +Manakkal Nambutripad in Perumanam of the Trichur taluk. Even now, +these Brahman families are held in great respect by the Valans, who, +when afflicted with family calamities, visit the respective illams +with presents of a few packets of betel leaves and a few annas, to +receive the blessings of their Brahman masters, which, according to +their belief, may tend to avert them. + +The low sandy tract of land on each side of the backwater is the +abode of these fishermen. In some places, more especially south of +Cranganore, their houses are dotted along the banks of the backwater, +often nearly hidden by cocoanut trees, while at intervals the white +picturesque fronts of numerous Roman Catholic and Romo-Syrian churches +are perceived. These houses are in fact mere flimsy huts, a few of +which, occupied by the members of several families, may be seen huddled +together in the same compound abounding in a growth of cocoanut trees, +with hardly enough space to dry their fish and nets. In the majority +of cases, the compounds belong to jenmis (landlords), who lease them +out either rent-free or on nominal rent, and who often are so kind +as to allow them some cocoanuts for their consumption, and leaves +sufficient to thatch their houses. About ten per cent. of their houses +are built of wood and stones, while a large majority of them are made +of mud or bamboo framework, and hardly spacious enough to accommodate +the members of the family during the summer months. Cooking is done +outside the house, and very few take rest inside after hard work, for +their compounds are shady and breezy, and they may be seen basking in +the sun after midnight toil, or drying the nets or fish. Their utensils +are few, consisting of earthen vessels and enamel dishes, and their +furniture of a few wooden planks and coarse mats to serve as beds. + +The girls of the Valans are married both before and after puberty, but +the tali-kettu kalyanam (tali-tying marriage) is indispensable before +they come of age, as otherwise they and their parents are put out of +caste. Both for the tali-tying ceremony and for the real marriage, the +bride and bridegroom must be of different illams or gotras. In regard +to the former, as soon as an auspicious day is fixed, the girl's party +visit the Aravan with a present of six annas and eight pies, and a +few packets of betel leaves, when he gives his permission, and issues +an order to the Ponamban, his subordinate of the kadavu (village), +to see that the ceremony is properly conducted. The Ponamban, +the bridegroom and his party, go to the house of the bride. At the +appointed hour, the Ponambans and the castemen of the two kadavus +assemble after depositing six annas and eight pies in recognition of +the presence of the Aravan, and the tali is handed over by the priest +to the bridegroom, who ties it round the neck of the bride amidst the +joyous shouts of the multitude assembled. The ceremony always takes +place at night, and the festivities generally last for two days. It +must be understood that the tali tier is not necessarily the husband +of the girl, but is merely the pseudo-bridegroom or pseudo-husband, +who is sent away with two pieces of cloth and a few annas at the +termination of the ceremony. Should he, however, wish to have the girl +as his wife, he should, at his own expense, provide her with a tali, +a wedding dress, and a few rupees as the price of the bride. Generally +it is the maternal uncle of the girl who provides her with the first +two at the time of the ceremony. + +The actual marriage is more ceremonial in its nature. The maternal +uncle, or the father of a young Valan who wishes to marry, first visits +the girl, and, if he approves of the match for his nephew or son, the +astrologer is consulted so as to ensure that the horoscopes agree. If +astrology does not stand in the way, they forthwith proceed to the +girl's house, where they are well entertained. The bride's parents +and relatives return the visit at the bridegroom's house, where they +are likewise treated to a feast. The two parties then decide on a +day for the formal declaration of the proposed union. On that day, +a Valan from the bridegroom's village, seven to nine elders, and the +Ponamban under whom the bride is, meet, and, in the presence of those +assembled, a Valan from each party deposits on a plank four annas and a +few betel leaves in token of enangu mattam or exchange of co-castemen +from each party for the due fulfilment of the contract thus publicly +entered into. Then they fix the date of the marriage, and retire from +the bride's house. On the appointed day, the bridegroom's party proceed +to the bride's house with two pieces of cloth, a rupee or a rupee and a +half, rice, packets of betel leaves, etc. The bride is already dressed +and adorned in her best, and one piece of cloth, rice and money, are +paid to her mother as the price of the bride. After a feast, the bridal +party go to the bridegroom's house, which is entered at an auspicious +hour. They are received at the gate with a lamp and a vessel of water, +a small quantity of which is sprinkled on the married couple. They +are welcomed by the seniors of the house and seated together, when +sweets are given, and the bride is formally declared to be a member +of the bridegroom's family. The ceremony closes with a feast, the +expenses in connection with which are the same on both sides. + +A man may marry more than one wife, but no woman may enter into +conjugal relations with more than one man. A widow may, with the +consent of her parents, enter into wedlock with any member of her caste +except her brothers-in-law, in which case her children by her first +husband will be looked after by the members of his family. Divorce +is effected by either party making an application to the Aravan, +who has to be presented with from twelve annas to six rupees and a +half according to the means of the applicant. The Aravan, in token of +dissolution, issues a letter to the members of the particular village +to which the applicant belongs, and, on the declaration of the same, +he or she has to pay to his or her village castemen four annas. + +When a Valan girl comes of age, she is lodged in a room of the house, +and is under pollution for four days. She is bathed on the fourth day, +and the castemen and women of the neighbourhood, with the relatives +and friends, are treated to a sumptuous dinner. There is a curious +custom called theralikka, i.e., causing the girl to attain maturity, +which consists in placing her in seclusion in a separate room, and +proclaiming that she has come of age. Under such circumstances, the +caste-women of the neighbourhood, with the washerwoman, assemble at the +house of the girl, when the latter pours a small quantity of gingelly +(Sesamum) oil on her head, and rubs her body with turmeric powder, +after which she is proclaimed as having attained puberty. She is +bathed, and lodged in a separate room as before, and the four days' +pollution is observed. This custom, which exists also among other +castes, is now being abandoned by a large majority of the community. + +In respect of inheritance, the Valans follow a system, which partakes +of the character of succession from father to son, and from maternal +uncle to nephew. The self-acquired property is generally divided +equally between brothers and sons, while the ancestral property, +if any, goes to the brothers. The great majority of the Valans are +mere day-labourers, and the property usually consists of a few tools, +implements, or other equipments of their calling. + +The Valans, like other castes, have their tribal organisation, and +their headman (Aravan or Aravar) is appointed by thitturam or writ +issued by His Highness the Raja. The Aravan appoints other social +heads, called Ponamban, one, two, or three of whom are stationed +at each desam (village) or kadavu. Before the development of +the Government authority and the establishment of administrative +departments, the Aravans wielded great influence and authority, +as they still do to a limited extent, not only in matters social, +but also in civil and criminal disputes between members of the +community. For all social functions, matrimonial, funeral, etc., +their permission has to be obtained and paid for. The members of the +community have to visit their headman, with presents of betel leaves, +money, and sometimes rice and paddy (unhusked rice). The headman +generally directs the proper conduct of all ceremonies by writs issued +to the Ponambans under him. The Ponambans also are entitled to small +perquisites on ceremonial occasions. The appointment of Aravan, though +not virtually hereditary, passes at his death to the next qualified +senior member of his family, who may be his brother, son, or nephew, +but this rule has been violated by the appointment of a person from +a different family. The Aravan has the honour of receiving from His +Highness the Raja a present of two cloths at the Onam festival, six +annas and eight pies on the Athachamayam day, and a similar sum for +the Vishu. At his death, the ruler of the State sends a piece of silk +cloth, a piece of sandal-wood, and about ten rupees, for defraying +the expenses of the funeral ceremonies. + +The Valans profess Hinduism, and Siva, Vishnu, and the heroes of the +Hindu Puranas are all worshipped. Like other castes, they entertain +special reverence for Bhagavathi, who is propitiated with offerings +of rice-flour, toddy, green cocoanuts, plantain fruits, and fowls, +on Tuesdays and Fridays. A grand festival, called Kumbhom Bharani +(cock festival), is held in the middle of March, when Nayars and +low caste men offer up cocks to Bhagavathi, beseeching immunity from +diseases during the ensuing year. In fact, people from all parts of +Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore, attend the festival, and the whole +country near the line of march rings with shouts of "Nada, nada" +(walk or march) of the pilgrims to Cranganore, the holy residence of +the goddess. In their passage up to the shrine, the cry of "Nada, +nada" is varied by unmeasured abuse of the goddess. The abusive +language, it is believed, is acceptable to her, and, on arrival at +the shrine, they desecrate it in every conceivable manner, in the +belief that this too is acceptable. They throw stones and filth, +howling volleys of abuse at the shrine. The chief of the Arayan caste, +Koolimuttah Arayan, has the privilege of being the first to be present +on the occasion. The image in the temple is said to have been recently +introduced. There is a door in the temple which is apparently of stone, +fixed in a half-opened position. A tradition, believed by Hindus and +Christians, is attached to this, which asserts that St. Thomas and +Bhagavathi held a discussion at Palliport about the respective merits +of the Christian and Hindu religions. The argument became heated, +and Bhagavathi, considering it best to cease further discussion, +decamped, and, jumping across the Cranganore river, made straight for +the temple. St. Thomas, not to be outdone, rapidly gave chase, and, +just as the deity got inside the door, the saint reached its outside, +and, setting his foot between it and the door-post, prevented its +closure. There they both stood until the door turned to stone, one +not allowing its being opened, and the other its being shut. + +Another important festival, which is held at Cranganore, is the Makara +Vilakku, which falls on the first of Makaram (about the 15th January), +during the night of which there is a good deal of illumination both +in and round the temple. A procession of ten or twelve elephants, +all fully decorated, goes round it several times, accompanied by +drums and instrumental music. + +Chourimala Iyappan or Sastha, a sylvan deity, whose abode is Chourimala +in Travancore, is a favourite deity of the Valans. In addition, they +worship the demi-gods or demons Kallachan Muri and Kochu Mallan, who +are ever disposed to do them harm, and who are therefore propitiated +with offerings of fowls. They have a patron, who is also worshipped +at Cranganore. The spirits of their ancestors are also held in great +veneration by these people, and are propitiated with offerings on +the new moon and Sankranthi days of Karkadakam, Thulam, and Makaram. + +The most important festivals observed by the Valans in common with +other castes are Mandalam Vilakku, Sivarathri, Vishu, Onam, and Desara. + +Mandalam Vilakku takes place during the last seven days of Mandalam +(November to December). During this festival the Valans enjoy +themselves with music and drum-beating during the day. At night, +some of them, developing hysterical fits, profess to be oracles, +with demons such as Gandharva, Yakshi, or Bhagavathi, dwelling in +their bodies in their incorporeal forms. Consultations are held as +to future events, and their advice is thankfully received and acted +upon. Sacrifices of sheep, fowls, green cocoanuts, and plantain fruits +are offered to the demons believed to be residing within, and are +afterwards liberally distributed among the castemen and others present. + +The Sivarathri festival comes on the last day of Magha. The whole day +and night are devoted to the worship of Siva, and the Valans, like +other castes, go to Alvai, bathe in the river, and keep awake during +the night, reading the Siva Purana and reciting his names. Early on +the following morning, they bathe, and make offerings of rice balls +to the spirits of the ancestors before returning home. + +The Valans have no temples of their own, but, on all important +occasions, worship the deities of the temples of the higher castes, +standing at a long distance from the outer walls of the sacred +edifice. On important religious occasions, Embrans are invited to +perform the Kalasam ceremony, for which they are liberally rewarded. A +kalasam is a pot, which is filled with water. Mango leaves and dharba +grass are placed in it. Vedic hymns are repeated, with one end of the +grass in the water, and the other in the hand. Water thus sanctified +is used for bathing the image. From a comparison of the religion of the +Valans with that of allied castes, it may be safely said that they were +animists, but have rapidly imbibed the higher forms of worship. They +are becoming more and more literate, and this helps the study of the +religious works. There are some among them, who compose Vanchipattu +(songs sung while rowing) with plots from their Puranic studies. + +The Valans either burn or bury their dead. The chief mourner is +either the son or nephew of the dead person, and he performs the death +ceremonies as directed by the priest (Chithayan), who attends wearing +a new cloth, turban, and the sacred thread. The ceremonies commence +on the second, fifth, or seventh day, when the chief mourner, bathing +early in the morning, offers pinda bali (offerings of rice balls) +to the spirit of the deceased. This is continued till the thirteenth +day, when the nearest relatives get shaved. On the fifteenth day, +the castemen of the locality, the friends and relatives, are treated +to a grand dinner, and, on the sixteenth day, another offering (mana +pindam) is made to the spirit of the departed, and thrown into the +backwater close by. Every day during the ceremonies, a vessel full +of rice is given to the priest, who also receives ten rupees for his +services. If the death ceremonies are not properly performed, the +ghost of the deceased is believed to haunt the house. An astrologer +is then consulted, and his advice is invariably followed. What is +called Samhara Homam (sacred fire) is kept up, and an image of the +dead man in silver or gold is purified by the recitation of holy +mantrams. Another purificatory ceremony is performed, after which +the image is handed over to a priest at the temple, with a rupee or +two. This done, the death ceremonies are performed. + +The ears of Valan girls are, as among some other castes, pierced +when they are a year old, or even less, and a small quill, a piece +of cotton thread, or a bit of wood, is inserted into the hole. The +wound is gradually healed by the application of cocoanut oil. A piece +of lead is then inserted in the hole, which is gradually enlarged by +means of a piece of plantain, cocoanut, or palmyra leaf rolled up. + +The Valans are expert rowers, and possess the special privilege of +rowing from Thripunathura the boat of His Highness the Raja for his +installation at the Cochin palace, when the Aravan, with sword in hand, +has to stand in front of him in the boat. Further, on the occasion +of any journey of the Raja along the backwaters on occasions of +State functions, such as a visit of the Governor of Madras, or other +dignitary, the headman leads the way as an escort in a snake-boat +rowed with paddles, and has to supply the requisite number of men +for rowing the boats of the high official and his retinue. + +The Katal Arayans, or sea Arayans, who are also called Katakkoti, +are lower in status than the Valans, and, like them, live along the +coast. They were of great service to the Portuguese and the Dutch in +their palmy days, acting as boatmen in transhipping their commodities +and supplying them with fish. The Katal Arayans were, in former times, +owing to their social degradation, precluded from travelling along the +public roads. This disability was, during the days of the Portuguese +supremacy, taken advantage of by the Roman Catholic missionaries, +who turned their attention to the conversion of these poor fishermen, +a large number of whom were thus elevated in the social scale. The +Katal Arayans are sea fishermen. On the death of a prince of Malabar, +all fishing is temporarily prohibited, and only renewed after three +days, when the spirit of the departed is supposed to have had time +enough to choose its abode without molestation. + +Among their own community, the Katal Arayans distinguish themselves by +four distinct appellations, viz., Sankhan, Bharatan, Amukkuvan, and +Mukkuvan. Of these, Amukkuvans do priestly functions. The castemen +belong to four septs or illams, namely, Kattotillam, Karotillam, +Chempotillam, and Ponnotillam. + +Katal Arayan girls are married both before and after puberty. The +tali-tying ceremony, which is compulsory in the case of Valan girls +before they come of age, is put off, and takes place along with the +real marriage. The preliminary negotiations and settlements thereof +are substantially the same as those prevailing among the Valans. The +auspicious hour for marriage is between three and eight in the morning, +and, on the previous evening, the bridegroom and his party arrive at +the house of the bride, where they are welcomed and treated to a grand +feast, after which the guests, along with the bride and bridegroom +seated somewhat apart, in a pandal tastefully decorated and brightly +illuminated, are entertained with songs of the Velan (washerman) +and his wife alluding to the marriage of Sita or Parvathi, in the +belief that they will bring about a happy conjugal union. These are +continued till sunrise, when the priest hands over the marriage badge +to the bridegroom, who ties it round the neck of the bride. The songs +are again continued for an hour or two, after which poli begins. The +guests who have assembled contribute a rupee, eight annas, or four +annas, according to their means, which go towards the remuneration of +the priest, songsters, and drummers. The guests are again sumptuously +entertained at twelve o'clock, after which the bridegroom and his +party return with the bride to his house. At the time of departure, +or nearly an hour before it, the bridegroom ties a few rupees or a +sovereign to a corner of the bride's body-cloth, probably to induce +her to accompany him. Just then, the bride-price, which is 101 puthans, +or Rs. 5-12-4, is paid to her parents. The bridal party is entertained +at the bridegroom's house, where, at an auspicious hour, the newly +married couple are seated together, and served with a few pieces of +plantain fruits and some milk, when the bride is formally declared to +be a member of her husband's family. If a girl attains maturity after +her marriage, she is secluded for a period of eleven days. She bathes +on the first, fourth, seventh, and eleventh days, and, on the last +day the caste people are entertained with a grand feast, the expenses +connected with which are met by the husband. The Katal Arayans rarely +have more than one wife. A widow may, a year after the death of her +husband, enter into conjugal relations with any member of the caste, +except her brother-in-law. Succession is in the male line. + +The Katal Arayans have headmen (Aravans), whose duties are the +same as those of the headmen of the Valans. When the senior male or +female member of the ruling family dies, the Aravan has the special +privilege of being the first successor to the masnad with his tirumul +kazcha (nuzzer), which consists of a small quantity of salt packed +in a plantain leaf with rope and a Venetian ducat or other gold +coin. During the period of mourning, visits of condolence from durbar +officials and sthanis or noblemen are received only after the Aravan's +visit. When the Bhagavathi temple of Cranganore is defiled during +the cock festival, Koolimutteth Aravan has the special privilege of +entering the temple in preference to other castemen. + +The Katal Arayans profess Hinduism, and their modes of worship, +and other religious observances, are the same as those of the +Velans. The dead are either burnt or buried. The period of death +pollution is eleven days, and the agnates are freed from it by a bath +on the eleventh day. On the twelfth day, the castemen of the village, +including the relatives and friends, are treated to a grand feast. The +son, who is the chief mourner, observes the diksha, or vow by which he +does not shave, for a year. He performs the sradha (memorial service) +every year in honour of the dead. + +Some of the methods of catching fish at Cochin are thus described by +Dr. Francis Day. [99] "Cast nets are employed from the shore, by a +number of fishermen, who station themselves either in the early morning +or in the afternoon, along the coast from 50 to 100 yards apart. They +keep a careful watch on the water, and, on perceiving a fish rise +sufficiently near the land, rush down and attempt to throw their nets +over it. This is not done as in Europe by twisting the net round and +round the head until it has acquired the necessary impetus, and then +throwing it; but by the person twirling himself and the net round and +round at the same time, and then casting it. He not infrequently gets +knocked over by a wave. When fish are caught, they are buried in the +sand, to prevent their tainting. In the wide inland rivers, fishermen +employ cast nets in the following manner. Each man is in a boat, which +is propelled by a boy with a bamboo. The fisherman has a cast net, +and a small empty cocoanut shell. This last he throws into the river, +about twenty yards before the boat, and it comes down with a splash, +said to be done to scare away the crocodiles. As the boat approaches +the place where the cocoanut shell was thrown, the man casts his net +around the spot. This method is only for obtaining small fish, and +as many as fifteen boats at a time are to be seen thus employed in +one place, one following the other in rapid succession, some trying +the centre, others the sides of the river. + +"Double rows of long bamboos, firmly fixed in the mud, are placed +at intervals across the backwater, and on these nets are fixed at +the flood tide, so that fish which have entered are unable to return +to the sea. Numbers of very large ones are occasionally captured in +this way. A species of Chinese nets is also used along the river's +banks. They are about 16 feet square, suspended by bamboos from each +corner, and let down like buckets into the water, and then after a +few minutes drawn up again. A piece of string, to which are attached +portions of the white leaves of the cocoanut tree, is tied at short +intervals along the ebb side of the net, which effectually prevents +fish from going that way. A plan somewhat analogous is employed on a +small scale for catching crabs. A net three feet square is supported +at the four corners by two pieces of stick fastened crosswise. From +the centre of these sticks where they cross is a string to pull it +up by or let it down, and a piece of meat is tied to the middle of +the net inside. This is let down from a wharf, left under water for a +few minutes, and then pulled up. Crabs coming to feed are thus caught. + +"Fishing with a line is seldom attempted in the deep sea, excepting +for sharks, rays, and other large fish. The hooks employed are of two +descriptions, the roughest, although perhaps the strongest, being of +native manufacture; the others are of English make, denominated China +hooks. The hook is fastened to a species of fibre called thumboo, +said to be derived from a seaweed, but more probably from one of the +species of palms. The lines are either hemp, cotton, or the fibre of +the talipot palm (Caryota urens), which is obtained by maceration. In +Europe they are called Indian gut. + +"Trolling from the shore at the river's mouth is only carried on +of a morning or evening, during the winter months of the year, when +the sea is smooth. The line is from 80 to 100 yards in length, and +held wound round the left hand; the hook is fastened to the line by a +brass wire, and the bait is a live fish. The fisherman, after giving +the line an impetus by twirling it round and round his head, throws +it with great precision from 50 to 60 yards. A man is always close by +with a cast net, catching baits, which he sells for one quarter of an +anna each. This mode of fishing is very exciting sport, but is very +uncertain in its results, and therefore usually carried on by coolies +either before their day's work has commenced, or after its termination. + +"Fishing with a bait continues all day long in Cochin during the +monsoon months, when work is almost at a standstill, and five or +six persons may be perceived at each jetty, busily engaged in this +occupation. The Bagrus tribe is then plentiful, and, as it bites +readily, large numbers are captured. + +"Fishing in small boats appears at times to be a dangerous occupation; +the small canoe only steadied by the paddle of one man seated in +it looks as if it must every minute be swamped. Very large fish are +sometimes caught in this way. Should one be hooked too large for the +fisherman to manage, the man in the next boat comes to his assistance, +and receives a quarter of the fish for his trouble. This is carried +on all through the year, and the size of some of the Bagri is enormous. + +"Fish are shot in various ways, by a Chittagong bamboo, which is a +hollow tube, down which the arrow is propelled by the marksman's +mouth. This mode is sometimes very remunerative, and is followed +by persons who quietly sneak along the shores, either of sluggish +streams or of the backwater. Sometimes they climb up into trees, +and there await a good shot. Or, during the monsoon, the sportsman +quietly seats himself near some narrow channel that passes from one +wide piece of water into another, and watches for his prey. Other +fishermen shoot with bows and arrows, and again others with cross-bows, +the iron arrow or bolt of which is attached by a line to the bow, to +prevent its being lost. But netting fish, catching them with hooks, +or shooting them with arrows, are not the only means employed for +their capture. Bamboo labyrinths, bamboo baskets, and even men's +hands alone, are called into use. + +"Persons fish for crabs in shallow brackish water, provided with +baskets like those employed in Europe for catching eels, but open at +both ends. The fishermen walk about in the mud, and, when they feel a +fish move, endeavour to cover it with the larger end of the basket, +which is forced down some distance into the mud, and the hand is +then passed downward through the upper extremity, and the fish taken +out. Another plan of catching them by the hand is by having two lines +to which white cocoanut leaves are attached tied to the fisherman's +two great toes, from which they diverge; the other end of each being +held by another man a good way off, and some distance apart. On these +lines being shaken, the fish become frightened, and, strange as it may +appear, cluster for protection around the man's feet, who is able to +stoop down, and catch them with his hands, by watching his opportunity. + +"Bamboo labyrinths are common all along the backwater, in which a good +many fish, especially eels and crabs, are captured. These labyrinths +are formed of a screen of split bamboos, passing perpendicularly out +of the water, and leading into a larger baited chamber. A dead cat is +often employed as a bait for crabs. A string is attached to its body, +and, after it has been in the water some days, it is pulled up with +these crustacea adherent to it. Persons are often surprised at crabs +being considered unwholesome, but their astonishment would cease, +if they were aware what extremely unclean feeders they are. + +"Fish are obtained from the inland rivers by poisoning them, but +this can only be done when the water is low. A dam is thrown across +a certain portion, and the poison placed within it. It generally +consists of Cocculus indicus (berries) pounded with rice; croton oil +seeds, etc." + +Valangai.--Valangai, Valangan, Valangamattan, or Balagai, meaning those +who belong to the right-hand faction, has, at times of census, been +returned as a sub-division, synonym or title of Deva-dasis, Holeyas, +Nokkans, Panisavans, Paraiyans, and Saliyans. Some Deva-dasis have +returned themselves as belonging to the left-hand (idangai) faction. + +Valayakara Chetti.--A Tamil synonym of Gazula Balijas who sell glass +bangles. The equivalent Vala Chetti is also recorded. + +Valekara.--A Badaga form of Billekara or belted peon. The word +frequently occurs in Badaga ballads. Taluk peons on the Nilgiris are +called Valekaras. + +Vali Sugriva.--A synonym of the Lambadis, who claim descent from Vali +and Sugriva, the two monkey chiefs of the Ramayana. + +Valinchiyan.--See Velakkattalavan. + +Valiyatan (valiya, great, tan, a title of dignity).--Recorded, in +the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a title of Nayar. + +Vallabarayan.--A title of Occhan. + +Vallamban.--The Vallambans are a small Tamil cultivating class +living in the Tanjore, Trichinopoly, and Madura districts. They are +said [100] to be "the offspring of a Vellalan and a Valaiya woman, +now a small and insignificant caste of cultivators. Some of them +assert that their ancestors were the lords of the soil, for whose +sole benefit the Vellalans used to carry on cultivation. Tradition +makes the Vellambans to have joined the Kallans in attacking and +driving away the Vellalans. It is customary among the Vallambans, when +demising land, to refer to the fact of their being descendants of the +Vallambans who lost Vallam, i.e., the Vallama nadu in Tanjore, their +proper country." Some Vallambans claim to be flesh-eating Vellalas, +or to be superior to Kallans and Maravans by reason of their Vellala +ancestry. They call themselves Vallamtotta Vellalas, or the Vellalas +who lost Vallam, and say that they were Vellalas of Vallam in the +Tanjore district, who left their native place in a time of famine. + +Portions of the Madura and Tanjore districts are divided into areas +known as nadus, in each of which a certain caste, called the Nattar, +is the predominant factor. For example, the Vallambans and Kallans +are called the Nattars of the Palaya nadu in the Sivaganga zemindari +of the Madura district. In dealing with the tribal affairs of the +various castes inhabiting a particular nadu, the lead is taken by the +Nattars, by whom certain privileges are enjoyed, as for example in the +distribution to them, after the Brahman and zamindar, of the flowers +and sacred ashes used in temple worship. For the purposes of caste +council meetings the Vallambans collect together representatives from +fourteen nadus, as they consider that the council should be composed +of delegates from a head village and its branches, generally thirteen +in number. + +It is noted by Mr. F. R. Hemingway that the Vallambans "speak of +five sub-divisions, namely, Chenjinadu, Amaravatinadu, Palayanadu, +Melnadu, and Kilnadu. The Mel and Kilnadu people intermarry, but +are distinguishable by the fact that the former have moustaches, +and the latter have not. The women dress like the Nattukottai +Chettis. Tattooing is not allowed, and those who practice it are +expelled from the caste. The men generally have no title, but some who +enjoy State service inams call themselves Ambalakaran. The Melnadu +people have no exogamous divisions, though they observe the rule +about Kovil Pangolis. The Kilnadus have exogamous kilais, karais, +and pattams." As examples of exogamous septs, the following may be +cited:--Solangal (Chola), Pandiangal (Pandyan), Nariangal (jackal), +and Piliyangal (tiger). + +The headman of the Vallambans is referred to generally as the +Servaikaran. The headman of a group of nadus is entitled Nattuservai, +while the headman of a village is known as Ur Servai, or simply Servai. + +Marriage is celebrated between adults, and the remarriage of widows +is not objected to. It is stated [101] that "the maternal uncle's +or paternal aunt's daughter is claimed as a matter of right by a +boy, so that a boy of ten may be wedded to a mature woman of twenty +or twenty-five years, if she happens to be unmarried and without +issue. Any elderly male member of the boy's family--his elder +brother, uncle, or even his father--will have intercourse with her, +and beget children, which the boy, when he comes of age, will accept +as his own, and legitimatise." This system of marriage, in which +there is a marked disparity in the ages of the contracting couple, +is referred to in the proverb: "The tali should be tied at least by +a log of wood." The marriage rites are as a rule non-Brahmanical, +but in some well-to-do families the services of a Brahman purohit +are enlisted. The presence of the Umbalakaran or caste headman at a +marriage is essential. On the wedding day the contracting couple offer, +at their homes, manaipongal (boiled rice), and the alangu ceremony is +performed by waving coloured rice round them, or touching the knees, +shoulders, and head with cakes, and throwing them over the head. The +wrist-threads, consisting of a piece of old cloth dyed with turmeric, +are tied on by the maternal uncle. Cooked rice and vegetables are +placed in front of the marriage dais, and offered to the gods. Four +betel leaves are given to the bridegroom, who goes round the dais, +and salutes the four cardinal points of the compass by pouring water +from a leaf. He then sits down on a plank on the dais, and hands the +tali (marriage badge) to his sister. Taking the tali, she proceeds +to the bride's house, where the bride, after performing the alangu +ceremony, is awaiting her arrival. On reaching the house, she asks +for the bride's presents, and one of her brothers replies that such +a piece of land, naming one, is given as a dowry. The bridegroom's +sister then removes the string of black and gold beads, such as is +worn before marriage, from the bride's neck, and replaces it by the +tali. The conch shell should be blown by women or children during +the performance of manaipongal, and when the tali is tied. The bride +is conveyed to the house of the bridegroom, and sits with him on the +dais while the relations make presents to them. + +The messenger who conveys the news of a death in the community is +a Paraiyan. The corpse is placed within a pandal (booth) supported +on four posts, which is erected in front of the house. Some paddy +(unhusked rice) is poured from a winnow on to the ground, and rice +is thrown over the face of the corpse. On the second day rice, +and other articles of food, are carried by a barber to the spot +where the corpse has been buried or burnt. If the latter course +has been adopted, the barber picks out some of the remains of the +bones, and hands them to the son of the deceased. On the third day, +the widow goes round the pandal three times, and, entering within +it, removes her tali string, and new clothes are thrown over her +neck. On the sixteenth day the final death ceremonies (karmandhiram) +are performed. A feast is given, and new cloths are tied on the heads +of those under pollution. Pollution lasts for thirty days. + +The Vallambans profess to be Saivaites, but they consider Periya +Nayaki of Velangkudi as their tribal goddess, and each nadu has its own +special deity, such as Vembu Aiyanar, Nelliyandi Aiyanar, etc. In some +places the tribal deity is worshipped on a Tuesday at a festival called +Sevvai (Tuesday). On this day pots containing fermented rice liquor, +which must have been made by the caste people and not purchased, +are taken to the place of worship. On a Friday, those families which +are to take part in the festival allow a quantity of paddy (rice) to +germinate by soaking it in water, and on the following Tuesday flower +spikes of the palmyra palm are added to the malted rice liquor in the +pots. The pots of ordinary families may be placed in their houses, +but those of the Umbalakarans and Servaikarans must be taken to the +temple as representing the deity. Into these pots the flower spikes +should be placed by some respected elder of the community. A week +later, a small quantity of rice liquor is poured into other pots, +which are carried by women to the temple car, round which they go +three times. They then throw the liquor into a tank or pond. The pots +of the Umbalakaran and Servaikaran must be carried by young virgins, +or grown-up women who are not under menstrual pollution. One of the +women who carries these pots usually becomes possessed by the village +deity. At the time of the festival, cradles, horses, human figures, +elephants, etc., made by the potter, are brought to the temple as +votive offerings to the god. + +Valli Ammai Kuttam.--A synonym of the Koravas, meaning followers of +Valli Ammai, the wife of the God Subrahmanya, whom they claim to have +been a Korava woman. + +Vallodi.--The name denotes a settlement in the Valluvanad taluk of +Malabar, and has been returned as a sub-division of Nayar and Samantan, +to which the Raja of Valluvanad belongs. + +Valluvan.--The Valluvans are summed up by Mr. H. A. Stuart [102] +as being "the priests of the Paraiyans and Pallans. Tiruvalluvar, +the famous Tamil poet, author of the Kural, belonged to this caste, +which is usually regarded as a sub-division of Paraiyans. It appears +that the Valluvans were priests to the Pallava kings before the +introduction of the Brahmans, and even for some time after it. [103] +In an unpublished Vatteluttu inscription, believed to be of the ninth +century, the following sentence occurs 'Sri Velluvam Puvanavan, the +Uvac'chan (Oc'chan) of this temple, will employ daily six men for +doing the temple service.' Again, the Valluvans must have formerly +held a position at least equal to that of the Vellalas, if the story +that Tiruvalluva Nayanar married a Vellala girl is true. [104] He +is said to have "refused to acknowledge the distinctions of caste, +and succeeded in obtaining a Vellala woman as his wife, from whom a +section of the Valluvans say it has its descent. As their ancestor +amused himself in the intervals between his studies by weaving, +they employ themselves in mending torn linen, but chiefly live by +astrology, and by acting as priests of Paraiyans, and officiating at +their funerals and marriages, though some refuse to take part in the +former inauspicious ceremony, and leave the duty to those whom they +consider impure Valluvans called Paraiya Tadas. Another section of the +Valluvans is called Alvar Dasari or Tavadadhari (those who wear the +necklace of tulsi beads). Both Saivites and Vaishnavites eat together, +but do not intermarry. Unlike Paraiyans, they forbid remarriage of +widows and even polygamy, and all males above twelve wear the sacred +thread." According to one account, the Valluvans are the descendants of +an alliance between a Brahman sage and a Paraiyan woman, whose children +complained to their father of their lowly position. He blessed them, +and told them that they would become very clever astrologers, and, +in consequence, much respected. At the Travancore census, 1901, the +Valluvans were defined as a sub-division of the Pulayas, for whom +they perform priestly functions. + +"Both men and women are employed as astrologers and doctors, and are +often consulted by all classes of people. In many villages they have +the privilege of receiving from each ryot a handful of grain during +the harvest time." [105] Of three Valluvans, whom I interviewed at +Coimbatore, one, with a flowing white beard, had a lingam wrapped up +in a pink cloth round the neck, and a charm tied in a pink cloth round +the right upper arm. Another, with a black beard, had a salmon-coloured +turban. The third was wearing a discarded British soldier's tunic. All +wore necklaces of rudraksha (Elæocarpus Ganitrus) beads, and their +foreheads were smeared with oblong patches of sandal paste. Each of +them had a collection of panchangams, or calendars for determining +auspicious dates, and a bundle of palm leaf strips (ulla mudyan) +inscribed with slokas for astrological purposes. Their professional +duties included writing charms for sick people, preparing horoscopes, +and making forecasts of good or evil by means of cabalistic squares +marked on the ground. Some Valluvans would have us believe that +those who officiate as priests are not true Valluvans, and that the +true Valluvan, who carries out the duties of an astrologer, will not +perform priestly functions for the Paraiyans. + +The most important sub-divisions of the Valluvans, returned at times of +census, are Paraiyan, Tavidadari, and Tiruvalluvan. From information +supplied to me, I gather that there are two main divisions, called +Arupathu Katchi (sixty house section) and Narpathu Katchi (forty house +section). The former are supposed to be descendants of Nandi Gurukkal, +and take his name as their gotra. The gotra of the latter is Sidambara +Sayichya Ayyamgar. Sidambara, or Chidambaram, is the site of one of +the most sacred Siva temples. The sub-division Alvar claims descent +from Tiruppan Alvar, one of the twelve Vaishnava saints. In the +Tanjore district, the Valluvans have exogamous septs or pattaperu, +named after persons, e.g., Marulipichan, Govindazhvan, etc. + +The Valluvans include in their ranks both Vaishnavites and +Saivites. The majority of the latter, both males and females, wear the +lingam. The affairs of the community are adjusted by a caste council +and there are, in most places, two hereditary officers called Kolkaran +and Kanakkan. + +At the betrothal ceremony the bride's money (pariyam), betel, jewels, +flowers, and fruit, are placed in the future bride's lap. The money +ranges from seven to ten rupees if the bridegroom's village is on the +same side of a river as the bride's, and from ten to twenty rupees if +it is on the other side. A small sum of money, called uramurai kattu +(money paid to relations) and panda varisai (money paid in the pandal), +is also paid by the bridegroom's party for a feast of toddy to the +relations. This is the proper time for settling caste disputes by the +village council. On the wedding day, the milk-post, consisting of a +green bamboo pole, is set up, and a number of pots, brought from the +potter's house, are placed near it. On the dais are set four lamps, +viz., an ordinary brass lamp, kudavilakku (pot light), alankara vilakku +(ornamental light), and paligai vilakku (seedling light). The bride and +bridegroom bring some sand, spread it on the floor near the dais, and +place seven leaves on it. Cotton threads, dyed with turmeric, are tied +to the pots and the milk-post. On the leaves are set cakes and rice, +and the contracting couple worship the pots and the family gods. The +Valluvan priest repeats a jumble of corrupt Sanskrit, and ties the +kankanams (threads) on their wrists. They are then led into the house, +and garlanded with jasmine or Nerium flowers. The pots are arranged on +the dais, and the sand is spread thereon close to the milk-post. Into +one of the pots the female relations put grain seedlings, and +four other pots are filled with water by the bridegroom's party. A +small quantity of the seedlings is usually wrapped up in a cloth, +and placed over the seedling pot. Next morning the bundle is untied, +and examined, to see if the seedlings are in good condition. If they +are so, the bride is considered a worthy one; if not, the bride is +either bad, or will die prematurely. The usual nalagu ceremony is next +performed, bride and bridegroom being anointed with oil, and smeared +with Phaseolus Mungo paste. This is followed by the offering of food +on eleven leaves to the ancestors and house gods. Towards evening, the +dais is got ready for its occupation by the bridal couple, two planks +being placed on it, and covered with cloths lent by a washerman. The +couple, sitting on the planks, exchange betel and paddy nine or twelve +times, and rice twenty-seven times. The priest kindles the sacred fire +(homam), and pours some ghi (clarified butter) into it from a mango +leaf. The bridegroom is asked whether he sees Arundati (the pole-star) +thrice, and replies in the affirmative. The tali is shown the sky, +smoked over burning camphor, and placed on a tray together with a +rupee. After being blessed by those present, it is tied round the +neck of the bride by the bridegroom, who has his right leg on her +lap. On the second day there is a procession through the village, +and, on the following day, the wrist-threads are removed. + +In some places, the Valluvans, at their marriages, like the Pallis +and some other castes, use the pandamutti, or pile of pots reaching +to the top of the pandal. + +The Saivite lingam wearers bury their dead in a sitting posture in +a niche excavated in the side of the grave. After death has set in, +a cocoanut is broken, and camphor burnt. The corpse is washed by +relations, who bring nine pots of water for the purpose. The lingam +is tied on to the head, and a cloth bundle, containing a rupee, seven +bilva (Ægle Marmelos) leaves, nine twigs of the tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), +and nine Leucas aspera flowers, to the right arm. The corpse is carried +to the grave on a car surmounted by five brass vessels. The grave is +purified by the sprinkling of cow's urine and cow-dung water before the +corpse is lowered into it. On the way to the burial-ground, the priest +keeps on chanting various songs, such as "This is Kailasa. This is +Kailasa thillai (Chidambaram). Our request is this. Nallia Mutthan +of the Nandidarma gotra died on Thursday in the month Thai in +the year Subakruthu. He must enter the fourth stage (sayichyam), +passing through Salokam, Samipa, and Sarupa. He crosses the rivers +of stones, of thorns, of fire, and of snakes, holding the tail of +the bull Nandi. To enable him to reach heaven safely, we pound rice, +and put lights of rice." The priest receives a fee for his services, +which he places before an image made on the grave after it has been +filled in. The money is usually spent in making a sacred bull, lingam, +or stone slab, to place on the grave. On the third day after death, +the female relatives of the deceased pour milk within the house into +a vessel, which is taken by the male relatives to the burial-ground, +and offered at the grave, which is cleaned. A small platform, made +of mud, and composed of several tiers, decreasing in size from below +upwards, is erected thereon, and surmounted by a lingam. At the north +and south corners of this platform, a bull and paradesi (mendicant) +made of mud are placed, and at each corner leaves are laid, on which +the offerings in the form of rice, fruits, vegetables, etc., are +laid. The final death ceremonies are celebrated on the seventeenth +day. A pandal (booth) is set up, and closed in with cloths. Within +it are placed a pot and five pestles and mortars, to which threads +are tied. Five married women, taking hold of the pestles, pound some +rice contained in the pot, and with the flour make a lamp, which is +placed on a tray. The eldest son of the deceased goes, with the lamp +on his head, to an enclosure having an entrance at the four cardinal +points. The enclosure is either a permanent one with mud walls, or +temporary one made out of mats. Within the enclosure, five pots are +set up in the centre, and four at each side. The pots are cleansed +by washing them with the urine of cows of five different colours, +red, white, black, grey, and spotted. Near the pots the articles +required for puja (worship) are placed, and the officiating priest +sits near them. The enclosure is supposed to represent heaven, and the +entrances are the gates leading thereto, before which food is placed on +leaves. The eldest son, with the lamp, stands at the eastern entrance, +while Siva is worshipped. The priest then repeats certain stanzas, +of which the following is the substance. "You who come like Siddars +(attendants in the abode of Siva) at midnight, muttering Siva's name, +why do you come near Sivapadam? I will pierce you with my trident. Get +away. Let these be taken to yamapuri, or hell." Then Siva and Parvati, +hearing the noise, ask "Oh! sons, who are you that keep on saying Hara, +Hara? Give out truly your names and nativity." To which the reply is +given "Oh! Lord, I am a devotee of that Being who graced Markandeya, +and am a Virasaiva by faith. I have come to enter heaven. We have +all led pure lives, and have performed acts of charity. So it is not +just that we should be prevented from entering. Men who ill-treat +their parents, or superiors, those addicted to all kinds of vice, +blasphemers, murderers, perverts from their own faith and priests, +and other such people, are driven to hell by the southern gate." At +this stage, a thread is passed round the enclosure. The son, still +bearing the lamp, goes from the eastern entrance past the south and +western entrances, and, breaking the thread, goes into the enclosure +through the northern entrance. The Nandikol (hereditary village +official) then ties a cloth first round the head of the eldest son, +and afterwards round the heads of the other sons and agnates. + +The Valluvans abstain from eating beef. Though they mix freely with +the Paraiyans, they will not eat with them, and never live in the +Paraiyan quarter. + +The Valluvans are sometimes called Pandaram or Valluva Pandaram. In +some places, the priests of the Valluvans are Vellala Pandarams. + +Valluvan.--A small inferior caste of fishermen and boatmen in +Malabar. [106] + +Valmika.--Valmika or Valmiki is a name assumed by the Boyas and Paidis, +who claim to be descended from Valmiki, the author of the Ramayana, who +did penance for so long in one spot that a white-ant hill (valmikam) +grew up round him. In a note before me, Valmiki is referred to as +the Spenser of India. In the North Arcot Manual, Valmikulu, as a +synonym of the Vedans, is made to mean those who live on the products +of ant-hills. + +Val Nambi.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a +synonym for Mussad. Nambi is a title of Brahmans, and val means a +sword. The tradition is that the name arose from the ancestors of +the caste having lost some of the privileges of the Vedic Brahmans +owing to their having served as soldiers when Malabar was ruled by +the Brahmans prior to the days of the Perumals." + +Valuvadi.--The Valuvadis are returned, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as cultivators in the Pudukottai State. I am informed that the +Valuvadis are a section of the Valaiyan caste, to which the Zamindar +of Nagaram belongs. The name Valuvadi was originally a title of +respect, appended to the name of the Nagaram Zamindars. The name +of the present Zamindar is Balasubramanya Valuvadiar. Thirty years +ago there is said to have been no Valuvadi caste. Some Valaiyans +in prosperous circumstances, and others who became relatives of the +Nagaram Zamindar by marriage, have changed their caste name, to show +that they are superior in social status to the rest of the community. + +Vamme.--A gotra of Janappans, the members of which abstain from eating +the fish called bombadai, because, when some of their ancestors went +to fetch water in the marriage pot, they found a number of this fish +in the water contained in the pot. + +Vana Palli.--A name, meaning forest Palli, assumed by some Irulas in +South Arcot. + +Vandikkaran.--An occupational name for Nayars who work as cartmen +(vandi, cart) for carrying fuel. + +Vandula or Vandi Raja.--A sub-division of Bhatrazu, named after one +Vandi, who is said to have been a herald at the marriage of Siva. + +Vangu (cave).--A sub-division of Irula. + +Vani.--"The Vanis or Bandekars," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [107] "have +been wrongly classified in the census returns (1891) as oil-pressers; +they are in reality traders. They are said to have come from Goa, +and they speak Konkani. Their spiritual guru is the head of the +Kumbakonam math." In the Census Report, 1901, it is noted that Vani, +meaning literally a trader, is a Konkani-speaking trading caste, of +which Bandekara is a synonym. "They ape the Brahmanical customs, and +call themselves by the curious hybrid name of Vaisya Brahmans." Hari +Chetti has been returned as a further synonym. + +Vaniyan.--The Vaniyans are, Mr. Francis writes, [108] "oil-pressers +among the Tamils, corresponding to the Telugu Gandlas, Canarese +Ganigas, Malabar Chakkans, and Oriya Tellis. For some obscure reason, +Manu classed oil-pressing as a base occupation, and all followers +of the calling are held in small esteem, and, in Tinnevelly, they +are not allowed to enter the temples. In consequence, however, of +their services in lighting the temples (in token of which all of them, +except the Malabar Vaniyans and Chakkans, wear the sacred thread), they +are earning a high position, and some of them use the sonorous title +of Joti Nagarattar (dwellers in the city of light) and Tiru-vilakku +Nagarattar (dwellers in the city of holy lamps). They employ Brahmans +as priests, practice infant marriage, and prohibit widow marriage, +usually burn their dead, and decline to eat in the houses of any +caste below Brahmans. However, even the washermen decline to eat with +them. Like the Gandlas they have two sub-divisions, Ottai-sekkan and +Irattai-sekkan, who use respectively one bullock and two bullocks in +their mills. Oddly enough, the former belong to the right-hand faction, +and the latter to the left. Their usual title is Chetti. The name +Vanuvan has been assumed by Vaniyans, who have left their traditional +occupation, and taken to the grain and other trades." + +"The word Vanijyam," Mr. H. A. Stuart informs us, [109] "signifies +trade, and trade in oil, as well as its manufacture, is the usual +employment of this caste, who assert that they are Vaisyas, and +claim the Vaisya-Apuranam as their holy book. They are said to have +assumed the thread only within the last fifty or sixty years, and are +reputed to be the result of a yagam (sacrifice by fire) performed by a +saint called Vakkuna Maharishi. The caste contains four sub-divisions +called Kamakshiamma, Visalakshiamma, Ac'chu-tali, and Toppa-tali, the +two first referring to the goddesses principally worshipped by each, +and the two last to the peculiar kinds of talis, or marriage tokens, +worn by their women. They have the same customs as the Beri Chettis, +but are not particular in observing the rule which forbids the eating +of flesh. A bastard branch of the Vaniyas is called the Pillai Kuttam, +which is said to have sprung from the concubine of a Vaniyan, who +lived many years ago. The members of this class are never found except +where Vaniyans live, and are supposed to have a right to be fed and +clothed by them. Should this be refused, they utter the most terrible +curse, and, in this manner, eventually intimidate the uncharitable +into giving them alms." In the Census Report, 1891, Mr. Stuart writes +further that the Vaniyans "were formerly called Sekkan (oil-mill man), +and it is curious that the oil-mongers alone came to be called Vaniyan +or trader. They have returned 126 sub-divisions, of which only one, +Ilai Vaniyan, is numerically important. One sub-division is Iranderudu, +or two bullocks, which refers to the use of two bullocks in working +the mill. This separation of those who use two bullocks from those +who employ only one is found in nearly every oil-pressing caste in +India. The Vaniyans of Malabar resemble the Nayars in their customs +and habits, and neither wear the sacred thread, nor employ Brahmans +as priests. In North Malabar, Nayars are polluted by their touch, but +in the south, where they are called Vattakadans, they have succeeded +in forcing themselves into the ranks of the Nayar community. A large +number of them returned Nayar as their main caste." In this connection, +Mr. Francis states [110] that followers of the calling of oil-pressers +(Chakkans) are "known as Vattakadans in South Malabar, and as Vaniyans +in North Malabar; but the former are the higher in social status, the +Nayars being polluted by the touch of the Vaniyans and Chakkans but +not by that of the Vattakadans. Chakkans and Vaniyans may not enter +Brahman temples. Their customs and manners are similar to those of +the Nayars, who will not, however, marry their women." + +Of the Vaniyans of Cochin, it is stated in the Cochin Census Report, +1901, that "they are Vaisyas, and wear the sacred thread. In regard +to marriage, inheritance, ceremonies, dress, ornaments, etc., there +is practically no difference between them and the Konkanis. But, as +they do not altogether abstain from meat and spirituous liquors, they +are not allowed free access to the houses of Konkanis, nor are they +permitted to touch their tanks and wells. They are Saivites. They +have their own priests, who are called Panditars. They observe +birth and death pollution for ten days, and are like Brahmans in +this respect. They are mostly petty merchants and shop-keepers. Some +can read and write Malayalam, but they are very backward in English +education." + +The oils expressed by the Vaniyans are said to be "gingelly (Sesamum +indicum), cocoanut, iluppei (Bassia longifolia), pinnei (Calophyllum +inophyllum), and ground-nut (Arachis hypogæa). According to the +sastras the crushing of gingelly seeds, and the sale of gingelly oil, +are sinful acts, and no one, who does not belong to the Vaniyan class, +will either express or sell gingelly oil." [111] + +When a Vaniyan dies a bachelor, a post-mortem mock ceremony is +performed as by the Ganigas, and the corpse is married to the arka +plant (Calotropis gigantea), and decorated with a wreath made of the +flowers thereof. + +Vankayala (brinjal or egg plant: Solanum Melongena).--An exogamous sept +of Golla. The fruit is eaten by Natives, and, stuffed with minced meat, +is a common article of Anglo-Indian dietary. + +Vanki (armlet).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Vannan.--The Vannans are washermen in the Tamil and Malayalam +countries. The name Vannan is, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [112] +"derived from vannam, beauty. There is a tradition that they are +descendants of the mythological hero Virabadra, who was ordered +by Siva to wash the clothes of all men, as an expiation of the sin +of putting many people to death in Daksha's Yaga. Hence the Tamil +washermen are frequently called Virabadran. Having to purify all +the filthy linen of the villagers, they are naturally regarded as +a low, unclean class of Sudras, and are always poor. They add to +their income by hiring out the clothes of their customers to funeral +parties, who lay them on the ground before the pall-bearers, so that +these may not step upon the ground, and by letting them out on the +sly to persons wishing to use them without having to purchase for +themselves. In social standing the Vannans are placed next below the +barbers. They profess to be Saivites in the southern districts, and +Vaishnavites in the north. The marriage of girls generally takes place +after puberty. Widow remarriage is permitted among some, if not all, +sub-divisions. Divorce may be obtained by either party at pleasure on +payment of double the bride-price, which is usually Rs. 10-8-0. They +are flesh-eaters, and drink liquor. The dead are either burned or +buried. The Pothara (or Podora) Vannans are of inferior status, because +they wash only for Paraiyans, Pallans, and other inferior castes." + +It is noted, in the Madura Manual, that those who have seen the +abominable substances, which it is the lot of the Vannans to make +clean, cannot feel any surprise at the contempt with which their +occupation is regarded. In the Tanjore Manual, it is recorded that, +in the rural parts of the district, the Vannans are not allowed to +enter the house of a Brahman or a Vellala; clothes washed by them +not being worn or mixed up with other clothes in the house until they +have undergone another wash by a caste man. + +It is on record that, on one occasion, a party of Europeans, when out +shooting, met a funeral procession on its way to the burial-ground. The +bier was draped in many folds of clean cloth, which one of the party +recognised by the initials as one of his bed-sheets. Another identified +as his sheet the cloth on which the corpse was lying. He cut off the +corner with the initials, and a few days later the sheet was returned +by the washerman, who pretended ignorance of the mutilation, and gave +as an explanation that it must have been done, in his absence, by one +of his assistants. On another occasion, a European met an Eurasian, +in a village not far from his bungalow, wearing a suit of clothes +exactly similar to his own, and, on close examination, found they +were his. They had been newly washed and dressed. + +The most important divisions numerically returned by Vannans at times +of census are Pandiyan, Peru (big), Tamil, and Vaduga (northerner). It +is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Madura district, that Vannan "is +rather an occupational term than a caste title, and, besides the Pandya +Vannans or Vannans proper, includes the Vaduga Vannans or Tsakalas +of the Telugu country, and the Palla, Pudara, and Tulukka Vannans, +who wash for the Pallans, Paraiyans, and Musalmans respectively. The +Pandya Vannans have a headman called the Periya Manishan (big man). A +man can claim the hand of his paternal aunt's daughter. At weddings, +the bridegroom's sister ties the tali (marriage badge). Nambis +officiate. Divorce is freely allowed to either party on payment +of twice the bride-price, and divorcées may marry again. The caste +god is Gurunathan, in whose temples the pujari (priest) is usually +a Vannan. The dead are generally burnt, and, on the sixteenth day, +the house is purified from pollution by a Nambi." + +Some Vannans have assumed the name Irkuli Vellala, and Rajakan +and Kattavaraya vamsam have also been recorded as synonyms of the +caste name. + +The Vannans of Malabar are also called Mannan or Bannan. They are, +Mr. Francis writes, [113] "a low class of Malabar washermen, who wash +only for the polluting castes, and for the higher castes when they +are under pollution following births, deaths, etc. It is believed +by the higher castes that such pollution can only be removed by +wearing clothes washed by Mannans, though at other times these cause +pollution to them. The washing is generally done by the women, and the +men are exorcists, devil-dancers and physicians, even to the higher +castes. Their women are midwives, like those of the Velakkatalavan +and Velan castes. This caste should not be confused with the Mannan +hill tribe of Travancore." + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "the Mannans, +a makkattayam caste of South Malabar, apparently identical with the +marumakkattayam Vannans of the north, are a caste of washermen; and +their services are indispensable to the higher castes in certain +purificatory ceremonies when they have to present clean cloths +(mattu). They are also devil-dancers and tailors. They practice +fraternal polyandry in the south. Mannans are divided into two +endogamous classes, Peru-mannans (peru, great), and Tinda-mannans +(tinda, pollution); and, in Walavanad, into four endogamous classes +called Choppan, Peru-mannan, Punnekadan, and Puliyakkodam. The +Tinda-mannan and Puliyakkodam divisions perform the purificatory +sprinklings for the others." + +The services of the Mannan, Mr. T. K. Gopal Panikkar writes, [114] +"are in requisition at the Nayar Thirandukalianam ceremonies on the +attainment of puberty by a girl, when they sing ballads, and have +to bring, for the girl's use, the mattu or sacred dress. Then, +on occasions of death pollution, they have a similar duty to +perform. Among the Nayars, on the fourth, or rarely the third day +after the menses, the woman has to use, during her bath, clothes +supplied by Mannan females. The same duty they have to perform +during the confinement of Nayar females. All the dirty cloths and +bed sheets used, these Mannan females have to wash." Mr. S. Appadorai +Iyer informs us that those Mannans who are employed by the Kammalan, +or artisan class, as barbers, are not admitted into the Mannan caste, +which follows the more honourable profession of washing clothes. The +Mannans perform certain ceremonies in connection with Mundian, +the deity who is responsible for the weal or woe of cattle; and, +at Puram festivals, carry the vengida koda or prosperity umbrella, +composed of many tiers of red, green, orange, black and white cloth, +supported on a long bamboo pole, before the goddess. + +It is recorded by Bishop Whitehead [115] that, in various places in +Malabar, there are temples in honour of Bhagavati, at which the pujaris +(priests) are of the Vannan caste. "There is an annual feast called +gurusi tarpanam (giving to the guru) about March, when the hot weather +begins, and the people are at leisure. Its object is to appease the +wrath of the goddess. During the festival, the pujari sits in the +courtyard outside the temple, thickly garlanded with red flowers, +and with red kunkuma marks on his forehead. Goats and fowls are then +brought to him by the devotees, and he kills them with one blow of +the large sacrificial sword or chopper. It is thought auspicious for +the head to be severed at one blow, and, apparently, pujaris who are +skilful in decapitation are much in request. When the head is cut +off, the pujari takes the carcase, and holds it over a large copper +vessel partly filled with water, turmeric, kunkuma, and a little rice, +and lets the blood flow into it. When all the animals are killed, the +pujari bails out the blood and water on the ground, uttering mantrams +(sacred lines or verses) the while. The people stand a little way +off. When the vessel is nearly empty, the pujari turns it upside +down as a sign that the ceremony is ended. During these proceedings, +a number of Vannans, dressed in fantastic costumes, dance three times +round the temple. During the festival, processions are held round the +various houses, and special swords with a curved hook at the end, +called palli val (great or honourable sword), are carried by the +worshippers. These swords are worshipped during the Dusserah festival +in October, and, in some shrines, they form the only emblem of the +deity. The Tiyans have small shrines in their own gardens sacred +to the family deity, which may be Bhagavati, or some demon, or the +spirit of an ancestor. Once a year, Vannans come dressed in fancy +costume, with crowns on their heads, and dance round the courtyard +to the sound of music and tom-toms, while a Tiyan priest presents the +family offerings, uncooked rice and young cocoanuts, with camphor and +incense, and then rice fried with sugar and ghi (clarified butter)." + +In an account of the Tiyans, Mr. Logan writes [116] that "this +caste is much given to devil-charming, or devil-driving as it is +often called. The washermen (Vannan) are the high priests of this +superstition, and with chants, ringing cymbals, magic figures, and +waving lights, they drive out evil spirits from their votaries of +this caste at certain epochs in their married lives. One ceremony +in particular, called teyyattam--a corrupt form of Deva and attam, +that is, playing at gods--takes place occasionally in the fifth month +of pregnancy. A leafy arbour is constructed, and in front of it is +placed a terrible figure of Chamundi, the queen of the demons, made +of rice flour, turmeric powder, and charcoal powder. A party of not +less than eighteen washermen is organized to represent the demons and +furies--Kuttichattan (a mischievous imp), and many others. On being +invoked, these demons bound on to the stage in pairs, dance, caper, +jump, roar, fight, and drench each other with saffron (turmeric) +water. Their capers and exertions gradually work up their excitement, +until they are veritably possessed of the devil. At this juncture, +fowls and animals are sometimes thrown to them, to appease their +fury. These they attack with their teeth, and kill and tear as +a tiger does his prey. After about twenty minutes the convulsions +cease, the demon or spirit declares its pleasure, and, much fatigued, +retires to give place to others; and thus the whole night is spent, +with much tom-tomming and noise and shouting, making it impossible, +for Europeans at least, to sleep within earshot of the din." + +Vannattan.--A synonym of Veluttedan, the caste of washermen, who wash +for Nayars and higher castes. + +Vanni Kula Kshatriya.--A synonym of the Pallis, who claim to belong +to the fire race of Kshatriyas. + +Vanniyan.--A synonym of Palli. The name further occurs as a +sub-division of Ambalakaran and Valaiyan. Some Maravans also are +known as Vanniyan or Vannikutti. Ten (honey) Vanniyan is the name +adopted by some Irulas in the South Arcot district. + +Vantari.--See Telaga. + +Vanuvan.--A name assumed by Vaniyans who have abandoned their +hereditary occupation of oil-pressing, and taken to trade in grain +and other articles. + +Varakurup.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a title +of Malayalam Paravans. + +Varige (millet).--An exogamous sept of Kapu. + +Variyar.--For the following note on the Variyar section of the +Ambalavasis, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The name is +believed to be derived from Parasava, which, according to Yajnavalkya +and other law-givers, is the name given to the son of a Brahman +begotten on a Sudra woman, and suggests the fact that the Variyar +is no Brahman, though the blood of the latter may course through +his veins, and though such marriages were regarded as sacraments +in early days. This is the derivation given by Pachumuttalu in +his Keralaviseshamahatmya, who adds that the chief occupation +of the Variyars is to sweep the floor of the temples. In some of +the Asauchavidhis (works on pollution) of Kerala, the commentator +explains the word Parasava as Variya. Many Variyars add the title +Parasava to their name, when writing in Sanskrit. Some derive the +word from varija or one born of water, in accordance with a tradition +that Parasurama created from water a class of persons for special +service in temples, and to take the place of Sudras, who, being +meat-eaters, were ineligible for the same. Others again, like the +late Professor Sundaram Pillay, would take Variyar as being derived +from varuka, to sweep. Recently, some ingenuity has been displayed +in splitting the word into two words, giving it a meaning equivalent +to pseudo-Aryan. The title Asan, or teacher, is possessed by certain +families, whose members have held the hereditary position of tutors in +noblemen's houses. In mediæval times, many Variyar families received +royal edicts, conferring upon them the privileges of being tutors +and astrologers. These special rights are even now possessed by them. + +The following legend is narrated concerning the origin of the +Variyars. A Sudra woman removed a bone from within a temple +in obedience to the wish of certain Brahman priests, and was +excommunicated from her caste. The priests, on hearing this, were +anxious to better her condition, and made her the progenitor of a +class of Ambalavasis or temple servants, who were afterwards known +as Variyars. According to another legend, the corpse of a Maran, +which was found inside a Nambutiri's house, was promptly removed by +certain Nayars, who on that account were raised in the social scale, +and organised into a separate caste called Variyar. There is a still +further tradition that, in the Treta Yuga, a Sudra woman had five +sons, the first of whom became the progenitor of the Tiyatunnis, +and the second that of Variyars. A fourth account is given in the +Keralamahatmya. A young Brahman girl was married to an aged man. Not +confident in unaided human effort, under circumstances such as hers, +she devoted a portion of her time daily to preparing flower garlands +for the deity of the nearest temple, and conceived. But the Brahman +welcomed the little stranger by getting the mother thrown out of +caste. Her garlands could no longer be accepted, but, nothing daunted, +she worked as usual, and made a mental offering of the garlands she +prepared, which, through an unseen agency, became visible on the person +of the deity. Though the people were struck with shame at their unkind +treatment of the innocent girl, they were not prepared to take her +back. The Variyan caste was accordingly constituted, and her child +was brought up by the Azhancheri Tambrakkal, and accommodated in the +padippura or out-house at the entrance gate. In the Pasupata Tantra, +the Variyars are called Kailasavasins, or those who live in Kailas, +as they are supposed to be specially devoted to the worship of +Siva. Kailasa is the abode of Siva, whither the blessed go after death. + +The Variyars of Travancore are divided into four groups, +called Onattukara, Venattukara, Ilayetattunad (or Ilayathu), and +Tekkumkur. The Venattukaras have the privilege of interdining with the +Onattukaras, and having their ceremonies performed by priests from that +group. But the ceremonies of the Onattukaras appear to be performed +without the Venattukaras being admitted into their midst. The third +and fourth groups take food in the houses of the first and second, +though the reverse seldom happens. The Variyars in British Malabar +are divided into several other groups. + +The Variyars are generally well-read, especially in Sanskrit, make +excellent astrologers, and are also medical practitioners. A Variyar's +house is called variyam, as the Pisharati's is known as pisharam. + +Married women have the hair-knot on the left side of the head, +like Nayar ladies. They cover the breast with a folded cloth, and +never wear a bodice or other innovations in the matter of dress. The +marriage ornament is called matra, and is in the shape of a maddalam +or drum. Other neck ornaments are called entram and kuzhal. The todu, +or ornament of Nayar women, is worn in the ear-lobes. Women mark +their foreheads, like Nambutiri ladies, with sandal paste. + +The Variyars, Pushpakans, and Pisharatis, are said to constitute +the three original garland-making castes of Malabar, appointed by +Parasurama. At the present day, in all the important temples, except +in South Travancore, where Kurukkals perform that function, garlands +can only be prepared by one of these castes. The technical occupation +of a Variyar in a temple is called kazhakam, which is probably derived +from the Dravidian root kazhaku, to cleanse. Kazhakam is of two kinds, +viz., malakkazhakam or garland-making service, and talikkazhakam +or sweeping service, of which the former is more dignified than the +latter. Under the generic term kazhakar are included making flower +garlands for the temple, preparing materials for the offering of food, +sweeping the beli offering, carrying lights and holding umbrellas when +the god is carried in procession, having the custody of the temple +jewels, etc. The Variyar is at the beck and call of the temple priest, +and has to do sundry little services from morning till evening. He is +remunerated with some of the cooked food, after it has been offered to +the deity. The Variyars are to Saivite temples what the Pisharatis are +to Vaishnavite temples. Their prayers are prominently addressed only +to Siva, but they also worship Vishnu, Subramanya, Sasta, Ganesa, and +Bhadrakali. Their chief amusement is the farce called Kuttappathakam, +the hero of which is one Vankala Nikkan, and the heroine Naityar. An +Ilayatu is the stage-manager, and a Pisharati the actor. Parangotan +is the buffoon, and Mappa his wife. In the eighteenth century, a +grand festival lasting over twenty-eight days, called mamangam, was +celebrated in British Malabar. The above characters are represented +as proceeding to this festival, which came off once in twelve years +on the Magha asterism in the month of Magha, and is hence popularly +called Mahamagha. + +The Variyar caste is governed in all matters by the Nambutiri Brahmans, +but they have their own priests. The Ilayatus believe that they were +the preceptors of all the Ambalavasi castes in former times, but +were dislodged from that position owing to most of them employing +priests from among their own caste men. Even at the present day, +Ilayatus are known to express their displeasure when they are asked +to drink water from a Variyar's well. As, however, consecrated water +from the Nambutiris is taken to a Variyar for its purification, they +entertain no scruples about cooking their food there, provided they +carry with them the aupasana fire. + +Inheritance among the Variyars of Cochin and British Malabar is in +the female line (marumakkathayam). Among the Variyars of Travancore, +chiefly these belonging to the Onattukara section, a kind of qualified +makkathayam prevails, in accordance with which both sons and daughters +have an equal right to inherit ancestral property. The eldest male +member is entitled to the management of the estate in all undivided +families. Partition, however, is largely followed in practice. + +The tali-kettu ceremony of the Variyars generally takes place before +a girl reaches puberty, and, in the case of boys, after the ceremony +of Sivadiksha has been performed, that is between the twelfth and +sixteenth years. If the marriage is in the kudi-vaippu form, or, +in other words, if there is an intention on the part of both parties +to treat the marital alliance as permanent, no separate sambandham +need be celebrated afterwards; and, in all cases where marriages are +celebrated between members of the same section, the kudi-vaippu form +is in vogue. If a girl is unmarried when she reaches puberty, she is +not permitted to take part in any religious ceremonies, or enter any +temple until she is married. The first item of a Variyar's marriage is +ayani-unu, when the bridegroom, decked in new clothes and ornaments, +dines sumptuously with his relations. He then goes in procession +to the bride's house, and, after bathing, puts on clothes touched +by the bride. After this some prayers are recited, and a sacrifice +is offered. The bride is then brought to the marriage hall, and, all +the Brahmanical rites are strictly observed. After sunset, some grass +and a leopard's skin are placed on the floor on which white cloth is +spread. The bridegroom, who is seated on the northern side, worships +Ganapati, after which the couple take their seats on the cloth bed +spread on the floor. Lights are then waved in front of them. This +ceremony is known as dikshavirikkuka. In the kudi-vaippu form of +marriage, the bride is taken to the house of the bridegroom, where +the dikshavirippu is observed. Otherwise the marital rite becomes +a mere tali-kattu ceremony, and the girl, when she comes of age, +may receive clothes in token of conjugal connection with another +person. When the first husband dies, clothes may be received from +another Variyar, or a Brahman, whose wife the woman becomes. + +Most of the ceremonies observed by Malayali Brahmans are also performed +by the Variyars, the vratas and upanayana being among those which +are omitted. Sivadiksha, as already indicated, is observed between +the twelfth and sixteenth years. The festival lasts for four days, +though the religious rites are over on the first day. At an auspicious +hour, the priest and the Variyar youth put on the tattu dress, or +dress worn for ceremonial purposes, and worship a pot full of water +with incense and flowers, the contents of which are then poured by the +priest over the youth. The priest and a Maran then perform the tonsure, +and the youth bathes. Some Nambutiris are then engaged to perform the +purificatory rite, after which the Variyar wears the tattu as well as +an upper cloth, marks his forehead with ashes and sandal paste, and +decorates himself with jewels, rudraksha (Elæocarpus Ganitrus) beads, +and flowers. Alms are received by the young Variyar from his mother, +and he takes seven steps in a northerly direction which symbolise his +pilgrimage to Benares. It is only after the performance of this rite +that the Variyar is believed to become a grihastha (married person, +as opposed to a bachelor). The funeral rites of the caste have been +elaborated in many places. Death pollution lasts for twelve days, +and the sanchayana (milk ceremony) is observed on the seventh or +ninth day. Anniversary ceremonies are celebrated in memory of close +relations, and others are propitiated by the performance of sradh, +and the feeding of a Variyar on a new-moon day. + +In an account of a royal wedding in Travancore in 1906, I read that +"a number of Variyars left the thevarathu koikal, or palace where +worship is performed, for a compound (garden) close by to bring +an areca palm. It is supposed that they do this task under divine +inspiration and guidance. One man is given a small rod by the Potti or +priest in the palace, and, after receiving this, he dances forward, +followed by his comrades, and all wend their way to a compound about +a furlong away. On reaching the spot, they uproot a big areca palm +without the use of any implement of iron, and take it away to the +thevarathu koikal without its touching the ground, to the accompaniment +of music. They then plant it in front of the portico, and do some puja +(worship) after the manner of Brahmans. The function is comparable to +the dhwajarohanam, or hoisting of the flag during temple utsavams. The +Variyars dance round the tree, singing songs, and performing puja. A +piece of white cloth is tied to the top of the tree, to serve as a +flag, and a lamp is lighted, and placed at the foot of the tree." + +The Variyars are described, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, as "a caste +whose traditional duty is to sweep the temple precincts (varuga). At +the present day, some members of the caste are important land-owners or +petty chieftains, occupying a very high social position. They generally +follow the marumakkatayam principle, but they have also a form of +marriage called Kudivekkal similar to the Brahman Sarvasvadhanam, +by which the wife is adopted as a member of the family into which +she marries, and her children also belong to it. The Variyar's names +and ceremonies indicate Sivaite proclivities, just as those of the +Pisharodi are tinged with Vishnavism. The Variyar's house is called +a Variyam, and his woman-folk Varassiars. This class is perhaps the +most progressive among the Ambalavasis, some of its members having +received a Western education and entered the learned professions." + +Varugu Bhatta.--A mendicant class, which begs from Perikes. + +Varuna.--Some Pattanavan fishermen have adopted the name of Varunakula +Vellala or Varunakula Mudali after Varuna the god of the waters. + +Vasa (new).--A sub-division of Kurubas, who are said to weave only +white blankets. + +Vasishta.--A Brahmanical gotra adopted by Khatris and +Toreyas. Vasishta, one of the seven great Rishis, was the son of +Mitra and Varuna, whose quarrels with Viswamitra are narrated in +the Ramayana. + +Vastra.--One division of the Koragas is called Vastra, meaning +cloths such as are used as a shroud for a corpse, which were given to +them as an act of charity, the wearing of new cloths by them being +prohibited. Vastrala (cloth) further occurs as an exogamous sept of +the Karna Sale and Devanga weavers. + +Vattakadan.--Recorded as a sub-division of Nayar, the occupation of +which is expressing oil, chiefly for use in temples. Mr. F. Fawcett +writes [117] that, in North Malabar, he has frequently been told by +Nayars of the superior classes that they do not admit the Vattakadans +to be Nayars. According to them, the Vattakadans have adopted the +honorary affix Nayar to their names quite recently. In the Madras +Census Report, 1891, Vattakadan is stated to be a synonym of Vaniyan; +and in the report, 1901, this name is said to mean a Native of +Vattakad, and to be given to the Chakkans. + +Vatte (camel).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Vatti.--Vatti or Vattikurup has been recorded at times of census as a +sub-division of Nayar, and a synonym of Kavutiyan and Tolkollan. Vatti +is said to mean one who prays for happiness. + +Vayani.--The Vayanis, Vayinis, Vaguniyans, or Pavinis, are a section of +Madigas, the members of which play on a single-stringed mandoline, and +go about from village to village, singing the praises of the village +goddesses. Each Vayani has his recognised beat. He plays a prominent +part in the celebration of the annual festival of the village goddess, +and receives a sacred thread (kappu), which is usually tied to his +mandoline, before the commencement of the festival. He regards himself +as superior in social position to ordinary Madigas, with whom he will +not marry. The name Vayani is said to be a corruption of varnane, +meaning to describe. In some localities, e.g., the Chingleput district, +the Vayani enjoys mirasi rights in connection with land. + +Vedan.--The Vedans are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart, in the +North Arcot Manual, as having been "formerly hunters and soldiers, +and it is this caste which furnished a considerable and valuable +contingent to the early Hindu kings, and later to the armies of +Hyder and Tippoo. They are supposed by some to be the remnants of the +earliest inhabitants of the peninsula, and identical with the Veddahs +of Ceylon. They are also called Valmikulu, which means those who live +on the products of ant-hills (valmikum)." It is noted, in the Census +Report, 1891, that the two castes Bedar (or Boya) and Vedan were, +"through a misapprehension of instructions, treated as identical in +the tabulation papers. The two words are, no doubt, etymologically +identical, the one being Canarese and the other Tamil, but the +castes are quite distinct." It may be noted that the name Valmika +or Valmiki is assumed by the Boyas, who claim descent from Valmiki, +the author of the Ramayana, who did penance for so long in one spot +that a white-ant hill grew up round him. + +In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Vedans are described as "a +Tamil-speaking labouring and hunting caste, the members of which +were formerly soldiers, and subsequently dacoits. The name means a +hunter, and is loosely applied to the Irulas in some places (e.g., +Chingleput). There is some connection between the Vedans and Tamil +Vettuvans, but its precise nature is not clear. The Vettuvans now +consider themselves superior to the Vedans, and are even taking to +calling themselves Vettuva Vellalas. Marriage (among the Vedans) +is either infant or adult. Widows may marry their late husband's +brother or agnates. Some employ Brahmans as priests. They either burn +or bury their dead. They claim descent from Kannappa Nayanar, one of +the sixty-three Saivite saints. Ambalakarans also claim to be descended +from Kannappa Nayanar. In Tanjore, the Valaiyans declare themselves to +have a similar origin. The title of the Vedans is Nayakkan." In the +Madura Manual, the Vedans are described as a very low caste, who get +their living in the jungles. They are not numerous now. They appear +to have been naked savages not very long ago, and their civilisation +is far from complete. They are held in the greatest contempt by +men of all classes. They are described further, in the Coimbatore +Manual, as "a very degraded, poor tribe, living by basket-making, +snaring small game, and so on. They speak a low Canarese, and are +as simple as savage. The delight of a party at the gift of a rupee +is something curious." In the Salem district some Vedans are said +[118] to be "known by the caste name Tiruvalar, who are distinguished +as the Kattukudugirajati, a name derived from a custom among them, +which authorises temporary matrimonial arrangements." + +The following story in connection with bears and Vedans is worthy of +being placed on record. The bears are said to collect ripe wood-apples +(Feronia elephantum) during the season, and store them in the +forest. After a small quantity has been collected, they remove the rind +of the fruits, and heap together all the pulp. They then bring honey +and petals of sweet-smelling flowers, put them on the heap of pulp, +and thresh them with their feet and with sticks in their hands. When +the whole has become a consistent mass, they feed on it. The Vedan, who +knows the season, is said to drive off the bears by shooting at them, +and rob them of their feast, which is sold as karadi panchamritham, +or bear delicacy made of five ingredients. + +The Vedars of Travancore are summed up by the Rev. S. Mateer [119] +as "living in jungle clearings or working in the rice fields, and +formerly sold and bought as slaves. They have to wander about in +seasons of scarcity in search of wild yams, which they boil and eat +on the spot, and are thorough gluttons, eating all they can get at +any time, then suffering want for days. Polygamy is common, as men +are not required to provide for the support of their wives. Some, +who have been converted to Christianity, show wonderful and rapid +improvement in moral character, civilisation and diligence." + +For the following note on the Mala (hill) Vedans of Travancore, I +am indebted to Mrs. J. W. Evans. [120] "They live in wretched huts +amid the rice-flats at the foot of the hills, and are employed by +farmers to guard the crops from the ravages of wild beasts. The upper +incisor teeth of both men and women are filed to a sharp point, like +crocodile's fangs. One ugly old man, Tiruvatiran by name (the name of +a star), had the four teeth very slightly filed. On being pressed for +the reason why he had not conformed to Mala Vedar fashion, he grinned, +and said 'What beauty I was born with is enough for me.' Probably +the operation had been more painful than he could bear, or, may be, +he could not afford to pay the five betel leaves and areca nuts, +which are the customary fee of the filer. Any man may perform the +operation. A curved bill-hook, with serrated edge, is the instrument +used. On being asked whether they had any tradition about the custom +of tooth-filing, they replied that it was to distinguish their caste, +and the god Chattan would be angry if they neglected the custom. It +may be noted that tooth-filing is also practiced by the jungle Kadirs +(q.v.). Both males and females wore a cotton loin-cloth, mellowed by +wear and weather to a subtle greenish hue. Red and blue necklaces, +interstrung with sections of the chank shell (Turbinella rapa) adorned +the necks and chests. One woman was of special interest. Her neck +and breasts were literally concealed by a medley of beads, shells, +brass bells, and two common iron keys--these last, she said, for +ornament. Around her hips, over her cloth, hung several rows of +small bones of pig and sambar (Cervus unicolor). The Mala Vedans +find these bones in the jungle. An aged priest said that he used +to perform devil-dancing, but was now too stiff to dance, and had +to labour like the younger men. The Mala Vedans apparently possess +no temples or shrines, but Hindus permit them to offer money at the +Hindu shrines from a distance, at times of sudden sickness or during +other seasons of panic. Their god Chattan, or Sattan, has no fixed +abode, but, where the Mala Vedans are, there is he in the midst of +them. They bury their dead in a recumbent posture, near the hut of the +deceased. The Mala Vedans practice the primitive method of kindling +fire by the friction of wood (also practiced by the Kanakars), and, +like the Kanakars, they eat the black monkey. Their implements are +bill-hooks, and bows and arrows. They weave grass baskets, which are +slung to their girdles, and contain betel, etc." + +The more important measurements of twenty-five Mala Vedans examined +by myself were-- + + + Max. Min. Average. + + Stature (cm.) 163.8 140.8 154.2 + Cephalic index 80.9 68.8 73.4 + Nasal index 102.6 71.1 85.0 + + +The figures show that, like other primitive jungle tribes in Southern +India, the Mala Vedans are short of stature, dolichocephalic, +and platyrhine. + +The following menstrual ceremony has been described [121] as occurring +among the Vedans of Travancore. "The wife at menstruation is secluded +for five days in a hut a quarter of a mile from her home, which is +also used by her at childbirth. The next five days are passed in a +second hut, half way between the first and her house. On the ninth +day her husband holds a feast, sprinkles his floor with wine, and +invites his friends to a spread of rice and palm wine. Until this +evening, he has not dared to eat anything but roots, for fear of +being killed by the devil. On the tenth day he must leave his house, +to which he may not return until the women, his and her sister have +bathed his wife, escorted her home, and eaten rice together. For four +days after his return, however, he may not eat rice in his own house, +or have connection with his wife." + +Vedunollu.--A gotra of Ganigas, members of which may not cut Nyctanthes +Arbor-tristis. The flowers thereof are much used in Hindu worship, +as the plant is supposed to have been brought from heaven by Krishna +for his wife Satyabhama. + +Veginadu.--A sub-division of Komatis, who belong to the Vegi or Vengi +country, the former name of part of the modern Kistna district. The +Vegina Komatis are said to have entered the fire-pits with the caste +goddess Kanyakamma. + +Vekkali Puli (cruel-legged tiger).--An exogamous section of Kallan. + +Vel (lance).--A sub-division of Malayalam Paraiyans, and an exogamous +sept or sub-division of Kanikars in Travancore. Velanmar (spearmen) +occurs as a name for the hill tribes of Travancore. + +Velakkattalavan.--Velakkattalavan or Vilakkattalavan is stated in the +Travancore Census Report, 1901, to indicate chieftains among barbers, +and to be the name for members of families, from which persons +are selected to shave kings or nobles. In the Madras Census Report, +1891, Velakkattalavan is said to be "the name in South Malabar of the +caste that shaves Nayars and higher castes. The same man is called +in North Malabar Valinchiyan, Navidan, or Nasiyan. In dress and +habits the caste resembles Nayars, and they call themselves Nayars in +the south. Many returned their main caste as Nayar. The females of +this caste frequently act as midwives to Nayars. In North Malabar, +the Valinchiyan and Nasiyan follow the Nayar system of inheritance, +whereas the Navidan has inheritance in the male line; but, even amongst +the latter, tali-kettu and sambandham are performed separately by +different bridegrooms. In South Malabar the caste generally follows +descent in the male line, but in some places the other system is also +found." Sudra Kavutiyan is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as a synonym of Velakkatalavan. + +Velama.--The Velamas, or, as they are sometimes called, Yelamas, +are a caste of agriculturists, who dwell in the Telugu country and +Ganjam. Concerning them Mr. H. A. Stuart writes as follows. [122] +"Who the Velamas were it seems difficult to decide. Some say they form +a sub-division of the Balijas, but this they themselves most vehemently +deny, and the Balijas derisively call them Guna Sakala (or Tsakala) +vandlu (hunch-backed washermen). The pride and jealousy of Hindu +castes was amusingly illustrated by the Velamas of Kalahasti. The +Deputy Tahsildar of that town was desired to ascertain the origin of +the name Guni Sakalavandlu, but, as soon as he asked the question, a +member of the caste lodged a complaint of defamation against him before +the District Magistrate. The nickname appears to have been applied +to them, because, in the northern districts, some print chintzes, +and, carrying their goods in a bundle on their backs, walk stooping +like a laden washerman. This derivation is more than doubtful, for, +in the Godavari district, the name is Guna Sakalavandlu, guna being +the big pot in which they dye the chintzes. Some Velamas say that +they belong to the Kammas, but divided from them in consequence of +a difference of opinion on the subject of gosha, most Velama females +being now kept in seclusion. [In the Kurnool Manual it is noted that +the Velama women are supposed to be gosha, but, owing to poverty, the +rule is not strictly observed.] Both Kammas and Velamas, before they +divided, are said to have adopted gosha from the Muhammadans, but, +finding that they were thus handicapped in their competition with +other cultivating castes, it was proposed that the original custom +of their ancestors should be reverted to. Those who agreed signed a +bond, which, being upon palm leaf, was called kamma, and from it they +took this name. The dissentients retained gosha, and were therefore +called outsiders or Velamas. This does not, however, explain what +the original name of the caste was, and the truth of the story is +doubtful. Since this dispute, the Velamas have themselves had a split +on the subject of gosha, those who have thrown it off being called Adi +or original Velamas, and the others Padma Velamas. The Velamas seem +to have come south with the Vijayanagara kings, and to have been made +Menkavalgars, from which position some rose to be Poligars. Now they +are chiefly the hangers-on of poligars or cultivators. To distinguish +them from the Vellalas in the southern taluks, they call themselves +Telugu Vellalas, but it seems very improbable that the Velamas and +Vellalas ever had any connection with one another. They are styled +Naidus." [The Velamas style themselves Telugu Vellalas, not because +of any connection between the two castes, but because they are at the +top of the Telugu castes as the Vellalas are of the Tamil castes. For +the same reason, Vellalas are sometimes called Arava (Tamil) Velamalu.] + +The most important sub-divisions returned by the Velamas at the +census, 1891, were Kapu, Koppala, Padma, Ponneti, and Yanadi. "It +is," the Census Superintendent writes, "curious to find the Yanadi +sub-division so strongly represented, for there is at the present +day a wide gulf between Velamas and Yanadis" (a Telugu forest +tribe). In the Vizagapatam Manual, a class of cultivators called +Yanadulu is referred to; and, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, +it is recorded that entries under the name Yanati "were clubbed with +Yanadi; but it has since been reported that, in Bissam-Acuttack taluk +of the Vizagapatam Agency, there is a separate caste called Yanati +or Yeneti Dora which is distinct from Yanadi." It would appear that, +as in the south, the Velamas call themselves Telugu Vellalas, so in +the north they call themselves Yanatis. + +Concerning the Guna Velamas, the Rev. J. Cain writes [123] that "in +years gone by, members of this class, who were desirous of getting +married, had to arrange and pay the expenses of two of the Palli +(fisherman) caste, but now it is regarded as sufficient to hang up a +net in the house during the time of the marriage ceremony." The custom +had its origin in a legend that, generations ago, when all the members +of the caste were in danger of being swept off the face of the earth +by some of their enemies, the Pallis came to the rescue with their +boats, and carried all the Guna Velamas to a place of safety. The +Guna Velamas, Mr. Cain continues, were "formerly regarded as quite +an inferior caste, but, as many members of it have been educated in +Anglo-Vernacular schools, they have found their way into almost every +department and risen in the social scale. Their caste occupation is +that of dyeing cloth, which they dip into large pots (gunas). The term +Guna Tsakala is one of reproach, and they much prefer being called +Velamalu to the great disgust of the Raca (Raja) Velamalu." To the +Raca Velama section belong, among other wealthy land-owners, the +Rajas of Bobbili, Venkatagiri, Pittapur, and Nuzvid. At the annual +Samasthanam meeting, in 1906, the Maharaja of Bobbili announced that +"none of the Velamavaru were working in any of the offices at the time +when I first came to Bobbili. There were then a small number acting +as mere supervisors without clerical work. Only from the commencement +of my administration these people have been gradually taken into the +office, and induced to read at the High School." + +For the following note on the Velamas who have settled in the +Vizagapatam district, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The +following sub-divisions of the caste may be noted:-- + +(1) Pedda or Padma found chiefly in the Bobbili taluk. Those composing +it are said to be the descendants of the military followers and +dependents of Pedda Rajudu, the founder of the Bobbili family, who +received a territorial grant in 1652 from Sher Muhammad Khan, the +Moghul Fauzdar of Chicacole. It is to this sub-division that Orme +refers, when he says [124] that they "esteem themselves the highest +blood of Native Indians, next to the Brahmans, equal to the Rajpoots, +and support their pre-eminence by the haughtiest observances, insomuch +that the breath of a different religion, and even of the meaner +Indians, requires ablution; their women never transfer themselves to a +second, but burn with the husband of their virginity." The remarriage +of widows is forbidden, and women remain gosha (in seclusion), +and wear gold or silver bangles on both wrists, unlike those of the +Koppala section. The title of members of this sub-division is Dora. + +(2) Kamma Velama found chiefly in the Kistna district, from which +some families are said to have emigrated in company with the early +Rajas of Vizianagram. They are met with almost solely in the town of +Vizianagram. The remarriage of widows is permitted, but females are +gosha. The title is Nayudu. + +(3) Koppala, or Toththala, who do not shave their heads, but tie +the hair in a knot (koppu) on the top of the head. They are divided +into sections, e.g., Naga (cobra), Sankha (chank shell, Turbinella +rapa), Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum), and Tabelu (tortoise). These +have no significance so far as marriage is concerned. They are +further divided into exogamous septs, or intiperulu, of which the +following are examples:--Nalla (black), Doddi (court-yard, cattle-pen +or sheep-fold), Reddi (synonym of Kapu). The custom of menarikam, +by which a man marries his maternal uncle's daughter, is observed. A +Brahman officiates at marriages. Widows are permitted to remarry seven +times, and, by an unusual custom, an elder brother is allowed to marry +the widow of his younger brother. Women wear on the right wrist a +solid silver bangle called ghatti kadiyam, and on the left wrist two +bangles called sandelu, between which are black glass bangles, which +are broken when a woman becomes a widow. The titles of members of this +sub-division are Anna, Ayya, and, when they become prosperous, Nayudu. + +In a note on the Velamas of the Godavari district, Mr. F. R. Hemingway +writes that they "admit that they always arrange for a Mala couple +to marry, before they have a marriage in their own houses, and that +they provide the necessary funds for the Mala marriage. They explain +the custom by a story to the effect that a Mala once allowed a Velama +to sacrifice him in order to obtain a hidden treasure, and they say +that this custom is observed out of gratitude for the discovery of +the treasure which resulted. The Rev. J. Cain gives [125] a similar +custom among the Velamas of Bhadrachalam in the Godavari district, +only in this case it is a Palli (fisherman) who has to be married." + +There is, a correspondent informs me, a regular gradation in the +social scale among the Velamas, Kammas, and Kapus, as follows:-- + + + Velama Dora = Velama Esquire. + Kamma Varu = Mr. Kamma. + Kapu. + + +A complaint was once made on the ground that, in a pattah (title-deed), +a man was called Kamma, and not Kamma Varu. + +It is noted by Mr. H. G. Prendergast [126] that the custom of sending +a sword to represent an unavoidably absent bridegroom at a wedding +is not uncommon among the Telugu Razus and Velamas. + +Velampan (rope-dancer).--Possibly a name for the Koravas of Malabar, +who perform feats on the tight-rope. + +Velan.--As a diminutive form of Vellala, Velan occurs as a title +assumed by some Kusavans. Velan is also recorded as a title of +Paraiyans in Travancore. (See Panan.) + +For the following note on the Velans of the Cochin State, I am indebted +to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer. [127] + +The Velans, like the Panans, are a caste of devil-dancers, sorcerers +and quack doctors, and are, in the northern parts of the State, called +Perumannans or Mannans (washermen). My informant, a Perumannan at +Trichur, told me that their castemen south of the Karuvannur bridge, +about ten miles south of Trichur, are called Velans, and that they +neither interdine nor intermarry, because they give mattu (a washed +cloth) to carpenters to free them from pollution. The Mannans, who +give the mattu to Izhuvans, do not give it to Kammalans (artisan +classes), who are superior to them in social status. The Velans at +Ernakulam, Cochin, and other places, are said to belong to eight +illams. A similar division into illams exists among the Perumannans +of the Trichur taluk. The Perumannans of the Chittur taluk have no +knowledge of this illam division existing among them. + +The following story was given regarding the origin of the Velans and +Mannans. Once upon a time, when Parameswara and his wife Parvati were +amusing themselves, the latter chanced to make an elephant with earth, +which was accidentally trodden on by the former, whence arose a man who +stood bowing before them. He was called the Mannan because he came out +of man (earth), and to him was assigned his present occupation. This +tradition is referred to in the songs which are sung on the fourth +day of a girl's first menses, when she takes a ceremonial bath to +free her from pollution. + +The Velans are found all over the southern parts of the State, as +their brethren are in the northern parts. They live in thatched huts +in cocoanut gardens, while the Mannans occupy similar dwellings in +small compounds either of their own, or of some landlord whose tenant +they may be. + +When a girl attains puberty, she is at once bathed, and located in a +room in the hut. Her period of seclusion is four days. On the morning +of the fourth day, she is seated in a pandal (booth) put up in front +of the hut, and made to hold in her hand a leafy vessel filled with +rice, a few annas and a lighted wick, when a few of the castemen +sing songs connected with puberty till so late as one or two o'clock, +when the girl is bathed. After this, the castemen and women who are +invited are feasted along with the girl, who is neatly dressed and +adorned in her best. Again the girl takes her seat in the pandal +and the tunes begin, and are continued till seven or eight o'clock +next morning, when the ceremony comes to an end. The songsters are +remunerated with three paras of paddy (unhusked rice), twenty-eight +cocoanuts, thirteen annas and four pies, and two pieces of cloth. The +songs are in some families postponed till the sixteenth day, or to +the day of the girl's marriage. Very poor people dispense with them +altogether. The following is a translation of one of the songs. + +One day a girl and her friends were playing merrily on the banks of +a river, when one of them noticed some blood on her dress. They took +her home, and her parents believed it to have been caused by some +wound, but on enquiry knew that their daughter was in her menses. The +daughter asked her mother as to what she did with the cloth she wore +during her menses, when she was told that she bathed and came home, +leaving it on a branch of a mango tree. On further enquiry, she knew +that the goddess Ganga purified herself by a bath, leaving her cloth +in the river; that the goddess earth buried it in earth; and that +Panchali returned home after a bath, leaving her dress on a branch of +a banyan tree. Unwilling to lose her dress, the girl went to the god +Parameswara, and implored his aid to get somebody to have her cloth +washed. When muttering a mantram (prayer), he sprinkled some water, +a few drops of which went up and became stars, and from a few more, +which fell on the leaves of a banyan tree, there came out a man, +to whom was assigned the task of washing the cloths of the women in +their courses, wearing which alone the women are purified by a bath. + +When a young man of the Velan caste has attained the marriageable +age, his father and maternal uncle select a suitable girl as a wife, +after a proper examination and agreement of their horoscopes. The +preliminaries are arranged in the hut of the girl, and a portion of +the bride's price, fifteen fanams, is paid. The auspicious day for the +wedding is fixed, and the number of guests that should attend it is +determined. The wedding is celebrated at the girl's hut, in front of +which a shed is put up. The ceremony generally takes place at night. A +few hours before it, the bridegroom and his party arrive at the bride's +hut, where they are welcomed, and seated on mats spread on the floor +in the pandal (shed). At the auspicious hour, when the relatives on +both sides and the castemen are assembled, the bridegroom's enangan +(relation by marriage) hands over a metal plate containing the wedding +suit, the bride's price, and a few packets of betel leaves and nuts +to the bride's enangan, who takes everything except the cloth to +be given to the bride's mother, and returns the plate to the same +man. The bridegroom's sister dresses the bride in the new cloth, and +takes her to the pandal, to seat her along with the bridegroom, and to +serve one or two spoonfuls of milk and a few pieces of plantain fruit, +when the bride is formally declared to be the wife of the young man and +a member of his family. The guests assembled are treated to a feast, +after which they are served with betel leaves, nuts, and tobacco. The +rest of the night is spent in merry songs and dancing. The songs refer +to the marriage of Sita, the wife of Rama, of Subhadra, wife of Arjuna, +and of Panchali, wife of the Pandavas. Next morning, the bride's party +is treated to rice kanji (gruel) at eight o'clock, and to a sumptuous +meal at twelve o'clock, after which they repair to the bridegroom's +hut, accompanied by the bride, her parents and relations, all of +whom receive a welcome. The formalities are gone through here also, +and the bride's party is feasted. On the fourth morning, the newly +married couple bathe and dress themselves neatly, to worship the deity +at the local temple. After dinner they go to the bride's hut, where +they spend a week or two, after which the bridegroom returns to his +hut with his wife. It is now that the bride receives a few ornaments, +a metal dish for taking meals, a lamp, and a few metal utensils, which +vary according to the circumstances of her parents. Henceforward, the +husband and wife live with the parents of the former in their family. + +Among the Mannans of the northern parts of the State, the following +marriage customs are found to prevail. The bridegroom's father, +his maternal uncle, enangan, and the third or middle man, conjointly +select the girl after due examination and agreement of horoscopes. The +preliminaries are arranged as before, and the day for the wedding is +determined. At the auspicious moment on the wedding day, when the +relatives on both sides and the castemen are assembled at the shed +in front of the bride's hut, the bridegroom's father takes up a metal +plate containing the wedding dress, the bride's price (twelve fanams), +and a few bundles of betel leaves, nuts and tobacco, and repeats a +formula, of which the substance runs thus. "A lighted lamp is placed +in the shed. Four mats are spread round it in the direction of east, +west, north and south. A metal plate, containing rice, flowers and +betel leaves, is placed in front of the lamp, and the elderly members +of the caste and the relatives on both sides are assembled. According +to the traditional custom of the caste, the young man's father, +maternal uncle, enangan, and the middle man conjointly selected the +girl after satisfying themselves with due agreement of horoscopes, +and ascertaining the illams and kriyams on both sides. They have +negotiated for the girl, and settled the day on which the marriage is +to take place. In token of this, they have taken meals in the bride's +family. The claims of the girl for two pieces of cloth for the Onam +festival, two fanams or nine annas for Thiruwatira (a festival in +Dhanu, i.e., December-January), and Vishu, are satisfied, and she is +by the young man taken to the village festival. They have now come +for the celebration of the wedding. There have been times when he +has heard of 101 fanams as the price of the bride, and has seen 51 +fanams as the price of the same, but it is now 21 fanams. It thus +varies, and may be increased or diminished according to the will, +pleasure, and means of the parties. With four fanams as the price +of the bride and eight fanams for ornaments, and with the bundles +of betel leaves, nuts, and the wedding dress in a metal plate, may +I, ye elderly members, give it to the girl's parents?" "Shall I," +answers the girl's father, "accept it?" Receiving it, he gives it +to his brother-in-law, who gives it to the enangan, and he takes +everything in it except the wedding suit, which he hands over to the +bridegroom's enangan, who gives it to the bridegroom's sister, to have +the bride dressed in it. The other portions of the ceremony are the +same as those described above. In Palghat and the Chittur taluk, the +following declaration is made. "According to the customary traditions +of the caste, when a young man of one locality comes to tame a girl +of another locality, and takes her as his wife, ye elderly members +assembled here, may these four bundles of betel leaves, four measures +of rice, two pieces of cloth, and ten fanams be given to the bride's +parents?" "Shall these be accepted?" says the bride's enangan. When +the bride accompanies the bridegroom to his hut, the following formal +statement is made. "Thrash thou mayst, but not with a stick. Thou +mayst not accuse her of bad conduct. Thou mayst not cut off her ears, +breasts, nose and tufts of hair. Thou mayst not take her to a tank +(to bathe), or to a temple (for swearing). Thou mayst keep and protect +her as long as thou wantest. When thou dost not want her, give her +maintenance, and take back the children, for they are thine own." + +Polygamy is not prohibited, but is rarely practiced by the Velans and +Mannans. They are very poor, and find it difficult to support their +wives and children born in a single married life. Want of children, +bodily defect or incurable disease, or want of additional hands for +work, may sometimes induce them to take more than one wife. Polyandry +does not prevail among the Velans, but is common among the Mannans +of the northern parts of the State. A Velan woman who loses her +husband may marry another of her caste, if she likes, a year after her +husband's death. The formalities of the wedding consist in the husband +giving two pieces of cloth to the woman who wishes to enter into +wedlock with him. After this she forfeits all claim on the property +of her former husband. Among the Mannans, a widow may marry any one of +her brothers-in-law. A woman committing adultery with a member of her +own caste is well thrashed. One who disposes of herself to a member of +a lower caste is sent out of caste. She may then become a Christian +or Muhammadan convert. If an unmarried young woman becomes pregnant, +and this is known to her castemen, they convene a meeting, and find +out the secret lover, whom they compel to take her as his wife. Very +often they are both fined, and the fine is spent on toddy. Both among +the Velans and Mannans, divorce is easy. A man who does not like his +wife has only to take her to her original home and give charge of +her to her parents, informing them of the circumstances which have +induced him to adopt such a course. A woman who does not like her +husband may relinquish him, and join her parents. In both cases, +the woman is at liberty to marry again. + +When a woman is pregnant, the ceremony of pulikuti (drinking of +tamarind juice) is performed for her during the ninth month at the +hut of her husband. The juice is extracted from tamarind (Tamarindus +indica), kotapuli (Garcinia Cambogia), nerinjampuli (Hibiscus +surattensis) and the leaves of ambazhampuli (Spondias mangifera). A +large branch of ambazhampuli is stuck in the ground in the central +courtyard, near which the pregnant woman is seated. The husband gives +her three small spoonfuls, and then seven times with her cherutali +(neck ornament) dipped in the juice. Among the washermen, the woman's +brother gives it three times to her. Should her sister-in-law give it +in a small vessel, she has a claim to two pieces of cloth. After this, +a quarter measure of gingelly (Sesamum) oil is poured upon her head, +to be rubbed all over her body, and she bathes, using Acacia Intsia +as soap. Those of her relatives and the castemen who are invited +are sumptuously fed. Some of them crack jokes by asking the pregnant +woman to promise her baby son or daughter to theirs when grown up. All +bless her for a safe delivery and healthy child. + +A woman who is about to become a mother is lodged in a separate room +for her delivery, attended by her mother and one or two grown-up women, +who act as midwives. The period of pollution is fifteen days. For +the first three days the woman is given a dose of dried ginger mixed +with palmyra (Borassus flabellifer) jaggery (crude sugar), and for +the next three days a mixture of garlic and jaggery. Her diet during +the first three days is rice kanji with scrapings of cocoanut, which +are believed to help the formation of the mother's milk. For the next +three days, the juice of kotapuli (Garcinia Cambogia), cumin seeds, +and kotal urikki (Achyranthes aspera), and of the leaves of muringa +(Moringa pterygosperma) is given, after which, for a few more days, +a dose of the flesh of fowl mixed with mustard, cumin seeds and uluva +(Trigonella foenum-græcum) boiled in gingelly oil is taken. She bathes +in water boiled with medicinal herbs on the fourth, seventh, ninth, +eleventh, and sixteenth days. On the morning of the sixteenth day, +her enangathi (enangan's wife) cleans her room with water mixed with +cow-dung, and sweeps the compound. Wearing a mattu (washed cloth) +brought by a washerman, she bathes to be freed from pollution. She +may now enter the hut, and mingle with the rest of the family. + +Among Velans and Mannans, the sons inherit the property of their +fathers, but they are very poor, and have little or nothing to inherit. + +Velans and Mannans practice magic and sorcery. All diseases that +flesh is heir to are, in the opinion of these people, caused by +malignant demons, and they profess to cure, with the aid of their +mantrams and amulets, people suffering from maladies. The muttering +of the following mantram, and throwing of bhasmam (holy ashes), +in propitiation of the small-pox demon is believed to effect a cure. + +(1) Om, Oh! thou, Pallyamma, mother with tusk-like teeth, that in +demoniacal form appearest on the burning ground called omkara, with +burning piles flaming around, with one breast on one of thy shoulders, +and playing with the other as with a ball, with thy tongue stretched +out and wound round thy head, with grass, beans, and pepper in thy +left hand, with gingelly seeds and chama grains in thy right hand, +that scatterest and sowest broadcast the seeds of small-pox; Oh! let +the seeds that thou hast sown, and those that thou hast not sown, +dry up inside, and get charred outside. Be thou as if intoxicated +with joy! Protect thou, protect thou! + +(2) Malign influence of birds on children. + +Oh! thou round-eyed, short Karinkali with big ears, born from the +third incessantly burning eye of Siva, come, come and be in possession. + +If this mantram be muttered sixteen times, and bhasmam thrown over +the body of a child, the operator breathing violently the while, +a cure will be effected. If the mantram be muttered in a vessel of +water the same number of times, and the child bathed in it, the cure +will be equally effective. + +(3) To cure fits and fever. + +Oh! thou swine-faced mother, thou catchest hold of my enemy, coming +charging me, by the neck with thy tusks thrust into his body; draggest +him on the ground, and standest slowly chewing and eating, thrusting +thy tusks, rubbing again, and wearing down his body, chewing once +more and again; thou, mother that controllest 41,448 demons presiding +over all kinds of maladies, seventy-two Bhiravans, eighteen kinds of +epileptic fits (korka), twelve kinds of muyalis and all other kinds +of illness, as also Kandakaranans (demons with bell-shaped ears), +be under my possession so long as I serve thee. + +This mantram should be repeated sixteen times, with bhasmam thrown +on the body of the patient. + +(4) Oh! Bhadrakali, thou hast drunk the full cup. Oh! thou that holdest +the sword of royalty in thy right hand, and that half sittest on a high +seat. Place under control, as I am piously uttering the mantrams to +serve thee, all demons, namely Yakshi, Gandharvan, Poomalagandharvan, +Chutali, Nirali, Nilankari, Chuzali, and many others who cause all +kinds of illness that flesh is heir to. Oh! holy mother, Bhadrakali, +I vow by my preceptor. + +(5) For devil driving. + +Oh! thou, Karinkutti (black dwarf) of Vedapuram in Vellanad, that +pluckest the fruits of the right hand branch of the strychnine tree +(Strychnos Nux-vomica), and keepest toddy in its shell, drinking the +blood of the black domestic fowl, drumming and keeping time on the +rind of the fruit, filling and blowing thy pipe or horn through the +nose. Oh! thou primeval black dwarf, so long as I utter the proper +mantrams, I beg thee to cause such demons as would not dance to dance, +and others to jump and drive them out. Oh! thou, Karinkutti, come, +come, and enable me to succeed in my attempts. + +(6) Oh! thou goddess with face. Oh! thou with face like that of a bear, +and thou, a hunter. I utter thy mantrams and meditate upon thee, and +therefore request thee to tread upon my enemies, burst open their +bodies to drink their blood, and yawn to take complete rest; drive +out such demons as cause convulsions of the body both from within +and without, and all kinds of fever. Scatter them as dust. I swear +by thee and my preceptor. Swahah. + +(7) For the evil eye. + +Salutations to thee, Oh! God. Even as the moon wanes in its brightness +at the sight of the sun, even as the bird chakora (Eraya) disappears +at the sight of the moon; even as the great Vasuki (king of serpents) +vanishes at the sight of chakora; even as the poison vanishes from +his head; so may the potency of his evil eye with thy aid vanish. + +(8) To cause delay in the occurrence of menses. + +Salutation to thee, Oh! Mars (the son of the goddess Earth). + +If this mantram is muttered on a thread dyed yellow with turmeric, +and if the thread be placed on both the palms joined together, and if +the number of days to which the occurrence of the menses should be +delayed be thought of, the postponement will be procured by wearing +it either round the neck or the loins. The thread with a ring attached +to it, and worn round the neck is equally effective. + +(9) To prevent cows from giving milk. + +Om, Koss, dry up the liquid, kindly present me with thy gracious +aspect. Oh! thou with the great sword in thy hands, the great +trident, dry up the cow's udder even as a tiger, I swear by thee and +my preceptor. + +(10) To cause cows to give milk. + +Even as the swelling on the holy feet of Mahadeva due to the bite +of a crocodile has subsided and gone down, so go down. I swear by +my preceptor. + +(11) To remove a thorn from the sole of the foot. + +When Parameswara and Parvathi started on their hunting expedition, +a thorn entered the foot of her lady-ship. It was doubted whether it +was the thorn of a bamboo, an ant, or a strychnine tree. Even so may +this poison cease to hurt, Oh! Lord. I swear by my preceptor. + +(12) To effect metamorphosis. + +Take the head of a dog and burn it, and plant on it vellakutti +plant. Burn camphor and frankincense, and adore it. Then pluck the +root. Mix it with the milk of a dog and the bones of a cat. A mark +made with the mixture on the forehead will enable any person to assume +the figure of any animal he thinks of. + +(13) Before a stick of the Malankara plant, worship with a lighted +wick and incense. Then chant the Sakti mantram 101 times, and mutter +the mantram to give life at the bottom. Watch carefully which way +the stick inclines. Proceed to the south of the stick, and pluck the +whiskers of a live tiger, and make with them a ball of the veerali +silk, string it with silk, and enclose it within the ear. Stand on +the palms of the hand to attain the disguise of a tiger, and, with +the stick in hand, think of a cat, white bull, or other animal. Then +you will, in the eyes of others, appear as such. + +(14) Take the nest of a crow from a margosa tree, and bury it at the +cremation ground. Then throw it into the house of your enemy. The +house will soon take fire. + +(15) Take the ashes of the burial-ground on which an ass has been +rolling on a Saturday or Sunday, and put it in the house of your +enemy. The members of the family will soon quit the house, or a severe +illness will attack them. + +The Velans and Mannans are animists, and worship demoniacal gods, +such as Chandan, Mundian, Kandakaranan, Karinkutti, and Chathan. All +of them are separately represented by stones located underneath a +tree in the corners of their compounds. Offerings of sheep, fowls, +plantain fruits, cocoanuts, parched rice and beaten rice, are made to +them on the tenth of Dhanu (last week in December), on a Tuesday in +Makaram (January-February), and on Kumbham Bharani (second asterism +in March-April). They also adore the goddess Bhagavathi and the +spirits of their departed ancestors, who are believed to exercise +their influence in their families for good or evil. Sometimes, when +they go to Cranganore to worship the goddess there, they visit the +senior male members of the local Nayar, Kammalan and Izhuvan families +to take leave of them, when they are given a few annas with which +they purchase fowls, etc., to be given as offerings to the local +goddess. Wooden or metal images, representing the spirits of their +ancestors, are located in a room of their huts, and worshipped with +offerings on New Moon and Sankranti nights. + +The Velans and Mannans either burn or bury the dead. The son is the +chief mourner who performs the funeral rites, and the nephews and +brothers take part in them. Their priests are known as Kurup, and +they preside at the ceremonies. Death pollution lasts for sixteen +days, and on the morning of the sixteenth day the hut of the dead +person is well swept and cleansed by sprinkling water mixed with +cowdung. The members of the family, dressed in the mattu (a washed +cloth worn before bathing) brought by the washerman, bathe to be free +from pollution. The castemen, including their friends and relations, +are invited and feasted. A similar funeral feast is also held at the +end of the year. + +The chief occupation of the Velans and Mannans is the giving of +mattu to Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Anthalarajatis, Nayars, Kammalans +and Izhuvans, for wearing before going to bathe on the day on which +they are freed from pollution. A girl or woman in her courses on +the morning of the fourth day, a woman in confinement on the fifth, +ninth, eleventh and sixteenth days, and all the members of a family +under death pollution on the sixteenth day, have to use it. They +bathe wearing the washed cloth, and return it as soon as the bath is +over. It may either belong to the washerman, or have been previously +given to him by the members of the family. He gets an anna or a +measure of paddy for his service to a woman in her menses, and a +para of paddy or six annas for birth and death pollutions. The Velans +give the mattu to all the castes above mentioned, while the Mannans +refuse to give it to the Kammalans, and thereby profess themselves to +be superior in status to them. They wash clothes to dress the idols +in some of the high caste temples. Their washing consists in first +plunging the dirty cloths in water mixed with cowdung, and beating +them on a stone by the side of a tank (pond), canal or river, and +again immersing them in water mixed with wood ashes or charamannu, +after which they are exposed to steam for a few hours, and again beaten +on the stone, slightly moistening in water now and then, until they +are quite clean. They are then dried in the sun, and again moistened +with a solution of starch and indigo, when they are exposed to the +air to dry. When dry, they are folded, and beaten with a heavy club, +so as to be like those ironed. The Velans of the Cranganore, Cochin, +and Kanayannur taluks, climb cocoanut trees to pluck cocoanuts, +and get about eight to ten annas for every hundred trees they go +up. They make umbrellas. Some among them practice magic and sorcery, +and some are quack doctors, who treat sickly children. Some are now +engaged in agricultural operations, while a few make beds, pillows, +and coats. There are also a few of them in every village who are +songsters, and whose services are availed of on certain ceremonial +occasions, namely, on the bathing day of a girl in her first menses, +on the wedding night, and when religious ceremonies are performed, and +sacrifices offered to their gods. Some are experts in drum-beating, +and are invited by low caste people of the rural parts. The Mannans +also follow the same occupations. + +The Velans and Mannans eat at the hands of all castes above them, +namely, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Nayars, and Izhuvans. The former take +food from Kammalans, while the latter abstain from so doing. They do +not eat the food prepared by Kaniyans, Panans, Vilkurups, or other +castes of equal or inferior status. They have to stand at a distance +of twenty-four feet from Brahmans. They have their own barbers, and +are their own washermen. They stand far away from the outer wall +of the temples of high castes. They are not allowed to take water +from the wells of high caste Sudras, nor are they allowed to live in +their midst. + +The following note on the Velans of Travancore has been furnished by +Mr. N. Subramani Iyer. + +The word Velan has been derived from vel a spear, and also from vela +work. The usual title of the Velans is Panikkan. They are believed +to be divided into four classes, viz., Bharata Velan, Vaha Velan, +Pana Velan, and Manna Velan. While the last of these sections, in +addition to their traditional occupation, are washermen and climbers +of areca palm trees, the Pana Velans take sawing as a supplementary +employment. Some of the members of the first and second classes are +also physicians. This classification is gradually going out of vogue. + +The Velans are said traditionally to have been descended from Siva, +who, on one occasion, is believed to have removed the evil effects of +the sorcery of demons upon Vishnu by means of exorcism. As this kind +of injury began to increase among men, a man and woman were created +by this deity, to prevent its dire consequences. In the Keralolpatti, +this caste is mentioned as Velakkuruppu. But at present the Puranadis, +who are the barbers and priests of this class, are known by this +name. A Puranadi means one who stands outside, and is not admitted +as of equal rank with the Velans proper. The Puranadis are not +washermen. Commensal relations exist only between the male members +of the Velans and Puranitis (Puranadi females). + +The Velans perform a number of useful services in the body politic of +Malabar. In the Keralolpatti their duty is said to be the nursing of +women in their confinement. In the Kerala-Visesha-Mahatmya, exorcism, +climbing of trees, and washing clothes, are mentioned as their +occupations. There are various kinds of exorcism, the chief being Velan +Tullal and Velan Pravarti. The former is a kind of masque performed by +the Velans for warding off the effects of the evil eye, and preventing +the injurious influences of demons and spirits. Atavi is a peculiar +female divinity worshipped by the caste, by whose help these feats are +believed to be performed in the main. She, and a host of minor gods and +goddesses, are represented by them, and a dance commences. After it is +over, all the characters receive presents. Velan Pravarti, or Otuka, +may either last for eleven days, or may be finished on a minor scale +within three days, and in emergent cases even in one day. A Puranadi +acts as buffoon, and serves the purpose of a domestic servant on +the occasion. This is called Pallipana when performed in temples, +Pallipperu when in palaces, and Velan Pravarti or Satru-eduppu in +the case of ordinary people. This is also done with a view to prevent +the effect of the evil eye. On the first day, a person representing +the enchanted man or woman is placed in a temporary shed built for +the purpose, and lights are waved before him. On the third day, a +pit is dug, and a cock sacrificed. On the fourth day, the Pattata +Bali, or human sacrifice, takes place. A person is thrown into a +pit which is covered with a plank of wood, upon which sacrifices are +offered. The buried person soon resuscitates himself, and, advancing +as if possessed, explains the cause of the disease or calamity. On +the eighth day, figures of snakes, in gold or silver, are enclosed +in small copper vessels, and milk and fruit are offered to them. On +the ninth day, the Velans worship the lords of the eight directions, +with Brahma or the creator in the midst of them. On the tenth day, +there is much festivity and amusement, and the Mahabharata is sung +in a condensed form. The chief of the Velans becomes possessed, and +prays that, as the Pandavas emerged safely from the sorcery of the +Kauravas, the person affected by the calamity may escape unhurt. On +the last day, animals are sacrificed at the four corners of the +compound surrounding the house. No special rite is performed on the +first day, but the Ituvanabali, Kuzhibali, Pattatabali, Kitangubali, +Patalabali, Sarakutabali, Pithabali, Azhibali, Digbali, and Kumpubali, +are respectively observed during the remaining ten days. The Pana, +of which rite the breaking of cocoanuts is the most important item, +completes this long ceremony. It was once supposed that the Bharata +Velans exorcised spirits in the homes of high caste Hindus, the same +work being done among the middle classes by the Vaha Velans, and +among the low by the Manna Velans. This rule does not hold good at +the present day. The Velans are also engaged in the event of bad crops. + +Besides standing thirty-two feet apart from Hindu temples, and +worshipping the divinities therein, the Velans erect small sanctuaries +for Siva within their own compounds, called Kuriyala. They worship +this deity in preference to others, and offer tender cocoanuts, fried +rice, sugar, and plantain fruits to him on the Uttradam day in the +month of August. + +Velanati (foreign).--A sub-division of Kapus, and other Telugu castes, +and of Telugu Brahmans. + +Velanga (wood apple: Feronia elephantum).--An exogamous sept of +Muka Dora. + +Velichchapad.--Of the Velichchapads, or oracles, of Malabar, the +following account is given by Mr. F. Fawcett. [128] "Far away in +rural Malabar, I witnessed the ceremony in which the Velichchapad +exhibited his quality. It was in the neighbourhood of a Nayar house, +to which thronged all the neighbours (Nayars), men and women, boys +and girls. The ceremony lasts about an hour. The Nayar said it was +the custom in his family to have it done once a year, but could give +no account of how the custom originated; most probably in a vow, +some ancestor having vowed that, if such or such benefit be received, +he would for ever after have an annual performance of this ceremony +in his house. It involved some expenditure, as the Velichchapad had +to be paid, and the neighbours had to be fed. Somewhere about the +middle of the little courtyard, always as clean as a dinner table, +the Velichchapad placed a lamp (of the Malabar pattern) having a +lighted wick, a kalasam (brass vessel), some flowers, camphor, saffron +(turmeric) and other paraphernalia. Bhagavati was the deity invoked, +and the business involved offering flowers, and waving a lighted wick +round the kalasam. The Velichchapad's movements became quicker, and, +suddenly seizing his sword (nandakam), he ran round the courtyard +(against the sun, as sailors say) shouting wildly. He is under the +influence of the deity who has been introduced into him, and he gives +oracular utterances to the deity's commands. What he said I know not, +and no one else seemed to know or care in the least, much interested +though they were in the performance. As he ran, every now and then +he cut his forehead with the sword, pressing it against the skin +and sawing vertically up and down. The blood streamed all over his +face. Presently he became wilder and wilder, and whizzed round the +lamp, bending forward towards the kalasam. Evidently some deity, +some spirit was present here, and spoke through the mouth of the +Velichchapad. This, I think, undoubtedly represents the belief of +all who were present. When he had done whizzing round the kalasam, +he soon became a normal being, and stood before my camera. The +fee for the self-inflicted laceration is one rupee, some rice, +etc. I saw the Velichchapad about three days afterwards, going to +perform elsewhere. The wound on his forehead had healed. The careful +observer can always identify a Velichchapad by the triangular patch +over the forehead, where the hair will not grow, and where the skin +is somewhat indurated." + +Veliveyabadina Razu.--The name, denoting Razus who were thrown out, +of a class said to be descended from Razus who were excommunicated +from their caste. [129] + +Veliyam.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a title +of Nayars. In the same report Veliyattu is described as synonymous +with Pulikkappanikkan, a sub-division of Nayar. + +Vellaikaran (white man).--A Tamil name for European. + +Vellala.--"The Vellalas," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [130] "are +the great farmer caste of the Tamil country, and they are strongly +represented in every Tamil district. The word Vellalan is derived from +vellanmai [vellam, water, anmai, management?] meaning cultivation, +tillage. Dr. Oppert [131] considers Vellalan to be etymologically +connected with Pallan, Palli, etc., the word meaning the lord of +the Vallas or Pallas. The story of their origin is as follows. Many +thousands of years ago, when the inhabitants of the world were rude +and ignorant of agriculture, a severe drought fell upon the land, and +the people prayed to Bhudevi, the goddess of the earth, for aid. She +pitied them, and produced from her body a man carrying a plough, +who showed them how to till the soil and support themselves. His +offsprings are the Vellalas, who aspire to belong to the Vaisya +caste, since that includes Govaisyas, Bhuvaisyas, and Dhanavaisyas +(shepherds, cultivators and merchants). A few, therefore, constantly +wear the sacred thread, but most put it on only during marriages or +funerals as a mark of the sacred nature of the ceremony." + +The traditional story of the origin of the Vellalas is given as +follows in the Baramahal Records. [132] "In ancient days, when the +God Paramesvaradu and his consort the goddess Parvati Devi resided +on the top of Kailasa Parvata or mount of paradise, they one day +retired to amuse themselves in private, and by chance Visvakarma, the +architect of the Devatas or gods, intruded on their privacy, which +enraged them, and they said to him that, since he had the audacity +to intrude on their retirement, they would cause an enemy of his to +be born in the Bhuloka or earthly world, who should punish him for +his temerity. Visvakarma requested they would inform him in what +part of the Bhuloka or earthly world he would be born, and further +added that, if he knew the birth place, he would annihilate him with +a single blow. The divine pair replied that the person would spring +up into existence from the bowels of the earth on the banks of the +Ganga river. On this, Visvakarma took his sword, mounted his aerial +car, and flew through the regions of ether to the banks of the Ganga +river, where he anxiously waited the birth of his enemy. One day +Visvakarma observed the ground to crack near him, and a kiritam or +royal diadem appeared issuing out of the bowels of the earth, which +Visvakarma mistook for the head of his adversary, and made a cut at +it with his sword, but only struck off the kiritam. In the meantime, +the person came completely out of the earth, with a bald pate, +holding in his hand a golden ploughshare, and his neck encircled +with garlands of flowers. The angry Visvakarma instantly laid hold +on him, when the Gods Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, and the supporters +of the eight corners of the universe, appeared in all their glory, +and interceded for the earth-born personage, and said to Visvakarma +thou didst vow that thou wouldst annihilate him with a single blow, +which vow thou hast not performed; therefore with what justice hast +thou a second time laid violent hands on him? Since thou didst not +succeed in thy first attempt, it is but equitable that thou shouldst +now spare him. At the intercession and remonstrance of the gods, +Visvakarma quitted his hold, and a peace was concluded between him and +his enemy on the following stipulation, viz., that the pancha jati, +or five castes of silversmiths, carpenters, ironsmiths, stone-cutters, +and braziers, who were the sons of Visvakarma, should be subservient to +the earth-born person. The deities bestowed on the person these three +names. First Bhumi Palakudu or saviour of the earth, because he was +produced by her. Second, Ganga kulam or descendant of the river Ganga, +by reason of having been brought forth on her banks. Third, Murdaka +Palakudu or protector of the plough, alluding to his being born with +a ploughshare in his hand, and they likewise ordained that, as he had +lost his diadem, he should not be eligible to sovereignty, but that he +and his descendants should till the ground with this privilege, that +a person of the caste should put the crown on the king's head at the +coronation. They next invested him with the yegnopavitam or string, +and, in order that he might propagate his caste, they gave him in +marriage the daughters of the gods Indra and Kubera. At this time, +the god Siva was mounted on a white bullock, and the god Dharmaraja +on a white buffalo, which they gave him to plough the ground, and from +which circumstance the caste became surnamed Vellal Warus or those who +plough with white bullocks. After the nuptials, the deities departed +to their celestial abodes. Murdaka Palakulu had fifty-four sons by the +daughter of the god Indra, and fifty-two by the daughter of the god +Kubera, whom he married to the one hundred and six daughters of Nala +Kubarudu, the son of Kubera, and his sons-in-law made the following +agreement with him, viz., that thirty-five of them should be called +Bhumi Palakulu, and should till the ground; thirty-five of them named +Vellal Shetti, and their occupation be traffic; and thirty-five of +them named Govu Shetlu, and their employment breeding and feeding +of cattle. They gave the remaining one the choice of three orders, +but he would not have any connexion with any of them, from whence +they surnamed him Agmurdi or the alien. The Agmurdi had born to him +two thousand five hundred children, and became a separate caste, +assuming the appellation of Agmurdi Vellal Waru. The other brothers +had twelve thousand children, who intermarried, and lived together +as one caste, though their occupations were different.... During the +reign of Krishna Rayalu, whose capital was the city of Vijayanagaram or +city of victory, a person of the Vellal caste, named Umbhi or Amultan +Mudaliyar, was appointed sarvadhikari or prime minister, who had a +samprati or secretary of the caste of Gollavaru or cowherds, whose name +was Venayaterthapalli. It so happened that a set of Bhagavata Sevar, +or strolling players, came to the city, and one night acted a play +in the presence of Krishna Rayalu and his court. In one of the acts, +a player appeared in the garb and character of a female cowherd, and, +by mimicking the actions and manners of that caste, afforded great +diversion both to the Raja and his courtiers. But no person seemed +to be so much pleased as the prime minister, which being perceived by +his secretary, he determined on making him pay dear for his mirth by +turning the Vellal caste into ridicule, and thus hurt his pride, and +take revenge for the pleasure he expressed at seeing the follies of +the cowherd caste exposed. For that purpose, he requested the players, +when they acted another play, to dress themselves up in the habit of a +female of the Vellal caste. This scheme came to the ears of the prime +minister, who, being a proud man, was sadly vexed at the trick, and +resolved on preventing its being carried into execution; but, having +none of his own caste present to assist him, and not knowing well how +to put a stop to the business, he got into his palanquin, and went to a +Canardha Shetti or headman of the right-hand caste, informed him of the +circumstance, and begged his advice and assistance. The Shetti replied +'Formerly the left-hand caste had influence enough with Government to +get an order issued forbidding the right-hand caste to cultivate or +traffic; therefore, when we quarrel again, do you contrive to prevent +the ryots of the Vellal caste from cultivating the ground, so that +the public revenue will fall short, and Government will be obliged to +grant us our own terms; and I will save you from the disgrace that is +intended to be put on you. The prime minister agreed to the proposal, +and went home. At night, when the players were coming to the royal +presence to act, and one of them had on the habit of a female of the +Vellal caste, the Canardha Shetti cut off his head, and saved the +honour of the prime minister. The death of the player being reported +to the Raja Krishna Rayalu, he enquired into the affair, and finding +how matters stood, he directed the prime minister and his secretary to +be more circumspect in their conduct, and not to carry their enmity +to such lengths.' Since that time, the Vellal castes have always +assisted the right-hand against the left-hand castes." (See Kammalan.) + +At the time of the census, 1871, some Vellalas claimed that they had +been seriously injured in reputation, and handled with great injustice, +in being classed as Sudras by the Municipal Commissioners of Madras +in the classification of Hindus under the four great divisions of +Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. In their petition it +was stated that "we shall first proceed to show that the Vellalas +do come exactly within the most authoritative definition given of +Vysias, and then point out that they do not come within the like +definition of Sudras. First then to the definition of Vysia, Manu, +the paramount authority upon these matters, says in paragraph 90 +of his Institutes:--'To keep herds of cattle, to bestow largesses, +to sacrifice, to read the scripture, to carry on trade, to lend at +interest, and to cultivate land, are prescribed or permitted to a +Vysia.'" In the course of the petition, the Vellalas observed that "it +is impossible to imagine that the Vellalas, a race of agriculturists +and traders, should have had to render menial service to the three +higher classes; for the very idea of service is, as it needs must +be, revolting to the Vellala, whose profession teaches him perfect +independence, and dependence, if it be, upon the sovereign alone +for the protection of his proper interests. Hence a Vellala cannot +be of the Sudra or servile class. Besides, that the Vellalas are +recognised as a respectable body of the community will also appear +from the following. There was a ceremony called tulabharam (weighing +in scales) observed by the ancient kings of, at some part of their +lives, distributing in charity to the most deserving gold and silver +equal to the weight of their persons; and tradition alleges that, when +the kings of Tanjore performed this ceremony, the right to weigh the +king's person was accorded to the Vellalan Chettis. This shows that +the Vellalas have been recognised as a respectable body of mercantile +men in charge of weights and measures (Manu 30, chap. 9). So also, +in the Halasya Puranam of Madura, it is said that, when the King +Somasundara Pandien, who was supposed to be the very incarnation +of Siva, had to be crowned, there arose a contention as to who was +to put the crown on his head. After much discussion, it was agreed +that one of the Vellalas, who formed the strength of the community +(note the fact that Manu says that Vysia came from the thighs of +the Supreme Deity, which, as an allegory, is interpreted to mean the +strength of the State) should be appointed to perform that part of the +ceremony. Also, in Kamban's Ramayana, written 1,000 and odd years ago, +it is said that the priest Vasista handed the crown to a Vellala, +who placed it upon great Rama's head." + +In 'The Tamils eighteen hundred years ago,' Mr. V. Kanakasabhai +writes that "among the pure Tamils, the class most honoured was +the Arivar or Sages. Next in rank to the Arivar were the Ulavar +or farmers. The Arivars were ascetics, but, of the men living in +society, the farmers occupied the highest position. They formed the +nobility, or the landed aristocracy, of the country. They were also +called Vellalar, 'lords of the flood,' or 'Karalar,' 'lords of the +clouds,' titles expressive of their skill in controlling floods, +and in storing water for agricultural purposes. The Chera, Chola and +Pandyan Kings, and most of the petty chiefs of Tamilakam, belonged to +the tribe of Vellalas. The poor families of Vellalas who owned small +estates were generally spoken of as the Veelkudi-Uluvar or 'the fallen +Vellalas,' implying thereby that the rest of the Vellalas were wealthy +land-holders. When Karikal the Great defeated the Aruvalar, and annexed +their territory to his kingdom, he distributed the conquered lands +among Vellala chiefs. [133] The descendants of some of these chiefs +are to this day in possession of their lands, which they hold as petty +zamindars under the British Government. [134] The Vellala families who +conquered Vadukam, or the modern Telugu country, were called Velamas, +and the great zamindars there still belong to the Velama caste. In the +Canarese country, the Vellalas founded the Bellal dynasty, which ruled +that country for several centuries. The Vellalas were also called the +Gangakula or Gangavamsa, because they derived their descent from the +great and powerful tribe named Gangvida, which inhabited the valley +of the Ganges, as mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy. A portion of Mysore +which was peopled mostly by Vellalas was called Gangavadi in the tenth +and eleventh centuries of the Christian era. Another dynasty of kings +of this tribe, who ruled Orissa in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, +was known as the Gangavamsa.... In the earliest Tamil grammar extant, +which was composed by a Brahman named Tholkappiyan, in the first +or second century B.C., frequent allusions are made to the Arivar +or Sages. But, in the chapter in which he describes the classes of +society, the author omits all mention of the Arivar, and places the +Brahmins who wear the sacred thread as the first caste. The kings, +he says, very guardedly, and not warriors, form the second caste, as +if the three kings Chera, Chola and Pandy could form a caste; all who +live by trade belong to the third caste. He does not say that either +the kings or the merchants wear the sacred thread. Then he singles +out the Vellalas, and states that they have no other calling than the +cultivation of the soil. Here he does not say that the Vellalas are +Sudras, but indirectly implies that the ordinary Vellalas should be +reckoned as Sudras, and that those Vellalas who were kings should +be honoured as Kshatriyas. This is the first attempt made by the +Brahmins to bring the Tamils under their caste system. But, in the +absence of the Kshatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra castes in Tamilakam, they +could not possibly succeed; and to this day the Vellala does not take +meals at the hands of a Padaiyadchi, who calls himself a Kshatriya, +or a merchant who passes for a Vaisya." In speculating on the origin +of the Vellalas, Mr. J. H. Nelson [135] states that "tradition +uniformly declares them to be the descendants of foreign immigrants, +who were introduced by the Pandyas: and it appears to be extremely +probable that they are, and that an extensive Vellala immigration took +place at a rather remote period, perhaps a little before or after the +colonization of the Tonda-mandala by Adondai Chakravarti. The Vellalas +speak a pure dialect of Tamil, and no other language. I have not heard +of anything extraordinary in the customs prevailing among them, or +of any peculiarities pointing to a non-Tamil origin.... With regard +to the assertion so commonly made that the Pandyas belonged to the +Vellala caste, it is observable that tradition is at issue with it, +and declares that the Pandyas proper were Kshatriyas: but they were +accustomed to marry wives of inferior castes as well as and in addition +to wives of their own caste; and some of their descendants born of the +inferior and irregularly married wives were Vellalans, and, after the +death of Kun or Sundara Pandya, formed a new dynasty, known as that +of the pseudo-Pandyas. Tradition also says that Arya Nayaga Muthali, +the great general of the sixteenth century, was dissuaded by his family +priest from making himself a king on the ground that he was a Vellalan, +and no Vellalan ought to be a king. And, looking at all the facts of +the case, it is somewhat difficult to avoid coming to the conclusion +that the reason assigned for his not assuming the crown was the true +one. This, however, is a question, the settlement of which requires +great antiquarian learning: and it must be settled hereafter." + +In the Madras Census Report, 1871, the Vellalas are described +as "a peace-loving, frugal, and industrious people, and, in the +cultivation of rice, betel, tobacco, etc., have perhaps no equals +in the world. They will not condescend to work of a degrading +nature. Some are well educated, and employed in Government service, +and as clerks, merchants, shop-keepers, etc., but the greater part +of them are the peasant proprietors of the soil, and confine their +attention to cultivation." In the Madura Manual, it is recorded that +"most Vellalans support themselves by husbandry, which, according +to native ideas, is their only proper means of livelihood. But they +will not touch the plough, if they can help it, and ordinarily they +do everything by means of hired servants and predial slaves. In the +Sathaga of Narayanan may be found a description of their duties and +position in society, of which the following translation appears +in Taylor's work, the Oriental MSS. The Vellalans, by the effect +of their ploughing (or cultivation), maintain the prayers of the +Brahmans, the strength of kings, the profits of merchants, the +welfare of all. Charity, donations, the enjoyments of domestic life, +and connubial happiness, homage to the gods, the Sastras, the Vedas, +the Puranas, and all other books, truth, reputation, renown, the very +being of the gods, things of good report or integrity, the good order +of castes, and (manual) skill, all these things come to pass by the +merit (or efficacy) of the Vellalan's plough. Those Vellalans who +are not farmers, husbandmen, or gardeners, are employed in various +ways more or less respectable; but none of them will condescend +to do work of a degrading nature. Some of them are merchants, some +shop-keepers, some Government servants, some sepoys, some domestic +servants, some clerks, and so forth." In the Tanjore Manual, it is +stated that "many Vellalars are found in the Government service, more +especially as karnams or village accountants. As accountants they +are unsurpassed, and the facility with which, in by-gone days, they +used to write on cadjan or palmyra leaves with iron styles, and pick +up any information on any given points from a mass of these leaves, +by lamp-light no less than by daylight, was most remarkable. Running +by the side of the Tahsildar's (native revenue officer) palanquin, +they could write to dictation, and even make arithmetical calculations +with strictest accuracy. In religious observances, they are more strict +than the generality of Brahmans; they abstain from both intoxicating +liquors and flesh meat." In the Coimbatore Manual, the Vellalas are +summed up as "truly the backbone of the district. It is they who, +by their industry and frugality, create and develop wealth, support +the administration, and find the money for imperial and district +demands. As their own proverb says:--The Vellalar's goad is the +ruler's sceptre. The bulk of them call themselves Goundans." In the +Salem Manual, the Vellala is described as "frugal and saving to the +extreme; his hard-working wife knows no finery, and the Vellalichi, +(Vellala woman) willingly wears for the whole year the one blue cloth, +which is all that the domestic economy of the house allows her. If she +gets wet, it must dry on her; and, if she would wash her sole garment, +half is unwrapped to be operated upon, which in its turn relieves the +other half, that is then and there similarly hammered against some +stone by the side of the village tank (pond), or on the bank of the +neighbouring stream. Their food is the cheapest of the 'dry' grains +which they happen to cultivate that year, and not even the village +feasts can draw the money out of a Vellalar's clutches. It is all +expended on his land, if the policy of the revenue administration +of the country be liberal, and the acts of Government such as to +give confidence to the ryots or husbandmen; otherwise their hoarded +gains are buried. The new moon, or some high holiday, may perhaps +see the head of the house enjoy a platter of rice and a little +meat, but such extravagance is rare." The Vellalas are summed up by +'A Native,' [136] as being "found in almost every station of life, +from the labourer in the fields to the petty zamindar (landholder); +from the owner of plantations to the cooly who works at coffee-picking; +from the Deputy Collector to the peon in his office." It is recorded, +in the Census Report, 1871, that a Vellala had passed the M.A. degree +examination of the Madras University. The occupations of the Vellalas +whom I examined in Madras were as follows:-- + + + Cart-driver. + Bricklayer. + Cooly. + Varnisher. + Painter. + Watchman. + Cultivator. + Gardener. + Compositor. + Railway fireman. + Peon. + Student. + + +In an excellent summary of the Vellalas [137] Mr. W. Francis writes +as follows. "By general consent, the first place in social esteem +among the Tamil Sudra castes is awarded to them. To give detailed +descriptions of the varying customs of a caste which numbers, as +this does, over two and a quarter millions, and is found all over +the Presidency, is unnecessary, but the internal construction of the +caste, its self-contained and distinct sub-divisions, and the methods +by which its numbers are enhanced by accretions from other castes, +are so typical of the corresponding characteristics of the Madras +castes, that it seems to be worth while to set them out shortly. + +"The caste is first of all split up into four main divisions, +named after the tract of country in which the ancestors of each +originally resided. These are (1) Tondamandalam, or the dwellers in +the Pallava country, the present Chingleput and North Arcot districts, +the titles of which division are Mudali, Reddi and Nainar; (2) Soliya +(or Sozhia), or men of the Chola country, the Tanjore and Trichinopoly +districts of the present day, the members of which are called Pillai; +(3) Pandya, the inhabitants of the Pandyan Kingdom of Madura and +Tinnevelly, which division also uses the title of Pillai; and (4) +Konga, or those who resided in the Konga country, which corresponded +to Coimbatore and Salem, the men of which are called Kavandans. The +members of all these four main territorial divisions resemble one +another in their essential customs. Marriage is either infant or +adult, the Puranic wedding ceremonies are followed, and (except among +the Konga Vellalas) Brahmans officiate. They all burn their dead, +observe fifteen days' pollution, and perform the karumantaram ceremony +to remove the pollution on the sixteenth day. There are no marked +occupational differences amongst them, most of them being cultivators +or traders. Each division contains both Vaishnavites and Saivites, and +(contrary to the rule among the Brahmans) differences of sect are not +of themselves any bar to intermarriage. Each division has Pandarams, +or priests, recruited from among its members, who officiate at funerals +and minor ceremonies, and some of these wear the sacred thread, while +other Vellalas only wear it at funerals. All Vellalas perform sraddhas +(memorial services), and observe the ceremony of invoking their +ancestors on the Mahalaya days (a piece of ritual which is confined +to the twice-born and the higher classes of Sudras); all of them +decline to drink alcohol or to eat in the houses of any but Brahmans; +and all of them may dine together. Yet no member of any of these four +main divisions may marry into another, and, moreover, each of them +is split into sub-divisions (having generally a territorial origin), +the members of which again may not intermarry. Thus Tondamandalam +are sub-divided into the Tuluvas, who are supposed to have come from +the Tulu country; the Poonamallee (or Pundamalli) Vellalas, so called +from the town of that name near Madras; and the Kondaikattis (those +who tie their hair in a knot without shaving it). None of these three +will intermarry. The Soliya Vellalas are sub-divided into the Vellan +Chettis, meaning the Vellala merchants (who are again further split +up into three or four other territorial divisions); the Kodikkals +(betel-garden), who grow the betel-vine; and the Kanakkilinattar, or +inhabitants of Kanakkilinadu. These three similarly may not intermarry, +but the last is such a small unit, and girls in it are getting so +scarce, that its members are now going to other sub-divisions for +their brides. The Pandya Vellalas are sub-divided into the Karkattas +or Karaikatus, who, notwithstanding the legends about their origin, +are probably a territorial sub-division named from a place called +Karaikadu; the Nangudis and Panjais, the origin of whom is not clear; +the Arumburs and Sirukudis, so called from villages of those names +in the Pandya country; the Agamudaiyans, who are probably recruits +from the caste of that name; the Nirpusis, meaning the wearers of the +sacred ashes; and the Kottai Vellalas or fort Vellalas. These last +are a small sub-division, the members of which live in Srivaikuntam +fort (in Tinnevelly), and observe the strictest gosha (seclusion +of females). Though they are, as has been seen, a sub-division of +a caste, yet their objection to marry outside their own circle is +so strong that, though they are fast dying out because there are so +few girls among them, they decline to go to the other sub-divisions +for brides. [See Kottai Vellala.] The Kongas are sub-divided into the +Sendalais (red-headed men), Paditalais (leaders of armies), Vellikkai +(the silver hands), Pavalamkatti (wearers of coral), Malaiyadi (foot +of the hills), Tollakadu (ears with big holes), Attangarais (river +bank), and others, the origin of none of which is clearly known, +but the members of which never intermarry. In addition to all these +divisions and sub-divisions of the Vellala caste proper, there are +nowadays many groups which really belong to quite distinct castes, +but which call themselves Vellalas, and pretend that they belong to +that caste, although in origin they had no connection with it. These +nominally cannot intermarry with any of the genuine Vellalas, +but the caste is so widely diffused that it cannot protect itself +against these invasions, and, after a few generations, the origin of +the new recruits is forgotten, and they have no difficulty in passing +themselves off as real members of the community. The same thing occurs +among the Nayars in Malabar. It may be imagined what a mixture of +blood arises from this practice, and how puzzling the variations in +the cranial measurements of Vellalas taken at random are likely to +become. Instances of members of other castes who have assumed the +name and position of the Vellalas are the Vettuva Vellalas, who are +really Vettuvans; the Puluva Vellalas, who are only Puluvans; the +Illam Vellalas, who are Panikkans; the Karaiturai (lord of the shore) +Vellalas, who are Karaiyans; the Karukamattai (palmyra leaf-stem) +Vellalas, who are Shanans; the Gazulu (bangle) Vellalas, who are +Balijas; the Guha (Rama's boat-man) Vellalas, who are Sembadavans; and +the Irkuli Vellalas, who are Vannans. The children of dancing-girls +also often call themselves Mudali, and claim in time to be Vellalas; +and even Paraiyans assume the title Pillai, and trust to its eventually +enabling them to pass themselves off as members of the caste." The +name Acchu Vellala has been assumed by some Karaiyans, and Pattanavans +call themselves Varunakula Vellala or Varunakula Mudali, after Varuna, +the god of the waters. At times of census, many hill Malayalis return +themselves as Vellalas, in accordance with their tradition that they +are Vellalas who migrated to the hills. Some thieving Koravas style +themselves Aghambadiar Vellala or Pillai, and have to some extent +adopted the dress and manners of the Vellalas. [138] In Travancore, +to which State some Vellalas have migrated, males of the Deva-dasi +(dancing-girl) caste sometimes call themselves Nanchinad +Vellalas. There is a Tamil proverb to the effect that a Kallan may come +to be a Maravan. By respectability he may develop into an Agamudaiyan, +and, by slow degrees, become a Vellala. According to another proverb, +the Vellalas are compared to the brinjal (Solanum Melongena) fruit, +which will mix palatably with anything. + +The account of the divisions and sub-divisions of the Vellalas recorded +above may be supplemented from various sources:-- + +1. Arampukutti, or Arambukatti (those who tie flower-buds). According +to Mr. J. A. Boyle, [139] the name indicates Vellalas with wreaths of +the aram flower, which is one of the decorations of Siva. They are, +he writes, "a tribal group established in a series of villages in +the Ramnad territory. The family tradition runs that they emigrated +five centuries ago from the Tondamandalam, and that the migration was +made in devendra vimanam or covered cars; and this form of vehicle +is invariably used in marriage ceremonies for the conveyance of the +bride and bridegroom round the village. The women never wear a cloth +above the waist, but go absolutely bare on breast and shoulders. The +two rivers which bound this district on the north and south are rigid +limits to the travels of the women, who are on no pretext allowed +to cross them. It is said that, if they make vows to the deity of a +celebrated temple in Tanjore, they have to perform their pilgrimage +to the temple in the most perfect secrecy, and that, if detected, +they are fined. Intermarriage is prohibited 'beyond the rivers.' It +is, with the men, a tradition never to eat the salt of the Sirkar +(Government), or take any service under Government." + +2. Chetti. The members of the Vellalan subdivision of Chetti are "said +to be pure Vellalas, who have taken the title of Chetti. In ancient +times, they had the prerogative of weighing the person of kings on +occasion of the Tulabharam ceremony. (See Tulabharam.) They were, +in fact, the trading class of the Tamil nation in the south. But, +after the immigration of the more skilful Telugu Komatis and other +mercantile classes, the hereditary occupation of the Vellan Chettis +gradually declined, and consequently they were obliged to follow +different professions. The renowned poet Pattanattar is said to have +belonged to this caste." [140] + +3. Karaikkat or Karkatta. The name is said to mean Vellalas who +saved or protected the clouds, or waiters for rain. Their original +profession is said to have been rain-making. Their mythological origin +is as follows. + +"In old times, a quarrel happened between the Raja of Pandya desa and +the god Devendra, and things went to such lengths that the angry god +commanded the clouds not to send down any rain on Pandya desa, so that +the inhabitants were sorely distressed by the severe drought, and laid +their complaints before the Raja, who flew into a rage, marched his +army against Devendra, defeated him in battle, seized on the clouds and +put them in prison, in consequence of which not a drop of rain fell on +any part of the Bhuloka or earthly world, which threw the people into +a great consternation, and the whole with one accord addressed their +prayers to Devendra, the god of the firmament, and beseeched him to +relieve them from their present distress. Devendra sent an ambassador +to the Raja of Pandya desa, and requested that he would release the +clouds, but he refused to do it unless they gave security for their +future good behaviour, and likewise promise that they would never again +withhold the rain from falling in due season on his kingdom. At this +juncture, the Vellal caste of Pandya desa became security for the +clouds, and, from that circumstance, were surnamed Karakava Vellal +Waru, or redeemers of the clouds." [141] In an interesting account +of the Karaikat Vellalas of the Palni hills by Lieutenant Ward +in 1824, [142] it is recorded that "their ceremonies, it is said, +are performed by Pandarams, although Brahmans usually officiate as +priests in their temples. They associate freely with the Kunnavans, +and can eat food dressed by them, as also the latter can eat food +dressed by a Karakat Vellalan. But, if a Kunnavan is invited to the +house of a Karakat Vellalan, he must not touch the cooking utensils, +or enter the cooking-room. Wives are accustomed, it is supposed, to +grant the last favor to their husband's relations. Adultery outside +the husband's family entails expulsion from caste, but the punishment +is practically not very severe, inasmuch as a Kunnavan can always +be found ready to afford protection and a home to the divorcée. A +man who disgraces himself by an illicit connection with a woman of +a lower caste than his own is punished in a similar manner. Formerly +the punishment was in either case death." It is recorded [143] that +"in 1824 the Karakat Vellalas were accustomed to purchase and keep +predial slaves of the Poleiya caste, giving thirty fanams for a male, +and fifty for a female. The latter was held to be the more valuable, +as being likely to produce children for the benefit of her owner." It +is said that, among the Karaikkat Vellalas, a peculiar ceremony, +called vilakkidu kalyanam, or the auspicious ceremony of lighting the +light, is performed for girls in the seventh or ninth year or later, +but before marriage. The ceremony consists in worshipping Ganesa +and the Sun at the house of the girls' parents. Her maternal uncle +gives her a necklace of gold beads and coral, and a new cloth. All the +relations, who are invited to be present, make gifts to the girl. The +women of this section wear this ornament, which is called kodachimani +(hooked jewel), even after marriage. + +4. Kondaikatti. Said [144] to consider themselves as the highest and +proudest of the Vellalas, because, during the Nabob's Government, +they were employed in the public service. They are extremely strict +in their customs, not allowing their women to travel by any public +conveyance, and punishing adultery with the utmost severity. + +Kondaikatti literally means one who ties his hair in a knob on the top +of his head, but the name is sometimes derived from kondai, a crown, +in connection with the following legend. A quarrel arose between +the Komatis and Vellalas, as to which of them should be considered +Vaisyas. They appeared before the king, who, being unable to decide the +point at issue, gave each party five thousand rupees, and told them +to return after trading for five years. The Vellalas spent one-fifth +of the sum which they received in cultivating land, while the Komatis +spent the whole sum in trading. At the end of the allotted time, the +Vellalas had a bumper crop of sugar-cane, and all the canes contained +pearls. The Komatis showed only a small profit. The king was so pleased +with the Vellalas, that he bestowed on them the right to crown kings. + +5. Kumbakonam. Vellalas, who migrated from Kumbakonam in the Tanjore +district to Travancore. + +6. Kummidichatti. Recorded, in the Manual of the North Arcot district, +as a sub-division, regarded as low in position, which carried the pot +(chatti) of fire at Vellala funerals. It is said that, in default of +Kummidichattis, ordinary Vellalas now have to carry their own fire +at funerals. + +7. Nangudi or Savalai Pillaimar. (See Nangudi.) + +8. Tendisai (southern country). They are found in the Coimbatore +district, and it has been suggested that they are only a branch of +the Konga Vellalas. + +9. Tenkanchi. Vellalas, who migrated from Tenkasi in the Tinnevelly +district to Travancore. (See Todupuzha Vellala.) + +10. Tuluva. Immigrants from the Tulu country, a part of the modern +district of South Canara. Mr. Nelson [145] is of opinion that these +are the original Vellalas, who were invited to Tondamandalam after +its conquest by the Chola King Adondai Chakravarti. They are now +found in all the Tamil districts, but are most numerous in North +and South Arcot and Chingleput. It is noted, in Carr's "Descriptive +and historical papers relating to the Seven Pagodas," that "Adondai +chiefly distinguished Kanchipuram (Conjeeveram) and Tripati as his +place of residence or capital. The era of Adondai is not higher up than +the seventh century of our reckoning. He is said to have brought the +Brahmans from Sri Sailam in Telingana, and certainly attracted a large +colony of Sudra Vellalas, or agriculturists, from Tuluva or northern +Canara." At Conjeeveram, there are a Nattar and a Desayi, whose +authority, in olden times, extended over the whole Presidency. The +Nattar must be a Tuluva Vellala, and the Desai a Ralla Balija. The +two offices conjointly are known as the Nadu Desam. The authority +of these officers has in great measure ceased, but some still go +to the Nadu Desam for appeal. For purposes of caste organisation, +Conjeeveram is regarded as the head-quarters. All sections of the +Tondamandalam Vellalas are divided into twenty-four kottams and +seventy-nine nadus. The latter are subject to the former. + +The following legendary account of the Tondamandalam Vellalas is +given in the Baramahal Records. "During the reign of a certain Raja of +Choladesa, a kingdom supposed to have comprised the present provinces +south of the river Kaveri, the countries between the Kistna and +Kaveri were quite a wilderness, in which many families of the Kurbavar +caste or shepherds resided here and there in villages surrounded by +mud walls. On a time, the Raja came forth into the wilds to take the +diversion of hunting, and, in traversing the woods, he came to a place +in the vicinity of the present town of Conjeeveram in the Kingdom +of Arcot, where he met with a Naga Kanya or celestial nymph, fell in +love with her, and asked her to yield to his embraces. She replied, +'If I consent to your proposal, and bear you a son, will you make him +your successor in the kingdom?' He rejoined 'I will,' and she asked +him who should witness his promise. He answered 'the earth and sky,' +but she said that two witnesses were not sufficient, and that there +must be a third. There happened to be a tree called adhonda near them, +and the Raja replied 'Let the fruit of this adhonda tree be the third +witness.' When she was satisfied respecting the witnesses, she granted +the Raja his desires, and, after he had remained with her a short time, +he took his leave, and returned to his metropolis, and, in a little +while, abdicated his throne in favour of his eldest son, who managed +the affairs of the kingdom. To return to the Naga Kanya, she conceived +and brought forth a son, who remained with her three or four years, +and then visited the different Rishis or hermits who resided in the +forest, and learnt from them to use the sword, the bow and arrow, +and the art of war, and obtained from them a knowledge of the whole +circle of sciences. By this time he had attained the age of sixteen +years, and, coming to his mother, he requested her to tell him who was +his father. She answered 'Thy father is the Chola Raja.' He replied +'I will go to him, but who is to bear witness to the truth of your +assertion?' She rejoined 'The earth, sky, and the fruit of the adhonda +tree are witness to what I have told you.' The son plucked one of the +berries of the adhonda tree, hung it by a string to his neck, took +his sword and other weapons, and set out for his father's capital. He +one day took an opportunity of accompanying some of the nobles to the +darbar, and called out to the old Raja 'Behold your son.' The Raja +replied 'I know nothing of thee;' upon which the young man repeated +everything which his mother had told him, but it had no effect on +the Raja. When the son found that his father was determined not to +acknowledge him he challenged him to single combat, but the Raja, not +thinking it proper to accept a challenge from a rash youth, demanded +if he had any witnesses to prove his claim. He answered 'The earth and +sky, and the fruit of the adhonda tree, which I wear suspended from my +neck, are witnesses to the truth of my assertion.' This circumstance +brought the old occurrence to the Raja's recollection, and he owned +his son, and told him that, as he had already abdicated the throne, +he trusted he would not insist upon the fulfilling of the promise +which had been made to his mother, but consent to live in a private +station under the dominion of his elder half-brother. The young man +nobly replied 'I with pleasure waive the performance of your promise, +but point out to me your enemy, and assist me with some troops, +and I will conquer a kingdom for myself.' The Raja gave him an army, +and directed him to subdue the Kurubavaru or shepherds, to clear the +woods, and to form himself a kingdom between the rivers Kistna and +Kaveri. He accordingly advanced into the wilderness, and, without +meeting much opposition, soon subjected the Kurubavaru, who, knowing +nothing of cultivation or sinking of tanks or watering the country +from the rivers, and the conqueror wishing to introduce agriculture +among them, he was obliged to repair to his father, and make known +his difficulties. The Raja was much pleased with the enterprising +spirit of his son, conferred on him the title of Adhonda Chakra, +wrote and permitted him to take with him such of the Vellala caste +as chose to emigrate. The young Raja held out great encouragement, +and got a number of adventurers of that caste to accompany him back, +to whom he gave large grants of waste land, and told them to pitch upon +such spots of ground as met with their approbation, and they fixed upon +the forts, districts, and villages belonging to the Kurubavaru caste, +which consisted of twenty-four forts, eighty-one districts, and one +thousand and nine hundred villages. This country was formerly named +Dandaka Aranya. Dandaka is the name of a famous Rakshasa or Giant, +who is mentioned in the Ramayana, and Aranya signifies a wilderness. It +was also called Dhuntra Nadu, or the middle country, and the new Raja +named it Dhanda Mandalam, or country of the tree dhonda, alluding +to the fruit of the adhonda or dhonda tree, which bore testimony to +his descent. The emigrants of the Vellala caste surnamed themselves +Dhonda Mandala Vellala varu, and are now corruptly called Tondamandala +Vellala varu." + +In connection with the sub-divisions of the Vellalas, Mr. Hemingway, +in a note on the Vellalas of the Trichinopoly district, gives some +still further information. "The Kondaikattis are so-called from +the peculiar way in which they used to wear their hair--a custom no +longer observed. They are split into two sections, called Melnadu +and Kilnadu (westerns and easterns). The Dakshinattans (south country +men) are immigrants from Tinnevelly. The members of the Karaikkattar +sub-division in the Udaiyarpalaiyam taluk are rather looked down +on by other Vellalans as being a mixed race, and are also somewhat +contemptuously called Yeruttu-mattu (pack-bullocks), because, in +their professional calling, they formerly used pack-bullocks. They +have a curious custom by which a girl's maternal uncle ties a tali +(marriage badge) round her neck when she is seven or eight years +old. The Panjukkara Chettis live in the Udaiyarpalaiyam taluk. The +name is an occupational one, and denotes cotton-men, but they are not +at the present day connected with the cotton trade. The Solapuram +(or Cholapuram) Chettis are apparently called after the village +of that name in the Kumbakonam taluk of Tanjore. The Solias (or +Cholias) are numerous and ubiquitous. They are generally regarded +as of doubtful descent, since parvenus, who wish to be considered +Vellalans, usually claim to belong to this sub-division. The more +respectable Pandarams, the Thambirans who own temples and matams, and +the Oduvar or Adi Saival, belong to the Sozhia section. The Uttunattu +sub-division is local in origin. Its head-quarters is the country round +Uttatur. The members thereof are the special devotees of the Siva of +that place. The Arunattus (six nadus) are also called Mottai (shaved) +Vellalans, apparently because they always shave their moustache, +and wear only a very small kudumi (hair-knot). Some of their customs +are unlike those of the rest of the caste. They have exogamous septs, +their widows always dress in white and wear no ornaments (a rule not +universally observed in any other sub-division), they never marry +their sister's daughter, and their wives wear the tali (marriage +badge), like the Panta Reddis, on a golden thread. Of their six nadus, +three of which are supposed to have been located on each side of the +Aiyar river, only two are now recognised. These are the Serkudi nadu +in Namakkal taluk and the Omandur nadu of Musiri. The Yelur (seven +villages) Vellalas are very few and far between. There is a small +colony of Tuluvas, engaged in dyeing, at Illuppur. The Malaikandas +are only found near the Ratnagiri hill in the Kulittalai taluk. They +take their name from the fact that they are required to look at the +Ratnagiri hill when they get up in the morning. They are devotees +of the god there. The Kaniyalans (landowners) are scarce, but widely +distributed, since the man who carries the pot of blood, when animals +are sacrificed at festivals to the village goddesses, must belong to +this sub-division. The Kodikkal Vellalans are so-called from their +occupation of betel cultivation, which they still pursue largely." + +The Konga Vellalas differ so strikingly from the rest in many of their +customs that a separate account of them is given. (See Konga Vellala.) + +It is noted by Mr. Hemingway that some Vellalas "observe a curious +custom (derived from Brahmans) with regard to marriage, which is not +unknown among other communities. A man marrying a second wife after +the death of his first has to marry a plantain tree, and cut it down +before tying the tali, and, in the case of a third marriage, a man +has to tie a tali first to the erukkan (arka: Calotropis gigantea) +plant. The idea is that second and fourth wives do not prosper, +and the tree and the plant are accordingly made to take their places." + +A peculiar ceremony, called Sevvai (Tuesday) Pillayar, is performed +by some Vellala women. It is also called Avvai Nonbu, because the +Tamil poetess observed it. The ceremony takes place twice in the +year, on a Tuesday in the months of Thai (February-March) and Audi +(August-September). It is held at midnight, and no males, even babies +in arms, may be present at it, or eat the cakes which are offered. A +certain number of women club together, and provide the necessary rice, +which is measured on the back of the hand, or in a measure similar to +those used by Madras milk-sellers, in which the bottom is fixed high up +in the cylinder. At the house where the ceremony is to be performed the +rice is pounded into flour, and mixed with leaves of Pongamia glabra +and margosa (Melia Azadirachta). The mixture is then made into cakes, +some flat, and some conical, to represent Pillayar (Ganesa). Flowers, +fruits, betel, turmeric, combs, kunkumam (red powder), and other +articles required in connection with the Pillayar worship, are also +taken to the room in which the rites are performed. Of these it has +been impossible to gather an account, as the women refused to describe +them, lest ruin should fall on their families. Some say that, during +the ceremony, the women are stark-naked. + +In an account of an annual ceremony at Trichinopoly in connection +with the festival of Kulumai Amman, who is the guardian deity against +epidemics, Bishop Whitehead records [146] that "a very fat pujari +(priest) of the Vellala caste is lifted up above the vast crowd on +the arms of two men. Some two thousand kids are then sacrificed, one +after the other. The blood of the first eight or nine is collected +in a large silver vessel holding about a quart, and handed up to +the pujari, who drinks it. Then, as the throat of each kid is cut, +the animal is handed up to him, and he sucks, or pretends to suck +the blood out of the carcase." + +Of proverbs relating to the Vellalas, the following may be cited:-- + +Agriculture is no agriculture, unless it is performed by the Vellalas. + +The Vellala ruined himself by gaudy dress; the courtesan ruined +herself by coquetry and affectation. + +Of all the sections of the Sudras, the Vellala is foremost; and, +of all the thefts committed in the world, those of the Kallans are +most notorious. + +Though you may face an evil star, never oppose a Vellala. + +Though apparently the Vellala will not ruin you, the palm leaf, +on which he writes about you, will certainly ruin you for ever. + +In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Vellala is recorded as a caste +of Jains. In this connection, it is noted by Mr. Hemingway that the +Nainans or Nayinars (q.v.) and the Karaikkattans of the Udaiyarpalaiyam +taluk are thought to be descended from Jains who were converted to +the Hindu faith. + +Vellan Chetti.--A name, denoting Vellala merchant, taken by some +Vellalas. + +Velli (silver).--See Belli. + +Velnati.--A sub-division of Kapu, named after the old Velnadu division +of the Telugu country. + +Veloma.--Defined as "one of the two classes of Sudras, viz., Anuloma +and Veloma. The term Veloma is applied to those born of a lower caste +male and higher caste female." + +Veluttedan.--The Veluttedan is defined in the Madras Census Report, +1891, as "the washerman of the Nayars and higher castes in Malabar. He +calls himself a Nayar, and, in many cases, was returned as of that +main caste, but these have been separated in abstraction. The caste +is called Vannattan in North Malabar. The Veluttedans follow the +marumakkatayam law of inheritance in the north, and makkatayam in the +south. They have tali-kettu and sambandham separately. Their dress +and habits are the same as those of Nayars." In the Madras Census +Report, 1901, Bannata is given as a Canarese synonym for the caste +name. In the Travancore and Cochin Census Reports, 1901, Veluttetan +and Veluthedan are given respectively as an occupational title and +sub-division of Nayars. + +For the following note on the Veluttedans of Travancore, I am indebted +to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The name is believed to signify a place +where clothes are bleached. In the early Settlement Records the +designation recorded is Ayavu, in all probability an old synonym for +washing. The South Travancore Veluttedans are said to be divided into +two endogamous septs, Paravur and Attingal, with four exogamous septs +in each; but these distinctions may be said to have now lost their +vigour and force. There is a current tradition that once upon a time +a Brahman was washing cloths for a friend, and was on that account +thrown out of caste by Parasurama. The occupation of the Veluttedans +is washing cloths for all high-caste Hindus down to the Sudras, in +which profession, for neatness and purity at any rate, if not for +promptitude, they stand above the Vannans and Chayakkarans of the +east coast, both of whom have now entered the field in competition +with them, and, at least in the most civilised parts of the State, +not entirely without success. In no case do the castemen receive +cloths from classes lower in social rank than the Sudras, and this +is pointed to with pride as one of the causes which keep them in +their present elevated scale. It need hardly be said that, in their +traditional occupation, the Veluttedans are largely and materially +assisted by their females, the Veluttedathis. They do not live in a +group together, but are conveniently scattered about, so as to avoid +competition one with another. Their main profession is, in many cases, +supplemented by agriculture. There are absolutely no educated men +among them, and, as long as machine-laundries are not introduced +into the country, they have no reason to abandon the profession of +their forefathers in pursuit of alien ones. In the matter of food +and drink, as also in their dress and ornaments, they resemble the +Nayars. Clothes, it may be mentioned, are never bought by Veluttedans, +as they are always in possession, though temporarily, of other peoples' +apparel. Tattooing prevails only in South Travancore. They cannot enter +Brahmanical shrines, but are permitted to stand outside the talakkal +or stone-paved walk round the inner sanctuary, by which the image is +taken in daily procession. Besides standing here and worshipping the +higher Hindu deities, they also engage in the propitiation of the +minor village deities. There are two headmen in each village, who +punish social delinquents, and preside over caste ceremonials. On the +twenty-eighth day after the birth of a child, the name-giving ceremony +is performed, and a thread is tied round the infant's neck. Those +who can afford it celebrate the first food-giving. The tali-tying +and sambandham ceremonies are performed separately, just like +Nayars. The former is known as muhurtham or auspicious occasion. The +marriage badge is called unta minnu or puliyilla minnu. The details +of the marriage ceremony do not differ from those of the Nayars. The +ayani unu, bhutakkalam, appam poli, and avaltitti are all important +items, and, at least in South Travancore, seldom failed to be gone +through. In poor families the mother, without any formal ceremonial, +ties the tali of the girl before she is twelve years old, after an +oblation of cooked food to the rising sun. This is called Bhagavan +tali, or god's marriage ornament. Freedom of divorce and remarriage +exist. The pulikuti (tamarind) is an indispensable ceremonial, to be +gone through by a pregnant woman. Inheritance devolves in the female +line (marumakkattayam). The clothes washed by Veluttedans are used by +Nambutiri Brahmans, without previous washing as on the east coast, for +all religious purposes; and clothes polluted by a member of a low caste +are purified by the Veluttedan sprinkling ashes and water over them. + +Vemu (margosa or nim: Melia Azadirachta).--An exogamous sept of +Muka Dora. + +Vengai Puli (cruel-handed tiger).--An exogamous section of Kallan. + +Veralu Iche Kapulu or Velu Iche Kapulu (those who dedicate their +fingers).--See Morasu. + +Veshya (Sansk: Beshya).--A name denoting prostitute, applied to +dancing-girls. + +Vetagiri.--A Tamil class found in the Chingleput district. The members +thereof are employed in hunting, cultivation, and the manufacture of +wild date baskets. Their title is Nayakan. + +Vettaikaran (hunter).--An occupational name of Boyas, Irulas, and +Koravas, returned at times of census. + +Vettile (betel vine: Piper Betle).--A kothu or tree of Kondaiyamkotti +Maravans. + +Vettiyan.--Vettiyan is the name applied to one of the officials of +a Tamil Paraiyan settlement, who is also called Toti or Thotti. The +former title is said to be more respectful as an appellation than +the latter, but this is a distinction without a difference. [147] +The name Vettiyan is said to be equivalent to Bittiyan (bitti, for +nothing), or one who does service, e.g., collecting grass, firewood, +etc., without remuneration. Toti is derived from thott, to go round, +as he is the purveyor of news, and has to summon people to appear +before the village tribunal, or from tondu, to dig. + +The duties of the Vettiyan are multifarious. He it is who goes round +the rice fields, and diverts the water-courses to the various fields, +according to the rights of the ryots (agriculturists). The Vettiyan +beats the drum for public notices and ceremonies. As a servant of +Government, he has to carry the revenue which has been collected to +the treasury. He is sometimes entrusted with large sums of money, and +has never been known to abscond with it. It is said that the Village +Munsiff will trust the Vettiyan, but not the Taliari, who is never +sent alone with money. The Vettiyan is in charge of the burial ground, +and those who repair thither have to pay him for his services. He is +also the grave-digger, and officiates when a Paraiyan corpse is burnt +or buried. Hence the Tamil proverb against meddling in what ought +to be left to some one else:--"Let the Vettiyan and corpse struggle +together." At a Paraiyan funeral, the Vettiyan, in some places, carries +the pot of fire to the grave. To bring down rain, some of the lower +classes, instead of addressing their prayers to the rain-god Varuna, +try to induce a spirit or devata named Kodumpavi (wicked one) to send +her paramour Sukra to the affected area. The belief seems to be that +Sukra goes away to his concubine for about six months, and, if he does +not return, drought ensues. The ceremony consists in making a huge +figure of Kodumpavi in clay, which is placed on a cart, and dragged +through the streets for seven to ten days. On the last day, the final +death ceremonies of the figure are celebrated. It is disfigured, +especially in those parts which are usually concealed. Vettiyans, +who have been shaved, accompany the figure, and perform the funeral +ceremonies. This procedure is believed to put Kodumpavi to shame, +and to get her to induce Sukra to return and stay the drought. + +At Paraiyan marriages certain pots are worshipped, and it is, in some +places, the Vettiyan who says "The sun, the moon, the pots, and the +owner of the girl have come to the marriage booth. So make haste, +and fill the pots with water." + +The office of the Vettiyan village official is hereditary, and the +holder of it is entitled to some respect among his brethren, and to +certain emoluments in kind, e.g., grain at the harvest season. There +is a proverb that "whatever may be the wealth of the lord who comes +to rule over him, his duty of supplying him with a bundle of grass +is not to cease." This relates to the demands which were, and perhaps +are still, made on him in rural parts of the country. In some places, +lands, called Vettiyan Maniyam, are given rent-free to Vettiyans. + +The Vettiyan is said to possess the right of removing dead cattle from +villages, and in return to supply leather for agricultural purposes. He +is further said to make drum heads and tom-toms from raw hides. [148] + +The Vettiyans belong to the right-hand section during disputes between +the right and left hand factions. + +Vettuvan.--The Tamil Vettuvans are described, in the Madras Census +Report, 1901, as "an agricultural and hunting caste, found mainly in +Salem, Coimbatore, and Madura. The name means 'a hunter.' They are +probably of the same stock as the Vedans, though the exact connection +is not clear, but they now consider themselves superior to that caste, +and are even taking to calling themselves Vettuva Vellalas. Tradition +says that the Konga kings invited Vettuvans from the Chola and Pandya +countries to assist them against the Keralas. Another story says that +the caste helped the Chola king Aditya Varma to conquer the Kongu +country during the latter part of the ninth century. In paragraph 538 +of the Census Report, 1891, reference is made to the belief that the +Vedans are identical with the Veddahs of Ceylon. In connection with +this supposition, it is reported that the Vettuvans worship a goddess +called Kandi-Amman, which may possibly mean 'the goddess of Kandy' (in +Ceylon). Of the endogamous sections into which the caste is divided, +the most numerically important are Venganchi, Kilangu (root), Pasari, +Viragu (firewood), Pannadai (sheath of the cocoanut leaf), and Villi +(bow). They have their own barbers, who seem also to form a separate +sub-division, and are called Vettuva Ambattans or Navidans, both of +which words mean barber. They are said to refuse to serve any one +lower than a Konga Vellala. Nominally they are Hindus, but they are +said to worship the seven Kannimars, or aboriginal goddesses, to whom +the Irulas also pay homage. They eat meat and drink alcohol, though +some of those who are endeavouring to increase their social repute +are taking to vegetarianism. Widow marriage is forbidden. They either +burn or bury the dead, but no ceremonies are performed for deceased +ancestors. Their customs are thus a curious mixture of those followed +by high castes and low ones. Their ordinary title is Kavandan." + +Of the Malayalam Vettuvans, who live in Malabar and the southern +portion of the South Canara district, it is recorded, in the Madras +Census Report, 1901, that they are "agricultural serfs, shikaris +(hunters), and collectors of forest produce, who live in the Malabar +jungles. They have two endogamous sub-divisions, called Kodi and +Peringala. The former keep their hair long, and their women wear a +cloth. The latter have top-knots, and their women dress in leaves, +which they wear only round their waists, and renew daily. The latter +are an unclean set of people, who live in rude bamboo and reed huts, +and will eat anything down to carrion. Yet they consider themselves +superior to Cherumans and Pulaiyans, and are careful not to be +polluted by them. This same name is also borne by a class of masons +and salt-workers in the low country in Malabar." + +The Malabar Vettuvans are said to have a fantastic legend, showing that +they were not originally as low as they are at the present day in the +social scale. "It is related that one of their tribe went and asked a +high-caste Nayar to give him a daughter in marriage. The Nayar offered +to do so on condition that the whole tribe would come to his place +and dance on berries, each one who fell to be shot with arrows. The +tribe foolishly agreed to the condition, and went and danced, with the +result that, as each one tripped and fell, he or she was mercilessly +shot dead with arrows. A little girl who survived this treatment was +secretly rescued, and taken away by a compassionate Nayar, who married +her into his family. From this union, the present day Vettuvans affirm +their origin is to be traced. Up to this day they hold the caste of +that particular Nayar in very great veneration." [149] The costume of +these Vettuvans has been described as follows. [150] "The men wear a +short loin-cloth, secured round the waist by a belt which is also used +as a sling during hunting expeditions. They also wear brass ear-rings, +and grow a bit of moustache, and a little stumpy beard. The dress of +the women consists of three clusters of long leaves, suspended from +the waist and tied on by a cheap girdle. According to a tribal legend, +when, in the morning of time, costumes were being distributed by the +deity to the various races of the earth, the Vettuva women, being +asked to choose between a costume which needed to be changed daily, +and one which needed to be changed only yearly, readily expressed +a preference for the former, and the deity, considering this an +unpardonable piece of vanity, decreed that thenceforth the women +should dress in leaves gathered fresh every morning. Whenever it is +suggested to them that they should adopt some more lasting apparel, +the Vettuva women answer that they are carrying out the mandate of +the deity, and can abandon their present dress only if the deity +appears in person, and sanctions a change." + +On the occasion of a recent visit of the Governor of Madras to South +Canara, a party of Vettuvans was paraded before him. One of the men +was wearing an aluminium coronation medal, and, on being asked by the +Collector who had given it to him, he folded his arms obsequiously, +and replied 'My Tamburan' (landlord). + +In a recent note on the leaf-wearing Vettuvans, it is stated that +"they believe that the sun travels, after it has set, through a hole +in the bowels of the earth, and emerges at morning in the east. The +way they calculate time is interesting. A Vettuvan says that his +children were born when his master sowed paddy (rice) on such and +such hills. They are a very truthful lot, of good moral character, +the chastity of their womankind being held very sacred." + +The Malabar Vettuvans are summed up by Mr. T. K. Gopal Panikkar [151] +as being "not exactly slaves, but their social position justifies their +classification amongst the slave races. They live on the cocoanut +plantations of the Nairs, and other well-to-do classes. They lead a +hand-to-hand existence on the wages which they obtain for hedging and +fencing cocoanut plantations, plucking cocoanuts, tilling, and other +allied work. They live, with their wives and children, and sometimes +other relations as well, in houses small but more decent-looking +than the mere huts of the other lower classes. In point of caste +restrictions they are certainly better circumstanced; and their +daily contact with the higher classes in the ordinary concerns +of life affords them greater facilities for increased knowledge +and civilisation than their brother citizens of the slave races +enjoy. They are much addicted to toddy-drinking, but their principal +food is rice. Their condition is never so intolerably wretched as that +of the other classes. They are sometimes employed by cultivators for +agricultural purposes. Their females occupy themselves in the fields +during the harvest season, but they also make thatch for houses of +cocoanut leaves woven after a set model during the thatching season +about December or January. Their males wear ear-rings of brass, and +their females adorn themselves with nose, finger, and neck ornaments +of brass or beads. The one piece of cloth supplied annually by the +masters, to whose plantations they are attached, forms the dress both +for males and females, which they tie round their waists. They do +not eat carrion, but are exceedingly fond of fish, the flesh of the +civet, and the rat, and of some other animals not generally eaten by +other classes. They observe death pollution like the higher classes +of Malabar, and the period of observance varies according to the +particular class or caste, to which their masters belong. For instance, +if they belong to a Nair's plantation, such period is fifteen days, +and, if to a Brahmin's, it is ten days; Nairs and Brahmins observing +pollution for these periods respectively. The priests who officiate +at their ceremonials are selected from among their own tribesmen or +Enangers, whose express recognition is necessary to give validity +to the performance of the ceremony. Their marriage customs are very +like those of the Tiyyars, excepting that the feasting and revelry +are not so pompous in their case. Like the Nairs, they retain the +front knot. The only offences of general occurrence among them are +petty cases of theft of cocoanuts, plantains, areca nuts, and roots +of common occurrence. The Vettuvans believe in a Supreme Creator, +whom they name and invoke as Paduchathampuram, i.e., the king who +created us. Likewise, they believe in certain evil deities, to whom +they make offerings at particular times of the year. They are not, +like the other classes, distinguished by loyalty to their masters, +but are a very ungrateful sect, and their very name, viz., Nambu +Vettuvan, has passed into a bye-word for ingratitude of all kinds." + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "the Vettuvans of +Chirakkal taluk are a low caste of jungle cultivators and basket +makers, distinguished by the survival amongst their women of the +custom of dressing in leaves, their only clothing being a kind +of double fan-shaped apron of leaves tied round the waist with a +rolled cloth. They live in huts made of split bamboo and thatched +with elephant grass, called kudumbus. The Vettuvans are divided +into fourteen illams, which seem to be named after the house names +of the janmis (landlords) whom they serve. Their headmen, who are +appointed by their janmis, are called Kiran, or sometimes Parakutti +(drummer). Amongst the Vettuvans, when labour begins, the woman is put +in a hole dug in a corner of the hut, and left there alone with some +water till the cry of the child is heard." For the following note on +the Vettuvans of the Cochin State, I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha +Krishna Aiyar. [152] + +"The Vettuvans are also called Vettuva Pulayas. They are pure +agricultural labourers, taking part in every kind of work connected +with agriculture, such as ploughing, sowing, weeding, transplanting, +pumping water, and reaping. They are more day labourers. The males +get two edangazhis of paddy (hardly worth 2 annas), and the females +an edangazhi and a half. In times of scarcity, they find it difficult +to support themselves. + +"When an unmarried woman becomes pregnant, her parents, as soon as +they become aware of the fact, inform their local headman (Kanakkan +or Kuruppan), who convenes a meeting of the elderly members of +the community for the purpose of summoning the secret lover, and +prosecuting the necessary enquiries. In the event of the confession +of the charge, he is asked to marry her. The matter does not end +there. They go to the local Thandan, and relate to him the incident, +who thereupon gives him water in a vessel (kindi vellam). The woman +is asked to drink this as well as some cow-dunged water, and is then +made to let flow a few drops of blood from the body. After this he +says 'dhosham thirnu' (free from guilt). Should, however, the lover +be unwilling to marry her, he is thrashed and placed under a ban. If +they are related to each other, they are both turned out of caste. The +woman who is freed from guilt can marry again. The Thandan gets as +his perquisite four annas out of the fine imposed, four packets of +betel leaf, eight areca nuts, and three tobacco leaves. Their headman +also has a share of the fine, etc. The balance which then remains is +spent on toddy, and beaten rice for those assembled. + +"The Vettuvans profess the lower forms of Hinduism. Their chief gods +are Chevva, Chathan, Karinkutti, Parakutti, Kappiri and Kandakaranan, +and also Namburi Thamburan. They give regular offerings to them, +lest the gods should become angry, and cause serious calamities to the +members of their families. Images of gods are made of bell-metal, and +worshipped in their huts. The deceased ancestors are also worshipped +as gods, to whom are given a different kind of offerings. Toddy is +an indispensable item in their offerings to them. In Ooragam and +its neighbourhood, when I took my notes on the Vettuvans, I was told +that there was no tree-tapping, and that toddy brought to them for +sale was largely adulterated with water, and very costly. Their +gods were very angry, for they were not satisfied with it. They +caused fever, deafness, blindness, and other disorders. They worship +Kali also. Kumbhom Bharani is an important festival to them. On the +morning of this day, tunes are played in honour of the goddess. There +are special songs called Thottampattu. Sacrifices are offered to the +deity very early. A puja (worship) is also performed for the sword, +anklets, and bells worn round the loins, all placed in front of the +deity, and songs are again sung. One of them turns a Velichchapad +(oracle), who speaks as if by inspiration. Wearing the above ornaments, +they go to a temple, in front of which they empty out on a mat a few +paras of paddy, and again play and sing. + +"The funeral ceremonies of the Vettuvans are somewhat elaborate. When +a member of the caste breathes his last, his relations, friends, +and other castemen of the kara (settlement) are all informed of +the event. They attend, and take part in the obsequies. The dead +body is bathed, and dressed in a piece of new cloth. Some gold, +rubbed on a stone in water, is poured into his mouth by his sons +and daughters. Karuvanguka, or Gurutvam Vanguka, is an important +ceremony performed by his sons and daughters. It consists in taking +sixteen small bits of plantain leaves, with some rice on each, and +placing them on the forehead, neck, chest, loins, thighs, hands, +legs, feet, etc., washing the last two, and collecting the water, +which is taken in by the members junior to him in the family. After +this, the dead body is placed on the bier, which is carried by four +persons to the grave. The nearest relatives of the family, four in +number, called Bhedakars, with a mundu (cloth) tied round their heads, +walk in front of the procession. The grave is dug, and a new cloth +is spread, and the corpse laid on it. It is filled in with layers of +earth and stones, to prevent dogs and jackals from disturbing the +dead body. All those who have accompanied the chief mourner bathe, +and return home. The members of the family fast for the night. The +eldest son, who is the chief mourner, bathes in the early morning, +and offers the pinda bali (offering of rice) to the spirit of the +departed for fifteen days. On the seventh day, the chief mourner, +and the Enangan, go to the graveyard, and level the slightly raised +part of the grave. A piece of stone, kept near the foot, is taken, +and placed on a leaf. Some toddy, arrack (alcoholic liquor) and water +of the tender cocoanut, are poured over it as offerings. By some +magic, the spirit is supposed to be living in it. It is brought home, +and placed in a cocoanut shell containing oil mixed with turmeric, +and kept outside the hut until the pollution is over. The pollution +lasts for fifteen days, and on the night of the fifteenth day +they fast. On the morning of the sixteenth day, all the castemen +of the kara who are invited bring with them rice, curry-stuffs, +and toddy. Rubbing themselves with oil, they all go to bathe, after +which the Enangan sprinkles cowdunged water, to show that they are +freed from pollution. The stone is also purified by a dip in water, +and then brought home. Those who have assembled are fed, and then +depart. The chief mourner, who has to perform the diksha, does not +shave for a year, bathes in the early morning, and offers the bali +before going to work. This he continues for a year, at the end of +which he gets himself shaved, and celebrates a feast called masam +in honour of the departed. The stone, representing the deceased, is +placed on a seat in a conspicuous part of the hut. An image of wood or +copper sometimes takes its place. It is thenceforward worshipped, and +believed to watch over the welfare of the family. Regular offerings +are given to it on Karkadagom and Thulam Sankranthi, Onam, Vishu, +and the festival day of the local temple. + +"The castes below the Vettuvans are Pulayan, Nayadi, and Ullatan. They +consider themselves superior to Pulayas, and are careful not to be +polluted by them. A Vettuvan who is polluted by a Nayadi or Ulladan +fasts for seven days, subsisting on water, tender cocoanuts, and +toddy. On the eighth day he bathes, and takes his regular meals. As the +Vettuvans are Chandalars, any distance less than sixty-four feet will +pollute the higher castes. They stand at a distance of twenty-four feet +from Kammalar. Nayadis and Ullatans stand far from them. Owing to their +disabilities and low wages, many turn either Christians or Muhammadans, +and work for wages of two and a half to three annas a day." + +There is a class of people in Malabar called Vettan or Vettuvan, which +must not be confused with the jungle Vettuvan. These people were, it +is said, [153] "once salt-makers, and are now masons, earth-workers, +and quarrymen. They are said to be divided into two classes, the +marumakkattayam (with inheritance in the female line) regarded as +indigenous to Malabar, and the makkattayam (with inheritance from +father to son), said to be immigrants from the south." + +Vibhaka Gunta.--Recorded in the Madras Census Report as "a low class of +wandering beggars; clubbed with Mala." Some Malas in the Vizagapatam +district possess gunta manyams, or petty fields, and supplement their +income by begging. + +Vignesvara.--A synonym for the elephant god Ganesa, which occurs as +a gotra of Nagaralu. The equivalent Vinayaka is a gotra of Medara. + +Vilkurup.--The Vilkuruppu or Vilkollakuruppu are the priests and +barbers of the Malayalam Kammalans, and also makers of umbrellas +and bows (vil) and arrows. In former times they supplied the latter +articles for the Malabar Infantry. Malabar and Travancore are, par +excellence, the home of the palm-leaf umbrella, which still holds +its own against umbrellas of European manufacture, which were, in +1904-1905, imported into India to the value of Rs. 18,95,064. A native +policeman, protecting himself from the sun with a long-handled palm +umbrella, is a common object in towns and villages on the west coast. + +Concerning the Vilkurups of the Cochin State, Mr. L. K. Anantha +Krishna Aiyar writes as follows. [154] "In former times, their +occupations were training low caste men to arms and athletic feats, +to use sticks in fighting, and also to the use of bows and arrows, and +pial school teaching. In these days of civilisation, their services +are no longer required for these purposes, and they are employed +in shampooing, umbrella making, and quarrying laterite stones for +building purposes. In Nayar families, during tali-tying ceremonies, +they have to give a bow and a few arrows. During the Onam festival +also, they have to give a bow and arrows to every Nayar house, for +which they get some paddy (rice), curry stuffs, a cocoanut, and some +oil. When they are called in for shampooing, three oils are well +boiled, and cooled. The patient lies on a plank, oil is poured over +him, and every part of his body is well shampooed, and afterwards +he is bathed in water boiled with medicinal herbs. The Vilkurups +eat at the hands of Brahmans, Nayars, Izhuvans, and Kammalans, but +abstain from taking the food of barbers, washermen, Panans, Kaniyans, +and other low castes. They have to stand at a distance of thirty-two +feet from Brahmans and Nayars. Pulayans and Parayans have to stand at a +great distance. They live in localities occupied by the Izhuvans. They +cannot approach the Brahman temples, but have to stand far away from +the outer wall. They are their own barbers and washermen." + +Villasan (bowmen).--A synonym of Malayalam Kammalans, who formerly +had to supply bows and arrows for the Travancore army. + +Villi.--Villi (bow) or Villiyan (bowmen) has been recorded as a synonym +of the Irulas of Chingleput. Villi also occurs as a sub-division of +Vettuvan, a hunting caste of the Tamil country. + +Villu Vedan (huntsmen using bows).--A synonym of Eravallar. + +Vilyakara.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a +sub-caste of Servegara or Kotegara." Vilyakara, Valekara and Olekara +are names indicating the occupation of a servant under Government or +a private individual. + +Vinka (white-ant: Termites).--An exogamous sept of Jatapu. + +Vipravinodi.--In a note on the Vipravinodis, Mr. C. Hayavadana +Rao writes that they are said to be the descendants of a Brahman +by a Lingayat woman. They are Lingayats, and are called Vipravinodi +because they perform acrobatic feats before Vipras, or Brahmans. They +generally travel about the country with their wives and children. One +of their favourite feats is throwing up three stone or wooden balls +in the air, and catching them, or rolling them over various parts +of the body. When they perform before a mixed audience, they call +themselves Naravidya varu, which is said to be an abbreviated form of +Narulu Mechche Vidyalu Chese varu, or those who perform feats which +men praise. The dead are buried in a sitting posture. + +Virabhadra.--A synonym of the Tamil washermen (Vannan), whose patron +deity is Virabhadra, from whom they claim descent. + +Viragu (firewood).--A sub-division of Vettuvan. + +Virakudiyan.--A synonym of Panisavans, who are engaged in blowing +the conch shell on ceremonial occasions. + +Virala (heroes).--An exogamous sept of Golla and Kapu. + +Vira Magali (a god).--An exogamous section of Kallan. + +Viramushti.--For the following account of the Viramushtis in the +Vizagapatam district, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. + +They are Lingayats, but do not, as a rule, wear the lingam, as it +is the custom to postpone initiation until death, when the linga is +tied on the corpse by a Jangam before it is buried. Those who are +initiated during life wear the linga suspended from the neck. The +Viramushtis seem to have several sub-divisions, e.g., Naga Mallika +(Rhinacanthus communis), the roots of which are believed to cure +snake-bite, Puccha Kaya (Citrullus Colocynthis), Triputa (Ipomoea +Turpethum), and Ramadosa (Cucumis Melo). + +Girls are married before or after puberty. The menarikam custom, +according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, +is observed. A voli (bride-price) of sixteen rupees, or half a tola +of gold, in the form of jewelry, is given to the bride. + +The Viramushtis are professional acrobats and mendicants, and are +attached to the Devangas and Komatis. The following legends are +current to account for their connection with these castes. In days +gone by, there was, in a big town, a great Lingayat mutt (monastery) +named Basavanna Mandiram, presided over by a Jangam priest named +Basavanna. The mutt contained three hundred crores of Lingayat priests, +and great wealth was stored in it. This the Viramushtis guarded against +thieves. A Telaga, Chikayya by name, who was a professional thief, +determined to plunder the mutt, in order to satisfy his mistress. One +night, when the Viramushtis were fast asleep, he entered the mutt, +but, when he saw a number of Jangams engaged in devout worship, he +abandoned his project, and determined to turn Lingayat. Accordingly, +at day-break, he advanced to the place where the head of the mutt +was seated, made known to him who he was, and informed him of his +resolution. Opinions were divided as to the fitness of receiving such +an applicant, but it was finally decided that, if a man repented, +he was a fit person to be received into the Lingayat fold, as the +linga recognises no caste. The linga was accordingly tied on his +neck. From that time Chikayya became a new man and a true Jangam, +and went from place to place visiting sacred shrines. One day he +happened to be at a place where lived a merchant prince, who never +dined except in the company of a Jangam. On the suggestion of his +wife Nilakuntaladevi, an invitation to dine was sent to Chikayya, +who accepted it. After dinner, the merchant went out on business, +and Nilakuntaladevi, noticing what a beautiful man Chikayya was, fell +in love with him. He, however, rejected her advances, and ran away, +leaving his knapsack behind him. Nilakuntaladevi cut off her golden +necklace, and, having placed it in the knapsack, ran after Chikayya, +and threw it at him, asking him to accept it. She then inflicted +several cuts on herself, and, as soon as her husband returned home, +complained that the Jangam had stolen her necklace, and attempted +to ravish her. Information was sent to Basayya, the head of the +mutt, and a council meeting summoned, at which it was decided that +Chikayya should have his head cut off. The order to carry out this +act was given to the Viramushtis, who went in search of him, and at +last found him beneath the shade of a tree overhanging the bank of +a river, engaged in worshipping his linga, which was in his hand. On +searching the knapsack, they found the necklace, and proceeded to cut +off Chikayya's head, which went several hundred feet up into the air, +and travelled towards the mutt, whither the headless trunk followed +on foot. On their return to the mutt, the Viramushtis found that the +three hundred crores of priests had been miraculously beheaded, and +the place was a vast pool of blood. As soon, however, as the head and +body of Chikayya approached, they became re-united, and Siva, appearing +on the scene, translated him to kylas (heaven). At the same time, he +restored the priests to life, and inflicted the following four curses +on the Viramushtis:--(1) they were not to build or use houses, and are +consequently found living under trees outside villages; (2) they were +not to sleep on a cot; (3) they were not to use the wild broom-stick; +(4) they were not to set up permanent ovens for cooking purposes, +but to make impromptu stoves out of three stones. Taking compassion +on them, the Devangas promised to give the Viramushtis a small sum +of money annually, and to contribute towards their marriage expenses. + +The Viramushtis are said to have become attached to the Komatis +subsequent to the above incident. The story goes that some +Komatis asked them to delay for three and half hours the march +of Vishnuvardhana Raja, who was advancing with a view to marrying +the daughter of one of them, named Vasavakanya (now deified into +Kanyakamma). This the Viramushtis did by entertaining the Raja +with their acrobatic feats. Meanwhile, the Komatis made a number of +fire-pits, and put an end to themselves. Vishnuvardhana arrived too +late, and had his head cut off. The Viramushtis prayed to Vasavakanya, +inasmuch as they had lost both the Raja, who promised them a grant of +land in return for their performance, and herself, who had promised +to give a lump of gold to each gotra. The Komatis replied in a body +that each family of their caste would in future give the Viramushtis +an annual present of money, and help in defraying the expenses of +their marriages. + +In accordance with the above legends, the Viramushtis usually beg +only from Devangas and Komatis. When they approach a village, they +generally halt under a tree, and, early in the morning, dress up as +acrobats, and appear with daggers, sticks, etc., crying Good luck! Good +luck! They caper about as they advance, and, when they reach a Devanga +or Komati house, perform their acrobatic feats, and wind up with a +eulogium of the caste. Money and food are then doled out to them. + +Whenever a Devanga, Lingayat Komati, or other Lingayat wants to make +a hero (vira) of a deceased member of his family, he sends for a +Viramushti (or hero-maker), and has a slab planted, with a recognised +ceremonial, at the spot where he is buried. + +In a further note on the Viramushtis I am informed that they +correspond to the Virabhadra Kayakams of the Canarese Lingayats, +like whom they dress up, and adorn themselves with small lingams, +the figure of Virabhadra, a sword, a plate bearing a star, and heads +of Asuras (demons). Every important Saivite temple has one or two +Viramushtis attached to it, and they are supposed to be servants of +the god Siva. One of their chief duties is to guard the idol during +processions, and on other occasions. If, during a car procession, the +car will not move, the Viramushtis cut themselves with their swords +until it is set in motion. There is a Tamil proverb that the Siva +Brahman (temple priest) eats well, whereas the Viramushti hurts himself +with the sword, and suffers much. The custom is said to be dying out. + +The principal occupation of the Viramushtis is begging from Beri +Chettis, Devangas, Komatis, and washermen. In former days, they are +said to have performed a ceremony called pavadam. When an orthodox +Lingayat was insulted, he would swallow his lingam, and lie flat +on the ground in front of the house of the offender, who had to +collect some Lingayats, who would send for a Viramushti. He had to +arrive accompanied by a pregnant Viramushti woman, pujaris (priests) +of Draupadi, Pachaiamman and Pothuraja temples, a Sembadava pujari, +Pambaikarans, Udukkaikarans, and some individuals belonging to the +nearest Lingayat mutt. Arrived at the house, the pregnant woman would +sit down in front of the person lying on the ground. With his sword the +Viramushti man then made cuts in his scalp and chest, and sprinkled +the recumbent man with the blood. He would then rise, and the lingam +would come out of his mouth. Besides feeding the people, the offender +was expected to pay money as pavadam to the Viramushtis and mutts. + +Some Viramushtis style themselves Vastad, or athletes, in reference +to their professional occupation. + +Viranattan.--The name denotes those who play on a drum called +viranam. It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that the +Viranattans "were originally temple servants, but now do miscellaneous +day labour. Their females are prostitutes. Their titles are Mestri +and Mudali." + +Viranollu.--Viranollu and Viththanollu are gotras of Ganigas, who +may not cut the wood-apple (Feronia elephantum). + +Virasaiva.--A synonym for Lingayat. Some Lingayats claim to be +Virasaiva Brahmans. + +Visalakshiamma.--Recorded, in the Manual of the North Arcot district, +as a sub-division of Vaniyan. Visalakshiamma is the goddess of Benares, +who is said to be the sister of Minakshi of Madura and Kamakshi of +Conjeeveram. Visalakshi means literally one with beautiful eyes, +and is a name of Parvati, who is described as possessing large and +beautiful eyes. + +Viswakarma.--Viswakarma and Viswa Brahman are synonyms for Kammalan, +the members of which class claim descent from the five faces of +Viswakarma, the architect of the gods. + +Vitugula-vandlu.--A fanciful name, meaning hunters or gallants, +adopted by Boyas. + +Vodari.--See Odari. + +Vodda.--See Odde. + +Vodo.--A small caste of Oriya basket-makers and cultivators in the +Vizagapatam agency. + +Vojali.--See Ojali. + +Vokkiliyan (cultivator).--A sub-division of Kappiliyan, and Tamil +form of Vakkaliga. (See Okkiliyan.) + +Vudupulavallu.--An occupational name for Balijas, Velamas, etc., +who paint chintzes. + +Vyadha (forest men).--A synonym of Myasa Bedars. + +Vyapari.--A trading section of Nayar. + +Vyasa (the name of a sage or rishi).--A sub-division of Balija. + + + + + + + +W + + +Wahabi.--The Wahabis are a sect of Muslim revivalists founded by +Muhammad ibn 'Abdu'l Wahhab, who was born in A.D. 1691. Wahabyism +has been defined as the Puritanism of Islam, "hated by the so-called +orthodox Musalmans, as the Lutherans were hated by Leo, and the +Covenanters by Claverhouse." [155] It is recorded, in the Manual of +North Arcot (1895), that since 1806 (the year of the Vellore mutiny) +"two alarms have been raised in the district, both at Vellore, which +is largely inhabited by Muhammadans. The last alarm occurred in +1869. Early in May of that year, anonymous petitions were received +by the Joint Magistrate and the Assistant Superintendent of Police, +stating that the Wahabi Muhammadans of Vellore were in league against +Government, and had arranged a plot for the massacre of all the +European residents, in which the 28th Regiment of Native Infantry, then +stationed at Vellore, was deeply implicated. An East Indian subordinate +of the Public Works Department also reported that he had overheard a +Muhammadan munshi of the Small Cause Court speaking to a shopman of his +faith about the seditious preaching of a certain Khazi. The munshi was +sent for, and described what he said had occurred in a certain mosque, +where sedition had been openly advocated by a Wahabi missionary who had +recently arrived from Hyderabad, as well as by others." It appeared, +from the investigations of the Inspector-General of Police, that the +whole affair had been nothing more than a conspiracy among the orthodox +Muhammadans to arouse alarm regarding the designs of the Wahabis, +and to prevent these sectarians from frequenting their mosques. + +Wudder.--See Odde. + +Wynad.--Returned, at times of census, as a territorial division +of Chetti. There are at Gudalur near the boundary between the +Nilgiri district and Malabar, and in the Wynad, two classes called, +respectively, Mandadan Chettis (q.v.) and Wynadan Chettis. + +The following account of the Wynadan or Wynaadan Chettis is given +in the Gazetteer of the Nilgiris. "They speak Malayalam, and follow +marumakkatayam (inheritance in the female line). They say they were +originally Vellalas from Coimbatore, followed makkatayam (inheritance +from father to son), spoke Tamil, and wore the Tamil top-knot. In +proof of this, they point out that at their weddings they still +follow certain Tamil customs, the bridegroom wearing a turban and +a red cloth with a silver girdle over it and being shaved, and the +woman putting on petticoats and nose-rings. They have headmen called +Kolapallis, subordinate to whom are Mantiris, but these are liable +to be overruled by a nad council. No wedding may take place without +the headman's leave. Two forms of marriage are recognised. In one, +the couple exchange garlands after the Tamil fashion, and the father +(a relic of the makkatayam system) conducts the ceremony. Preliminaries +are arranged by go-betweens, and the chief of the numerous rites is +the placing of a bracelet on the girl's upper arm under a pandal +(booth) before the priest and the assembled relatives. The other +form is simpler. The bridegroom goes to the girl's house with some +men friends, and, after a dinner there, a go-between puts on the +bangle. Before marriage, a tali-kettu ceremony resembling that of +the Nayars is often gone through, all the girls of a family who are +of marriageable age having talis tied round their necks on the same +day by a maternal uncle. Married women are allowed intimacy with their +husbands' brothers. Widows are permitted to marry again. The dead are +usually burnt, but those who have met their deaths by accidents and +epidemics are buried. Water from a vessel containing rice and a gold +coin is poured into a dying person's mouth. Should the spirit of the +dead disturb the dreams of the relatives, a hut for it is built under +an astrologer's directions close to the house, and in this lights +are lit morning and evening, and periodical offerings of food are +made. The Wynaadan Chettis reverence the deities in the Ganapati, +Mahamari and Kalimalai Tambiran temples near Sultan's Battery, +Airu Billi of the Kurumbas, and one or two others. The women wear +in their distended ear-lobes gold discs which are so characteristic +of the Nayars, and many necklaces. They wear two white cloths, tying +one round the waist and another across their breasts." + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that the Wynad or +Wynaadan Chettis "claim to be Sudras, and are in appearance and +customs very similar to the Nayars. They are polluted by all castes +below Nayars. Their marriage customs seem to be a mixture of east +and west coast practices. They follow the marumakkattayam system, +and perform the tali-kettu kalianam; but this is done on the tenth day +after puberty, and two talis have to be tied on the girl, one by her +maternal uncle, and one by the senior female of her house. They also +celebrate a regular marriage ceremony, at which a bracelet is put on +the bride's right arm, and bride and bridegroom garland each other; +while next morning a kanam or bride-price has to be paid to the +bride's karnavan (senior male in a family). They are bold shikaris +(sportsmen), and tiger spearing is a favourite pastime, closely +connected with their religion. + +"The tiger is encircled by a wall of netting six feet high, which is +gradually closed up, and then speared. The carcass is not skinned, +but is stretched on a pole, and hung up as a sacrifice to their deity." + + + + + + + +Y + + +Yadava.--Yadava, meaning descendants of king Yadu, from whom Krishna +was descended, has been recorded as a synonym or title of Idaiyan, +and a sub-division of Golla and Koracha. There is a tradition among +the Idaiyans that Krishna was brought up by their caste. + +Yakari.--See Ekari. + +Yanadi.--The Yanadis are a dark-skinned, platyrhine tribe, short +of stature, who inhabit the Telugu country. The name has been the +subject of much etymological speculation. Some derive it from a +(privative) and nathu (lord or protector), and it may mean those +who are not included in the ruling or principal caste. Again, it has +been derived from yanam (boat) and adi (means). But the Yanadis are +not known to have plied, nor do they now ply boats at Sriharikota, +their chief place of residence, which is on the coast. The word would +seem to be derived from the Sanskrit anadi, or those whose origin is +not traceable. The people perhaps elongated the vowel-sound, so that +it became Yanadi. In like manner, the Native graduate of the Madras +University talks of himself as being, not a B.A. or M.A., but B.Ya. or +M.Ya. And a billiard-marker will call the game yeighty-yeight instead +of eighty-eight. + +The tradition of the Yanadis as to their origin is very vague. Some +call themselves the original inhabitants of the wilds in the +neighbourhood of the Pulicat lake, where they hunted and fished +at will, until they were enslaved by the Reddis. Others say that +the Reddi (or Manchi?) Yanadis were originally Chenchus, a small +but superior class, and that they fled from oppression and violence +from the mountains in the west, and amalgamated themselves with the +common Yanadis. The common deity of both Chenchus and Manchi Yanadis +is Chenchu Devudu. Between the Yanadi and the Chenchu, however, +there is no love lost. They can be seen living close together, but +not intermingling, on the Nallamalais, and they differ in their +social customs. Yanadi Chenchu is said to be the name given by +Brahmans to the Chenchus. [156] The following legend concerning the +Yanadis is narrated by Mackenzie. [157] "Of old, one named Raghava +brought with him sixty families from Pacanatti district, locating +himself with them at Sriharicotta, and, clearing the country, formed +Raghavapuram. The people by degrees spread through a few adjoining +districts. A rishi, who came from Benares, and was named Ambikesvarer, +resided in Mad'hyaranya (or the central wilderness), and there, daily +bathing in a river, paid homage to Siva. These wild people of their +own accord daily brought him fruits and edibles, putting them before +him. At length he inquired of them the reason. They replied that +their country was infested by a terrible serpent, and they wished to +be taught charms to destroy it, as well as charms for other needful +purposes. He taught them, and then vanished away." + +It is an advantage for a European to have a Yanadi as a camp servant, +as he can draw water from any caste well. The Yanadi can also wash, +and carry water for Brahmans. + +The animistic nature of their religion; the production of fire by +friction; the primitive hunting and fishing stage in which a number +remain; the almost raw animal food which they eat, after merely +scorching or heating the flesh of the game they kill, indicate that the +Yanadis have not yet emerged from a primitive stage of culture. They +make fire by friction with sticks from the following trees:-- + + + Protium caudatum (konda ragi). + Bauhinia racemosa (aree chettu). + Ficus. sp. (kallu jeevee chettu). + Ptereospermum suberifolium (tada). + A tree belonging to the Nat. Order Laurineæ. + Cordia monoica (female tree). + + +Two sticks are prepared, one short, the other long. In the former a +square cavity is scooped out, and it is held firmly on the ground, +while the long stick is twisted rapidly to and fro in the cavity. No +charcoal powder is used, but a rag, or even dried leaves are set +fire to. + +The head-quarters of the Yanadis is the island of Sriharikota in the +Nellore district. Their primitive condition attracted notice in 1835, +when the island came into the possession of the Government, which +endeavoured to ameliorate their position by supplying them with a +liberal allowance of grain, clothing, tobacco, and money, in return +for the jungle produce, which they collected. The demand for labour +naturally rose, and the Government offered to pay to parents 2 annas +6 pies on the birth of a male, and 1 anna 3 pies on the birth of a +female child--a bounty on productivity justified by special local +causes. In 1858, the Government opened a school for the teaching of +Telugu, which was rendered attractive by offers of rice and clothing +to those who attended it. An industrial department gave lessons in +basket-making, and land was assigned for the cultivation of chay-root +(Oldenlandia umbellata), which yields the beautiful red dye formerly +much employed in the dyeing of cotton fabrics, but has had its nose +put out of joint by the introduction of aniline and alizarin dyes. But +the industries proved unsuccessful, and the strength of the school +gradually declined, so that it was abolished in 1877. + +At the census, 1891, the Yanadis returned as many as 89 sub-divisions, +of which the two most important numerically were Chenchu and Manchi. A +division into classes exists according to dietary, occupation, +residence, etc. There are, for example, the Reddi Yanadis, the +Challa (refuse-eating), Adavi, and Kappala (frog-eaters). The Reddi +Yanadis are a settled class, employed chiefly as cooks by the Panta +Reddis. They do not mingle with the Challa and Adivi sections, +whom they regard as out-castes. If a Reddi Yanadi woman's husband +dies, abandons, or divorces her, she may marry his brother, and, +in the case of separation or divorce, the two brothers will live on +friendly terms with each other. The Challas are also known as Garappa +(dry-land) or Chatla (tree). They reside in huts on the borders of +villages in the service of the community, and live on jungle produce, +and by snaring and hunting game. The Reddi and Challa Yanadis are +occasionally employed as kavalgars, or village watchmen, in the Kistna +and Godavari districts. In the Venkatagiri Zemindari the Yanadis are +among the recognised servants of the village community as procurers +of charcoal for the blacksmith. The Adavi Yanadis are, as the name +implies, jungle-men. The Manchi or good Yanadis are a small superior +class. The Yanadis of the North Arcot district, it may be noted, are +Chenchu worshippers, and go by that name. They are non-frog-eaters, +and do not permit the Kappala, or frog-eaters, even to touch their +pots. Some Yanadis of the Nellore district feed on the refuse of the +table. The Somari, or idle Yanadis, live in the Kavali taluk of that +district. They do scavenging work, and eat the refuse food thrown +away by people from the leaf plate after a meal. + +The following are some of the house-names of families living in +Nellore, Sriharikota, Tada, and Kambakam:-- + + +(a) Manchi Yanadis-- + + Bandi, cart. + Chembetti, hammer. + Chilakala, paroquet. + Dhoddi, sheep-fold. + Igala, house-fly. + Enthodu, a village. + Illa, of a house. + Kathtlula, sword. + Kanur, a village. + Kotlu, cow-shed. + Mekala, goat. + Manikala, measure. + Pamula, snake. + Tenkayala, cocoanut. + Totla, garden. + Tupakala, gun. + Udamala, water-lizard. + Jandayi, flag. + Marrigunta, pond near a fig-tree. + + +(b) Challa Yanadi-- + + Nerigi Mekala, a kind of goat. + Elugu, bear. + Thirlasetti, name of a Balija Chetti. + + +All these names represent exogamous septs. In every case, the +house-name was known only to old men and women, and they, as a rule, +did not know the house-names of their neighbours or relations. Many +of the names are derived from villages, or persons of other castes, +on whose land they may live, and are probably new names adopted +instead of the original ones. For the purpose of their register, +Forest officers invent prefixes by which Yanadis with the same family +name can be distinguished, e.g., Kee Chenchugadu, Permadu Budthagadu, +to distinguish them from other Chenchugadus, and Budthagadus. The +same practice is resorted to by planters, who give "estate names" +to their coolies. + +Yanadis will not eat with Madigas or Paraiyans, and observe some +principle in partaking of the refuse of the table. Thus, for a Chinna +Yanadi to eat the refuse of the Mondis, Oddes, or Yerukalas, would +involve excommunication, which is always pronounced by a Balija +Chetti, whose decision is final and binding. Restoration to caste +can be secured by undergoing a personal ordeal, by giving a feast, +and promising good behaviour in the future. The ordeal takes the form +of scalding of the tongue with hot gold by the Balija Chetti. It is +curious that there has recently grown up a tendency for members of +other castes to join the Yanadi community. There are instances of +barbers, weavers, fishermen, and even Komatis being admitted into +the Yanadi fold. + +The headman, who goes by the name of Kulampedda or Pedda Yanadi, +exercises general social control over a group, known as a guddem, +ordinarily of about twenty huts. He decides social questions, +sometimes on his own responsibility, by excommunicating or fining; +sometimes acting on the advice of a council of his castemen. Until +quite recently, the tribe remained under the guidance of a hereditary +leader of Sriharikota, who wielded immense power. The Paraiyans +have risen superior to the Yanadis as a community, supplying among +themselves their own artisans, weavers, carpenters, barbers, priests, +teachers, etc., while the Yanadis are only just beginning to move in +this direction. + +The language of the Yanadis is Telugu, but some words are compounds +of Telugu and Tamil, e.g., artichedi for plantain, pandikutti for pig. + +The Yanadis know the forest flora well, and the uses of the various +trees and shrubs, which yield good firewood, etc. They call the roller +(Coracias indica) the milk bird, in the belief that, when a cow goes +dry, she will yield milk if a feather of the roller is put in the +grass for her to swallow. The crow-pheasant (Centropus sinensis) +is to them the prickly-pear crow; florikin the ground peacock; the +fan-tail snipe the pond snipe; and the pin-tail the rice field snipe. + +At the census, 1891, 84,339 Yanadis were returned as Hindus, and 549 as +animists. Their places of worship are not temples, but houses, called +devara indlu (houses of the gods), set apart for every centre. They +worship a household god, a village goddess of local importance, and +a deity of wider repute and influence. Chenchu Devudu is invariably +the household god. Poleramma or Ankamma is in charge of a local area +for weal or woe. Subbarayudu, Venkateswaralu, Panchala, Narasimhulu, +and others, are the gods who control destinies over a wider area. The +Yanadis are their own priests. The objects of worship take various +forms: a wooden idol at Sriharikota; bricks; stones; pots of water +with margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves; images of gods drawn on +the walls of their houses; or mere handfuls of clay squeezed into +shape, and placed on a small platform erected under an aruka tree, +which, like other Hindus, they hold sacred. They use a red powder, +flowers, turmeric, etc., for worship; burn camphor and incense; and +distribute fruit, dhal (pulse of Cajanus indicus), and the like. In +worshipping ancestors, they resemble the Kurumbas. The house of +the gods is a sanctum, into which no polluting object is allowed to +enter. The most pious perform rites every Friday. At Sriharikota they +do so once a fortnight, or once a month. The ordinary Yanadi only +worships on occasion of a marriage, funeral, etc. A belief lingers +that the pious are en rapport with the deity, who converses with +them and even inspires them. The goddess receives animal sacrifices, +but Chenchu Devudu is a strict vegetarian, whose votaries are bound, +at times of worship, to subsist on a single daily meal of roots and +fruits. The Yanadis, like Hindus, wear sect marks, and are even divided +into Vaishnavites and Saivites. They are supposed, during worship, +to endow inanimate objects, and the spirits of geographical features, +with life and mind, and supernatural powers. Some Yanadis are converts +to Christianity. + +The Yanadis live in low conical huts, rudely built of bamboo and +palmyra leaves, grass, or millet stalks, with a small entrance, through +which grown-up people have to creep. The hut affords protection from +the sun and rain, but the Yanadis generally cook, eat, and sleep +outside. The staple food of the Yanadis, apart from bazar purchases, +consists of the following:-- + +Animals:--Sambar deer, wild goat, bear, porcupine, boar, land tortoise, +hare, bandicoot and jerboa rat, Varanus (lizard), mungoose, and fish. + +Vegetables and fruit:--Dioscorea (yams); pith and fruit of Phoenix +sylvestris (date palm); fruit kernel of Cycas circinalis, eaten after +thorough soaking in water; and fruits of Eugenia alternifolia and +Jambolana (black plum), Carissa Carandas and spinarum, Buchanania +acuminata, and Mimusops hexandra. + +They are, like the Irulas of Chingleput, very partial to sour +and fermented rice-water, which is kept by the higher classes for +cattle. This they receive in exchange for headloads of fuel. For some +time past they have been stopped by the Forest officers from drinking +this pulusunillu, as it makes them lazy, and unfit for work. + +The marriage ceremony is no indispensable necessity. The Adavi +Yanadis, as a rule, avoid it; the Reddi Yanadis always observe it. The +parents rarely arrange alliances, the parties concerned managing +for themselves. Maturity generally precedes marriage. Seduction +and elopement are common occurrences, and divorce is easily +obtained. Adultery is no serious offence; widows may live in +concubinage; and pregnancy before marriage is no crime. By nature, +however, the Yanadis are jealous of conjugal rights, and attached to +their wives. Widowhood involves no personal disfigurement, or denial +of all the emblems of married life. + +A widow has been known to take, one after another, as many as seven +husbands. The greater the number of her husbands, the more exalted +is the status of a widow in society, and the stronger her title to +settle disputes on questions of adultery, and the like. Polygamy is +common, and a Yanadi is known to have had as many as seven wives, whom +he housed separately, and with whom he lived by turns. The marriage +ceremony is undergoing change, and the simple routine developing into +a costly ceremonial, the details of which (e.g., the "screen scene") +are copied from the marriage rites of higher castes in the Telugu +country. Until quite recently, the flower of the tangedu (Cassia +auriculata) did duty for the tali, which is now a turmeric-dyed cotton +thread with a gold bottu suspended from it. The auspicious hour is +determined by a very simple process. The hour is noon, which arrives +when a pole, two feet high, stuck vertically on the marriage platform, +ceases to throw a shadow. The pole has superseded the arrow used of +old, and sometimes a purohit is consulted, and gives the hour from +his calendar. + +As a punishment for adultery, the unfaithful woman is, at Sriharikota, +made to stand, with her legs tied, for a whole day in the sun, with +a basket full of sand on her head. + +The maternal uncle receives a measure of rice, a new cloth, and eight +annas, at the head-shaving ceremony of his nephew. At this ceremony, +which is a borrowed custom, the uncle plucks a lock of hair from the +head of the lad, and ties it to a bough of the aruka tree. The head +is shaved, and the lad worships the village goddess, to whom a fowl +is offered. The guests are feasted, and the evening is spent in a +wild torch-light dance. + +At the first menstrual period, a Yanadi girl occupies a hut erected +for the purpose, which must have within it at least one stick of +Strychnos Nux-vomica, to drive away devils. On the ninth day the +hut is burnt down, and the girl cleanses herself from pollution by +bathing. A woman, after confinement, feeds for three days on the +tender leaves, or cabbage of the date palm (Phoenix sylvestris), and +then on rice. Margosa leaves, and sometimes the leaves of other trees, +and the knife with which the umbilical cord was cut, are placed under +the infant's head for six days. A net is hung in front of the door, +to keep out devils. The baby is given a name by the soothsayer, who +pretends to be in communication on the subject with the god or goddess. + +The Yanadis pose as prophets of human destinies, and, like the Nilgiri +Kurumbas, pretend to hold intercourse with gods and goddesses, +and to intercede between god and man. Every village or circle has +one or more soothsayers, who learn their art from experts under +a rigid routine. The period of pupilage is a fortnight spent on a +dietary of milk and fruits with no cooked meat, in a cloister in +meditation. The god or goddess Ankamma, Poleramma, Venkateswaralu, +Subbaroyadu, or Malakondroyadu, appears like a shadow, and inspires +the pupil, who, directly the period of probation has ceased, burns +camphor and frankincense. He then sings in praise of the deity, takes +a sea bath with his master, gives a sumptuous feast, and becomes an +independent soothsayer. The ardent soothsayer of old wrought miracles, +so runs the story, by stirring boiling rice with his hand, which was +proof against scald or hurt. His modern brother invokes the gods with +burning charcoal in his folded hands, to the beat of a drum. People +flock in large numbers to know the truth. The word is rangampattedhi +in North Arcot and sodi in Nellore. The soothsayer arranges Chenchu +Devudu and the local gods in a separate devara illu or house of god, +which is always kept scrupulously clean, and where worship is regularly +carried on. The auspicious days for soothsaying are Friday, Saturday, +and Sunday. The chief soothsayer is a male. The applicant presents +him with betel nuts, fruit, flowers, and money. The soothsayer +bathes, and sits in front of his house smeared with black, white, +red, and other colours. His wife, or some other female, kindles a +fire, and throws frankincense into it. He beats his drum, and sings, +while a woman from within repeats the chant in a shrill voice. The +songs are in praise of the deity, at whose and the soothsayer's +feet the applicant prostrates himself and invokes their aid. The +soothsayer feels inspired, and addresses the supplicant thus: "You +have neglected me. You do not worship me. Propitiate me adequately, or +ruin is yours." The future is predicted in song. In these predictions +the rural folk place abundant faith. + +The Yanadis bury their dead. The corpse is laid on leaves in front of +the hut, washed and clad. Pelalu (parched rice) is thrown over the +corpse by the son and all the agnates. It is eventually placed on a +bier, covered with a new cloth, and carried to the burial ground, by +the sons, or, in the absence thereof, the sapindas. At a fixed spot +near the grave, on which all corpses are placed, a cross is drawn on +the ground, the four lines of which represent the four cardinal points +of the compass. Close to the corpse are placed betel leaves and nuts, +and a copper coin. All present then proceed to the spot where the grave +is to be dug, while the corpse is left in charge of a Yanadi called +the Bathyasthadu, who, as a rule, belongs to a different sept from +that of the deceased. The corpse is laid on a cloth, face downwards, +in the grave. The eldest son, followed by the other relatives, +throws three handfuls of earth into the grave, which is then filled +in. On their return home, the mourners undergo purification by bathing +before entering their huts. In front of the dead man's hut, two broken +chatties (pots) are placed, whereof one contains ash-water, the other +turmeric-water. Into each chatty a leafy twig is thrown. Those who +have been present at the funeral stop at the chatties, and, with the +twig, sprinkle themselves first with the ash-water, and then with the +turmeric-water. Inside the hut a lighted lamp, fed with gingelly oil, +is set up, before which those who enter make obeisance before eating. + +The chinnadinamu ceremony, whereof notice is given by the Bathyasthadu, +is usually held on the third day after death. Every group (gudem) +or village has its own Bathyasthadu, specially appointed, whose duty +it is to convey the news of death, and puberty of girls, to all the +relatives. Tupakis will never nominate a Tupaki as their Bathyastha, +but will select from a Mekala or any sept except their own. + +On the morning of the chinnadinamu, the eldest son of the deceased +cooks rice in a new pot, and makes curries and cakes according to his +means. These are made up into six balls, which are placed in a new +basket, and taken to the burial-ground. On reaching the spot where the +cross-lines were drawn, a ball of rice is placed thereon, together with +betel leaves and nuts and a copper coin. The Bathyasthadu remains in +charge thereof, while those assembled proceed to the grave, whereon a +pot of water is poured, and a stone planted at the spot beneath which +the head lies. The stone is anointed with shikai (fruit of Acacia +Concinna) and red powder, and milk poured over it, first by the widow +or widower and then by the relations. This ceremony concluded, the son +places a ball of rice at each corner of the grave, together with betel +and money. Milk is poured over the remaining ball, which is wrapped +in a leaf, and buried over the spot where the abdomen of the deceased +is situated. Close to the grave, at the southern or head end, three +stones are set up in the form of a triangle, whereon a new pot full +of water is placed. A hole is made in the bottom of the pot, and the +water trickles out towards the head of the corpse. This concludes the +ceremony, and, as on the day of the funeral, purification by bathing, +ash-water and turmeric-water, is carried out. + +The peddadinamu ceremony is performed on the sixteenth, or some +later day after death. As on the chinnadinamu, the son cooks rice +in a new pot. Opposite the entrance to the hut a handful of clay is +squeezed into a conical mass, representing the soul of the deceased, +and stuck up on a platform. The eldest son, taking a portion of +the cooked rice, spreads it on a leaf in front of the clay image, +before which incense is burnt, and a lamp placed. The image, and the +remainder of the food made up into four balls, are then carried by the +son to a tank (pond). As soon as the relatives have assembled there, +the recumbent effigy of a man is made, close to the edge of the tank, +with the feet towards the north. The conical image is set up close +to the head of the effigy, which is anointed by the relatives as at +the chinnadinamu, except that no milk is poured over it. The four +balls of rice are placed close to the hands and feet of the effigy, +together with betel and money, and the son salutes it. The agnates then +seat themselves in a row between the effigy and the water, with their +hands behind their backs, so as to reach the effigy, which is moved +slowly towards the water, into which it finally falls, and becomes +disintegrated. The proceedings conclude with distribution of cloths +and cheroots, and purification as before. The more prosperous Yanadis +now engage a Brahman to remove the pollution by sprinkling water over +them. During the peddadinamu incessant music and drum-beating has been +going on, and is continued till far into the night, and sometimes the +ceremonial is made to last over two days, in order that the Yanadis +may indulge in a bout of music and dancing. + +The Yanadis are expert anglers, catching fish with a triangular net +or wicker basket. They also excel in diving for and catching hold +of fish concealed in crevices of rocks or buried in mud, and assist +European sportsmen by marking down florikin. Those who are unable +to count bring in a string with knots tied in it, to indicate the +number of birds marked. They catch bandicoot rats by a method known +as voodarapettuta. A pot is stuffed with grass, into which fire +is thrown. The mouth of the pot is placed against the hole made by +the bandicoot, and smoke blown into the hole through a small slit +in the pot. The animal becomes suffocated, and tries to escape +through the only aperture available, made for the occasion by the +Yanadi, and, as it emerges, is killed. They are fearless in catching +cobras, which they draw out of their holes without any fear of their +fangs. They pretend to be under the protection of a charm, while so +doing. A correspondent writes that a cobra was in his grounds, and +his servant got a Yanadi, who had charge of the adjoining garden, +to dislodge it. The man was anxious to catch it alive, and then, +before killing it, carefully removed the poison-sac with a knife, +and swallowed it as a protection against snake-bite. + +The Yanadis are good shikaris (huntsmen), and devoid of fear in the +jungle. They hold licenses under the Arms Act, and being good shots, +are great at bagging tigers, leopards, porcupines, and other big and +small game. After an unsuccessful beat for spotted deer, a friend +informs me, the Yanadis engaged therein erected a cairn of twigs +and stones several feet high, round which they danced with gradually +quickening step, to the refrain in Telugu 'Nothing comes.' Then, to +the same tune, they danced round it in the opposite direction. The +incantation concluded, the beat was continued and a stag duly appeared +on the scene--and was missed! + +They gather honey from bee-hives on hill tops and cliffs which are +precipitous and almost inaccessible, and perilous to reach. The man +climbs down with the help of a plaited rope of pliant bamboo, fastened +above to a peg driven firmly into a tree or other hard substance, +and takes with him a basket and stick. He drives away the bees at the +first swing by burning grass or brushwood beneath the hives. The next +swing takes him closer to the hive, which he pokes with the stick. He +receives the honey-comb in the basket, and the honey flows out of it +into a vessel adjusted to it. When the basket and vessel are full, +he shakes the rope, and is drawn up by the person in charge of it, +who is almost always his wife's brother, so that there may be no foul +play. He thus collects a considerable quantity of honey and wax, +for which he receives only a subsistence wage from the contractor, +who makes a big profit for himself. + +The following list of minor forest products, chiefly collected by +Government Yanadis, is given in the Nellore District Gazette:-- + + + Chay root (Oldenlandia umbellata), which, by a quaint misprint, + appears as cheroot. + Kanuga (Pongamia glabra). + Sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus). + Nux vomica (Strychnos Nux-vomica). + Tangedu (Cassia auriculata). + Soap nut (Sapindus trifoliatus). + Achilla weed (lichens). + Ishwarac (Aristolochia indica). + Vishabuddi (Sida carpinifolia). + Kukkapala (Tylophora asthmatica). + Honey. + Rattan (Calamus Rotang). + Tamarind (Tamarindus indicus). + Neredu (Eugenia Jambolana). + Surati bark (Ventilago Madraspatana). + + +In the interests of the Yanadis it is laid down, in the Gazette, that +"the Yanadi villages must be encouraged, and the people paid at least +once a week for the produce they collect. This must be done by the +maistry (overseer) going up and down the main ride every day during +the collection season, checking the collections, and paying for them +on the spot. The Yanadis will, of course, camp out in the reserve +when collecting produce, and not return, as heretofore, every three +days to Sriharikota, thus wasting 45 per cent. of their time in the +mere coming and going, apart from the fact that, under the old system, +the produce from some parts of the reserves was never collected at all, +as no one visited them." + +The Yanadis dance on festive occasions, at ceremonies, and occasionally +for begging, smearing the body with turmeric, wearing flowers, +singing meaningless songs, and drumming in rude fashion "dambukku, +dambukku." Their only wind instrument is the bag-pipe, but they play +on the snake charmer's reed as an accompaniment. Their dance is full +of indecent suggestion. They have of late trained themselves for the +stage, and there are several troupes of Bhagavathulu. + +To the Rev. G. N. Thomssen, of the Telugu Mission, Bapatla, I am +indebted for the following account of a Yanadi dance. "Especially at +night, they love to gather in some part of the jungle where they have +their huts, and, having gathered a pile of palmyra leaves, burn them +one by one as torches, while a number of men and women begin to dance +their quaint, weird jungle dance, which is to represent the experiences +of the hunters in their wanderings. The chief actors, or dancers, +are dressed fantastically. They are almost nude, but dangling from +their loins are palmyra baskets, in which they gather edible bulbs +and roots, dead rats, snakes, etc., which are prized as something to +fill the stomach. Suddenly the actors fell on the ground. One of them +cries out 'thelu' (scorpion). Then the other asks where, and is shown +the place where the scorpion is supposed to have stung the sufferer, +while the choir sing:-- + + + Alas! the scorpion stings. + O! O! the scorpion stings. + Which finger? Ah! the middle one. + As soon as I was stung, + The poison into my head ascends. + Ayo! Ayo! What shall I do? + Bring down the poison with yilledu. + + +This chant is kept up for a long time, when suddenly another of the +actors falls on the ground, and writhes like a snake. The Yanadis +are a very supple race, and, when dancing, especially when writhing +on the ground, one sees a display of muscular action that makes one +believe that the human body is capable of all the twists and turns of +a serpent. When the actor is representing the man bitten by a snake, +one hears quaint cries while the snake is sought in the hair, ears, +and nose, basket and loin-cloth. The choir now sings the following:-- + + + Come down to catch the snake, + O! snake-charmer, behold the standing snake. + Be sure the pipe sounds well. + Come, come, with the big snakes in the basket, + And the little ones in the lock of your hair. + When I went down the bank of the Yerracheru, + And saw the harvest cut, + The cobra crawled beneath the harvester. + Ayo! Ayo! Ayo! + + +To see this action song, and to hear these strange people, is one +of the queerest experiences of native aboriginal life. The dancers, +and the spectators who form the choir, all become very excited, and +even the European, seeing the tamasha (spectacle), is infected with +the excitement. The actors are bathed in perspiration, but the dance +is kept up nevertheless, and only when their large stock of palmyra +leaf torches is exhausted will they stop and take their rest." + +In their nomadic life the Yanadis have learnt by experience the +properties and uses of herbs and roots, with which they treat fever, +rheumatism, and other diseases. They have their own remedies for +cobra bite and scorpion sting. It is said that the Yanadis alone +are free from elephantiasis, which affects the remaining population +of Sriharikota. + +It is noted by the Rev. G. N. Thomssen that "while it has been +impossible to gather these people into schools, because of their +shyness and jungle wildness, Christian missionaries, especially +the American Baptist missionaries, have succeeded in winning the +confidence of these degraded children of nature, and many of them +have joined the Christian Church. Some read and write well, and a few +have even learned English. We have a small, but growing settlement +of Christianised Yanadis at Bapatla." + +To sum up the Yanadi. It is notorious that, in times of scarcity, he +avoids the famine relief works, for the simple reason that he does not +feel free on them. Nevertheless, a few are in the police service. Some +are kavalgars (watchmen), farm labourers, scavengers, stone-masons +or bricklayers, others are pounders of rice, or domestic servants, +and are as a rule faithful. They earn a livelihood also in various +subsidiary ways, by hunting, fishing, cobra-charming, collecting honey +or fuel, rearing and selling pigs, practicing medicine as quacks, +and by thieving. "An iron implement," Mr. F. S. Mullaly writes, [158] +called the sikkaloo kol, is kept by them ostensibly for the purpose of +digging roots, but it is really their jemmy, and used in the commission +of burglary. It is an ordinary iron tool, pointed at both ends, one +end being fitted in a wooden handle. With this they can dig through a +wall noiselessly and quickly, and many houses are thus broken into in +one night, until a good loot is obtained. House-breakings are usually +committed during the first quarter of the moon. Yanadis confess their +own crimes readily, but will never implicate accomplices.... Women +are useful in the disposal of stolen property. At dusk they go round +on their begging tours selling mats, which they make, and take the +opportunity of dropping a word to the women of cheap things for sale, +and the temptation is seldom resisted. Stolen property is also carried +in their marketing baskets to the village grocer, the Komati. Among +the wild (Adavi) Yanadis, women are told off to acquire information +while begging, but they chiefly rely on the liquor-shopkeepers for +news, which may be turned to useful account." [159] + +Yanati.--The Yanatis, Yenetis, or Enetis, are a class of cultivators in +the Ganjam and Vizagapatam districts, between whom and the Yanadis some +confusion has arisen. For example, it is noted, in the Madras Census +Report, 1891, that it is curious to find the Yanadi sub-division of +the Velamas so strongly represented, for there is at the present day +a wide gulf between Velamas and Yanadis. Again, in the Census Report, +1901, it is noticed under the heading Yanati that "entries of this +name were clubbed with Yanadi, but it has since been reported that, +in Bissumcuttack taluk of the Vizagapatam Agency, there is a separate +caste called Yanati or Yeneti Dora, which is distinct from either +Yanadi or Konda Dora." + +It is said that the Yanatis of Ganjam also go by the name of Entamara +and Gainta or Gayinta. + +Yata.--The Yatas are the toddy-drawers of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. The +caste name is a corrupt form of ita, meaning date palm, from +which the toddy is secured. It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the +Vizagapatam district, that "toddy is obtained from the palmyra +(Borassus flabellifer) and date palm (Phoenix sylvestris). The +toddy-drawers are usually of the Yata and Segidi castes. The palmyra +is tapped by cutting off the end of the flower spathe, and the date +palm by making an incision, like an inverted V, close under the crown +of leaves. In the zamindaris, little care is taken to see that date +trees are not over-tapped, and hundreds of trees may be seen ruined, +and even killed by excessive tapping." Many members of the caste are +engaged in the manufacture of baskets and boxes from palm leaves. The +Yatas are said to be responsible for a good deal of the crime in +portions of the Vizagapatam district. + +For the following note on the Yatas of the Vizagapatam district, I am +indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. They are a Telugu-speaking people, +and the caste is organised on the same lines as many other Telugu +castes. In each locality where they are settled, there is a headman +called Kulampedda, who, with the assistance of the caste elders, +settles disputes and affairs affecting the community. The caste is, +like other Telugu castes, divided up into numerous intiperus or +exogamous septs. The custom of menarikam, according to which a man +marries his maternal uncle's daughter, is the rule. If the girl, +whom a man claims in accordance with this custom, is not given to +him, his mother raises such a howl that her brother is compelled +by the castemen to come to terms. If he still refuses to give up +his daughter, and bestows her on another man, the protest of his +sister is said to destroy the happiness of the pair. Girls are +married before or after puberty. The marriage ceremonies last +over three days, and are carried out either at the house of the +bride or bridegroom, the former if the parents are prosperous and +influential people in the community. A Brahman officiates, and ties +the satamanam on the bride's neck. On the evening of the third day, +at the bride's house, presents called katnam, in the shape of rings, +waist-bands, and a gold bangle for the right upper arm, are given to +the bridegroom. The value of these presents bears a fixed proportion +to that of the voli or bride-price. The pair live for three days at +the bride's house, and then proceed to the house of the bridegroom, +where they stay during the next three days. They then return to the +home of the bride, where they once more stay for three days, at the +end of which the bridegroom returns to his house. The consummation +ceremony is a separate event, and, if the girl has reached puberty, +takes place a few days after the marriage ceremony. The remarriage +of widows is permitted. The satamanam is tied on the bride's neck +by the Kulampedda. Divorce is also recognised, and a man marrying +a divorced woman has to pay twelve rupees, known as moganaltappu, +or new husband's fine. The divorced woman has to return all the +jewellery which was given to her by her former husband. + +The dead are cremated, and a man of the washerman caste usually assists +in igniting the pyre. There is an annual ceremony in memory of the +dead, at which the house is cleaned, and purified with cow-dung. A +meal on a more than usually liberal scale is cooked, and incense +and camphor are burnt before the entrance to the house. Food is then +offered to the dead, who are invoked by name, and the celebrants of +the rite partake of a hearty meal. + +The usual caste titles are Naidu and Setti. + +Yeddula (bulls).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Kapu. + +Yedu Madala (seven madalas).--The name of a section of Upparas, +indicating the amount of the bride-price. A madala is equivalent to +two rupees. + +Yelka Meti (good rat).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Yemme.--Yemme, Emme, or Yemmalavaru, meaning buffalo or buffalo +people, has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Bedar or Boya, +Kurni, Kuruba, Madiga, and Vakkaliga. + +Yenne (oil).--A sub-division of Ganiga. + +Yenuga.--Yenuga or Yenigala, meaning elephant, has been recorded as +an exogamous sept of Kapu, the members of which will not touch ivory. + +Yenumala.--Yenumala or Yenamaloru, meaning buffalo or buffalo people, +has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Balija, Boya, Madiga, +and Odde. + +Yeravallar.--See Eravallar. + +Yerlam.--A division of Kapus, so called after a Brahman girl named +Yerlamma, who was excommunicated for not being married, and bore +children to a Kapu. + +Yerra (red).--A sub-division of Golla and Kapu, and an exogamous sept +of Devanga. + +Yerudandi.--See Erudandi. + +Yogi Gurukkal.--The Yogi Gurukkals are described in the Madras Census +Report, 1891, as "a Malayalam-speaking beggar caste. They are also +priests in Kali temples, and pial schoolmasters. They bury their dead +in a sitting posture (like Sanyasis)." The pial, it may be noted, +is a raised platform under the verandah, or on either side of the +door of a house, in which village schools are held. + +The Yogi Gurukkals are scattered about Malabar, and their chief +occupation seems to be the performance of worship to Kali or +Durga. They officiate as priests for Mukkuvans and Tiyans. Among the +Mukkuvans, puja (worship) to Kali at the annual festival has to be done +by a Yogi Gurukkal, whereas, on ordinary occasions, it may be done by +a Mukkuvan, provided that he has been initiated by a Yogi Gurukkal. In +their customs, the Yogi Gurukkals closely follow the Nayars. + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "the Yogi Gurukkals +of North Malabar are a caste which, though low in the social scale, is +not regarded as conveying distance pollution. They perform sakti puja +in their own houses, to which no one outside the caste is allowed to +attend; they also perform it for Nayars and Tiyans. They are celebrated +sorcerers and exorcists, and are also schoolmasters by profession." + + +Zonnala (millet: Sorghum vulgare).--Zonnala, or the equivalent +Zonnakuti, has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Kapu. The Koyis +hold a festival when the zonna crop is ready to be cut, at which a +fowl is killed in the field, and its blood sprinkled on a stone set +up for the purpose. + + + + + + + + Printed by The Superintendent, Government Press, Madras. + + + + + + + +AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF MADRAS GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS. + + +IN THE EAST. + +R. Cambray & Co., Calcutta. +Combridge & Co., Madras. +T. Coopooswami Naicker & Co., Madras. +Higginbotham & Co., Mount Road, Madras. +V. Kalyanarama Iyer & Co., Esplanade, Madras. +S. Murthy & Co., Kapalee Press, Madras. +G. A. Natesan & Co., Madras. +P. R. Rama Iyar & Co., Madras. +Radhabai Atmaram Sagun, Bombay. +Sarasvati Publishing House, Popham's Broadway, Madras. +E. Seymour Hale, Bombay. + [160]T. K. Sitarama Aiyar, Kumbakónam. +D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bombay. +Temple & Co., Georgetown, Madras. +Thacker & Co. (Limited), Bombay. +Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta. +Thompson & Co., Madras. + + +IN ENGLAND. + +E. A. Arnold, 41 and 43, Maddox Street, Bond Street, W., London. +B. H. Blackwell, 50 and 51, Broad Street, Oxford. +Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, W.C., London. +Deighton, Bell & Co., Cambridge. +T. Fisher Unwin, 1, Adelphi Terrace, W.C., London. +Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, S.W., London. +Henry S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, E.C., London. +P. S. King & Son, 2 and 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, S.W., +London. +Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 43, Gerrard Street, Soho, W., +London. +Luzac & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, W.C., London. +B. Quaritch, 11, Grafton Street, New Bond Street, W., London. +W. Thacker & Co., 2, Creed Lane, E.C., London. + + +ON THE CONTINENT. + +Friedländer & Sohn, 11, Carlstrasse, Berlin. +Otto Harrassowitz, Leipzig. +Rudolf Haupt, 1, Dorrienstrasse, Leipzig, Germany. +Karl W. Hiersemann, Leipzig. +Ernest Leroux, 28, Rue Bonaparte, Paris. +Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland. + + + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] Ind. Ant. IV, 1875. + +[2] Manners, Customs, and Observances. + +[3] Malabar Law and Custom, 1905. + +[4] Tarwad: a marumakkathayam family, consisting of all the descendants +in the female line of one common female ancestor. + +[5] The Todas, 1906. + +[6] Malabar Law and Custom. + +[7] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[8] Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879. + +[9] Gazetteer of Malabar. + +[10] Monograph Eth. Survey, Cochin No. 1, 1905. + +[11] Ind. Ant., IX, 1880. + +[12] Ind. Ant., IX. 1880. + +[13] F. S. Mullaly. Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency. + +[14] Monograph, Eth. Survey, Bombay, No. 93, Tigala, 1907. + +[15] Malabar Law and Custom. + +[16] Lieutenant-General E. F. Burton. An Indian Olio. + +[17] Monograph Ethnog. Survey of the Cochin State, No. 10, Izhuvas, +1905. + +[18] The Tinnevelly Shanars, 1849. + +[19] Madras Census Report, 1871. + +[20] A fanam is a small gold coin, worth about four annas, which was +formerly current in Southern India, but is no longer in circulation. + +[21] Other kinds of necklaces are the mullapu (jasmine flower) mala, +avil (beaten rice) mala, so called from the shape of the links, mani +mala or bead necklace, and pavizham (coral) mala. These are all worn +by women. + +[22] Ordinarily, paddy is partly boiled before it is pounded to remove +the husk. Raw rice is obtained by pounding the paddy, which has not +undergone any boiling. + +[23] There must in all be five or seven females. + +[24] The taboot is a model of a Muhammadan mausoleum, intended to +represent the tomb of Husain, which is carried in procession during +the Moharram festival. + +[25] Manavalan = bridegroom; Manavati = bride. + +[26] An Indian Olio. + +[27] The washerman of the Nambutiris and Nayars is called Veluthedan. + +[28] Nayars are addressed as Kammal by Tiyans and artisans. + +[29] The number twelve, so significant in Malabar. + +[30] Nasrani (Nazarene) is a term for Christians on the west coast. + +[31] Indian Review, Oct. 1906. + +[32] The Todas. 1906. + +[33] Ney = ghi or clarified butter. + +[34] Aboriginal Tribes of the Nilgiri Hills. + +[35] Madras Diocesan Magazine, November, 1907. + +[36] See Madras Museum Bull., IV, 1896, pl. XII. + +[37] Average 73. + +[38] Op. cit., Appendix IV, 738. + +[39] R. Bache. Royal Magazine, August 1901. + +[40] Ind. Ant., III, 1874. + +[41] Description of a singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting the summit +of the Neilgherry Hills, 1832. + +[42] Op. cit. + +[43] A Phrenologist among the Todas, 1873. + +[44] J. W. Breeks. Account of the Primitive Tribes and Monuments of +the Nilgiris, 1873. + +[45] Catalogue of the Prehistoric Antiquities, Government Museum, +Madras, 1901. + +[46] I have seen this plant growing on the grass in front of the +Paikara bungalow. + +[47] Op. cit. + +[48] Ellis. History of Madagascar. + +[49] Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills. By a German missionary, +1856. + +[50] Proc. Cambridge Philosoph. Soc., XII, 1904. + +[51] "Puzhutkina--Shall I throw earth?" Rivers. + +[52] Called by Breeks ilata, which, Dr. Rivers suggests, is a Badaga +name. + +[53] Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar. + +[54] Gazetteer of the Anantapur district. + +[55] A. Chatterton. Monograph on Tanning and Working in +Leather. Madras, 1904. + +[56] Cf. Tanti. Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal. + +[57] Madras Mail, 1906. + +[58] Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer. + +[59] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[60] Manual of the Madura district. + +[61] Gazetteer of the Madura district. + +[62] Manual of the Madura district. + +[63] Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879. + +[64] Ibid. + +[65] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[66] History of Travancore, 1878. + +[67] Malabar and its Folk, Madras, 1900. + +[68] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[69] Manual of the Madura district. + +[70] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[71] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[72] Cf. Nayadi. + +[73] Native Life in Travancore, 1883. + +[74] Monograph, Eth. Survey, Cochin, No. 9, 1906. + +[75] Manual of the Malabar district. + +[76] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[77] Archæolog. Survey of India. Annual Report, 1902-1903. + +[78] Journey through Mysore, Canara and Malabar. Ed., 1807. + +[79] On the Weapons, Army Organization, and Political Maxims of the +Ancient Hindus, with special reference to gunpowder and fire-arms, +Madras, 1880. + +[80] Vide F. Hall's edition of H. H. Wilson's Vishnu Purana, +1864. III. 289-303. + +[81] Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879. + +[82] Native Life in Travancore. + +[83] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[84] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[85] Malabar Law and Custom, 3rd ed., 1905. + +[86] Father Coleridge's Life and Letters of St. Francis Xavier. + +[87] History of Tinnevelly. + +[88] Indian Medical Gazette, XLI, 8, 1906. + +[89] Cochin Census Report, 1901. + +[90] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[91] Mysore Census Report, 1891. + +[92] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[93] N. Sankuni Wariar, Ind. Ant. XXI, 1892. + +[94] Gazetteer of the Madura district. + +[95] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[96] Ibid., 1891. + +[97] Gazetteer of the Tanjore district. + +[98] Gazetteer of the Madura district. + +[99] The land of the Permauls, or Cochin, its past and its present, +1863. + +[100] Manual of the Madura district. + +[101] Manual of the Madura district. + +[102] Madras Census Report, 1891, and Manual of the North Arcot +district. + +[103] See Divakaram and Chudamani Nikhandu. + +[104] See Life of Tiruvalluvar, in Lazarus' edition of the Kural. + +[105] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[106] Gazetteer of Malabar. + +[107] Manual of the South Canara District. + +[108] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[109] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[110] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[111] Manual of the Tanjore district. + +[112] Manual of the North Arcot district; Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[113] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[114] Malabar and its Folk, 1900. + +[115] Madras Dioc: Magazine, 1906. + +[116] Manual of Malabar. + +[117] Madras Museum Bull. III, 3. 1901. + +[118] Manual of the Salem district. + +[119] Native Life in Travancore. + +[120] Madras Museum, Bull. III, I, 1900. + +[121] Crawley. The Mystic Rose. Fide Jagor. Zeitsch: Ethnol. XI, 164. + +[122] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[123] Ind. Ant. VIII, 1879. + +[124] History of the Military Transactions in Indostan. + +[125] Ind. Ant. VIII, 1879. + +[126] Ind. Ant. XX, 1891. + +[127] Monograph Eth. Survey of Cochin, No. 12, 1907. + +[128] Madras Museum Bull. III, 3, 1901. + +[129] Rev. J. Cain, Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879. + +[130] Madras Census Report, 1891, and Manual of the North Arcot +District. + +[131] Madras Journal of Literature and Science, 188-788, p. 134, +where the etymology of the name Vellala is fully discussed. + +[132] Section III. Inhabitants, Government Press, Madras, 1907. + +[133] Thondai-nandalap-paddiyam. + +[134] The zamindars of Cheyur, Chunampet, etc., in the Chingleput +district. + +[135] Manual of the Madura district. + +[136] Pen and Ink Sketches of South India. + +[137] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[138] M. Paupa Rao Naidu. History of Railway Thieves, 1900. + +[139] Ind. Ant. III, 1874. + +[140] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[141] Baramahal Records. + +[142] Manual of the Madura district. + +[143] Manual of the Madura district. + +[144] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[145] Manual of the Madura district. + +[146] Madras Museum Bull., V. 3, 1907. + +[147] Manual of the Salem district, 1883. + +[148] A. Chatterton. Monograph on Tanning and Working in Leather, 1904. + +[149] Madras Mail, 1907. + +[150] Ibid. + +[151] Malabar and its Folk, 1900. + +[152] Monograph, Ethnological Survey of Cochin, 1905. + +[153] Gazetteer of Malabar. + +[154] Monograph, Eth. Survey of Cochin. + +[155] Ind. Ant., X, 1881, p. 69. + +[156] Manual of the Kurnool district. + +[157] Catalogue Raisonné of Oriental Manuscripts, III, 1862. + +[158] Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency, 1892. + +[159] This note is based on an article by Mr. Ranga Rao, with +additions. + +[160] Agent for sale of the Legislative Department publications. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Castes and Tribes of Southern India, by +Edgar Thurston and K. Rangachari + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42997 *** |