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diff --git a/42996-0.txt b/42996-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f21af01 --- /dev/null +++ b/42996-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13699 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42996 *** + + CASTES AND TRIBES + OF + SOUTHERN INDIA + + By + + EDGAR THURSTON, C.I.E., + + Superintendent, Madras Government Museum; Correspondant Étranger, + Société d'Anthropologie de Paris; Socio Corrispondante, Societa, + Romana di Anthropologia. + + Assisted by + + K. Rangachari, M.A., + of the Madras Government Museum. + + + + VOLUME VI--P TO S + + GOVERNMENT PRESS, MADRAS + + 1909. + + + + + + + + + + + CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA. + + VOLUME VI. + + +P + + +Palli or Vanniyan.--Writing concerning this caste the Census +Superintendent, 1871, records that "a book has been written by a +native to show that the Pallis (Pullies or Vanniar) of the south are +descendants of the fire races (Agnikulas) of the Kshatriyas, and that +the Tamil Pullies were at one time the shepherd kings of Egypt." At +the time of the census, 1871, a petition was submitted to Government +by representatives of the caste, praying that they might be classified +as Kshatriyas, and twenty years later, in connection with the census, +1891, a book entitled 'Vannikula Vilakkam: a treatise on the Vanniya +caste,' was compiled by Mr. T. Aiyakannu Nayakar, in support of the +caste claim to be returned as Kshatriyas, for details concerning +which claim I must refer the reader to the book itself. In 1907, +a book entitled Varuna Darpanam (Mirror of Castes) was published, +in which an attempt is made to connect the caste with the Pallavas. + +Kulasekhara, one of the early Travancore kings, and one of the most +renowned Alwars reverenced by the Sri Vaishnava community in Southern +India, is claimed by the Pallis as a king of their caste. Even now, +at the Parthasarathi temple in Triplicane (in the city of Madras), +which according to inscriptions is a Pallava temple, Pallis celebrate +his anniversary with great éclat. The Pallis of Komalesvaranpettah in +the city of Madras have a Kulasekhara Perumal Sabha, which manages the +celebration of the anniversary. The temple has recently been converted +at considerable cost into a temple for the great Alwar. A similar +celebration is held at the Chintadripettah Adikesava Perumal temple +in Madras. The Pallis have the right to present the most important +camphor offering of the Mylapore Siva temple. They allege that the +temple was originally theirs, but by degrees they lost their hold over +it until this bare right was left to them. Some years ago, there was +a dispute concerning the exercise of this right, and the case came +before the High Court of Madras, which decided the point at issue in +favour of the Pallis. One of the principal gopuras (pyramidal towers) +of the Ekamranatha temple at Big Conjeeveram, the ancient capital of +the Pallavas, is known as Palligopuram. The Pallis of that town claim +it as their own, and repair it from time to time. In like manner, +they claim that the founder of the Chidambaram temple, by name Sweta +Varman, subsequently known as Hiranya Varman (sixth century A.D.) was +a Pallava king. At Pichavaram, four miles east of Chidambaram, lives +a Palli family, which claims to be descended from Hiranya Varman. A +curious ceremony is even now celebrated at the Chidambaram temple, +on the steps leading to the central sanctuary. As soon as the eldest +son of this family is married, he and his wife, accompanied by a +local Vellala, repair to the sacred shrine, and there, amidst crowds +of their castemen and others, a homam (sacrificial fire) is raised, +and offerings are made to it. The couple are then anointed with nine +different kinds of holy water, and the Vellala places the temple +crown on their heads. The Vellala who officiates at this ceremony, +assisted by the temple priests, is said to belong to the family of a +former minister of a descendant of Hiranya Varman. It is said that, +as the ceremony is a costly one, and the expenses have to be paid +by the individual who undergoes it, it often happens that the eldest +son of the family has to remain a bachelor for half his lifetime. The +Pallis who reside at St. Thomé in the city of Madras allege that they +became Christians, with their King Kandappa Raja, who, they say, +ruled over Mylapore during the time of the visit of St. Thomas. In +1907, Mr. T. Varadappa Nayakar, the only High Court Vakil (pleader) +among the Palli community practising in Madras, brought out a Tamil +book on the history of the connection of the caste with the ancient +Pallava kings. + +In reply to one of a series of questions promulgated by the Census +Superintendent, it was stated that "the caste is known by the +following names:--Agnikulas and Vanniyas. The etymology of these +is the same, being derived from the Sanskrit Agni or Vahni, meaning +fire. The following, taken from Dr. Oppert's article on the original +inhabitants of Bharatavarsa or India, explains the name of the caste +with its etymology:--'The word Vanniyan is generally derived from the +Sanskrit Vahni, fire. Agni, the god of fire, is connected with regal +office, as kings hold in their hands the fire-wheel or Agneya-chakra, +and the Vanniyas urge in support of their name the regal descent they +claim.' The existence of these fire races, Agnikula or Vahnikula +(Vanniya), in North and South India is a remarkable fact. No one +can refuse to a scion of the non-Aryan warrior tribe the title of +Rajputra, but in so doing we establish at once Aryan and non-Aryan +Rajaputras or Rajputs. The Vanniyan of South India may be accepted +as a representative of the non-Aryan Rajput element." + +The name Vanniyan is, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [1] "derived from the +Sanskrit vanhi (fire) in consequence of the following legend. In the +olden times, two giants named Vatapi and Mahi, worshipped Brahma with +such devotion that they obtained from him immunity from death from +every cause save fire, which element they had carelessly omitted +to include in their enumeration. Protected thus, they harried the +country, and Vatapi went the length of swallowing Vayu, the god +of the winds, while Mahi devoured the sun. The earth was therefore +enveloped in perpetual darkness and stillness, a condition of affairs +which struck terror into the minds of the devatas, and led them to +appeal to Brahma. He, recollecting the omission made by the giants, +directed his suppliants to desire the rishi Jambava Mahamuni to perform +a yagam, or sacrifice by fire. The order having been obeyed, armed +horse men sprung from the flames, who undertook twelve expeditions +against Vatapi and Mahi, whom they first destroyed, and afterwards +released Vayu and the sun from their bodies. Their leader then assumed +the government of the country under the name Rudra Vanniya Maharaja, +who had five sons, the ancestors of the Vanniya caste. These facts are +said to be recorded in the Vaidiswara temple in the Tanjore district." + +The Vaidiswara temple here referred to is the Vaidiswara kovil +near Shiyali. Mr. Stuart adds that "this tradition alludes to the +destruction of the city of Vapi by Narasimha Varma, king of the Pallis +or Pallavas." Vapi, or Va-api, was the ancient name of Vatapi or +Badami in the Bombay Presidency. It was the capital of the Chalukyas, +who, during the seventh century, were at feud with the Pallavas +of the south. "The son of Mahendra Varman I," writes Rai Bahadur +V. Venkayya, "was Narasimha Varman I, who retrieved the fortunes of +the family by repeatedly defeating the Cholas, Keralas, Kalabhras, and +Pandyas. He also claims to have written the word victory as on a plate +on Pulikesin's [2] back, which was caused to be visible (i.e., which +was turned in flight after defeat) at several battles. Narasimha Varman +carried the war into Chalukyan territory, and actually captured Vatapi +their capital. This claim of his is established by an inscription +found at Badami, from which it appears that Narasimha Varman bore the +title Mahamalla. In later times, too, this Pallava king was known as +Vatapi Konda Narasingapottaraiyan. Dr. Fleet assigns the capture of +the Chalukya capital to about A.D. 642. The war of Narasimha Varman +with Pulikesin is mentioned in the Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa. It +is also hinted at in the Tamil Periyapuranam. The well-known saint +Siruttonda, who had his only son cut up and cooked in order to satisfy +the appetite of the god Siva disguised as a devotee, is said to have +reduced to dust the city of Vatapi for his royal master, who could +be no other than the Pallava king Narasimha Varman." + +I gather, from a note by Mr. F. R. Hemingway, that the Pallis "tell +a long story of how they are descendants of one Vira Vanniyan, +who was created by a sage named Sambuha when he was destroying the +two demons named Vatapi and Enatapi. This Vira Vanniyan married a +daughter of the god Indra, and had five sons, named Rudra, Brahma, +Krishna, Sambuha, and Kai, whose descendants now live respectively +in the country north of the Palar in the Cauvery delta, between the +Palar and Pennar. They have written a Puranam and a drama bearing on +this tale. They declare that they are superior to Brahmans, since, +while the latter must be invested with the sacred thread after birth, +they bring their sacred thread with them at birth itself." + +"The Vanniyans," Mr. Nelson states, [3] "are at the present time a +small and obscure agricultural caste, but there is reason to believe +that they are descendants of ancestors who, in former times, held a +good position among the tribes of South India. A manuscript, abstracted +at page 90 of the Catalogue raisonné (Mackenzie Manuscripts), states +that the Vanniyans belong to the Agnikula, and are descended from +the Muni Sambhu; and that they gained victories by means of their +skill in archery. And another manuscript, abstracted at page 427, +shows that two of their chiefs enjoyed considerable power, and +refused to pay the customary tribute to the Rayar, who was for a +long time unable to reduce them to submission. Armies of Vanniyans +are often mentioned in Ceylon annals. And a Hindu History of Ceylon, +translated in the Royal As. Soc. Journal, Vol. XXIV, states that, in +the year 3300 of the Kali Yuga, a Pandya princess went over to Ceylon, +and married its king, and was accompanied by sixty bands of Vanniyans." + +The terms Vanni and Vanniyan are used in Tamil poems to denote +king. Thus, in the classical Tamil poem Kalladam, which has been +attributed to the time of Tiruvalluvar, the author of the sacred Kural, +Vanni is used in the sense of king. Kamban, the author of the Tamil +Ramayana, uses it in a similar sense. In an inscription dated 1189 +A.D., published by Dr. E. Hultzsch, [4] Vanniya Nayan appears among +the titles of the local chief of Tiruchchuram, who made a grant of +land to the Vishnu temple at Manimangalam. Tiruchchuram is identical +with Tiruvidaichuram about four miles south-east of Chingleput, +where there is a ruined fort, and also a Siva temple celebrated in +the hymns of Tirugnana Sambandhar, the great Saiva saint who lived in +the 9th century. Local tradition, confirmed by one of the Mackenzie +manuscripts, [5] says that this place was, during the time of the +Vijayanagar King Krishna Raya (1509-30 A.D.), ruled over by two feudal +chiefs of the Vanniya caste named Kandavarayan and Sendavarayan. They, +it is said, neglected to pay tribute to their sovereign lord, who +sent an army to exact it. The brothers proved invincible, but one of +their dancing-girls was guilty of treachery. Acting under instructions, +she poisoned Kandavarayan. His brother Sendavarayan caught hold of her +and her children, and drowned them in the local tank. The tank and the +hillock close by still go by the name of Kuppichi kulam and Kuppichi +kunru, after Kuppi the dancing-girl. An inscription of the Vijayanagar +king Deva Raya II (1419-44 A.D.) gives him the title of the lord who +took the heads of the eighteen Vanniyas. [6] This inscription records +a grant by one Muttayya Nayakan, son of Mukka Nayakan of Vanniraya +gotram. Another inscription, [7] dated 1456 A.D., states that, when +one Raja Vallabha ruled at Conjeeveram, a general, named Vanniya Chinna +Pillai, obtained a piece of land at Sattankad near Madras. Reference is +made by Orme [8] to the assistance which the Vaniah of Sevagherry gave +Muhammad Yusuf in his reduction of Tinnevelly in 1757. The Vaniah here +referred to is the Zamindar of Sivagiri in the Tinnevelly district, +a Vanniya by caste. Vanniyas are mentioned in Ceylon archives. Wanni +is the name of a district in Ceylon. It is, Mr. W. Hamilton writes, +[9] "situated towards Trincomalee in the north-east quarter. At +different periods its Wannies or princes, taking advantage of the +wars between the Candian sovereigns and their European enemies, +endeavoured to establish an authority independent of both, but they +finally, after their country had been much desolated by all parties, +submitted to the Dutch." Further, Sir J. E. Tennent writes, [10] that +"in modern times, the Wanny was governed by native princes styled +Wannyahs, and occasionally by females with the title of Wunniches." + +The terms Sambhu and Sambhava Rayan are connected with the Pallis. The +story goes that Agni was the original ancestor of all kings. His +son was Sambhu, whose descendants called themselves Sambhukula, or +those of the Sambhu family. Some inscriptions [11] of the time of +the Chola kings Kulottunga III and Raja Raja III record Sambukula +Perumal Sambuvarayan and Alagiya Pallavan Edirili Sola Sambuvarayan +as titles of local chiefs. A well-known verse of Irattayar in praise +of Conjeeveram Ekamranathaswami refers to the Pallava king as being +of the Sambu race. The later descendants of the Pallavas apparently +took Sambuvarayar and its allied forms as their titles, as the Pallis +in Tanjore and South Arcot still do. At Conjeeveram there lives +the family of the Mahanattar of the Vanniyans, which calls itself +"of the family of Vira Sambu." + +"The name Vanniyan," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [12] seems to have +been introduced by the Brahmans, possibly to gratify the desire of +the Pallis for genealogical distinction. Padaiyachi means a soldier, +and is also of late origin. That the Pallis were once an influential +and independent community may be admitted, and in their present desire +to be classed as Kshatriyas they are merely giving expression to this +belief, but, unless an entirely new meaning is to be given to the term +Kshatriya, their claim must be dismissed as absurd. After the fall of +the Pallava dynasty, the Pallis became agricultural servants under the +Vellalas, and it is only since the advent of British rule that they +have begun to assert their claims to a higher position." Further, +Mr. W. Francis writes [13] that "this caste has been referred to +as being one of those which are claiming for themselves a position +higher than that which Hindu society is inclined to accord them. Their +ancestors were socially superior to themselves, but they do not content +themselves with stating this, but in places are taking to wearing the +sacred thread of the twice-born, and claim to be Kshatriyas. They +have published pamphlets to prove their descent from that caste, +and they returned themselves in thousands, especially in Godavari, as +Agnikula Kshatriyas or Vannikula Kshatriyas, meaning Kshatriyas of the +fire race." "As a relic," it has been said, [14] "of the origin of the +Vannikula Kshatriyas from fire, the fire-pot, which comes in procession +on a fixed day during the annual festivities of Draupadi and other +goddesses, is borne on the head of a Vanniya. Also, in dramatic plays, +the king personæ (sic) has always been taken by a Kshatriya, who is +generally a Vanniya. These peculiarities, however, are becoming common +now-a-days, when privileges peculiar to one caste are being trenched +upon by other caste men. In the Tirupporur temple, the practice of +beating the mazhu (red-hot iron) is done by a dancing-girl serving +the Vanniya caste. The privilege of treading on the fire is also +peculiar to the Vanniyas." It is recorded by Mr. Francis [15] that, +in the South Arcot district, "Draupadi's temples are very numerous, +and the priest at them is generally a Palli by caste, and Pallis take +the leading part in the ceremonies at them. Why this should be so is +not clear. The Pallis say it is because both the Pandava brothers and +themselves were born of fire, and are therefore related. Festivals to +Draupadi always involve two points of ritual--the recital or acting +of a part of the Mahabharata and a fire-walking ceremony. The first +of these is usually done by the Pallis, who are very fond of the great +epic, and many of whom know it uncommonly well. [In the city of Madras +there are several Draupadi Amman temples belonging to the Pallis. The +fire-walking ceremony cannot be observed thereat without the help of +a member of this caste, who is the first to walk over the hot ashes.] + +Kuvvakkam is known for its festival to Aravan (more correctly Iravan) +or Kuttandar, which is one of the most popular feasts with Sudras +in the whole district. Aravan was the son of Arjuna, one of the five +Pandava brothers. Local tradition says that, when the great war which +is described in the Mahabharata was about to begin, the Kauravas, +the opponents of the Pandavas, sacrificed, to bring them success, a +white elephant. The Pandavas were in despair of being able to find any +such uncommon object with which to propitiate the gods, until Arjuna +suggested that they should offer up his son Aravan. Aravan agreed +to yield his life for the good of the cause, and, when eventually +the Pandavas were victorious, he was deified for the self-abnegation +which had thus brought his side success. Since he died in his youth, +before he had been married, it is held to please him if men, even +though grown up and already wedded, come now and offer to espouse him, +and men who are afflicted with serious diseases take a vow to marry +him at his annual festival in the hope of thereby being cured. The +festival occurs in May, and for eighteen nights the Mahabharata is +recited by a Palli, large numbers of people, especially of that caste, +assembling to hear it read. On the eighteenth night, a wooden image +of Kuttandar is taken to a tope (grove), and seated there. This is +the signal for the sacrifice of an enormous number of fowls. Every +one who comes brings one or two, and the number killed runs literally +into thousands. Such sacrifices are most uncommon in South Arcot, +though frequent enough in other parts of the Presidency--the Ceded +Districts for example--and this instance is noteworthy. While this +is going on, all the men who have taken vows to be married to the +deity appear before his image dressed like women, make obeisance, +offer to the priest (who is a Palli by caste) a few annas, and give +into his hands the talis (marriage badges) which they have brought +with them. These the priest, as representing the God, ties round +their necks. The God is brought back to his shrine that night, +and when in front of the building he is hidden by a cloth being +held before him. This symbolises the sacrifice of Aravan, and the +men who have just been married to him set up loud lamentations at +the death of their husband. Similar vows are taken and ceremonies +performed, it is said, at the shrines to Kuttandar at Kottattai (two +miles north-west of Porto Novo), and Adivarahanattum (five miles +north-west of Chidambaram), and, in recent years, at Tiruvarkkulam +(one mile east of the latter place); other cases probably occur." + +The Pallis, Mr. Francis writes further, [16] "as far back as 1833 +tried to procure a decree in Pondicherry, declaring that they were +not a low caste, and of late years they have, in this (South Arcot) +district, been closely bound together by an organisation managed by +one of their caste, who was a prominent person in these parts. In +South Arcot they take a somewhat higher social rank than in other +places--Tanjore, for example--and their esprit de corps is now +surprisingly strong. They are tending gradually to approach the +Brahmanical standard of social conduct, discouraging adult marriage, +meat-eating, and widow re-marriage, and they also actively repress +open immorality or other social sins, which might serve to give the +community a bad name. In 1904 a document came before one of the courts, +which showed that, in the year previous, the representatives of the +caste in thirty-four villages in this district had bound themselves +in writing, under penalty of excommunication, to refrain (except with +the consent of all parties) from the practices formerly in existence +of marrying two wives, and of allowing a woman to marry again during +the lifetime of her first husband. Some of the caste have taken to +calling themselves Vannikula Kshatriyas or Agnikula Kshatriyas, and +others even declare that they are Brahmans. These last always wear +the sacred thread, tie their cloths in the Brahman fashion (though +their women do not follow the Brahman ladies in this matter), forbid +widow remarriage, and are vegetarians." + +Some Palli Poligars have very high-sounding names, such as Agni Kudirai +Eriya Raya Ravutha Minda Nainar, i.e., Nainar who conquered Raya +Ravutha and mounted a fire horse. This name is said to commemorate a +contest between a Palli and a Ravutha, at which the former sat on a +red-hot metal horse. Further names are Samidurai Surappa Sozhaganar +and Anjada Singam (fearless lion). Some Pallis have adopted Gupta as +a title. + +A few Palli families now maintain a temple of their own, dedicated +to Srinivasa, at the village of Kumalam in the South Arcot district, +live round the temple, and are largely dependent on it for their +livelihood. Most of them dress exactly like the temple Battars, and a +stranger would certainly take them for Battar Brahmans. Some of them +are well versed in the temple ritual, and their youths are being +taught the Sandyavandhana (morning prayer) and Vedas by a Brahman +priest. Ordinary Palli girls are taken by them in marriage, but their +own girls are not allowed to marry ordinary Pallis; and, as a result of +this practice of hypergamy, the Kumalam men sometimes have to take to +themselves more than one wife, in order that their young women may be +provided with husbands. These Kumalam Pallis are regarded as priests +of the Pallis, and style themselves Kovilar, or temple people. But, +by other castes, they are nicknamed Kumalam Brahmans. They claim to +be Kshatriyas, and have adopted the title Rayar. + +Other titles, "indicating authority, bravery, and superiority," +assumed by Pallis are Nayakar, Varma, Padaiyachi (head of an army), +Kandar, Chera, Chola, Pandya, Nayanar, Udaiyar, Samburayar, etc. [17] +Still further titles are Pillai, Reddi, Goundan, and Kavandan. Some +say that they belong to the Chola race, and that, as such, they should +be called Chembians. [18] Iranya Varma, the name of one of the early +Pallava kings, was returned as their caste by certain wealthy Pallis, +who also gave themselves the title of Solakanar (descendant of Chola +kings) at the census, 1901. + +In reply to a question by the Census Superintendent, 1891, as to +the names of the sub-divisions of the caste, it was stated that "the +Vanniyans are either of the solar and lunar or Agnikula race, or Ruthra +Vanniyar, Krishna Vanniyar, Samboo Vanniyar, Brahma Vanniyar, and +Indra Vanniyar." The most important of the sub-divisions returned at +the census were Agamudaiyan, Agni, Arasu (Raja), Kshatriya, Nagavadam +(cobra's hood, or ear ornament of that shape), Nattaman, Olai (palm +leaf), Pandamuttu, and Perumal gotra. Pandamuttu is made by Winslow +to mean torches arranged so as to represent an elephant. But the +Pallis derive the name from panda muttu, or touching the pandal, +in reference to the pile of marriage pots reaching to the top of +the pandal. The lowest pot is decorated with figures of elephants +and horses. At a marriage among the Pandamuttu Pallis, the bride +and bridegroom, in token of their Kshatriya descent, are seated on a +raised dais, which represents a simhasanam or throne. The bride wears +a necklace of glass beads with the tali, and the officiating priest +is a Telugu Brahman. Other sub-castes of the Pallis, recorded in the +Census Report, 1901, are Kallangi in Chingleput, bearing the title +Reddi, and Kallaveli, or Kallan's fence, in the Madura district. The +occupational title Kottan (bricklayer) was returned by some Pallis +in Coimbatore. In the Salem district some Pallis are divided into +Anju-nal (five days) and Pannendu-nal (twelve days), according as +they perform the final death ceremonies on the fifth or twelfth day +after death, to distinguish them from those who perform them on the +sixteenth day. [19] Another division of Pallis in the Salem district +is based on the kind of ear ornament which is worn. The Olai Pallis +wear a circular ornament (olai), and the Nagavadam Pallis wear an +ornament in shape like a cobra and called nagavadam. + +The Pallis are classed with the left-hand section. But the Census +Superintendent, 1871, records that "the wives of the agricultural +labourers (Pallis) side with the left hand, while the husbands help in +fighting the battles of the right; and the shoe-makers' (Chakkiliyan) +wives also take the side opposed to their husbands. During these +factional disturbances, the ladies deny to their husbands all the +privileges of the connubial state." This has not, however, been +confirmed in recent investigations into the customs of the caste. + +The Pallis are Saivites or Vaishnavites, but are also demonolaters, +and worship Mutyalamma, Mariamma, Ayanar, Muneswara, Ankalamma, and +other minor deities. Writing nearly a century ago concerning the Vana +Pallis settled at Kolar in Mysore, Buchanan states [20] that "they are +much addicted to the worship of the saktis, or destructive powers, +and endeavour to avert their wrath by bloody sacrifices. These are +performed by cutting off the animal's head before the door of the +temple, and invoking the deity to partake of the sacrifice. There is +no altar, nor is the blood sprinkled on the image, and the body serves +the votaries for a feast. The Pallivanlu have temples dedicated to +a female spirit of this kind named Mutialamma, and served by pujaris +(priests) of their own caste. They also offer sacrifices to Mariamma, +whose pujaris are Kurubaru." + +Huge human figures, representing Mannarswami in a sitting posture, +constructed of bricks and mortar, and painted, are conspicuous objects +in the vicinity of the Lawrence Asylum Press, Mount Road, and in the +Kottawal bazar, Madras. At the village of Tirumalavayal near Avadi, +there is a similar figure as tall as a palmyra palm, with a shrine +of Pachaiamman close by. Mannarswami is worshipped mainly by Pallis +and Beri Chettis. An annual festival is held in honour of Pachaiamman +and Mannarswami, in which the Beri Chettis take a prominent part. + +During the festivals of village deities, the goddess is frequently +represented by a pile of seven pots, called karagam, decorated with +garlands and flowers. Even when there is an idol in the temple, +the karagam is set up in a corner thereof, and taken daily, morning +and evening, in procession, carried on the head of a pujari or other +person. On the last day of the festival, the karagam is elaborately +decorated with parrots, dolls, flowers, etc., made of pith (Æschynomene +aspera), and called pu karagam (flower pot). + +The Pallis live in separate streets or quarters distinctively known +as the Palli teru or Kudi teru (ryots' quarter). The bulk of them +are labourers, but many now farm their own lands, while others are +engaged in trade or in Government service. The occupations of those +whom I have examined at Madras and Chingleput were as follows:-- + + + Merchant. + Cultivator. + Bullock and pony cart driver. + Printer. + Lascar. + Sweetmeat vendor. + Flower vendor. + Fitter. + Sawyer. + Oil-presser. + Gardener. + Polisher. + Bricklayer. + Mason. + + +Some of the Chingleput Palli men were tattooed, like the Irulas, +with a dot or vertical stripe on the forehead. Some Irulas, it may +be noted en passant, call themselves Ten (honey) Vanniyans, or Vana +(forest) Pallis. + +Like many other castes, the Pallis have their own caste beggars, +called Nokkan, who receive presents at marriages and on other +occasions. The time-honoured panchayat system still prevails, and +the caste has headmen, entitled Perithanakkaran or Nattamaikkaran, +who decide all social matters affecting the community, and must be +present at the ceremonial distribution of pansupari. + +The Kovilars, and some others who aspire to a high social status, +practice infant marriage, but adult marriage is the rule. At the +betrothal ceremony, the future bridegroom goes to the house of his +prospective father-in-law, where the headman of the future bride must +be present. The bridegroom's headman or father places on a tray betel, +flowers, the bride-price (pariyam) in money or jewels, the milk money +(mulapal kuli), and a cocoanut. Milk money is the present given to +the mother of the bride, in return for her having given nourishment +to the girl during her infancy. All these things are handed by +the bridegroom's headman to the father or headman of the bride, +saying "The money is yours. The girl is ours." The bride's father, +receiving them, says "The money is mine. The girl is yours." This +performance is repeated thrice, and pan-supari is distributed, the +first recipient being the maternal uncle. The ceremony is in a way +binding, and marriage, as a rule, follows close on the betrothal. If, +in the interval, a girl's intended husband dies, she may marry some +one else. A girl may not marry without the consent of her maternal +uncle, and, if he disapproves of a match, he has the right to carry +her off even when the ceremony is in progress, and marry her to a +man of his selection. It is stated, in the Vannikula Vilakkam, that +at a marriage among the Pallis "the bride, after her betrothal, is +asked to touch the bow and sword of the bridegroom. The latter adorns +himself with all regal pomp, and, mounting a horse, goes in procession +to the bride's house where the marriage ceremony is celebrated." + +The marriage ceremony is, in ordinary cases, completed in one day, +but the tendency is to spread it over three days, and introduce the +standard Puranic form of ritual. On the day preceding the wedding-day, +the bride is brought in procession to the house of the bridegroom, +and the marriage pots are brought by a woman of the potter caste. On +the wedding morning, the marriage dais is got ready, and the milk-post, +pots, and lights are placed thereon. Bride and bridegroom go separately +through the nalagu ceremony. They are seated on a plank, and five women +smear them with oil by means of a culm of grass (Cynodon Dactylon), +and afterwards with Phaseolus Mungo (green gram) paste. Water coloured +with turmeric and chunam (arathi) is then waved round them, to avert +the evil eye, and they are conducted to the bathing-place. While they +are bathing, five small cakes are placed on various parts of the +body--knees, shoulders, head, etc. When the bridegroom is about to +leave the spot, cooked rice, contained in a sieve, is waved before +him, and thrown away. The bridal couple are next taken three times +round the dais, and they offer pongal (cooked rice) to the village +and house gods and the ancestors, in five pots, in which the rice has +been very carefully prepared, so as to avoid pollution of any kind, +by a woman who has given birth to a first child. They then dress +themselves in their wedding finery, and get ready for the tying of +the tali. Meanwhile, the milk-post, made of Odina Wodier, Erythrina +indica, or the handle of a plough, has been set up. At its side are +placed a grindstone, a large pot, and two lamps called kuda-vilakku +(pot light) and alankara-vilakku (ornamental light). The former +consists of a lighted wick in an earthenware tray placed on a pot, +and the latter of a wooden stand with several branches supporting a +number of lamps. It is considered an unlucky omen if the pot light +goes out before the conclusion of the ceremonial. It is stated +by Mr. H. A. Stuart [21] that in the North Arcot district "in the +marriage ceremony of the Vanniyans or Pallis, the first of the posts +supporting the booth must be cut from the vanni (Prosopis spicigera), +a tree which they hold in much reverence because they believe that +the five Pandava Princes, who were like themselves Kshatriyas, during +the last year of their wanderings, deposited their arms in a tree of +this species. On the tree the arms turned into snakes, and remained +untouched till the owners' return." The Prosopis tree is worshipped +in order to obtain pardon from sins, success over enemies, and the +realisation of the devotee's wishes. + +When the bride and bridegroom come to the wedding booth dressed +in their new clothes, the Brahman purohit gives them the threads +(kankanam), which are to be tied round their wrists. The tali is passed +round to be blessed by those assembled, and handed to the bridegroom, +who ties it on the bride's neck. While he is so doing, his sister holds +a light called Kamakshi vilakku. Kamakshi, the goddess at Conjeeveram, +is a synonym for Siva's consort Parvathi. The music of the flute is +sometimes accompanied by the blowing of the conch shell while the +tali is being tied, and omens are taken from the sounds produced +thereby. The tali-tying ceremony concluded, the couple change their +seats, and the ends of their clothes are tied together. Rice is +thrown on their heads, and in front of them, and the near relations +may tie gold or silver plates called pattam. The first to do this is +the maternal uncle. Bride and bridegroom then go round the dais and +milk-post, and, at the end of the second turn, the bridegroom lifts +the bride's left foot, and places it on the grindstone. At the end +of the third turn, the brother-in-law, in like manner, places the +bridegroom's left foot on the stone, and puts on a toe-ring. For +so doing, he receives a rupee and betel. The contracting couple are +then shown the pole-star (Arundhati), and milk and fruit are given +to them. Towards evening, the wrist-threads are removed, and they +proceed to a tank for a mock ploughing ceremony. The bridegroom +carries a ploughshare, and the bride a small pot containing conji +(rice gruel). A small patch of ground is turned up, and puddled so as +to resemble a miniature field, wherein the bridegroom plants some grain +seedlings. A miniature Pillayar (Ganesa) is made with cow-dung, and +betel offered to it. The bridegroom then sits down, feigning fatigue, +and the bride gives him a handful of rice, which his brother-in-law +tries to prevent him from eating. The newly-married couple remain +for about a week at the bride's house, and are then conducted to +that of the bridegroom, the brother-in-law carrying a hundred or a +hundred and ten cakes. Before they enter the house, coloured water +and a cocoanut are waved in front of them, and, as soon as she puts +foot within her new home, the bride must touch pots containing rice +and salt with her right hand. A curious custom among the Pallis at +Kumbakonam is that the bride's mother, and often all her relatives, +are debarred from attending her marriage. The bride is also kept gosha +(in seclusion) for all the days of the wedding. [22] + +It is noted by Mr. Hemingway that some of the Pandamuttu Pallis of +the Trichinopoly district "practice the betrothal of infant girls, +the ceremony consisting of pouring cow-dung water into the mouth of +the baby. They allow a girl to marry a boy younger than herself, and +make the latter swallow a two-anna bit, to neutralise the disadvantages +of such a match. Weddings are generally performed at the boy's house, +and the bride's mother does not attend. The bride is concealed from +view by a screen." + +It is said that, some years ago, a marriage took place at Panruti +near Cuddalore on the old Svayamvara principle described in the story +of Nala and Damayanti in the Mahabharata. According to this custom, +a girl selects a husband from a large number of competitors, who are +assembled for the purpose. + +Widow remarriage is permitted. At the marriage of a widow, the tali +is tied by a married woman, the bridegroom standing by the side, +usually inside the house. Widow marriage is known as naduvittu tali, +as the tali-tying ceremony takes place within the house (naduvidu). + +To get rid of the pollution of the first menstrual period, holy water +is sprinkled over the girl by a Brahman, after she has bathed. She +seats herself on a plank, and rice cakes (puttu), a pounding stone, +and arathi are waved in front of her. Sugar and betel are then +distributed among those present. + +The dead are sometimes burnt, and sometimes buried. As soon as an +individual dies, the son goes three times round the corpse, carrying +an iron measure (marakkal), wherein a lamp rests on unhusked rice. The +corpse is washed, and the widow bathes in such a way that the water +falls on it. Omission to perform this rite would entail disgrace, +and there is an abusive phrase "May the water from the woman's +body not fall on that of the corpse." The dead man and his widow +exchange betel three times. The corpse is carried to the burning +or burial-ground on a bamboo stretcher, and, on the way thither, +is set down near a stone representing Arichandra, to whom food is +offered. Arichandra was a king who became a slave of the Paraiyans, +and is in charge of the burial-ground. By some Pallis a two-anna +piece is placed on the forehead, and a pot of rice on the breast +of the corpse. These are taken away by the officiating barber and +Paraiyan respectively. [23] Men who die before they are married have +to go through a post-mortem mock marriage ceremony. A garland of arka +(Calotropis gigantea) flowers is placed round the neck of the corpse, +and mud from a gutter is shaped into cakes, which, like the cakes at +a real marriage, are placed on various parts of the body. + +A curious death ceremony is said by Mr. Hemingway to be observed by +the Arasu Pallis in the Trichinopoly district. On the day after the +funeral, two pots of water are placed near the spot where the corpse +was cremated. If a cow drinks of the water, they think it is the soul +of the dead come to quench its thirst. + +In some places, Palli women live in strict seclusion (Gosha). This +is particularly the case in the old Palaigar families of Ariyalur, +Udaiyarpalaiyam, Pichavaram, and Sivagiri. + +The caste has a well-organised Sangham (association) called Chennai +Vannikula Kshatriya Maha Sangham, which was established in 1888 +by leaders of the caste. Besides creating a strong esprit de corps +among members of the caste in various parts of the Madras Presidency, +it has been instrumental in the opening of seven schools, of which +three are in Madras, and the others at Conjeeveram, Madhurantakam, +Tirukalikundram and Kumalam. It has also established chuttrams +(rest-houses) at five places of pilgrimage. Chengalvaraya Nayakar's +Technical School, attached to Pachaiappa's College in Madras, was +founded in 1865 by a member of the Palli caste, who bequeathed a +large legacy for its maintenance. There is also an orphanage named +after him in Madras, for Palli boys. Govindappa Nayakar's School, +which forms the lower secondary branch of Pachaiappa's College, +is another institution which owes its existence to the munificence +of a member of the Palli caste. The latest venture of the Pallis is +the publication of a newspaper called Agnikuladittan (the sun of the +Agnikula), which was started in 1908. + +Concerning the Pallis, Pallilu, or Palles, who are settled in +the Telugu country as fishermen, carpenters, and agriculturists, +Mr. H. A. Stuart writes [24] that "it seems probable that they are a +branch of the great Palli or Vanniya tribe, for Buchanan refers to the +Mina (fish) Pallis and Vana Pallis." As sub-castes of these Pallis, +Vada (boatmen), Marakkadu and Edakula are given in the Census Report, +1901. In the North Arcot Manual, Palli is given as a sub-division of +the Telugu Kapus. In some places the Pallis call themselves Palle +Kapulu, and give as their gotram Jambumaharishi, which is a gotram +of the Pallis. Though they do not intermarry, the Palle Kapulu may +interdine with the Kapus. + +Concerning the caste-beggars of the Pallis, and their legendary +history, I read the following account. [25] "I came upon a noisy +procession entering one of the main streets of a town not far from +Madras. It was headed by spearmen, swordsmen, and banner-bearers, the +last carrying huge flags (palempores) with representations of lions, +tigers, monkeys, Brahmany kites, goblins and dwarfs. The centre of +attraction consisted of some half dozen men and women in all the +bravery of painted faces and gay clothing, and armed with swords, +lances, and daggers. Tom-toms, trumpets, cymbals, and horns furnished +the usual concomitant of ear-piercing music, while the painted men +and women moved, in time with it, their hands and feet, which were +encircled by rows of tiny bells. A motley following of the tag-rag +and bob-tail of the population, which had been allured thither +by the noise and clamour, brought up the rear of the procession, +which stopped at each crossing. At each halt, the trumpeters blew +a great and sonorous blast, while one of the central figures, with +a conspicuous abdominal development, stepped forward, and, in a +stentorian voice, proclaimed the brave deeds performed by them in +the days gone by, and challenged all comers to try conclusions with +them, or own themselves beaten. I was told that the chief personages +in the show were Jatipillays (literally, children of the caste), +who had arrived in the town in the course of their annual tour of +the country, for collecting their perquisites from all members of +the Palli or Padiachi caste, and that this was how they announced +their arrival. The perquisite levied is known as the talaikattu vari +(poll-tax, or literally the turban tax), a significant expression +when it is borne in mind that only the adult male members of the caste +(those who are entitled to tie a cloth round their heads) are liable +to pay it, and not the women and children. It amounts to but one anna +per head, and is easily collected. The Jatipillays also claim occult +powers, and undertake to exhibit their skill in magic by the exorcism +of devils, witchcraft and sorcery, and the removal of spells, however +potent. This operation is called modi edukkirathu, or the breaking of +spells, and sometimes the challenge is taken up by a rival magician +of a different caste. A wager is fixed, and won or lost according +to the superior skill of the challenger or challenged. Entering into +friendly chat with one of the leading members of the class, I gleaned +the following legend of its origin, and of the homage accorded to it +by the Pallis. In remote times, when Salivahana was king of the Chola +country, with its capital at Conjeeveram, all the principal castes of +South India had their head-quarters at the seat of government, where +each, after its own way, did homage to the triple deities of the place, +namely, Kamakshi Amman, Ekambrasvarar, and Sri Varadarajaswami. Each +caste got up an annual car festival to these deities. On one of +these occasions, owing to a difference which had arisen between the +Seniyans (weavers), who form a considerable portion of the population +of Conjeeveram, on one side, and the Pallis or Vanniyans on the +other, some members of the former caste, who were adepts in magic, +through sheer malevolence worked spells upon the cars of the Pallis, +whose progress through the streets first became slow and tedious, +and was finally completely arrested, the whole lot of them having +come to a stand-still, and remaining rooted on the spot in one of +the much frequented thoroughfares of the city. The Pallis put on more +men to draw the cars, and even employed elephants and horses to haul +them, but all to no purpose. As if even this was not sufficient to +satisfy their malignity, the unscrupulous Seniyars actually went to +King Salivahana, and bitterly complained against the Pallis of having +caused a public nuisance by leaving their cars in a common highway to +the detriment of the public traffic. The king summoned the Pallis, +and called them to account, but they pleaded that it was through no +fault of theirs that the cars had stuck in a thoroughfare, that they +had not been negligent, but had essayed all possible methods of hauling +them to their destination by adding to the number of men employed in +pulling them, and by having further tried to accelerate their progress +with the aid of elephants, camels, and horses, but all in vain. They +further declared their conviction that the Seniyars had played them an +ill-turn, and placed the cars under a spell. King Salivahana, however, +turned a deaf ear to these representations, and decreed that it was +open to the Pallis to counteract the spells of their adversaries, +and he prescribed a period within which this was to be effected. He +also tacked on a threat that, in default of compliance with his +mandate, the Pallis must leave his kingdom for good and ever. The +Pallis sought refuge and protection of the goddess Kamakshi Amman, +whose pity was touched by their sad plight, and who came to their +aid. She appeared to one of the elders of the caste in a dream, and +revealed to him that there was a staunch devotee of hers--a member of +their caste--who alone could remove the spells wrought by the Seniyars, +and that this man, Ramasawmy Naikan, was Prime Minister in the service +of the Kodagu (Coorg) Raja. The desperate plight they were in induced +the Pallis to send a powerful deputation to the Raja, and to beg of +him to lend them the services of Ramasawmy Naik, in order to save them +from the catastrophe which was imminent. The Raja was kind enough to +comply. The Naik arrived, and, by virtue of his clairvoyant powers, +took in the situation at a glance. He found myriads of imps and uncanny +beings around each of the car-wheels, who gripped them as by a vice, +and pulled them back with their sinewy legs and hands every time an +attempt was made to drag them forwards. Ramasawmy Naik by no means +liked the look of things, for he found that he had all his work cut +out for him to keep these little devils from doing him bodily harm, +let alone any attempt to cast them off by spells. He saw that more +than common powers were needed to face the situation, and prayed to +Kamakshi Amman to disclose a way of overcoming the enemy. After long +fasting and prayers, he slept a night in the temple of Kamakshi Amman, +in the hope that a revelation might come to him in his slumber. While +he slept, Kamakshi Amman appeared, and declared to him that the only +way of overcoming the foe was for the Pallis to render a propitiatory +sacrifice, but of a most revolting kind, namely, to offer up as a +victim a woman pregnant with her first child. The Pallis trembled at +the enormity of the demand, and declared that they would sooner submit +to Salivahana's decree of perpetual exile than offer such a horrible +sacrifice. Ramasawmy Naik, however, rose to the occasion, and resolved +to sacrifice his own girl-wife, who was then pregnant with her first +child. He succeeded in propitiating the deity by offering this heroic +sacrifice, and the spells of the Seniyars instantly collapsed, and +the whole legion of imps and devils, who had impeded the progress of +the Pallis' car, vanished into thin air. The coast having thus been +cleared of hostile influences, Ramasawmy Naik, with no more help than +his own occult powers gave him, succeeded in hauling the whole lot +of cars to their destination, and in a single trip, by means of a +rope passed through a hole in his nose. The Pallis, whose gratitude +knew no bounds, called down benedictions on his head, and, falling +prostrate before him, begged him to name his reward for the priceless +service rendered by him to their community. Ramasawmy Naik only asked +that the memory of his services to the caste might be perpetuated by +the bestowal upon him and his descendants of the title Jati-pillay, +or children of the caste, and of the privilege of receiving alms at +the hands of the Pallis; and that they might henceforth be allowed the +honour of carrying the badges of the caste--banners, state umbrellas, +trumpets, and other paraphernalia--in proof of the signal victory +they had gained over the Seniyars." + +Palli Dasari.--A name for Tamil-speaking Dasaris, as distinguished +from Telugu-speaking Dasaris. + +Palli Idiga.--A name given by Telugu people to Tamil Shanans, whose +occupation is, like that of Idigas, toddy-drawing. + +Pallicchan.--A sub-division of Nayars, the hereditary occupation +of which is palanquin-bearing. In the Cochin Census Report, the +Pallicchans are recorded as being palanquin-bearers for Brahmans. + +Pallikkillam.--An exogamous sept or illam of Tamil Panikkans. + +Palua.--A sub-division of Badhoyi. + +Pambaikkaran.--An occupational name for Paraiyans, who play on a drum +called pambai. + +Pambala.--The Pambalas, or drum (pamba) people, are Malas who act +as musicians at Mala marriages and festivals in honour of their +deities. They also take part in the recitation of the story of Ankamma, +and making muggu (designs on the floor) at the peddadinamu death +ceremony of the Gamallas. + +Pammi (a common lamp).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Pamula (snake people).--A name for snake-charming Koravas, and Jogis, +who, in the character of itinerant showmen, exhibit snakes to the +public. The name also occurs as an exogamous sept of Mala and Yanadi. + +Panam (palmyra palm: Borassus flabellifer.)--A sub-division of +Shanan. It also occurs as a branch or kothu of Kondaiyamkotti Maravans. + +Panan.--The Tamil Panans are said, in the Census Report, 1901, to be +also called Mestris. They are "tailors among Tamils in Madura and +Tinnevelly. They employ Brahmans and Vellalas as purohits. Though +barbers and washermen will not eat food prepared by them, they are +allowed to enter Hindu temples." The Malayalam Panans are described +in the same report as "exorcists and devil-dancers. The men also +make umbrellas, and the women act as midwives. In parts they are +called Malayans, and they may be descendants of that hill tribe who +have settled in the plains." In the South Canara Manual, the Panans +are said to be "the Malayalam caste corresponding to the Nalkes and +Pombadas. They are numerous in Malabar, where they are also known by +the name of Malayan. The devils whom they personify are supposed to +have influence over crops, and at the time of harvest the Panans go +about begging from house to house, dancing with umbrellas in their +hands. On such occasions, however, it is only boys and girls who +personify the demons." "The village magician or conjurer," Mr. Gopal +Panikkar writes, [26] "goes by different names, such as Panan, Malayan, +etc. His work consists in casting out petty devils from the bodies of +persons (chiefly children) possessed, in writing charms for them to +wear, removing the pernicious effects of the evil eye, and so on." On +certain ceremonial occasions, the Panan plays on an hour-glass shaped +drum, called thudi. + +In an account of the funeral ceremonies of the Tiyans, Mr. Logan +writes [27] that "early on the morning of the third day after death, +the Kurup or caste barber adopts measures to entice the spirit of +the deceased out of the room in which he breathed his last. This is +done by the nearest relative bringing into the room a steaming pot +of savoury funeral rice. It is immediately removed, and the spirit, +after three days' fasting, is understood greedily to follow the odour +of the tempting food. The Kurup at once closes the door, and shuts out +the spirit. The Kurup belongs to the Panan caste. He is the barber of +the polluting classes above Cherumans, and by profession he is also +an umbrella maker. But, curiously enough, though an umbrella maker, he +cannot make the whole of an umbrella. He may only make the framework; +the covering of it is the portion of the females of his caste. If +he has no female relative of his own capable of finishing off his +umbrellas, he must seek the services of the females of other families +in the neighbourhood to finish his for him. The basket-makers are +called Kavaras. Nothing will induce them to take hold of an umbrella, +as they have a motto, Do not take hold of Panan's leg." + +In an account of a ceremonial at the Pishari temple near Quilandy in +Malabar, Mr. F. Fawcett writes [28] that "early on the seventh and last +day, when the morning procession is over, there comes to the temple a +man of the Panan caste. He carries a small cadjan (palm leaf) umbrella +which he has made himself, adorned all round the edges with a fringe +of the young leaves of the cocoanut palm. The umbrella should have a +long handle, and with this in his hand he performs a dance before the +temple. He receives about 10 lbs. of raw rice for his performance." It +is further recorded by Mr. Fawcett that, when a Tiyan is cremated, a +watch is kept at the burning-ground for five days by Panans, who beat +drums all night to scare away the evil spirits which haunt such spots. + +The following account of the Panans is given in the Gazetteer of +Malabar. "The name is perhaps connected with pan, music. They follow +the makkattayam family system (of inheritance from father to son), +and practice fraternal polyandry. In South Malabar there are said to +be four sub-divisions, called Tirurengan, Kodaketti (umbrella tying), +Minpidi (fish catching), and Pulluvan, of which the last named is +inferior in status to the other three. They are also divided into +exogamous illams or kiriyams. They worship Kali, and inferior deities +such as Parakutti, Karinkutti, Gulikan, and Kutti Chattan. Their +methods of exorcism are various. If any one is considered to be +possessed by demons, it is usual, after consulting the astrologer, +to ascertain what Murti (lit. form) is causing the trouble, to call +in Panans, who perform a ceremony called Teyattam, in which they +wear masks, and, so attired, sing, dance, tom-tom, and play on rude +and strident pipes. Other of their ceremonies for driving out devils +called Ucchaveli seem to be survivals of imitations of human sacrifice, +or instances of sympathetic magic. One of these consists of a mock +living burial of the principal performer, who is placed in a pit +which is covered with planks, on the top of which a sacrifice (homam) +is performed with a fire kindled with jack (Artocarpus integrifolia) +branches. In another variety, the Panan cuts his left forearm, and +smears his face with the blood thus drawn. Panans also take part +with Mannans in various ceremonies at Badrakali and other temples, in +which the performers personate, in suitable costumes, some of the minor +deities or demons, and fowls are sacrificed, while a Velicchapad dances +himself into a frenzy, and pronounces oracles." It is further noted, +in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "to constitute a valid divorce, +the husband pulls a thread from his cloth, and gives it to his wife's +brother, saying 'Your parisha is over.' It is a traditional duty +of the Panans to furnish a messenger to announce to an Izhuvan (or +Tandan) girl's mother or husband (according to where she is staying) +that she has attained puberty." + +In the Census Report, 1901, Anjuttan (men of the five hundred) and +Munnuttan (men of the three hundred) are returned as sub-castes of +the Malayalan Panans. + +For the following account of the Panans of Travancore, I am indebted +to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The word is of Tamil origin, and means +a tailor. The title taken by them is Panikkan, the usual honorific +appellation of most of the industrial castes of Malabar. They are +supposed to be one with the Panans of the Tamil country, though much +below them in the social scale. They observe a pollution distance +of thirty-six feet, but keep Mannans and Vedans at a distance of +eight, and Pulayas and Paraiyas at a distance of thirty-two feet from +them. They are their own barbers and washermen. They will eat food +prepared by Kammalans, of whom there is a tradition that they are a +degraded branch. Tiruvarangan, one of the popular sages of Malabar, +who are reputed to be the descendants of a Paraiya woman, is said +to have been a Panan, and the Panans pay him due reverence. In the +Keralolpatti, the traditional occupation of the Panans is said to be +exorcism, and in British Malabar this occupation seems to be continued +at the present day. Umbrella-making is a secondary occupation for +the men. In Travancore, however, the only occupation pursued by the +Panans is tailoring. The tali-kettu celebration takes place before +the girl attains puberty. If this ceremony is intended to signify +a real marriage, the girl is taken to her husband's house on the +fourth day of the first menstrual period, and they remain thenceforth +man and wife. Otherwise a sambandham ceremony has to be performed +either by the tali-tier or some one else, to establish conjugal +relations. Inheritance is mostly paternal. The dead are buried, +and death pollution lasts for sixteen days. The spirits of deceased +ancestors are appeased once a year by the offering of cooked food on +the new-moon day in the month of Karkatakam (July-August). Ancestors +who died from some untoward accident are propitiated in the month of +Avani (August-September) by offerings of flesh and liquor. The latter +ceremonial is termed vellamkuli or water drinking. Small earthen sheds, +called gurusalas or kuriyalas and matams, are erected in memory of +some ancestors. + +The following account of the Panans of the Cochin State is extracted +from a note by Mr. L. K. Ananta Krishna Aiyar. [29] + +"The Panans give, as the traditional account of their origin, a +distorted version of the tradition as to the origin of the Izhuvans, +which is found in the Mackenzie Manuscripts. The Panan version of the +story is as follows. One day a washerman of Cheraman Perumal chanced +to wash his dress very clean. On being asked by the Perumal as to the +cause of it, the washerman said that it was due to the suggestion of +a handsome carpenter girl, who saw him while washing. The Perumal, +pleased with the girl, desired her to be married to his washerman. The +parents of the girl were duly consulted, and they could not refuse +the offer, as it came from their sovereign. But his fellow carpenters +resented it, for, if the proposal was accepted, and the marriage +celebrated, it might not only place the members of her family under +a ban, but would also bring dishonour to the castemen. To avert the +contemplated union, they resorted to the following device. A pandal +(marriage booth) was erected and tastefully decorated. Just at the +auspicious hour, when the bridegroom and his party were properly +seated on mats in the pandal, the carpenters brought a puppet exactly +resembling the bride, and placed it by his side, when suddenly, by a +clever artifice, the carpenters caused the building to tumble down, +and thereby killed all those who were in it. They immediately left +the Perumal's country, and took refuge in the island of Ceylon. The +ruler was much embarrassed by the disaster to the washerman, and by +the flight of the carpenters, for he had none in his country to build +houses. A few Panans were sent for, and they brought the carpenters +back. On their return, they were given some fruit of the palmyra +palm, which they ate. They sowed the seeds in their own places, +and these grew into large fruit-bearing palms. The Panans possessed +the privilege of keeping these trees as their own, but subsequently +made them over to the Izhuvans, who, in memory of this, give even +to-day two dishes of food to the Panans on all ceremonial occasions in +their houses. They have been, on that account, called by the Izhuvans +nettaries, for their having originally planted these trees. + +"There are no titles among the Panans, but one, who was brought for +examination at Trichur, told me that one of his ancestors got the +title of Panikkan, and that he had the privilege of wearing a gold +ear-ring, carrying a walking-stick lined with silver, and using +a knife provided with a style. Kapradan is a title given to the +headman in the Palghat taluk. In Palghat, when the Kapradan dies, +the Raja is informed, and he sends to the chief mourner (the son) +a sword, a shield, a spear, a few small guns with some gunpowder, +a silver bangle, and a few necklaces. As the dead body is taken to +the burial ground, the chief mourner, wearing the ornaments above +mentioned, goes behind it. In front go a few persons armed with the +weapons referred to. Three discharges are made (1) when the dead body +is removed from the house, (2) when it is placed on the ground, (3) +when it is burnt. The next day, the chief mourner pays his respects +to the Raja, with an umbrella of his own making, when the Raja bestows +upon him the title of Kapradan. + +"There are magicians and sorcerers among the Panans, who sometimes, +at the request even of the high-caste men, practice the black +art. Some of the Panans, like the Parayans, engage in magical +rites of a repulsive nature, in order to become possessors of a +powerful medicine, the possession of which is believed to confer +the power of obtaining anything he wishes. They also believe in +the existence of a demoniacal hierarchy. Changili Karuppan, Pechi, +Oodara Karuppan, Kali, Chotala Karuppan, Chotala Bhadrakali, Yakshi, +Gandharvan, and Hanuman are the names of the chief demons whom they +profess to control with the aid of mantrams (consecrated formulæ) +and offerings. They also profess that they can send one or more of +these demons into the bodies of men, and cast them out when persons +are possessed of them. They profess to cure all kinds of diseases in +children with the aid of magic and medicines, and all the castemen +believe that harm or even death may be caused to men with the aid of +sorcerers. In such cases, an astrologer is consulted, and, according +to his calculations, the aid of a magician is sought for. When a +person is suffering from what are believed to be demoniacal attacks, +he is relieved by the performance of the following ceremony, called +pathalahomam. A pit about six feet in length, three feet in depth, +and a foot or two in breadth, is dug. A Panan, covered with a new +piece of cloth, is made to lie in the pit, which is filled in with +earth, leaving a small hole for him to breathe. Over the middle of +his body, the earth is raised and made level. A sacred fire (homam) +is made over this with the branches of a jack tree. Near it a large +square is drawn with sixty-four small divisions, in each of which +a small leaf, with some paddy (unhusked rice), rice, flour, and +lighted torches, is placed. Gingelly (Sesamum) seeds, mustard seeds, +grains of chama (Panicum miliaceum), horse gram (Dolichos biflorus), +eight fragrant things, the skin of snakes, dung of the elephant, +milk of the pala tree, twigs of the banyan tree, dharba grass, nila +narakam (Naregamia alata) oil, and ghee (clarified butter) are put +into it until it burns bright. The sick man is brought in front of +it, and the sorcerer authoritatively asks him--or rather the demon +residing in his body--to take these things. The sorcerer puts the +above mentioned substances into the fire, muttering all the while +his mantrams invoking the favour of Vira Bhadra or Kandakaruna. The +significance of these is 'Oh! Kandakaruna, the King of the Devas, +I have no body, that is, my body is getting weaker and weaker, and +am possessed of some demon, which is killing me, kindly help me, and +give me strength.' This done, another operation is begun. A fowl is +buried, and a small portion of the earth above it is raised and made +level. The figure of a man is drawn by the side of it. Three homams +(sacred fires) are raised, one at the head, one in the middle, and +one at the feet. The above mentioned grains, and other substances, +are put into the fire. A large square with sixty-four smaller squares +in it is drawn, in each of which a leaf, with grains of paddy, rice, +and flowers, is placed. Another mantram in praise of the demons already +mentioned is uttered, and a song is sung. After finishing this, a +small structure in the form of a temple is made. A small plantain tree +is placed by the side of it. A padmam is drawn, and a puja (worship) +is performed for the Paradevatha, the queen of demons. The sorcerer +makes offerings of toddy, beaten rice, plantains, and cocoanuts, and +soon turns oracle, and, as one inspired, tells what the deity wishes, +and gives information as regards the departure of the demons from the +body. It is now believed that the patient is free from all demoniacal +attacks. The buried man is exhumed, and allowed to go home. + +"In the Palghat taluk, the following form of sorcery is practiced, +which is believed to relieve persons from demoniacal attacks and +disease. If, in the house of any casteman, it is suspected that some +malign influence is being exercised by demons, a Panan is sent for, +who comes in the evening with his colleagues. A homam is lighted with +the branches of the trees already mentioned, and into it are thrown +six kinds of grains, as well as oil and ghee. As this is being done, +Kallatikode Nili, the presiding archdemon, is propitiated with songs +and offerings. The next part of the ceremony consists in bringing +a bier and placing a Panan on it, and a measure of rice is placed +at his head. He is, as in the case of a dead body, covered with a +piece of new cloth, and a small plantain tree is placed between the +thighs. At his head a sheep and at his feet a fowl are killed. He +pretends gradually to recover consciousness. In this state he is +taken outside the compound. The Panan, lying on the bier, evidently +pretends to be dead, as if killed by the attack of some demon. The +propitiation with songs and offerings is intended to gratify the +demons. This is an instance of sympathetic magic. + +"Some among the Panans practice the oti (or odi) cult, like +the Parayas. The following medicines, with the aid of magic, +are serviceable to them in enticing pregnant women from their +houses. Their preparation is described as follows. A Panan, who is +an adept in the black art, bathes early in the morning, dresses in a +cloth unwashed, and performs puja to his deity, after which he goes +in search of a Kotuveli plant (Manihot utilissima). When he finds +such a one as he wants, he goes round it three times every day, +and continues to do so for ninety days, prostrating himself every +day before it. On the last night, which must be a new-moon night, at +twelve o'clock he performs puja to the plant, burning camphor, and, +after going round it three times, prostrates himself before it. He +then places three small torches on it, and advances twenty paces in +front of it. With his mouth closed, and without any fear, he plucks +the plant by the root, and buries it in the ashes on the cremation +ground, on which he pours the water of seven green cocoanuts. He +then goes round it twenty-one times, muttering all the while certain +mantrams, after which he plunges himself in the water, and stands +erect until it extends to his mouth. He takes a mouthful of water, +which he empties on the spot, and then takes the plant with the root, +which he believes to possess peculiar virtues. When it is taken to the +closed door of a house, it has the power to entice a pregnant woman, +when the foetus is removed (cf. article Parayan). It is all secretly +done on a dark midnight. The head, hands and legs are cut off, and +the trunk is taken to a dark-coloured rock, on which it is cut into +nine pieces, which are all burned until they are blackened. At this +stage, one piece boils, and is placed in a new earthen pot, with the +addition of the water of nine green cocoanuts. The pot is removed +to the burial-ground. The Panan performs a puja here in favour of +his favourite deity. Here he fixes two poles deep in the earth, +at a distance of thirty feet from each other. + +The poles are connected by a strong wire, from which is suspended +the pot to be heated and boiled. Seven fire-places are made, beneath +the wire. The branches of bamboo, katalati (Achyranthes Emblica), +conga (Bauhinea variegata), cocoanut palm, jack tree (Artocarpus +integrifolia), and pavatta (Pavatta indica), are used in forming a +bright fire. The mixture in the pot soon boils and becomes oily, at +which stage it is passed through a fine cloth. The oil is preserved, +and a mark made with it on the forehead enables the possessor to +realise anything that is thought of. The sorcerer must be in a state +of vow for twenty-one days, and live on a diet of chama kanji. The +deity, whose aid is necessary, is propitiated with offerings. + +"One of the ceremonies which the Panans perform is called Thukil +Onarthuka (waking thukil, a kind of drum). In the month of Karkadakam +(July-August), a Panan, with his wife, provided with a drum and +kuzhithalam (circular bell-metal cymbals), goes to the houses of +Brahmans and Nayars after midnight, and sings sacred songs. During the +week, they sing standing underneath a banyan tree near the western +gate of the Trichur temple. From the temple authorities they get +five measures of paddy, half a measure of rice, some gingelly oil, +and a cocoanut. For their services in other houses, they receive a +similar remuneration. This is intended to drive evil spirits, if any, +from houses. Another of their festivals is known as Panan Kali. The +traditional account therefor is as follows. Once, when a Panan and +his wife went to a forest to bring bamboos for the manufacture of +umbrellas, they missed their way, night approached, and they could not +return. They began to be frightened by the varieties of noise heard +by them in the wilderness. They collected pieces of dry bamboo and +leaves of trees, and burned them. In the presence of the light thus +obtained, the woman caught hold of a creeper hanging from a tree, +and danced in honour of Bhagavathi, while her husband sang songs +praising her. The day dawned at last, and they found their way home +in safety. In memory of this incident, the Panans organise a party +for a regular play. There are ten male and two female actors, and +the play is acted during the whole night. + +"The religion of the Panans consists of an all-pervading +demonology. Their chief gods are Mukkan, Chathan, Kappiri, +Malankorathi, and Kali. Pujas are performed to them on the first of +Medom (April-May), Karkadakam (July-August), Desara, and on Tuesday +in Makaram (January-February). These deities are represented by stones +placed under a tree. They are washed with water on the aforesaid days, +and offerings of sheep and fowls, malar (parched rice), plantains, +cocoanuts, and boiled rice are made to them. Their belief is that +these deities are ever prone to do harm to them, and should therefore +be propitiated with offerings. The Panans also worship the spirits +of their ancestors, who pass for their household gods, and whose +help they seek in all times of danger. They fast on new-moon nights, +and on the eleventh night after full-moon or new-moon. + +"The Panan is the barber of the polluting castes above Cherumans. By +profession he is an umbrella-maker. Panans are also engaged in all +kinds of agricultural work. In villages, they build mud walls. Their +women act as midwives. + +"As regards social status, the Panans eat at the hands of Brahmans, +Nayars, Kammalans, and Izhuvans. They have to stand at a distance of +thirty-two feet from Brahmans. Panans and Kaniyans pollute one another +if they touch, and both bathe should they happen to do so. They are +their own barbers and washermen. They live in the vicinity of the +Izhuvans, but cannot live in the Nayar tharas. Nor can they take water +from the wells of the Kammalans. They cannot approach the outer walls +of Brahman temples, and are not allowed to enter the Brahman streets +in Palghat." + +In the Census Report, 1891, Panan occurs as a sub-division of the +Paraiyans. Their chief occupation as leather-workers is said to be +the manufacture of drum-heads. [30] + +Panasa.--The Panasas are a class of beggars in the Telugu country, +who are said to ask alms only from Kamsalas. The word panasa means +constant repetition of words, and, in its application to the Panasa, +probably indicates that they, like the Bhatrazu bards and panegyrists, +make up verses eulogising those from whom they beg. It is stated in the +Kurnool Manual (1886) that "they take alms from the Beri Komatis and +goldsmiths (Kamsalas), and no others. The story goes that, in Golkonda, +a tribe of Komatis named Bacheluvaru were imprisoned for non-payment +of arrears of revenue. Finding certain men of the artificer class who +passed by in the street spit betel nut, they got it into their mouths, +and begged the artificers to get them released. The artificers, +pitying them, paid the arrears, and procured their release. It was +then that the Kamsalis fixed a vartana or annual house-fee for the +maintenance of the Panasa class, on condition that they should not +beg alms from the other castes." The Panasas appear every year in +the Kurnool district to collect their dues. + +Pancha.--Pancha, meaning five, is recorded as a sub-division of the +Linga Balijas, and Panchachara or Panchamsale as a sub-division of +Lingayats. In all these, pancha has reference to the five acharas +or ceremonial observances of the Lingayats, which seem to vary +according to locality. Wearing the lingam, worshipping it before +meals, and paying reverence to the Jangam priests, are included among +the observances. + +Panchala.--A synonym for Canarese Kammalans, among whom five (panch) +classes of workers are included, viz., gold and silver, brass and +copper, iron, and stone. + +Panchalinga (five lingams).--An exogamous sept of Boya. The lingam +is the symbol of Siva. + +Panchama.--The Panchamas are, in the Madras Census Report, 1871, summed +up as being "that great division of the people, spoken of by themselves +as the fifth caste, and described by Buchanan and other writers as +the Pancham Bandam." According to Buchanan, [31] the Pancham Bandum +"consist of four tribes, the Parriar, the Baluan, the Shekliar, and +the Toti." Buchanan further makes mention of Panchama Banijigaru and +Panchama Cumbharu (potters). The Panchamas were, in the Department +of Public Instruction, called "Paraiyas and kindred classes" till +1893. This classification was replaced, for convenience of reference, +by Panchama, which included Chacchadis, Godaris, Pulayas, Holeyas, +Madigas, Malas, Pallans, Paraiyans, Totis, and Valluvans. "It is," +the Director of Public Instruction wrote in 1902, "for Government +to consider whether the various classes concerned should, for the +sake of brevity, be described by one simple name. The terms Paraiya, +low caste, outcaste, carry with them a derogatory meaning, and are +unsuitable. The expression Pancham Banda, or more briefly Panchama, +seems more appropriate." The Government ruled that there is no +objection to the proposal that Paraiyas and kindred classes should +be designated Panchama Bandham or Panchama in future, but it would +be simpler to style them the fifth class. + +The following educational privileges according to the various classes +classified as Panchama may be noted:-- + +(1) They are admitted into schools at half the standard rates of fees. + +(2) Under the result grant system (recently abolished), grants were +passed for Panchama pupils at rates 50 per cent. higher than in +ordinary cases, and 15 per cent. higher in backward localities. + +(3) Panchama schools were exempted from the attendance restriction, +i.e., grants were given to them, however small the attendance. Ordinary +schools had to have an attendance of ten at least to earn grants. + +(4) Panchama students under training as teachers get stipends at +rates nearly double of those for ordinary Hindus. + +An interesting account of the system of education at the Olcott +Panchama Free Schools has been written by Mrs. Courtright. [32] + +Panchama is returned, in the Census Reports, 1891 and 1901, as a +sub-division of Balija and Banajiga. + +Pancharamkatti.--A sub-division of Idaiyan, which derives its name +from the neck ornament (pancharam) worn by the women. + +Pandamuttu.--A sub-division of Palli. The name is made by Winslow to +mean a number of torches arranged so as to represent an elephant. The +Pallis, however, explain it as referring to the pile of pots, which +reaches to the top of the marriage pandal (pandal, booth, mutti, +touching). The lowest pot is decorated with figures of elephants +and horses. + +Pandaram.--Pandaram is described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [33] as being +"the name rather of an occupation than a caste, and used to denote +any non-Brahmanical priest. The Pandarams seem to receive numerous +recruits from the Saivite Sudra castes, who choose to make a profession +of piety, and wander about begging. They are in reality very lax +in their modes of life, often drinking liquor and eating animal +food furnished by any respectable Sudra. They often serve in Siva +temples, where they make garlands of flowers to decorate the lingam, +and blow brazen trumpets when offerings are made, or processions take +place. Tirutanni is one of the chief places, in which they congregate." + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly district, that +"the water for the god's bath at Ratnagiri is brought by a caste of +non-Brahmans known as Tirumanjana Pandarams, who fetch it every day +from the Cauvery. They say that they are descended from an Aryan king, +who came to the god with the hope of getting rubies from him. The god, +in the guise of a Brahman, tested his devotion by making him fill a +magic vessel with Cauvery water. The vessel would not fill, and the +Aryan stranger in a fit of anger cut off the Brahman's head. The dead +body at once turned into a lingam, and the Aryan was ordered to carry +water for the temple till eternity." + +Pandaram is used both as the name of a caste, and of a class composed +of recruits from various castes (e.g., Vellala and Palli). The +Pandaram caste is composed of respectable people who have settled +down as land-holders, and of Sanyasis and priests of certain matams +(religious institutions), and managers of richly endowed temples, such +as those at Tiruvadudurai in Tanjore and Mailam in South Arcot. The +common name for these managers is Tambiran. The caste Pandarams are +staunch Saivites and strict vegetarians. Those who lead a celibate +life wear the lingam. They are said to have been originally Sozhia +Vellalas, with whom intermarriage still takes place. They are initiated +into the Saivite religion by a rite called Dhikshai, which is divided +into five stages, viz., Samaya, Nirvana, Visesha, Kalasothanai, and +Acharya Abhishekam. Some are temple servants, and supply flowers for +the god, while others sing devaram (hymns to the god) during the temple +service. On this account, they are known as Meikaval (body-guard of +the god), and Oduvar (reader). The caste Pandarams have two divisions, +called Abhisheka and Desikar, and the latter name is often taken as +a title, e.g., Kandasami Desikar. An Abhisheka Pandaram is one who +is made to pass through some ceremonies connected with Saiva Agama. + +The mendicant Pandarams, who are recruited from various classes, +wear the lingam, and do not abstain from eating flesh. Many villages +have a Pandaram as the priest of the shrine of the village deity, +who is frequently a Palli who has become a Pandaram by donning the +lingam. The females are said to live, in some cases, by prostitution. + +The Lingayat Pandarams differ in many respects from the true +Lingayats. The latter respect their Jangam, and use the sacred +water, in which the feet of the Jangam are washed, for washing their +stone lingam. To the Pandarams, and Tamil Lingayats in general, this +proceeding would amount to sacrilege of the worst type. Canarese and +Telugu Lingayats regard a Jangam as superior to the stone lingam. In +the matter of pollution ceremonies the Tamil Lingayats are very +particular, whereas the orthodox Lingayats observe no pollution. The +investiture with the lingam does not take place so early among the +Tamil as among the Canarese Lingayats. + +For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana +Rao. "Dr. H. H. Wilson [34] is of opinion that the word Pandaram is +'more properly Panduranga, pale complexioned, from their smearing +themselves with ashes. It is so used in Hemachandra's history +of Mahavira, when speaking of the Saiva Brahmans.' A more popular +derivation of the name is from Bandaram, a public treasury. A good many +well-to-do Pandarams are managers of Siva temples in Southern India, +and accordingly have the temple treasuries under their care. It is, +however, possible that the name has been acquired by the caste by +reason of their keeping a yellow powder, called pandaram, in a little +box, and giving it in return for the alms which they receive. + +Opinions are divided as to whether the Pandarams are Lingayats or +not. The opinion held by F. W. Ellis, the well-known Tamil scholar and +translator of the Kural of Tiruvalluvar, is thus summarised by Colonel +Wilks. [35] "Mr. Ellis considers the Jangam of the upper countries, and +the Pandaram of the lower, to be of the same sect, and both deny in the +most unequivocal terms the doctrine of the metempsychosis. A manuscript +in the Mackenzie collection ascribes the origin of the Pandarams as +a sacerdotal order of the servile caste to the religious disputes, +which terminated in the suppression of the Jain religion in the Pandian +(Madura) kingdom, and the influence which they attained by the aid +which they rendered to the Brahmans in that controversy, but this +origin seems to require confirmation. In a large portion, perhaps in +the whole of the Brahmanical temples dedicated to Siva in the provinces +of Arcot, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Madura and Tinnevelly, the Pandaram +is the highest of the temple, and has the entire direction of the +revenues, but allows the Brahmans to officiate in the ceremonial part +according to their own good pleasure, as a concern altogether below +his note. He has generally the reputation of an irreproachable life, +and is treated by the Brahmans of the temple with great reverence, +while on his part he looks with compassion at the absurd trifles +which occupy their attention. These facts seem to point to some former +revolution, in which a Jangam government obtained a superiority over +the Brahmanical establishments, and adopted this mode of superseding +the substantial part of their authority. It is a curious instance +of the Sooder (Sudra) being the spiritual lord of the Brahman, and +is worthy of further historical investigation." Dr. Wilson [36] also +thinks that the Pandarams are Lingayats. Mr. H. A. Stuart [37] says +that they are a class of priests who serve the non-Brahman castes. They +have returned 115 sub-divisions, of which only two are sufficiently +large to require mention, Andi of Tinnevelly and Malabar, and Lingadari +of Chingleput and Tinnevelly. Andi is a quasi-caste of beggars +recruited from all castes, and the Lingadari Pandarams are the same as +Jangams. Pandaram is, in fact, a class name rather than the name of a +caste, and it consists of priests and beggars. Mr. C. P. Brown [38] +thinks that the Pandarams are not Lingayats. 'The Saiva worshippers +among the Tamils are called Pandarams: these are not Vira Saivas, +nor do they wear the linga or adore Basava. I name them here chiefly +because they are often mentioned as being Vira Saivas, whereas in +truth they are (like the Smartas) Purva Saivas, and worship the image +of Siva in their houses.' It must be remarked that Mr. Brown appears +to have had a confused idea of Pandarams. Pandarams wear the linga +on their bodies in one of the usual modes, are priests to others +professing the Lingayat religion, and are fed by them on funeral and +other ceremonial occasions. At the same time, it must be added that +they are--more especially the begging sections--very lax as regards +their food and drink. This characteristic distinguishes them from the +more orthodox Lingayats. Moreover, Lingayats remarry their widows, +whereas the Pandarams, as a caste, will not. + +"Pandarams speak Tamil. They are of two classes, the married and +celibate. The former are far more numerous than the latter, and dress +in the usual Hindu manner. They have the hind-lock of hair known as the +kudumi, put on sacred ashes, and paint the point between the eyebrows +with a sandal paste dot. The celibates wear orange-tawny cloths, +and daub sacred ashes all over their bodies. They allow the hair +of the head to become matted. They wear sandals with iron spikes, +and carry in their hands an iron trisulam (the emblem of Siva), +and a wooden baton called dandayudha (another emblem of Siva). When +they go about the streets, they sing popular Tamil hymns, and beat +against their begging bowl an iron chain tied by a hole to one of +its sides. Married men also beg, but only use a bell-metal gong +and a wooden mallet. Most of these help pilgrims going to the more +famous Siva temples in the Madras Presidency, e.g., Tirutani, Palni, +Tiruvannamalai, or Tirupparankunram. Among both sections, the dead are +buried in the sitting posture, as among other Lingayats. A samadhi +is erected over the spot where they are buried. This consists of a +linga and bull in miniature, which are worshipped as often as may be +found convenient. + +"The managers of temples and mutts (religious institutions), known +as Pandara Sannadhis, belong to the celibate class. They are usually +learned in the Agamas and Puranas. A good many of them are Tamil +scholars, and well versed in Saiva Siddhanta philosophy. They call +themselves Tambirans--a title which is often usurped by the uneducated +beggars." + +In the Census Report, 1901, Vairavi is returned as a sub-caste of +Pandaram, and said to be found only in the Tinnevelly district, where +they are measurers of grains and pujaris in village temples. Vairavi +is further used as a name for members of the Melakkaran caste, who +officiate as servants at the temples of the Nattukottai Chettis. + +Pandaram is a title of the Panisavans and Valluvan priests of the +Paraiyans. + +A class of people called hill Pandarams are described [39] by the +Rev. S. Mateer as "miserable beings without clothing, implements, +or huts of any kind, living in holes, rocks, or trees. They bring +wax, ivory (tusks), and other produce to the Arayans, and get salt +from them. They dig roots, snare the ibex (wild goat, Hemitragus +hylocrius) of the hills, and jungle fowls, eat rats and snakes, and +even crocodiles found in the pools among the hill streams. They were +perfectly naked and filthy, and very timid. They spoke Malayalam in a +curious tone, and said that twenty-two of their party had been devoured +by tigers within two monsoons." Concerning these hill Pandarams, +Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes that they live on the banks of streams +in crevices of rocks, caves, and hollows of trees. They are known to +the dwellers on the plains as Kattumanushyar, or forest men. They clad +themselves in the bark of trees, and, in the rainy and cold seasons, +protect their bodies with plantain leaves. They speak a corrupt form of +Tamil. They fear the sight of other men, and try to avoid approaching +them. A former European magistrate of the Cardamom Hills took some +of them to his residence, but, during their three days' stay there, +they refused to eat or talk. There is a chieftain for every four hills, +but his authority is little more than nominal. When women are married, +the earth and hills are invoked as witnesses. They have Hindu names, +such as Raman, Kittan (Krishna), and Govindan. + +In a lecture delivered some years ago at Trivandrum, Mr. O. H. Bensley +described the hill Pandarams as being "skilful in catching fish, +their mode of cooking which is to place the fish on roots on a rock, +and cover them with fire. They keep dogs, and, by their aid, replenish +their larder with rats, mungooses, iguanas (lizard, Varanus), and +other delicacies. I was told that the authority recognised by these +people is the head Arayan, to whom they give a yearly offering of +jungle produce, receiving in exchange the scanty clothing required +by them. We had an opportunity of examining their stock-in-trade, +which consisted of a bill-hook similar to those used by other hillmen, +a few earthen cooking-pots, and a good stock of white flour, which +was, they said, obtained from the bark of a tree, the name of which +sounded like ahlum. They were all small in stature, with the exception +of one young woman, and, both in appearance and intelligence, compared +favourably with the Uralis." + +Pandariyar.--Pandariyar or Pandarattar, denoting custodians of +the treasury, has been returned as a title of Nattaman, Malaiman, +and Sudarman. + +Pandava-kulam.--A title, indicative "of the caste of the Pandava +kings," assumed by Jatapus and Konda Doras, who worship the +Pandavas. The Pandava kings were the heroes of the Mahabharata, who +fought a great battle with the Kauravas, and are said to have belonged +to the lunar race of Kshatriyas. The Pandavas had a single wife named +Draupadi, whom the Pallis or Vanniyans worship, and celebrate annually +in her honour a fire-walking festival. The Pallis claim to belong to +the fire race of Kshatriyas, and style themselves Agnikula Kshatriyas, +or Vannikula Kshatriyas. + +Pandi (pig).--Recorded as an exogamous sept of Asili, Boya, and +Gamalla. Pandipattu (pig catchers) and Pandikottu (pig killers) +occur as exogamous septs of Odde. + +Pandito.--Pandit or Pundit (pandita, a learned man) has been defined +[40] as "properly a man learned in Sanskrit lore. The Pundit of the +Supreme Court was a Hindu law-officer, whose duty it was to advise +the English Judges when needful on questions of Hindu law. The office +became extinct on the constitution of the High Court (in 1862). In the +Mahratta and Telugu countries, the word Pandit is usually pronounced +Pant (in English colloquial Punt)." In the countries noted, Pant +occurs widely as a title of Brahmans, who are also referred to +as Pantulu varu. The titles Sanskrit Pundit, Telugu Pundit, etc., +are still officially recognised at several colleges in the Madras +Presidency. Pandit sometimes occurs as an honorific prefix, e.g., +Pandit S. M. Natesa Sastri, and Panditan is a name given to Tamil +barbers (Ambattan). In some parts of the Tamil country, Panditar is +used as a name for Madhva Brahmans, because, it is said, many of them +were formerly engaged as pandits at the Law Courts. + +Pandito is further the name of "an Oriya caste of astrologers and +physicians. They wear the sacred thread, and accept drinking water +only from Brahmans and Gaudos. Infant marriage is practiced, and widow +marriage is prohibited." [41] I am informed that these Panditos engage +Brahmans for their ceremonials, do not drink liquor, and eat fish and +mutton, but not fowls or beef. The females wear glass bangles. They +are known by the name of Khodikaro, from khodi, a kind of stone, +with which they write figures on the floor, when making astrological +calculations. The stone is said to be something like soapstone. + +Pandita occurs as an exogamous sept of Stanikas. + +Pandya.--The territorial name Pandya, Pandiya, Pandiyan, or Pandi +has been returned, at recent times of census, as a sub-division of +various Tamil classes, e.g., Ambattan, Kammalan, Occhan, Pallan, +Vannan, and Vellala. Pandiya is further a title of some Shanans. In +Travancore, Pandi has been returned by some Izhavans. The variant +Pandiangal occurs as an exogamous sept of the Tamil Vallambans, +and Pandu as a Tamil synonym for Kapu or Reddi. + +Panikkar.--Panikkar, meaning teacher or worker, has been recorded, +in the Malayalam country, as a title of barbers, Kammalan, Maran, +Nayar, Panan, and Paraiyan. In former times, the name was applied, +in Malabar, to fencing-masters, as the following quotations show :-- + + + 1518. "And there are very skilful men who teach this art (fencing), + and they are called Panicars."--Barbosa. + + 1553. "And when the Naire comes to the age of 7 years, he is + obliged to go to the fencing-school, the master of which (whom + they call Panical) they regard as a father, on account of the + instruction he gives them."--Barros. + + 1583. "The maisters which teach them be graduates in the + weapons which they teach, and they be called in their language + Panycaes."--Castaneda. + + +A class of people called Panikkan are settled in the Madura and +Tinnevelly districts. Some of them are barbers to Shanans. Others have +taken to weaving as a profession, and will not intermarry with those +who are employed as barbers. "The Panikkans are," Mr. Francis writes, +[42] "weavers, agriculturists, and traders. They employ Brahmans as +priests, but these are apparently not received on terms of equality +by other Brahmans. The Panikkans now frequently call themselves Illam +Vellalas, and change their title in deeds and official papers from +Panikkan to Pillai. They are also taking to wearing the sacred thread +and giving up eating meat. The caste is divided into three vagais or +endogamous classes, namely, Mital, Pattanam, and Malayalam, and each +of these again has five partly exogamous septs or illams (families), +namely, Muttillam, Toranattillam, Pallikkillam, Manjanattillam, and +Soliya-illam. It is stated that the Mital and Pattanam sections will +eat together though they do not intermarry, but that the Malayalam +section can neither dine with nor marry into the other two. They are +reported to have an elaborate system of caste government, under which +eleven villages form a gadistalam (or stage), and send representatives +to its council to settle caste matters; and eleven gadistalams form +a nadu (or country), and send representatives to a chief council, +which decides questions which are beyond the competence of the +gadistalams." The occurrence of Malayam as the name of a sub-division, +and of the Malayalam word illam as that of the exogamous septs, would +seem to indicate that the Panikkans are immigrants from the westward +into the Tamil country. + +Panimagan (work children).--A name for Mukkuvans who are employed as +barbers for members of their caste. + +Panisavan.--Panisavan is defined in the Salem Manual as "a corruption +of paniseygiravan (panisaivon), literally meaning one who works (or +does service), and is the caste name of the class, whose business it +is to carry news of death to the relations of the deceased, and to +blow the tharai or long trumpet." According to Mr. H. A. Stuart, [43] +Panisavan appears to answer among the Tamilians to the Dasaris or Tadas +of the Telugus. It is a mendicant caste, worshipping Siva. Unlike the +Tadas, however, they often employ themselves in cultivation, and are, +on the whole, a more temperate and respectable class. Their priests +are Brahmans, and they eat flesh, and drink alcoholic liquor very +freely. The dead are generally burned. + +There are two classes of Panisavans, of which one works for the +right-hand section, and the other for the left. This division is purely +professional, and there is apparently no bar to intermarriage between +the two classes. The insignia of a Panisavan are the conch-shell +(Turbinella rapa) and tharai, which he supports from the ground by +means of a bamboo pole while he blows it. At marriage processions, +it is his duty to go in front, sounding the tharai from time to +time. On such occasions, and at festivals of the village goddesses, +the tharai is decorated with a string bearing a number of small +triangular pieces of cloth, and tufts of yak's hair. The cloth +should be white for the right-hand section, and of five different +colours for the left. At the present day, the Panisavan is more in +request for funerals than for weddings. In the city of Madras, all +the materials necessary for the bier are sold by Panisavans, who also +keep palanquins for the conveyance of the corpse in stock, which are +let out on hire. At funerals, the Panisavan has to follow the corpse, +blowing his conch-shell. The tharai is only used if the deceased was +an important personage. When the son goes round the corpse with a pot +of water, the Panisavan accompanies him, and blows the conch. On the +last day of the death ceremonies (karmandhiram), the Panisavan should +be present, and blow his conch, especially when the tali (marriage +badge) is removed from a widow's neck. In some places, the Panisavan +conveys the news of death, while in others this duty is carried out by +a barber. In the Chingleput and North Arcot districts, the Panisavans +constitute a separate caste, and have no connection with the Nokkans, +who are beggars attached to the Palli or Vanniyan caste. In South +Arcot and Tanjore, on the other hand, the name Nokkan is used to +signify the caste, which performs the duties of the Panisavan, for +which it seems to be a synonym. The Panisavans of the Tinnevelly +district have nothing in common with those of the northern districts, +e.g., Chingleput and North Arcot, whose duty it is to attend to the +funeral ceremonies of the non-Brahman castes. The main occupations +of the Tinnevelly Panisavans are playing in temples on the nagasaram +(reed instrument), and teaching Deva-dasis dancing. Another occupation, +which is peculiar to the Tinnevelly Panisavans, is achu velai, i.e., +the preparation of the comb to which the warp threads of a weaving loom +are tied. Socially the Panisavans occupy a lowly position, but they use +the title Pulavar. Their other titles are Pandaram, Pillai, and Mudali. + +Paniyan.--The Paniyans are a dark-skinned tribe, short in stature, +with broad noses, and curly or wavy hair, inhabiting the Wynad, +and those portions of the Ernad, Calicut, Kurumbranad and Kottayam +taluks of Malabar, which skirt the base of the ghats, and the Mudanad, +Cherangod, and Namblakod amshams of the Nilgiri district. + +A common belief, based on their general appearance, prevails among +the European planting community that the Paniyans are of African +origin, and descended from ancestors who were wrecked on the Malabar +coast. This theory, however, breaks down on investigation. Of their +origin nothing definite is known. The Nayar Janmis (landlords) +say that, when surprised in the act of some mischief or alarmed, +the Paniyan calls out 'Ippi'! 'Ippi'! as he runs away, and they +believe this to have been the name of the country whence they came +originally; but they are ignorant as to where Ippimala, as they +call it, is situated. Kapiri (Africa or the Cape?) is also sometimes +suggested as their original habitat, but only by those who have had +the remarks of Europeans communicated to them. The Paniyan himself, +though he occasionally puts forward one or other of the above places +as the home of his forefathers, has no fixed tradition bearing on +their arrival in Malabar, beyond one to the effect that they were +brought from a far country, where they were found living by a Raja, +who captured them, and carried them off in such a miserable condition +that a man and his wife only possessed one cloth between them, and +were so timid that it was only by means of hunting nets that they +were captured. + +The number of Paniyans, returned at the census, 1891, was 33,282, +and nine sub-divisions were registered; but, as Mr. H. A. Stuart, +the Census Commissioner, observes:--"Most of these are not real, and +none has been returned by any considerable number of persons." Their +position is said to be very little removed from that of a slave, +for every Paniyan is some landlord's 'man'; and, though he is, of +course, free to leave his master, he is at once traced, and good care +is taken that he does not get employment elsewhere. + +In the fifties of the last century, when planters first began to settle +in the Wynad, they purchased the land with the Paniyans living on it, +who were practically slaves of the land-owners. The Paniyans used +formerly to be employed by rich receivers as professional coffee +thieves, going out by night to strip the bushes of their berries, +which were delivered to the receiver before morning. Unlike the +Badagas of the Nilgiris, who are also coffee thieves, and are afraid +to be out after dark, the Paniyans are not afraid of bogies by night, +and would not hesitate to commit nocturnal depredations. My friend, +Mr. G. Romilly, on whose estate my investigation of the Paniyans was +mainly carried out, assures me that, according to his experience, +the domesticated Paniyan, if well paid, is honest, and fit to be +entrusted with the responsible duties of night watchman. + +In some localities, where the Janmis have sold the bulk of their land, +and have consequently ceased to find regular employment for them, +the Paniyans have taken kindly to working on coffee estates, but +comparatively few are thus employed. The word Paniyan means labourer, +and they believe that their original occupation was agriculture as it +is, for the most part, at the present day. Those, however, who earn +their livelihood on estates, only cultivate rice and ragi (Eleusine +coracana) for their own cultivation; and women and children may be +seen digging up jungle roots, or gathering pot-herbs for food. They +will not eat the flesh of jackals, snakes, vultures, lizards, rats, +or other vermin. But I am told that they eat land-crabs, in lieu of +expensive lotions, to prevent baldness and grey hairs. They have a +distinct partiality for alcohol, and those who came to be measured +by me were made more than happy by a present of a two-anna piece, +a cheroot, and a liberal allowance of undiluted fiery brandy from the +Meppadi bazar. The women are naturally of a shy disposition, and used +formerly to run away and hide at the sight of a European. They were +at first afraid to come and see me, but confidence was subsequently +established, and all the women came to visit me, some to go through the +ordeal of measurement, others to laugh at and make derisive comments +on those who were undergoing the operation. + +Practically the whole of the rice cultivation in the Wynad is carried +out by the Paniyans attached to edoms (houses or places) or devasoms +(temple property) of the great Nayar landlords; and Chettis and +Mappillas also frequently have a few Paniyans, whom they have bought +or hired by the year at from four to eight rupees per family from a +Janmi. When planting paddy or herding cattle, the Paniyan is seldom +seen without the kontai or basket-work protection from the rain. This +curious, but most effective substitute for the umbrella-hat of the +Malabar coast, is made of split reeds interwoven with 'arrow-root' +leaves, and shaped something like a huge inverted coal-scoop turned +on end, and gives to the individual wearing it the appearance of a +gigantic mushroom. From the nature of his daily occupation the Paniyan +is often brought in contact with wild animals, and is generally a +bold, and, if excited, as he usually is on an occasion such as the +netting of a tiger, a reckless fellow. The young men of the villages +vie with each other in the zeal which they display in carrying out +the really dangerous work of cutting back the jungle to within a +couple of spear-lengths of the place where the quarry lies hidden, +and often make a show of their indifference by turning and conversing +with their friends outside the net. + +Years ago it was not unusual for people to come long distance for the +purpose of engaging Wynad Paniyans to help them in carrying out some +more than usually desperate robbery or murder. Their mode of procedure, +when engaged in an enterprise of this sort, is evidenced by two cases, +which had in them a strong element of savagery. On both these occasions +the thatched homesteads were surrounded at dead of night by gangs of +Paniyans carrying large bundles of rice straw. After carefully piling +up the straw on all sides of the building marked for destruction, +torches were, at a given signal, applied, and those of the wretched +inmates who attempted to escape were knocked on the head with clubs, +and thrust into the fiery furnace. + +The Paniyans settle down happily on estates, living in a settlement +consisting of rows of huts and detached huts, single or double storied, +built of bamboo and thatched. During the hot weather, in the unhealthy +months which precede the advent of the south-west monsoon, they shift +their quarters to live near streams, or in other cool, shady spots, +returning to their head quarters when the rains set in. + +They catch fish either by means of big flat bamboo mats, or, in a +less orthodox manner, by damming a stream and poisoning the water +with herbs, bark, and fruit, which are beaten to a pulp and thrown +into the water. The fish, becoming stupified, float on the surface, +and fall an easy and unfairly earned prey. + +It is recorded by Mr. H. C. Wilson [44] that the section of the +Moyar river "stretching from the bottom of the Pykara falls down to +the sheer drop into the Mysore ditch below Teppakadu is occupied +principally by Carnatic carp. In the upper reaches I found traces +of small traps placed across side runners or ditches, which were +then dry. They had evidently been in use during the last floods, and +allowed to remain. Constructed of wood in the shape of a large rake +head with long teeth close together, they are fastened securely across +the ditch or runner at a slight angle with teeth in the gravel. The +object is to catch the small fry which frequent these side places for +protection during flood times. Judging by their primitive nature and +poor construction, they are not effective, but will do a certain amount +of damage. The nearest hamlet to this place is called Torappalli, +occupied by a few fisher people called Paniyans. These are no doubt +the makers of the traps, and, from information I received, they are +said to possess better fry and other traps. They are also accredited +with having fine-mesh nets, which they use when the waters are low." + +In 1907, rules were issued, under the Indian Fisheries Act, IV of 1897, +for the protection of fish in the Bhavani and Moyar rivers. These rules +referred to the erection and use of fixed engines, the construction +of weirs, and the use of nets, the meshes of which are less than one +and a half inches square for the capture or destruction of fish, and +the prohibition of fishing between the 15th March and 15th September +annually. Notice of the rules was given by beat of tom-tom (drum) +in the villages lying on the banks of the rivers, to which the rules +applied. + +The Paniyan language is a debased Malayalam patois spoken in a curious +nasal sing-song, difficult to imitate; but most of the Paniyans +employed on estates can also converse in Kanarese. + +Wholly uneducated and associating with no other tribes, the Paniyans +have only very crude ideas of religion. Believing in devils of all +sorts and sizes, and professing to worship the Hindu divinities, +they reverence especially the god of the jungles, Kad Bhagavadi, +or, according to another version, a deity called Kuli, a malignant +and terrible being of neither sex, whose shrines take the form of a +stone placed under a tree, or sometimes a cairn of stones. At their +rude shrines they contribute as offerings to the swami (god) rice +boiled in the husk, roasted and pounded, half-a-cocoanut, and small +coins. The banyan and a lofty tree, apparently of the fig tribe, +are reverenced by them, inasmuch as evil spirits are reputed to +haunt them at times. Trees so haunted must not be touched, and, +if the Paniyans attempt to cut them, they fall sick. + +Some Paniyans are believed to be gifted with the power of changing +themselves into animals; and there is a belief among the Paniyan +dwellers in the plains that, if they wish to secure a woman whom +they lust after, one of the men gifted with this special power goes +to her house at night with a hollow bamboo, and encircles the house +three times. The woman then comes out, and the man, changing himself +into a bull or dog, works his wicked will. The woman, it is believed, +dies in the course of two or three days. + +In 1904 some Paniyans were employed by a Mappilla (Muhammadan) to +murder his mistress, who was pregnant, and threatened that she would +noise abroad his responsibility for her condition. He brooded over +the matter, and one day, meeting a Paniyan, promised him ten rupees +if he would kill the woman. The Paniyan agreed to commit the crime, +and went with his brothers to a place on a hill, where the Mappilla +and the woman were in the habit of gratifying their passions. Thither +the man and woman followed the Paniyans, of whom one ran out, and +struck his victim on the head with a chopper. She was then gagged +with a cloth, carried some distance, and killed. The two Paniyans +and the Mappilla were sentenced to be hanged. + +Monogamy appears to be the general rule among the Paniyans, but there +is no obstacle to a man taking unto himself as many wives as he can +afford to support. + +Apparently the bride is selected for a young man by his parents, and, +in the same way that a wealthy European sometimes sends his betrothed +a daily present of a bouquet, the more humble Paniyan bridegroom-elect +has to take a bundle of firewood to the house of the fiancée every +day for six months. The marriage ceremony (and the marriage knot +does not appear to be very binding) is of a very simple nature. The +ceremony is conducted by a Paniyan Chemmi (a corruption of Janmi). A +present of sixteen fanams (coins) and some new cloths is given by the +bridegroom to the Chemmi, who hands them over to the parents of the +bride. A feast is prepared, at which the Paniyan women (Panichis) +dance to the music of drum and pipe. The tali (or marriage badge) +is tied round the neck of the bride by the female relations of the +bridegroom, who also invest the bride with such crude jewelry as +they may be able to afford. The Chemmi seals the contract by pouring +water over the head and feet of the young couple. It is said [45] +that a husband has to make an annual present to his wife's parents; +and failure to do so entitles them to demand their daughter back. A +man may, I was told, not have two sisters as wives; nor may he marry +his deceased wife's sister. Remarriage of widows is permitted. Adultery +and other forms of vice are adjudicated on by a panchayat (or council) +of headmen, who settle disputes and decide on the fine or punishment +to be inflicted on the guilty. At nearly every considerable Paniyan +village there is a headman called Kuttan, who has been appointed by +Nayar Janmi to look after his interests, and be responsible to him for +the other inhabitants of the village. The investiture of the Kuttan +with the powers of office is celebrated with a feast and dance, at +which a bangle is presented to the Kuttan as a badge of authority. Next +in rank to the Kuttan is the Mudali or head of the family, and they +usually constitute the panchayat. Both Kuttan and Mudali are called +Muppanmar or elders. The whole caste is sometimes loosely spoken of +as Muppan. In a case of proved adultery, a fine of sixteen fanams +(the amount of the marriage fee), and a sum equal to the expenses +of the wedding, including the present to the parents of the bride, +is the usual form of punishment. + +The Chemmi or Shemmi is, I am informed, a sort of priest or +minister. He was appointed, in olden days, by the chieftains under whom +the Paniyans worked, and each Chemmi held authority over a group of +villages. The office is hereditary, but, should a Chemmi family fail, +it can be filled up by election. + +No ceremony takes place in celebration of the birth of children. One +of the old women of the village acts as midwife, and receives a small +present in return for her services. As soon as a child is old enough +to be of use, it accompanies its parents to their work, or on their +fishing and hunting expeditions, and is initiated into the various +ways of adding to the stock of provisions for the household. + +The dead are buried in the following manner. A trench, four or five +feet deep, and large enough to receive the body to be interred, is +dug, due north and south, on a hill near the village. At the bottom +of this excavation the earth is scooped out from the western side on +a level with the floor throughout the length of the grave, so as to +form a receptacle for the corpse, which, placed on a mat, is laid +therein upon its left side with the head pointing to the south and +the feet to the north. After a little cooked rice has been put into +the grave for the use of the departed spirit, the mat, which has been +made broad enough for the purpose, is folded up and tucked in under +the roof of the cavity, and the trench filled up. It has probably +been found by experience that the corpse, when thus protected, +is safe from the ravages of scavenger jackals and pariah dogs. For +seven days after death, a little rice gruel is placed at distance +of from fifty to a hundred yards from the grave by the Chemmi, who +claps his hands as a signal to the evil spirits in the vicinity, who, +in the shape of a pair of crows, are supposed to partake of the food, +which is hence called kaka conji or crow's rice. + +The noombu or mourning ceremonies are the ti polay, seven days after +death; the kaka polay or karuvelli held for three years in succession +in the month of Magaram (January-February); and the matham polay +held once in every three or four years, when possible, as a memorial +service in honour of those who are specially respected. On all these +occasions the Chemmi presides, and acts as a sort of master of the +ceremonies. As the ceremonial carried out differs only in degree, +an account of the kaka polay will do for all. + +In the month of Magaram, the noombukarrans or mourners (who have lost +relatives) begin to cook and eat in a pandal or shed set apart from +the rest of the village, but otherwise go about their business as +usual. They wash and eat twice a day, but abstain from eating meat or +fish. On the last day of the month, arrangements are made, under the +supervision of the Chemmi, for the ceremony which brings the period +of mourning to a close. The mourners, who have fasted since daybreak, +take up their position in the pandal, and the Chemmi, holding on his +crossed arms two winnowing sieves, each containing a seer or two of +rice, walks round three times, and finally deposits the sieves in the +centre of the pandal. If, among the male relatives of the deceased, one +is to be found sufficiently hysterical, or actor enough, to simulate +possession and perform the functions of an oracle, well and good; but, +should they all be of a stolid temperament, there is always at hand +a professional corresponding to the Komaran or Vellichipad of other +Hindus. This individual is called the Patalykaran. With a new cloth +(mundu) on his head, and smeared on the body and arms with a paste +made of rice flour and ghi (clarified butter), he enters on the scene +with his legs girt with bells, the music of which is supposed to drive +away the attendant evil spirits (payanmar). Advancing with short steps +and rolling his eyes, he staggers to and fro, sawing the air with two +small sticks which he holds in either hand, and works himself up into +a frenzied state of inspiration, while the mourners cry out and ask +why the dead have been taken away from them. Presently a convulsive +shiver attacks the performer, who staggers more violently and falls +prostrate on the ground, or seeks the support of one of the posts +of the pandal, while he gasps out disjointed sentences, which are +taken to be the words of the god. The mourners now make obeisance, +and are marked on the forehead with the paste of rice flour and +ghi. This done, a mat is spread for the accommodation of the headmen +and Chemmi; and the Patalykaran, from whose legs the bells have been +removed and put with the rice in the sieves, takes these in his hands, +and, shaking them as he speaks, commences a funeral chant, which lasts +till dawn. Meanwhile food has been prepared for all present except the +mourners, and when this has been partaken of, dancing is kept up round +the central group till daybreak, when the pandal is pulled down and +the kaka polay is over. Those who have been precluded from eating make +up for lost time, and relatives, who have allowed their hair to grow +long, shave. The ordinary Paniyan does not profess to know the meaning +of the funeral orations, but contents himself with a belief that it +is known to those who are initiated. The women attend the ceremony, +but do not take part in the dance. In fact, the nearest approach to +a dance that they ever attempt (and this only on festive occasions) +resembles the ordinary occupation of planting rice, carried out in +dumb show to the music of a drum. The bodies of the performers stoop +and move in time with the music, and the arms are swung from side to +side as in the act of placing the rice seedlings in their rows. To see +a long line of Paniyan women, up to their knees in the mud of a rice +field, bobbing up and down and putting on the pace as the music grows +quicker and quicker, and to hear the wild yells of Hou! Hou! like +a chorus of hungry dogs, which form the vocal accompaniment as they +dab the green bunches in from side to side, is highly amusing. + +The foregoing account of the Paniyan death ceremonies was supplied +by Mr. Colin Mackenzie, to whom, as also to Mr. F. Fawcett, +Mr. G. Romilly, and Martelli, I am indebted for many of the facts +recorded in the present note. From Mr. Fawcett the following account +of a further ceremony was obtained:-- + +At a Paniyan village, on a coffee estate where the annual ceremony +was being celebrated, men and boys were dancing round a wooden +upright to the music of a small drum hanging at the left hip. Some +of the dancers had bells round the leg below the knee. Close to the +upright a man was seated, playing a pipe, which emitted sounds like +those of a bagpipe. In dancing, the dancers went round against the +sun. At some little distance a crowd of females indulged in a dance +by themselves. A characteristic of the dance, specially noticeable +among the women, was stooping and waving of the arms in front. The +dancers perspired freely, and kept up the dance for many hours to +rhythmic music, the tune of which changed from time to time. There +were three chief dancers, of whom one represented the goddess, the +others her ministers. They were smeared with streaks on the chest, +abdomen, arms and legs, had bells on the legs, and carried a short +stick about two feet in length in each hand. The sticks were held +over the head, while the performers quivered as if in a religious +frenzy. Now and again, the sticks were waved or beaten together. The +Paniyans believe that, when the goddess first appeared to them, she +carried two sticks in her hands. The mock goddess and her attendants, +holding the sticks above the head and shivering, went to each male +elder, and apparently received his blessing, the elder placing his +hand on their faces as a form of salutation, and then applying his +hand to his own face. The villagers partook of a light meal in the +early morning, and would not eat again until the end of the ceremony, +which concluded by the man-goddess seating himself on the upright, +and addressing the crowd on behalf of the goddess concerning their +conduct and morality. + +The Paniyans "worship animistic deities, of which the chief is Kuli, +whom they worship on a raised platform called Kulitara, offering +cocoanuts, but no blood." [46] They further worship Kattu Bhagavati, +or Bhagavati of the woods. "Shrines in her honour are to be found at +most centres of the caste, and contain no image, but a box in which +are kept the clothing and jewels presented to her by the devout. An +annual ceremony lasting a week is held in her honour, at which the +Komaran and a kind of priest, called Nolambukaran, take the chief +parts. The former dresses in the goddess' clothing, and the divine +afflatus descends upon him, and he prophesies both good and evil." + +Games.--A long strip of cane is suspended from the branch of a tree, +and a cross-bar fixed to its lower end. On the bar a boy sits, and +swings himself in all directions. In another game a bar, twelve +to fourteen feet in length, is balanced by means of a point in a +socket on an upright reaching about four feet and-a-half above the +ground. Over the end of the horizontal bar a boy hangs, and, touching +the ground with the feet, spins himself round. + +Some Paniyans have a thread tied round the wrist, ankle, or neck, +as a charm to ward off fever and other diseases. Some of the men have +the hair of the head hanging down in matted tails in performance of +a vow. The men wear brass, steel, and copper rings on their fingers +and brass rings in the ears. + +The women, in like manner, wear finger rings, and, in addition, +bangles on the wrist, and have the lobes of the ears widely dilated, +and plugged with cadjan (palm leaf) rolls. In some the nostril is +pierced, and plugged with wood. + +The Paniyans, who dwell in settlements at the base of the ghats, +make fire by what is known as the Malay or sawing method. A piece +of bamboo, about a foot in length, in which two nodes are included, +is split longitudinally into two equal parts. On one half a sharp +edge is cut with a knife. In the other a longitudinal slit is made +through about two-thirds of its length, which is stuffed with a +piece of cotton cloth. It is then held firmly on the ground with its +convex surface upwards, and the cutting edge drawn, with a gradually +quickening sawing motion, rapidly to and fro across it by two men, +until the cloth is ignited by the incandescent particles of wood in +the groove cut by the sharp edge. The cloth is then blown with the +lips into a blaze, and the tobacco or cooking fire can be lighted. + +At Pudupadi an elephant mahout was jealously guarding a bit of bamboo +stick with notches cut in it, each notch representing a day for +which wages were due to him. The stick in question had six notches, +representing six days' wages. + +Average height 157.4 cm. Nasal index 95 (max. 108.6). The average +distance from the tip of the middle finger to the top of the patella +was 4.6 cm. relative to stature = 100, which approximates very closely +to the recorded results of measurement of long-limbed African negroes. + +Panjai.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division +of Pandya Vellala. The name Panjai, indicating a poverty-stricken +individual, is usually applied to mendicant Pandarams. + +Panjaram.--Panjaram or Pancharamkatti is the name of a sub-division +of the Idaiyans, derived from the peculiar gold ornament, which the +women wear. It is said that, in this division, widow marriage is +commonly practiced, because Krishna used to place a similar ornament +round the necks of Idaiyan widows of whom he became enamoured, and +that this sub-division was the result of his amours with them. + +Panjukkara (cotton-man).--An occupational name of a sub-division of +Vellalas, who are not at the present day connected with the cotton +trade. They call themselves Panjukkara Chettis. The equivalent panjari +(pinjari) or Panjukotti occurs as a Tamil synonym for Dudekula +(Muhammadan cotton-cleaners). + +Pannadai (sheath of the cocoanut leaf).--A sub-division of Vettuvan. + +Pannaiyan.--A title of Alavan. + +Pannara.--A sub-division of Mali. + +Pannendu Nal (twelve days).--A name for those Pallis who, like +Brahmans, perform the final death ceremonies on the twelfth day. + +Pannirendam (twelfth) Chetti.--A section of the Chettis. + +Pano.--In the Madras Census Report, 1891, the Panos are described as +"a caste of weavers found in the Ganjam district. This caste is no +doubt identical with the Pans, a weaving, basket-making, and servile +caste of Orissa and Chota Nagpore. The Panos occupy the same position +among the Khonds of Ganjam as the Dombs hold among the inhabitants +of the Vizagapatam hills, and the words Pano and Dombo are generally +regarded as synonyms [See Domb]. The members of the Sitra sub-division +are workers in metal." It is further noted, in the Census Report, 1901, +that the Panos are "an extensive caste of hill weavers found chiefly +in the Ganjam Agency. The Khond synonym for this word is Domboloko, +which helps to confirm the connection between this caste and the Dombas +of Vizagapatam. They speak Khond and Oriya." In a note on the Panos, I +read that "their occupations are trading, weaving, and theft. They live +on the ignorance and superstition of the Khonds as brokers, pedlars, +sycophants, and cheats. In those parts where there are no Oriyas, +they possess much influence, and are always consulted by the Khonds +in questions of boundary disputes." In a brief account of the Panos, +Mr. C. F. MacCartie writes [47] that "the Panos, also known by the +title of Dombo or Sitra in some parts, are supposed to be Paraiya +[Telugu Mala] emigrants from the low country. Their profession is +weaving or brass work, the monotony of which they vary by petty +trading in horns, skins and live cattle, and occasionally enliven +by house-breaking and theft at the expense of the Khonds, who have +an incautious trick of leaving their habitations utterly unguarded +when they go off to the hills to cultivate. [In the Madras Census +Report, 1901, the Sitras are said to be supposed to be the progeny +of a Khond man and a Haddi woman, who manufacture the brass rings +and bangles worn by the Khonds.] The Panos are drunken, immoral, +and dirty in their habits. The Khonds refuse to eat with them, but I +do not find that this objection extends to drinking, at which both +Khond and Pano display surprising capabilities. Panos are also the +professional musicians of the country, and attend weddings, deaths +and sacrifices in this character, for which they are recompensed with +food, liquor, and cloths. The generality of Khond and Pano houses are +constructed of broad sâl (Shorea robusta) logs, hewn out with the axe +and thatched with jungle grass, which is impervious to white-ants. In +bamboo jungles, of course, bamboo is substituted for sâl. The Panos +generally affect a detached quarter, known as Dombo sai. Intermarriage +between Khonds, Panos, and Uriyas is not recognised, but cases do +occur when a Pano induces a Khond woman to go off with him. She may +live with him as his wife, but no ceremony takes place. [A few years +ago, a young Khond was betrothed to the daughter of another Khond, +and, after a few years, managed to pay up the necessary number of +gifts. He then applied to the girl's father to name the day for the +marriage. Before the wedding took place however, a Pano went to the +girl's father, and said that she was his daughter (she had been born +before her parents were married), and that he was the man to whom +the gifts should have been paid. The case was referred to a council, +which decided in favour of the Pano.] If a Pano commits adultery +with a Khond married woman, he has to pay a paronjo, or a fine of +a buffalo to the husband (who retains his wife), and in addition +a goat, a pig, a basket of paddy (rice), a rupee, and a load of +pots. There is close communication between the Panos and the Khonds, +as the former act as the advisers of the latter in all cases of doubt +or difficulty. The Uriyas live apart from both, and mix but little +with either, except on the occasion of sacrifices or other solemn +assemblages, when buffaloes are slaughtered for Panos and Khonds, +and goats or sheep for Uriya visitors. [It is noted, in the Ganjam +Manual, in connection with Khond death ceremonies, that "if a man +has been killed by a tiger, purification is made by the sacrifice +of a pig, the head of which is cut off with a tangi (axe) by a Pano, +and passed between the legs of the men in the village, who stand in a +line astraddle. It is a bad omen to him, if the head touches any man's +legs.] Among the products of the jungles may be included myrabolams +(Terminalia fruits), tasar silk cocoons, and dammer, all of which +are bartered by the finders to trading Panos in small quantities, +generally for salt." In the Ganjam Maliahs, the jungles are said to +be searched by Panos for tasar cocoons, and, just across the border +in Boad, the collection of these cocoons is a regular industry among +them. Small portions of jungle are regularly reserved, and divided +up into small allotments. Each of these is given to a Pano for rent, +and here he cultivates the silkworms, and collects the silk, which +is sent to Berhampur and Sambalpur for manufacture. + +The Panos are divided into two distinct sections, viz., the Khonda +Panos who live amidst the Khonds, and the Desa Panos of the plains. The +former have adopted some of the customs of the Khonds, while the +latter follow the customs of the Uriya castes which dwell in the +lowland. The Khond Panos are governed by the Molikos (headmen) of the +Khonds. In some cases, the fines inflicted for breach of caste rules +are rather severe. For example, in the neighbourhood of Baliguda, a +man who is convicted of adultery has to pay two rupees, and give two +buffaloes to the council which tries the case. Further south, for a +similar offence twelve buffaloes are demanded, and the culprit has to +pay twice the amount of the bride-price to the injured husband. The +Desa Panos conform to the standard Uriya type of caste council, and +have a headman called Behara, who is assisted by a Nayako, and caste +servants entitled Bhollobaya or Gonjari. + +The marriage ceremonies of the Desa Panos are closely allied to those +of the Dandasis and Haddis, whereas those of the Khonda Panos bear a +close resemblance to the ceremonies of the Khonds. Like Khond girls, +unmarried Khond Pano girls sleep in quarters (dhangadi) specially +set apart for them, and, as among the Khonds, wedding presents in +the form of gontis are given. It is noted with reference to the +Khonds, in the Ganjam Manual, that "the bride is looked upon as a +commercial speculation, and is paid for in gontis. A gonti is one of +anything, such as a buffalo, a pig, or a brass pot; for instance, +a hundred gontis might consist of ten bullocks, ten buffaloes, ten +sacks of corn, ten sets of brass, twenty sheep, ten pigs, and thirty +fowls." At a Khond Pano marriage, the fingers of the contracting +couple are linked together, and an important item of the ceremonial, +which adds dignity thereto, is placing in front of the house at which +a marriage is being celebrated a big brass vessel containing water, +with which the guests wash their feet. + +The Panos pay reverence to ancestors, to whom, when a death occurs +in a family, food is offered. In some Pano villages, when a child is +born, it is customary to consult a pujari (priest) as to whether the +grandfather or great-grandfather is re-born in it. If the answer is +in the affirmative, pigs are sacrificed to the ancestors. Some Panos +have adopted the worship of Takuranis (village deities), to whom rice +and turmeric are offered by placing them before the image in the form +of a figure-of-eight. A fowl is sacrificed, and its blood allowed to +flow on to one loop of the figure. In some places, Dharmadevata and +Gagnasuni are worshipped, a castrated goat being sacrificed annually +to the former, and fowls and an entire goat to the latter. + +Pano women, who live among the Khonds, tattoo their faces in like +manner, and in other respects resemble Khond women. + +I am informed that, on more than one occasion, Panos have been known +to rifle the grave of a European, in the belief that buried treasure +will be found. + +Panta (a crop).--A sub-division of Kapu and Yanadi. In the Gazetteer +of South Arcot, Pan Reddi is recorded as a caste of Telugu-speaking +ryots (Kapus). + +Pantala.--Recorded, in Travancore, as a sub-division of Samantan. The +name is said to be derived from Bhandarattil, or belonging to the +royal treasury. + +Pantari.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, as synonymous +with the Idacheri sub-division of Nayar. Pantrantu Vitan is also +there recorded as a sub-division of Nayar. + +Pappadam.--People calling themselves Pappadam Chetti are largely +found in Malabar, living by the manufacture and sale of cakes called +pappadam, which are purchased by all classes, including Nambutiri +Brahmans. + +Pappini.--A name for Brahmanis, a class of Ambalavasi. + +Pappu (split pulse).--An exogamous sept of Balija. + +Paradesi.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a class of +Malayalam beggars. The name indicates strangers (paradesa, a foreign +country), and is applied to the White Jews of Cochin, in connection +with whom it occurs in Sirkar (State) accounts and royal writs granted +to them. + +Paraiya Tada.--Recorded, in the North Arcot Manual, as a name for +those who are considered impure Valluvans. The name literally means +Paraiya Tadan or Dasari. + +Paraiyan.--The Paraiyans or, as they are commonly termed, Pariahs of +the Tamil country number, according to recent census returns, over two +million souls, and a large proportion of those who returned themselves +as Native Christians are said also to belong to this class. For the +following note I am mainly indebted to an account of the Paraiyans +by the Rev. A. C. Clayton. [48] + +The late Bishop Caldwell derived the name Paraiyan from the Tamil +word parai a drum, as certain Paraiyans act as drummers at marriages, +funerals, village festivals, and on occasions when Government or +commercial announcements are proclaimed. Mr. H. A. Stuart, however, +seems to question this derivation, remarking [49] that "it is only +one section of Paraiyans that act as drummers. Nor is the occupation +confined to Paraiyans. It seems in the highest degree improbable that +a large, and at one time powerful, community should owe its name to +an occasional occupation, which one of its divisions shares with other +castes. The word Paraiyan is not found in Divakaram, a Tamil dictionary +of the eleventh century A.D., and the word Pulayan was then used to +denote this section of the population, as it is still in Malayalam to +this day." In the legend of the Saivite saint, Nandan is, in the prose +version of the Periya Puranam, called a Pulayan, though a native of +Sholamandalam, which was a distinctly Tamil kingdom. Mr. W. Francis +writes [50] that "the old Tamil poems and works of the early centuries +of the Christian era do not mention the name Paraiyan, but contain +many descriptions of a tribe called the Eyinas, who seem to have +been quite distinct from the rest of the population, and did not +live in the villages, but in forts of their own. Ambur and Vellore +are mentioned as the sites of two of these. They may perhaps have +been the ancestors of the Paraiyans of to-day." + +In a note on the Paraiyans, Sonnerat, writing [51] in the eighteenth +century, says that "they are prohibited from drawing water from the +wells of other castes; but have particular wells of their own near +their inhabitations, round which they place the bones of animals, +that they may be known and avoided. When an Indian of any other caste +permits a Paraiya to speak to him, this unfortunate being is obliged +to hold his hand before his mouth, lest the Indian may be contaminated +with his breath; and, if he is met on the highway, he must turn on one +side to let the other pass. If any Indian whatever, even a Choutre, +by accident touches a Paraiya, he is obliged to purify himself in a +bath. The Brahmans cannot behold them, and they are obliged to fly +when they appear. Great care is taken not to eat anything dressed +by a Paraiya, nor even to drink out of the vessel he has used; they +dare not enter the house of an Indian of another caste; or, if they +are employed in any work, a door is purposely made for them; but they +must work with their eyes on the ground; for, if it is perceived they +have glanced at the kitchen, all the utensils must be broken. The +infamy of the Paraiyas is reflected on the Europeans: last are held +in more detestation, because, setting aside the little respect they +have for the cow, whose flesh they eat, the Indians reproach them with +spitting in their houses, and even their temples: that when drinking +they put the cup to their lips, and their fingers to their mouths in +such a manner that they are defiled with the spittle." + +Paraiyans are to be found throughout the Tamil districts from North +Arcot to Tinnevelly, and in the southern extremity of the Native +State of Travancore. In the Telugu country the Malas and Madigas and +in the Canarese country the Holeyas take their place. + +Some of the most common names of Paraiyan males are-- + + + Kanni or Kanniyappan. + Raman or Ramaswami. + Raju. + Velu. + Muttan. + Mari. + Kanagan. + Subban. + Nondi. + Tambiran. + Perumal. + Viran. + Sellan. + Amavasi. + + +Among females the most common names are Tai, Parpathi, Ammai, Kanni, +Muttammal, Rajammal, Ammani, Selli, Gangammal. In one village, +where the Paraiyans were almost all Vaishnavas, by profession not by +practice, Mr. Clayton found the inhabitants all named after heroes +of the Mahabharata, and dirty naked children answered to the names +of Ikshvakan, Karnan, Bhiman, and Draupadi. It is usual to give +the father's name when distinguishing one Paraiyan from another, +e.g., Tamburan, son of Kannan. In legal documents the prefix Para +denotes a Paraiyan, e.g., Para Kanni, the Paraiyan Kanni, but this +is a purely clerical formula. The Paraiyan delights in nicknames, +and men sometimes grow so accustomed to these that they have almost +forgotten their real names. The following nicknames are very common :-- + + + Nondi, lame. + Kallan, thief. + Kullan, dwarf. + Vellei, white or light complexioned. + Kannan, with eyes. + Muthalai, crocodile. + Kudiyan, drunkard. + + +No name, indicating virtue or merit, is given, lest the wrath of +malevolent spirits should be aroused. + +At the census, 1891, 348 sub-divisions were returned, of which the +following were strongest in point of numbers :--Amma found chiefly +in Tanjore and Madura; Katti in Salem and Trichinopoly; Kizhakkatti +(eastern) in Salem; Koliyan (weavers) in Chingleput, Tanjore and +Trichinopoly; Konga in Salem; Korava in Coimbatore; Kottai (fort) in +South Arcot; Morasu (drum) in Salem; Mottai in Madura; Pacchai (green) +in Coimbatore; Samban in South Arcot; Sangidum (sanku, conch, or chank +shell) in Coimbatore; Sozhia (natives of the Sozha or Chola country) +in Tanjore and Madura; Tangalan in North and South Arcot, Chingleput, +Salem, and Trichinopoly; and Valangamattu in South Arcot. The members +of the various sub-divisions do not intermarry. + +It has been suggested to me that the Morasu Paraiyans, included in +the above list, are Canarese Holeyas, who have settled in the Tamil +country. In the south their women, like the Kallans, wear a horsehair +thread round the neck. As additional sub-divisions, the following +may be noted :-- + +Aruththukattatha, or those who, having once cut the tali-string, do +not tie it a second time, i.e., those who do not permit remarriage +of widows. + +Valai (a net).--Paraiyans who hunt. + +Sanku (conch-shell).--Those who act as conch-blowers at funerals. + +Thatha.--Thathan is the name given to mendicants who profess +Vaishnavism. Such Paraiyans are Vaishnavites, and some are beggars. + +In the Census Report, 1901, Mr. Francis notes that the term Paraiyan +"is now almost a generic one, and the caste is split up into many +sub-divisions, which differ in manners and ways. For example, the +Koliyans, who are weavers, and the Valluvans, who are medicine men and +priests and wear the sacred thread, will not intermarry or eat with +the others, and are now practically distinct castes." As occupational +titles of Paraiyans Mr. Francis gives Urumikkaran and Pambaikkaran, +or those who play on drums (urumi and pambai), and Podarayan or Podara +Vannan, who are washermen. The title Valangamattan, or people of the +right-hand division, is assumed by some Paraiyans. + +Mr. Clayton states that he knows of no legend or popular belief +among the Paraiyans, indicating that they believe themselves to +have come from any other part of the country than that where they +now find themselves. There is, however, some evidence that the +race has had a long past, and one in which they had independence, +and possibly great importance in the peninsula. Mr. Stuart mentions +[52] that the Valluvans were priests to the Pallava kings before the +introduction of the Brahmans, and even for some time after it. He +quotes an unpublished Vatteluttu inscription, believed to be of the +ninth century, in which it is noted that "Sri Valluvam Puvanavan, +the Uvacchan (or temple ministrant), will employ six men daily, and do +the temple service." The inference is that the Valluvan was a man of +recognised priestly rank, and of great influence. The prefix Sri is +a notable honorific. By itself this inscription would prove little, +but the whole legendary history of the greatest of all Tamil poets, +Tiruvalluvar, "the holy Valluvan," confirms all that can be deduced +from it. His date can only be fixed approximately, but it is probable +that he flourished not later than the tenth century A.D. It is safe +to say that this extraordinary sage could not have attained the fame +he did, or have received the honours that were bestowed upon him, had +not the Valluvans, and therefore the Paraiyans, been in the circle +of respectable society in his day. This conjecture is strengthened +by the legend that he married a Vellala girl. The same hypothesis +is the only one that will account for the education and the vogue of +the sister of the poet, the aphoristic poetess Avvei. + +In the Census Report, 1901, Mr. Francis mentions an inscription of +the Chola King Raja Raja, dated about the eleventh century A.D., +in which the Paraiyan caste is called by its own name. It had then +two sub-divisions, the Nesavu or weavers, and Ulavu or ploughmen. The +caste had even then its own hamlets, wells and burning-grounds. + +There are certain privileges possessed by Paraiyans, which they could +never have gained for themselves from orthodox Hinduism. They seem +to be survivals of a past, in which Paraiyans held a much higher +position than they do now. It is noted by Mr. M. J. Walhouse [53] +that "in the great festival of Siva at Trivalur in Tanjore the headman +of the Pareyars is mounted on the elephant with the god, and carries +his chauri (yak-tail fly fan). In Madras, at the annual festival of +Egatta, the goddess of the Black, [54] now George, Town, when a tali +is tied round the neck of the idol in the name of the entire community, +a Pareyan is chosen to represent the bridegroom. At Melkotta in Mysore, +the chief seat of the followers of Ramanuja Acharya, and at the Brahman +temple at Belur, the Holeyas or Pareyars have the right of entering +the temple on three days in the year specially set apart for them." At +Melkote, the Holeyas and Madigas are said to have been granted the +privilege of entering the sanctum sanctorum along with Brahmans and +others on three days by Ramanuja. In 1799, however, the right to +enter the temple was stopped at the dhvajastambham, or consecrated +monolithic column. At both Belur and Melkote, as soon as the festival +is over, the temples are ceremonially purified. At Sriperumbudur in +the Chingleput district, the Paraiyans enjoy a similar privilege to +those at Tiruvalur, in return for having sheltered an image of the +locally-worshipped incarnation of Vishnu during a Muhammadan raid. It +is noted by Mr. Stuart that the lower village offices, the Vettiyan, +Taliari, Dandasi or Barike, and the Toti, are, in the majority of +Madras villages, held by persons of the Paraiyan caste. Paraiyans +are allowed to take part in pulling the cars of the idols in the +great festivals at Conjeeveram, Kumbakonam, and Srivilliputtur. Their +touch is not reckoned to defile the ropes used, so that other Hindus +will pull with them. With this may be compared the fact that the +Telugu Malas are custodians of the goddess Gauri, the bull Nandi, +and Ganesa, the chief gods of the Saiva Kapus and Balijas. It may +also be noted that the Komatis, who claim to be Vaisyas, are bound +to invite Madigas to their marriages, though they take care that +the latter do not hear the invitation. Mr. Clayton records that he +has heard well-authenticated instances of Brahman women worshipping +at Paraiyan shrines in order to procure children, and states that he +once saw a Paraiyan exorciser treating a Brahman by uttering mantrams +(consecrated formulæ), and waving a sickle up and down the sufferer's +back, as he stood in a threshing floor. + +In a note on the Paraiyans of the Trichinopoly district, +Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes as follows. "They have a very exalted +account of their lineage, saying that they are descended from the +Brahman priest Sala Sambavan, who was employed in a Siva temple to +worship the god with offerings of beef, but who incurred the anger +of the god by one day concealing a portion of the meat, to give it to +his pregnant wife, and was therefore turned into a Paraiyan. The god +appointed his brother to do duty instead of him, and the Paraiyans +say that Brahman priests are their cousins. For this reason they wear +a sacred thread at their marriages and funerals. At the festival of +the village goddesses, they repeat an extravagant praise of their +caste, which runs as follows. 'The Paraiyans were the first creation, +the first who wore the sacred thread, the uppermost in the social +scale, the differentiators of castes, the winners of laurels. They +have been seated on the white elephant, the Vira Sambavans who beat +the victorious drum.' It is a curious fact that, at the feast of the +village goddess, a Paraiyan is honoured by being invested with a sacred +thread for the occasion by the pujari (priest) of the temple, by having +a turmeric thread tied to his wrists, and being allowed to head the +procession. This, the Paraiyans say, is owing to their exalted origin." + +In times of drought some of the lower orders, instead of addressing +their prayers to the rain god Varuna, try to induce a spirit or +devata named Kodumpavi (wicked one) to send her paramour Sukra to +the affected area. The belief seems to be that Sukra goes away to +his concubine for about six months, and, if he does not then return, +drought ensues. The ceremony consists in making a huge figure of +Kodumpavi in clay, which is placed on a cart, and dragged through +the streets for seven to ten days. On the last day, the final +death ceremonies of the figure are celebrated. It is disfigured, +especially in those parts which are usually concealed. Vettiyans +(Paraiyan grave-diggers), who have been shaved, accompany the figure, +and perform the funeral ceremonies. This procedure is believed to +put Kodumpavi to shame, and to get her to induce Sukra to return, +and stay the drought. Paraiyans are said [55] to wail as though they +were at a funeral, and to beat drums in the funeral time. + +The Paraiyans are said by Mr. Francis [56] to have a curious share +in the ceremonies in connection with the annual buffalo sacrifice +at the Kali shrine at Mangalam in South Arcot. "Eight men of this +community are chosen from eight adjoining villages, and one of them +is selected as leader. His wife must not be with child at the' time, +and she is made to prove that she is above all suspicion by undergoing +the ordeal of thrusting her hand into boiling gingelly (Sesamum) +oil. On each of ten days for which the festival lasts, this Paraiyan +has to go round some part of the boundaries of the eight villages, +and he is fed gratis by the villagers during this time. On the day +of the sacrifice itself, he marches in front of the priest as the +latter kills the buffaloes. The Paraiyans of the eight villages have +the right to the carcases of the slaughtered animals." + +The Paraiyans know the village boundaries better than anyone else, +and are very expert in this matter, unerringly pointing out where +boundaries should run, even when the Government demarcation stones are +completely overgrown by prickly-pear, or have been removed. Mr. Stuart +records a custom which prevails in some parts of making a Paraiyan +walk the boundaries of a field with a pot of water on his head, +when there is any dispute about their exact position. He thinks that +the only satisfactory explanation of this is that the connection of +the Paraiyans with the soil is of much longer standing than that +of other castes. The admitted proprietary right which Paraiyans +have in the site known as cheri-nattam, on which their huts stand, +is a confirmation of this. These sites are entered as such on the +official village maps. They cannot be taken from the Paraiyans, and +date from time immemorial. Throughout the whole of the Tamil country +it is usual to find that the land allotted for house-site (nattam) +is in two portions in every village (Ur). One part is known by the +Sanskrit name gramam (village), the inhabited place. The other is +called by the Dravidian name cheri (gathering place). + +Sometimes the latter is called by the fuller title paracheri (Anglice +parcheri, parcherry), i.e., the gathering place of the Paraiyans. In +the gramam live the Brahmans, who sometimes dwell, in a quarter +by themselves known as the agrahara, and also other Hindus. In the +paracheri live the Paraiyans. The paracheri and the gramam are always +separated, at least by a road or lane, and often by several fields. And +not only is it usual thus to find that, in every village, the Paraiyans +as a community possess a house-site, but there are many cases in which +more than one cheri is attached to a gramam. This seems to repudiate +the suggestion that at some period or periods the higher castes +relegated the Paraiyans to these cheris. Indeed, in some cases, the +very names of the cheris suggest what appears to be the more correct +view, viz., that the cheris had a distinct origin. For instance, +the whole revenue village of Teiyar near Chingleput consists of one +Sudra gramam and seven Paraiyan cheris, each with a name of its own, +Periyapilleri, Komancheri, etc. In other cases, e.g., Ideipalayam in +the north of the district, and Varadarajapuram near Vandalur, only +Paraiyan hamlets exist; there is no gramam. In South Arcot there +are at least two villages, Govindanallur and Andapet, inhabited +only by Paraiyans, where even the Maniyakkaran (munsiff or village +headman) is a Paraiyan. Other instances might be quoted in proof of +the same opinion. And, when the ceremonial antipathy between Brahman +and Paraiyan is examined, it points in the same direction. It is well +known that a Brahman considers himself polluted by the touch, presence, +or shadow of a Paraiyan, and will not allow him to enter his house, +or even the street in which he lives, if it is an agrahara. But it +is not so well known that the Paraiyans will not allow a Brahman to +enter the cheri. Should a Brahman venture into the Paraiyan's quarter, +water with which cow-dung has been mixed is thrown on his head, and +he is driven out. It is stated [57] by Captain J. S. F. Mackenzie +that "Brahmans in Mysore consider that great luck will await them +if they can manage to pass through the Holeya quarter of a village +unmolested, and that, should a Brahman attempt to enter their quarters, +they turn out in a body and slipper him, in former times it is said to +death." Some Brahmans consider a forsaken paracheri an auspicious site +for an agrahara. A very peculiar case is that of the gramam founded +for, and occupied by the clerks of the earliest Collectors (district +magistrates) of the jagir of Karunguli from 1795 to 1825 A.D. These +clerks were Brahmans, and it was called the agraharam. It was deserted +when the head-quarters of the Collector were removed to Conjeeveram. It +is now occupied by Paraiyans, but is still called the agraharam. + +The facts, taken together, seem to show that the Paraiyan priests +(Valluvans), and therefore the Paraiyans as a race, are very ancient, +that ten centuries ago they were a respectable community, and that many +were weavers. The privileges they enjoy are relics of an exceedingly +long association with the land. The institution of the paracheri +points to original independence, and even to possession of much of the +land. If the account of the colonisation of Tondeimandalam by Vellalans +in the eighth century A.D. is historic, then it is possible that at +that time the Paraiyans lost the land, and that their degradation as +a race began. + +The Paraiyans have long been a settled race. And, though a number of +them emigrate to Ceylon, Mauritius, South Africa, the West Indies, +the Straits Settlements, and even to Fiji, the vast majority live and +die within a mile or two of the spot where they were born. The houses +in which they live are not temporary erections, or intended for use +during certain seasons of the year only. The rudest form is a hut made +by tying a few leaves of the palmyra palm on to a framework of poles +or bamboos. The better class of houses are a series of rooms with low +mud walls and thatched roof, but generally without doors, surrounding +a small courtyard, in which the family goats, buffaloes, and fowls +have their homes. The cooking is done anywhere where it is convenient +either indoors or out, as there is no fear of pollution from the glance +or shadow of any passer-by. Very occasionally the walls of the house, +especially those facing the street, are whitewashed, or decorated with +variegated patterns or figures in red and white. Paraiya women, like +higher caste women, are much given to tracing exceedingly intricate +symmetrical designs (kolam) with rice flour on the smooth space or +pathway immediately before the doors of their houses, it is said, +to prevent the entrance of evil spirits. Mr. S. P. Rice writes to +me that the patterns on the floor or threshold are generally traced +with white powder, e.g., chalk, as rice is too costly; and that the +original object of the custom was not to drive away evil spirits, +but to provide food for the lowest creatures of creation--ants, +insects, etc. + +Admissions to the Paraiyan caste from higher castes sometimes +occur. Mr. Clayton records having met an Aiyangar Brahman who was +working as a cooly with some Paraiyan labourers at Kodaikanal on the +Palni hills. He had become infatuated with a Paraiya woman, and had +consequently been excommunicated, and became a Paraiyan. + +In every Paraiya settlement a small number of the more important men +are known as Panakkaran (money-man). The application of the term may, +Mr. Clayton suggests, be due to their comparative opulence, or may +have arisen from the custom of paying them a small sum (panam) for +various services to the community. But Panikkar or Panakkar is usually +said to be derived from pani, meaning work. They form a committee +or council to decide ordinary quarrels, and to amerce the damages +in cases of assault, seduction, rape, and adultery. They have power +to dissolve marriages on account of the wife, or if the husband has +deserted his wife. In these cases their authority is really based on +the public opinion of the paracheri, and goes no further than that +public opinion will enforce it. There is no headman in a Paraiya hamlet +corresponding to the munsiff or village magistrate of the Hindu village +(grama). In modern practice the Paraiyans are, for police purposes, +under the authority of the munsiff of the grama, and there is a +growing tendency on their part to refer all disputes and assaults +to the munsiff, or even directly to the police. On the other hand, +cases of a more domestic nature, such as disputes about betrothals, +seduction, etc., are still dealt with, generally acutely and fairly, +by the village council. It should be added that the rank of Panakkaran +is hereditary, and is regarded as honourable. + +The Paraiyans, like all the other right-hand castes, come under the +jurisdiction of the Desayi Chettis, who have held a sort of censorship +since the days of the Nawabs of Arcot over some twenty-four of these +right-hand castes, chiefly in North Arcot. The Desayi Chetti has +nominal power to deal with all moral offences, and is supposed to have +a representative in every village, who reports every offence. But, +though his authority is great in North Arcot, and the fines levied +there bring in an income of hundreds of rupees yearly, it is not so +much dreaded in other districts. The punishment usually inflicted is a +fine, but sometimes a delinquent Paraiyan will be made to crawl on his +hands and knees on the ground between the legs of a Paraiya woman as a +final humiliation. The punishment of excommunication, i.e., cutting off +from fire and water, is sometimes the fate of the recalcitrant, either +before the council or the Desayi Chetti, but it is seldom effective for +more than a short time. Mr. K. Rangachari adds that, in certain places, +the Desayi Chetti appoints the Panakkaran, who is subordinate to the +Desayi, and that a man called the Variyan or Shalavathi is sometimes +appointed as assistant to the Panakkaran. He also mentions some other +punishments. The fine for adultery is from 7 pagodas 14 fanams to +11 pagodas, when the wronged woman is unmarried. If she is married, +the amount ranges from 12 pagodas 14 fanams to 16 pagodas. The fine +is said to be divided between the woman, her husband, the members +of council, and the Panakkarans. Formerly an offender against the +Paraiyan community was tied to a post at the beginning of his trial, +and, if found guilty, was beaten. He might escape the flogging by +paying a fine of two fanams per stripe. Sometimes a delinquent is +paraded through the hamlet, carrying a rubbish basket, or is ordered +to make a heap of rubbish at a certain spot. Or a cord is passed from +one big toe over the bowed neck of the culprit, and tied to his other +big toe, and then a stone is placed on his bent back. In some places, +when an unmarried woman is convicted of adultery, she is publicly given +a new cloth and a bit of straw or a twig, apparently in mockery. It +is said that formerly, if the chastity of a bride was suspected, +she had to pick some cakes out of boiling oil. This she had to do +just after the tali had been tied in the wedding ceremony. Her hair, +nails, and clothes were examined, to see that she had no charm +concealed. After lifting the cakes from the oil, she had to husk +some rice with her bare hand. If she could do this, her virtue was +established. In the South Arcot district, according to Mr. Francis, +[58] the Paraiyans "have caste headmen called the Periya (big) Nattan +and the Chinna (little) Nattan or Tangalan (our man), whose posts are +usually hereditary. The Tangalan carries out the sentence of caste +panchayats, administering a thrashing to the accused for example, +if such be the order of the court. Of the fines inflicted by these +assemblies, a fifth is usually handed over to the local Mariamma +shrine, and the remaining four-fifths are laid out in drinks for the +panchayatdars. Until recently, a part of the fine was in some cases, +in these parts, paid to the local poligar." + +Excommunicated Paraiyans are said to go to a mythical place called +Vinnamangalam. In some documents signed by Paraiyans, the words +"If I fail to fulfil the conditions of our agreement, I shall go +to Vinnamangalam" are inserted. In all enquiries by the police, the +council, or the Desayi Chetti, the Paraiyan only tells what in his +opinion it is expedient to tell. But evidence given after burning a +piece of camphor is said to be reliable. + +The attainment of puberty by girls is a subject of greedy curiosity +to most of the women in a Paraiya village. This has been said to be +due to the fact that "the menstrual fluid is held in horror, dire +consequences being supposed to result from not merely the contact, +but even the very sight of it. Hence the isolation and purification of +women during the menstrual period, and the extreme care and anxiety +with which the first approach of puberty in a girl is watched." The +girl at once begins to wear a covering of some sort, even it be +the most pathetic rag, over her left shoulder and breast. Till +this time, a bit of cotton cloth round her waist has been considered +sufficient. Among the Tangalan Paraiyans, when a girl attains puberty, +she is kept apart either in the house or in a separate hut. Pollution +is supposed to last eight days. On the ninth day, the girl is bathed, +and seated in the courtyard. Ten small lamps of flour paste (called +drishti mavu vilakku), to avert the evil eye, are put on a sieve, +and waved before her three times. Then coloured water (arati or alam) +and burning camphor are waved before her. Some near female relatives +then stand behind her, and strike her waist and sides with puttu +(flour cake) tied in a cloth. This is believed to make her strong. At +the same time other women strike the ground behind the girl with +a rice-pestle. Then presents are given to the girl. In some places +the girl is beaten within the house by her mother-in-law or paternal +aunt. The latter repeatedly asks the girl to promise that her daughter +shall marry her paternal aunt's son. + +In marriages among the Paraiyans, difference in religion is of little +moment. A Christian Paraiyan will marry a heathen girl, though it +should be said that she is usually baptised at or about the time of +the marriage. A Christian girl is sometimes married to a heathen +Paraiyan. Mr. Clayton thinks that the fact that certain Paraiyans +paint the namam of Vishnu on their foreheads, while others smear their +foreheads with the ashes of Siva, prevents marriages between them. + +The bridegroom must be older than the bride. Subject to this condition, +it is usual for a youth to marry his father's sister's daughter, +or his mother's brother's daughter. A girl should be married to her +mother's brother's son if he is old enough, but not, as among the +Konga Vellalas and some Reddis, if he is a child. In short, Paraiyans +follow the usual Tamil custom, but it is often neglected. + +Marriage contracts are sometimes made by parents while the parties most +concerned are still infants, often while they are still children; in +the majority of cases when the girl attains the marriageable age. The +bridegroom may be many years older than the bride, especially when +custom, as noted above, settles who shall be his bride. The bride +has absolutely no choice in the matter; but, if the bridegroom is +a man of some years or position, his preferences are consulted. The +elder sister should be given in marriage before her younger sisters +are married. The arrangements are more or less a bargain. Presents of +clothes, paltry jewels, rice, vegetables, and perhaps a few rupees, +are exchanged between the families of the bride and bridegroom. The +household that seeks the marriage naturally gives the larger gifts. The +actual marriage ceremony is very simple. The essential part is the +tying of a small token or ornament (tali), varying in value from a +few annas to four or five rupees by a turmeric-stained string, round +the neck of the bride. This is done by the bridegroom in the presence +of a Valluvan, who mutters some kind of blessing on the marriage. A +series of feasts, lasting over two or three days, is given to all +the relatives of both parties by the parents of the newly-married +couple. The bride and bridegroom do not live together immediately, +even if the girl is old enough. The exact date at which their life +together may begin is settled by the bride's mother. The occasion, +called soppana muhurtham, is celebrated by another feast and much +merry-making, not always seemly. + +The following detailed account of the marriage ceremonies among the +Tangalan Paraiyans was furnished by Mr. K. Rangachari. The parents +or near relations of the contracting parties meet, and talk over +the match. If an agreement is arrived at, an adjournment is made to +the nearest liquor shop, and a day fixed for the formal exchange of +betel leaves, which is the sign of a binding engagement. A Paraiyan, +when he goes to seek the hand of a girl in marriage, will not eat at +her house if her family refuse to consider the alliance, to which the +consent of the girl's maternal uncle is essential. The Paraiyan is +particular in the observation of omens, and, if a cat or a valiyan +(a bird) crosses his path when he sets out in quest of a bride, he +will give her up. The betrothal ceremony, or pariyam, is binding as +long as the contracting couple are alive. They may live together as +man and wife without performing the marriage ceremony, and children +born to them are considered as legitimate. But, when their offspring +marry, the parents must first go through the marriage rites, and +the children are then married in the same pandal on the same day. At +the betrothal ceremony, the headman, father, maternal uncle, and two +near relations of the bridegroom-elect, proceed to the girl's house, +where they are received, and sit on seats or mats. Drink and plantain +fruits are offered to them. Some conversation takes place between +the headmen of the two parties, such as "Have you seen the girl? Have +you seen her house and relations? Are you disposed to recommend and +arrange the match?" If he assents, the girl's headman says "As long as +stones and the Kaveri river exist, so that the sky goddess Akasavani +and the earth goddess Bhumadevi may know it; so that the water-pot +(used at the marriage ceremony), and the sun and moon may know it; +so that this assembly may know it; I ... give this girl." The headman +of the bridegroom then says "The girl shall be received into the +house by marriage. These thirty-six pieces of gold are yours, and +the girl is mine." He then hands betel leaves and areca nuts to the +other headman, who returns them. The exchange of betel is carried out +three times. Near the headmen is placed a tray containing betel nuts, +a rupee, a turmeric-dyed cloth in which a fanam (2 1/2 annas) is tied, +a cocoanut, flowers, and the bride's money varying in amount from seven +to twenty rupees. The fanam and bride's money are handed to the headman +of the girl, and the rupee is divided between the two headmen. On the +betrothal day, the relations of the girl offer flowers, cocoanuts, +etc., to their ancestors, who are supposed to be without food or +drink. The Paraiyans believe that the ancestors will be ill-disposed +towards them, if they are not propitiated with offerings of rice and +other things. For the purpose of worship, the ancestors are represented +by a number of cloths kept in a box made of bamboo or other material, +to which the offerings are made. On the conclusion of the ancestor +worship, the two headmen go to a liquor shop, and exchange drinks of +toddy. This exchange is called mel sambandham kural, or proclaiming +relationship. After the lapse of a few days, the girl's family is +expected to pay a return visit, and the party should include at +least seven men. Betel is again exchanged, and the guests are fed, +or presented with a small gift of money. When marriage follows close +on betrothal, the girl is taken to the houses of her relations, +and goes through the nalugu ceremony, which consists of smearing +her with turmeric paste, an oil bath, and presentation of betel and +sweets. The auspicious day and hour for the marriage are fixed by +the Valluvan, or priest of the Paraiyans. The ceremonial is generally +carried through in a single day. On the morning of the wedding day, +three male and two married female relations of the bridegroom go +to the potter's house to fetch the pots, which have been already +ordered. The potter's fee is a fowl, pumpkin, paddy, betel, and a few +annas. The bride, accompanied by the headman and her relations, goes +to the bridegroom's village, bringing with her a number of articles +called petti varisai or box presents. These consist of a lamp, cup, +brass vessel, ear-ornament called kalappu, twenty-five betel leaves +and areca nuts, onions, and cakes, a lump of jaggery (crude sugar), +grass mat, silver toe-ring, rice, a bundle of betel leaves and five +cocoanuts, which are placed inside a bamboo box. The next item in +the proceedings is the erection of the milk-post, which is made of a +pestle of tamarind or Soymida febrifuga wood, or a green bamboo. To the +post leafy twigs of the mango or pipal (Ficus religiosa) are tied. In +some places, a pole of the Odina Wodier tree is said to be set up, +and afterwards planted near the house, to see if it will grow. Near +the marriage dais a pit is dug, into which are thrown nine kinds of +grain, and milk is poured. The milk-post is supported on a grindstone +painted with turmeric stripes, washed with milk and cow's urine, +and worshipped, with the Valluvan as the celebrant priest. The post +is then set up in the pit by three men and two women. A string with +a bit of turmeric (kankanam) is tied to the milk-post, and to it +and the dais boiled rice is offered. Kankanams are also tied round +the wrists of the bride and bridegroom. The bridegroom's party go to +the temple or house where the bride is awaiting them, bringing with +them a brass lamp, vessel and cup, castor and gingelly oil, combs, +confectionery, turmeric, and betel leaves. The procession is headed +by Paraiyans beating tom-toms, and blowing on trumpets. When their +destination is reached, all take their seats on mats, and the various +articles which they have brought are handed over to the headman, who +returns them. The bride is then taken in procession to the marriage +house, which she is the first to enter. She is then told to touch with +her right hand some paddy, salt, and rice, placed in three pots inside +the house. Touching them with the left hand would be an evil omen, +and every mishap which might occur in the family would be traced to +the new daughter-in-law. The bride and bridegroom next go through the +nalugu ceremony, and some of the relations proceed with the ceremony +of bringing sand (manal vari sadangu). A cousin of the bridegroom and +his wife take three pots called sal karagam and kuresal, and repair to +a river, tank (pond) or well, accompanied by a few men and women. The +pots are set on the ground, and close to them are placed a lamp, and +a leaf with cakes, betel leaves and nuts set on it. Puja (worship) +is made to the pots by burning camphor and breaking cocoanuts. The +Vettiyan then says "The sun, the moon, the pots, and the owner of +the girl have come to the pandal. So make haste and fill the pot +with water." The woman dips a small pot in water, and, after putting +some sand or mud into a big pot, pours the water therein. The pots +are then again worshipped. After the performance of the nalugu, the +bridal couple go through a ceremony for removing the evil eye, called +"sige kazhippu." A leaf of Ficus religiosa, with its tail downwards, +is held over their foreheads, and all the close relations pour +water over it, so that it trickles over their faces; or seven cakes +are placed by each of the relations on the head, shoulders, knees, +feet, and other parts of the body of the bridegroom. The cakes are +subsequently given to a washerman. The parents of the bridal couple, +accompanied by some of their relations, next proceed to an open field, +taking with them the cloths, tali, jewels, and other things which have +been purchased for the wedding. A cloth is laid on the ground, and on +it seven leaves are placed, and cooked rice, vegetables, etc., heaped +up thereon. Puja is done, and a goat is sacrificed to the ancestors +(Tangalanmar). By some the offerings are made to the village goddess +Pidari, instead of to the ancestors. Meanwhile the bridegroom has been +taken in procession round the village on horseback, and the headmen +have been exchanging betel in the pandal. On the bridegroom's return, +he and the bride seat themselves on planks placed on the dais, and +are garlanded by their maternal uncle with wreaths of Nerium odorum +flowers. The maternal uncle of the bride presents her with a ring. In +some places, the bride is carried to the dais on the shoulders or +in the arms of the maternal uncle. While the couple are seated on +the dais the Valluvan priest lights the sacred fire (homam), and, +repeating some words in corrupt Sanskrit, pours gingelly oil into +the fire. He then does puja to the tali, and passes it round, to be +touched and blessed by those assembled. The bridegroom, taking up +the tali, shows it through a hole in the pandal to the sky or sun, +and, on receipt of permission from those present, ties it round the +neck of the bride. Thin plates of gold or silver, called pattam, +are then tied on the foreheads of the contracting couple, first by +the mother-in-law and sister-in-law. With Brahman and non-Brahman +castes it is customary for the bride and bridegroom to fast until +the tali has been tied. With Paraiyans, on the contrary, the rite is +performed after a good meal. Towards the close of the marriage day, +fruit, flowers, and betel are placed on a tray before the couple, +and all the kankanams, seven in number, are removed, and put on +the tray. After burning camphor, the bridegroom hands the tray to +his wife, and it is exchanged between them three times. It is then +given to the washerman. The proceedings terminate by the two going +with linked hands three times round the pandal. On the following day, +the bride's relatives purchase some good curds, a number of plantains, +sugar and pepper, which are mixed together. All assemble at the pandal, +and some of the mixture is given to the headman, the newly married +couple, and all who are present. All the articles which constitute +the bride's dowry are then placed in the pandal, and examined by +the headman. If they are found to be correct, he proclaims the union +of the couple, and more of the mixture is doled out. This ceremony +is known as sambandham kural or sambandham piriththal (proclaiming +relationship). Two or three days after the marriage, the bridegroom +goes to the house of the bride, and remains there for three days. He +is stopped at the entrance by his brother-in-law, who washes his feet, +puts rings on the second toe, and keeps on pinching his feet until he +has extracted a promise that the bridegroom will give his daughter, if +one is born to him, in marriage to the son of his brother-in-law. The +ring is put on the foot of the bride by her maternal uncle at the time +of the marriage ceremony, after the wrist threads have been removed. In +some places it is done by the mother-in-law or sister-in-law, before +the tali is tied, behind a screen. + +Polygamy is not common among the Paraiyans, but Mr. Clayton has known +a few instances in which a Paraiyan had two regularly married wives, +each wearing a tali. But it is very common to find that a Paraiyan +has, in addition to his formally married wife, another woman who +occupies a recognised position in his household. The first wears the +tali. The other woman does not, but is called the second wife. She +cannot be dismissed without the sanction of the paracheri council. The +man who maintains her is called her husband, and her children are +recognised as part of his family. Mr. Clayton believes that a second +wife is usually taken only when the more formally married wife has +no children, or when an additional worker is wanted in the house, +or to help in the daily work. Thus a horsekeeper will often have +two wives, one to prepare his meals and boil the gram for the horse, +the other to go out day by day to collect grass for the horse. The +Tamil proverb "The experience of a man with two wives is anguish" +applies to all these double unions. There are constant quarrels +between the two women, and the man is generally involved, often to +his own great inconvenience. It is quite common for a Paraiyan to +marry his deceased wife's sister, if she is not already married. + +A Paraiya woman usually goes to her mother's house a month or two +before she expects the birth of her first child, which is born +there. Sometimes a medicine woman (maruttuvacchi), who possesses +or professes some knowledge of drugs and midwifery, is called in, +if the case is a bad one. Generally her barbarous treatment is but +additional torture to the patient. Immediately after the birth of +the child, the mother drinks a decoction called kashayam, in which +there is much ginger. Hence the Tamil proverb "Is there any decoction +without ginger in it?" About a week after the birth, the mother, +as a purificatory ceremony, is rubbed with oil and bathed. + +Among Sudras there is a family ceremony, to which the Sanskrit name +Simanta has been assigned, though it is not the true Simanta observed +by Brahmans. It occurs only in connection with a first pregnancy. The +expectant mother stands bending over a rice mortar, and water or +human milk is poured on her back by her husband's elder or younger +sister. Money is also given to buy jewels for the expected child. The +ceremony is of no interest to anyone outside the family. Hence the +proverb "Come, ye villagers, and pour water on this woman's back." This +is used when outsiders are called in to do for a member of a family +what the relatives ought to do. This ceremony is sometimes observed +by Paraiyans. Among Brahmans it is believed to affect the sex of +the child. It should be added that it is firmly believed that, if +a woman dies during pregnancy or in childbed, her spirit becomes an +exceedingly malignant ghost, and haunts the precincts of the village +where she dies. + +A widow does not wear the tali, which is removed at a gathering of +relatives some days after her husband's death. "The removal of the +tali of a widow," Mr. Francis writes, [59] "is effected in a curious +manner. On the sixteenth day after the husband's death, another woman +stands behind the widow, who stoops forward, and unties the tali +in such a way that it falls into a vessel of milk placed to receive +it. Adoption ceremonies are also odd. The adoptee's feet are washed +in turmeric water by the adopter, who then drinks a little of the +liquid. Adoption is accordingly known as manjanir kudikkiradu, or the +drinking of turmeric water, and the adopted son as the manjanir pillai, +or turmeric water boy." Paraiya women do not wear any distinctive +dress when they are widows, and do not shave their heads. But they +cease to paint the vermilion mark (kunkumam) on their foreheads, +which married women who are living with their husbands always wear, +except at times when they are considered ceremonially unclean. The +widow of a Paraiyan, if not too old to bear children, generally lives +with another man as his wife. Sometimes she is ceremonially married +to him, and then wears the tali. A widow practically chooses her own +second husband, and is not restricted to any particular relative, +such as her husband's elder or younger brother. The practice of the +Levirate, by which the younger brother takes the widow of the elder, +is non-existent as a custom among Paraiyas, though instances of such +unions may be found. Indeed the popular opinion of the Tamil caste +credits the Paraiyan with little regard for any of the restrictions +of consanguinity, either prohibitive or permissive. "The palmyra palm +has no shadow: the Paraiyan has no regard for seemliness" is a common +Tamil proverb. + +It is stated, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "the Paraiyans +have been but little affected by Brahmanical doctrines and customs, +though in respect to ceremonies they have not escaped their +influence. Paraiyans are nominally Saivites, but in reality they are +demon worshippers." The Homakulam tank in the South Arcot district +is reputed to be the place where Nanda, the Paraiyan saint, bathed +before he performed sacrifice preparatory to his transfiguration to +Brahmanhood. [60] Brahman influence has scarcely affected the Paraiyan +at all, even in ceremonial. No Paraiyan may enter any Vaishnava or +Saiva temple even of the humblest sort, though of course his offerings +of money are accepted, if presented by the hands of some friendly +Sudra, even in such exclusive shrines as that of Sri Vira Raghava Swami +at Tiruvallur. It is true that Paraiyans are often termed Saivites, +but there are many nominal Vaishnavas among them, who regularly wear +the namam of Vishnu on their foreheads. The truth is that the feminine +deities, commonly called devata, have been identified by Hindus with +the feminine energy of Siva, and thus the Paraiyans who worship them +have received the sectarian epithet. As a matter of fact, the wearing +of the namam of Vishnu, or the smearing of the ashes of Siva, is of +no meaning to a Paraiyan. They are neither Saivites nor Vaishnavites. + +Like all other Dravidians, the Paraiyans acknowledge the existence of +a supreme, omnipresent, personal spiritual Being, the source of all, +whom they call Kadavul (He who is). Kadavul possesses no temples, +and is not worshipped, but he is the highest conception of Paraiya +thought. Paraiyans worship at least three classes of godlings or +devata, generally called the mothers (amma). Sometimes they are +worshipped as the virgins (Kanniyamma) or the seven virgins. These +mothers may be worshipped collectively in a group. They are then +symbolised by seven stones or bricks, perhaps within a little +enclosure, or on a little platform in the Paraiya hamlet, or under +a margosa (Melia Azadirachta) tree, or sheltered by a wattle hut, +or even by a small brick temple. This temple is universally known as +the Amman Koil. More usually, one particular mother is worshipped at +the Paraiya shrine. She is then called the grama devata, or village +goddess, of the particular hamlet. The names of these goddesses are +legion. Each village claims that its own mother is not the same as +that of the next village, but all are supposed to be sisters. Each is +supposed to be the guardian of the boundaries of the cheri or gramam +where her temple lies, sometimes of both gramam and cheri. She is +believed to protect its inhabitants and its livestock from disease, +disaster and famine, to promote the fecundity of cattle and goats, +and to give children. In a word, she is called the benefactress of +the place, and of all in it who worship her. The following are a few +of the names of these village tutelary deities:-- + + + Ellamma, goddess of the boundary, worshipped by Tamil and Telugu + Paraiyans. + + Mungilamma, bamboo goddess. + + Padeiyattal or Padeiyacchi. + + Parrapotamma, a Telugu goddess supposed to cure cattle diseases. + + Pidariyamma, sometimes called Ellei Pidari. + + +The symbol of the goddess may be a conical stone, or a carved +idol. Occasionally a rude figure of the bull Nandi, and an iron +trident mark the shrine. A lamp is often lighted before it at night. + +The ceremonial of worship of all classes of devata is very simple. The +worshipper prostrates himself before the symbol of the deity, +whether one stone, seven stones, or an image. He anoints it with +oil, smears it with saffron, daubs it with vermilion, garlands it +with flowers (Nerium odorum by preference), burns a bit of camphor, +and circumambulates the shrine, keeping his right side towards it. On +special occasions he breaks cocoanuts, kills fowls, goats or sheep, of +which the two last must be killed at one blow, pours out their blood, +perhaps offers a little money, and goes his way, satisfied that he +has done his best to propitiate the devata whom he has honoured. + +Special shrines attain very great fame. Thus the goddess Bavaniyammal +of Periyapalayam, some sixteen miles from Madras, is well known, and +crowds come to her annual festival. Paraiyans, Pallis, and Chakkilians +form the majority of the worshippers, but of late years Sudras and +even Brahmans are to be found at her shrine. The homage rendered to +her is twofold. Her worshippers sacrifice some thousands of sheep on +the river bank outside her temple, and, entirely divesting themselves +of their garments, and covering themselves with bunches of margosa +leaves, go round the temple. Except on the five Sundays, usually in +July and August, on which the festival is held, the shrine is forsaken, +and the goddess is said to be a vegetarian; but on the five festival +Sundays she is said to be as greedy for flesh as a leather-dresser's +(Chakkiliyan) wife. + +Two goddesses hold a position distinct from the mothers as a group, +or as tutelary goddesses. These are Gangammal and Mariyattal, and +their peculiarity is that they are itinerant deities. Gangammal +is often described as the goddess of cholera, and Mariyattal, +as the goddess of small-pox, though both diseases are frequently +ascribed to the latter. Mariyattal is worshipped under the names of +Poleramma and Ammavaru by Telugus. For instance, near Arcotkuppam in +the North Arcot district, a festival is held in honour of Gangammal +in the Tamil month Vaikasi (May-June), in which Sudras join. The main +feature of the festival is the boiling of new rice as at Pongal. Men +also put on women's clothes, and perform grotesque dances. In the +same way, in the ten days' festival in honour of Mariyattal held at +Uttaramallur during the Tamil month Avani (August), the goddess is +carried about by washermen (Vannan), who perform a kind of pantomime +(vilas) in her honour. There is a curious belief that these goddesses +(or Gangammal, if they are distinguished) must travel along roads and +paths, and cannot go across country, and that they cannot pass over +the leaves of the margosa or the stems of the plant called in Tamil +perandei (Vitis quadrangularis). Consequently, when cholera is about, +and the goddess is supposed to be travelling from village to village +seeking victims, branches of margosa and long strings of perandei are +placed on all the paths leading into the gramam or cheri. Sometimes, +also, leaves of the margosa are strung together, and hung across the +village street. These are called toranam. + +Besides the deities already referred to, there are a number +of ghosts, ghouls, and goblins (pey or pisasu), whom Paraiyans +propitiate. Mathureiviran and Virabadran are, for example, two +well-known demons. + +Among Tamil Paraiyans there are families in almost every village, +who hold a kind of sacerdotal rank in the esteem of their +fellows. They are called Valluvans, Valluva Pandarams, or Valluva +Paraiyans. Their position and authority depend largely on their own +astuteness. Sometimes they are respected even by Brahmans for their +powers as exorcists. It is often impossible to see any difference +between the Valluvans and the ordinary Paraiyans, except that their +houses are usually a little apart from other houses in the cheri. They +take a leading part in local Paraiya festivals. At marriages they +pronounce the blessing when the tali is tied round the bride's neck. + +In cases of supposed possession by demons, or by the mothers, the +Valluvan is consulted as to the meaning of the portent, and takes part +in driving the spirit out of the victim, sometimes using violence and +blows to compel the spirit to deliver its message and be gone. The +Census Report, 1901, states that Valluvans do not eat or intermarry +with other sections of the Paraiyans. Mr. Clayton is unable to confirm +this, and is inclined to doubt whether it is generally true. + +The dead are buried as a rule, but sometimes the corpses are burnt. A +portion of the village waste land is allotted for the purpose. Only +Paraiyans are buried in it. The funeral rites are very simple. The +corpse is carried on a temporary litter of palm leaf mats and bamboos, +wrapped in a cotton cloth, which is a new one if it can be afforded, +and interred or burnt. About the third or fifth day after death, +the pal sadangu, or milk ceremony, should take place, when some milk +is poured out by the next-of-kin as an offering to the spirit of the +deceased. This spirit is then supposed to assume a sort of corporeity, +and to depart to the place of respite till fate decrees that it be +re-born. This ceremony is accompanied by a family feast. On the +fifteenth day after death, another family gathering is held, and +food is offered to the spirit of the dead person. This ceremony is +called Karumantaram, or expiatory ceremony. Occasionally, for some +months after the death, a few flowers are placed on the grave, and a +cocoanut is broken over it; and some attempt is even made to recognise +the anniversary of the date. But there is no regular custom and it is +probably an imitation of Brahmanical usages. The ordinary Paraiyan's +conception of life after death is merely a vague belief that the +departed soul continues its existence somewhere. He has no ordered +eschatology. If a first-born male child dies, it is buried close to +or even within the house, so that its corpse may not be carried off +by a witch or sorcerer, to be used in magic rites, as the body of a +first-born child is supposed to possess special virtues. It is noted +by Mr. H. A. Stuart [61] that "the Tangalans profess to have once been +a very respectable class, and wear the sacred thread at weddings and +funerals, while the other divisions never assume it." + +The following note on the death ceremonies of the Paraiyans at +Coimbatore was supplied by Mr. V. Govindan. If the deceased was a +married man, the corpse is placed in a sitting posture in a booth +made of twigs of margosa and milk-hedge (Euphorbia Tirucalli), and +supported behind by a mortar. The widow puts on all her ornaments, +and decorates her hair with flowers. She seats herself on the left +side of the corpse, in the hands of which some paddy (unhusked rice) +or salt is placed. Taking hold of its hands, some one pours the +contents thereof into the hands of the widow, who replaces them in +those of the corpse. This is done thrice, and the widow then ties +the rice in her cloth. On the way to the burial ground (sudukadu), +the son carries a new pot, the barber a pot of cooked rice and +brinjal (Solanum Melongena) fruits and other things required for +doing puja. The Paraiyan in charge of the burial ground carries a +fire-brand. The mats and other articles used by the deceased, and +the materials of which the booth was made, are carried in front by +the washerman, who deposits them at a spot between the house of the +deceased and the burial ground called the idukadu, which is made to +represent the shrine of Arichandra. Arichandra was a king, who became +a slave of the Paraiyans, and is in charge of the burial ground. At +the idukadu the corpse is placed on the ground, and the son, going +thrice round it, breaks the pot of rice near its head. The barber +makes a mark at the four corners of the bier, and the son places a +quarter anna on three of the marks, and some cowdung on the mark +at the north-east corner. The widow seats herself at the feet of +the corpse, and another widowed woman breaks her tali string, and +throws it on the corpse. Arrived at the grave, the gurukal (priest) +descends into it, does puja and applies vibhuti (sacred ashes) to its +sides. The body is lowered into it, and half a yard of cloth from the +winding-sheet is given to the Paraiyan, and a quarter of a yard to +an Andi (religious mendicant). The grave is filled in up to the neck +of the corpse, and bael (Ægle Marmelos) leaves, salt, and vibhuti +are placed on its head by the gurukal. The grave is then filled in, +and a stone and thorny branch placed at the head end. As the son goes, +carrying the water-pot, three times round the grave, the barber makes +a hole in the pot, which is thrown on the stone. The son and other +relations bathe and return to the house, where a vessel containing +milk is set on a mortar, and another containing water placed at the +door. They dip twigs of the pipal (Ficus religiosa) into the milk, +and throw them on the roof. They also worship a lighted lamp. On +the third day, cooked rice, and other food for which the deceased +had a special liking, are taken to the grave, and placed on plantain +leaves. Puja is done, and the crows are attracted to the spot. If they +do not turn up, the gurukal prays, and throws up water three times. On +the seventeenth day, the son and others, accompanied by the gurukal, +carry a new brick and articles required for puja to the river. The +brick is placed under water, and the son bathes. The articles for +puja are spread on a plantain leaf, before which the son places the +brick. Puja is done to it, and a piece of new cloth tied on it. It is +then again carried to the water, and immersed therein. The ceremonial +concludes with the lighting of the sacred fire (homam). + +The death ceremonies of the Paraiyan, as carried out in the Chingleput +district, are thus described by Mr. K. Rangachari. The corpse is +washed, dressed, and carried on a bier to the burning or burial +ground. Just before it is placed on the bier, all the relations, +who are under pollution, go round it three times, carrying an iron +measure round which straw has been wrapped, and containing a light. On +the way to the burial ground, the son or grandson scatters paddy, +which has been fried by the agnates. A pot of fire is carried by +the Vettiyan. At a certain spot the bier is placed on the ground, +and the son goes round it, carrying a pot of cooked rice, which he +breaks near the head of the corpse. This rice should not be touched +by man or beast, and it is generally buried. When the corpse has been +placed on the pyre, or laid in the grave, rice is thrown over it by +the relations. The son, carrying a pot of water, goes thrice round it, +and asks those assembled if he may finish the ceremony. On receiving +their assent, he again goes three times round the corpse, and, making +three holes in the pot, throws it down, and goes home without looking +back. If the dead person is unmarried, a mock marriage ceremony, +called kanni kaziththal (removing bachelorhood), is performed before +the corpse is laid on the bier. A garland of arka (Calotropis gigantea) +flowers and leaves is placed round its neck, and balls of mud from a +gutter are laid on the head, knees, and other parts of the body. In +some places a variant of the ceremony consists in the erection of a +mimic marriage booth which is covered with leaves of the arka plant, +flowers of which are placed round the neck as a garland. On the +third day after death, cooked rice, milk, fruits, etc., are offered +to the soul of the departed on two leaves placed one near the head, +the other near the feet of the corpse. Of these, the former is taken +by men, and the latter by women, and eaten. The karmanthiram, or final +ceremony, takes place on the twelfth or sixteenth day. All concerned in +it proceed to a tank with cooked rice, cakes, etc. A figure of Ganesa +(Pillayar) is made with mud, and five kalasam (vessels) are placed near +it. The various articles which have been brought are set out in front +of it. Two bricks, on which the figures of a man and woman are drawn, +are given to the son, who washes them, and does puja to them after an +effigy has been made at the waterside by a washerman. He then says +"I gave calves and money. Enter Kailasam (the abode of Siva). Find +your way to paralokam (the other world). I gave you milk and fruit. Go +to the world of the dead. I gave gingelly (Sesamum) and milk. Enter +yamalokam (abode of the god of death). Eleven descendants on the +mother's side and ten on the father's, twenty-one in all, may they +all enter heaven." He then puts the bricks into the water. On their +return home, the sons of the deceased are presented with new clothes. + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district, that, when +a man dies, camphor is not burnt in the house, but at the junction of +three lanes. Some Paraiyans, on the occurrence of a death in a family, +put a pot filled with dung or water, a broomstick and a fire-brand at +some place where three roads meet, or in front of the house, in order +to prevent the ghost from returning. An impression of the dead man's +palm is taken in cow-dung, and stuck on the wall. In some places, +e.g., at Tirutturaippundi, the Paraiyans observe a ceremony rather +like that observed by Valaiyans and Karaiyans on the heir's return +from the burning-ground on the second day. Three rice-pounders and a +chembu (vessel) of water are placed outside the door, and the heir +sits on these, chews a piece of fish, spits thrice, and then goes +and worships a light burning in the house. + +Tattooing is practiced on women and children of both sexes, but not on +grown men. With children it is confined to a simple line drawn down +the forehead. Among Paraiyans who have become Roman Catholics, the +device is sometimes a cross. Women, like those of other Tamil castes, +frequently have their arms elaborately tattooed, and sometimes have a +small pattern between the breasts. A legend runs to the effect that, +many years ago, a Paraiyan woman wished her upper arms and chest to +be tattooed in the form of a bodice. The operation was successfully +carried out till the region of the heart was reached, and then a +vulnerable part was punctured by the needles, with the result that the +woman died. Whence has arisen a superstitious objection to tattooing +of the breasts. + +Sometimes an arei-mudi, shaped like the leaf of the puvarasa tree +(Thespesia populnea), made of silver or silvered brass, is tied +round the waist of female infants as an ornament. Small, flat plates +of copper, called takudu, are frequently worn by children. One side +is divided into sixteen squares, in which, what look like the Telugu +numerals nine, ten, eleven and twelve are engraved. On the other side +a circle is drawn, which is divided into eight segments, in each of +which a Telugu letter is inscribed. This charm is supposed to protect +the wearer from harm coming from any of the eight cardinal points of +the Indian compass. Charms, in the form of metal cylinders, are worn +for the same purpose by adults and children, and procured from some +exorcist. Similar or the same charms are worn to avoid the baneful +influence of the evil eye. To prevent this from affecting their crops, +Paraiyans put up scarecrows in their fields. These are usually small +broken earthen pots, whitewashed or covered with spots of whitewash, +or even adorned with huge clay noses and ears, and made into grotesque +faces. They are set up on the end of poles, to attract the eye of the +passer-by from the crop. For the same reason more elaborate figures, +made of mud and twigs, in human shape, are sometimes set up. Before +wells are sunk, a charmer (mantirakkaran) is called in to recite +spells and find a likely spot, cocoanuts are broken, and the milk +thereof poured out to propitiate the gods of the place. + +The Paraiyans are very largely employed as domestic servants by +Europeans. And it has been said that "so necessary to the comfort of +the public is the Paraiya that orthodox Brahman gentlemen may be seen +employing Paraiya coachmen and syces (footmen). The Christian Paraiya +has become 'Native Christian' caste, and has achieved, among other +things, University honours, the wearing of the surplice, and the rod +of the pedagogue." [62] Vast numbers of Paraiyans are agricultural +labourers. Till a score or so of years ago some were actually bond +serfs, and there are instances on record in quite recent years, which +show that it was no infrequent thing for a Paraiyan to mortgage his +son as security for the repayment of a loan. Some Paraiya families +own much land. + +It is noted by Mr. Francis [63] that in the South Arcot district, +"their numbers, and the comparative wealth which ground-nut (Arachis +hypogæa) cultivation has brought them, have caused them to take +a rather better social position here than elsewhere, and they are +actually beginning to copy the social ways of the higher castes, +sometimes burning their dead (though those who have died of cholera +or small-pox are still always buried), marrying their children when +infants, and looking with disfavour on the remarriage of widows." + +Current Tamil speech and custom divide the landless labouring Paraiyans +into padiyal and kuliyal. The padiyal is definitely and hereditarily +attached to some land-holding family in the Hindu grama. He can work +for no one else, and cannot change masters. His privilege is that in +times of drought and famine his master must support him. The kuliyal +is a mere day labourer, only employed, and therefore only receiving +pay (kuli) when required. He has no claim for maintenance in seasons +of scarcity, and, though no man's serf, is worse off than the padiyal. + +Three communal servants, the grave-digger (Vettiyan), watchman +(Talaiyari), and scavenger (Toti) are all Paraiyans. The Vettiyan +officiates when a corpse is buried or burned. Hence the proverb +against meddling in what ought to be left to some one else:--"Let the +Vettiyan and the corpse struggle together." The Rev. H. Jensen notes +[64] in connection with this proverb that "when fire is applied to the +pyre at the burning-ground, it sometimes happens that the muscles of +the corpse contract in such a fashion that the body moves, and the +grave-digger has to beat it down into the fire. It looks as if the +two were engaged in a struggle. But no one else should interfere. The +grave-digger knows his own work best." + +It is noted by Mr. H. A. Stuart [65] that "among the lower class of +Vellam Paraiyans, who are the village totis, the following legend is +current, accounting for the perquisites which they get for performing +the menial work of the village. When Adi Sesha was supporting the +earth, he became weary, and prayed to Siva for assistance. Siva ordered +a Paraiyan to beat upon his drum, and cry 'Let the ripe decay.' The +Paraiyan enquired what should be his reward, and was granted the +following privileges, viz., mankuli (reward for burning corpses), +san tuni (a span cloth), vaykkarisi (the rice in the corpse's mouth), +pinda soru (morsel of boiled rice), and suttu kuli (fee for bringing +firewood). This seemed to the Paraiya very little, and so, to increase +the death-rate and consequently his perquisites, he cried 'Let the +ripe and the unripe decay.' The swami (god) remonstrated with him, +for the result of his cry was that children and the middle-aged among +men died. The man pleaded poverty, and was given four additional +privileges, viz., a merkal to measure grain, a rod to measure the +ground, a scythe to cut grass, and the privilege of carrying the +karagam-pot when annually running over the village boundary. All the +above privileges still belong to the village vettis, who receive fees +for performing the duties referred to in the legend." + +Some Paraiyans eat carrion, and Mr. Clayton has known them dig up +a buffalo which had been buried some hours, and eat its flesh. It is +said that even the lowest Paraiyans will not eat the flesh of cows, but +leave that to the leather-dressers (Chakkiliyans). Mr. Stuart, however, +states [66] that "the Konga Paraiyans and the Vellam Paraiyans, who +do scavenging work, will eat cows that have died a natural death, +while Tangalans only eat such as have been slaughtered." In time of +famine, the Paraiyans dig into ant-hills to rob the ants of their +store of grass seed. This is called pillarisi or grass rice. + +There are many proverbs in Tamil, which refer to Paraiyans, from +which the following are selected:-- + + +(1) If a Paraiyan boils rice, will it not reach God? i.e., God will +notice all piety, even that of a Paraiyan. +(2) When a Paraiya woman eats betel, her ten fingers (will be daubed +with) lime. The Paraiya woman is a proverbial slut. +(3) Though a Paraiya woman's child be put to school, it will still +say Ayye. Ayye is vulgar Tamil for Aiyar, meaning Sir. +(4) The palmyra palm has no shadow; the Paraiyan has no decency. A +contemptuous reference to Paraiya morality. +(5) The gourd flower and the Paraiyan's song have no savour. Paraiyans +use this saying about their own singing. +(6) Though seventy years of age, a Paraiyan will only do what he +is compelled. +(7) You may believe a Paraiyan, even in ten ways; you cannot believe +a Brahman. Almost the only saying in favour of the Paraiyan. +(8) Is the sepoy who massacred a thousand horse now living in disgrace +with the dogs of the paracheri? +(9) Paraiyan's talk is half-talk. A reference to Paraiya vulgarisms +of speech. +(10) Like Paraiya and Brahman, i.e., as different as possible. +(11) Not even a Paraiyan will plough on a full moon day. +(12) Paracheri manure gives a better yield than any other manure. +(13) The drum is beaten at weddings, and also at funerals. Said, +according to the Rev. H. Jensen, of a double-dealing unreliable person, +who is as ready for good as for evil. +(14) The harvest of the Paraiya never comes home. + + +The term Paraiya, it may be noted, is applied to the common dog of +Indian towns and villages, and to the scavenger kite, Milvus Govinda. + +The Paraiyans are included by Mr. F. S. Mullaly in his 'Notes on +Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency.' "The local criminals," he +writes, "throughout the Presidency in all villages are the Paraiyas, +and, though they cannot be considered de facto a criminal tribe, +yet a very large proportion of the criminals of the Presidency are +of this caste, notable among them being the Vepur Paraiyas of South +Arcot." For an account of these Vepur Paraiyas and their methods I must +refer the reader to Mr. Mullaly's description thereof. Concerning these +criminal Paraiyans, Mr. Francis writes as follows. [67] "There is one +branch of them in Suttukulam, a hamlet of Cuddalore. They are often +known as the Tiruttu (thieving) Paraiyans. The crimes to which they +are most addicted are house-breaking and the theft of cattle, sheep +and goats, and the difficulty of bringing them to book is increased by +the organised manner in which they carry on their depredations. They +are, for example, commonly in league with the very heads of villages, +who ought to be doing their utmost to secure their arrest, and they +have useful allies in some of the Udaiyans of these parts. It is +commonly declared that their relations are sometimes of a closer +nature, and that the wives of Vepur Paraiyans who are in enforced +retirement are cared for by the Udaiyans. To this is popularly +attributed the undoubted fact that these Paraiyans are often much +fairer in complexion than other members of that caste." It is said +to be traditional among the Vepur Paraiyans that the talis (marriage +badges) of Hindu women and lamps should not be stolen from a house, +and that personal violence should not be resorted to, except when +unavoidably necessary for the purpose of escape or self-defence. + +In a kindly note on the Paraiya classes, Surgeon-Major W. R. Cornish +sums them up as follows. [68] "A laborious, frugal, and pleasure-loving +people, they are the very life-blood of the country, in whatever field +of labour they engage in. The British administration has freed them, +as a community, from the yoke of hereditary slavery, and from the +legal disabilities under which they suffered; but they still remain in +the lowest depths of social degradation. The Christian missionaries, +to their undying honour be it said, have, as a rule, persevered in +breaking through the time-honoured custom of treating the Paraiya as +dirt, and have admitted him to equal rights and privileges in their +schools and churches, and, whatever may be the present position +of the Paraiya community in regard to education, intelligence, and +ability to hold a place for themselves, they owe it almost wholly +to the Christian men and women who have given up their lives to win +souls for their great Master." + +Paraiyans of Malabar, Cochin and Travancore.--For the following note on +the Paraiyans or Paraiyas of Cochin I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha +Krishna Aiyar. [69] Paraiyas belong to a very low caste of the agrestic +serfs of Cochin, next to Pulayas in order of social precedence. They +will eat at the hands of all castes, save Ulladans, Nayadis, and +Pulayas. But orthodox Pulayas have to bathe five times, and let +blood flow, in order to be purified from pollution if they touch a +Paraiya. In rural parts, a Paraiya's hut may be seen far away on +the hill-side. At the approach of a member of some higher caste, +the inmates run away to the forest. They cannot walk along the public +roads, or in the vicinity of houses occupied by the higher castes. It +is said that they at times steal the children of Nayars, and hide +them in the forest, to bring them up as their own. They are extremely +filthy in person and habits. They very rarely bathe, or wash their +bodies, and a cloth, purchased at harvest time, is worn till it falls +to pieces. They will eat the flesh of cattle, and are on this account +despised even by the Pulayas. They are their own barbers and washermen. + +A legend runs to the effect that Vararuchi, the famous astrologer, +and son of a Brahman named Chandragupta and his Brahman wife, +became the King of Avanthi, and ruled till Vikramaditya, the son of +Chandragupta by his Kshatriya wife, came of age, when he abdicated +in his favour. Once, when he was resting under an ashwastha tree +(Ficus religiosa), invoking the support of the deity living therein, he +overheard the conversation of two Gandarvas on the tree, to the effect +that he would marry a Paraiya girl. This he prevented by requesting +the king to have her enclosed in a box, and floated down a river +with a nail stuck into her head. The box was taken possession of by +a Brahman, who was bathing lower down, and, on opening it, he found a +beautiful girl, whom he considered to be a divine gift, and regarded +as his own daughter. One day the Brahman, seeing Vararuchi passing +by, invited him to mess with him, and his invitation was accepted on +condition that he would prepare eighteen curries, and give him what +remained after feeding a hundred Brahmans. The Brahman was puzzled, +but the maiden, taking a long leaf, placed thereon a preparation of +ginger corresponding to eighteen curries, and with it some boiled rice +used as an offering at the Vaiswadeva ceremony, as the equivalent of +the food for Brahmans. Knowing this to be the work of the maiden, +Vararuchi desired to marry her, and his wish was acceded to by the +Brahman. One day, while conversing with his wife about their past +lives, he chanced to see a nail stuck in her head, and he knew her +to be the girl whom he had caused to be floated down the stream. He +accordingly resolved to go on a pilgrimage with his wife, bathing in +rivers, and worshipping at temples. At last they came to Kerala, where +the woman bore him twelve sons, all of whom, except one, were taken +care of by members of different castes. They were all remarkable for +their wisdom, and believed to be the avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu, +gifted with the power of performing miracles. One of them was Pakkanar, +the great Malayalam bard. Once, it is said, when some Brahmans +resolved to go to Benares, Pakkanar tried to dissuade them from so +doing by telling them that the journey to the sacred city would not be +productive of salvation. To prove the fruitlessness of their journey, +he plucked a lotus flower from a stagnant pool, and gave it to them +with instructions to deliver it to a hand which would rise from the +Ganges, when they were to say that it was a present for the goddess +Ganga from Pakkanar. They did as directed, and returned with news of +the miracle. Pakkanar then led them to the stagnant pool, and said +"Please return the lotus flower, Oh! Ganga," when it appeared in his +hand. Pakkanar is said to have earned his living by the sale of the +wicker-work, which he made. One day he could not sell his baskets, and +he had to go starving. A neighbour, however, gave him some milk, which +Pakkanar accepted, and told the donor to think of him if ever he was +in danger. The neighbour had a married daughter living with him, who, +some time after, was dying of snake-bite. But her father remembered +the words of Pakkanar, who came to the rescue, and cured her. One of +Pakkanar's brothers was named Narayana Branthan, who pretended to +be a lunatic, and whose special delight was in rolling huge stones +up a hill, for the pleasure of seeing them roll down. Though the son +of a Brahman, he mixed freely with members of all castes, and had no +scruple about dining with them. A Nambutiri Brahman once asked him to +choose an auspicious day for the performance of his son's upanayanam +(thread ceremony). He selected a most inauspicious day and hour, +when the boy's family assembled and asked Narayana whether the rite +should be celebrated. He told the father to look at the sky, which +became brilliantly illuminated, and a Brahman was seen changing his +sacred thread. The omen being considered favourable, the investiture +ceremony was proceeded with. + +The Paraiyas of Malabar and Cochin are celebrated for their knowledge +of black magic, and are consulted in matters relating to theft, +demoniacal influence, and the killing of enemies. Whenever anything is +stolen, the Paraiya magician is consulted. Giving hopes of the recovery +of the stolen article, he receives from his client some paddy (rice) +and a few panams (money), with which he purchases plantain fruits, a +cocoanut or two, toddy, camphor, frankincense, and rice flour. After +bathing, he offers these to his favourite deity Parakutti, who is +represented by a stone placed in front of his hut. Rattling an iron +instrument, and singing till his voice almost fails, he invokes the +god. If the lost property does not turn up, he resorts to a more +indignant and abusive form of invocation. If the thief has to be +caught, his prayers are redoubled, and he becomes possessed, and blood +passes out of his nose and mouth. When a person is ill, or under the +influence of a demon, an astrologer and a magician named by the former +are consulted. The magician, taking a cadjan (palm) leaf or copper or +silver sheet, draws thereon cabalistic figures, and utters a mantram +(prayer). Rolling up the leaf or sheet, he ties it to a thread, +and it is worn round the neck in the case of a woman, and round the +loins in the case of a man. Sometimes the magician, taking a thread, +makes several knots in it, while reciting a mantram. The thread is worn +round the neck or wrist. Or ashes are thrown over a sick person, and +rubbed over the forehead and breast, while a mantram is repeated. Of +mantrams, the following may be cited as examples. "Salutation to god +with a thousand locks of matted hair, a thousand hands filling the +three worlds and overflowing the same. Oh! Goddess mother, out of the +supreme soul, descend. Oh! Sundara Yaksha (handsome she-devil), Swaha +(an efficacious word)." "Salutation to god. He bears a lion on his +head, or is in the form of a lion in the upper part of his body. In +the mooladhara sits Garuda, the lord of birds, enemy of serpents, +and vahana (vehicle) of Vishnu. He has Lakshmana to the left, Rama to +the right, Hanuman in front, Ravana behind, and all around, above, +below, everywhere he has Sri Narayana Swaha. Mayst thou watch over +or protect me." + +The Paraiyans are notorious for the performance of marana kriyakal, +or ceremonies for the killing of enemies. They resort to various +methods, of which the following are examples:-- + +(1) Make an image in wax in the form of your enemy. Take it in your +right hand, and your chain of beads in your left hand. Then burn the +image with due rites, and it shall slay your enemy in a fortnight. + +(2) Take a human bone from a burial-ground, and recite over it a +thousand times the following mantra:--"Oh, swine-faced goddess! seize +him, seize him as a victim. Drink his blood; eat, eat his flesh. Oh, +image of imminent death! Malayala Bhagavathi." The bone, thrown into +the enemy's house, will cause his ruin. + +Odi or oti cult (breaking the human body) is the name given to a +form of black magic practiced by the Paraiyans, who, when proficient +in it, are believed to be able to render themselves invisible, +or assume the form of a bull, cat, or dog. They are supposed to be +able to entice pregnant women from their houses at dead of night, +to destroy the foetus in the womb, and substitute other substances +for it; to bring sickness and death upon people; and so to bewitch +people as to transport them from one place to another. A Paraiya +who wishes to practice the cult goes to a guru (preceptor), and, +falling at his feet, humbly requests that he may be admitted into +the mysteries of the art. The master first tries to dissuade him, but +the disciple persists in the desire to learn it. He is then tried by +various tests as to his fitness. He follows his master to the forests +and lonely places at midnight. The master suddenly makes himself +invisible, and soon appears before him in the form of a terrible bull, +a ferocious dog, or an elephant, when the novice should remain calm and +collected. He is also required to pass a night or two in the forest, +which, according to his firm belief, is full of strange beings howling +horribly. He should remain unmoved. By these and other trials, he is +tested as to his fitness. Having passed through the various ordeals, +the guru initiates him into the brotherhood by the performance of puja +on an auspicious day to his favourite Nili, called also Kallatikode +Nili, through whose aid he works his black art. Flesh and liquor +are consumed, and the disciple is taught how to prepare pilla thilam +and angola thilam, which are the potent medicines for the working of +his cult. The chief ingredient in the preparation of pilla thilam, +or baby oil, is the sixth or seventh month's foetus of a primipara, +who should belong to a caste other than that of the sorcerer. Having +satisfied himself that the omens are favourable, he sets out at +midnight for the house of the woman selected as his victim, and walks +several times round it, waving a cocoanut shell containing a mixture +of lime and turmeric water (gurusi), and muttering mantrams to secure +the aid of the deity. He also draws yantrams (cabalistic devices) +on the ground. The woman is compelled to come out of her house. Even +if the door is locked, she will bang her head against it, and force +it open. The sorcerer leads her to a retired spot, strips her naked, +and tells her to lie flat on the ground. This she does, and a vessel +made of a gourd (Lagenaria) is placed close to her vagina. The uterus +then contracts, and the foetus emerges. Sometimes, it is said, the +uterus is filled with some rubbish, and the woman instantly dies. Care +is taken that the foetus does not touch the ground, as the potency +of the drug would thereby be ruined. The foetus is cut to pieces, +and smoked over a fire. It is then placed in a vessel provided with +a few holes, below which is another vessel. The two are placed in a +larger receptacle filled with water, which is heated over a fire. From +the foetus a liquid exudes, which is collected in the lower vessel. A +human skull is then reduced to a fine powder, which is mixed with +a portion of the liquid (thilam). With the mixture a mark is made +on the forehead of the sorcerer, who rubs some of it over various +parts of his body, and drinks a small quantity of cow-dung water. He +then thinks that he can assume the form of any animal he likes, +and achieve his object in view, be it murder or bodily injury. The +magic oil, called angola thilam, is extracted from the angola tree +(Alangium Lamarckii), which bears a very large number of fruits. One +of these is believed to be endowed with life and power of motion, and +to be capable of descending and returning to its original position +on dark nights. Its possession can be attained by demons, or by an +expert watching at the foot of the tree. When it has been secured, +the extraction of the oil involves the same operations as those for +extracting the pilla thilam, and they must be carried out within seven +hours. A mark made on the forehead with the oil enables its wearer +to achieve his desires, and to transform himself into some animal. + +When a person has an enemy whom he wishes to get rid of, the +Paraiya magician is consulted, and the name of the enemy given to +him. Identifying his residence, the Paraiya starts off on a dark +night, and anyone whom he comes across is at once dispatched with a +blow. The victim comes out of his house in a state of stupefaction, +and the magician puts him to death either by a blow on the head, +or by suffocating him with two sticks applied to his neck. Odi cult +is said to have been practiced till only a few years ago in the rural +parts of the northern part of the State, and in the taluks of Palghat +and Walluvanad in Malabar, and even now it has not entirely died +out. But cases of extracting foetuses and putting persons to death +are not heard of at the present day, owing to the fear of Government +officials, landlords, and others. The story is current of a Nayar +village official, who had two fine bullocks, which a Mappila wished +to purchase. The Nayar, however, was unwilling to part with them. The +Mappila accordingly engaged some men to steal the animals. Availing +themselves of the absence of the Nayar from home, the robbers went +to his house, where they saw a Paraiya and his wife practicing the +odi cult, and compelling a young woman to come out of the house, and +lie on the ground. Catching hold of the Paraiya, the robbers tied +him to a tree, and secured him. The man and his wife were beaten, +and the would-be robbers rewarded with a present of the bullocks. + +The Paraiyans have no temples of their own, but worship Siva or +Kali. According to a legend, in Tretayuga (the second age), a Paraiya +named Samvara, and his wife Pulini were living in a forest, and one +day came across a Sivalinga (stone lingam) at a dilapidated temple, +which they kept, and worshipped with offerings of flesh, and by +smearing it with ashes from the burial-ground. On a certain day, no +ashes were available, and the woman offered to have her body burnt, so +that the ashes thereof might be used. With much reluctance her husband +sacrificed her, and performed puja. Then he turned round to offer, as +usual, the prasadam to his wife forgetting that she was dead, and he +was surprised to see her standing before him, receiving his offering +(prasadam), in flesh and blood. Highly pleased with their conduct, +Siva appeared in person before them, and gave them absolution. + +In every small village in the rural parts, is a small Bhagavati +temple, to the deity of which the Paraiyas are devotedly attached, +and look to it for protection in times of cholera, small-pox, or other +calamities. Kodungallur Bhagavati is their guardian deity, and they +take part in the festivals (yela) at the shrine. A few days before +the festival, a piece of cloth is given to the Velichapad (oracle), +who dresses himself in it, wears a piece of red cloth round his +neck, a peculiar dress around his loins, and ties a few small bells +(chelamba) round his legs. Accompanied by others with drums and fife +and a basket, he goes to every Nayar house daily for seven days, and +receives presents of paddy, wherewith to defray the expenses of the +festival. During the celebration thereof, the Velichapad and others +go to a shed at a distance from the temple (kavu), some dressed up +as ghosts, and dance and sing, to the accompaniment of a band, in +honour of the deity. + +In a note on the Paraiyans of Malabar, Mr. T. K. Gopaul Panikkar writes +[70] that "at certain periods of the year the Paraiyas have to assume +the garb of an evil deity, with large head-dresses and paintings on the +body and face, and tender cocoanut leaves hanging loose around their +waists, all these embellishments being of the rudest patterns. With +figures such as these, terror-striking in themselves, dancing with +tom-toms sounding and horns blowing, representing the various temple +deities, they visit the Nair houses, professing thereby to drive off +any evil deities that may be haunting their neighbourhood. After their +dues have been given to them, they go their ways; and, on the last +day, after finishing their house-to-house visits, they collect near +their special temples to take part in the vela tamasha (spectacle)." + +On the first of every month, a ceremony called kalasam is performed +on behalf of the spirits of the departed. Fish, cooked meat, rice, +parched grain, plantain fruits, cocoanuts, toddy, and other things, +are placed on a leaf with a lighted lamp in front of it. A prayer +is then uttered, expressing a hope that the ancestors will partake +of the food which has been procured for them with much difficulty, +and protect the living. One man, becoming inspired, acts the part of +an oracle, and addresses those assembled. + +The following story is narrated concerning the origin of the +Elankunnapuzha temple on the island of Vypin. When some Paraiyas +were cutting reeds, one of them discovered a remarkable idol and +fell into a trance, under the influence of which he informed the +Raja of Cochin that the idol originally belonged to the Trichendur +temple in Tinnevelly, and that he must build a shrine for it. This +was accordingly done, and to the Paraiyan who discovered the idol +a daily allowance of rice, and a larger quantity of rice during the +annual temple festival were given. In return, he had to supply cadjan +(palm leaf) umbrellas used at the daily procession, and bamboo baskets +required for washing the rice offered to the idol. These allowances +were received by the Perum or big Paraiyan up to a recent date, +even if he is not receiving them at the present day. + +When a Paraiyan woman is delivered, she is secluded for two weeks in +a temporary hut erected at a short distance from the dwelling hut. On +the tenth day, some male member of the family goes to his Brahman or +Nayar landlord, from whom he receives some milk, which is sprinkled +over the woman and her infant. She can then come to the verandah of +her home, and remains there for five days, when she is purified by +bathing. The temporary hut is burnt down. + +The dead are buried, and the corpse, after being laid in the grave, +is covered with a mat. + +The Paraiyas are engaged in the manufacture of wicker baskets, +bamboo mats, and cadjan umbrellas. They also take part in all kinds +of agricultural work, and, when ploughing, will not use buffaloes, +which are regarded as unclean beasts, the touch of which necessitates +a ceremonial ablution. + +Many Paraiyans become converts to Christianity, and thereby receive +a rise in the social scale, and a freedom from the disabilities under +which their lowly position in the social scale places them. + +In 1829 several natives of Malabar were charged with having proceeded, +in company with a Paraiyan, to the house of a pregnant woman, who was +beaten and otherwise ill-treated, and with having taken the foetus out +of her uterus, and introduced in lieu thereof the skin of a calf and +an earthen pot. The prisoners confessed before the police, but were +acquitted, mainly on the ground that the earthen pot was of a size +which rendered it impossible to credit its introduction during life. + +In 1834 the inhabitants of several villages in Malabar attacked a +village of Paraiyans on the alleged ground that deaths of people and +cattle, and the protracted labour of a woman in childbed, had been +caused by the practice of sorcery by the Paraiyans. They were beaten +inhumanely, with their hands tied behind their backs, so that several +died. The villagers were driven, bound, into a river, immersed under +water so as nearly to produce suffocation, and their own children +were forced to rub sand into their wounds. Their settlement was then +razed to the ground and they were driven into banishment. + +The following extract is taken from a note on the Paraiyans of +Travancore by Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The Paraiyas may be broadly +divided into two classes, viz., the Tamil-speaking Paraiyas of the east +coast who are found in considerable numbers in the southern taluks, +and the indigenous Paraiyas, who mostly abound in Central Travancore, +avoiding the sea-coast taluks. The latter only are considered here. The +titles owned by some are Velan conferred upon certain families for +their skill in magic; Panikkan; and Muppan. The Paraiyas may be mainly +divided into four divisions, viz., Vellam (water or jaggery?), Vel +(a lance), Natuvile (middle), and Pani (work). The last is considered +to be the lowest in the social scale, and members thereof are not +admitted into the houses of the other divisions. One theory of the +origin of the Paraiyas is that they were formerly one with the Pulayas, +from whom they separated on account of their eating beef. The Paraiyas +have a dialect of their own, with which the Pulayas are not familiar, +and which would seem to be worthy of study. In the Keralolpathi, they +are classed as one of the sixteen hill tribes. Concerning their origin +the following tradition is current. They were originally Brahmans, but, +on certain coparceners partitioning the common inheritance, the carcase +of a cow, which was one of the articles to be partitioned, was burnt as +being useless. A drop of oil fell from the burning animal on to one of +the parties, and he licked it up with his tongue. For this act he was +cast out of society, and his descendants, under the name of Paraiyas, +became cow-eaters. Pakkanar is said to have been born a Paraiyan, +though subsequent tradition honours him with Brahmanical parentage. + +The houses of the Paraiyas are, like those of the Pulayas, mean +thatched sheds, with a couple of cocoanut leaves often serving as +the wall between one room and another. The village sites are shifted +from place to place, according to the exigencies of the inhabitants +thereof. The Paraiyas imbibe freely, and toddy is the drink most +scrupulously prescribed for those who are under a vow. Like the +Pulayas, the Paraiyas work in the rice fields and cocoanut gardens, +and are employed in hill cultivation, and the manufacture of +wicker baskets. The sun god is their principal deity, and in his +name all solemn oaths are uttered. It is believed that the Brahman +who originally became a Paraiya cursed Brahma. To remove the evil +effects of the curse, the sun gave to his descendants as objects of +worship forty-eight thousand gods and eight special deities. A certain +portion of the house is regarded as their own, and to them offerings +of beaten rice and toddy are made on the first of every month, and, +if convenient, every Tuesday and Friday. To these deities small +shrines are dedicated, whereat the priests, on the 28th of Makaram +(January-February), become inspired, and answer questions concerning +the future put to them by the assembled Paraiyas. The priests are known +as Kaikkarans, and belong ordinarily to the lowest or Pani division. + +Adultery, be it said to the credit of the Paraiyas, is an offence +which is severely punished. The man is fined, and the erring woman +has to jump over a fire which is blazing in a deep pit. This ordeal +recalls to mind the smarthavicharam of the Namburi Brahman. + +Pollution, on the occurrence of the first monthly period, lasts for +seven days. The headmen and elders, called Jajamanmar and Karanavanmar, +are invited to attend, and direct four women of the village to take the +girl to a hut erected at a considerable distance from the house. This +hut is called pachchakottilil kutiyiruttuka, or seating a person +within a hut made of green leaves. On the fourth day the girl has a +bath, and the Kaikkaran waves paddy and flowers in front of her. On +the morning of the eighth day the shed is burnt down, and the place +occupied by it cleansed with water and cow-dung. The girl bathes, +and is thus rendered free from pollution. A woman, during her menses, +should remain at a distance of sixty-four feet from others. + +The Paraiyas observe two marriage rites, the tali-kettu and +sambandham. The former ceremony must be performed before the girl +reaches puberty, and the tali-tier is her maternal uncle's or +paternal aunt's son. The Kaikkaran invites at least four headmen to +be present, and they prescribe the manner in which the ceremony is +to be performed. The auspicious time for the marriage celebration is +fixed by a Kaniyan (astrologer), and, on the day before the wedding, +the Kaikkaran invites the Paraiyas of the village to be present at +the tunniruttal, or erection of the pandal (booth). All those who +attend are presented with betel, tobacco, and a liberal allowance of +toddy. The next item in the programme is the vachchorukkal, or placing +beaten and cooked rice, flowers, toddy, and other things in the pandal, +under the direction of the Kaikkaran. Some of the assembled males +then sing a song called maranpattu, or song of the god of love. The +bride then becomes inspired, and dances, while the sorcerer rolls +out mystic hymns. On the following morning, the bridegroom goes to +the home of the bride in procession, and is led to a wooden seat +in the centre of the pandal, where he is joined by the bride, who +seats herself on his left. He then ties the minnu (marriage badge) +round her neck, and retires with her to the maniyara, or bedroom, +where they remain together for some minutes. On the final day of the +ceremonies, the bride is bathed. + +When a Kaikkaran dies, a conch shell is buried with the corpse. Once +a year, and on some new moon day, offerings are made to all the +deceased ancestors. + +The Paraiyas have a dramatic entertainment called Paraiyan Kali, +in which the performer plays his part, standing on a mortar, to the +accompaniment of music. + +Paraiyas are required to keep at a distance of 128 feet from Brahmans, +i.e., double the distance required of a Pulaya. But they will not +receive food at the hands of the Pulayas. + +In a further note on the "Paraiya Caste in Travancore," the +Rev. S. Mateer writes as follows. [71] "They were formerly bought and +sold like cattle, starved, flogged 'like buffaloes,' made to work +all day for a little rice, and kept at a distance as polluted; and +they still are in a position of subservience and deep degradation, +not vitally differing from that of the Pulayas and Vedars. One +particular characteristic of this caste, and most offensive to +others, is that they eat the flesh of bullocks and cows left dead by +the roadside. They cut it up, and bear it away; what they leave the +vultures and dogs devour. This disgusting practice is to a great extent +disappearing among the Christian castes. The Paraiyas of Nevandrum +(Trivandrum?) district live in clusters of huts, and eat the putrid +flesh of dead cattle, tigers, and other animals. Their girls are +'married' when very young for mere form to their cousins, but, when +grown up, are selected by others, who give them a cloth, and live +with them in concubinage. Cases of polygamy occur, and sometimes also +of polyandry. They eat the seed of Ochlandra Rheedii, which abounds +in an unusually dry season, as does also the bamboo. Jungle roots, +land crabs, and snails form part of their food. Some of them have +enough of rice at harvest time, but seldom at any other period of the +year. They are zealous devil worshippers, their chief demons being +Madan (the cow one), Rathachamandy Mallan (the giant) and Muvaratta +Mallan, Karunkali (black kali), Chavus (departed spirits), Bhutham, +Mantramurtti, and other Murttis (ghosts), with many other evil beings, +to whom groves and altars are dedicated. The souls of their deceased +ancestors are called Marutta (ghosts), for whose worship young cocoanut +leaves are tied at the bottom of a tree, and a small shed is erected on +poles, and decorated with garlands of flowers. Presents of cocoanuts, +parched rice, and arrack are offered, and cocks killed in sacrifice. In +the devil-dancing they use clubs and rattans, bells, handkerchiefs, +and cloths dedicated to their deities. Other castes generally dread +incurring the displeasure and malice of these deities. Sudras and +Shanars frequently employ the Paraiya devil-dancers and sorcerers to +exorcise demons, search for and dig out magical charms buried in the +earth by enemies, and counteract their enchantments; and, in cases +of sickness, send for them to beat the drum, and so discover what +demon has caused the affliction, and what is to be done to remove +it. Sometimes a present of a cow is given for those services. These +pretended sorcerers are slightly acquainted with a few medicines, +profess to cure snake-bite, and can repeat some tales of the Hindu +gods. They also profess to discover thieves, who sometimes indeed +through fear actually take ill, confess, and restore the property. One +priest whom I knew used to pretend that he had a 'bird devil' in his +possession, by which he could cast out other devils. On one occasion, +however, when he made the attempt in the presence of a large concourse +of Sudras and others, he utterly failed, and hurt himself severely by +beating his chest with a cocoanut and leaping into the fire. He soon +after resolved to abandon this course of life, and became a Christian. + +"After the wife's confinement, the husband is starved for seven days, +eating no cooked rice or other food, only roots and fruits, and +drinking only arrack or toddy. The shed, in which she was confined, +is burnt down. + +"In cases of sickness, the diviner is first consulted as to its +cause. He names a demon, and offerings are demanded of rice, fruits, +flowers, and fowls. Being daily supplied with these articles, the +diviner spreads cow-dung thinly over a small space in the yard, +where he places the offerings on three plantain leaves, invokes the +presence of the demons, dances and repeats mantras, looking towards the +east. He catches the demon that is supposed to come in an old piece of +cloth filled with flowers and parched rice, and carries both demon and +offerings into the jungle, where, again preparing a spot as before, +two torches are set, the food arranged, and, after further mantras, +a fowl is sacrificed. He takes the whole afterwards for himself, gets +a good meal, and is also paid twelve chuckrams (small silver coins) +for the service. + +"In cases of small-pox, one who has had this disease is called in to +attend. He takes the patient to a temporary hut in a lonely place, +and is well paid, and supplied with all that he requires. Through +fear, none of the relatives will go near. Should the patient die, the +attendant buries him on the spot, performing the ceremonies himself, +then comes to the house, repeats mantras, and waves his hands round +the head of each to remove further alarm. If a woman with child dies, +she is buried at a great distance away. Occasionally the remains of +an aged man are burnt on a funeral pile, as being more honourable +than burial, and providing some merit to the soul. + +"Let us pay a visit to one of the rural hamlets of the Kolam Paraiyans, +a considerable sub-division of this caste. The cattle manure is +saved, but handed over to the Sudra farmers. The Paraiyas plant a +few trees around their settlement as otti (mortgage) and kurikanam +(a kind of tenant right), then pay a sum to the Sudra landowner to +permit them to enjoy the produce, as it is so difficult for them +to get waste lands registered in their own name. Some have cleared +lands, and possess a few cocoanut and betel-nut palms, mangoes, +etc. They may have a few cattle also, and let out a milch cow to the +shepherds at one rupee per month. They grow some vegetables, etc., +in waste valley lands temporarily cleared and cultivated. They work +in the rice fields, sowing, planting, and reaping, for which they are +paid in paddy. During the slack season they work at making mats of +Ochlandra Rheedii, for which the men bring loads of the reeds from +the hills, and the women do the work of plaiting. This art they are +said to have learnt from the Kanikar hill-men. + +"Some Paraiyas in Nanjinad have enjoyed ancestral property for six +generations, and a few still have good properties. Titles were +purchased for money of the Rajas of Travancore, e.g., Sambavan, +an old name for Pandi Paraiyas. The Raja gave to such a headman a +cane, and authority to claim a double allowance of betel, etc. He, +however, had in his turn to give double at funerals and festivals to +his visitors. This head Paraiyan would be met with drums and marks of +honour by his people, and the arrangement would enable the Government +to rule the Paraiyas more easily. It is said that some Raja, fleeing +in war, hid himself in Paraiya huts at Changankadei, and was thereby +saved, for which he gave them a small grant of land producing a few +fanams annually, which they still enjoy. They have a tradition that, +in M.E. 102 (A.D. 927), one Vanji Mannan Raja granted privileges to +Paraiyas. During the war with Tippu, proclamation was made that every +Paraiyan in this district must have a Nayar or master, and belong to +some one or other. All who were not private property would be made +slaves of the Sirkar (Government), which was greatly dreaded on account +of the merciless oppression, and obliged to cut grass for the troops, +and do other services. Many, therefore, became nominally slaves to some +respectable man, asking it as a kindness to free them from Government +slavery. Several respectable families begged the Namburi high priest, +visiting Suchindram and other temples, to call them his slaves, +for which they paid him one fanam a head per annum. This payment is +still kept up. This priest conferred upon them additional benefits, +for in their troubles and oppressions, he wrote to the Government, +requiring from them justice and proper treatment. The slaves of +the Namburi would also be treated with consideration on account of +his sacred position and rank. These families, 'Potty slaves,' still +intermarry only among themselves, as in this case the wife could not +be claimed by a different owner from the husband's. + +"Lastly, as to the Paraiyas of North Travancore. Their condition seems +lowest of all, as they enter further into the Malayalam country, and +enjoy fewer opportunities of escape from caste degradation and from +bitter servitude. 'Their own tradition,' the Rev. G. Matthan writes, +[72] 'has it that they were a division of the Brahmans, who were +entrapped into a breach of caste by their enemies, through making them +eat beef. They eat carrion and other loathsome things. The carcases +of all domestic animals are claimed by them as belonging to them by +right. They frequently poison cows, and otherwise kill them for the +sake of their flesh. They are also charged with kidnapping women of +the higher castes, whom they are said to treat in the most brutal +manner. It is their custom to turn robbers in the month of February, +in which month they pretend the wrong was done them, to break into +the houses of the Brahmans and Nairs, and to carry away their women, +children, and property, to which they are actuated more by motives +of revenge than of interest, and to justify which they plead the +injury their caste had received from these parties. In former times, +they appear to have been able to perpetrate these cruelties almost +with impunity, from the fear of which the people still betray great +uneasiness, though the custom has now grown into disuse.'" + +Parasaivan.--A title of Occhans, who are Saivites, and priests at +temples of Grama Devatas (village deities). In the Malayalam country +Parasava occurs as a title of Variyar, a section of Ambalavasi. The +word indicates the son of a Brahman by a Sudra woman. + +Parava.--The Tulu-speaking Paravas of South Canara are, like the +Nalkes and Pombadas, devil-dancers, and are further employed in +the manufacture of baskets and umbrellas. Socially, they occupy a +higher position than the Nalkes, but rank below the Pombadas. The +bhuthas (devils) whose disguise they assume are Kodamanitaya and the +Baiderukalu, who may not be represented by Nalkes; and they have +no objection to putting on the disguise of other bhuthas. Paravas +are engaged for all kinds of devil-dances when Nalkes are not +available. (See Nalke.) + +Paravan.--Concerning the origin of the Parava fishing community of the +south-east coast, the following legends are current. [73] The author of +the Historia Ecclesiastica (published in Tamil at Tranquebar in 1735) +identifies them with the Parvaim of the Scriptures, and adds that, +in the time of Solomon, they were famous among those who made voyages +by sea; but it does not appear that there is any solid foundation +for this hypothesis. It is the general belief among the Paravas that +their original country was Ayodhya, or Oudh; and it appears that, +previously to the war of Mahabharata, they inhabited the territory +bordering on the river Yamuna or Jumna. At present they are chiefly +found in the seaport towns of the Tinnevelly district in the south +of India, and also in some of the provinces on the north-west coast +of Ceylon. With regard to their origin, there is a variety as well +as discordancy of opinions. Some of the Tantras represent them to be +descended from a Brahman by a Sudra woman, while the Jatibedi Nul +(a work of some celebrity among the Tamils) states them to be the +offspring of a Kurava (or basket-maker) begotten clandestinely on a +female of the Chetty (or merchant) tribe. But the Paravas have among +themselves quite a different tradition concerning their origin, which +is founded on mythological fable. They relate that their progenitors +were of the race Varuna (god of the sea), and on the occasion, +when Siva had called Kartikeya (god of arms) into existence, for +destroying the overwhelming power of the Asuras (evil spirits), they +sprang up with him from the sacred lake Sarawana, and were like him +nursed by the constellation Kartika. At the close of the last kalpa, +when the whole earth was covered with a deluge, they constructed a +dhoni or boat, and by it escaped the general destruction; and, when +dry land appeared, they settled on the spot where the dhoni rested; +hence it is called Dhonipura, or the city of the boat. The Paravas +were once a very powerful people, and no doubt derived much of their +ascendancy over other tribes from their knowledge of navigation. They +had a succession of kings among them, distinguished by the title of +Adiyarasen, some of whom seem to have resided at Uttara Kosamangay, +called at that time the city of Mangay, a famous place of Hindu +pilgrimage in the neighbourhood of Ramnad. In the Purana entitled +Valevisu Puranam we meet with the following fable. Parvati, the +consort of Siva, and her son Kartikeya, having offended the deity +by revealing some ineffable mystery, were condemned to quit their +celestial mansions, and pass through an infinite number of mortal +forms, before they could be re-admitted to the divine presence. On +the entreaty of Parvati, however, they were allowed, as a mitigation +of the punishment, each to undergo but one transmigration. And, as +about this time, Triambaka, King of the Paravas, and Varuna Valli +his consort were making tapas (acts of devotion) to obtain issue, +Parvati condescended to be incarnated as their daughter under the +name of Tiryser Madente. Her son Kartikeya, transforming himself +into a fish, was roaming for some time in the north sea. It appears, +however, that he left the north, and made his way into the south sea, +where, growing to an immense size, he attacked the vessels employed +by the Paravas in their fisheries, and threatened to destroy their +trade. Whereupon the King Triambaka made a public declaration that +whoever would catch the fish should have his daughter to wife. Siva, +now assuming the character of a Parava, caught the fish, and became +re-united to his consort. In that section of the Mahabharata entitled +Adiparva it is said that the King of the Paravas, who resided on the +banks of the Jumna, having found an infant girl in the belly of a fish, +adopted her as his own daughter, giving her the name of Machchakindi, +and that, when she grew up, she was employed, as was customary with the +females of the Parava tribe, to ferry passengers over the river. On +a certain day, the sage Parasara having chanced to meet her at the +ferry, she became with child by him, and was subsequently delivered of +a son, the famous Vyasa who composed the Puranas. Her great personal +charms afterwards induced King Santanu of the lunar race to admit her +to his royal bed, and by him she became the mother of Vichitravirya, +the grandsire of the Pandavas and Kauravas, whose contentions for the +throne of Hastinapura form the subject of the Mahabharata. Hence the +Paravas boast of being allied to the lunar race, and call themselves +accordingly, besides displaying at their wedding feasts the banners +and emblems peculiar to it. In the drama of Alliarasany, who is +supposed to have resided at Kudremalle on the north-west coast of +Ceylon, the Paravas act a conspicuous part. We find them employed by +the princess in fishing for pearls off the coast, and that under a +severe penalty they were obliged to furnish her with ten kalams of +pearls every season. + +It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "there are +in reality three castes which answer to the name Paravan, and +which speak Tamil, Malayalam, and Canarese respectively. Probably +all three are descended from the Tamil Paravans or Paratavans. The +Tamil Paravans are fishermen on the sea coast. Their head-quarters is +Tuticorin, and their headman is called Talavan. They are mostly Native +Christians. They claim to be Kshatriyas of the Pandyan line of kings, +and will eat only in the houses of Brahmans. The Malayalam Paravans +are shell collectors, lime burners and gymnasts, and their women act +as midwives. Their titles are Kurup, Varakurup, and Nurankurup (nuru, +lime). The Canarese Paravas are umbrella-makers and devil-dancers." It +has been suggested that the west coast Paravas are the descendants +of those who fled from Tinnevelly, in order to avoid the oppression +of the Muhammadans. + +In the Census Report, 1871, the Paravas are summed up as being a +fishing caste on the Madura and Tinnevelly coast, who "were found by +the Portuguese, on their arrival in India, to be groaning under the +Muhammadan yoke, and were assisted by the Portuguese on condition of +their becoming Christians. This general conversion, for political +ends, explains why the fishing population of the present day along +the south-east coast is to a considerable extent Roman Catholic." It +is noted by Mr. S. P. Rice [74] that the fishermen "who live in the +extreme south are devout Catholics, and have preserved the Portuguese +names by which their fathers were baptized into the Church, so that, +incongruous as it sounds, Jose Fernandez and Maria Santiago are but +humble folk, catching fish in a primitive way, with no more clothing +on than a small loin cloth and a picture of the Virgin." + +Concerning the Paravas, Baldæus [75] writes as follows. "The kingdom of +Trevancor borders upon that of Coulang: All along the Sea-shore inhabit +the Paruas, who being for the most part Christians, you see the Shore +all along as far as Comoryn, and even beyond it to Tutecoryn, full of +little Churches, some of Wood, others of Stone. These People owe their +Conversion to Franciscus Xaverius, he being the first who planted +the Principles of Christianity among them; they being so much taken +with the reasonableness of the Ten Commandments, that they receiv'd +Baptism in great numbers, tho an accidental Quarrel between a Parua +and a Mahometan prov'd a strong Motive to their Conversion.... The +Paruas being sorely oppress'd by the Mahometans, one John de Crus, +a Native of Malabar, but who had been in Portugal, and honourably +treated by John, the then king of Portugal, advised them to seek for +Aid at Cochin against the Moors, and to receive Baptism. Accordingly +some of the chief Men among them (call'd Patangatays in their Language) +were sent upon that Errand to Cochin, where being kindly receiv'd, +they (in honour of him who had given His Advice) took upon them +the Sirname of Crus, a name still retain'd by most Persons of Note +among the Paruas. In short, being deliver'd from the Moorish Yoke, +and the Pearl-fishery (which formerly belong'd to them) restor'd to +the right Owners, above 20,000 of them receiv'd Baptism." + +"The commencement of the Roman Catholic Mission in Tinnevelly," +Bishop Caldwell writes, [76] "dates from 1532, when certain Paravas, +representatives of the Paravas or fishing caste, visited Cochin for +the purpose of supplicating the aid of the Portuguese against their +Muhammadan oppressors, and were baptized there by Michael Vaz, +Vicar-General of the Bishop of Goa. The same ecclesiastic, with +other priests, accompanied the fleet which sailed for the purpose +of chastising the Muhammadans, and, as soon as that object was +accomplished, set about baptizing the Paravas all along the coast, +in accordance with the agreement into which their representatives +had entered. The entire Parava caste adopted the religion of their +Portuguese deliverers and most of them received baptism. Some, +however, did not receive baptism for some cause till Xavier's time, +ten years afterwards. Xavier, on his arrival in the south, could +not speak Tamil, and spent some months in committing to memory Tamil +translations of the Creed, Lord's Prayer, Ave Maria, and Decalogue. He +then proceeded to visit all the villages of the coast, bell in hand, +to collect the inhabitants, and gave them Christian instruction. The +Paravas thus christianised--called generally at that time the Comorin +Christians--inhabited thirty villages, and numbered, according to the +most credible account, twenty thousand souls. These villages extended +all the way along the coast at irregular intervals from Cape Comorin to +the island promontory of Ramesvaram, if not beyond. It does not appear +that any village in the interior joined in the movement." "It appears," +Mr. Casie Chitty states, "that the Portuguese treated the Paravas +with great kindness, permitted intermarriages, and even allowed them +to assume their surnames, so that we find among them many Da Limas, +Da Cruzs, Da Andrados, Da Canhas, etc. They gave the chief of the +Paravas the title of Dom, and allowed him the exclusive right of +wearing a gold chain with a cross as a badge of nobility. [The name +of a recent hereditary chief or Jati Talaivan or Talaivamore of the +Paravas was Gabriel de Cruz Lazarus Motha Vas.] As soon as the Dutch +took possession of Tutocoryn (Tuticorin) and other adjacent towns +where the Paravas are found, they employed Dr. Baldæus and a few other +ministers of their persuasion to suppress the Roman Catholic faith, +and to persuade the Paravas to adopt their own in its stead; but in +this they met with a total failure, and were once very nearly bringing +on a general revolt. Notwithstanding the intolerance of the Dutch +with regard to the Romish Church, the Paravas still remember them with +gratitude, as they afforded them the means of extensive livelihood by +establishing in their principal town (Tutocoryn) a public manufactory +of cloth, and thus maintaining a considerable working capital." + +Concerning the history of the Paravas, and their connection with +the pearl-fisheries on the Indian side of the Gulf of Manaar, much +information is given by Mr. J. Hornell, [77] from whose account +the following extracts are taken. "When the Portuguese rounded Cape +Comorin, they found the pearl fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar in the +hands of the Paravas, whom tradition shows to have had control of +this industry from time immemorial. Of the origin of these people +we know extremely little. We know, however, that in the old days, +from 600 B.C. and for 1,500 years or more thereafter, the country +now comprehended in the districts of Madura and Tinnevelly formed the +great Tamil kingdom of Pandya. And, in the old Tamil work called the +Kalveddu, the position of the pearl-fishing caste to this monarchy is +incidentally mentioned in the following extract: 'Vidanarayanen Cheddi +and the Paravu men who fished pearls by paying tribute to Alliyarasani, +daughter of Pandya, king of Madura, who went on a voyage, experienced +bad weather in the sea, and were driven to the shores of Lanka, where +they founded Karainerkai and Kutiraimalai. Vidanarayanen Cheddi had +the treasures of his ship stored there by the Paravas, and established +pearl fisheries at Kadalihilapam and Kallachihilapam, and introduced +the trees which change iron into gold.' In the Maduraik-kanchi the +Paravas are described as being most powerful in the country round +Korkai. 'Well fed on fish and armed with bows, their hordes terrified +their enemies by their dashing valour.' The Maduraik-kanchi describes +Korkai as the chief town in the country of Parathavar and the seat +of the pearl fishery, with a population consisting chiefly of pearl +divers and chank cutters. [78] When the Pandyan kingdom was powerful, +the Paravas had grants of certain rights from the monarchy, paying +tribute from the produce of the fisheries, and receiving protection +and immunity from taxation in return. The conditions under which the +Paravas lived at the opening of the sixteenth century are graphically +set forth in a report, dated 19th December, 1669, written by Van Reede +and Laurens Pyh, respectively Commandant of the coast of Malabar and +Canara and senior merchant and Chief of the sea-ports of Madura. Under +the protection of those Rajas there lived a people, which had come to +these parts from other countries [79]--they are called Paravas--they +lived a seafaring life, gaining their bread by fishing and by diving +for pearls; they had purchased from the petty Rajas small streaks +of the shore, along which they settled and built villages, and they +divided themselves as their numbers progressively increased. In these +purchased lands they lived under the rule of their own headmen, paying +to the Rajas only an annual present, free from all other taxes which +bore upon the natives so heavily, looked upon as strangers, exempt +from tribute or subjection to the Rajas, having a chief of their own +election, whose descendants are still called kings of the Paravas, +and who drew a revenue from the whole people, which in process of +time has spread itself from Quilon to Bengal. Their importance and +power have not been reduced by this dispersion, for they are seen +at every pearl fishery (on which occasions the Paravas assemble +together) surpassing in distinction, dignity and outward honours all +other persons there. The pearl fishery was the principal resource and +expedient from which the Paravas obtained a livelihood, but as from +their residence so near the sea they had no manner of disposing of +their pearls, they made an agreement with the Rajas that a market day +should be proclaimed throughout their dominions, when merchants might +securely come from all parts of India, and at which the divers and +sutlers necessary to furnish provisions for the multitude might also +meet; and, as this assemblage would consist of two different races, +namely, the Paravas and subjects of the Rajas, as well as strangers and +travellers, two kinds of guards and tribunals were to be established +to prevent all disputes and quarrels arising during this open market, +every man being subject to his own judge, and his case being decided +by him; all payments were then also divided among the headmen of the +Paravas, who were the owners of that fishery, and who hence became +rich and powerful; they had weapons and soldiers of their own, with +which they were able to defend themselves against the violence of +the Rajas or their subjects. The Moors who had spread themselves over +India, and principally along the coasts of Madura, were strengthened +by the natives professing Muhammadanism, and by the Arabs, Saracens, +and the privateers of the Sammoryn, [80] and they began also to take +to pearl-diving as an occupation, but being led away by ill-feeling +and hope of gain, they often attempted to outreach the Paravas, +some of whom even they gained to their party and to their religion, +by which means they obtained so much importance, that the Rajas joined +themselves to the Moors, anticipating great advantages from the trade +which they carried on, and from their power at sea; and thus the +Paravas were oppressed, although they frequently rose against their +adversaries, but they always got the worst of it, until at last in a +pearl fishery at Tutucoryn, having purposely raised a dispute, they +fell upon the Moors, and killed some thousands of them, burnt their +vessels, and remained masters of the country, though much in fear that +the Moors, joined by the pirates of Calicut, would rise against them +in revenge. The Portuguese arrived about this time with one ship at +Tutucoryn; the Paravas requested them for assistance, and obtained +a promise of it, on conditions that they should become Christians; +this they generally agreed to, and, having sent Commissioners with +some of the Portuguese to Goa, they were received under the protection +of that nation, and their Commissioners returned with priests, and a +naval force conveying troops, on which all the Paravas of the seven +ports were baptized, accepted as subjects of the King of Portugal, +and they dwindled thus from having their own chiefs and their own +laws into subordination to priests and Portuguese, who however +settled the rights and privileges of the Paravas so firmly that +the Rajas no longer dared interfere with them, or attempt to impede +or abridge their prerogative; on the contrary they were compelled +to admit of separate laws for the Paravas from those which bound +their own subjects. The Portuguese kept for themselves the command +at sea, the pearl fisheries, the sovereignty over the Paravas, their +villages and harbours, whilst the Naick of Madura, who was a subject +of the King of the Carnatic, made himself master at this time of the +lands about Madura, and in a short time afterwards of all the lower +countries from Cape Comoryn to Tanjore, expelling and rooting out all +the princes and land proprietors, who were living and reigning there; +but, on obtaining the sovereignty of all these countries, he wished to +subject the Paravas to his authority, in which attempt he was opposed +by the Portuguese, who often, not being powerful enough effectually +to resist, left the land with the priests and Paravas, and went to +the islands of Manaar and Jaffnapatam, from whence they sent coasting +vessels along the Madura shores, and caused so much disquiet that the +revenue was ruined, trade circumscribed, and almost annihilated, for +which reasons the Naick himself was obliged to solicit the Portuguese +to come back again. The Political Government of India, perceiving the +great benefit of the pearl fishery, appointed in the name of the King +of Portugal military chiefs and captains to superintend it, leaving +the churches and their administration to the priests. Those captains +obtained from the fisheries each time a profit of 6,000 rix-dollars +for the king, leaving the remainder of the income from them for the +Paravas; but, seeing they could not retain their superiority in that +manner over the people, which was becoming rich, luxurious, drunken, +with prosperity, and with the help of the priests, who protected them, +threatening the captains, which often occasioned great disorders, +the latter determined to build a fort for the king at Tutucoryn, +which was the chief place of all the villages; but the priests who +feared by this to lose much of their consequence as well as of their +revenue, insisted that, if such a measure was proceeded with, they +would all be ruined, on which account they urged on the people to +commit irregularities, and made the Paravas fear that the step was a +preliminary one to the making all of them slaves; and they therefore +raised such hindrances to the work that it never could be completed. + +"The Paravas," Mr. Hornell continues, "although the original holders of +the fishery rights, had begun, prior to the arrival of the Portuguese, +to feel the competition of the restless Muhammadan settlers on the +coast, who, coming, as many must have done, from the coast of the +Persian Gulf, knew already all there was to know of pearl-fishing. The +descendants of these Arabs and their proselytes, known as Moros to +the Portuguese, are the Moormen or Lubbais of to-day. Their chief +settlement was Kayal, a town situated near the mouth of the river +Tambrapurni, and which in Marco Polo's time (1290-91) was a great +and noble city. It shared with Tuticorin for fully 500 years the +honour of being one of the two great pearl markets of the coast--the +one being the Moor, the other the Parava, head-quarters.... Menezes, +writing in 1622, states that for many years the fisheries had become +extinct because of the great poverty into which the Paravas had +fallen. Tuticorin, and the sovereignty of the pearl banks and of the +Paravas, passed to the Dutch in 1658. + +In the report of the pearl fishery, 1708, the following entries occur +in the list of free stones according to ancient customs:-- + + + 96 1/2 to the Naick of Madura--4 Xtian, 92 1/2 Moorish; + 10 to Head Moorman of Cailpatnam--5 Xtian, 5 Moorish. + 60 to Theuver--60 Moorish. + 185 to the Pattangatyns of this coast--all Xtian stones. + + +"The 185 stones," Mr. Hornell writes, "given to the Pattangatyns or +headmen of the Paravas was in the nature of remuneration to these men +for assistance in inspecting the banks, in guarding any oyster banks +discovered, in recruiting divers, and in superintending operations +during the course of the fishery.... In 1889, the Madras Government +recorded its appreciation of the assistance rendered by the Jati +Talaivan, and directed that his privilege of being allowed the take +of two boats be continued. Subsequently, in 1891, the Government, +while confirming the general principle of privilege remuneration to the +Jati Talaivan, adopted the more satisfactory regulation of placing the +extent of the remuneration upon the basis of a sliding scale, allowing +him but one boat when the Government boats numbered 30 or less, two for +31 to 60 boats, three for 61 to 90 boats employed, and so on in this +ratio. The value of the Jati Talaivan's two privilege boats in the +1890 fishery was Rs. 1,424, in that of 1900 only Rs. 172." The Jadi +Talaivan is said to have been denominated by the Dutch the prince of +the seven havens. It is noted in the pearl fishery report, 1900, that +"the Paravas are a constant source of trouble, both on the banks and in +the kottoo (shed), where they were constantly being caught concealing +oysters, which of course were always confiscated. Only one Arab was +caught doing this, and his companions abused him for disgracing them." + +According to Mr. Casie Chitty, the Paravas are divided into thirteen +classes, viz.:-- + + + Headmen. + Dealers in cloth. + Divers for corals. + Sailors. + Divers for pearl-oysters. + Divers for chanks. + Packers of cloth. + Fishers who catch tortoises (turtles). + Fishers who catch porpoises. + Fishers who catch sharks and other fish. + Palanquin bearers. + Peons, who wait about the person of the Chief. + Fishers, who catch crabs. + + +It is noted by Canon A. Margoschis that the Parava females are +famous for the excessive dilatation of the lobes of the ears, and for +wearing therein the heaviest and most expensive gold ear jewels made of +sovereigns. Ordinary jewels are said to cost Rs. 200, but heavy jewels +are worth Rs. 1,000 and even more. The longer the ears, the more jewels +can be used, and this appears to be the rationale of elongated ears. + +In a recent account of a Parava wedding in high life, I read [81] +that "the bride and bridegroom proceeded to the church at the head +of an imposing procession, with music and banners. The service, which +was fully choral, was conducted by a priest from their own community, +after which the newly wedded couple went in procession to the residence +of the Jati Talavamore, being escorted by their distinguished host +in person. The Jati Talavamore, who wore a picturesque, if somewhat +antiquated, robe, rode in a gorgeously upholstered palanquin, +with banners, trophies, elephants, and other emblems of his high +office. The bride, who was resplendent with diamonds, was becomingly +attired in a purple Benares sari with gold floral designs, and wore +a superb kincob bodice." + +In a note on the Paravans of Travancore, Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes +that "they are found in most taluks of the State. The title sometimes +used by them is Kuruppu. The Paravans of Chengannur and Tiruvella call +themselves Chakka, a word supposed by the castemen to be derived from +slaghya or praiseworthy, but perhaps more correctly from Chakku, the +basket carried by them in their hands. The Paravans are divided into +numerous sections. In the south, the Tamil-speaking division follows +the makkathayam, while all the Malayalam-speaking sections follow +the marumakathayam law of inheritance. There is also a difference +in the dress and ornaments of the two sections, the former adopting +the fashion of the east coast, and the latter that of the west. The +Travancore Paravas are really one with the Tamil-speaking Paravas of +the east coast. While most of them became converts to Christianity, +in Travancore they have tried to preserve their separate existence, +as they had already spread into the interior of the country before the +proselytism of St. Xavier had made its enduring mark on the sea-coast +villages. There is a curious legend about the settlement of the Chakkas +in Central Travancore. Formerly, it would appear, they were Sudras, +but, for some social offence committed by them, they were outcasted by +the Edappalli chieftain. They were once great devotees of Sri Krishna, +the lord of Tiruvaranmulai in the Tiruvella taluk. The Paravas say +further that they are descended from a high-caste woman married to an +Izhava. The word Parava is accordingly derived from para, which in +Sanskrit means foreign. The Paravas engage in various occupations, +of which the most important in Central Travancore are climbing palm +trees, catching fish, and washing clothes for Christians, Muhammadans, +and depressed classes of Hindus. In South Travancore they make wicker +baskets, rattan chairs, and sofas. Women, in all parts of the State, +are lime and shell burners. They worship at the Aranmula temple, +and pay special worship to Bhadrakali. Their priest is known as +Parakuruppu, who, having to perform four different functions, is +also entitled Nalonnukaran. It is his duty to preside at marriage +and other rites, to be caste barber, to carry the news of death to +the relations, and to perform the priestly functions at funerals. The +Paravas perform both the tali-kettu and sambandham ceremonies." + +Parel Maddiyala.--Barbers of the Billavas. + +Parenga.--A sub-division of Gadaba. + +Pariah.--See Paraiyan. + +Parikimuggula.--Professional tattooing women in the Telugu country. The +name refers to the patterns (parika or muggu), which they carry about +with them, as designs for tattooing or to be drawn on the floor on +occasions of festival and ceremonial. + +Parivara.--A sub-division of Bant. + +Parivaram.--It is noted, in the Census Report, 1891, that "this is +a caste, which presents some difficulty. Parivaram means 'an army, +a retinue,' and it is alleged that the people of this caste were +formerly soldiers. Parivaram is found as a sub-division of Maravan and +Agamudaiyan, and the Parivaras of Madura and Tinnevelly are probably +either a sub-division or an offshoot of the Maravans. In Coimbatore, +the only other district in which the Parivaras are numerous, they +seem to be a sub-division of Toreyas, a fishing caste, and Mr. Rice, +in his Gazetteer (of Mysore), says that Parivara is a synonym of +Besta." Further, in the Census Report, 1901, it is stated that "the +word Parivaram means 'a retinue,' and was probably originally only an +occupational term. It is now-a-days applied to the domestic servants +and the Tottiya zamindars in the districts of Coimbatore, Trichinopoly, +Madura, and Tinnevelly, who are recruited from several castes, but +have come to form a caste by themselves. The Kotaris of South Canara +are a somewhat parallel case, and probably in time the Paiks among the +Oriyas, and the Khasas, who are servants to the Telugu zamindars, will +similarly develop into separate castes. The caste is said to require +all its members of both sexes to do such service for its masters as +they may require. Persons of any caste above the Paraiyas are admitted +into its ranks, and the men in it may marry a woman of any other caste +with the permission of the zamindar under whom they serve. They do not +habitually employ Brahmans as priests, and in places the head of the +Tottiyan caste conducts their ceremonies. Their titles are Maniyagaran +and Servaigaran. The latter is also used by the Agamudaiyans." + +The title Servaigaran or Servaikaran indicates that members of the +caste do servai, or service, and the further title uliyakkaran is +a sign that they do uliyam, or menial work. Servaikaran is also a +title of the Tamil Ambalakarans, Agamudaiyans, Kallans, and Maravans, +and the Canarese Toreyas, some of whom have settled in the Tamil +districts of Madura and Coimbatore. It also occurs as a synonym of +the Canarese Kotegaras. + +The illegitimate offspring of Maravans, Kallans, and Agamudaiyans, +are said to become members of the mixed Parivaram caste. + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Madura district, that the +Parivaram caste "is divided into two endogamous sections; the Chinna +Uliyam (little services) who are palanquin-bearers, and have the +title Tevan, and the Periya Uliyam (big services), who are called +Maniyakaran. The Kombai Parivarams, who are the servants of the +Kappiliyan Zamindars of Kombai and Tevaram in the Periyakulam taluk, +are a separate community, and do not intermarry with the others. When +a girl attains maturity, she is kept for sixteen days in a hut, which +is guarded at night by her relations. This is afterwards burnt down, +and the pots she used are broken into very small pieces, as there is +an idea that, if rain-water collects in any of them, the girl will +be childless. Some of the ceremonies at weddings are unusual. On +the first day, a man takes a big pot of water with a smaller empty +pot on top of it, and marches three times round the open space in +front of the bride's house. With him march the happy couple carrying +a bamboo, to which are tied in a turmeric-coloured cloth the nine +kinds of grain. After the third journey round, these things are put +down at the north-east corner, and the marriage pandal is made by +bringing three more poles of the same size. Afterwards the wrists +of the couple are tied together, and bridegroom's brother carries +the pair a short distance. They plunge their hands into a bowl of +salt. Next the husband takes an ordinary stone rolling-pin, wraps it +in a bit of cloth, and gives it to his wife, saying 'Take the child; +I am going to the palace.' She takes it, replying 'Yes, give me the +child, the milk is ready.' This has to be repeated three times in a set +formula. Several other odd rites are observed. Brahmans officiate, and +the bridegroom's sister, as usual, ties the tali. Divorce is allowed +to both sides. Adultery within the caste, or with the Zamindar, is +tolerated. The husbands accept as their own any children their wives +may bear to the Zamindar. Such children are called Chinna Kambalattar, +and may marry with Tottiyans. But adultery outside the caste is most +rigorously prohibited, and sternly punished with excommunication. A +mud image of the girl who so offends is made, two thorns are poked +into its eyes, and it is thrown away outside the village." + +Pariyari (doctor).--A name given to Tamil barbers (Ambattan), who +practice as barber-surgeons. + +Pariyata.--Five individuals were recorded, at the census, 1901, +under the name Pariyata or Parit, as members of a Bombay caste of +washermen in South Canara. + +Parvatha.--Parvatha or Parvathala, meaning hill or mountain, has been +recorded as an exogamous sept of Gamalla, Kapu, Mala, and Medara. + +Pasi.--A few members of this Bengal caste of toddy-drawers were +returned at the Madras census, 1901. The name is said to be derived +from pasa, a noose or cord, probably in reference to the sling used by +them in climbing palm trees. [82] Pasi, meaning coloured glass beads, +occurs as a sub-division of Idaiyan, and the equivalent Pasikatti as +a sub-division of Valaiyan. + +Pasu.--Pasu (cow) or Pasula has been recorded as an exogamous sept +of Boya, Mala and Madiga, and a sub-division of west coast Pulayans, +who eat beef. + +Pasupula (turmeric).--Pasula or Pasupula is an exogamous sept of +Boya and Devanga. Pasupuleti occurs as a sub-division of Balija. See +Arashina. + +Patabonka.--A sub-division of Bonka. + +Patali.--An occupational name applied to priests of temples and +bhuthasthanas (devil shrines), and Stanikas in South Canara. + +Patha (old).--A sub-division of Idiga, and a sept of Togata. + +Pathanchitannaya (green pea sept).--An exogamous sept of Bant. + +Pathi (cotton).--A sub-division of Kurubas, who use a wrist-thread +made of cotton and wool mixed during the marriage ceremony. Also an +exogamous sept of Gudala and Padma Sale. + +Pathinettan.--The Pathinettan or eighteen are carpenters in Malabar, +who "are said to be the descendants of the smiths who remained to +attend to the repairs to the eighteen temples, when the rest of the +community fled to Ceylon, as related in the tradition of the origin +of the Tiyans". [83] + +Paththar.--A section of Saivite Chettis, who wear the lingam, and +have separated from the Acharapakam Chettis. They bury their dead in +a sitting posture. A bamboo stick is tied to the kudumi (hair-knot) +of the corpse, and the head pulled by its means towards the surface of +the grave. Paththar is also a name given to goldsmiths by other castes. + +Patnaik.--A title of Karnam. + +Patnulkaran.--The Patnulkarans are described, in the Madras Census +Report, 1901, as "a caste of foreign weavers found in all the Tamil +districts, but mainly in Madura town, who speak Patnuli or Khatri, +a dialect of Gujarati, and came originally from Gujarat. They have +always been known here as Patnulkarans, or silk thread people. They +are referred to in the inscriptions of Kumara Gupta (A.D. 473) +at Mandasor, south of Gujarat, by the name of Pattavayaka, which +is the Sanskrit equivalent of Patnulkaran, and the sasanam of Queen +Mangammal of Madura, mentioned below, speaks of them by the same name, +but lately they have taken to calling themselves Saurashtras from +the Saurashtra country from which they came. They also claim to be +Brahmans. They thus frequently entered themselves in the schedules +as Saurashtra Brahmans. They are an intelligent and hard-working +community, and deserve every sympathy in the efforts which they +are making to elevate the material prosperity of their members and +improve their educational condition, but a claim to Brahmanhood is a +difficult matter to establish. They say that their claim is denied +because they are weavers by profession, which none of the Southern +Brahmans are, and because the Brahmans of the Tamil country do not +understand their rites, which are the northern rites. The Mandasor +inscriptions, however, represent them as soldiers as well as weavers, +which does not sound Brahmanical, and the Tamil Brahmans have never +raised any objections to the Gauda Brahmans calling themselves such, +different as their ways are from those current in the south. In Madura +their claim to Brahmanhood has always been disputed. As early as 1705 +A.D. the Brahmans of Madura called in question the Patnulkarans' right +to perform the annual upakarma (or renewal of the sacred thread) in +the Brahman fashion. [Eighteen members of the community were arrested +by the Governor of Madura for performing this ceremony.] The matter +was taken to the notice of the Queen Mangammal, and she directed her +State pandits to convene meetings of learned men, and to examine into +it. On their advice, she issued a cadjan (palm leaf) sasanam (grant) +which permitted them to follow the Brahmanical rites. But all the +twice-born--whether Brahmans, Kshatriyas, or Vaisyas--are entitled to +do the same, and the sasanam establishes little. The Patnuls point +out that, in some cases, their gotras are Brahmanical. But, in many +instances which could be quoted, Kshatriyas had also Brahmanical +gotras." + +It is stated, in the Gazetteer of the Madura district, that the +inscription at Mandasor in Western Malwa "relates how the Pattavayas, +as the caste was then called, were induced to migrate thither from +Lata on the coast of Gujarat by king Kumara Gupta (or one of his +lieutenants), to practice there their art of silk-weaving. The +inscription says many flattering things about the community, and +poetically compares the city to a beautiful woman, and the immigrants +to the silk garments in which she decks herself when she goes to meet +her lover. [The inscription further records that, while the noble +Bandhuvarman was governing this city of Dasapura, which had been +brought to a state of great prosperity, a noble and unequalled temple +of the bright-rayed (sun) was caused to be built by the silk-cloth +weavers (pattavayair) as a guild with the stores of wealth acquired by +(the exercise of their) craft.] On the destruction of Mandasor by the +Mussalmans, the Pattavayas seem to have travelled south to Devagiri, +the modern Daulatabad, the then capital of the Yadavas, and thence, +when the Mussalmans again appeared on the scene at the beginning of +the fourteenth century, to Vijayanagar, and eventually to Madura. A +curious ceremony confirming this conjecture is performed to this +day at Patnulkaran weddings in South India. Before the date of the +wedding, the bridegroom's party go to the bride's house, and ask +formally for the girl's hand. Her relations ask them in a set form +of words who they are, and whence they come, and they reply that +they are from Sorath (the old name for Saurashtra or Kathiawar), +resided in Devagiri, travelled south (owing to Mussalman oppression) +to Vijayanagar, and thence came to Madura. They then ask the bride's +party the same question, and receive the same reply. A Marathi MS., +prepared in 1822 at Salem under the direction of the then Collector, +Mr. M. D. Cockburn, contains the same tradition. Mr. Sewell's 'A +Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar' shows how common silk clothing and +trappings were at Vijayanagar in the days of its glory. Most of the +Patnulkarans can still speak Telugu, which raises the inference +that they must have resided a long time in the Telugu country, +while their Patnuli contains many Canarese and Telugu words, and +they observe the feast of Basavanna (or Boskanna), which is almost +peculiar to the Bellary country. After the downfall of Vijayanagar, +some of the caste seem to have gone to Bangalore, for a weaving +community called Patvegars, who speak a dialect similar to Patnuli, +still reside there." Concerning the Patnulis who have settled in +the Mysore Province, it is noted, in the Mysore Census Report, 1891, +that "with silk they manufacture a fine stuff called katni, which no +other weavers are said to be able to prepare. It is largely used by +Mussalmans for trousers and lungas (gowns). It is said that Haider +Ali, while returning from his expeditions against Madras, forcibly +brought with him some twenty-five families of these weavers, who were +living in the Tanjore district, and established them at Ganjam near +Seringapatam, and, in order to encourage silk and velvet weaving, +exempted them from certain taxes. The industry flourished till the +fall of Seringapatam, when most of the class fled from the country, +a few only having survived those troublous times. At present there are +only 254 souls returned to these people, employed in making carpets +in Bangalore." + +"The Patnulkars," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [84] "say that they were +originally Brahmans, living in a town of Surat called Devagiri, +in which twelve streets were entirely peopled by them. For some +reason, of which they profess themselves to be ignorant, the +residents of one of these streets were excommunicated by the rest +of the caste, and expelled. They travelled southwards, and settled +in Tirupati, Arni, and Vellore, as well as in Trichinopoly, Tanjore, +Madura, and other large towns, where they carried on their trade of +silk-weaving. Another story is to the effect that they were bound to +produce a certain number of silken cloths at each Dipavali feast in +Devagiri for the goddess Lakshmi. One year their supply fell short, +and they were cursed by the goddess, who decreed that they should no +longer be regarded as Brahmans. They, however, still claim to be such, +and follow the customs of that caste, though they refuse to eat with +them. They acknowledge priests from among themselves, as well as from +among Brahmans, and profess to look down upon all other castes. In +religion they are divided into Smartas, Vaishnavas, and Vyaparis, +some among the Smartas being Lingayats. Those who can write usually +employ the Telugu characters in writing their language." + +The Patnulkarans, according to one tradition, claim descent from a +certain Brahman sage, known as Tantuvardhanar, meaning literally a +person who improves threads, i.e., manufactures and weaves them into +cloths. This is, it is suggested, probably only an eponymous hero. + +In the Manual of the Madura district, the Patnulkarans are described +as "a caste of Surat silk-weavers, whose ancestors were induced to +settle in Madura by one of the earlier Nayakkan kings, or in response +to an invitation from Tirumala Naik, and who have thriven so well that +they now form by far the most numerous of all the castes resident in +the town of Madura. They are very skilful and industrious workmen, +and many of them have become very wealthy. They keep altogether +aloof from other castes, and live independently of general society, +speaking a foreign tongue, and preserving intact the customs of the +land of their origin. They are easily distinguished in appearance +from Tamils, being of a light yellowish colour, and having handsomer +and more intelligent features. They are called Chettis or merchants +by Tamils." In a recent note, [85] the Patnulkarans of Madura are +described as being "exceedingly gregarious; they live together in large +numbers in small houses, and their social status in the country is +quite unsettled. Though they delight to call themselves Saurashtra +Brahmans, the Tamils consider them to be a low caste. Like the +Brahmans, they wear the sacred thread, and tack on to their names such +titles as Iyengar, Iyer, Rao, Bhagavather, Sastrigal, and so forth, +though the conservatives among them still cling to the time-honoured +simple Chetti. Child marriage is the rule, and widow marriage is never +practiced. Hindus by religion, they worship indiscriminately both the +Siva and Vaishnava deities, but all of them wear big Iyengar namams +on their foreheads, even more prominently than do the real Iyengars +themselves. All of them pass for pure vegetarians. The proud position +of Madura to this day as second city in the Presidency is mainly, +if not solely, due to her prosperous and industrious community of +Saurashtra merchants and silk-weavers, who have now grown into nearly +half her population, and who have also come to a foremost place among +the ranks of her citizens. They have their representatives to-day in +the Municipal Councils and in the Local and District Boards. Their +perseverance has won for them a place in the Devastanam Committee of +one of the most prosperous temples in the district. But, in spite of +their affluence and leading position it must be confessed that they +are essentially a 'backward class' in respect of English education and +enlightenment. They are, however, making steady progress. An English +high school for Saurashtra boys, and a number of elementary schools +for girls, are now maintained by the Saurashtra Sabha for the proper +education of their children." In 1906, a member of the community was +appointed a member of the committee of the Sri Kalla Alagar temple +in the Madura district. + +In an order of the Director of Public Instruction, in 1900, it was laid +down that "Saurashtras having been recognised (in 1892) as a backward +class falling under Pattunulgars, the manager cannot continue to enjoy +the privileges accorded under the grant-in-aid code to schools intended +for backward classes, if he returns his pupils as Brahmans. If the +pupils have been returned as Saurashtra Brahmans, the manager should +be requested to revise, as no such caste is recognised." A deputation +had an interview with the Director, and it was subsequently ruled that +"Saurashtras will continue to be treated as a backward class. Pupils +belonging to the above class should invariably be returned in future +as Saurashtras, whether the word Brahman is added or not." + +In a "History of the Saurashtras in Southern India" [86] it is recorded +that "when the Saurashtras settled in the south, they reproduced the +institutions of their mother country in the new land; but, owing to the +influence of the Southern Dravidians, some of the institutions became +extinct. During their migrations, the men were under the guidance of +their leader, and the process of migration tended to increase the power +of kinship. The people were divided into four heads, called Goundas +(chiefs), Saulins (elders), Voyddoos (physicians), and Bhoutuls +(religious men). Some traces of the division still survive in the +now neglected institution of Goundans. The Goundans were supposed +to be responsible for the acts and doings of their men. The masses +enjoyed the property under the joint undivided Hindu family system +as prescribed in the Code of Manu. The chiefs were the judges in +both civil and criminal affairs. They were aided in deciding cases +by a body of nobles called Saulins. The office of the Saulins is +to make enquiries, and try all cases connected with the community, +and to abide by the decision of the chiefs. The Voyddoos (pandits) +and Bhoutuls (Josis and Kavis also ranked with Voyddas and Bhoutuls) +had their honours on all important occasions, and they are placed in +the same rank with the elders. The Karestuns, or the Commons, are +the whole body of the masses. Their voice is necessary on certain +important occasions, as during the ceremonies of excommunication, +and prayaschittas for admitting renegades, and during periodical +meetings of the community. The Goundans at present are not exercising +any of their powers, except in some religious matters. Saurashtra +Brahmans were originally leading a purely religious life, but now +they have begun to do business of different descriptions fitted to +their position. Their chief occupation is agriculture, but some are +trading, dyeing and weaving; however, it can be safely affirmed that +their business interferes in no way with their religious creed and +ceremonies. The name Patnulgar means silk weavers, and is sometimes +erroneously applied to the Saurashtras too; but, on the contrary, +the term strictly applies to all classes of weavers in Southern +India, called Seniyars, Kaikkolars, Devangas, Kshatris (Khattris), +Parayas, Sengundas, Mudaliars, Saliyurs, Padmasalays, but not to the +Saurashtras in any way. The Saurashtras are now seen as a mercantile +community. They are brave but humble, god-fearing, hospitable, fond +of festivities and amusement. The Saurashtras, it is said, were +originally a class of sun worshippers, from soura meaning sun, but +the term Saurashtra means inhabitants of the fruitful kingdom. Their +religion is Hinduism, and they were originally Madhvas. After their +settlement in Southern India, some of them, owing to the preachings +of Sankaracharya and Ramanujacharya, were converted into Saivites and +Vaishnavites respectively. The Saurashtras belong to the Aksobhya and +Sankaracharya Matas. The Saurashtras, like other nations of India, +are divided into four great divisions, viz., Brahma, Kshatriya, Vaisya +and Sudra. The Vaisyas and Sudras are to be found in almost all towns +and villages, and especially at Tirupati, Nagari, Naranavanam, Arni, +Kottar, Palani, Palamcottah, Vilangudi, and Viravanallur." + +The affairs of the Patnulkarans at Madura are managed by a Saurashtra +Sabha, which was started in 1895. Among the laudable objects for +which the Sabha was established, the following may be noted:-- + +(a) To manage the Madura Saurashtra school, and establish +reading-rooms, libraries, etc., with a view to enable members of the +Saurashtra community to receive, on moderate terms, a sound, liberal, +general and technical education. + +(b) To manage the temple known as the Madura Sri Prasanna Venkateswara +Swami's temple, and contribute towards its maintenance by constructing, +repairing and preserving buildings in connection therewith, making +jewels, vehicles and other things necessary therefor, and conducting +the festivals thereof. + +(c) To found charitable institutions, such as orphanages, hospitals, +poor-houses, choultries (resting-places for travellers), water-sheds, +and other things of a like nature for the good of the Saurashtra +community. + +(d) To give succour to the suffering poor, and the maimed, the lame, +and the blind in the Saurashtra community. + +(e) To give pecuniary grants in aid of upanayanams (thread marriages) +to the helpless in the Saurashtra community. + +(f) To erect such works of utility as bathing ghauts, wells, water +fountains, and other works of utility for the benefit of the Saurashtra +community. + +(g) To fix and raise subscriptions known as mahamais (a sort of +income-tax). + +Among the subjects of the lectures delivered in connection with the +Saurashtra Upanyasa Sabha at Madura in 1901 were the life of Mrs. Annie +Besant, the Paris Exhibition of 1900, Mr. Tata and higher education, +Saurashtra bank, Columbus, and the Saurashtra reform hotel. + +A few years ago, the Saurashtra community submitted a memorial to +the Governor of Madras to the effect that "as the backward Saurashtra +community have not the requisite capital of half a lakh of rupees for +imparting to their members both general and technical education, the +Saurashtra Sabha, Madura, suggests that a lottery office may be kept +for collecting shares at one rupee each from such of the public at +large as may be willing to give the same, on the understanding that, +every time the collections aggregate to Rs. 6,250, Rs. 250 should be +set apart for the expenses of working the said office, and two-thirds +of the remainder for educational purposes, and one-third should be +awarded by drawing lots among the subscribers in the shape of five +prizes, ranging from Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 125." In passing orders on this +sporting scheme, the Government stated that it was not prepared to +authorise the lottery. It has been well said [87] that the Patnulkarans +have a very strong esprit de corps, and this has stood them in good +stead in their weaving, which is more scientifically carried on, +and in a more flourishing condition than is usual elsewhere. + +For the following note on the Patnulkaran weavers of Madura, I am +indebted to Mr. A. Chatterton, Director of Technical Enquiries:--"As +a general rule, they are in a flourishing condition, and much better +off than the Saurashtra weavers in Salem. This is probably due to +the fact that the bulk of the Madura trade is in a higher class of +cloth than at Salem, and the weavers are consequently less affected by +fluctuations in demand for their goods due to seasonal variations. In +various ways the Saurashtras of Madura have furnished evidence that +they are a progressive community, particularly in the attention +which they pay to education, and the keenness with which they are on +the look-out for improvements in the methods of carrying out their +hereditary craft. Nearly all the so-called improvements have been +tried at Madura, and the fact that they have rejected most of them may +be taken to some extent as evidence of their unsuitability for Indian +conditions. Some time ago, one A. A. Kuppusawmy Iyer invented certain +improvements in the native shedding apparatus, whereby ornamental +patterns are woven along the borders, and on the ends of the better +class of silk and cotton cloths. This apparatus was undoubtedly a +material improvement upon that which is ordinarily used by the weaver, +and it has been taken up extensively in the town. It is said that +there are 350 looms fitted with this shedding apparatus, and the +inventor, who has obtained a patent for it, is trying to collect a +royalty of Rs. 1-4-0 a month on each loom. But this claim is resisted +by a combination of the weavers using this shedding apparatus, and a +suit is at the present time (1907) pending in the District Court. One +of the most important weaving enterprises at Madura is the Meenakshi +Weaving Company, the partners of which are Ramachandra Iyer, Muthurama +Iyer, and Kuppusawmy Iyer. Their subscribed capital is Rs. 1,00,000, +of which they are spending no less than Rs. 40,000 on building a +weaving shed and office. The Madura dyeing industry is in the hands +of the Saurashtras, and the modern phase dates back only as far as +1895, when Mr. Tulsiram started dyeing grey yarn with alizarine red, +and, in the twelve years which have since elapsed, the industry has +grown to very large proportions. The total sales at Madura average +at present about 24 lakhs a year. There are from 30 to 40 dye-houses, +and upwards of 5,000 cwt. of alizarine red is purchased every year from +the Badische Aniline Soda Fabrik. The yarn is purchased locally, mainly +from the Madura Mills, but, to some extent, also from Coimbatore and +Tuticorin. The mordanting is done entirely with crude native earths, +containing a large percentage of potassium salts. Drying the yarn +presents considerable difficulty, especially in the wet weather. To +secure a fast even colour, the yarn is mordanted about ten times, +and dyed twice, or for very superior work three times, and between +each operation it is essential that the yarn should be dried. The +suburbs of Madura are now almost entirely covered with drying yards." + +In a note on the Patnulkarans who have settled in Travancore, +Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes as follows. "The Patnulkarans are +generally of yellowish tinge, and in possession of handsomer and more +intellectual features than the Tamil castes, from which they may be +easily differentiated by even a casual observer. They are, however, +more fair than cleanly. They keep in Travancore, as elsewhere, +aloof from other castes, and live independently of general society, +speaking a foreign language. This they have preserved with astonishing +attachment, and recently a Saurashtra alphabet has been invented, and +elementary books have begun to be written in that dialect. They are a +very conservative class, religious enthusiasts of a very remarkable +order, and skilful and industrious workmen. They take a peculiar +pleasure in music, and many of them are excellent songsters. There +are many kinds of amusement for both men and women, who generally +spend their leisure in singing songs of a devotional nature. They +believe largely in omens, of which the following may be noted:-- + +Good.--A pot full of water, a burning light, no Brahmans, a Sudra, +a cow, a married woman, and gold. + +Bad.--A barber, a patient, a person with some bodily defect, fuel, +oil, a donkey, a pick-axe, a broom, and a fan. + +"On entering a Patnulkaran's house, we are led to a courtyard, +spacious and neat, where all the necessary arrangements are made for +weaving purposes. The Patnulkarans live in streets. A male Patnulkaran +resembles a Tamil Vaishnava Brahman in outward appearance, but the +women follow the custom of the Telugu Brahmans alike in their costume +and ornaments. Their jewels exactly resemble those of the Telugu +Brahman women, and indicate a temporary residence of the caste in the +Telugu country on the way from Gujarat to Madura. There is a Tamil +proverb to the effect that, if a male Patnulkaran is seen without his +wife, he will be taken for a Vaishnava Brahman, whereas, in the case +of the Tatan caste, a woman without her husband will be taken for an +Aiyangar. Children wear the karai round the neck. Tattooing prevails +on a very large scale. + +"The Patnulkarans may be divided into three classes on a religious +basis, viz., (1) pure Vaishnavites, who wear the vertical Vaishnavite +mark, and call themselves Vadakalas or northerners; (2) those who are +mainly Smartas; (3) Sankara Vaishnavas, who wear gopi (sandal paste) +as their sect-mark. It is to the last of these religious sects that the +Travancore Patnulkarans belong, though, in recent times, a few Smartas +have settled at Kottar. All these intermarry and interdine, and the +religious difference does not create a distinction in the caste. The +chief divinity of the Patnulkarans is Venkatachalapati of Tirupati. The +month in which he is most worshipped is Kanni (September-October), and +all the Saturdays and the Tiruvonam star of the month are particularly +devoted to his adoration. One of their men becomes possessed on any of +these days, and, holding a burning torch-light in his hand, touches +the foreheads of the assembled devotees therewith. The Patnulkarans +fast on those days, and take an image of Garuda in procession through +the street. The Dipavali, Pannamasi in Chittiray, and the Vaikuntha +Ekadasi are other important religious days. The Dusserah is observed, +as also are the festivals of Sri Rama Navami, Ashtami, Rohini, +Avani Avittam, and Vara Lakshmivratam. Formal worship of deities +is done by those who have obtained the requisite initiation from a +spiritual preceptor. Women who have husbands fast on full-moon days, +Mondays, and Fridays. The serpent and the banyan tree are specially +worshipped. Women sing songs in praise of Lakshmi, and offer fruits +and cocoanuts to her. The Patnulkarans have a temple dedicated to +Sri Rama at Kottar. This temple is visited even by Brahmans, and the +priests are Aiyangars. The Acharya, or supreme religious authority of +the Patnulkarans, in Travancore is a Vaishnava Brahman known as Ubhaya +Vedanta Koti Kanyakadana Tatachariyar, who lives at Aravankulam near +Tinnevelly, and possesses a large number of disciples. Once a year +he visits his flock in Travancore, and is highly respected by them, +as also by the Maharaja, who makes a donation of money to him. Elders +are appointed to decide social disputes, and manage the common property +of the caste. In Travancore there are said to be only three families +of Patnulkaran priests. For the higher ceremonies, Brahman priests +are employed. + +"A girl's marriage is usually celebrated before puberty, and +sometimes when she is a mere child of four or five. Great importance +is attached to gotras or exogamous septs, and it is said that the +septs of the bride and bridegroom are conspicuously inscribed on the +walls of a marriage house. In the selection of an auspicious hour +(muhurtam) for a marriage, two favourable planetary situations, one +closely following the other, are necessary; and, as such occasions +are rare, a number of marriages take place at one time. A man may +claim his maternal uncle's daughter as his wife, and polygamy is +permitted. The marriage ceremonial resembles the Brahmanical rites +in many points. On the fourth day, a ceremonial observed by Telugu +Brahmans, called Nagabali, is performed. The marriage badge, which +is tied on the bride's neck, is called bottu. [From a note on the +marriage ceremonies among the Patnulkarans of Madura, I gather that, +as among Telugu and Canarese castes, a number of pots are arranged, +and worshipped. These pots are smaller and fewer in number than at +a Telugu or Canarese wedding. A figure of a car is drawn on the wall +of the house with red earth or laterite. [88] On it the name of the +gotra of the bridegroom is written. On the fourth day, the nagavali +(or offering to Devas) is performed. The contracting couple sit near +the pots, and a number of lights are arranged on the floor. The pots, +which represent the Devas, are worshipped.] + +"The namakarana, or name-giving ceremony, is performed on the eleventh +day after birth. An eighth child, whether male or female, is called +Krishna, owing to the tradition that Krishna was born as the eighth +child of Vasudeva. Babies are affectionately called Duddu (milk) +or Pilla (child). The annaprasana, or first feeding of the child, +is sometimes celebrated at the end of the first year, but usually as +a preliminary to some subsequent ceremony. Sometimes, in performance +of a vow, boys are taken to the shrine at Tirupati for the tonsure +ceremony. The upanayana is performed between the seventh and twelfth +years, but neither brahmacharya nor samavartana is observed. + +"The dead are burnt, and the remains of the bones are collected and +deposited under water. Death pollution lasts only for ten days. The +sradh, or annual ceremony, when oblations are offered to ancestors, +is observed. Widows are allowed to retain their hair, but remove the +bottu. Unlike Brahman women, they chew betel, and wear coloured cloths, +even in old age." + +The Patnulkarans have a secret trade language, concerning which +Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao writes as follows. "The most remarkable +feature about it is the number of terms and phrases borrowed from +the craft, to which special meanings are given. Thus a man of no +status is stigmatised as a rikhta khandu, i.e., a spindle without +the yarn. Similarly, a man of little sense is called a mhudha, the +name of a thick peg which holds one side of the roller. Likewise, +a talkative person is referred to as a rhetta, or roller used for +winding the thread upon spindles, which makes a most unpleasant +creaking noise. Kapiniker, from kapini, a technical term used for +cutting the loom off, means to make short work of an undesirable +person. A man who is past middle age is called porkut phillias, which, +in weavers' parlance, means that half the loom is turned." + +Patra.--The Patras are an Oriya caste, which is divided into +two sections, one of which is engaged in the manufacture of silk +(pata) waist-threads, tassels, etc., and the other in weaving silk +cloths. The members of the two sections do not interdine. The former +have exogamous septs or bamsams, the names of which are also used as +titles, e.g., Sahu, Patro, and Prushti. The latter have exogamous +septs, such as Tenga, Jaggali, Telaga, and Mahanayako, and Behara +and Nayako as titles. The chief headman of the cloth-weaving section +is called Mahanayako, and there are other officers called Behara and +Bhollobaya. The headman of the other section is called Senapati, and +he is assisted by a Dhanapati. Infant marriage is the rule, and, if a +girl does not secure a husband before she reaches maturity, she must, +if she belongs to the cloth-weaving section, go through a form of +marriage with an old man, and, if to the other section, with an arrow. + +The Telugu Patras are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, +as "a Telugu caste of hunters and cultivators, found chiefly in the +districts of Cuddapah and Kurnool. It has two divisions, the Doras +(chiefs), and Gurikalas (marksmen), the former of which is supposed +to be descended from the old Poligars (feudal chiefs), and the latter +from their followers and servants. This theory is supported by the +fact that, at the weddings of Gurikalas, the Doras receive the first +pan-supari (betel leaf and areca nut). Widows may not remarry, nor +is divorce recognised. They usually employ Brahmans at marriages, and +Satanis at funerals. Though they are Vaishnavites, they also worship +village deities, such as Gangamma and Ellamma. They bury their dead, +and perform annual sraddhas (memorial services for the dead). They +will eat with Gollas. Their title is Naidu." + +Patramela.--Patramela, or Patradeva, is the name of a class of +dancing girls in South Canara. Patramela, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, +[89] is the name by which the Konkani Kalavants (courtezans) are +known above the ghauts. + +Patro.--The title of the head of a group of villages in Ganjam, and +also recorded, at times of census, as a title of Alia, Kalinga Komati, +Dolai, and Jaggala. The conferring of a cloth (sadhi) on a Patro +is said to be emblematic of conferring an estate. The Patro, among +other perquisites, is entitled to a fee on occasions of marriage. I +am informed that, in the Ganjam Maliahs, if a Kondh was unable to +pay the fee, he met his love at night beneath two trysting trees, +and retired with her into the jungle for three days and nights. + +Patrudu.--The title, meaning those who are fit to receive a gift, +of Aiyarakulu and Nagaralu. + +Pattadhikari.--A class of Jangams, who have settled head-quarters. + +Pattan.--The equivalent of the Brahman Bhatta. A name by which some +Kammalans, especially goldsmiths, style themselves. + +Pattanavada.--A synonym for the Moger fishing caste, the settlements +of which are called pattana. + +Pattanavan.--The fishermen on the east coast, from the Kistna to +the Tanjore district, are popularly called Karaiyan, or sea-shore +people. Some Karaiyans have, at times of census, returned themselves +as Taccha (carpenter) Karaiyans. + +Pattanavan means literally a dweller in a town or pattanam, which +word occurs in the names of various towns on the sea-coast, e.g., +Nagapattanam (Negapatam), Chennapattanam (Madras). The Pattanavans +have two main divisions, Periya (big) and Chinna (small), and, in some +places, for example, at Nadukuppam in the Nellore district, exogamous +septs, e.g., Gengananga, Peyananga, Kathananga (children of Ganga, +Peyan, and Kathanar), and Kullananga (children of dwarfs). In the +Telugu country, they go by the name of Pattapu or Tulivandlu. + +Some Pattanavans give themselves high-sounding caste titles, e.g., +Ariyar, Ayyayiraththalaivar (the five thousand chiefs), Ariya Nattu +Chetti (Chettis of the Ariyar country), Acchu Vellala, Karaiturai +(sea-coast) Vellala, Varunakula Vellala or Varunakula Mudali after +Varuna, the god of the waters, or Kurukula vamsam after Kuru, the +ancestor of the Kauravas. Some Pattanavans have adopted the title +Pillai. + +The Pattanavans are said to be inferior to the Sembadavans, who will +not accept food at their hands, and discard even an earthen pot which +has been touched by a Pattanavan. + +Concerning the origin of the caste, there is a legend that the +Pattanavans were giving silk thread to Siva, and were hence called +Pattanavar, a corruption of Pattanaivor, meaning knitters of silk +thread. They were at the time all bachelors, and Siva suggested the +following method of securing wives for them. They were told to go out +fishing in the sea, and make of their catch as many heaps as there +were bachelors. Each of them then stood before a heap, and called for +a wife, who was created therefrom. According to another story, some +five thousand years ago, during the age of the lunar race, there was +one Dasa Raja, who was ruling near Hastinapura, and was childless. To +secure offspring, he prayed to god, and did severe penance. In answer +to his prayer, God pointed out a tank full of lotus flowers, and told +the king to go thither, and call for children. Thereon, five thousand +children issued forth from the flowers, to the eldest of whom the king +bequeathed his kingdom, and to the others money in abundance. Those who +received the money travelled southward in ships, which were wrecked, +and they were cast ashore. This compelled them to make friends of local +sea fishermen, whose profession they adopted. At the present day, the +majority of Pattanavans are sea-fishermen, and catch fish with nets +from catamarans. "Fancy," it has been written, [90] "a raft of only +three logs of wood, tied together at each end when they go out to sea, +and untied and left to dry on the beach when they come in again. Each +catamaran has one, two or three men to manage it; they sit crouched on +it upon their heels, throwing their paddles about very dexterously, +but remarkably unlike rowing. In one of the early Indian voyager's +log-books there is an entry concerning a catamaran: 'This morning, +6 A.M., saw distinctly two black devils playing at single stick. We +watched these infernal imps about an hour, when they were lost in +the distance. Surely this doth portend some great tempest.' It is +very curious to watch these catamarans putting out to sea. They get +through the fiercest surf, sometimes dancing at their ease on the +top of the waters, sometimes hidden under the waters; sometimes the +man completely washed off his catamaran, and man floating one way +and catamaran another, till they seem to catch each other again by +magic." In 1906, a fisherman was going out in his catamaran to fish +outside the Madras harbour, and was washed off his craft, and dashed +violently against a rock. Death was instantaneous. Of the catamaran, +the following account is given by Colonel W. Campbell. [91] "Of all +the extraordinary craft which the ingenuity of man has ever invented, +a Madras catamaran is the most extraordinary, the most simple, and yet, +in proper hands, the most efficient. It is merely three rough logs of +wood, firmly lashed together with ropes formed from the inner bark of +the cocoanut tree. Upon this one, two, or three men, according to the +size of the catamaran, sit on their heels in a kneeling posture, and, +defying wind and weather, make their way through the raging surf which +beats upon the coast, and paddle out to sea at times when no other +craft can venture to face it. At a little distance, the slight fabric +on which these adventurous mariners float becomes invisible, and a +fleet of them approaching the land presents the absurd appearance +of a host of savage-looking natives wading out towards the ship, +up to their middle in water." "A catamaran," Lady Dufferin writes, +[92] in an account of a state arrival at Madras, "is two logs of wood +lashed together, forming a very small and narrow raft. The rower wears +a 'fool's cap,' in which he carries letters (also betel and tobacco), +and, when he encounters a big wave, he leaves his boat, slips through +the wave himself, and picks up his catamaran on the other side of +it. Some very large deep barges (masula boats), the planks of which +are sewn together to give elasticity, and the interstices stuffed +with straw, came out for us, with a guard of honour of the mosquito +fleet, as the catamarans are called, on either side of them; two of +the fool's cap men, and a flag as big as the boat itself, on each +one." The present day masula or mussoola boat, or surf boat of the +Coromandel Coast, is of the same build as several centuries ago. It +is recorded, [93] in 1673, that "I went ashore in a Mussoola, a boat +wherein ten men paddle, the two aftermost of whom are the Steers-men, +using their Paddles instead of a Rudder: The Boat is not strengthened +with knee-timber, as ours are; the bended Planks are sowed together +with Rope-yarn of the Cocoe, and calked with Dammar so artificially +that it yields to every ambitious surf. Otherwise we could not get +ashore, the Bar knocking in pieces all that are inflexible." The +old records of Madras contain repeated references to Europeans being +drowned from overturning of masula boats in the surf, through which +a landing had to be effected before the harbour was built. + +In 1907, two Madras fishermen were invested with silver wrist bangles, +bearing a suitable inscription, which were awarded by the Government +in recognition of their bravery in saving the lives of a number of +boatmen during a squall in the harbour. + +The following are the fishes, which are caught by the fishermen off +Madras and eaten by Europeans:-- + + + Cybium guttatum, Bl. Schn. Seir. + Cybium Commersonii, Lacep. Seir. + Cybium lanceolatum, Cuv. & Val. Seir. + Sillago sihama, Forsk. Whiting. + Stromateus cinereus, Bloch.-- + Immature, silver pomfret. + Adult, grey pomfret. + Stromateus niger, Bloch. Black pomfret. + Mugal subviridis, Cuv. & Val. Mullet. + Psettodes erumei, Bl. Schn. 'Sole.' + Lates calcarifer, Bloch. Cock-up; the begti of Calcutta. + Lutjanus roseus, Day. + Lutjanus marginatus, Cuv. & Val. + Polynemus tetradactylus, Shaw. + Chorinemus lysan, Forsk. + 'Whitebait.' + + +The Pattanavans are Saivites, but also worship various minor gods +and Grama Devatas (village deities). In some places, they regard +Kuttiyandavan as their special sea god. To him animal sacrifices +are not made, but goats are sacrificed to Sembu Virappan or Minnodum +Pillai, an attendant on Kuttiyandavan. In Tanjore, the names of the +sea gods are Pavadairayan and Padaithalaidaivam. Before setting out +on a fishing expedition, the Pattanavans salute the god, the sea, +and the nets. In the Tanjore district, they repair their nets once in +eight days, and, before they go out fishing, pray to their gods to +favour them with a big catch. On a fixed day, they make offerings +to the gods on their return from fishing. The gods Pavadairayan +and Padaithalaidaivam are represented by large conical heaps of wet +sand and mud, and Ayyanar, Ellamma, Kuttiyandavar, Muthyalrouthar +and Kiliyendhi by smaller heaps. At the Masimakam festival, the +Pattanavans worship their gods on the sea-shore. The names Jattan and +Jatti are given to children during the Jatre or periodic festival of +the village goddesses. + +The Pattanavans afford a good example of a caste, in which the +time-honoured village council (panchayat) is no empty, powerless +body. For every settlement or village there are one or more headmen +called Yejamanan, who are assisted by a Thandakaran and a Paraiyan +Chalavathi. All these offices are hereditary. Questions connected +with the community, such as disrespect to elders, breach of social +etiquette, insult, abuse, assault, adultery, or drinking or eating +with men of lower caste, are enquired into by the council. Even +when disputes are settled in courts of law, they must come before +the council. Within the community, the headman is all powerful, and +his decision is, in most instances, considered final. If, however, +his verdict is not regarded as equitable, the case is referred to a +caste headman, who holds sway over a group of villages. No ceremony +may be performed without the sanction of the local headman, and the +details of ceremonies, except the feasting, are arranged by the +headman and the Thandakaran. In the case of a proposed marriage, +the match is broken off if the headman objects to it. He should be +present at the funeral rites, and see that the details thereof are +properly carried out. It is the duty of the Chalavathi to convey the +news of a death to the relations. Should he come to the shore when +the fishes are heaped up, he has the right to take a few thereof as +his perquisite. The Thandakaran, among other duties, has to summon +council meetings. When the members of council have assembled, he ushers +in the parties who have to appear before it, and salutes the assembly +by prostrating himself on the floor. The parties take a bit of straw, +or other object, and place it before the headman in token that they +are willing to abide by the decision of the council. This formality +is called placing the agreement (muchchilika). + +The consent of the maternal uncles is necessary before a pair can +be united in matrimony. When the wedding day has been fixed, the +bridegroom's party distribute grama thambulam (village pan-supari or +betel) to the headman and villagers. The marriage milk-post is made of +Mimusops hexandra, Erythrina indica, Casuarina equisetifolia, the green +wood of some other tree, or even a pestle. In one form of the marriage +ceremony, which varies in detail according to locality, the bridegroom, +on the arrival of the bride at the pandal (booth), puts on the sacred +thread, and the Brahman purohit makes the sacred fire, and pours ghi +(clarified butter) into it. The bridegroom ties the tali round the +bride's neck, and the maternal uncles tie flat silver or gold plates, +called pattam, on the foreheads of the contracting couple. Rings are +put on their second toes by the brother-in-law of the bridegroom +and the maternal uncle of the bride. Towards evening, the sacred +thread, the threads which have been tied to the marriage pots and the +milk-post, and grain seedlings used at the ceremony, are thrown into +the sea. Some Pattanavans allow a couple to live together as man and +wife after the betrothal, but before the marriage ceremony. This is, +however, on condition that the latter is performed as soon as it is +convenient. The remarriage of widows is freely permitted. No marriage +pandal is erected, and the bridegroom, or a female relation, ties the +tali on the bride's neck within the house. Such marriage is, therefore, +called naduvittu (interior of the house) tali. When a woman, who has +been guilty of adultery, is remarried, a turmeric string is substituted +for the golden tali, and is tied on the bride's neck by a woman. + +Some Pattanavans have adopted the custom of burying their dead in a +seated posture (samathi). If a corpse is cremated, fire is carried to +the burning-ground by a barber. When the corpse has been laid on the +pyre, rice is thrown over it. The son, accompanied by a barber and a +Panisavan or washerman, and carrying a pot of water on his shoulder, +goes thrice round the pyre. At the third round, the Panisavan or +washerman makes holes in the pot, and it is thrown away. On the day of +the funeral, all the agnates shave their heads. On the following day, +they go to the burial or burning ground with tender cocoanuts, milk, +cakes, etc., and Arichandra, who presides over the burial-ground, +is worshipped. Milk is then poured over the grave, or the remains +of the bones, which are thrown into the sea. On the night of the +fifteenth day, Panisavans blow the conch and horn, and red cloths +are presented to the widow of the deceased by her relations. At about +4 A.M., a white cloth is thrown on her neck, and the tali string is +cut by an old woman. The tali is removed therefrom, and dropped into +a new pot filled with water. Hence, a form of abuse among Pattanavan +women is, May your tali be snapped, and thrown into water. The tali +is removed from the pot, which is thrown into the sea. The tali is +laid on a dish containing milk, and all those who visit the widow +must set eyes on it before they see her. + +In the city of Madras, the Pattanavans have the privilege of supplying +bearers at temples, and the atmosphere surrounding them as they carry +the idols on their sturdy shoulders through Triplicane is said to be +"redolent of brine and the toddy shop." + +In a judgment of the High Court of Judicature, Madras, it is recorded +that, in the eighteenth century, some boat-owners and boatmen +belonging to the Curukula Vamsha or Varunakula Mudali caste, who were +residing at Chepauk in the city of Madras, had embraced Christianity, +and worshipped in a chapel, which had been erected by voluntary +contributions. In 1799 the site of their village was required for +public purposes, and they obtained in lieu of it a grant of land +at Royapuram, where a chapel was built. Partly by taxes levied on +boatmen, and partly by tolls they were allowed to impose on persons +for frequenting the Royapuram bazar, a fund was formed to provide for +their spiritual wants, and this fund was administered by the Marine +Board. In 1829, a portion of the fund was expended in the erection +of the church of St. Peter, Royapuram, and the fund was transferred +to Government. The administration of the fund has been the source of +litigation in the High Court. [94] + +It is noted by Mrs. F. E. Penny that some of the fisherfolk "adopted +Xavier as their special patron saint, and, as time passed, almost +deified him. In the present day, they appeal to him in times of +danger, crying 'Xavier! Xavier! Xavier!' in storm and peril. Even if +they are unfortunate in their catch when fishing, they turn to their +saint for succour." + +As a numismatist, I resent the practice resorted to by some fishermen +of melting old lead coins, and converting them into sinkers for +their nets. + +Pattapu.--Pattapu for Tulivandlu is a name for Tamil Pattanavans, +who have migrated to the Telugu country. Pattapu also occurs as a +sub-division of Yerukala. + +Pattar.--The Pattars are Tamil Brahmans, who have settled in +Malabar. The name is said to be derived from the Sanskrit bhatta. It +is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that Pattar (teacher) +has been recently assumed as a title by some Nokkans in Tanjore. (See +Brahman.) + +Pattariar.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a Tamil +corruption of Pattu Saliyan (silk-weaver). Pattariar or Pattalia is +a synonym of Tamil-speaking Saliyans. + +Pattegara (headman).--An exogamous sept of Okkiliyan. + +Pattindla (silk house).--An exogamous sept of Tota Balija. + +Pattola Menon.--Recorded, in the Cochin Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-caste of Nayars, who are accountants in aristocratic families. + +Pattukuruppu.--Recorded in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as +synonymous with Vatti, a sub-division of Nayar. + +Pattu Sale.--A sub-division of Sales, who weave silk (pattu) fabrics. + +Pattuvitan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Patvegara.--The Patvegaras or Pattegaras (pattu, silk) of South +Canara are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [95] as "a Canarese caste +of silk weavers. They are Hindus, and worship both Siva and Vishnu, +but their special deity is Durga Paramesvari at Barkur. They wear +the sacred thread, and employ Brahmans for ceremonial purposes. They +are governed by a body called the ten men, and pay allegiance to +the guru of the Ramachandra math (religious institution). They are +divided into balis (septs) and a man may not marry within his own +bali. Polygamy is allowed only when a wife is barren, or suffers +from some incurable disease, such as leprosy. The girls are married +in infancy, and the binding portion of the ceremony is called dhare +(see Bant). Widow marriage is not permitted, and divorce is only +allowed in the case of an adulterous wife. They follow the ordinary +Hindu law of inheritance. The dead are cremated. The sradha (memorial) +ceremony is in use, and the Mahalaya ceremony for the propitiation +of ancestors in general is performed annually. Female ancestors are +also worshipped every year at a ceremony called vaddap, when meals +are given to married women. They eat fish but not meat, and the use +of alcohol is not permitted." + +In the Mysore Census Report, 1891, the Patvegars are described as +"silk weavers who speak a corrupt Marathi conglomerate of Guzarati and +Hindi. They worship all the Hindu deities, especially the female energy +under the name of Sakti, to which a goat is sacrificed on the night +of the Dasara festival, a Musalman slaughtering the animal. After the +sacrifice, the family of the Patvegar partake of the flesh. Many of +their females are naturally fair and handsome, but lose their beauty +from early marriage and precocity." A few Pattegaras, who speak a +corrupt form of Marathi, are to be found in the Anantapur district. + +Pavalamkatti (wearers of corals).--A sub-division of Konga Vellala. + +Pavini.--See Vayani. + +Payyampati.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Pedakanti.--Pedakanti or Pedaganti is the name of a sub-division +of Kapu. It is said by some to be derived from a place called +Pedagallu. By others it is derived from peda, turned aside, and kamma, +eye, indicating one who turns his eyes away from a person who speaks +to him. Yet another suggestion is that it means stiff-necked. + +Pedda (big).--A sub-division of Boya, Bagata, Konda Dora, Pattapu, +and Velama. + +Peddammavandlu.--A fancy name taken by some Telugu beggars. + +Pedditi.--A sub-division of Golla, some members of which earn a +livelihood by begging and flattery. + +Pegula (intestines).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Pekkan.--A division of Toda. + +Pendukal (women).--A name applied to Deva-dasis in Travancore. + +Pengu.--A sub-division of Poroja. + +Pennegara.--Konkani-speaking rice-beaters in South Canara. + +Pentiya.--The Pentiyas also call themselves Holuva and Halaba or +Halba. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, they are called Pantia +as well as Pentiya, and described as Oriya betel-leaf (panno) +sellers. Their occupation, in the Jeypore Agency tracts, is that +of cultivators. According to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, to whom I am +indebted for the following note, numbers of them migrated thither from +Bustar, and settled at Pentikonna, and are hence called Pentikonaya or +Pentiya. Their language is Halba, which is easily understood by those +who speak Oriya. They are divided into two endogamous sections, called +Bodo (big or genuine), and Sanno (little), of whom the latter are said +to be illegitimate descendants of the former. The Bodos are further +sub-divided into a series of septs, e.g., Kurum (tortoise), Bhag +(tiger), Nag (cobra), and Surya (sun). The caste is highly organized, +and the head of a local centre is called Bhatha Nayako. He is assisted +by a Pradhani, an Umriya Nayako, and Dolayi. The caste messenger is +called Cholano, and he carries a silver baton when he summons the +castemen to a meeting. An elaborate ceremony is performed when a +person, who has been tried by the caste council, is to be received +back into the caste. He is accompanied to the bank of a stream, +where his tongue is burnt with a gold or silver wire or ornament by +the Bhatha Nayako, and some offerings from the Jagannatha temple at +Puri are given to him. He is then taken home, and provides a feast, +at which the Nayako has the privilege of eating first. He has further +to make a present of cloths to the assembled elders, and the four heads +of the caste receive a larger quantity than the others. The feast over, +he is again taken, carrying some cooked rice, to the stream, and with +it pushed therein. This ceremonial bath frees him from pollution. + +Girls are married either before or after puberty. A man can claim his +paternal aunt's daughter in marriage. The bridegroom's party proceed, +with the bridegroom, to the bride's village, and take up their abode in +a separate house. They then take three cloths for the bride's mother, +three rupees for her father, and a cloth and two annas for each of +her brothers, and present them together with rice, liquor, and other +articles. Pandals (booths) are erected in front of the quarters of the +bridal couple, that of the bridegroom being made of nine, and that of +the bride of five sal (Shorea robusta) poles, to which a pot containing +myrabolams (Terminalia fruits) and rice is tied. The couple bathe, +and the bridegroom proceeds to the house of the bride. The Desari, +who officiates, dons the sacred thread, and divides the pandal into +two by means of a screen or curtain. The couple go seven times round +the pandal, and the screen is removed. They then enter the pandal, +and the Desari links their little fingers together. The day's ceremony +concludes with a feast. On the following day, the bride is conducted to +the house of the bridegroom, and they sprinkle each other with turmeric +water. They then bathe in a stream or river. Another feast is held, +with much drinking, and is followed by a wild dance. The remarriage +of widows is permitted, and a younger brother may marry the widow of +his elder brother. The dead are burnt, and death pollution is observed +for ten days, during which the relatives of the deceased are fed by +members of another sept. On the tenth day a caste feast takes place. + +The Pentiyas are said [96] to distribute rice, and other things, to +Brahmans, once a year on the new-moon day in the month of Bhadrapadam +(September-October), and to worship a female deity named Kamilli on +Saturdays. No one, I am informed, other, I presume, than a Pentiya, +would take anything from a house where she is worshipped, lest the +goddess should accompany him, and require him to become her devotee. + +The caste title is Nayako. + +Peraka (tile).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Perike.--This word is defined, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, +as meaning literally a gunny bag, and the Perikes are summed up as +being a Telugu caste of gunny bag (goni) weavers, corresponding to +the Janappans of the Tamil districts. Gunny bag is the popular and +trading name of the coarse sacking and sacks made from the fibre +of jute, much used in Indian trade. It is noted, in the Census +Report, 1891, that "the Perikes claim to be a separate caste, but +they seem to be in reality a sub-division, and not a very exalted +sub-division, of Balijas, being in fact identical with the Uppu (salt) +Balijas. Their hereditary occupation is carrying salt, grain, etc., +on bullocks and donkeys in perikes or packs. Perike is found among +the sub-divisions of both Kavarai and Balija. Some of them, however, +have attained considerable wealth, and now claim to be Kshatriyas, +saying that they are the descendants of the Kshatriyas who ran away +(piriki, a coward) from the persecution of Parasurama. Others again +say they are Kshatriyas who went into retirement, and made hills +(giri) their abode (puri)." These Perike 'Kshatriyas' are known as +Puragiri Kshatriya and Giri Razu. The Periki Balijas are described, in +the Vizagapatam Manual, as chiefly carrying on cultivation and trade, +and some of them are said to hold a high position at 'the Presidency' +(Madras) and in the Vizagapatam district. + +Perike women appear to have frequently committed sati (or suttee) on +the death of their husbands in former days, and the names of those who +thus sacrificed their lives are still held in reverence. A peculiar +custom among the Perikes is the erection of big square structures +(brindavanam), in which a tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) is planted, on +the spot where the ashes of the dead are buried after cremation. I +am informed that a fine series of these structures may be seen at +Chipurapalli, close to Vizianagram. As a mark of respect to the dead, +passers-by usually place a lac bangle or flowers thereon. The usual +titles of the Perikes are Anna and Ayya, but some style themselves +Rao (= Raya, king) or Rayadu, in reference to their alleged Kshatriya +origin. + +For the following note on the Perikes of the Godavari district, I am +indebted to Mr. F. R. Hemingway. "Like some of the Kammas, they claim +to be of Kshatriya stock, and say they are of the lineage of Parasu +Rama, but were driven out by him for kidnapping his sister, while +pretending to be gunny-bag weavers. They say that they were brought to +this country by king Nala of the Mahabharata, in gratitude for their +having taken care of his wife Damayanti when he quitted her during +his misfortunes. They support the begging caste of Varugu Bhattas, +who, they say, supported them during their exile, and to whom they +gave a sanad (deed of grant) authorising them to demand alms. These +people go round the Perike houses for their dues every year. The Pisu +Perikes, who still weave gunny-bags, are said not to belong to the +caste proper, members of which style themselves Racha Perikes. + +"The Perikes say that, like the Komatis, they have 101 gotras. Their +marriage ceremonies are peculiar. On the day of the wedding, +the bride and bridegroom are made to fast, as also are three male +relatives, whom they call suribhaktas. At the marriage, the couple +sit on a gunny-bag, and another gunny, on which a representation +of the god Mailar is drawn or painted, is spread between them. The +same god is drawn on two pots, and these, and also a third pot, are +filled with rice and dhal (Cajanus indicus), which are cooked by two +married women. The food is then offered to Mailar. Next, the three +suribhaktas take 101 cotton threads, fasten them together, and tie +seven knots in them. The bride and bridegroom are given cloths which +have been partly immersed in water coloured with turmeric and chunam +(lime), and the suribhaktas are fed with the rice and dhal cooked in +the pots. The couple are then taken round the village in procession, +and, on their return, the knotted cotton threads are tied round the +bride's neck instead of a tali. + +Some Perikes style themselves Sathu vandlu, meaning a company of +merchants or travellers. + +Perike Muggula is the name of a class of Telugu mendicants and +exorcists. + +Periya (big).--Periya or Periyanan has been recorded as a sub-division +of Karalan, Kunnuvan, Occhan, and Pattanavan. The equivalent Peru or +Perum occurs as a sub-division of the Malayalam Kollans and Vannans +and Perim of Kanikars. Periya illom is the name of an exogamous illom +of Kanikars in Travancore. + +Perugadannaya (bandicoot rat sept).--An exogamous sept of Bant. + +Perum Tali (big tali).--A sub-division of Idaiyan, and of Kaikolans, +whose women wear a big tali (marriage badge). + +Perumal.--Perumal is a synonym of Vishnu, and the name is taken by +some Pallis who are staunch Vaishnavites. A class of mendicants, +who travel about exhibiting performing bulls in the southern part +of the Madras Presidency, is known as Perumal Madukkaran or Perumal +Erudukkaran. Perumalathillom, meaning apparently big mountain house, +is an exogamous sept or illom of the Kanikars of Travancore. + +Pesala (seeds of Phaseolus Mungo: green gram).--An exogamous sept +of Jogi. + +Peta (street).--A sub-division of Balija. + +Pettigeyavaru (box).--A sub-division of Gangadikara Vakkaliga. + +Pichiga (sparrow).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Devanga. The +equivalent Pital occurs as a sept of Mala. + +Pichigunta.--The name Pichigunta means literally an assembly of +beggars, who are described [97] as being, in the Telugu country, a +class of mendicants, who are herbalists, and physic people for fever, +stomach-ache, and other ailments. They beat the village drums, relate +stories and legends, and supply the place of a Herald's Office, as +they have a reputation for being learned in family histories, and +manufacture pedigrees and gotras (house names) for Kapus, Kammas, +Gollas, and others. + +The Picchai or Pinchikuntar are described in the Salem Manual as +"servants to the Kudianavars or cultivators--a name commonly assumed +by Vellalas and Pallis. The story goes that a certain Vellala had a +hundred and two children, of whom only one was a female. Of the males, +one was lame, and his hundred brothers made a rule that one would +provide him with one kolagam of grain and one fanam (a coin) each +year. They got him married to a Telugu woman of a different caste, +and the musicians who attended the ceremony were paid nothing, the +brothers alleging that, as the bridegroom was a cripple, the musicians +should officiate from charitable motives. The descendants of this +married pair, having no caste of their own, became known as Picchi +or Pinchikuntars (beggars, or lame). They are treated as kudipinnai +(inferior) by Vellalas, and to the present day receive their prescribed +miras (fee) from the Vellala descendants of the hundred brothers, to +whom, on marriage and other festivals, they do service by relating +the genealogies of such Vellalas as they are acquainted with. Some +serve the Vellalas in the fields, and others live by begging." [97] + +The caste beggars of the Tottiyans are known as Pichiga-vadu. + +Pidakala (cow-dung cakes or bratties).--An exogamous sept of +Devanga. Dried cow-dung cakes are largely used by natives as fuel, +and may be seen stuck on to the walls of houses. + +Pidaran.--A section of Ambalavasis, who, according to Mr. Logan [98] +"drink liquor, exorcise devils, and are worshippers of Bhadrakali +or of Sakti. The name is also applied to snake-catchers, and it was +probably conferred on the caste owing to the snake being an emblem +of the human passion embodied in the deities they worship." + +Pilapalli.--The Pilapallis are a small caste or community in +Travancore, concerning which Mr. S. Subramanya Aiyar writes +as follows. [99] "The following sketch will show what trifling +circumstances are sufficient in this land of Parasurama to call a new +caste into existence. The word Pilapally is supposed to be a corruption +of Belal Thalli, meaning forcibly ejected. It therefore contains, +as though in a nutshell, the history of the origin of this little +community, which it is used to designate. In the palmy days of the +Chempakasseri Rajas, about the year 858 M.E., there lived at the court +of the then ruling Prince at Ambalappuzha a Namburi Brahman who stood +high in the Prince's favour, and who therefore became an eye-sore to +all his fellow courtiers. The envy and hatred of the latter grew to +such a degree that one day they put their heads together to devise +a plan which should at once strip him of all influence at court, +and humble him in the eyes of the public. The device hit upon was +a strange one, and characteristic of that dim and distant past. The +Namburi was the custodian of all presents made to the Prince, and as +such it was a part of his daily work to arrange the articles presented +in their proper places. It was arranged that one day a dead fish, +beautifully tied up and covered, should be placed among the presents +laid before the Prince. The victim of the plot, little suspecting +there was treachery in the air, removed all the presents as usual +with his own hand. His enemies at court, who were but waiting for an +opportunity of humbling him to the dust, thereupon caused the bundle +to be examined before the Prince, when it became evident that it +contained a dead fish. Now, for a Namburi to handle a dead fish was, +according to custom, sufficient to make him lose caste. On the strength +of this argument, the Prince, who was himself a Brahmin, was easily +prevailed upon to put the Namburi out of the pale of caste, and the +court favourite was immediately excommunicated. There is another and +a slightly different version of the story, according to which the +Namburi in question was the hereditary priest of the royal house, +to whom fell the duty of removing and preserving the gifts. In course +of time he grew so arrogant that the Prince himself wanted to get rid +of him, but, the office of the priest being hereditary, he did not +find an easy way of accomplishing his cherished object, and, after +long deliberation with those at court in whom he could confide, came +at last to the solution narrated above. It is this forcible ejection +that the expression Belal Thalli (afterwards changed into Pilapally) +is said to import.... It appears that the unfortunate Namburi had two +wives, both of whom elected to share his fate. Accordingly, the family +repaired to Paravur, a village near Kallarkode, where their royal +patron made them a gift of land. Although they quitted Ambalapuzha for +good, they seem to have long owned there a madathummuri (a room in a +series, in which Brahmins from abroad once lived and traded), and are +said to be still entitled daily to a measure of palpayasom from the +temple, a sweet pudding of milk, rice and sugar, celebrated all over +Malabar for its excellence. The progeny of the family now count in +all about ninety members, who live in eight or nine different houses." + +Pillai.--Pillai, meaning child, is in the Tamil country primarily the +title of Vellalas, but has, at recent times of census, been returned +as the title of a number of classes, which include Agamudaiyan, +Ambalakaran, Golla, Idaiyan, Nayar, Nokkan, Panisavan, Panikkan, +Paraiyan, Saiyakkaran, Sembadavan and Senaikkudaiyans. Pilla is +further used as the title of the male offspring of Deva-dasis. Many +Paraiyan butlers of Europeans have assumed the title Pillai as an +honorific suffix to their name. So, too, have some criminal Koravas, +who pose as Vellalas. + +Pillaikuttam.--Recorded, in the Manual of the North Arcot district, +as a bastard branch of Vaniyan. + +Pillaiyarpatti (Ganesa village).--An exogamous section or kovil of +Nattukottai Chetti. + +Pilli (cat).--An exogamous sept of Chembadi, Mala, and Medara. + +Pindari.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, fifty-nine Pindaris are +returned as a Bombay caste of personal servants. They are more numerous +in the Mysore province, where more than two thousand were returned +in the same year as being engaged in agriculture and Government +service. The Pindaris were formerly celebrated as a notorious class +of freebooters, who, in the seventeenth century, attached themselves +to the Marathas in their revolt against Aurangzib, and for a long +time afterwards, committed raids in all directions, extending their +operations to Southern India. It is on record that "in a raid made upon +the coast extending from Masulipatam northward, the Pindaris in ten +days plundered 339 villages, burning many, killing and wounding 682 +persons, torturing 3,600, and carrying off or destroying property to +the amount of £250,000." [100] They were finally suppressed, in Central +India, during the Viceroyalty of the Marquis of Hastings, in 1817. + +Pindi (flour).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Pinjari (cotton-cleaner).--A synonym for Dudekula. Pinjala (cotton) +occurs as an exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Pippala (pepper: Piper longum).--An exogamous sept or gotra of Gamalla +and Komati. + +Pisharati.--The Pisharatis or Pisharodis are summed up in the Madras +Census Report, 1901, as being a sub-caste of Ambalavasis, which +makes flower garlands, and does menial service in the temples. As +regards their origin, the legend runs to the effect that a Swamiyar, +or Brahman ascetic, once had a disciple of the same caste, who wished +to become a Sanyasi or anchorite. All the ceremonies prior to shaving +the head of the novice were completed, when, alarmed at the prospect +of a cheerless life and the severe austerities incidental thereto, +he made himself scarce. Pishara denotes a Sanyasi's pupil, and as he, +after running away, was called Pisharodi, the children born to him of +a Parasava woman by a subsequent marriage were called Pisharatis. In +his 'Early Sovereigns of Travancore,' Mr. Sundaram Pillay says that +the Pisharati's "puzzling position among the Malabar castes, half +monk and half layman, is far from being accounted for by the silly +and fanciful modern derivation of Pisharakal plus Odi, Pisharakal +being more mysterious than Pisharati itself." It is suggested by him +that Pisharati is a corruption of Bhattaraka-tiruvadi. According to +the Jati-nirnaya, the Bhattarakas are a community degraded from the +Brahmans during the Treta Yuga. As far as we are able to gather from +mediæval Travancore inscriptions, an officer known as Pidara-tiruvadi +was attached to every temple. It is known that he used to receive large +perquisites for temple service, and that extensive rice-lands were +given to the Bhattakara of Nelliyur. It is noted, in the Gazetteer +of Malabar, that "the traditional etymology of the name Pisharodi +refers it to a Sanyasi novice, who, deterred by the prospects of +the hardship of life on which he was about to enter, ran away (odi) +at the last moment, after he had been divested of the punul (thread), +but before he had performed the final ceremony of plunging thrice in a +tank (pond), and of plucking out, one at each plunge, the last three +hairs of his kudumi (the rest of which had been shaved off). But the +termination 'Odi' is found in other caste titles such as Adiyodi and +Vallodi, and the definition is obviously fanciful, while it does not +explain the meaning of Pishar." + +The houses of Pisharatis are called pisharam. Their primary +occupation is to prepare garlands of flowers for Vaishnava temples, +but they frequently undertake the talikazhakam or sweeping service +in temples. Being learned men, and good Sanskrit scholars, they +are employed as Sanskrit and Malayalam tutors in the families of +those of high rank, and, in consequence, make free use of the title +Asan. They are strict Vaishnavites, and the ashtakshara, or eight +letters relating to Vishnu, as opposed to the panchakshara or five +letters relating to Siva, forms their daily hymn of prayer. They +act as their own caste priests, but for the punyaha or purificatory +ceremony and the initiation into the ashtakshara, which are necessary +on special occasions, the services of Brahmans are engaged. + +The Pisharatis celebrate the tali-kettu ceremony before the girl +reaches puberty. The most important item therein is the joining of +the hands of the bride and bridegroom. The planting of a jasmine +shoot is observed as an indispensable preliminary rite. The events +between this and the joining of hands are the same as with other +Ambalavasis. The bride and bridegroom bathe, and wear clothes touched +by each other. The girl's mother then gives her a wedding garland +and a mirror, with which she sits, her face covered with a cloth. The +cherutali, or marriage ornament, is tied by the bridegroom round the +girl's neck. If this husband dies, the tali has to be removed, and the +widow observes pollution. Her sons have to make oblations of cooked +rice, and, for all social and religious purposes, the woman is regarded +as a widow, though she is not debarred from contracting a sambandham +(alliance) with a man of her own caste, or a Brahman. If the wife +dies, the husband has, in like manner, to observe pollution, and make +oblations of cooked rice. There are cases in which the tali-kettu is +performed by a Pisharati, and sambandham contracted with a Brahman. If +the tali-tier becomes the husband, no separate cloth-giving ceremony +need be gone through by him after the girl has reached puberty. + +Inheritance is in the female line, so much so that a wife and +children are not entitled to compensation for the performance of a +man's funeral rites. + +No particular month is fixed for the name-giving rite, as it suffices +if this is performed before the annaprasana ceremony. The maternal +uncle first names the child. When it is four or six months old, it +is taken out to see the sun. On the occasion of the annaprasana, +which usually takes place in the sixth month, the maternal uncle +gives the first mouthful of cooked rice to the child by means of +a golden ring. The Yatrakali serves as the night's entertainment +for the assembled guests. Nambutiris are invited to perform the +purificatory ceremony known as punyaha, but the consecrated water is +only sprinkled over the roof of the house. The inmates thereof protrude +their heads beneath the eaves so as to get purified, as the Brahmans +do not pour the water over them. The chaula or tonsure takes place at +the third year of a child's life. The maternal uncle first touches +the boy's head with a razor, and afterwards the Maran and barber do +the same. The initiation into the ashtakshara takes place at the age +of sixteen. On an auspicious day, a Brahman brings a pot of water, +consecrated in a temple, to the pisharam, and pours its contents on +the head of the lad who is to be initiated. The ceremony is called +kalasam-ozhuk-kua, or letting a pot of water flow. After the teaching +of the ashtakshara, the youth, dressed in religious garb, makes a +ceremonial pretence of proceeding on a pilgrimage to Benares, as a +Brahman does at the termination of the Brahmacharya stage of life. It +is only after this that a Pisharati is allowed to chew betel leaf, +and perform other acts, which constitute the privileges of a Grihastha. + +The funeral rites of the Pisharatis are very peculiar. The corpse +is seated on the ground, and a nephew recites the ashtakshara, and +prostrates himself before it. The body is bathed, and dressed. A +grave, nine feet deep and three feet square, is dug in a corner of +the grounds, and salt and ashes, representing all the Panchabhutas, +are spread. The corpse is placed in the grave in a sitting posture. As +in the case of a Sanyasi, who is a Jivanmukta, or one liberated from +the bondage of the flesh though alive in body, so a dead Pisharati is +believed to have no suitable body requiring to be entertained with any +post-mortem offerings. A few memorial rites are, however, performed. On +the eleventh day, a ceremony corresponding to the ekoddishta sradh of +the Brahman is carried out. A knotted piece of kusa grass, representing +the soul of the deceased, is taken to a neighbouring temple, where a +lighted lamp, symbolical of Maha Vishnu is worshipped, and prayers are +offered. This ceremony is repeated at the end of the first year. [101] + +Some Pisharatis are large land-owners of considerable wealth and +influence. [102] + +Pisu Perike.--Perikes who weave gunny-bags. + +Pitakalu (dais, on which a priest sits).--An exogamous sept of Odde. + +Pittalavadu.--A Telugu name for Kuruvikkarans. + +Podapotula.--A class of mendicants, who beg from Gollas. + +Podara Vannan.--The Podara, Podarayan or Pothora Vannans are washermen +of inferior social status, who wash clothes for Pallans, Paraiyans, +and other low classes. + +Podhano.--Recorded, at times of census, as a title of Bolasi, Gaudo, +Kalingi, Kudumo, and Samantiya. The Samantiyas also frequently give +it as the name of their caste. + +Poduval.--Defined by Mr. Wigram [103] as one of the Ambalavasi castes, +the members of which are as a rule employed as temple watchmen. Writing +concerning the Mussads or Muttatus, Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar states +that they are known as Muttatus or Mussatus in Travancore and Cochin, +and Potuvals (or Poduvals) or Akapotuvals in North Malabar. Potuval +means a common person, i.e., the representative of a committee, and +a Muttatu's right to this name accrues from the fact that, in the +absence of the Nambutiri managers of a temple, he becomes their agent, +and is invested with authority to exercise all their functions. The +work of an Akapotuval always lies within the inner wall of the shrine, +while that of the Purappotuval, or Potuval proper, lies outside. From +Travancore, Poduvan or Potuvan is recorded as a synonym or sub-division +of Marans, who are employed at funerals by various castes. + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "Pura Pothuvals +are of two classes, Chenda Pothuvals or drum Pothuvals, and Mala +Pothuvals or garland Pothuvals, the names of course referring to the +nature of the service which they have to render in the temple. The +Chenda Pothuvals would appear to be closely connected with the +Marars or Marayars, who are also drummers. Mala Pothuvals follow +marumakkattayam (inheritance in the female line), their women having +sambandham (alliance) with men of their own caste or with Brahmans, +while the men can have sambandham in their own caste, or with Nayar +women of any of the sub-divisions below Kiriyattil. Their women are +called Pothuvarassiar or Pothuvattimar." It is further recorded [104] +that, in some cases, for instance among Mala Pothuvals and Marars +in South Malabar, a fictitious consummation is an incident of the +tali-kettu ; the girl and manavalan (bridegroom) being made to lie +on a bed together, and left there alone for a few moments. Amongst +the Mala Pothuvals this is done twice, once on the first and once +on the last day, and they apparently also spend the three nights of +the ceremony in the same bed-chamber, but not alone, an Enangatti +sleeping there as chaperone. In these two castes, as in most if not +all others, the ceremony also entails the pollution of the girl and +her bridegroom. Amongst the Marars, they are purified by a Nambudiri +after they leave their quasi-nuptial couch. Amongst the Mala Pothuvals, +they are not allowed to bathe or to touch others during the wedding +till the fourth day, when they are given mattu (change of cloths) +by the Veluttedan." + +Podala occurs as a Canarese form of Poduval. + +Pogandan.--A synonym of Pondan. + +Pokanati.--Pokanati or Pakanati is a sub-division of Kapu. + +Poladava.--A synonym of Gatti. + +Poligar (feudal chief).--A synonym of Palayakkaran. According to Yule +and Burnell, [105] the Poligars "were properly subordinate feudal +chiefs, occupying tracts more or less wild, and generally of predatory +habits in former days. They are now much the same as Zemindars +(land-owners) in the highest use of that term. The Southern Poligars +gave much trouble about a hundred years ago, and the 'Poligar wars' +were somewhat serious affairs. In various assaults on Panjalamkurichi, +one of their forts in Tinnevelly, between 1799 and 1801, there fell +fifteen British officers." The name Poligar was further used for the +predatory classes, which served under the chiefs. Thus, in Munro's +'Narrative of Military Operations' (1780-84), it is stated that +"the matchlock men are generally accompanied by Poligars, a set of +fellows that are almost savages, and make use of no other weapon than +a pointed bamboo spear, 18 or 20 feet long." + +The name Poligar is given to a South Indian breed of greyhound-like +dogs in the Tinnevelly district. + +Pombada.--A small class of Canarese devil-dancers, who are said, +[106] in South Canara, to resemble the Nalkes, but hold a somewhat +higher position, and in devil-dances to represent a better class of +demons. Unlike the Nalkes and Paravas, they follow the aliya santana +system of inheritance. They speak Tulu, and, in their customs, +follow those of the Billavas. There are two sections among the +Pombadas, viz., Bailu, who are mainly cultivators, and Padarti, +who are chiefly engaged in devil-dancing. The Pombadas are not, +like the Nalkes and Paravas, a polluting class, and are socially a +little inferior to the Billavas. They do not wear the disguises of +the bhuthas (devils) Nicha, Varte, and Kamberlu, who are considered +low, but wear those of Jumadi, Panjurli, Jarandaya, Mahisandeya, and +Kodamanithaya. Ullaya or Dharmadevata is regarded as a superior bhutha, +and the special bhutha of the Pombadas, who do not allow Nalkes or +Paravas to assume his disguise. During the Jumadi Kola (festival), +the Pombada who represents the bhutha Jumadi is seated on a cart, +and dragged in procession through the streets. (See Nalke.) + +Pon Chetti (gold merchant).--A synonym of Malayalam Kammalan +goldsmiths. + +Pon (gold) Illam.--A section of Mukkuvans. + +Pondan.--"There are," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [107] "only +twenty-eight persons of this caste in Malabar, and they are all in +Calicut. These are the palanquin-bearers of the Zamorin. They are +in dress, manners, customs, and language entirely Tamilians, and, +while the Zamorin is polluted by the touch of any ordinary Tamilian, +these Pondans enjoy the privilege of bearing him in a palanquin +to and from the temple every day. Now there is a sub-division of +the Tamil Idaiyans by name Pogondan, and I understand that these +Pogondans are the palanquin-bearers of the Idaiyan caste. It seems +probable that the founder, or some early member of the Zamorin, +obtained palanquin-bearers of his own (cowherd) caste and granted +them privileges which no other Tamilians now enjoy." + +Pondra.--Pondra, or Ponara, is a sub-division of Mali. + +Ponganadu.--Ponganadu and Ponguvan have been recorded, at times of +census, as a sub-division of Kapu. A corrupt form of Pakanati. + +Ponnambalaththar.--A class of mendicants, who have attached themselves +to the Kaikolans. + +Ponnara.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Poruvannurkaran.--A class of carpenters in Malabar. + +Poroja.--The Porojas or Parjas are hill cultivators found in the Agency +tracts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. Concerning them, it is noted, in the +Madras Census Report, 1871, that "there are held to be seven classes +of these Parjas, which differ from each other in points of language, +customs, and traditions. The term Parja is, as Mr. Carmichael has +pointed out, merely a corruption of a Sanskrit term signifying a +subject, and it is understood as such by the people themselves, who +use it in contradistinction to a free hill-man. 'Formerly,' says a +tradition that runs through the whole tribe, 'Rajas and Parjas were +brothers, but the Rajas took to riding horses (or, as the Barenja +Parjas put it, sitting still) and we became carriers of burdens and +Parjas.' It is quite certain, in fact, that the term Parja is not a +tribal denomination, but a class denomination, and it may be fitly +rendered by the familiar epithet of ryot (cultivator). I have laid +stress on this, because all native officials, and every one that has +written about the country (with the above exception), always talk of +the term Parja as if it signified a caste. There is no doubt, however, +that by far the greater number of these Parjas are akin to the Khonds +of the Ganjam Maliahs. They are thrifty, hard-working cultivators, +undisturbed by the intestine broils which their cousins in the north +engage in, and they bear in their breasts an inalienable reverence for +their soil, the value of which they are rapidly becoming acquainted +with. The Parja bhumi (land) is contained almost entirely in the +upper level. Parts to the south held under Pachipenta and Madugulu +(Madgole) are not Parja bhumi, nor, indeed, are some villages to +the north in the possession of the Khonds. Their ancient rights to +these lands are acknowledged by colonists from among the Aryans, and, +when a dispute arises concerning the boundaries of a field possessed +by recent arrivals, a Parja is usually called in to point out the +ancient land-marks." + +The name Poroja seems to be derived from the Oriya, Po, son, and Raja, +i.e., sons of Rajas. There is a tradition that, at the time when the +Rajas of Jeypore rose into prominence at Nandapur, the country was +occupied by a number of tribes, who, in return for the protection +promised to them, surrendered their rights to the soil, which they +had hitherto occupied absolutely. I am informed that the Porojas, +when asked what their caste is, use ryot and Poroja as synonymous, +saying we are Porojas; we are ryot people. + +The Parji language is stated by Mr. G. A. Grierson [108] to have +"hitherto been considered as identical with Bhatri. Bhatri has now +become a form of Oriya. Parji, on the other hand, is still a dialect +of Gondi." The Bhatras are a tribe inhabiting the state of Bastar in +the Central Provinces. + +The Porojas are not a compact caste, but rather a conglomerate, made up +of several endogamous sections, and speaking a language, which varies +according to locality. These sections, according to Mr. C. Hayavadana +Rao, to whom I am indebted for much of the present note, are-- + +(1) Barang Jhodia, who eat beef and speak Oriya. + +(2) Pengu Poroja, subdivided into those who eat the flesh of the +buffalo, and those who do not. They speak a language, which is said +to bear a close resemblance to Kondhs. + +(3) Khondi or Kondi Poroja, who are a section of the Kondhs, eat beef +and the flesh of buffaloes, and speak Kodu or Kondh. + +(4) Parengi Poroja, who are a section of the Gadabas. They are +subdivided into those who eat and do not eat the flesh of buffaloes, +and speak a Gadaba dialect. + +(5) Bonda, Bunda, or Nanga Poroja, who are likewise a section of the +Gadabas, call themselves Bonda Gadaba, and speak a dialect of Gadaba. + +(6) Tagara Poroja, who are a section of the Koyas or Koyis, and speak +Koya, or, in some places, Telugu. + +(7) Dur Poroja, also, it is said, known as Didayi Poroja, who speak +Oriya. + +Among the Barang Jhodias, the gidda (vulture), bagh (tiger), and +nag (cobra) are regarded as totems. Among the Pengu, Kondhi and +Dur divisions, the two last are apparently regarded as such, and, +in addition to them, the Bonda Porojas have mandi (cow). + +In the Barang Jhodia, Pengu, and Kondhi divisions, it is customary +for a man to marry his paternal aunt's daughter, but he cannot claim +her as a matter of right, for the principle of free love is recognised +among them. The dhangada and dhangadi basa system, according to which +bachelors and unmarried girls sleep in separate quarters in a village, +is in force among the Porojas. + +When a marriage is contemplated among the Barang Jhodias, the parents +of the young man carry two pots of liquor and some rice to the parents +of the girl, who accept the present, if they are favourable to the +match. If it is accepted, the future bridegroom's party renew the +proposal a year later by bringing five kunchams of rice, a new female +cloth, seven uddas of liquor, and a sum of money ranging from fifteen +to fifty rupees. On the following evening, the bride, accompanied +by her relations, goes to the village of the bridegroom. Outside his +house two poles have been set up, and joined together at the top by +a string, from which a gourd (Cucurbita maxima) is suspended. As soon +as the contracting couple come before the house, a tall man cuts the +gourd with his tangi (axe) and it falls to the ground. The pair then +enter the house, and the bride is presented with a new cloth by the +parents of the bridegroom. Opposite the bridegroom's house is a square +fence, forming an enclosure, from which the bride's party watch the +proceedings. They are joined by the bride and bridegroom, and the +parents of the latter distribute ragi (Eleusine Corocana) liquor and +ippa (Bassia) liquor. A dance, in which both males and females take +part, is kept up till the small hours, and, on the following day, a +feast is held. About midday, the bride is formally handed over to the +bridegroom, in the presence of the Janni and Mudili (caste elders). She +remains a week at her new home, and then, even though she has reached +puberty, returns to her father's house, where she remains for a year, +before finally joining her husband. In another form of marriage +among the Barang Jhodias, the bride is brought to the house of the +bridegroom, in front of which a pandal (booth), made of six poles, +is set up. The central pole is cut from the neredi chettu (Eugenia +Jambolana). At the auspicious moment, which is fixed by the Disari, +the maternal uncle of the bridegroom sits with the bridegroom on his +lap, and the bride at his feet. Castor-oil is then applied by the +bridegroom's father, first to the bridegroom, and then to the bride. A +feast follows, at which fowls and liquor are consumed. On the following +day, the newly-married couple bathe, and the ceremonies are at an end. + +I am informed by Mr. H. C. Daniel that there is a custom among the +Porojas, and other classes in Vizagapatam (e.g., Gadabas, Ghasis, +and Malis), according to which a man gives his services as a goti for +a specified time to another, in return for a small original loan. His +master has to keep him supplied with food, and to pay him about two +rupees at the Dussera festival, as well as making him a present of a +cloth and a pair of sandals. The servant must do whatever he is told, +and is practically a slave until the specified time is over. A man may +give his son as a goti, instead of himself. It is also fairly common to +find a man serving his prospective father-in-law for a specified time, +in order to secure his daughter. Men from the plains, usually of the +Komati caste, who have come to the hills for the purpose of trade, +go by the local name of Sundi. They are the chief upholders of the +goti system, by which they get labour cheap. Mr. Daniel has never +heard of a goti refusing to do his work, the contract being by both +sides considered quite inviolable. But a case was recently tried in a +Munsiff's Court, in which a goti absconded from his original master, +and took service with another, thereby securing a fresh loan. The +original master sued him for the balance of labour due. + +The language of the Bonda Porojas, as already indicated, connects them +closely with the Gadabas, but any such connection is stoutly denied +by them. The names Bonda and Nanga mean naked, and bear reference to +the fact that the only clothing of the women is a strip of cloth made +from setukudi or ankudi chettu, or kareng fibre. In a note on the +Bhondas of Jaipur, Mr. J. A. May informs us [109] that the female +attire "consists of just a piece of cloth, either made of kerong +bark and manufactured by themselves, or purchased from the weavers, +about a foot square, and only sufficient to cover a part of one +hip. It is attached to their waists by a string, on which it runs, +and can be shifted round to any side. A most ludicrous sight has +often been presented to me by a stampede among a number of these +women, when I have happened to enter a village unexpectedly. On my +approach, one and all hurried to their respective dwellings, and, +as they ran in all directions, endeavoured to shift this rag round +to the part most likely to be exposed to me." The Bonda women have +glass bead and brass ornaments hung round their necks, and covering +their bosoms. The legend, which accounts for the scanty clothing of +the Bondas, runs to the effect that, when Sita, the wife of Rama, was +bathing in a river, she was seen by women of this tribe, who laughed at +and mocked her. Thereon, she cursed them, and ordained that, in future, +all the women should shave their heads, and wear no clothing except a +small covering for decency's sake. There is a further tradition that, +if the Bonda women were to abandon their primitive costume, the whole +tribe would be destroyed by tigers. The shaving of the women's heads +is carried out, with a knife lent by the village Komaro (blacksmith), +by a member of the tribe. Round the head, the women wear a piece of +bamboo tied behind with strings. + +In one form of marriage, as carried out by the Bondas, a young man, +with some of his friends, goes to the sleeping apartment of the +maidens, where each of them selects a maid for himself. The young men +and maidens then indulge in a singing contest, in which impromptu +allusions to physical attributes, and bantering and repartee take +place. If a girl decides to accept a young man as her suitor, he +takes a burning stick from the night fire, and touches her breast +with it. He then withdraws, and sends one of his friends to the girl +with a brass bangle, which, after some questioning as to who sent it, +she accepts. Some months later, the man's parents go to the girl's +home, and ask for her hand on behalf of their son. A feast follows, +and the girl, with a couple of girls of about her own age, goes with +the man's parents to their home. They send five kunchams of rice to +the parents of the girl, and present the two girls with a similar +quantity. The three girls then return to their homes. Again several +months elapse, and then the man's parents go to fetch the bride, +and a feast and dance take place. The pair are then man and wife. + +In another account of the marriage customs of the Nanga Porojas, it +is stated that pits are dug in the ground, in which, during the cold +season, the children are put at night, to keep them warm. The pit +is about nine feet in diameter. In the spring, all the marriageable +girls of a settlement are put into one pit, and a young man, who +has really selected his bride with the consent of his parents, comes +and proposes to her. If she refuses him, he tries one after another +till he is accepted. On one occasion, a leopard jumped into the pit, +and killed some of the maidens. In a note on Bhonda marriage, Mr. May +writes [110] that "a number of youths, candidates for matrimony, start +off to a village, where they hope to find a corresponding number of +young women, and make known their wishes to the elders, who receive +them with all due ceremony. The juice of the salop (sago palm) in a +fermented state is in great requisition, as nothing can be done without +the exhilarating effects of their favourite beverage. They then proceed +to excavate an underground chamber (if one is not already prepared), +having an aperture at the top, admitting of the entrance of one at +a time. Into this the young gentlemen, with a corresponding number +of young girls, are introduced, when they grope about and make their +selection, after which they ascend out of it, each holding the young +lady of his choice by the forefinger of one of her hands. Bracelets +(the equivalent of the wedding ring) are now put on her arms by +the elders, and two of the young men stand as sponsors for each +bridegroom. The couples are then led to their respective parents, +who approve and give their consent. After another application of +salop and sundry greetings, the bridegroom is permitted to take his +bride home, where she lives with him for a week, and then, returning +to her parents, is not allowed to see her husband for a period of +one year, at the expiration of which she is finally made over to +him." In a still further account of marriage among the Bondas, I am +informed that a young man and a maid retire to the jungle, and light +a fire. Then the maid, taking a burning stick, applies it to the +man's gluteal region. If he cries out Am! Am! Am! he is unworthy of +her, and she remains a maid. If he does not, the marriage is at once +consummated. The application of the brand is probably light or severe +according to the girl's feelings towards the young man. According to +another version, the girl goes off to the jungle with several men, and +the scene has been described as being like a figure in the cotillion, +as they come up to be switched with the brand. + +Widow remarriage is permitted among all the divisions of the Porojas, +and a younger brother usually marries his elder brother's widow. + +The Jhodia, Pengu, and Kondhi divisions worship Bhumi Devata (the +earth goddess), who is also known as Jakar Devata, once in three +years. Each village offers a cow, goat, pig, and pigeon to her as +a sacrifice. She is represented by a stone under a tree outside the +village. A casteman acts as pujari (priest), and all the villagers, +including the Janni and Mudili, are present at the festival, which +winds up with a feast and drink. The Bondas worship Takurani in the +months of Chaitra and Magho, and the festival includes the sacrifice +of animals. "Their religious ceremonies," Mr. May writes, "consist +in offerings to some nameless deity, or to the memory of deceased +relations. At each of the principal villages, the Bhondas congregate +once a year in some spot conveniently situated for their orgies, when +a chicken, a few eggs, and a pig or goat are offered, after which they +retire to their houses, and next day assemble again, when the salop +juice is freely imbibed till the intoxicating effects have thoroughly +roused their pugnacity. The process of cudgelling one another with the +branches of the salop now begins, and they apply them indiscriminately +without the smallest regard for each other's feelings. This, with the +attendant drums and shrieks, would give one the impression of a host +of maniacs suddenly set at liberty. This amusement is continued till +bruises, contusions, and bleeding heads and backs have reduced them to +a comparatively sober state, and, I imagine, old scores are paid off, +when they return to their several houses." + +The dead are, as a rule, burnt. By some of the Jhodia Porojas, the +ashes are subsequently buried in a pit a few feet deep, near the +burning-ground, and the grave is marked by a heap of stones. A pole +is set up in this heap, and water poured on it for twelve days. On +the fourth day, cooked rice and fish are set on the way leading to +the spot where the corpse was burned. The celebrants of the death +rite then take mango bark, paint it with cow-dung, and sprinkle +themselves with it. The ceremony concludes with a bath, feast, and +drink. Among the Bonda Porojas, some of the jewelry of the deceased +person is burnt with the corpse, and the remainder given to the +daughter or daughter-in-law. They observe pollution for three days, +during which they do not enter their fields. On the fourth day, +they anoint themselves with castor-oil and turmeric, and bathe. + +Mr. G. F. Paddison informs me that he once gave medicine to the Porojas +during an epidemic of cholera in a village. They all took it eagerly, +but, as he was going away, asked whether it would not be quicker cure +to put the witch in the next village, who had brought on the cholera, +into jail. + +A Bonda Poroja dance is said to be very humourous. The young men tie +a string of bells round their legs, and do the active part of the +dance. The women stand in a cluster, with faces to the middle, clap +their hands, and scream at intervals, while the men hop and stamp, and +whirl round them on their own axes. The following account of a dance +by the Jhodia Poroja girls of the Koraput and Nandapuram country is +given by Mr. W. Francis. [111] "Picturesque in the extreme," he writes, +"is a dancing party of these cheery maidens, dressed all exactly alike +in clean white cloths with cerise borders or checks, reaching barely +half way to the knee; great rings on their fingers; brass bells on +their toes; their substantial but shapely arms and legs tattooed from +wrist to shoulder, and from ankle to knee; their left forearms hidden +under a score of heavy brass bangles; and their feet loaded with +chased brass anklets weighing perhaps a dozen pounds. The orchestra, +which consists solely of drums of assorted shapes and sizes, dashes +into an overture, and the girls quickly group themselves into a couple +of corps de ballet, each under the leadership of a première danseuse, +who marks the time with a long baton of peacock's feathers. Suddenly, +the drums drop to a muffled beat, and each group strings out into a +long line, headed by the leader with the feathers, each maiden passing +her right hand behind the next girl's back, and grasping the left elbow +of the next but one. Thus linked, and in time with the drums (which +now break into allegro crescendo), the long chain of girls--dancing +in perfect step, following the leader with her swaying baton, marking +the time by clinking their anklets (right, left, right, clink; left, +clink; right, left, right, clink; and so da capo), chanting the while +(quite tunefully) in unison a refrain in a minor key ending on a +sustained falling note--weave themselves into sinuous lines, curves, +spirals, figures-of-eight, and back into lines again; wind in and +out like some brightly-coloured snake; never halting for a moment, +now backwards, now forwards, first slowly and decorously, then, +as the drums quicken, faster and faster, with more and more abandon, +and longer and longer steps, until suddenly some one gets out of step, +and the chain snaps amid peals of breathless laughter." + +For the following supplementary note on the Bonda Porojas, I am +indebted to Mr. C. A. Henderson. + +These people live in the western portion of Malkanagiri taluk, +along the edge of the hills, probably penetrating some distance into +them. The elder men are not in any way distinguishable from their +neighbours. Young unmarried men, however, tie a strip of palmyra leaf +round their heads in the same way as the women of their own tribe, or +of the Gadabas. The women are very distinctly dressed. They all shave +their heads once a month or so, and fasten a little fillet, made of +beads or plaited grass, round them. The neck and chest are covered with +a mass of ornaments, by which the breasts are almost concealed. These +consist, for the most part, of bead necklaces, but they have also one +or more very heavy brass necklaces of various designs, some being +merely collections of rings on a connecting circlet, some massive +hinged devices tied together at the end with string. They wear also +small ear-studs of lead. Apart from these ornaments, they are naked +to the waist. Round the loins, a small thick cloth is worn. This is +woven from the fibre of the ringa (Oriya sitkodai gotsho). This cloth +measures about two feet by eight inches, and is of thick texture like +gunny, and variously coloured. Owing to its exiguity, its wearers are +compelled, for decency's sake, to sit on their heels with their knees +together, instead of squatting in the ordinary native posture. This +little cloth is supported round the waist by a thread, or light chain +of tin and beads, but not totally confined thereby. The upper edge of +the cloth behind is free from the chain, and bulges out, exposing the +upper portion of the buttocks, the thread or chain lying in the small +of the back. It is noted by Mr. Sandell that "the cloth at present +used is of comparatively recent introduction, and seems to be a slight +infringement of the tabu. The original cloth and supporting string were +undoubtedly made of jungle fibre, and the modern colouring is brought +about with cotton thread. Similarly, the Bonda Poroja necklaces of +cheap beads, blue and white, must be modern, and most obviously so +the fragments of tin that they work into their chains. The women are +said to wear cloths in their houses, but to leave them off when they +go outside. It seems that the tabu is directed against appearing in +public fully clothed, and not against wearing decent sized cloths, as +such. The party I saw were mostly unmarried girls, but one of them had +been married for a year. When not posing for the camera, or dancing, +she tied a small piece of cloth round her neck, so as to hang over +the shoulders. This, as far as I could make out, was not because she +was married, but simply because she was more shy than the rest. + +"Two houses are kept in the village, for the unmarried girls and young +men respectively. Apparently marriages are matters of inclination, +the parents having no say in the matter. The young couple having +contracted friendship (by word of mouth, and not by deed, as it was +explained to me), inform their parents of it. The young man goes to +make his demand of the girl's parents, apparently without at the time +making any presents to them, contrary to the custom of the Kondhs and +others. Then there seem to be a series of promises on the part of the +parents to give the girl. But the witnesses were rather confused on the +point. I gather that the sort of final betrothal takes place in Dyali +(the month after Dusserah), and the marriage in Magha. At the time +of marriage, the girl's parents are presented with a pair of bulls, +a cloth, and a pot of landa (sago-palm toddy). But no return is made +for them. The father gives the girl some ornaments. The married woman, +whom I saw, had been given a bracelet by her husband, but it was not a +conspicuously valuable one, and in no way indicative of her status." In +connection with marriage, Mr. Sandell adds that "a youth of one village +does not marry a maiden of the same village, as they are regarded as +brother and sister. The marriage pit is still in use, and may last +all through the cold weather. A number of small villages will club +together, and have one big pit." In the case observed by Mr. Sandell, +three of the local maidens were shut up in the pit at night, and +five stranger youths admitted. The pit may be twelve feet across, +and is covered with tatties (mats) and earth, a trap-door being left. + +"After childbirth, the mother is unclean for some days. The time is, +I gather, reckoned by the dropping of the navel-string, and is given +as eight to sixteen days. During that period, the woman is not allowed +to cook, or even touch her meals. + +"These people say that they have no puja (worship). But at the time of +sowing seed, they sacrifice one egg (for the whole village) to Matera +Hundi, the goddess of harvest, who is represented by a branch of the +kusi or jamo (guava) tree planted in the village. The people have +no pujaris, and, in this case, the priest was a Mattia by caste. He +plants the branch, and performs the sacrifice. At the time of Nua +Khau (new eating; first fruits) a sacrifice of an animal of some kind +is also made to Matera Hundi. Her aid is, they say, sought against +the perils of the jungle, but primarily she is wanted to give them a +good crop. The Bonda Porojas are quite ready to tell the old story of +Sita (whom they call Maha Lakshmi), and her curse upon their women, +whereby they shave their heads, and may not wear cloths. It is stated +by Mr. May that a Government Agent once insisted on a young woman +being properly clothed, and she survived the change only three days. I +understand that this case has been somewhat misrepresented. The cloth +is believed not to have been forced upon the girl, but offered to, and +greatly appreciated by her. Her death shortly afterwards was apparently +not the result of violation of the tabu, but accidental, and due, +it is believed, to small-pox. The people whom I saw had not heard +of this episode, but said that a woman who wore a cloth out of doors +would fall sick, not die. But the possibility of any woman of theirs +wearing a cloth obviously seemed to them very remote. The Bonda Porojas +have a sort of belief in ghosts--not altogether devils apparently, +but the spirits of the departed (sayire). These may appear in dreams, +influence life and health, and vaguely exercise a helpful influence +over the crops. I did not find out if they were propitiated in any way. + +"A dead body is washed, tied to a tatty (mat) hurdle, taken outside +the village, and burnt. After eight days (said to be four in the +case of rich men), the corpse-bearers, and the family, sit down to a +funeral feast, at which drinking is not allowed. A pig, fowl, or goat, +according to the circumstances of the family, forms the meal. This +is done in some way for the sake of the departed, but how is not +quite clear. + +"The Bonda Porojas live by cultivation, keep cattle, pigs, etc., +and eat beef, and even the domestic pig. They pride themselves, as +against their Hindu neighbours, in that their women eat with the men, +and not of their leavings, and do not leave their village. The women, +however, go to shandies (markets)." + +Pothoria.--Pothoria or Pothriya, meaning stone, is the name of a small +class of Oriya stone-cutters in Ganjam, who are addicted to snaring +antelopes by means of tame bucks, which they keep for the purpose of +decoying the wild ones. They employ Brahmans as purohits. Marriage +is infant, and remarriage of widows is permitted. The females wear +glass bangles. + +Pothu.--Pothu or Pothula, meaning male, occurs as an exogamous sept +of Devanga, Medara, and Padma Sale; and Pothula, in the sense of a +male buffalo, as a sept of Madiga. + +Potia.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as Oriya +mat-makers. They are said to be immigrants from Potia in Orissa, who +call themselves Doluvas. The Doluvas, however, do not recognise them, +and neither eat nor intermarry with them. + +Potta (abdomen).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Potti (Tamil, worshipful).--Stated, in the Travancore Census Report, +1901, to be the name applied to all Kerala Brahmans, who do not come +under the specific designation of Nambutiris. + +Pouzu (quail).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Powaku (tobacco).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Poyilethannaya (one who removes the evil eye).--An exogamous sept +of Bant. + +Pradhano (chief).--A title of Aruva, Benaiyto, Odia, Kalingi, Kevuto, +and Samantiya. + +Pranopakari (one who helps souls).--A name for barbers in +Travancore. In the early settlement records, Pranu occurs as a +corruption thereof. + +Prathamasakha.--It is recorded, [112] in connection with the village of +Koiltirumalam or Tiru-ambamahalam, that "a new temple has been recently +built, and richly endowed by Nattukottai Chettis. There is, however, +an old story connected with the place, which is enacted at the largely +attended festival here, and in many popular dramas. This relates that +the god of the Tiruvalur temple was entreated by a pujari (priest) +of this place to be present in the village at a sacrifice in his (the +god's) honour. The deity consented at length, but gave warning that he +would come in a very unwelcome shape. He appeared as a Paraiyan with +beef on his back and followed by the four Vedas in the form of dogs, +and took his part in the sacrifice thus accoutred and attended. All +the Brahmans who were present ran away, and the god was so incensed +that he condemned them to be Paraiyans for one hour in the day, from +noon till 1 P.M. ever afterwards. There is a class of Brahmans called +Midday Brahmans, who are found in several districts, and a colony +of whom reside at Sedanipuram, five miles west of Nannilam. It is +believed throughout the Tanjore district that the Midday Paraiyans +are the descendants of the Brahmans thus cursed by the god. They are +supposed to expiate their defilement by staying outside their houses +for an hour and a half every day at midday, and to bathe afterwards; +and, if they do this, they are much respected. Few of them, however, +observe this rule, and orthodox persons will not eat with them, because +of this omission to remove the defilement. They call themselves the +Prathamasakha." + +Prithvi (earth).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Puchcha.--Puccha or Puchcha Kaya (fruit of Citrullus Colocynthis) +is the name of a gotra or sept of Boyas, Komatis, and Viramushtis, +who are a class of mendicants attached to the Komatis. The same name, +or picchi kaya, denoting the water-melon Citrullus vulgaris, occurs +as a sept or house-name of Panta Reddis and Seniyans (Devangas), +the members of which may not eat the fruit. The name Desimarada has +been recently substituted by the Seniyans for picchi kaya. + +Pudamuri (pudaya, a woman's cloth; muri, cuttings).--Defined by +Mr. Wigram as a so-called 'marriage' ceremony performed among the +Nayars in North Malabar. (See Nayar.) + +Pudu Nattan (new country).--A sub-division of Idaiyan. + +Pu Islam.--See Putiya Islam. + +Pujari.--Pujari is an occupational title, meaning priest, or performer +of puja (worship). It is described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [113] as +"a name applied to a class of priests, who mostly preside in the +temples of the female deities--the Grama Devatas or Ur Ammas--and +not in those of Vishnu or Siva. They do not wear the sacred thread, +except on solemn occasions." Pujari has been recorded as a title of +Billavas as they officiate as priests at bhutasthanas (devil shrines), +and of Halepaiks, and Pujali as a title of some Irulas. Some families +of Kusavans (potters), who manufacture clay idols, are also known as +pujari. Puja occurs as a sub-division of the Gollas. Some criminal +Koravas travel in the guise of Pujaris, and style themselves Korava +Pujaris. + +Pula.--A sub-division of Cheruman. + +Pula (flowers).--An exogamous sept of Boya, Padma Sale and Yerukala. + +Pulan.--Barbers of Tamil origin, who have settled in Travancore. + +Pulavar.--A title of Occhan and Panisavan. + +Pulayan.--See Cheruman and Thanda Pulayan. + +Puli (tiger).--Recorded as an exogamous sept or gotra of Balija, +Golla, Kamma, and Medara. The equivalent Puliattanaya occurs as an +exogamous sept of Bant. + +Puliakodan.--A class of carpenters in Malabar, whose traditional +occupation is to construct oil mills. + +Puliasari.--A division of Malabar Kammalans, the members of which +do mason's work (puli, earth). Paravas who are engaged in a similar +calling are, in like manner, called Puli Kollan. + +Pulikkal.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Puliyan.--A sub-division of Nayar. + +Puliyattu.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as +synonymous with Pulikkappanikkan, a sub-division of Nayar. + +Pullakura (pot-herbs).--An exogamous sept of Idiga. + +Pulluvan.--The Pulluvans of Malabar are astrologers, medicine-men, +priests and singers in snake groves. The name is fancifully derived +from pullu, a hawk, because the Pulluvan is clever in curing the +disorders which pregnant women and babies suffer from through the evil +influence of these birds. The Pulluvans are sometimes called Vaidyans +(physicians). + +As regards the origin of the caste, the following tradition is +narrated. [114] Agni, the fire god, had made several desperate but vain +efforts to destroy the great primeval forest of Gandava. The eight +serpents which had their home in the forest were the chosen friends +of Indra, who sent down a deluge, and destroyed, every time, the fire +which Agni kindled in order to burn down the forest. Eventually Agni +resorted to a stratagem, and, appearing before Arjunan in the guise +of a Brahman, contrived to exact a promise to do him any favour he +might desire. Agni then sought the help of Arjunan in destroying +the forest, and the latter created a wonderful bow and arrows, which +cut off every drop of rain sent by Indra for the preservation of the +forest. The birds, beasts, and other creatures which lived therein, +fled in terror, but most of them were overtaken by the flames, and +were burnt to cinders. Several of the serpents also were overtaken +and destroyed, but one of them was rescued by the maid-servant of a +Brahman, who secured the sacred reptile in a pot, which she deposited +in a jasmine bower. When the Brahman came to hear of this, he had +the serpent removed, and turned the maid-servant adrift, expelling +at the same time a man-servant, so that the woman might not be alone +and friendless. The two exiles prospered under the protection of the +serpent, which the woman had rescued from the flames, and became the +founders of the Pulluvans. According to another story, when the great +Gandava forest was in conflagration, the snakes therein were destroyed +in the flames. A large five-hooded snake, scorched and burnt by the +fire, flew away in agony, and alighted at Kuttanad, which is said to +have been on the site of the modern town of Alleppey. Two women were +at the time on their way to draw water from a well. The snake asked +them to pour seven potfuls of water over him, to alleviate his pain, +and to turn the pot sideways, so that he could get into it. His +request was complied with, and, having entered the pot, he would +not leave it. He then desired one of the women to take him home, and +place him in a room on the west side of the house. This she refused +to do for fear of the snake, and she was advised to cover the mouth +of the pot with a cloth. The room, in which the snake was placed, +was ordered to be closed for a week. The woman's husband, who did not +know what had occurred, tried to open the door, and only succeeded by +exerting all his strength. On entering the room, to his surprise he +found an ant-hill, and disturbed it. Thereon the snake issued forth +from it, and bit him. As the result of the bite, the man died, and +his widow was left without means of support. The snake consoled her, +and devised a plan, by which she could maintain herself. She was +to go from house to house, and cry out "Give me alms, and be saved +from snake poisoning." The inmates would give, and the snakes, which +were troubling their houses, would cease from annoying them. For this +reason, a Pulluvan and his wife, when they go with their pulluva kudam +(pot-drum) to a house, are asked to sing, and given money. + +The Pulluvar females, Mr. T. K. Gopal Panikkar writes, [115] "take +a pretty large pitcher, and close its opening by means of a small +circular piece of thin leather, which is fastened on to the vessel +by means of strings strongly tied round its neck. Another string is +adjusted to the leather cover, which, when played on by means of the +fingers, produces a hoarse note, which is said to please the gods' +ears, pacify their anger, and lull them to sleep." In the Malabar +Gazetteer, this instrument is thus described. "It consists of an +earthenware chatty with its bottom removed, and entirely covered, +except the mouth, with leather. The portion of the leather which is +stretched over the bottom of the vessel thus forms a sort of drum, to +the centre of which a string is attached. The other end of the string +is fixed in the cleft of a stick. The performer sits cross-legged, +holding the chatty mouth downwards with his right hand, on his right +knee. The stick is held firmly under the right foot, resting on the +left leg. The performer strums on the string, which is thus stretched +tight, with a rude plectrum of horn, or other substance. The vibrations +communicated by the string to the tympanum produce a curious sonorous +note, the pitch of which can be varied by increasing or relaxing +the tension of the string." This musical instrument is carried from +house to house in the daytime by these Pulluvar females; and, placing +the vessel in a particular position on the ground, and sitting in +a particular fashion in relation to the vessel, they play on the +string, which then produces a very pleasant musical note. Then they +sing ballads to the accompaniment of these notes. After continuing +this for some time, they stop, and, getting their customary dues +from the family, go their own way. It is believed that the music, and +the ballads, are peculiarly pleasing to the serpent gods, who bless +those for whose sakes the music has been rendered." The Pulluvans also +play on a lute with snakes painted on the reptile skin, which is used +in lieu of parchment. The skin, in a specimen at the Madras Museum, +is apparently that of the big lizard Varanus bengalensis. The lute +is played with a bow, to which a metal bell is attached. + +The dwelling-houses of the Pulluvans are like those of the Izhuvans +or Cherumas. They are generally mud huts, with thatched roof, and a +verandah in front. + +When a girl attains maturity, she is placed apart in a room. On the +seventh day, she is anointed by seven young women, who give an offering +to the demons, if she is possessed by any. This consists of the bark +of a plantain tree made into the form of a triangle, on which small +bits of tender cocoanuts and little torches are fixed. This is waved +round the girl's head, and floated away on water. As regards marriage, +the Pulluvans observe both tali-kettu and sambandham. In the vicinity +of Palghat, members of the caste in the same village intermarry, +and have a prejudice against contracting alliances outside it. Thus, +the Pulluvans of Palghat do not intermarry with those of Mundur and +Kanghat, which are four and ten miles distant. It is said that, in +former days, intercourse between brother and sister was permitted. But, +when questioned on this point, the Pulluvans absolutely deny it. It +is, however, possible that something of the kind was once the case, +for, when a man belonging to another caste is suspected of incest, +it is said that he is like the Pulluvans. Should the parents of a +married woman have no objection to her being divorced, they give her +husband a piece of cloth called murikotukkuka. This signifies that +the cloth which he gave is returned, and divorce is effected. + +The Pulluvans follow the makkathayam law of inheritance (from father +to son). But they seldom have any property to leave, except their hut +and a few earthen pots. They have their caste assemblies (parichas), +which adjudicate on adultery, theft, and other offences. + +They believe firmly in magic and sorcery, and every kind of sickness +is attributed to the influence of some demon. Abortion, death of a +new-born baby, prolonged labour, or the death of the woman, fever, +want of milk in the breasts, and other misfortunes, are attributed +to malignant influences. When pregnant women, or even children, +walk out alone at midday, they are possessed by them, and may fall +in convulsions. Any slight dereliction, or indifference with regard +to the offering of sacrifices, is attended by domestic calamities, +and sacrifices of goats and fowls are requisite. More sacrifices +are promised, if the demons will help them in the achievement of an +object, or in the destruction of an enemy. In some cases the village +astrologer is consulted, and he, by means of his calculations, divines +the cause of an illness, and suggests that a particular disease or +calamity is due to the provocation of the family or other god, to whom +sacrifices or offerings have not been made. Under these circumstances, +a Velichapad, or oracle, is consulted. After bathing, and dressing +himself in a new mundu (cloth), he enters on the scene with a sword +in his hand, and his legs girt with small bells. Standing in front +of the deity in pious meditation, he advances with slow steps and +rolling eyes, and makes a few frantic cuts on his forehead. He is +already in convulsive shivers, and works himself up to a state of +frenzied possession, and utters certain disconnected sentences, which +are believed to be the utterances of the gods. Believing them to be the +means of cure or relief from calamity, those affected reverentially bow +before the Velichapad, and obey his commands. Sometimes they resort to +a curious method of calculating beforehand the result of a project, +in which they are engaged, by placing before the god two bouquets of +flowers, one red, the other white, of which a child picks out one with +its eyes closed. Selection of the white bouquet predicts auspicious +results, of the red the reverse. A man, who wishes to bring a demon +under his control, must bathe in the early morning for forty-one days, +and cook his own meals. He should have no association with his wife, +and be free from all pollution. Every night, after 10 o'clock, he +should bathe in a tank (pond) or river, and stand naked up to the loins +in the water, while praying to the god, whom he wishes to propitiate, +in the words "I offer thee my prayers, so that thou mayst bless me +with what I want." These, with his thoughts concentrated on the deity, +he should utter 101, 1,001, and 100,001 times during the period. Should +he do this, in spite of all obstacles and intimidation by the demons, +the god will grant his desires. It is said to be best for a man to be +trained and guided by a guru (preceptor), as, if proper precautions +are not adopted, the result of his labours will be that he goes mad. + +A Pulluvan and his wife preside at the ceremony called Pamban Tullal +to propitiate the snake gods of the nagattan kavus, or serpent +shrines. For this, a pandal (booth) is erected by driving four posts +into the ground, and putting over them a silk or cotton canopy. A +hideous figure of a huge snake is made on the floor with powders of +five colours. Five colours are essential, as they are visible on +the necks of snakes. Rice is scattered over the floor. Worship is +performed to Ganesa, and cocoanuts and rice are offered. Incense is +burnt, and a lamp placed on a plate. The members of the family go +round the booth, and the woman, from whom the devil has to be cast +out, bathes, and takes her seat on the western side, holding a bunch +of palm flowers. The Pulluvan and his wife begin the music, vocal and +instrumental, the woman keeping time with the pot-drum by striking +on a metal vessel. As they sing songs in honour of the snake deity, +the young female members of the family, who have been purified by a +bath, and are seated, begin to quiver, sway their heads to and fro in +time with the music, and the tresses of their hair are let loose. In +their state of excitement, they beat upon the floor, and rub out the +figure of the snake with palm flowers. This done, they proceed to +the snake-grove, and prostrate themselves before the stone images +of snakes, and recover consciousness. They take milk, water from a +tender cocoanut, and plantains. The Pulluvan stops singing, and the +ceremony is over. "Sometimes," Mr. Gopal Panikkar writes, "the gods +appear in the bodies of all these females, and sometimes only in those +of a select few, or none at all. The refusal of the gods to enter into +such persons is symbolical of some want of cleanliness in them: which +contingency is looked upon as a source of anxiety to the individual. + +It may also suggest the displeasure of these gods towards the family, +in respect of which the ceremony is performed. In either case, +such refusal on the part of the gods is an index of their ill-will +or dissatisfaction. In cases where the gods refuse to appear in any +one of those seated for the purpose, the ceremony is prolonged until +the gods are so properly propitiated as to constrain them to manifest +themselves. Then, after the lapse of the number of days fixed for the +ceremony, and, after the will of the serpent gods is duly expressed, +the ceremonies close." Sometimes, it is said, it may be considered +necessary to rub away the figure as many as 101 times, in which case +the ceremony is prolonged over several weeks. Each time that the +snake design is destroyed, one or two men, with torches in their +hands, perform a dance, keeping step to the Pulluvan's music. The +family may eventually erect a small platform or shrine in a corner of +their grounds, and worship at it annually. The snake deity will not, +it is believed, manifest himself if any of the persons, or articles +required for the ceremony, are impure, e.g., if the pot-drum has been +polluted by the touch of a menstruating female. The Pulluvan, from +whom a drum was purchased for the Madras Museum, was very reluctant +to part with it, lest it should be touched by an impure woman. + +The Pulluvans worship the gods of the Brahmanical temples, from a +distance, and believe in spirits of all sorts and conditions. They +worship Velayuthan, Ayyappa, Rahu, Muni, Chathan, Mukkan, Karinkutti, +Parakutti, and others. Muni is a well-disposed deity, to whom, +once a year, rice, plantains, and cocoanuts are offered. To Mukkan, +Karinkutti, and others, sheep and fowls are offered. A floral device +(padmam) is drawn on the floor with nine divisions in rice-flour, +on each of which a piece of tender cocoanut leaf, and a lighted wick +dipped in cocoanut oil, are placed. Parched rice, boiled beans, jaggery +(crude sugar), cakes, plantains, and toddy are offered, and camphor +and incense burnt. If a sheep has to be sacrificed, boiled rice is +offered, and water sprinkled over the head of the sheep before it is +killed. If it shakes itself, so that it frees itself from the water, +it is considered as a favourable omen. On every new-moon day, offerings +of mutton, fowls, rice-balls, toddy, and other things, served up on a +plantain leaf, are made to the souls of the departed. The celebrants, +who have bathed and cooked their own food on the previous day, +prostrate themselves, and say "Ye dead ancestors, we offer what we +can afford. May you take the gifts, and be pleased to protect us." + +The Pulluvans bury their dead. The place of burial is near a river, +or in a secluded spot near the dwelling of the deceased. The corpse +is covered with a cloth, and a cocoanut placed with it. Offerings of +rice-balls are made by the son daily for fifteen days, when pollution +ceases, and a feast is held. + +At the present day, some Pulluvans work at various forms of labour, +such as sowing, ploughing, reaping, fencing, and cutting timber, for +which they are paid in money or kind. They are, in fact, day-labourers, +living in huts built on the waste land of some landlord, for which they +pay a nominal ground-rent. They will take food prepared by Brahmans, +Nayars, Kammalans, and Izhuvas, but not that prepared by a Mannan +or Kaniyan. Carpenters and Izhuvas bathe when a Pulluvan has touched +them. But the Pulluvans are polluted by Cherumas, Pulayas, Paraiyans, +Ulladans, and others. The women wear the kacha, like Izhuva women, +folded twice, and worn round the loins, and are seldom seen with an +upper body-cloth. [116] + +Puluvan.--The Puluvans have been described [117] as "a small tribe +of cultivators found in the district of Coimbatore. Puluvans are +the learned men among the Coimbatore Vellalas, and are supposed +to be the depositaries of the poet Kamban's works. One authority +from Coimbatore writes that the traditional occupation of this +caste is military service, and derives the word from bhu, earth, +and valavan, a ruler; while another thinks that the correct word +is Puruvan, aborigines. Their girls are married usually after they +attain maturity. In the disposal of the dead, both cremation and +burial are in vogue, the tendency being towards the former. They +are flesh-eaters. Their customs generally resemble those of the +Konga Vellalas." + +The Puluvans call themselves Puluva Vellalas. + +Punamalli.--The name of a division of Vellalas derived from +Poonamallee, an old military station near Madras. + +Puni.--A sub-division of Golla. + +Punjala (cock, or male).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Puppalli.--See Unni. + +Puragiri Kshatriya.--A name assumed by some Perikes. + +Puramalai, Puramalainadu or Piramalainadu.--A territorial sub-division +of Kallan. + +Puranadi.--Barbers and priests of the Velans of Travancore, who are +also called Velakkuruppu. + +Purattu Charna.--A sub-division of Nayar. + +Purusha.--See Jogi Purusha. + +Pusa (beads).--A sub-division of Balija. A sub-division of the +Yerukalas is known as Pusalavadu, or sellers of glass beads. + +Pusali.--A title of Occhans, or pujaris (priests) at temples of Grama +Devatas (village deities). + +Pusapati.--The family name of the Maharajahs of Vizianagram. From the +Kshatriyas in Rajputana people of four gotrams are said to have come +to the Northern Circars several centuries ago, having the Pusapati +family at their head. [118] The name of the present Maharaja is Mirza +Rajah Sri Pusapati Viziarama Gajapati Raj Manya Sultan Bahadur Garu. + +Pushpakan.--A class of Ambalavasis in Malabar and Travancore. "As +their name (pushpam, a flower) implies, they are employed in bringing +flowers and garlands to the temples." [119] See Unni. + +Puthukka Nattar (people of the new country).--A sub-division of +Idaiyan. + +Putiya Islam.--Pu Islam or Putiya Islam is the name returned mostly +by Mukkuvans, in reference to their new conversion to the Muhammadan +faith. + +Putta (ant-hill).--An exogamous sept of Kamma, Kuruba, Mala, Medara, +and Padma Sale. 'White-ant' (Termites) hills are frequently worshipped +as being the abode of snakes. + +Puttiya.--A sub-division of Rona. + +Puttur.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Puzhi Tacchan (sand carpenter).--The name of a small section of +Malabar Kammalans. + + + + + + + +R + + +Racha (= Raja).--Racha or Rachu, signifying regal, occurs as the +title of various Telugu classes, for example, Balija, Golla, Kapu, +Konda Dora, Koya, Majjulu, and Velama. Some Perikes, who claim to be +Kshatriyas, call themselves Racha Perikes. Racha is further given as +an abbreviated form of Mutracha. + +Rachevar.--It is noted, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, that "there +are three broad distinctions founded on the traditional occupation, +but there are two main exclusive divisions of Telugu and Kannada +Rachevars. One set, called Ranagare, are military, and most of them +are found employed in His Highness the Maharaja's Rachevar and Bale +forces. The second, consisting of the Chitragaras or Bannagaras, make +good paintings, decorations, and lacquered ware and toys. The last +consists of the Sarige, or gold lace makers. These people claim to +be Kshatriyas--a pretension not generally acquiesced in by the other +castes. They trace their origin to a passage in Brahmanda Purana, +wherein it is said that, for an injury done to a Brahman, they were +condemned to follow mechanical occupations." In connection with recent +Dasara festivities at Mysore, I read that there were wrestling matches, +acrobatic feats, dumb-bell and figure exercises by Rachevars. + +In the Tanjore Manual it is noted that the Rachevars are "descendants +of immigrants from the Telugu country, who apparently followed the +Nayak viceroys of the Vijayanagar empire in the sixteenth century. They +are more or less jealous of the purity of their caste. Their language +is Telugu. They wear the sacred thread." + +In the city of Madras, and in other places in Tamil country, the +Rachevars are called Razus or Mucchis, who must not be confused with +the Mucchis of Mysore and the Ceded districts, who are shoe-makers, +and speak Marathi. In the Telugu country, there are two distinct +sections of Rachevars, viz., Saivite and Vaishnavite. The Saivite +Rachevars in the Kistna district style themselves Arya Kshatriyalu, +but they are commonly called Nakash-vandlu, which is a Hindustani +synonym of Chitrakara or Jinigiri-vandlu. The Vaishnavites are known +as Jinigiri-vandlu, and are said not to intermarry with the Saivites. + +Rafizi.--A term, meaning a forsaker, used by Sunni Muhammadans for +any sect of Shiahs. The name appears, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as Rabjee. + +Ragala (ragi: Eleusine Coracana).--An exogamous sept of Chembadi, +Korava and Madiga. The equivalent Ragithannaya occurs as an exogamous +sept of Bant. Ragi grain constitutes the staple diet of the poorer +classes, who cannot afford rice, and of prisoners in jails, for +whom it is ground into flour, and boiled into a pudding about the +consistency of blanc-mange. The name is derived from raga, red, +in reference to the red colour of the grain. + +Raghindala (pipal: Ficus religiosa).--A gotra of Gollas, the members +of which are not allowed to use the leaves of this tree as food-plates. + +Rajakan.--A Sanskrit equivalent of Vannan (washerman). + +Rajamahendram.--The name, in reference to the town of Rajahmundry in +the Godavari district, of a sub-division of Balija. + +Rajamakan.--A Tamil synonym for the Telugu Razu. + +Rajavasal.--The name, denoting those who are servants of Rajas, +of a sub-division of Agamudaiyans, which has been transformed +into Rajavamsu, meaning those of kingly parentage. The equivalent +Rajavamsam is recorded, in the Census Report, 1901, as being returned +by some Maravans in Madura and Kurumbans in Trichinopoly. Rajakulam, +Rajabasha, or Rajaboga occurs as a sub-division of Agamudaiyan. + +Rajpinde.--See Arasu. + +Rajpuri.--The Rajpuris, or Rajapuris, are a Konkani-speaking +caste of traders and cultivators in South Canara. Concerning them, +Mr. H. A. Stuart writes as follows. [120] "The Rajapuris, also called +Balolikars, were originally traders, and perhaps have some claim +to be considered Vaisyas. In social status they admit themselves to +be inferior only to Brahmans. They wear the sacred thread, profess +the Saiva faith, and employ Karadi Brahmans as priests in all their +ceremonies. Their girls should be married before the age of puberty, +and marriage of widows is not permitted. The marriage ceremony +chiefly consists in the hands of the bride and bridegroom being united +together, and held by the bride's father while her mother pours water +over them. The water should first fall on the bride's hands, and then +flow on to those of the bridegroom. This takes place at the bride's +house. A curious feature in the ceremony is that for four days either +the bride or bridegroom should occupy the marriage bed; it must never +be allowed to become vacant. [This ceremony is called pajamadmai, or +mat marriage.] On the fourth day, the couple go to the bridegroom's +house, where a similar 'sitting' on the marriage bed takes place. They +are mostly vegetarians, rice being their chief food, but some use fish, +and rear fowls and goats for sale as food. Many are now cultivators." + +It may be noted that, among the Shivalli Brahmans, the mat is taken +to a tank in procession. The bride and bridegroom make a pretence of +catching fish, and, with linked hands, touch their foreheads. + +In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Rajapuri Konkanasta is given as +a synonym of the Rajapuris, who are said to be one of the sixty-six +classes of Konkanasta people, who inhabited the sixty-six villages of +the Konkan. In the Census Report, 1901, Kudaldeshkara and Kudlukara +are returned as sub-divisions of Rajapuri. The Kudlukaras are +Konkani-speaking confectioners, who follow the Brahmanical customs. + +Rajput.--The Rajputs (Sanskrit, raja-putra, son of a king) have +been defined [121] as "the warrior and land-owning race of Northern +India, who are also known as Thakur, lord, or Chhatri, the modern +representative of the ancient Kshatriya." At the Madras census, +1891 and 1901, the number of individuals, who returned themselves as +Rajputs, was 13,754 and 15,273. "It needs," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, +[122] "but a cursory examination of the sub-divisions returned under +the head Rajput to show that many of these individuals have no claim +whatever to the title of Rajput. The number of pure Rajputs in this +Presidency must be very small indeed, and I only mention the caste +in order to explain that the number of persons returning it is far +in excess of the actual number of Rajputs." Mr. Stuart writes further +[123] concerning the Rajputs of the North Arcot district that "there +are but few of this caste in the district, and they chiefly reside in +Vellore; a few families are also found in Chittoor and Tirupati. They +assert that they are true Kshatriyas who came from Rajputana with +the Muhammadan armies, and they, more than any other claimants to +a Kshatriya descent, have maintained their fondness for military +service. Almost all are sepoys or military pensioners. Their names +always end with Singh, and in many of their customs they resemble the +Muhammadans, speaking Hindustani, and invariably keeping their wives +gosha. They are often erroneously spoken of by the people as Bondilis, +a term which is applicable only to the Vaisya and Sudra immigrants +from Northern India; but doubtless many of these lower classes have +taken the title Singh, and called themselves Rajputs. Members of +the caste are, therefore, very suspicious of strangers professing +to be Rajputs. Their cooking apartment, called chowka, is kept most +religiously private, and a line is drawn round it, beyond which none +but members of the family itself may pass. At marriages and feasts, +for the same reason, cooked food is never offered to the guests, +but raw grain is distributed, which each cooks in a separate and +private place." + +It is noted, [124] in connection with the battle of Padmanabham +in the Vizagapatam district, in 1794, that "no correct list of the +wounded was ever procured, but no less than three hundred and nine +were killed. Of these two hundred and eight were Rajputs, and the +bodies of forty Rajputs, of the first rank in the country, formed a +rampart round the corpse of Viziarama Razu. Padmanabham will long be +remembered as the Flodden of the Rajputs of Vizianagram." + +Rakshasa (a mythological giant).--An exogamous sept of Toreya. + +Ralla (precious stones).--A sub-division of Balijas who cut, polish, +and trade in precious stones. A further sub-division into Mutiala +(pearl) and Kempulu (rubies) is said to exist. + +Ramadosa (Cucumis Melo: sweet melon).--A sept of Viramushti. + +Rama Kshatri.--A synonym of Servegara. + +Ramanuja.--Satanis style themselves people of the Ramanuja Matham +(religious sect) in reference to Ramanuja, the Tamil Brahman, who +founded the form of Vaishnavism which prevails in Southern India. + +Ranaratod.--An exogamous sept of the Kuruvikkarans, who call themselves +Ratodi. + +Ranaviran.--A name, meaning a brave warrior, returned by some +Chakkiliyans. + +Randam Parisha (second party).--A section of Elayad. + +Rangari.--The Rangaris are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, +1891, as being "a caste of dyers and tailors found in almost all the +Telugu districts. They are of Maratha origin, and still speak that +language. They worship the goddess Ambabhavani. The dead are either +burned or buried. Their title is Rao." + +In an account of the Rangaris of the North Arcot district, +Mr. H. A. Stuart writes that "Rangari is a caste of dyers, chiefly +found in Walajapet. They claim to be Kshatriyas, who accompanied +Rama in his conquest of Ceylon, from which fact one of their names, +Langari (lanka, the island, i.e., Ceylon), is said to be derived. Rama, +for some reason or other, became incensed against, and persecuted +them. Most were destroyed, but a respectable Kshatriya lady saved +her two sons by taking off their sacred threads and causing one +to pretend that he was a tailor sewing, and the other that he +was a dyer, colouring his thread with the red betel nut and leaf, +which she hurriedly supplied out of her mouth. The boys became the +progenitors of the caste, the members of which now wear the thread. The +descendants of the one brother are tailors, and of the other, the +most numerous, dyers. Their chief feasts are the Dassara and Kaman, +the former celebrated in honour of the goddess Tuljabhavani and the +latter of Manmada, the Indian Cupid, fabled to have been destroyed +by the flame of Siva's third eye. During the Kaman feast, fires of +combustible materials are lighted, round which the votaries gather, +and, beating their mouths, exclaim 'laba, laba', lamenting the death of +Cupid. In this feast Rajputs, Mahrattas, Bondilis, and Guzeratis also +join. The Rangaris speak Marathi, which they write in the northern +character, and name Poona and Sholapur as the places in which they +originally resided. In appearance they do not at all resemble the +other claimants to Kshatriya descent, the Razus and Rajputs, for they +are poorly developed and by no means handsome. Widow remarriage is +permitted where children have not been born, but remarried widows are +prohibited from taking part in religious processions, which seems a +sign that the concession has been reluctantly permitted. In most of +their customs they differ but little from the Razus, eating meat and +drinking spirits, but not keeping their women gosha." + +All the Rangaris examined by me at Adoni in the Bellary district were +tailors. Like other Maratha classes they had a high cephalic index +(av. 79; max. 92), and it was noticeable that the breadth of the head +exceeded 15 cm. in nine out of thirty individuals. + +In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Bahusagara, Malla or Mulla, and +Namdev are given as synonyms, and Chimpiga (tailor) and Unupulavadu +(dyer) as sub-castes of Rangari. + +Raniyava.--The Raniyavas are Canarese-speaking Holeyas, who are found +near Kap, Karkal, Mudibidri, and Mulki in South Canara. They consider +themselves to be superior to the Tulu-speaking Holeyas, such as the +Mari and Mundala Holeyas. + +The Raniyavas regard Virabadra Swami as their tribal deity, and also +worship Mari, to whom they sacrifice a buffalo periodically. The bhuta +(devil), which is most commonly worshipped, is Varthe. They profess +to be Saivites, because they are the disciples of the Lingayat priest +at Gurupur. + +Marriage is, as a rule, infant, though the marriage of adult girls is +not prohibited. The marriage rites are celebrated beneath a pandal +(booth) supported by twelve pillars. As among the Tulu castes, the +chief item in the marriage ceremony is the pouring of water over the +united hands of the bridal couple, who are not, like the Canarese +Holeyas in Mysore, separated by a screen. + +Women who are found guilty of adultery, or of illicit intercourse +before marriage, are not allowed to wear bangles, nose-screw, or +black bead necklaces, and are treated like widows. Men who have been +proved guilty of seduction are not allowed to take part in the caste +council meetings. + +On the occasion of the first menstrual period, a girl is under +pollution for twelve days. Eleven girls pour water over her head +daily. On the thirteenth day, the castemen are fed, and, if the girl +is married, consummation takes place. + +Married men and women are cremated, and unmarried persons buried. On +the day of death, toddy must be given to those who assemble. Cooked +meat and food are offered to the deceased on the third, seventh, and +thirteenth days, and, on the seventh day, toddy must be freely given. + +Rao.--The title of Desastha Brahmans, and various Maratha classes, +Jains, and Servegaras. Some Perikes, who claim Kshatriya origin, +have also assumed Rao (=Raya, king) instead of the more humble Anna +or Ayya as a title. + +Rarakkar.--The Rarakkars or Vicharakkars are exorcisers for the +Kuravans of Travancore. + +Rati (stone).--A sub-division of Odde. + +Ratna (precious stones).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. The equivalent +Ratnala is a synonym of Ralla Balijas, who deal in precious stones. + +Rattu.--A sub-division of Kaikolan. + +Ravari.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a trading +section of the Nayars. The word is said to be a corruption of Vyapari, +meaning trader. The equivalent Raveri occurs as a class inhabiting +the Laccadive islands. + +Ravi Chettu (pipal tree: Ficus religiosa).--An exogamous sept of +Kalingi. The pipal or aswatha tree may be seen, in many South Indian +villages, with a raised platform round it, before which Hindus remove +their shoes, and bow down. On the platform, village council meetings +are often held. It is believed that male offspring will be given to +childless couples, if they celebrate a marriage of the pipal with +the nim tree (Melia Azadirachta). + +Ravulo.--It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that +"there are three castes of temple servants among the Oriyas, the +Ravulos, the Malis and the Munis. The Ravulos blow conches (shells of +Turbinella rapa) in the Saivite temples and at Brahmans' weddings, sell +flowers, and regard themselves as superior to the other two. The Malis +do service in Saivite or Vaishnavite temples and sell flowers, but the +Munis are employed only in the temples of the village goddesses. Among +the Ravulos, infant marriage is compulsory, but widow marriage is +allowed, and also divorce in certain cases. A curious account is +given of the punishment sometimes inflicted by the caste panchayat +(council) on a man who ill-treats and deserts his wife. He is made to +sit under one of the bamboo coops with which fish are caught, and his +wife sits on the top of it. Five pots of water are then poured over +the pair of them in imitation of the caste custom of pouring five pots +of water over a dead body before it is taken to the burning-ground, +the ceremony taking place in the part of the house where a corpse +would be washed. The wife then throws away a ladle, and breaks a +cooking-pot just as she would have done had her husband really been +dead, and further breaks her bangles and tears off her necklace, +just as would have been done if she was really a widow. Having thus +signified that her husband is dead to her, she goes straight off to +her parents' house, and is free to marry again. Some Ravulos wear +the sacred thread. They employ Brahmans as priests for religious and +ceremonial purposes. They eat fish and meat, though not beef or fowls, +but do not drink alcohol. Nowadays many of them are earth-workers, +cart-drivers, bricklayers, carpenters and day labourers." It is +further noted, in the Census Report, that Mali is "an Oriya caste of +vegetable growers and sellers, and cultivators. Also a caste belonging +to Bengal and Orissa, the people of which are garland makers and +temple servants. The statistics confuse the two." In an account of +the Ravulos, as given to me, Ravulos, Munis, and Malis are not three +castes, but one caste. The Munis are said to worship, among others, +Munis or Rishis, Sakti, Siva, and Ganesa. A Muni, named Sarala Doss, +was the author of the most popular Oriya version of the Mahabharata, +and he is known as Sudra Muni, the Sudra saint. + +Ravulo occurs further as a title of Kurumos who officiate as priests +in Siva temples in Ganjam, and Muni as a title of the Sipiti temple +servants. + +Ravutan.--Ravutan, or Rowthan, is a title used by Labbai, Marakkayar, +and Jonagan Muhammadans. The equivalent Ravut or Raut has been recorded +as a sub-caste of Balija, and a title of Kannadiyan. + +Raya Rauturu.--The name of certain chunam [lime] burners in Mysore. + +Rayan.--A title assumed by some Pallis or Vanniyans, who wear the +sacred thread, and claim to be Kshatriyas. + +Rayi (stone).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Razu.--The Razus, or Rajus, are stated, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, to be "perhaps descendants of the military section of the Kapu, +Kamma, and Velama castes. At their weddings they worship a sword, +which is a ceremony which usually denotes a soldier caste. They say +they are Kshatriyas, and at marriages use a string made of cotton and +wool, the combination peculiar to Kshatriyas, to tie the wrist of the +happy couple. But they eat fowls, which a strict Kshatriya would not +do, and their claims are not universally admitted by other Hindus. They +have three endogamous sub-divisions, viz., Murikinati, Nandimandalam, +and Suryavamsam, of which the first two are territorial." According to +another version, the sub-divisions are Surya (sun), Chandra (moon), +and Nandimandalam. In a note on the Razus of the Godavari district, +the Rev. J. Cain sub-divides them into Suryavamsapu, Chandravamsapu, +Veliveyabadina, or descendants of excommunicated Suryavamsapu and +Razulu. It may be noted that some Konda Doras call themselves Raja +(= Razu) Kapus or Reddis, and Suryavamsam (of the solar race). "In +the Godavari delta," Mr. Cain writes, "there are several families +called Basava Razulu, in consequence, it is said, of their ancestors +having accidentally killed a basava or sacred bull. As a penalty for +this crime, before a marriage takes place in these families, they are +bound to select a young bull and young cow, and cause these two to +be duly married first, and then they are at liberty to proceed with +their own ceremony." + +Of the Razus, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes [125] that "this is a Telugu +caste, though represented by small bodies in some of the Tamil +districts. They are most numerous in Cuddapah and North Arcot, +to which districts they came with the Vijayanagar armies. It is +evident that Razu has been returned by a number of individuals who, +in reality, belong to other castes, but claim to be Kshatriyas. The +true Razus also make this claim, but it is, of course, baseless, +unless Kshatriya is taken to mean the military class without any +reference to Aryan origin. In religion they are mostly Vaishnavites, +and their priests are Brahmans. They wear the sacred thread, and in +most respects copy the marriage and other customs of the Brahmans." The +Razus, Mr. Stuart writes further, [126] are "the most numerous class +of those who claim to be Kshatriyas in North Arcot. They are found +almost entirely in the Karvetnagar estate, the zemindar being the head +of the caste. As a class they are the handsomest and best developed +men in the country, and differ so much in feature and build from other +Hindus that they may usually be distinguished at a glance. They seem to +have entirely abandoned the military inclinations of their ancestors, +never enlist in the native army, and almost wholly occupy themselves in +agriculture. Their vernacular is Telugu, since they are immigrants from +the Northern Circars, from whence most of them followed the ancestors +of the Karvetnagar zamindar within the last two centuries. In religion +they are mostly Vaishnavites, though a few follow Siva, and the worship +of village deities forms a part of the belief of all. Their peculiar +goddess is called Nimishamba who would seem to represent Parvati. She +is so called because in an instant (nimisham) she once appeared at +the prayer of certain rishis, and destroyed some rakshasas or giants +who were persecuting them. Claiming to be Kshatriyas, the Razus of +course assume the sacred thread, and are very proud and particular +in their conduct, though flesh-eating is allowed. In all the more +well-to-do families the females are kept in strict seclusion." + +In the Vizagapatam district Razus are recognised as belonging to +two classes, called Konda (hill) and Bhu (plains) Razu. The former +are further divided into the following sections, to which various +zamindars belong:--Konda, Kodu, Gaita, Muka, Yenati. The Konda Razus +are believed to be hill chiefs, who have, in comparatively recent +times, adopted the title of Razu. + +For the following note on the Razus of the Godavari district, I am +indebted to Mr. F. R. Hemingway. "They say they are Kshatriyas, +wear the sacred thread, have Brahmanical gotras, decline to eat +with other non-Brahmans, and are divided into the three classes, +Surya (sun), Chandra (moon), and Machi (fish). Of these, the first +claim to be descended from the kings of Oudh, and to be of the same +lineage as Rama; the second, from the kings of Hastinapura, of the +same line as the Pandavas; and the third, from Hanuman (the monkey +god) and a mermaid. Their women observe a very strict rule of gosha, +and this is said to be carried so far that a man may not see his +younger brother's wife, even if she is living in the same house, +without violating the gosha rule. The betrothal ceremony is called +nirnaya bhojanam, or meal of settlement. Written contracts of marriage +(subha reka) are exchanged. The wedding is performed at the bride's +house. At the pradanam ceremony, no bonthu (turmeric thread) is tied +round the bride's neck. The bridegroom has to wear a sword throughout +the marriage ceremonies, and he is paraded round the village with it +before they begin. The gosha rule prevents his womenfolk from attending +the marriage, and the bride has to wear a veil. The ceremonies, unlike +those of other castes, are attended with burnt offerings of rice, +etc. Among other castes, the turmeric-dyed thread (kankanam), which is +tied round the wrists of the contracting couple, is of cotton; among +the Razus it is of wool and cotton. The Razus are chiefly employed +in cultivation. Some of them are said to attain no small proficiency +in Telugu and Sanskrit scholarship. Zamindars of this caste regard +Kali as their patron deity. The Razus of Amalapuram specially adore +Lakshmi. Some peculiarities in their personal appearance may be +noted. Their turbans are made to bunch out at the left side above +the ear, and one end hangs down behind. They do not shave any part of +their heads, and allow long locks to hang down in front of the ears." + +A colony of Razus is settled at, and around Rajapalaiyam in the +Tinnevelly district. They are said to have migrated thither four or +five centuries ago with a younger brother of the King of Vizianagram, +who belonged to the Pusapati exogamous sept. To members of this and the +Gottimukkula sept special respect is paid on ceremonial occasions. The +descendants of the original emigrants are said to have served under +southern chieftains, especially Tirumala Naick. Concerning the origin +of the village Rajapalaiyam the following legend is narrated. One +Chinna Raju, a lineal descendant of the Kings of Vizianagram, settled +there with others of his caste, and went out hunting with a pack of +hounds. When they reached the neighbouring hill Sanjiviparvatham, +they felt thirsty, but could find no water. They accordingly prayed +to Krishna, who at once created a spring on the top of the hill. After +quenching their thirst thereat, they proceeded westward to the valley, +and the god informed them that there was water there, with which they +might again quench their thirst, and that their dogs would there be +attacked by hares. At this spot, which they were to consider sacred +ground, they were to settle down. The present tank to the westward of +Rajapalaiyam, and the chavadi (caste meeting-place) belonging to the +Pusapatis are said to indicate the spot where they originally settled. + +The Rajapalaiyam Razus have four gotras, named after Rishis, i.e., +Dhananjaya, Kasyapa, Kaundinya and Vasishta, which are each sub-divided +into a number of exogamous septs, named after villages, etc. They are +all Vadagalai or Tengalai Vaishnavites, but also worship Ayanar, and +send kavadi (portable canopy) to Palni in performance of vows. Their +family priests are Brahmans. + +The betrothal ceremony of the Razus of Rajapalaiyam is generally +carried out at the house of the girl. On a raised platform within +a pandal (booth), seven plates filled with plantain fruits, betel, +turmeric, cocoanuts, and flowers are placed. A plate containing +twenty-five rupees, and a ravike (female cloth), is carried by a +Brahman woman, and set in front of the girl. All the articles are +then placed in her lap, and the ceremony is consequently called odi +or madi ninchadam (lap-filling). + +The girl's hair is decked with flowers, and she is smeared with +sandal and turmeric. A certain quantity of paddy (unhusked rice) and +beans of Phaseolus Mungo are given to the Brahman woman, a portion of +which is set apart as sacred, some of the paddy being added to that +which is stored in the granary. The remainder of the paddy is husked +in a corner of the pandal, and the beans are ground in a mill. On +the marriage morning, the bride's party, accompanied by musicians, +carry to the house of the bridegroom a number of baskets containing +cocoanuts, plantains, betel, and a turban. The bridegroom goes with +a purohit (priest), and men and women of his caste, to a well, close +to which are placed some milk and the nose-screw of a woman closely +related to him. All the women sprinkle some of the milk over his head, +and some of them draw water from the well. The bridegroom bathes, +and dresses up. Just before their departure from the well, rice +which has been dipped therein is distributed among the women. At the +bridegroom's house the milk-post, usually made from a branch of the +vekkali (Anogeissus latifolia) tree, is tied to a pillar supporting +the roof of the marriage dais. To the top of the milk-post a cross-bar +is fixed, to one arm of which a cloth bundle containing a cocoanut, +betel and turmeric, is tied. The post is surmounted by leafy mango +twigs. Just before the milk-post is set up, cocoanuts are offered to +it, and a pearl and piece of coral are placed in a hole scooped out +at its lower end. The bundle becomes the perquisite of the carpenter +who has made the post. Only Brahmans, Razus and the barber musicians +are allowed to sit on the dais. After the distribution of betel, the +bridegroom and his party proceed to the house of the bride, where, in +like manner, the milk-post is set up. They then return to his house, +and the bridegroom has his face and head shaved, and nails pared by +a barber, who receives as his fee two annas and the clothes which +the bridegroom is wearing. After a bath, the bridegroom is conducted +to the chavadi, where a gaudy turban is put on his head, and he is +decorated with jewels and garlands. In the course of the morning, +the purohit, holding the right little finger of the bridegroom, +conducts him to the dais, close to which rice, rice stained yellow, +rice husk, jaggery (crude sugar), wheat bran, and cotton seed are +placed. The Brahmanical rites of punyahavaachanam (purification), +jatakarma (birth ceremony), namakaranam (name ceremony), chaulam +(tonsure), and upanayanam (thread ceremony) are performed. But, instead +of Vedic chants, the purohit recites slokas specially prepared for +non-Brahman castes. At the conclusion of these rites, the bridegroom +goes into the house, and eats a small portion of sweet cakes and +other articles, of which the remainder is finished off by boys and +girls. This ceremony is called pubanthi. The Kasiyatra (mock flight +to Benares) or Snathakavritham is then performed. Towards evening +the bridegroom, seated in a palanquin, goes to the bride's house, +taking with him a tray containing an expensive woman's cloth, the +tali tied to gold thread, and a pair of gold bracelets. When they +reach the house, the women who have accompanied the bridegroom throw +paddy over those who have collected at the entrance thereto, by whom +the compliment is returned. The bridegroom takes his seat on the dais, +and the bride is conducted thither by her brothers. A wide-meshed green +curtain is thrown over her shoulders, and her hands are pressed over +her eyes, and held there by one of her brothers, so that she cannot +see. Generally two brothers sit by her side, and, when one is tired, +the other relieves him. The purohit invests the bridegroom with a +second thread as a sign of marriage. Damp rice is scattered from a +basket all round the contracting couple, and the tali, after it has +been blessed by Brahmans, is tied round the neck of the bride by the +bridegroom and her brothers. At the moment when the tali is tied, +the bride's hands are removed from her face, and she is permitted +to see her husband. The pair then go round the dais, and the bride +places her right foot thrice on a grindstone. Their little fingers +are linked, and their cloths tied together. Thus united, they are +conducted to a room, in which fifty pots, painted white and with +various designs on them, are arranged in rows. In front of them, +two pots, filled with water, are placed, and, in front of the two +pots, seven lamps. Round the necks of these pots, bits of turmeric +are tied. They are called avareti kundalu or avireni kundalu, and are +made to represent minor deities. The pots are worshipped by the bridal +couple, and betel is distributed among the Brahmans and Razus, of whom +members of the Pusapati and Gottimukkala septs take precedence over the +others. On the following day, the purohit teaches the sandyavandhanam +(morning and evening ablutions), which is, however, quite different +from the Brahmanical rite. On the morning of the third or nagavali +day, a quantity of castor-oil seed is sent by the bride's people to +the bridegroom's house, and returned. The bride and bridegroom go, +in a closed and open palanquin, respectively, to the house of the +former. They take their seats on the dais, and the bride is once +more blindfolded. In front of them, five pots filled with water +are arranged in the form of a quincunx. Lighted lamps are placed by +the side of each of the corner pots. On the lids of the pots five +cocoanuts, plantains, pieces of turmeric, and betel are arranged, and +yellow thread is wound seven times round the corner pots. The pots +are then worshipped, and the bridegroom places on the neck of the +bride a black bead necklace, which is tied by the Brahman woman. In +front of the bridegroom some salt, and in front of the bride some +paddy is heaped up. An altercation arises between the bridegroom and +the brother of the bride as to the relative values of the two heaps, +and it is finally decided that they are of equal value. The bridal +pair then enter the room, in which the avireni pots are kept, and +throw their rings into one of the pots which is full of water. The +bridegroom has to pick out therefrom, at three dips, his own ring, +and his brother-in-law that of the bride. The purohit sprinkles water +over the heads of the pair, and their wrist-threads (kankanam) are +removed. They then sit in a swing on the pandal for a short time, +and the ceremonies conclude with the customary waving of coloured +water (arati) and distribution of betel. During the marriage ceremony, +Razu women are not allowed to sit in the pandal. The wives of the more +well-to-do members of the community remain gosha within their houses, +and, strictly speaking, a woman should not see her husband during the +daytime. Many of the women, however, go freely about the town during +the day, and go to the wells to fetch water for domestic purposes. + +The Razus of Rajapalaiyam have Razu as the agnomen, and, like other +Telugu classes, take the gotra for the first name, e.g., Yaraguntala +Mudduswami Razu, Gottimukkala Krishna Razu. The women adhere with +tenacity to the old forms of Telugu jewelry. The Razus, in some +villages, seem to object to the construction of a pial in front of +their houses. The pial, or raised platform, is the lounging place +by day, where visitors are received. The Razus, as has been already +stated, claim to be Kshatriyas, so other castes should not sit in their +presence. If pials were constructed, such people might sit thereon, +and so commit a breach of etiquette. + +In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Rajamakan is given as a Tamil +synonym for Razu, and Razu is returned as a title of the Bagata +fishermen of Vizagapatam. Razu is, further, a general name of the +Bhatrazus. + +Reddi.--See Kapu. + +Reddi Bhumi (Reddi earth).--A sub-division of Mala, Mangala, and +Tsakala. + +Rela (fig. Ficus, sp.).--A gotra of Medara. + +Relli.--See Haddi. + +Rendeddu.--A sub-division of Ganigas or Gandlas, who use two bullocks +for their oil-pressing mill. + +Rokkam (ready money).--An exogamous sept of Komati. + +Rolan.--Rolan, or Roli Cheruman, is a sub-division of Cheruman. + +Rona.--The Ronas are a class of Oriya-speaking hill cultivators, who +are said [127] to "hold a position superior in the social scale to the +Parjas (Porojas), from whom, by compulsion and cajolery, they have +gotten unto themselves estates. They are not of very long standing +(in Jeypore). Every Parja village head is still able to point out +the fields that have been taken from him to form the Rona hamlet; +and, if he is in antagonism with a neighbouring Parja village on the +subject of boundaries, he will include the fields occupied by the Rona +as belonging de jure to his demesne." In the Madras Census Report, +1891, it is noted that "the Ronas are supposed to be the descendants +of Ranjit, the great warrior of Orissa. In social status they are +said to be a little inferior to the so-called Kshatriyas. Some of +them serve as armed retainers and soldiers of the native chiefs, +and some are engaged in trade and cultivation." + +For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The word +rona means battle. According to a tradition current among the Ronas, +their ancestors, who were seven brothers, came many generations ago +to Nundapur, the former capital of the Rajas of Jeypore, and made +their first settlement in Borra. + +The caste is divided into four endogamous divisions, viz.:-- + + +(1) Rona Paiko. +(2) Odiya Paiko, said to rank a little higher than the preceding. +(3) Kottiya Paiko, the descendants of Rona Paikos and women of + hill tribes. +(4) Pattiya Paik, the descendants of Kottiya Paikos and women of + hill tribes. + + +As examples of septs among the Ronas, the following may be cited:--Kora +(sun), Bhag (tiger), Nag (cobra), Khinbudi (bear), and Matsya (fish). + +When a girl reaches puberty, she is placed apart in a portion of +the house where she cannot be seen by males, even of the household, +and sits in a space enclosed by seven arrows connected together by +a thread. On the seventh day she bathes, and is presented with a +new cloth. It is customary for a man to marry his paternal uncle's +daughter. At the time of marriage, the bridegroom's party repair to +the house of the bride with a sheep, goat, rice, and a female cloth +with a rupee placed on it, and four quarter-anna bits inserted within +its fold. The cloth and money are taken by the bride's mother, and +the animals and rice are used for a feast. On the following day, the +bride goes to the house of the bridegroom, in front of which a pandal +(booth), made out of nine poles of the neredu tree (Eugenia Jambolana) +has been set up. At the auspicious hour, which has been fixed by the +Desari who officiates, in the absence of a Brahman, at the marriage +rites, the bride and bridegroom take their seats in the pandal with a +curtain between them. The Desari joins their hands together, and ties +to the ends of their cloths a new cloth to which a quarter-anna piece +is attached, betel leaves and nuts, and seven grains of rice. The +curtain is then removed, and the pair enter the house. The knotted +new cloth is removed, and kept in the house during the next two days, +being untied and re-tied every morning. On the third day, the couple +again come within the pandal, and the new cloth is again tied to +them. They are bathed together in turmeric water, and the cloth is +then untied for the last time. The rice is examined to see if it +is in a good state of preservation, and its condition is regarded +as an omen for good or evil. The remarriage of widows is permitted, +and a younger brother usually marries the widow of his elder brother. + +There is for all the Ronas a headman of their caste, called Bhatho +Nayako, at Nundapur, who decides offences, such as eating in the house +of a man of inferior caste, and performs the ceremonial cleansing of +a man who has been beaten with a shoe. Divorce and civil suits are +settled by a caste council. + +The Ronas worship the deity Takurani. They wear the sacred thread, +and are said to have bought the right to do so from a former Raja +of Jeypore. They also wear a necklace of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) +beads. The necklace is first tied on by Oriya Brahmans from Orissa, +or Vaishnava Brahmans from Srikurmam in Ganjam, who pay periodic visits +to the community, and receive presents of money and food. Rona Paikos +will eat at the hands of Brahmans only, whereas Puttiya Paikos will +eat in the houses of Koronos, Malis, Kummaras, and Gaudos. All eat +animal food, beef and pork excepted. + +Some Ronas are still the armed retainers of the Jeypore Rajas, and +their forefathers were versed in the use of the matchlock. Some Ronas +at the present day use bows and arrows. The caste title is Nayako. + +Ronguni.--The Rongunis are Oriya dyers and weavers. The caste name is +derived from rangu, dye. A noticeable fact is that they do not eat +flesh of any kind, but are vegetarians, pure and simple. They have +various titles, e.g., Behara, Daso, Prushti, and Sahu, of which some +practically constitute exogamous septs. + +Rottala (bread).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Rowthan.--See Ravutan. + +Rudra.--One of the various names of Siva. A sub-division of Palli. + +Rudrakshala (the drupe of Elæocarpus Ganitrus).--An exogamous sept of +Karna Sales. The drupes are polished, and worn as a rosary or necklet +by Saivite Brahmans, Pandarams, Nattukottai Chettis, and others. They +are supposed to be the tears of ecstasy which Siva (Rudra) once shed, +and are consequently sacred to him. They have a number of lobes +(or faces), varying from one to six, divided externally by deep +furrows. Those with five lobes are the most common, but those with +one (eka mukha) or six (shan mukha) are very rare, and have been +known to be sold for a thousand rupees. One form of the drupe is +called Gauri shanka, and is worn in a golden receptacle by Dikshitar +Brahmans at Chidambaram, and by some Pandarams who are managers +of matams (religious institutions). The plate represents a Telugu +Saivite Vaidiki Brahman clad in a coat of rudraksha beads, wearing +a head-dress of the same, and holding in his hand wooden castanets, +which are played as an accompaniment to his songs. Until he became too +old to bear the weight, he wore also a loin-cloth made of these beads. + +Runzu.--Runzu, Runza, or Runja is the name of a class of Telugu +mendicants, who beat a drum called runjalu, and beg only from Kamsalas +(q.v.). + + + + + + + +S + + +Sachchari.--A synonym of Relli. Another form of the word Chachchadi. + +Sadaru.--A sub-division of Lingayats, found mainly in the +Bellary and Anantapur districts, where they are largely engaged in +cultivation. Some Bedars or Boyas, who live amidst these Lingayats, +call themselves Sadaru. It is noted in the Mysore Census Reports that +the Sadas are "cultivators and traders in grain. A section of these +Sadas has embraced Lingayatism, while the others are still within +the pale of Hinduism." + +Saddikudu (cold rice or food).--An exogamous sept of Golla. + +Sadhana Surulu.--Sadhanasura is recorded, in the Madras Census +Report, 1901, as a synonym of Samayamuvadu. In a note on this class +of itinerant mendicants, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao states that, unlike +the Samayamuvaru, they are attached only to the Padma Sale section +of the Sale caste. "They say," he writes, "that their name is an +abbreviated form of Renuka Sakthini Sadhinchinavaru, i.e., those who +conquered Renuka Sakthi. According to tradition, Renuka was the mother +of Parasurama, one of the avatars of Vishnu, and is identified with +the goddess Yellamma, whom the Padma Sales revere. The Sadhana Surulu +are her votaries. Ages ago, it is said, they prayed to her on behalf +of the Padma Sales, and made her grant boons to them. Since that +time they have been treated with marked respect by the Padma Sales, +who pay them annually four annas, and see to their marriages." + +Sadhu (meek or quiet).--A sub-division or exogamous sept of Ganiga +and Padma Sale. The equivalent Sadhumatam has been recorded, at +times of census, by Janappans. The name Sadhu is applied to ascetics +or Bairagis. + +Sagarakula.--A synonym of the Upparas, who claim descent from a king +Sagara Chakravarthi of the Mahabharata. + +Sahavasi.--The Sahavasis are described, in the Mysore Census Report, +1891, as "immigrants like the Chitpavanas. Sahavasi means co-tenant or +associate, and the name is said to have been earned by the community +in the following manner. In remote times a certain Brahman came upon +hidden treasure, but, to his amazement, the contents appeared in +his eye to be all live scorpions. Out of curiosity, he hung one of +them outside his house. A little while after, a woman of inferior +caste, who was passing by the house, noticed it to be gold, and, +upon her questioning him about it, the Brahman espoused her, and by +her means was able to enjoy the treasure. He gave a feast in honour +of his acquisition of wealth. He was subsequently outcasted for his +mésalliance with the low caste female, while those that ate with him +were put under a ban, and thus acquired the nickname." + +Sahu.--A title of Bolasis, Godiyas, and other Oriya castes. + +Saindla (belonging to the death-house).--A sub-division of Mala. + +Sajjana (good men).--A synonym of Lingayat Ganigas. + +Sajje (millet: Setaria italica).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Sakala.--See Tsakala. + +Sakkereya.--Some Upparas style themselves Mel (western) +Sakkereya-varu. Their explanation is that they used to work in salt, +which is more essential than sugar, and that Mel Sakkare means +superior sugar. + +Sakuna Pakshi.--For the following note on the Sakuna Pakshi +(prophetic bird) mendicant caste of Vizagapatam, I am indebted to +Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The name of the caste is due to the fact that +the members of the caste wear on their heads a plume composed of +the feathers of a bird called palagumma, which is probably Coracias +indica, the Indian roller, or "blue jay" of Europeans. This is one of +the birds called sakuna pakshi, because they are supposed to possess +the power of foretelling events, and on their movements many omens +depend. Concerning the roller, Jerdon writes [128] that "it is sacred +to Siva, who assumed its form, and, at the feast of the Dasserah at +Nagpore, one or more used to be liberated by the Rajah, amidst the +firing of cannon and musketry, at a grand parade attended by all the +officers of the station. Buchanan Hamilton also states that, before +the Durga Puja, the Hindus of Calcutta purchase one of these birds, +and, at the time when they throw the image of Durga into the river, +set it at liberty. It is considered propitious to see it on this day, +and those who cannot afford to buy one discharge their matchlocks to +put it on the wing." + +According to their own account, the Sakuna Pakshis are Telagas who +emigrated to Vizagapatam from Peddapuram in the Godavari district. + +A member of the caste, before proceeding on a begging expedition, +rises early, and has a cold meal. He then puts the Tengalai Vaishnava +namam mark on his forehead, slings on his left shoulder a deer-skin +pouch for the reception of the rice and other grain which will be +given him as alms, and takes up his little drum (gilaka or damaraka) +made of frog's skin. It is essential for a successful day's begging +that he should first visit a Mala house or two, after which he begs +from other castes, going from house to house. + +The members combine with begging the professions of devil-dancer, +sorcerer, and quack doctor. Their remedy for scorpion sting +is well-known. It is the root of a plant called thella visari +(scorpion antidote), which the Sakuna Pakshis carry about with +them on their rounds. The root should be collected on a new-moon +day which falls on a Sunday. On that day, the Sakuna Pakshi bathes, +cuts off his loin-string, and goes stark naked to a selected spot, +where he gathers the roots. If a supply thereof is required, and the +necessary combination of moon and day is not forthcoming, the roots +should be collected on a Sunday or Wednesday. + +Salangukaran.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Salangaikaran is +returned as a synonym of Karaiyan or Sembadavan fishermen. The word +salangu or slangu is used for pearl fisheries, and Salangukaran is, +I imagine, a name applied to pearl divers. + +Salapu.--The Salapus are a small caste of Telugu weavers in +Vizagapatam, for the following note on whom I am indebted to +Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The name Salapu seems to be a corruption +of Saluppan, a caste which formerly engaged in the manufacture +of gunny-bags and coarse cloths. The Salapus at the present day +make such cloths, commonly called gamanchalu. Like some other +weaving castes, they claim descent from Markandeya rishi, who was +remarkable for his austerities and great age, and is also known as +Dirghayus. The Salapus will not eat, or intermarry with Sales. The +caste is governed by a headman called Senapati. He decides disputes, +and, on occasions of marriage, receives the first share of betel and +sandal, and is the first to touch the sathamanam (marriage badge) +when it is passed round to be blessed by those assembled. He is, +at marriages, further presented with a rupee. At caste feasts, it is +his privilege to partake of food first. + +Like other Telugu castes, the Salapus have intiperulu, or exogamous +septs. Girls are generally married before puberty. The custom of +menarikam, by which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, +is in force. The turmeric ceremony takes place some months before +marriage. Some male and female relations of the future bridegroom +repair to the house of the girl, taking with them a few rupees as the +bride-price (voli). The girl bathes, and daubs herself with turmeric +paste. A solid silver bangle is then put on her right wrist. The +remarriage of widows and divorce are permitted. + +The Salapus are divided into Lingavantas and Vaishnavas, who +intermarry. The former bury their dead in a sitting posture, and the +latter practice cremation. Jangams officiate for the Lingavantas, +and Satanis for Vaishnavas. Both sections observe the chinna (little) +and pedda rozu (big day) death ceremonies. + +The caste title is generally Ayya. + +Salapu.--A form of Sarapu, an occupational term for those who deal +in coins, jewelry, coral, etc. + +Sale.--The Sales are the great weaver class among the Telugus, for +the following note on whom I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. + +The name is derived from Sanskrit, Salika, a weaver. The Sales call +themselves Senapati (commander-in-chief), and this is further the +title of the caste headman. They are divided into two main endogamous +sections, Padma or lotus, and Pattu or silk. Between them there are +three well-marked points of difference, viz., (1) the Pattu Sales wear +the sacred thread, whereas the Padma Sales do not; (2) the Pattu Sales +do not take food or water at the hands of any except Brahmans, whereas +the Padma Sales will eat in Kapu, Golla, Telaga, Gavara, etc., houses; +(3) the Pattu Sales weave superfine cloths, and, in some places, work +in silk, whereas Padma Sales weave only coarse cloths. Each section +is divided into a number of exogamous septs or intiperulu. Both speak +Telugu, and are divided into Vaishnavites and Saivites. These religious +distinctions are no bar to intermarriage and interdining. + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district (1907), +that "on the plains, cotton cloths are woven in hundreds of villages +by Sales, Padma Sales, Pattu Sales, Devangas, and Salapus. The ryots +often spin their own cotton into thread, and then hand it over to the +weavers to be made into cloths, but large quantities of machine-made +yarn are used. In the south, the chief weaving centres are Nakkapalli +and Payakaraopeta in Sarvasiddhi taluk, the Pattu Sales in the latter +of which turn out fabrics of fine thread, enriched with much gold and +silver 'lace,' which are in great demand in the Godavari and Ganjam +districts. At Razam, coloured cloths for women are the chief product, +and in the country round this place the white garments so universal +everywhere give place to coloured dress. The cloths are sold locally, +and also sent in large quantities to Berhampur, Cuttack, and even +Calcutta. Most of the weaving is in the hands of Devangas, but the +dyeing of the thread is done with imported aniline and alizarine +colours by the Balijas of Sigadam in Chipurupalle taluk and Balijapeta +in Bobbili. In Siripuram and Ponduru, the Pattu Sales make delicate +fabrics from especially fine thread, called Pattu Sale nulu, or +silk-weaver's thread, which the women of their caste spin for them, and +which is as fine as imported 1508. These are much valued by well-to-do +natives for their softness and durability. The weaving industry is +on the decline throughout the district, except perhaps in Razam, +and the weaver castes are taking to other means of livelihood. Round +Chipurupalle, for example, the Pattu Sales have become experts in +tobacco-curing, and have made such profits that they are able to +monopolise much of the trade and money-lending of the locality." + +Concerning the origin of the Sale caste, it is stated, in the +Andhrapada Parijatamu, that it is the result of an union between +a Kamsala man and a potter woman. According to a current legend, +the celestials (devatas), being desirous of securing clothing +for themselves and their dependents, asked Markandeya Rishi to +supply them with it. He went to Vishnu, and prayed to him. The god +directed him to make a sacrificial offering to Indra, the celestial +king. Markandeya accordingly performed a great sacrifice, and from the +fire issued Bhavana Rishi, with a ball of thread in his hands, which +he had manufactured, under Vishnu's direction, from the fibre of the +lotus which sprang from the god's navel. With this ball of thread he +proceeded to make cloths for the celestials. He subsequently married +Bhadravathi, the daughter of Surya (the sun), who bore him a hundred +and one sons, of whom a hundred became the ancestors of the Padma +Sales, while the remaining man was the ancestor of the Pattu Sales. + +The caste worships Bhavana Rishi. At the close of the year, the caste +occupation is stopped before the Sankramanam for ten days. Before +they start work again, the Pattu Sales meet at an appointed spot, +where they burn camphor, and wave it before a ball of thread, which +represents Bhavana Rishi. A more elaborate rite is performed by +the Padma Sales. They set apart a special day for the worship of +the deified ancestor, and hold a caste feast. A special booth is +erected, in which a ball of thread is placed. A caste-man acts as +pujari (priest), and fruits, flowers, camphor, etc., are offered to +the thread. + +The Telugu Padma Sales, and Marathi-speaking Sukun and Suka Sales, +are, as will be seen from the following table, short of stature, +with high cephalic index:-- + + + Stature. cm. Cephalic index. + + Padma Sale 159.9 78.7 + Suka Sale 161.1 81.8 + Sukun Sale 160.3 82.2 + + +The Padma and Karna Sales are dealt with in special articles. + +Writing in the eighteenth century, Sonnerat remarks that the weaver +fixes his loom under a tree before his house in the morning, and at +night takes it home. And this observation holds good at the present +day. Weaving operations, as they may be seen going on at weaving +centres in many parts of Southern India, are thus described by +Mr. H. A. Stuart. [129] "The process of weaving is very simple. The +thread is first turned off upon a hand-spindle, and then the warp +is formed. Bamboo sticks, 120 in number, are fixed upright in the +ground, generally in the shade of a tope or grove, at a distance +of a cubit from one another, and ten women or children, carrying +ratnams (spindles) in their hands, walk up and down this line, +one behind the other, intertwining the thread between the bamboos, +until 1,920 threads of various colours, according to the pattern +desired, are thus arranged. For this work each gets half an anna--a +small remuneration for walking four miles. To form a warp sufficient +for eight women's cloths, forty miles have thus to be traversed. In +weaving silk cloths or the finer fabrics, the length of the warp is +less than sixty yards. As soon as the threads have been arranged, +the bamboos are plucked up, and rolled together with the threads +upon them. Trestles are then set out in the tope, and upon them +the warp with the bamboos is stretched horizontally, and sized by +means of large long brushes with ragi starch, and carried along by +two men. This having dried, the whole is rolled up, and placed in +the loom in the weaver's house. The weaving room is a long, narrow, +dark chamber, lighted by one small window close to where the workman +sits. The loom is constructed on the simplest principles, and can be +taken to pieces in a few minutes, forming a light load for a man. The +alternate threads of the warp are raised and depressed, to receive +the woof in the following manner. Two pairs of bamboos are joined +together by thin twine loops, and, being suspended from the roof, are +also joined to two pedals near the floor. Through the joining loops +of one pair of bamboos run half the threads, and through those of +the other run the other half. Thus, by depressing one pedal with the +foot and raising the other, one set of threads is depressed, and the +other raised so as to admit of the woof thread being shot across. This +thread is forced home by a light beam suspended from the roof, and +then, the position of the pedals being reversed, the woof thread is +shot back again between the reversed threads of the warp. In this way +about three yards can be woven in a day." Further Mr. J. D. Rees writes +as follows. [130] "As you enter a weaver's grove, it appears at first +sight as if those occupied in this industry were engaged in a pretty +game. Rows of women walk up and down the shady aisles, each holding +aloft in the left hand a spindle, and in the right a bamboo wand, +through a hook at the end of which the thread is passed. Alongside +are split bamboos reaching as high as their hips, and, as they pass, +they unwind the thread from the spindle by means of the wand, and +pass it over each alternate upright. The threads, thus separated, +are subsequently lifted with their bamboo uprights from the ground, +and, while extended from tree to tree in a horizontal position, are +washed with rice-water, and carefully brushed. The threads are now +ready to be made into cloth, and the actual weaving is carried on by +means of primitive hand looms inside the houses." + +Weavers, like many other classes in Southern India, are eminently +conservative. Even so trifling an innovation as the introduction +of a new arrangement for maintaining tension in the warp during the +process of weaving gave rise a short time ago to a temporary strike +among the hand-loom weavers at the Madras School of Arts. + +For the following note on the weaving industry, I am indebted to +Mr. A. Chatterton. "The hand-weavers may be divided into two great +classes--(1) plain weavers, who weave cloths or fabrics with a single +shuttle, which carries the weft from selvage to selvage; (2) bordered +cloth weavers, who weave cloths in which the threads of the weft of the +portion of the fabric forming the borders are distinct from the threads +of the weft of the main body of the cloth. To manufacture these cloths, +three shuttles are employed, and as yet no successful attempt has been +made to imitate them on the power loom. The bordered cloth weavers do +not suffer from the direct competition of machine-made piece-goods, +and the depression in their branch of the industry is due to changes +in the tastes of the people. [131] In the manufacture of a cloth +from the raw material there are three distinct processes: spinning, +warping, and weaving. Modern machinery has absolutely and completely +ousted hand-spinning; the primitive native methods of warping have +been to a large extent replaced by improved hand-machines, and power +looms have displaced hand looms to some extent; but there is still an +enormous hand-loom industry, some branches of which are in by no means +an unsatisfactory condition. In our efforts to place the hand-weaving +industry on a better footing, we are endeavouring to improve the +primitive methods of indigenous weavers both in regard to warping and +weaving. In respect to weaving we have met with considerable success, +as we have demonstrated that the output of the fly-shuttle loom is +fully double that of the native hand loom, and it is in consequence +slowly making its way in the weaving centres of Southern India. In +respect to warping, no definite solution has yet been effected, and +we are still experimenting. The problem is complicated by the fact +that the output of a warping mill must necessarily be sufficient to +keep at least a hundred hand looms at work, and at the present time +the hand-weaving industry is not organised on any basis, which gives +promise of development into co-operative working on so large a scale as +would give employment to this number of looms. In Madura, Coimbatore, +Madras and Salem, attempts are being made to establish organised +hand-loom weaving factories, and these represent the direction in which +future development must take place. At present all these factories +are running with fly-shuttle looms, and various modifications of +the old types of hand-warping machinery. The only experiments in +warping and sizing are now being conducted, at Government expense, +in the Government weaving factory at Salem, and in a small factory +established privately at Tondiarpet (Madras). A warping machinery, +suited to Indian requirements, has been specially designed for us in +England, and there is no doubt but that it will provide a solution +to the warping question, but whether it will be satisfactory or not +depends upon the efficiency of hank sizing. The superiority of native +cloths is commonly attributed to the fact that they are made in hand +looms, but in reality it is largely due to the methods of sizing +employed by native weavers, and it is still doubtful whether we can +attain the same results by any process which involves the production +of continuous warps of indefinite length. The ordinary native warp +is short, and it is stretched out to its full length in the street, +and the size carefully and thoroughly brushed into it. The warps +which our machines will produce may be thousands of yards in length, +and, if they are successful, will almost entirely do away with the +enormous waste of time involved in putting new warps into a loom at +frequent intervals. That they will be successful in a sense there is no +reasonable doubt, but whether the goods produced in our hand-weaving +factories will be what are now known as hand-woven goods, or whether +they will partake more of the nature of the power-loom productions, +remains to be seen. With the cheap labour available in Southern India, +there is probably a future for hand-weaving factories, but it will +depend almost entirely upon the successful training of the weavers, and +experience shows that they are not easily amenable to discipline, and +have very rigid objections to anything approaching a factory system." + +In a speech delivered at Salem in 1906, Sir Arthur Lawley, Governor +of Madras, spoke as follows. "I know something of the prosperity of +the weaving industry in days gone by, and I regret exceedingly to +learn that it is not in so flourishing a condition as at one time +it well claimed to be. Now, we have all of us heard a good deal of +Swadeshi, and the Government is being constantly urged, from time to +time, to do something to foster the industries of this country. We +made a beginning here by setting up a Weaving Institute. We believed +that by doing so we should put within the knowledge of the weavers +of this district methods whereby their output of cloth would be +greater, while the cost was reduced, and that thus their material +prosperity would be considerably advanced. Now it is somewhat of a +surprise, and considerable disappointment to me to learn that this +effort which we have made is regarded with suspicion, if not with +hostility. I am afraid our motives have been misunderstood, because +I need hardly assure you that the idea that the Government should +enter into competition with any of the industries of the country never +suggested itself to us. We desired simply and solely to infuse some +fresh spirit into an industry which was languishing." + +In a note on the weaving industry, Mr. E. B. Havell writes thus. [132] +"The principle of the Danish co-operative system as applied to +dairy-farming is the combination of a number of small proprietors for +sending their products to a central factory, in which each of them +has a share proportionate to the quantity of his contributions. In +the management of the factory, each member has an absolutely equal +voice, irrespective of his holdings. Adapting such a system to the +Indian weaving industry, each weaving community would have a central +establishment under its own control, which would arrange the purchase +of material at wholesale rates, prepare warps for the weavers' looms, +and organise the sale of the finished products. The actual weaving +would be carried on as at present in the weavers' houses by the +master weavers and their apprentices. If a system of this kind would +retain the economic advantages of the factory system, and eliminate +its many evils, it is obvious that a factory, owned and controlled +by the weavers themselves, and worked only for their advantage, is +a very different thing to a factory controlled by capitalists only +for the purpose of exploiting the labour of their employees." + +As bearing on the general condition of the weaving community, +the following extract from the Report of the Famine in the Madras +Presidency, 1896-97, may be quoted. "Among the people who felt the +distress at the beginning were the weavers. It is a well-known fact +that the people of the weaver castes, as well as Mussalman weavers, +are generally improvident, and consequently poor. In favourable times, +the weavers generally earn fair wages. They, however, spend all they +earn without caring to lay by anything, so that very few of their +caste are in well-to-do circumstances. The same is the case with the +Mussalman weavers. All these weavers are entirely in the hands of the +sowcars (money-lenders), who make advances to them, and get cloths in +return. The cloths thus obtained by the sowcars are exported to other +parts of the country. It may be taken as a general fact that most of +the professional weavers are indebted to the sowcars, and are bound to +weave for them. So long as the seasons are favourable, and sowcars get +indents for cloths from their customers, they continue their advances +to their dependent weavers. But when, owing to any cause, the demand +decreases, the sowcars curtail their advances proportionately, and +the weavers are at once put to difficulty. According to the fineness +and kind of fabrics turned out by the weavers, they may be divided +into fine cloth weavers and silk weavers, and weavers of coarse +cloths. It is the coarse cloth weavers that would be affected with +the first appearance of distress. The consumers of their manufactures +are the poorer classes, and, with the appearance of scarcity and high +prices, the demand for the coarser kinds of cloths would cease. Such +was actually the case at the beginning of the recent distress. The +weavers are, as a class, not accustomed to hard manual labour, nor +are they able to work exposed to heat and sun. If such people are put +on earth-work, they would certainly fail to turn out the prescribed +task, and consequently earn insufficient wages. They would thus be, +as it were, punished for no fault of theirs. This state of things +would last at least for some time, until the weavers got accustomed +to earth-work. Again, these people have, by constant work at their +own craft, attained to a certain degree of skill and delicacy, and, +if compelled to do earth-work during the temporary unfavourable +season, they would certainly lose, to some extent, their skill and +delicacy of hand, and would become unfit, in that degree, for their +accustomed work when favourable season returns. They would thus be put +to inconvenience doubly. During the first part of the distress, their +skill of hand, and delicacy of constitution would stand in their way, +and, after the return of good season, the loss of manual skill and +delicacy would place them at a disadvantage. It can be easily seen +that giving relief to the weavers in their own calling is the most +economical form of relief. In this form of special relief, Government +advances materials to the weavers to be woven into different kinds of +cloths. Government has no doubt to incur a large initial expenditure +in the shape of value of materials, and wages for weavers for making +these materials into cloths. But all the materials are returned woven +into cloths, so that, at the close of the operations, Government has +a stock of cloths, which can be disposed of without difficulty on the +return of favourable times, and the cost incurred recovered. In this +way, Government not only administers relief to a pretty large section +of its poor subjects, but keeps up, with little or no cost to itself, +the industrial skill of this section of the people." + +Of proverbs relating to the weaver, one runs to the effect that, "if +you want to narrow the breadth of a river, you should plant reeds on +its margin; and, if you desire to destroy the sanitation of a village, +you should bring weavers to it, and settle them there." When the dyes +have to be fixed, and the dyed twist has to be washed, the weavers +generally resort to running water, and pollute it. The several +processes of twisting and untwisting threads, preparing skeins, +etc., make combined labour a necessity in the weaving industry; +and, wherever one finds a weaver settlement, he must find there a +large number of these people, as is explained by the proverb that +"the Chetti (merchant) lost by partnership, while the weaver came +to grief by isolation." When plying shuttles in the weaving process, +the weavers always use their feet in shifting the warp, by treading +on a press. Thus, if a weaver unfortunately happens to have a sore +on his foot, it means loss to him; or, as the proverb says, "If a +dog gets a sore on its head, it never recovers from it; and even so +a weaver who gets a sore on his foot." [133] + +Salige (wire).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Saliyan.--The Saliyan weavers of Kornad and Ayyampet, in the Tanjore +district, are a Tamil-speaking class, who must not be confused with +the Telugu Sales. They afford an interesting example of how a limited +number of families, following the same occupation, can crystallise +into a separate caste. They claim to have a Puranam relating to +their origin, which is said to be found in the Sthalapuranam of the +Nalladai temple. They believe that they are the descendants of one +Saliya Maha Rishi, a low-caste man, who did service for one Visakar, +who was doing penance near Nalladai. Through the grace of the rishi +Visakar, Saliya became a rishi, and married two wives. The Saliyans +are said to be descended from the offspring of the first wife, and +the Mottai Saliyans from the offspring of the second. + +The Saliyans have taken to wearing the sacred thread, engage +Brahman purohits, and are guided by Brahman priests. They are said +to have had their own caste priests until a Brahman from Sendangudi, +near Mayavaram, accepted the office of priest. It is reported that, +in former days, the Saliyans were not allowed to sell their goods +except in a fixed spot called mamaraththumedu, where they set out +their cloths on bamboos. High-caste people never touched the cloths, +except with a stick. At the present day the Saliyans occupy a good +position in the social scale, and employ Brahman cooks, though no +other castes will eat in their houses. + +A curious feature in connection with the Saliyans is that, contrary to +the usual rule among Tamil castes, they have exogamous septs or vidu +(house), of which the following are examples:-- + + + Mandhi, black monkey. + Kottangkachchi, cocoanut shell. + Thuniyan, cloth. + Kachchandhi, gunny-bag. + Vellai parangi, white vegetable marrow. + Ettadiyan, eight feet. + Thadiyan, stout. + Kazhudhai, donkey. + Thavalai, frog. + Sappaikalan, crooked-legged. + Malaiyan, hill. + Kaththan, an attendant on Aiyanar. + Ozhakkan, a measure. + Thondhi, belly. + Munginazhi, bamboo measure. + Odakkazhinjan, one who defæcated when running. + Kamban, the Tamil poet. + Ottuvidu, tiled house. + Kalli, Euphorbia Tirucalli. + Sirandhan, a noble person. + Thambiran, master or lord. + Kollai, backyard. + Madividu, storeyed house. + Murugan, name of a person. + + +The Saliyans have further acquired gotras named after rishis, and, +when questioned as to their gotra, refer to the Brahman purohits. + +The Saliyan weavers of silk Kornad women's cloths, who have settled at +Mayavaram in the Tanjore district, neither intermarry nor interdine +with the Saliyans of the Tinnevelly district, though they belong +to the same linguistic division. The Tinnevelly Saliyans closely +follow the Kaikolans in their various ceremonials, and in their +social organisation, and interdine with them. Saliya women wear three +armlets on the upper arm, whereas Kaikola women only wear a single +armlet. The Saliyans may not marry a second wife during the lifetime +of the first wife, even if she does not bear children. They may, +however, adopt children. Some of the Tinnevelly Saliyans have taken +to trade and agriculture, while others weave coarse cotton cloths, +and dye cotton yarn. + +In the Census Report, 1901, Ataviyar is recorded as "a synonym for, +or rather title of the Tinnevelly Sales." Further, Pattariyar +is described as a Tamil corruption of Pattu Saliyan, returned +by some of the Tinnevelly Sales. The Adaviyar or Pattalia Settis +are Tamilians, probably an offshoot of the Kaikolans, and have no +connection with the Telugu Pattu Sales, who, like the Padma Sales, +retain their mother-tongue wherever they settle. It is recorded [134] +in connection with the Saliyar of the Chingleput district, many of +whom are Kaikolans, that "a story is current of their persecution +by one Salva Naik (said to have been a Brahman). The result of this +was that large bodies of them were forced to flee from Conjeeveram +to Madura, Tanjore, and Tinnevelly, where their representatives are +still to be found." + +The Adaviyars follow the Tamil Puranic type of marriage ceremonies, +and have a sirutali (small tali) as a marriage badge. The caste deity +is Mukthakshiamman. The dead are always cremated. + +Saluppan.--The Tamil equivalent of the Telugu Janappan, which is +derived from janapa, the sunn hemp (Crotolaria juncea). + +Samagara.--The Samagaras have been described [135] as "the principal +class of leather-workers in the South Canara district. They are +divided into two endogamous groups, the Canarese Samagaras and the +Arya Samagaras. The latter speak Marathi. Though the Samagaras are +in the general estimation as low a caste as the Holeyas, and do not +materially differ from them in their religious and other ceremonies +and customs, they are, as a rule, of much fairer complexion, and the +women are often very handsome. The tanning industry is chiefly carried +on by the Samagaras, and their modus operandi is as follows. The +hides are soaked for a period of one month in large earthen vats +containing water, to which chunam is added at the rate of two seers +per hide. After the expiry of the above period, they are soaked in +fresh water for three days, in view to the chunam being removed. They +are then put into an earthen vessel filled with water and the leaves +of Phyllanthus Emblica, in which they remain for twelve days. After +this, they are removed and squeezed, and replaced in the same vessel, +where they are allowed to remain for about a month, after which +period they are again removed, washed and squeezed. They are then +sewn up and stuffed with the bark of cashew, daddala, and nerale +trees, and hung up for a day. After this, the stitching is removed, +and the hides are washed and exposed to the sun to dry for a day, +when they become fit for making sandals. Some of the hides rot in +this process to such an extent as to become utterly unfit for use." + +The badge of the Are Samagara at Conjeeveram is said [136] to be the +insignia of the Mochis (or Mucchis), a boy's kite. + +Samantan.--"This," the Census Superintendent, 1891, writes, "may be +called the caste of Malayalam Rajahs and chieftains, but it is hardly +a separate caste at all, at any rate at present, for those Nayars and +others who have at any time been petty chieftains in the country, call +themselves Samantas. The primary meaning of the word Samanta is given +by Dr. Gundert [137] as the chief of a district." The number of people +who returned themselves as Samantas (including a few Samantan Brahmans) +at the Census, 1881, was 1,611, and in 1901 they increased to 4,351. + +In a suit brought against the Collector of Malabar (Mr. Logan) +some years ago by one Nilambur Thachara Kovil Mana Vikrama, alias +Elaya Tirumalpad, the plaintiff entered an objection to his being +said by the Collector to be of "a caste (Nayar), who are permitted +to eat fish and flesh, except of course beef." He stated in court +that he was "a Samantan by caste, and a Samantan is neither a +Brahman, nor a Kshatriya, nor a Vaisya, nor a Sudra." Samantan, +according to him, is a corruption of Samantran, which, he stated, +meant one who performs ceremonies without mantrams. He said that +his caste observes all the ceremonies that Brahmans do, but without +mantrams. And he gave the following as the main points in which his +caste differs from that of the Nayars. Brahmans can take their food +in the houses of members of his caste, while they cannot do so in +those of Nayars. At the performance of sradhs in his caste, Brahmans +are fed, while this is not done in the case of Nayars. Brahmans can +prepare water for the purpose of purification in his house, but not +in that of a Nayar. If a Nayar touches a Samantan, he has to bathe +in the same way as a Brahman would have to do. For the performance +of marriages and other ceremonies in his caste, Malabar Brahmans are +absolutely necessary. At marriages the tali is tied by Kshatriyas. A +Samantan has fourteen days' pollution, while a Nayar has fifteen. He +can only eat what a Brahman can eat. He added that he was of the same +caste as the Zamorin of Calicut. A number of witnesses, including the +author of the Keralavakhsha Kramam, were examined in support of his +assertions. It was noted by the District Judge that no documentary +evidence was produced, or reference to public records or works of +authority made in support of the theory as to the existence of a caste +of Samantas who are not Nayars, and are classed under Kshatriyas, and +above the Vaisyas. The following account is given by the author of the +Keralavakhsha Kramam of the origin of the Samantas. Some Kshatriyas +who, being afraid of Parasu Rama, were wandering in foreign parts, +and not observing caste rules, came to Malabar, visited Cheraman +Perumal, and asked for his protection. On this Cheraman Perumal, +with the sanction of the Brahmans, and in pursuance of the rules laid +down by the Maharajas who had preceded him, classed these people as +members of the Samantra caste. "That this book," the Judge observed, +"can be looked on as being in any way an authority on difficult and +obscure historical questions, or that the story can be classed as more +than a myth, there are no grounds for supposing." No linguistic work +of recognised authority was produced in support of the derivation of +the word Samantan from Samantran, meaning without mantrams. + +One exhibit in the case above referred to was an extract from the +report of a commission appointed to inspect the state and condition +of the province of Malabar. It is dated 11th October, 1793, and in it +allusion is made to the 'Tichera Tiroopaar' who is described as a chief +Nayar of Nilambur in the southern division of the country. Evidence was +given to show that Tichera Tiroopaar is the Nilambur Tirumulpad. And, +in a letter from the Supervisor of Malabar, dated 15th November, +1793, allusion is made to Tichera Tiroopaar as a Nayar. Two extracts +from Buchanan's well-known work on Mysore, Canara and Malabar, were +also filed as exhibits. In one Buchanan relates what was told him +by the Brahmans of the history of 'Malayala'. Among other things, +he mentions that Cheraman Perumal, having come to the resolution of +retiring to Mecca, went to Calicut. "He was there met by a Nayar who +was a gallant chief, but who, having been absent at the division, +had obtained no share of his master's dominions. Cheraman Perumal +thereupon gave him his sword, and desired him to keep all that he +could conquer. From this person's sisters are descended the Tamuri +Rajahs or Zamorins." In the second extract, Buchanan sums up the +result of enquiries that he had made concerning the Zamorin and his +family. He states that the head of the family is the Tamuri Rajah, +called by Europeans the Zamorin, and adds: "The Tamuri pretends to be +of a higher rank than the Brahmans, and to be inferior only to the +invisible gods, a pretension that was acknowledged by his subjects, +but which is held as absurd and abominable by the Brahmans, by whom +he is only treated as a Sudra." + +An important witness said that he knew the plaintiff, and that he was +a Sudra. He stated that he had lived for two years in the Zamorin's +kovilagom, and knew the customs of his family. According to him +there was no difference between his own caste customs and those of +the Zamorin. He said that Samantan means a petty chieftain, and drew +attention to the 'Sukra Niti,' edited by Dr. Oppert, where a Samantan +is said to be "he who gets annually a revenue of from one to three +lakhs karshom from his subjects without oppressing them." There are, +according to him, some Nayars who call themselves Samantas, and he +added that when, in 1887, the Collector of Malabar called for lists +of all stanom-holders [138] in the district, he examined these lists, +and found that some of the Nayar chiefs called themselves Samantan. + +"A consideration of all the evidence," the Judge writes, "appears to me +to prove conclusively that the plaintiff is a Nayar by caste.... What +appears to me, from a consideration of the evidence, to be the safe +inference to draw is that the members of the plaintiff's family, and +also the descendants of certain other of the old Nayar chieftains, +have for some time called themselves, and been called by others, +Samantas, but that there is no distinctive caste of that name, and +that the plaintiff is, as the defendant has described him, a Nayar +by caste." [139] + +The Samantans are summed up as follows in the Gazetteer of +Malabar. "Samantan is the generic name of the group of castes +forming the aristocracy of Malabar, and it includes the following +divisions:--Nambiyar, Unnitiri, Adiyodi, all belonging to North +Malabar; and Nedungadi, Vallodi, Eradi, and Tirumulpad, all belonging +to South Malabar. There are also Nayars with the title of Nambiyar +and Adiyodi. Nedungadi, Vallodi and Eradi, are territorial names +applied to the Samantans indigenous to Ernad, Walavanad, and Nedunganad +respectively; or perhaps it may be more correct to say that the tracts +in question take their names from the ruling classes, who formerly +bore sway there. Eradi is the caste to which belongs the Zamorin Raja +of Calicut. It is also the name of a section of Kiriyattil Nayars. The +Raja of Walavanad is a Vallodi. Tirumulpad is the title of a class of +Samantans, to which belong a number of petty chieftains, such as the +Karnamulpad of Manjeri and the Tirumulpad of Nilambur. The ladies +of this class are called Kolpads or Koilammahs. Many Nambiyars in +North Malabar claim to belong to the Samantan caste, but there is at +least reason to suppose that they are properly Nayars, and that the +claim to the higher rank is of recent date. That such recruitment is +going on is indicated by the difference between the number of persons +returned as Samantans in the censuses of 1901 and 1891 (4,351 and 1,225 +respectively), which is far above the normal percentage of increase of +population. Kshatriyas wear the punul (thread); Samantans as a rule do +not. Most Kshatriyas eat with Brahmans, and have a pollution period of +eleven nights, indicating that their position in the caste hierarchy +lies between the Brahmans with ten days and the Ambalavasis proper +with twelve. Samantans as a rule observe fifteen days' pollution, and +may not eat with Brahmans. Both follow marumakkatayam (inheritance +in the female line), and their women as a rule have sambandham +(alliance) only with Brahmans or Kshatriyas. Those who belong to the +old Royal families are styled Raja or Tamburan (lord), their ladies +Tamburattis, and their houses Kovilagams or palaces. Some Samantans +have the caste titles of Kartavu and Kaimal. But it does not appear +that there are really any material differences between the various +classes of Samantans, other than purely social differences due to +their relative wealth and influence." + +"Tradition," writes the Travancore Census Superintendent (1901), +"traces the Samantas to the prudent Kshatriyas, who cast off the holy +thread, to escape detection and slaughter by Parasu Rama. They are +believed to have then fled to uninhabited forests till they forgot +the Sandhyavandana prayers, and became in certain respects no better +than Sudras. Thus they came, it is said, to be called Amantrakas, +Samantrakas, Samantas, or having no mantra at all. Referring to +this, Mr. Stuart says [140] 'Neither philology, nor anything else, +supports this fable.' From the word Samantra, Samanta can, no doubt, +be conveniently derived, but, if they could not repeat mantras, they +should have been called Amantras and not Samantras. In the Kerala +Mahatmya we read that the Perumals appointed Samantas to rule over +portions of their kingdom. Taking the Sanskrit word Samanta, we may +understand it to mean a petty chief or ruler. It is supposed that +the Perumals who came to Malabar contracted matrimonial alliances +with high class Nayar women, and that the issue of such unions were +given chiefships over various extents of territories. Changes in +their manners and customs were, it is said, made subsequently, by way +of approximation to the Kshatriyas proper. Though the sacred thread, +and the Gayatri hymn were never taken up, less vital changes, as, for +instance, that of the wearing of the ornaments of the Kshatriya women, +or of consorting only with Nambutiri husbands, were adopted. Those who +lived in Ernat formed themselves by connections and alliances into +one large caste, and called themselves Eratis. Those who lived in +Valluvanat became Vallotis. The unification could not assume a more +cosmopolitan character as the several families rose to importance at +different times, and, in all probability, from different sections of +the Nayars." + +In the Travancore Census Report (1901) the chief divisions of the +Samantas are said to be Atiyoti, Unyatiri, Pantala, Erati, Valloti, +and Netungati. "The Unyatiris," the Travancore Census Superintendent +writes further, "look upon themselves as a higher class than the rest +of the Samantas, as they have an Aryapattar to tie the tali of their +girls, the other five castes employing only Kshatriyas (Tirumulpats) +for that duty. The word Atiyoti has sometimes been derived from Atiyan, +a slave or vassal, the tradition being that the Kattanat Raja, having +once been ousted from his kingdom by the Zamorin of Calicut, sought +the assistance of the Raja of Chirakkal. The latter is believed +to have made the Kattanat Raja his vassal as a condition for his +territory being restored. The Unnittiris are not found in Travancore, +their place being taken by the Unyatiris, who do not differ from them +materially in any of their manners and customs. The word Unnittiri +means the venerable boy, and is merely a title of dignity. The word +Pantala comes from Bhandarattil, meaning 'in or belonging to the +royal treasury'. They appear to have been once the ruling chiefs of +small territories. Their women are known as Kovilammamar, i.e., the +ladies of palaces or ranis. The Erati, the Valloti, and Netungati are +British Malabar castes, and receive their names from the localities, +to which they may have been indigenous--Ernat, Valluvanat, and +Netunganat. The Zamorin of Calicut is an Erati by caste. [In 1792, +the Joint Commissioners wrote that 'the Cartinaad and Samoory +(the principal families in point of extent of dominion) are of the +Samanth or Euree (cowherd) caste.'] [141] Some of these Eratis, such +as the Raja of Nilambur, are called Tirumulpats. The only peculiarity +with these Tirumulpats is that they may tie the tali of their women, +and need not call other Tirumulpats for the purpose, as the rest of +the Samantas have to do. A title that several Samantas often take is +Kartavu (agent or doer), their females being called Koilpats, meaning +literally those who live in palaces. The Samantas of Manchery and +Amarampalam in Malabar are also called Tirumulpats. The Samantas of +Chuntampattai and Cherupulasseri are called Kartavus. Both Kartas and +Tirumulpats are called by the Sudra castes Tampuran or prince. The +caste government of the Samantas rests with the Namputiri Vaidikas, +and their priesthood is undertaken by the Namputiris. They follow +the marumakkathayam law of inheritance (through the female line), and +observe both the forms of marriage in vogue in the country, namely, +tali-kettu and sambandham. Women wear the three special ornaments of +the Kshatriyas, viz., the mittil or cherutali, entram, and kuzhal. The +chief of these is the mittil, which is used as the wedding ornament. It +has the appearance of Rama's parasu or battle-axe. The houses of +those Samantas, who are or were till recently rulers of territories, +are known as kottarams or palaces, while those of the commonalty are +merely called mathams, a name given to the houses of Brahmans not +indigenous to Malabar. The occupations, which the Samantas pursue, are +chiefly personal attendance on the male and female members of Royal +families. Others are landlords, and a few have taken to the learned +professions." In the Cochin Census Report, 1901, it is stated that +"Samantas and Ambalavasis do not interdine. At public feasts they +sit together for meals. Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Nampidis, and most of +the Ambalavasi castes, do not take water from them. Birth and death +pollution last for eleven days." + +In the Madras Civil List of titles and title-holders, the Zamorin +of Calicut, and the Valiya Rajas of Chirakkal, Kadattanad, Palghat, +and Waluvanad, are returned as Samantas. + +Samanthi (Chrysanthemum indicum).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba and +Togata. The flowers of the chrysanthemum are largely used for garlands, +etc., in temple worship. + +Samantiya.--The Samantiyas are an Oriya caste of agricultural +labourers and firewood sellers. It has been suggested that the caste +name is derived from samantiba, which denotes sauntering to pick up +scattered things. The Samantiyas are one of the castes, whose touch +is supposed to convey pollution, and they consequently live apart in +separate quarters. + +All the Samantiyas are said to belong to the nagasa (cobra) gotra. The +headman is called Behara, and he is assisted by an official called +Poricha. There is also a caste servant entitled Dogara. The caste +title is Podhano, which is also frequently given out as being the +name of the caste. + +Samantiya women will not eat food prepared by Brahmans or members of +other castes, and they apparently object to cooking in open places +when travelling, and leave this work for the men to perform. An +Oriya Brahman purohit officiates at the marriage ceremonies, which, +with slight variations, conform to the standard Oriya type. The +marriage pandal (booth) is generally covered with cocoanut leaves and +leafy twigs of Eugenia Jambolana and Zizyphus Jujuba. Four lights, +and a vessel of water, are kept on the dais throughout the marriage +ceremonies. The knot, with which the cloths of the bride and bridegroom +are tied together, is untied on the evening of the bibha (wedding) +day, instead of on the seventh day as among many other castes. + +Samanto.--A title of Jatapus, and other Oriya castes. + +Samaya.--In his 'Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola' in Mysore, +Mr. Lewis Rice refers to the Samaya as "Dasaris or Vaishnava religious +mendicants, invested with authority as censors of morals. No religious +ceremony or marriage could be undertaken without gaining their consent +by the payment of fees, etc. Under the former Rajas the office was +farmed out in all the large towns, and credited in the public accounts +as samayachara. An important part of the profits arose either from the +sale of women accused of incontinency, or from fines imposed on them +for the same reason. The unfortunate women were popularly known as +Sarkar (Government) wives." "The rules of the system," Wilks writes, +[142] "varied according to the caste of the accused. Among Brahmans +and Komatis, females were not sold, but expelled from their caste, +and branded on the arm as prostitutes. They then paid to the ijardar +(or contractor) an annual sum as long as they lived, and, when +they died, all their property became his. Females of other Hindu +castes were sold without any compunction by the ijardar, unless some +relative stepped forward to satisfy his demand. These sales were not, +as might be supposed, conducted by stealth, nor confined to places +remote from general observation; for, in the large town of Bangalore, +under the very eyes of the European inhabitants, a large building +was appropriated to the accommodation of these unfortunate women, +and, so late as 1833, a distinct proclamation of the Commissioners +was necessary to enforce the abolition of this detestable traffic." + +Samayamuvaru.--An itinerant class of mendicants attached to the +Sale caste. From a note by Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, I gather that they +say that the name is an abbreviation of Ranasamayamuvaru, or men of +the day of battle. According to a legend, when Bhavana Rishi, the +patron saint of the caste, was challenged to battle by Kalavasina, +a rakshasa, these people were created, and, with their assistance, +the rakshasa was conquered. In recognition of their services, Bhavana +Rishi made the Sales maintain them. They wander from place to place in +single families, and, when they reach a halting-place, dress up, and +visit the house of the Pedda Senapati (headman), who feeds them for +the day, and gives a chit (note) showing the amount paid by him. At +their visits to Sale houses, Bhavana Rishi is praised. They marry in +the presence of, and with the aid of the Sales. + +Samban.--Samban, meaning Samba or Siva, has been recorded as a +sub-division of Idaiyan and Paraiyan. At times of census, Sambuni Kapu +has been returned as the caste name by some Palle fishermen in Nellore. + +Sambandham.--Sambandham, meaning literally connexion, is "the term +used by the Nayars [and other castes] of South Malabar to denote that a +man and woman are united by a quasi-matrimonial bond." [143] In Act IV +of 1896, Madras, sambandham is defined as "an alliance between a man +and a woman, by reason of which they, in accordance with the custom +of the community, to which they belong, or either of them belongs, +cohabit or intend to cohabit as husband and wife." + +Same (millet: Panicum miliare).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Sami Puli (holy tiger).--An exogamous sept of Kallan. + +Sammathi Makkal (hammer-men).--An exogamous section of Kallan. + +Sammeraya.--A name for Telugu beggars employed as servants and +messengers by the heads of Lingayat mutts (religious institutions). It +is derived from samme, denoting confederacy or league, and denotes +those who are bound to the rules laid down by Lingayats. + +Samolo.--A title of Doluva. + +Sampige.--Sampige and Sampangi (champac: Michelia Champaca) have been +recorded as an exogamous sept of Kurni and Odde. Champac flowers are +used in the manufacture of temple garlands. + +Samudra.--Samudra, Samudram, or Samudrala, meaning the ocean, has been +recorded as an exogamous sept of Telugu Brahmans, Koravas, Kurubas, +Balijas, and Malas. The equivalent Tamudri occurs as the title of +the Zamorin, who is the sea-king or ruler of Calicut. + +Sani.--The Sanivallu, who are a Telugu dancing-girl caste, are +described, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as women who have not entered +into matrimony, gain money by prostitution, and acting as dancers at +feasts. Sani is also a title of the Oriya Doluvas in Ganjam, who are +said to be descended from Puri Rajas by their concubines. The streets +occupied by Sanis are, in Ganjam, known as Sani vidhi. I have heard of +missionaries, who, in consequence of this name, insist on their wives +being addressed as Ammagaru instead of by the customary name Dorasani. + +In a note on the Sanis of the Godavari district, Mr. F. R. Hemingway +writes as follows. "In this district, dancing-girls and prostitutes +are made up of six perfectly distinct castes, which are in danger +of being confused. These are the Sanis proper, Bogams, Dommara +Sanis, Turaka Sanis, Mangala Bogams, and Madiga Bogams. Of these, +the Bogams claim to be superior, and will not dance in the presence +of, or after a performance by any of the others. The Sanis do not +admit this claim, but they do not mind dancing after the Bogams, or +in their presence. All the other classes are admittedly inferior to +the Sanis and the Bogams. The Sanis would scorn to eat with any of +the other dancing castes. The Sani women are not exclusively devoted +to their traditional profession. Some of them marry male members +of the caste, and live respectably with them. The men do not, as +among the dancing castes of the south, assist in the dancing, or by +playing the accompaniments or forming a chorus, but are cultivators +and petty traders. Like the dancing-girls of the south, the Sanis +keep up their numbers by the adoption of girls of other castes. They +do service in the temples, but they are not required to be formally +dedicated or married to the god, as in the Tamil country. Those of +them who are to become prostitutes are usually married to a sword on +attaining puberty." + +Sani, meaning apparently cow-dung, occurs as a sub-division of the +Tamil Agamudaiyans. + +Sanjogi.--The Sanjogis are an Oriya class of religious mendicants, +who wear the sacred thread, and act as priests for Panos and other +lowly people. The name indicates connection, and that they are the +connecting link between ordinary people and those who have given up +earthly pleasures (Sanyasis). The Sanjogis follow the ordinary as +well as the ascetic life. Mr. G. Ramamurti Pantulu informs me that +they are believed to be the offspring of ascetics who have violated +their vow of celibacy, and women with whom they have lived. They make +and sell bead rosaries of the sacred tulsi or basil (Ocimum sanctum) +which are worn by various Oriya castes. Some are cultivators, while +others are beggars. A Sanjogi beggar goes about with a bell on the +thigh, and a coloured pot on the left shoulder. A few are employed +at Oriya maths (religious institutions), where it is their duty to +invite Bairagis and ascetics to a dinner party, and afterwards to +remove the leaf platters, and eat the food which is left. + +Sankati (ragi or millet pudding).--An exogamous sept of Boya. Ragi +is the staple dietary of many of the lower classes, who cannot +afford rice. + +Sanku.--Sanku, the conch or chank (Turbinella rapa) has been +recorded as a sub-division of Dasaris, Koppala Velamas, and +Paraiyans who act as conch-blowers at funerals, and as an exogamous +sept of Kuruba. Sankukatti, or those who tie the chank, occurs as a +sub-division of Idaiyan. The chank shell, which is regularly collected +by divers off Tuticorin in the Tinnevelly district, is highly prized by +Hindus, and used for offering libations, and as a musical instrument +at temple services, marriages, and other ceremonials. Vaishnavites +and Madhvas are branded with the emblems of the chank and chakram. The +rare right-handed chank shell is specially valued, and purchased for +large sums. A legend, recorded by Baldæus, runs to the effect that +"Garroude (Garuda) flew in all haste to Brahma, and brought to Kistna +the chianko or kinkhorn twisted to the right". Such a shell appears on +the coat-of-arms of the Raja of Cochin and on the coins of Travancore. + +Sanno (little).--A sub-division of Bottada, Omanaito, Pentiya, +and Sondi. + +Sanror.--A synonym of Shanans, who claim that Shanan is derived from +Sanror, meaning the learned or noble. + +Santarasi.--An exogamous sept of Dandasi. The members thereof may +not use mats made of the sedge of this name. + +Santha (a fair).--An exogamous sept of Devanga and Odde. + +Santo.--A sub-division of Oriya Brahmans and Bhayipuos. + +Sanyasi.--"A Sanyasi is literally a man who has forsaken all, and +who has renounced the world and leads a life of celibacy, devoting +himself to religious meditation and abstraction, and to the study +of holy books. He is considered to have attained a state of exalted +piety that places him above most of the restrictions of caste and +ceremony. His is the fourth Asrama or final stage of life recommended +for the three higher orders. ["Having performed religious acts in a +forest during the third portion of his life, let him become a Sanyasi, +for the fourth portion of it, abandoning all sensual affection." [144]] +The number of Brahman Sanyasis is very small; they are chiefly the +Gurus or High Priests of the different sects. These are, as a rule, +men of learning, and heads of monasteries, where they have a number of +disciples under instruction and training for religious discussion. They +are supported entirely by endowments and the contributions of their +disciples. They undertake periodical tours for the purpose of receiving +the offerings of their followers. Since the Sanyasi is considered to +be above all sin, and to have acquired sufficient merit for salvation, +no sradha is performed by the children born to him before he became +an anchorite. [The skull of a Sanyasi is broken after death, as a +guarantee of his passage to eternal bliss. Cf. Gosayi.] The corpse +of a Sanyasi is buried, and never burnt, or thrown into the river. + +"The majority of the Sanyasis found, and generally known as such, +are a class of Sudra devotees, who live by begging, and pretend to +powers of divination. They wear garments coloured with red ochre, +and allow the hair to grow unshorn. They often have settled abodes, +but itinerate. Many are married, and their descendants keep up the +sect, and follow the same calling." [145] + +Sapiri.--A synonym of Relli. + +Sappaliga.--It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that +"in some taluks of South Canara they are said to be identical with, +or a sub-caste of Ganiga." The Ganigas are a Canarese caste, of which +the traditional occupation is oil-pressing. In the Manual of the South +Canara district, it is recorded that "Sappaligs appear to be identical +with the Devadigas (temple musicians) in North Canara, though they +are regarded as distinct castes in South Canara. The Sappaligs are, +as the name sappal (noise) implies, a class of musicians in temples, +but a number of them are cultivators." Sappaliga is an occupational +term. The musicians among the Tulu Moger fishing caste are called +Sappaligas, in the same way that those Mogers who are engaged as +oil-pressers are called Ganigas, both being occupational names. + +Sara (thread).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Saragu (dried or withered leaves).--A sub-division of Valaiyan. + +Sarangulu.--Recorded, in the Nellore district, as being sailors. The +name is doubtless equivalent to Serang, which has been defined [146] +as meaning "a native boatswain, or chief of a lascar crew; the skipper +of a small native vessel." + +Sarattu (sacred thread).--A sub-division of Kanakkan, members of +which wear the sacred thread. + +Sarayi (alcoholic liquor).--A sub-division of Balija. + +Sarige (lace).--The name of a class of gold-lace makers in Mysore, +and of an exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Sastri.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Sastri (one learned in +the shastras) is described as "unrecognizable. The word is used as a +title by Smarta Brahmans in the Madras Presidency, but the persons +returning it came from Bombay, and were not Brahmans." Sastri is +recorded in my notes as a title of Devangas. + +Satani.--The Satanis are described in the Madras Census Report, +1891, as "a class of temple servants very much like the Malis of +Bengal. The word Satani is a corrupt form of Sattadavan, which, +literally means one who does not wear (the sacred thread and tuft +of hair). For temple services Ramanuja classed Vaishnavites into +Sattinavan and Sattadavan. The former are invariably Brahmans, +and the latter Sudras. Hence Satani is the professional name given +to a group of the Vaishnava creed. It is sometimes stated that the +Satanis of the Madras Presidency are the disciples of the famous +Bengali reformer Chaitanya (15th century), from whom, they say, the +term Satani took its origin. But, so far as I can ascertain, this +supposition rests on no better foundation than the similarity in sound +of the two names, and it seems to me more than doubtful. There is no +evidence of Chaitanya having ever preached in the Dravidian country, +and the tenets of the Satanis of this Presidency differ widely from +those of the followers of Chaitanya. The former worship only Krishna, +while the latter venerate Vishnu in the form of Narayana also. The +Satanis, too, have as much reverence for Ramanuja as the followers of +Chaitanya have towards their guru, who is said to be an incarnation +of Krishna. With regard to their religion, it will suffice to say that +they are Tengalai Vaishnavites. They shave their heads completely, and +tie their lower cloth like a Brahman bachelor. In their ceremonies they +more or less follow the Brahmans, but the sacred thread is not worn +by them. Though the consumption of alcoholic liquor and animal food +is strictly prohibited, they practice both to a considerable extent on +all festive occasions, and at sradhs. Drinking and other excesses are +common. Some Satanis bury the dead, and others burn them. The principal +occupations of Satanis are making garlands, carrying the torches during +the god's procession, and sweeping the temple floor. They also make +umbrellas, flower baskets and boxes of palmyra leaves, and prepare +the sacred balls of white clay (for making the Vaishnavite sectarian +mark), and saffron powder. Their usual agnomen is Aiya." + +In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Satanis are summed up as +being "a Telugu caste of temple servants supposed to have come +into existence in the time of the great Vaishnavite reformer Sri +Ramanujacharya (A.D. 1100). The principal endogamous sub-divisions +of this caste are (1) Ekakshari, (2) Chaturakshari, (3) Ashtakshari, +and (4) Kulasekhara. The Ekaksharis (eka, one, and akshara, syllable) +hope to get salvation by reciting the one mystic syllable Om; the +Chaturaksharis believe in the religious efficacy of the four syllables +Ra-ma-nu-ja; the Ashtaksharis hold that the recitation of the eight +syllables Om-na-mo-na-ra-ya-na-ya (Om! salutation to Narayana) +will ensure them eternal bliss; and the Kulasekharas, who wear the +sacred thread, claim to be the descendants of the Vaishnava saint +Kulasekhara Alvar, formerly a king of the Kerala country. The first +two sections make umbrellas, flower garlands, etc., and are also +priests to Balijas and other Sudra castes of the Vaishnava sects, +while the members of the other two have taken to temple service. In +their social and religious customs, all the sub-divisions closely +imitate the Tengalai Vaishnava Brahmans. The marriage of girls after +puberty, and the remarriage of widows, are strictly prohibited. Most +of them employ Brahman purohits, but latterly they have taken to +getting priests from their own caste. They attach no importance to +the Sanskrit Vedas, or to the ritual sanctioned therein, but revere +the sacred hymns of the twelve Vaishnava saints or Alvars, called +Nalayira Prabandham (book of the four thousand songs), which is in +Tamil. From this their purohits recite verses during marriages and +other ceremonies." At the census, 1901, Ramanuja was returned as +a sub-caste of Satani. In the Manual of the North Arcot district, +Mr. H. A. Stuart describes the Satanis as "a mixed religious sect, +recruited from time to time from other castes, excepting Paraiyans, +leather-workers, and Muhammadans. All the Satanis are Vaishnavites, +but principally revere Bashyakar (another name for Ramanuja), whom they +assert to have been an incarnation of Vishnu. The Satanis are almost +entirely confined to the large towns. Their legitimate occupations are +performing menial services in Vishnu temples, begging, tending flower +gardens, selling flower garlands, making fans, grinding sandalwood +into powder, and selling perfumes. They are the priests of some Sudra +castes, and in this character correspond to the Saivite Pandarams." + +In the Census Report, 1871, the Satanis are described as being +"frequently religious mendicants, priests of inferior temples, +minstrels, sellers of flowers used as offerings, etc., and have +probably recruited their numbers by the admission into their ranks +of individuals who have been excommunicated from higher castes. As a +matter of fact, many prostitutes join this sect, which has a recognised +position among the Hindus. This can easily be done by the payment of +certain fees, and by eating in company with their co-religionists. And +they thus secure for themselves decent burial with the ceremonial +observances necessary to ensure rest to the soul." + +In the Mysore Census Report, 1891, it is noted that Satanis are +also styled Khadri Vaishnavas, Sattadaval, Chatali, Kulasekhara, +and Sameraya. These names, however, seem to have pricked their +amour propre in the late census, and they took considerable pains +not only to cast them off, but also to enrol themselves as Prapanna +Vaishnavas, Nambi, Venkatapura Vaishnavas, etc. The idea of being +tabulated as Sudras was so hateful to them that, in a few places, the +enumerators, who had so noted down their caste according to precedent, +were prosecuted by them for defamation. The cases were of course thrown +out. Further, the Mysore Census Superintendent, 1901, writes that "the +sub-divisions of the Satanis are Khadri Vaishnavas, Natacharamurti, +Prathama Vaishnava, Sameraya or Samogi, Sankara, Suri, Sattadhava, +Telugu Satani, and Venkatapurada. Some are employed in agriculture, +but as a rule they are engaged in the service of Vishnu temples, +and are flower-gatherers, torch-bearers, and strolling minstrels." + +The Satanis are also called Dasa Nambis. They are flesh-eaters, +but some have now become pure vegetarians. There are, for example, +at Srivilliputtur in the Tinnevelly district, a large number who have +abandoned a meat dietary. They are connected with the temple of Andal, +and supply flowers and tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) leaves for worship, +carry torches before the goddess during processions, and watch the +gate of the temple during the night. The small income which they +derive from the temple is supplemented by the manufacture and sale of +palmyra leaf baskets, and umbrellas made from Pandanus leaves. As a +class, the Satanis are given to liquor, and all important ceremonial +occasions are made the excuse for copious potations. This weakness is +so well known that, in the north of the Presidency, the term Ramanuja +Matham is used to denote the consumption of meat and drink at death or +sradh ceremonies, just as Saivam signifies vegetarianism. The Satani +mendicant can be recognised by the peculiar flat gourd-shaped brass pot +and palm leaf fan which he carries. The Satanis claim to have sprung +from the sweat of Virat Purusha (lord of the universe). The following +legend is told, as accounting for the removal of the kudumi (tuft of +hair on the head), and wearing the cloth without a fold behind. In +the time of Ramanuja, the Satanis enjoyed certain privileges in the +temples, but, not satisfied with these, they claimed to take rank next +to Brahmans. This privilege was accorded, and, when flowers and other +things used in the worship of the god were to be distributed, they +were handed over to the Satanis. They, however, were unable to decide +who should be deputed to represent the community, each person decrying +the others as being of low caste. Ramanuja accordingly directed that +they should shave their heads, and wear their loin-cloths with a fold +in front only. + +In addition to other occupations already noted, Satanis sell +turmeric, coloured powders, and sacred balls of white clay used by +Vaishnavites. Some act as priests to Balijas and Komatis, at whose +death ceremonies the presence of a Satani is essential. Immediately +after death, the Satani is summoned, and he puts sect marks on +the corpse. At the grave, cooked food is offered, and eaten by the +Satani and members of the family of the deceased. On the last day of +the death ceremonies (karmandiram), the Satani comes to the house +of the dead person late in the evening, bringing with him certain +idols, which are worshipped with offerings of cooked rice, flesh, +and liquor in jars. The food is distributed among those present, +and the liquor is doled out from a spoon called parikam, or a broom +dipped in the liquor, which is drunk as it drips therefrom. + +Satani women dress just like Vaishnava Brahman women, from whom it +is difficult to distinguish them. In former days, the Satanis used to +observe a festival called ravikala (bodice) utchavam, which now goes +by the name of gandapodi (sandal powder) utchavam. The festival, as +originally carried out, was a very obscene rite. After the worship +of the god by throwing sandal powder, etc., the Satanis returned +home, and indulged in copious libations of liquor. The women threw +their bodices into vessel, and they were picked out at random by the +men. The woman whose bodice was thus secured became the partner of +the man for the day. + +For the following note on Satanis in the Vizagapatam district, I am +indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. Satani is said to be the shortened +form of Saththadavan, the uncovered man. They are prohibited from +covering three different parts of their bodies, viz., the head with +the usual tuft of hair, the body with the sacred thread, and the waist +with the customary strip of cloth. All devout Satanis shave their +heads completely. [There is a proverb "Tie a knot on the Satani's +tuft of hair, and on the ascetic's holy thread." The Satanis shave +the whole head, and the Sanyasis have no sacred thread.] [147] The +caste is divided into exogamous septs, or intiperulu. The custom of +menarikam, according to which a man marries his maternal uncle's +daughter, is observed. The remarriage of widows and divorce are +not allowed. Attempts have been made by some members of the caste, +in other parts of the Madras Presidency, to connect themselves with +Chaitanya. But, so far as the Vizagapatam district is concerned, +this is repudiated. They are Ramanuja Vaishnavas of the Tenkalai +persuasion. Their gurus are known as Paravasthuvaru--a corruption of +Paravasu Deva, whose figure is on the vimana of the Srirangam temple, +and who must be visited before entering the principal sanctuary. They +live at Gumsur in Ganjam, and have Sadacharulu, or ever-devout +followers, who act as their agents in Vizagapatam. They brand the +shoulders of Satanis with the Vaishnavite emblems, the sankha and +chakra, and initiate them into the mysteries of the Vaishnava religion +by whispering into their ears the word Ramanuja. The Satani learns by +heart various songs in eulogy of Srirangam and its deity, by means +of which he earns his living. He rises in the early morning, and, +after a bath, adorns his forehead and body with the Vaishnavite namam, +ties round his clean-shaved head a string of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) +beads known as thirupavithram, puts a tulsi garland round his neck, +and takes a fan called gajakarnam, or elephant's ear, in his right +hand. In his left hand he carries a copper gourd-shaped vessel. He +is generally accompanied by another Satani similarly got up. When +begging, they sing the songs referred to above, and collect the rice +which is given to them in their vessels. At the end of their round +they return home, and their wives clean the rice, bow down before +it, and cook it. No portion of the rice obtained by begging should +be sold for money. The Satanis play an important part in the social +life of the Vaishnavites of the district, and are the gurus of some +of the cultivating and other classes. They preside at the final +death ceremonies of the non-Brahman Vaishnavite castes. They burn +their dead, and perform the chinna (little) and pedda rozu (big day) +death ceremonies. + +Sathu.--A synonym, meaning a company of merchants or travellers, +of Perike and Janappan. + +Saurashtra.--A synonym of the Patnulkarans, derived from the Saurashtra +country, whence they came southward. They also style themselves +Saurashtra Brahmans. + +Savalaikkaran.--A Tamil name for fishermen, who fish in the +sea. Savalai or saval thadi is the flattened paddle used for rowing +boats. The Savalaikkarans are more akin to the Pallis or Vanniyans +than to the Sembadavans. Though a large number are agriculturists, +some play on the nagasaram (reed instrument). In the Tinnevelly +district, where Melakkarans are scarce, the temple musicians are either +Savalaikkarans or Panisavans. The agricultural Savalaikkarans use the +title Padayachi, and the musicians the title Annavi. Their marriages +last three days, and the milk-post is made of teak-wood. Widow +remarriage is prohibited. The dead are always buried. Socially they +are on a par with the Maravans, with whom they interdine. + +Savali.--A synonym of Budubudike. + +Savantiya.--A synonym of Samantiya. + +Savara.--The Savaras, Sawaras, or Saoras, are an important +hill-tribe in Ganjam and Vizagapatam.The name is derived by +General Cunningham from the Scythian sagar, an axe, in reference +to the axe which they carry in their hands. In Sanskrit, sabara or +savara means a mountaineer, barbarian, or savage. The tribe has +been identified by various authorities with the Suari of Pliny +and Sabarai of Ptolemy. "Towards the Ganges," the latter writes, +"are the Sabarai, in whose country the diamond is found in great +abundance." This diamond-producing country is located by Cunningham +near Sambalpur in the Central Provinces. In one of his grants, +Nandivarma Pallavamalla, a Pallava king, claims to have released +the hostile king of the Sabaras, Udayana by name, and captured his +mirror-banner made of peacock's feathers. The Rev. T. Foulkes [148] +identifies the Sabaras of this copper-plate grant with the Savaras of +the eastern ghats. But Dr. E. Hultzsch, who has re-edited the grant, +[149] is of opinion that these Sabaras cannot be identified with +the Savaras. The Aitareya Brahmana of the Rig-veda makes the Savaras +the descendants of the sons of Visvamitra, who were cursed to become +impure by their father for an act of disobedience, while the Ramayana +describes them as having emanated from the body of Vasishta's cow to +fight against the sage Visvamitra. + +The language of the Savaras is included by Mr. G. A. Grierson [150] +in the Munda family. It has, he writes, "been largely influenced by +Telugu, and is no longer an unmixed form of speech. It is most closely +related to Kharia and Juang, but in some characteristics differs from +them, and agrees with the various dialects of the language which has +in this (linguistic) survey been described under the denomination +of Kherwari." + +The Savaras are described by Mr. F. Fawcett [151] as being much more +industrious than the Khonds. "Many a time," he writes, "have I tried +to find a place for an extra paddy (rice) field might be made, but +never with success. It is not too much to say that paddy is grown on +every available foot of arable ground, all the hill streams being +utilized for this purpose. From almost the very tops of the hills, +in fact from wherever the springs are, there are paddy fields; at the +top of every small area a few square yards, the front perpendicular +revetment [of large masses of stones] sometimes as large in area +as the area of the field; and larger and larger, down the hillside, +taking every advantage of every available foot of ground there are +fields below fields to the bottoms of the valleys. The Saoras show +remarkable engineering skill in constructing their paddy fields, and +I wish I could do it justice. They seem to construct them in the most +impossible places, and certainly at the expense of great labour. Yet, +with all their superior activity and industry, the Saoras are decidedly +physically inferior to the Khonds. It seems hard the Saoras should +not be allowed to reap the benefit of their industry, but must give +half of it to the parasitic Bissoyis and their retainers. The greater +part of the Saoras' hills have been denuded of forest owing to the +persistent hacking down of trees for the purpose of growing dry crops, +so much so that, in places, the hills look almost bare in the dry +weather. Nearly all the jungle (mostly sal, Shorea robusta) is cut +down every few years. When the Saoras want to work a piece of new +ground, where the jungle has been allowed to grow for a few years, +the trees are cut down, and, when dry, burned, and the ground is +grubbed up by the women with a kind of hoe. The hoe is used on the +steep hill sides, where the ground is very stony and rocky, and the +stumps of the felled trees are numerous, and the plough cannot be +used. In the paddy fields, or on any flat ground, they use ploughs +of lighter and simpler make than those used in the plains. They use +cattle for ploughing." It is noted by Mr. G. V. Ramamurti Pantulu, +in an article on the Savaras, that "in some cases the Bissoyi, +who was originally a feudatory chief under the authority of the +zemindar, and in other cases the zemindar claims a fixed rent in +kind or cash, or both. Subject to the rents payable to the Bissoyis, +the Savaras under them are said to exercise their right to sell or +mortgage their lands. Below the ghats, in the plains, the Savara has +lost his right, and the mustajars or the renters to whom the Savara +villages are farmed out take half of whatever crops are raised by the +Savaras." Mr. Ramamurti states further that a new-comer should obtain +the permission of the Gomongo (headman) and the Boya before he can +reclaim any jungle land, and that, at the time of sale or mortgage, +the village elders should be present, and partake of the flesh of the +pig sacrificed on the occasion. In some places, the Savaras are said to +be entirely in the power of Paidi settlers from the plains, who seize +their entire produce on the plea of debts contracted at a usurious +rate of interests. In recent years, some Savaras emigrated to Assam +to work in the tea-gardens. But emigration has now stopped by edict. + +The sub-divisions among the Savaras, which, so far as I can gather, +are recognised, are as follows:-- + +A.--Hill Savaras. + +(1) Savara, Jati Savara (Savaras par excellence), or Maliah +Savara. They regard themselves as superior to the other divisions. They +will eat the flesh of the buffalo, but not of the cow. + +(2) Arsi, Arisi, or Lombo Lanjiya. Arsi means monkey, and Lombo +Lanjiya, indicating long-tailed, is the name by which members of this +section are called, in reference to the long piece of cloth, which +the males allow to hang down. The occupation is said to be weaving +the coarse cloths worn by members of the tribe, as well as agriculture. + +(3) Luara or Muli. Workers in iron, who make arrow heads, and other +articles. + +(4) Kindal. Basket-makers, who manufacture rough baskets for holding +grain. + +(5) Jadu. Said to be a name among the Savaras for the hill country +beyond Kollakota and Puttasingi. + +(6) Kumbi. Potters who make earthen pots. "These pots," Mr. Fawcett +writes, "are made in a few villages in the Saora hills. Earthen +vessels are used for cooking, or for hanging up in houses as fetishes +of ancestral spirits or certain deities." + +B.--Savaras of the low country. + +(7) Kapu (denoting cultivator), or Pallapu. + +(8) Suddho (good). + +It has been noted that the pure Savara tribes have restricted +themselves to the tracts of hill and jungle-covered valleys. But, +as the plains are approached, traces of amalgamation become apparent, +resulting in a hybrid race, whose appearance and manners differ but +little from those of the ordinary denizens of the low country. The +Kapu Savaras are said to retain many of the Savara customs, whereas +the Suddho Savaras have adopted the language and customs of the Oriya +castes. The Kapu section is sometimes called Kudunga or Baseng, and the +latter name is said by Mr. Ramamurti to be derived from the Savara word +basi, salt. It is, he states, applied to the plains below the ghats, +as, in the fairs held there, salt is purchased by the Savaras of the +hills, and the name is used to designate the Savaras living there. A +class name Kampu is referred to by Mr. Ramamurti, who says that the +name "implies that the Savaras of this class have adopted the customs +of the Hindu Kampus (Oriya for Kapu). Kudumba is another name by which +they are known, but it is reported that there is a sub-division of them +called by this name." He further refers to Bobbili and Bhima as the +names of distinct sub-divisions. Bobbili is a town in the Vizagapatam +district, and Bhima was the second of the five Pandava brothers. + +In an account of the Maliya Savarulu, published in the 'Catalogue +Raisonné of Oriental Manuscripts,' [152] it is recorded that "they +build houses over mountain torrents, previously throwing trees across +the chasms; and these houses are in the midst of forests of fifty +or more miles in extent. The reason of choosing such situations is +stated to be in order that they may more readily escape by passing +underneath their houses, and through the defile, in the event of +any disagreement and hostile attack in reference to other rulers or +neighbours. They cultivate independently, and pay tax or tribute +to no one. If the zemindar of the neighbourhood troubles them for +tribute, they go in a body to his house by night, set it on fire, +plunder, and kill; and then retreat, with their entire households, +into the wilds and fastnesses. They do in like manner with any of the +zemindar's subordinates, if troublesome to them. If they are courted, +and a compact is made with them, they will then abstain from any wrong +or disturbance. If the zemindar, unable to bear with them, raise +troops and proceed to destroy their houses, they escape underneath +by a private way, as above mentioned. The invaders usually burn the +houses, and retire. If the zemindar forego his demands, and make an +agreement with them, they rebuild their houses in the same situations, +and then render assistance to him." + +The modern Savara settlement is described by Mr. Fawcett as having +two rows of huts parallel and facing each other. "Huts," he writes, +"are generally built of upright pieces of wood stuck in the ground, +6 or 8 inches apart, and the intervals filled in with stones and mud +laid alternately, and the whole plastered over with red mud. Huts are +invariably built a few feet above the level of the ground, often, when +the ground is very uneven, 5 feet above the ground in front. Roofs are +always thatched with grass. There is usually but one door, near one +end wall; no windows or ventilators, every chink being filled up. In +front of the doorway there is room for six or eight people to stand, +and there is a loft, made by cross-beams, about 5 feet from the floor, +on which grain is stored in baskets, and under which the inmates +crawl to do their cooking. Bits of sun-dried buffalo meat and bones, +not smelling over-sweet, are suspended from the rafters, or here and +there stuck in between the rafters and the thatch; knives, a tangi +(battle-axe), a sword, and bows and arrows may also be seen stuck in +somewhere under the thatch. Agricultural implements may be seen, too, +small ones stuck under the roof or on the loft, and larger ones against +the wall. As in Ireland, the pig is of sufficient importance to have +a room in the house. There is generally merely a low wall between the +pig's room and the rest of the house, and a separate door, so that it +may go in and out without going through that part of the house occupied +by the family. Rude drawings are very common in Saora houses. They +are invariably, if not always, in some way that I could never clearly +apprehend, connected with one of the fetishes in the house." "When," +Mr. Ramamurti writes, "a tiger enters a cottage and carries away +an inmate, the villages are deserted, and sacrifices are offered to +some spirits by all the inhabitants. The prevalence of small-pox in +a village requires its abandonment. A succession of calamities leads +to the same result. If a Savara has a number of wives, each of them +sometimes requires a separate house, and the house sites are frequently +shifted according to the caprice of the women. The death or disease +of cattle is occasionally followed by the desertion of the house." + +When selecting a site for a new dwelling hut, the Maliah Savaras place +on the proposed site as many grains of rice in pairs as there are +married members in the family, and cover them over with a cocoanut +shell. They are examined on the following day, and, if they are all +there, the site is considered auspicious. Among the Kapu Savaras, +the grains of rice are folded up in leaflets of the bael tree (Ægle +Marmelos), and placed in split bamboo. + +It is recorded by Mr. Fawcett, in connection with the use of the +duodecimal system by the Savaras that, "on asking a Gomango how +he reckoned when selling produce to the Panos, he began to count +on his fingers. In order to count 20, he began on the left foot +(he was squatting), and counted 5; then with the left hand 5 more; +then with the two first fingers of the right hand he made 2 more, +i.e., 12 altogether; then with the thumb of the right hand and the +other two fingers of the same, and the toes of the right foot he made 8 +more. And so it was always. They have names for numerals up to 12 only, +and to count 20 always count first twelve and then eight in the manner +described, except that they may begin on either hand or foot. To count +50 or 60, they count by twenties, and put down a stone or some mark +for each twenty. There is a Saora story accounting for their numerals +being limited to 12. One day, long ago, some Saoras were measuring +grain in a field, and, when they had measured 12 measures of some +kind, a tiger pounced in on them and devoured them. So, ever after, +they dare not have a numeral above 12, for fear of a tiger repeating +the performance." + +The Savaras are described by Mr. Fawcett as "below the middle height; +face rather flat; lips thick; nose broad and flat; cheek bones high; +eyes slightly oblique. They are as fair as the Uriyas, and fairer +than the Telugus of the plains. Not only is the Saora shorter and +fairer than other hill people, but his face is distinctly Mongolian, +the obliquity of the eyes being sometimes very marked, and the inner +corners of the eyes are generally very oblique. [The Mongolian type +is clearly brought out in the illustration.] The Saora's endurance +in going up and down hill, whether carrying heavy loads or not, +is wonderful. Four Saoras have been known to carry a 10-stone man +in a chair straight up a 3,800 feet hill without relief, and without +rest. Usually, the Saora's dress (his full dress) consists of a large +bunch of feathers (generally white) stuck in his hair on the crown +of his head, a coloured cloth round his head as a turban, and worn +much on the back of the head, and folded tightly, so as to be a good +protection to the head. When feathers are not worn, the hair is tied +on the top of the head, or a little at the side of it. A piece of +flat brass is another head ornament. It is stuck in the hair, which +is tied in a knot at the crown of the head, at an angle of about 40° +from the perpendicular, and its waving up and down motion as a man +walks has a curious effect. Another head ornament is a piece of wood, +about 8 or 9 inches in length and 3/4 inch in diameter, with a flat +button about 2 inches in diameter on the top, all covered with hair +or coloured thread, and worn in the same position as the flat piece +of brass. A peacock's feather, or one or two of the tail feathers +of the jungle cock, may be often seen stuck in the knot of hair on +the top of the head. A cheroot or two, perhaps half smoked, may +often be seen sticking in the hair of a man or woman, to be used +again when wanted. They also smoke pipes, and the old women seem +particularly fond of them. Round the Saora's neck are brass and bead +necklaces. A man will wear as many as thirty necklaces at a time, +or rather necklaces of various lengths passed as many as thirty times +round his neck. Round the Saora's waist, and under his fork, is tied a +cloth with coloured ends hanging in front and behind. When a cloth on +the body is worn, it is usually worn crossed in front. The women wear +necklaces like the men. Their hair is tied at the back of the head, +and is sometimes confined with a fillet. They wear only one cloth, tied +round the waist. During feasts, or when dancing, they generally wear +a cloth over the shoulders. Every male wears a small ring, generally +of silver, in the right nostril, and every female wears a similar ring +in each nostril, and in the septum. As I have been told, these rings +are put in the nose on the eighth or tenth day after birth. Bangles +are often worn by men and women. Anklets, too, are sometimes worn by +the women. Brass necklets and many other ornaments are made in Saora +hills by the Gangsis, a low tribe of workers in brass. The Saora's +weapons are the bow, sometimes ornamented with peacock's feathers, +sword, dagger, and tangi. The bow used by the Saoras is much smaller +than the bow used by any of the other hill people. It is generally +about 3 1/2 feet long, and the arrows from 18 to 21 inches. The bow +is always made of bamboo, and so is the string. The arrows are reeds +tipped with iron, and leathered on two sides only. A blunt-headed +arrow is used for shooting birds. Every Saora can use the bow from +boyhood, and can shoot straight up to 25 or 30 yards." + +As regards the marriage customs of the Savaras, Mr. Fawcett writes that +"a Saora may marry a woman of his own or of any other village. A man +may have as many as three wives, or, if he is a man of importance, +such as Gomango of a large village, he may have four. Not that there +is any law in the matter, but it is considered that three, or at +most four, are as many as a man can manage. For his first marriage, +a man chooses a young woman he fancies; his other wives are perhaps +her sisters, or other women who have come to him. A woman may leave +her husband whenever she pleases. Her husband cannot prevent her. When +a woman leaves her husband to join herself to another, the other pays +the husband she has left a buffalo and a pig. Formerly, it is said, +if he did not pay up, the man she left would kill the man to whom she +went. Now arbitration comes into play. I believe a man usually takes +a second wife after his first has had a child; if he did so before, +the first wife would say he was impotent. As the getting of the +first wife is more troublesome and expensive than getting the others, +she is treated the best. In some places, all a man's wives are said +to live together peaceably. It is not the custom in the Kolakotta +villages. Knowing the wives would fight if together, domestic felicity +is maintained by keeping up different establishments. A man's wives +will visit one another in the daytime, but one wife will never spend +the night in the house of another. An exception to this is that the +first wife may invite one of the other wives to sleep in her house +with the husband. As each wife has her separate house, so has she her +separate piece of ground on the hill-side to cultivate. The wives will +not co-operate in working each other's cultivation, but they will work +together, with the husband, in the paddy fields. Each wife keeps the +produce of the ground she cultivates in her own house. Produce of the +paddy fields is divided into equal shares among the wives. If a wife +will not work properly, or if she gives away anything belonging to +her husband, she may be divorced. Any man may marry a divorced woman, +but she must pay to her former husband a buffalo and a pig. If a man +catches his wife in adultery (he must see her in the act), he thinks he +has a right to kill her, and her lover too. But this is now generally +(but not always) settled by arbitration, and the lover pays up. A wife +caught in adultery will never be retained as a wife. As any man may +have as many as three wives, illicit attachments are common. During +large feasts, when the Saoras give themselves up to sensuality, +there is no doubt a great deal of promiscuous intercourse. A widow +is considered bound to marry her husband's brother, or his brother's +sons if he has no younger brothers. A number of Saoras once came to me +to settle a dispute. They were in their full dress, with feathers and +weapons. The dispute was this. A young woman's husband was dead, and +his younger brother was almost of an age to take her to wife. She had +fixed her affections on a man of another village, and made up her mind +to have him and no one else. Her village people wanted compensation +in the shape of a buffalo, and also wanted her ornaments. The men of +the other village said no, they could not give a buffalo. Well, they +should give a pig at least--no, they had no pig. Then they must give +some equivalent. They would give one rupee. That was not enough--at +least three rupees. They were trying to carry the young woman off +by force to make her marry her brother-in-law, but were induced to +accept the rupee, and have the matter settled by their respective +Bissoyis. The young woman was most obstinate, and insisted on having +her own choice, and keeping her ornaments. Her village people had no +objection to her choice, provided the usual compensation was paid. + +"In one far out-of-the-way village the marriage ceremony consists +in this. The bride's father is plied with liquor two or three times; +a feast is made in the bridegroom's house, to which the bride comes +with her father; and after the feast she remains in the man's house +as his wife. They know nothing of capture. In the Kolakotta valley, +below this village, a different custom prevails. The following is +an account of a Saora marriage as given by the Gomango of one of the +Kolakotta villages, and it may be taken as representative of the purest +Saora marriage ceremony. 'I wished to marry a certain girl, and, with +my brother and his son, went to her house. I carried a pot of liquor, +and arrow, and one brass bangle for the girl's mother. Arrived at +the house, I put the liquor and the arrow on the floor. I and the +two with me drank the liquor--no one else had any. The father of the +girl said 'Why have you brought the liquor?' I said 'Because I want +your daughter.' He said 'Bring a big pot of liquor, and we will talk +about it.' I took the arrow I brought with me, and stuck it in the +thatch of the roof just above the wall, took up the empty pot, and +went home with those who came with me. Four days afterwards, with the +same two and three others of my village, I went to the girl's father's +house with a big pot of liquor. About fifteen or twenty people of +the village were present. The father said he would not give the girl, +and, saying so, he smashed the pot of liquor, and, with those of his +village, beat us so that we ran back to our village. I was glad of the +beating, as I know by it I was pretty sure of success. About ten days +afterwards, ten or twenty of my village people went with me again, +carrying five pots of liquor, which we put in the girl's father's +house. I carried an arrow, which I stuck in the thatch beside the +first one. The father and the girl's nearest male relative each took +one of the arrows I had put in the thatch, and, holding them in their +left hands, drank some of the liquor. I now felt sure of success. I +then put two more arrows in the father's left hand, holding them in +his hand with both of my hands over his, and asked him to drink. Two +fresh arrows were likewise placed in the left hands of all the girl's +male relatives, while I asked them to drink. To each female relative +of the girl I gave a brass bangle, which I put on their right wrists +while I asked them to drink. The five pots of liquor were drunk by +the girl's male and female relations, and the villagers. When the +liquor was all drunk, the girl's father said 'Come again in a month, +and bring more liquor.' In a month I went again, with all the people +of my village, men, women and children, dancing as we went (to music +of course), taking with us thirty pots of liquor, and a little rice +and a cloth for the girl's mother; also some hill dholl (pulse), +which we put in the father's house. The liquor was set down in the +middle of the village, and the villagers, and those who came with me, +drank the liquor and danced. The girl did not join in this; she was +in the house. When the liquor was finished, my village people went +home, but I remained in the father's house. For three days I stayed, +and helped him to work in his fields. I did not sleep with the girl; +the father and I slept in one part of the house, and the girl and her +mother in another. At the end of the three days I went home. About +ten days afterwards, I, with about ten men of my village, went to +watch for the girl going to the stream for water. When we saw her, +we caught her, and ran away with her. She cried out and the people of +her village came after us, and fought with us. We got her off to my +village, and she remained with me as my wife. After she became my wife, +her mother gave her a cloth and a bangle." The same individual said +that, if a man wants a girl, and cannot afford to give the liquor, +etc., to her people, he takes her off by force. If she likes him, +she remains, but, if not, she runs home. He will carry her off three +times, but not oftener; and, if after the third time she again runs +away, he leaves her. The Saoras themselves say that formerly every +one took his wife by force. In a case which occurred a few years ago, +a bridegroom did not comply with the usual custom of giving a feast +to the bride's people, and the bride's mother objected to the marriage +on that account. The bridegroom's party, however, managed to carry off +the bride. Her mother raised an alarm, whereon a number of people ran +up, and tried to stop the bridegroom's party. They were outnumbered, +and one was knocked down, and died from rupture of the spleen. + +A further account of the Saora marriage customs is given by +Mr. Ramamurti Pantulu, who writes as follows. "When the parents of +a young man consider it time to seek a bride for him, they make +enquiries and even consult their relatives and friends as to a +suitable girl for him. The girl's parents are informally apprised of +their selection. On a certain day, the male relatives of the youth +go to the girl's house to make a proposal of marriage. Her parents, +having received previous notice of the visit, have the door of the +house open or closed, according as they approve or disapprove of +the match. On arrival at the house, the visitors knock at the door, +and, if it is open, enter without further ceremony. Sometimes the +door is broken open. If the girl's parents object to the match, they +remain silent, and will not touch the liquor brought by the visitors, +and they go away. Should, however, they regard it with favour, they +charge the visitors with intruding, shower abuse on them, and beat +them, it may be, so severely that wounds are inflicted, and blood is +shed. This ill-treatment is borne cheerfully, and without resistance, +as it is a sign that the girl's hand will be bestowed on the young +man. The liquor is then placed on the floor, and, after more abuse, +all present partake thereof. If the girl's parents refuse to give +her in marriage after the performance of this ceremony, they have +to pay a penalty to the parents of the disappointed suitor. Two or +three days later, the young man's relatives go a second time to the +girl's house, taking with them three pots of liquor, and a bundle +composed of as many arrows as there are male members in the girl's +family. The liquor is drunk, and the arrows are presented, one to each +male. After an interval of some days, a third visit is paid, and three +pots of liquor smeared with turmeric paste, and a quantity of turmeric, +are taken to the house. The liquor is drunk, and the turmeric paste +is smeared over the back and haunches of the girl's relatives. Some +time afterwards, the marriage ceremony takes place. The bridegroom's +party proceed to the house of the bride, dancing and singing to +the accompaniment of all the musical instruments except the drum, +which is only played at funerals. With them they take twenty big +pots of liquor, a pair of brass bangles and a cloth for the bride's +mother, and head cloths for the father, brothers, and other male +relatives. When everything is ready, the priest is called in. One of +the twenty pots is decorated, and an arrow is fixed in the ground at +its side. The priest then repeats prayers to the invisible spirits +and ancestors, and pours some of the liquor into leaf-cups prepared +in the names of the ancestors [Jojonji and Yoyonji, male and female], +and the chiefs of the village. This liquor is considered very sacred, +and is sprinkled from a leaf over the shoulders and feet of the +elders present. The father of the bride, addressing the priest, says +'Boya, I have drunk the liquor brought by the bridegroom's father, +and thereby have accepted his proposal for a marriage between his son +and my daughter. I do not know whether the girl will afterwards agree +to go to her husband, or not. Therefore it is well that you should ask +her openly to speak out her mind.' The priest accordingly asks the girl +if she has any objection, and she replies 'My father and mother, and +all my relatives have drunk the bridegroom's liquor. I am a Savara, and +he is a Savara. Why then should I not marry him?' Then all the people +assembled proclaim that the pair are husband and wife. This done, the +big pot of liquor, which has been set apart from the rest, is taken +into the bride's house. This pot, with another pot of liquor purchased +at the expense of the bride's father, is given to the bridegroom's +party when it retires. Every house-holder receives the bridegroom +and his party at his house, and offers them liquor, rice, and flesh, +which they cannot refuse to partake of without giving offence." + +"Whoever," Mr. Ramamurti continues, "marries a widow, whether it is her +husband's younger brother or some one of her own choice, must perform a +religious ceremony, during which a pig is sacrificed. The flesh, with +some liquor, is offered to the ghost of the widow's deceased husband, +and prayers are addressed by the Boyas to propitiate the ghost, so +that it may not torment the woman and her second husband. 'Oh! man,' +says the priest, addressing the deceased by name, 'Here is an animal +sacrificed to you, and with this all connection between this woman +and you ceases. She has taken with her no property belonging to +you or your children. So do not torment her within the house or +outside the house, in the jungle or on the hill, when she is asleep +or when she wakes. Do not send sickness on her children. Her second +husband has done no harm to you. She chose him for her husband, and he +consented. Oh! man, be appeased; Oh! unseen ones; Oh! ancestors, be you +witnesses.' The animal sacrificed on this occasion is called long danda +(inside fine), or fine paid to the spirit of a dead person inside the +earth. The animal offered up, when a man marries a divorced woman, +is called bayar danda (outside fine), or fine paid as compensation +to a man living outside the earth. The moment that a divorcée marries +another man, her former husband pounces upon him, shoots his buffalo +or pig dead with an arrow, and takes it to his village, where its +flesh is served up at a feast. The Boya invokes the unseen spirits, +that they may not be angry with the man who has married the woman, +as he has paid the penalty prescribed by the elders according to the +immemorial custom of the Savaras. + +From a still further account of the ceremonial observances in +connection with marriage, with variations, I gather that the liquor +is the fermented juice of the salop or sago palm (Caryota urens), +and is called ara-sal. On arrival at the girl's house, on the +first occasion, the young man's party sit at the door thereof, and, +making three cups from the leaves kiredol (Uncaria Gambier) or jak +(Artocarpus integrifolia), pour the liquor into them, and lay them on +the ground. As the liquor is being poured into the cups, certain names, +which seem to be those of the ancestors, are called out. The liquor +is then drunk, and an arrow (am) is stuck in the roof, and a brass +bangle (khadu) left, before the visitors take their departure. If the +match is unacceptable to the girl's family, the arrow and bangle are +returned. The second visit is called pank-sal, or sang-sang-dal-sol, +because the liquor pots are smeared with turmeric paste. Sometimes +it is called nyanga-dal-sol, because the future bridegroom carries +a small pot of liquor on a stick borne on the shoulder; or pojang, +because the arrow, which has been stuck in the roof, is set up in the +ground close to one of the pots of liquor. In some places, several +visits take place subsequent to the first visit, at one of which, +called rodai-sal, a quarrel arises. + +It is noted by Mr. Ramamurti Pantulu that, among the Savaras who +have settled in the low country, some differences have arisen in +the marriage rites "owing to the introduction of Hindu custom, i.e., +those obtaining among the Sudra castes. Some of the Savaras who are +more Hinduised than others consult their medicine men as to what +day would be most auspicious for a marriage, erect pandals (booths), +dispense with the use of liquor, substituting for it thick jaggery +(crude sugar) water, and hold a festival for two or three days. But +even the most Hinduised Savara has not yet fallen directly into the +hands of the Brahman priest." At the marriage ceremony of some Kapu +Savaras, the bride and bridegroom sit side by side at the auspicious +moment, and partake of boiled rice (korra) from green leaf-cups, the +pair exchanging cups. Before the bridegroom and his party proceed to +their village with the bride, they present the males and females of +her village with a rupee, which is called janjul naglipu, or money paid +for taking away the girl. In another form of Kapu Savara marriage, the +would-be bridegroom and his party proceed, on an auspicious day, to the +house of the selected girl, and offer betel and tobacco, the acceptance +of which is a sign that the match is agreeable to her parents. On a +subsequent day, a small sum of money is paid as the bride-price. On +the wedding day the bride is conducted to the home of the bridegroom, +where the contracting couple are lifted up by two people, who dance +about with them. If the bride attempts to enter the house, she is +caught hold of, and made to pay a small sum of money before she is +permitted to do so. Inside the house, the officiating Desari ties +the ends of the cloths of the bride and bridegroom together, after +the ancestors and invisible spirits have been worshipped. + +Of the marriage customs of the Kapu Savaras, the following account +is given in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district. "The Kapu +Savaras are taking to menarikam (marriage with the maternal uncle's +daughter), although the hill custom requires a man to marry outside +his village. Their wedding ceremonies bear a distant resemblance to +those among the hill Savaras. Among the Kapu Savaras, the preliminary +arrow and liquor are similarly presented, but the bridegroom goes at +length on an auspicious day with a large party to the bride's house, +and the marriage is marked by his eating out of the same platter with +her, and by much drinking, feasting, and dancing." + +Children are named after the day of the week on which they were +born, and nicknames are frequently substituted for the birth +name. Mr. Fawcett records, for example, that a man was called Gylo +because, when a child, he was fond of breaking nuts called gylo, and +smearing himself with their black juice. Another was called Dallo +because, in his youthful days, he was fond of playing about with a +basket (dalli) on his head. + +Concerning the death rites, Mr. Fawcett writes as follows. "As soon +as a man, woman, or child dies in a house, a gun, loaded with powder +only, is fired off at the door, or, if plenty of powder is available, +several shots are fired, to frighten away the Kulba (spirit). The +gun used is the ordinary Telugu or Uriya matchlock. Water is poured +over the body while in the house. It is then carried away to the +family burning-ground, which is situated from 30 to 80 yards from the +cluster of houses occupied by the family, and there it is burned. [It +is stated by Mr. S. P. Rice [153] that "the dead man's hands and feet +are tied together, and a bamboo is passed through them. Two men then +carry the corpse, slung in this fashion, to the burning-ground. When +it is reached, two posts are stuck up, and the bamboo, with the +corpse tied to it, is placed crosswise on the posts. Then below the +corpse a fire is lighted. The Savara man is always burnt in the +portion of the ground--one cannot call it a field--which he last +cultivated."] The only wood used for the pyre is that of the mango, +and of Pongamia glabra. Fresh, green branches are cut and used. No +dry wood is used, except a few twigs to light the fire. Were any one +to ask those carrying a body to the burning-ground the name of the +deceased or anything about him, they would be very angry. Guns are +fired while the body is being carried. Everything a man has, his bows +and arrows, his tangi, his dagger, his necklaces, his reaping-hook +for cutting paddy, his axe, some paddy and rice, etc., are burnt with +his body. I have been told in Kolakotta that all a man's money too is +burned, but it is doubtful if it really ever is--a little may be. A +Kolakotta Gomango told me "If we do not burn these things with the +body, the Kulba will come and ask us for them, and trouble us." The +body is burned the day a man dies. The next day, the people of the +family go to the burning-place with water, which they pour over the +embers. The fragments of the bones are then picked out, and buried +about two feet in the ground, and covered over with a miniature hut, +or merely with some thatching grass kept on the place by a few logs +of wood, or in the floor of a small hut (thatched roof without walls) +kept specially for the Kulba at the burning-place. An empty egg-shell +(domestic hen's) is broken under foot, and buried with the bones. It +is not uncommon to send pieces of bone, after burning, to relations +at a distance, to allow them also to perform the funeral rites. The +first sacrificial feast, called the Limma, is usually made about +three or four days after the body has been burnt. In some places, +it is said to be made after a longer interval. For the Limma a fowl +is killed at the burning-place, some rice or other grain is cooked, +and, with the fowl, eaten by the people of the family, with the usual +consumption of liquor. Of course, the Kudang (who is the medium of +communication between the spirits of the dead and the living) is on +the spot, and communicates with the Kulba. If the deceased left debts, +he, through the Kudang, tells how they should be settled. Perhaps +the Kulba asks for tobacco and liquor, and these are given to the +Kudang, who keeps the tobacco, and drinks the liquor. After the +Limma, a miniature hut is built for the Kulba over the spot where +the bones are buried. But this is not done in places like Kolakotta, +where there is a special hut set apart for the Kulba. In some parts +of the Saora country, a few logs with grass on the top of them, logs +again on the top to keep the grass in its place, are laid over the +buried fragments of bones, it is said to be for keeping rain off, +or dogs from disturbing the bones. In the evening previous to the +Limma, bitter food--the fruits or leaves of the margosa tree (Melia +Azadirachta)--are eaten. They do not like this bitter food, and partake +of it at no other time. [The same custom, called pithapona, or bitter +food, obtains among the Oriya inhabitants of the plains.] After the +Limma, the Kulba returns to the house of the deceased, but it is +not supposed to remain there always. The second feast to the dead, +also sacrificial, is called the Guar. For this, a buffalo, a large +quantity of grain, and all the necessary elements and accompaniments +of a feast are required. It is a much larger affair than the Limma, +and all the relations, and perhaps the villagers, join in. The evening +before the Guar, there is a small feast in the house for the purpose +of calling together all the previously deceased members of the family, +to be ready for the Guar on the following day. The great feature of +the Guar is the erection of a stone in memory of the deceased. From 50 +to 100 yards (sometimes a little more) from the houses occupied by a +family may be seen clusters of stones standing upright in the ground, +nearly always under a tree. Every one of the stones has been put up +at one of these Guar feasts. There is a great deal of drinking and +dancing. The men, armed with all their weapons, with their feathers +in their hair, and adorned with coloured cloths, accompanied by the +women, all dancing as they go, leave the house for the place where +the stones are. Music always accompanies the dancing. At Kolakotta +there is another thatched hut for the Kulba at the stones. The stone +is put up in the deceased's name at about 11 A.M., and at about 2 +P.M. a buffalo is killed close to it. The head is cut off with an +axe, and blood is put on the stone. The stones one sees are generally +from 1 1/2 to 4 feet high. There is no connection between the size +of the stone and the importance of the deceased person. As much of +the buffalo meat as is required for the feast is cooked, and eaten +at the spot where the stones are. The uneaten remains are taken away +by the relatives. In the evening the people return to the village, +dancing as they go. The Kolakotta people told me they put up the +stones under trees, so that they can have all their feasting in +the shade. Relations exchange compliments by presenting one another +with a buffalo for the Guar feast, and receive one in return on a +future occasion. The Guar is supposed to give the Kulba considerable +satisfaction, and it does not injure people as it did before. But, as +the Guar does not quite satisfy the Kulba, there is the great biennial +feast to the dead. Every second year (I am still speaking of Kolakotta) +is performed the Karja or biennial feast to the dead, in February +or March, after the crops are cut. All the Kolakotta Saoras join in +this feast, and keep up drinking and dancing for twelve days. During +these days, the Kudangs eat only after sunset. Guns are continually +fired off, and the people give themselves up to sensuality. On the +last day, there is a great slaughter of buffaloes. In front of every +house in which there has been a death in the previous two years, at +least one buffalo, and sometimes two or three, are killed. Last year +(1886) there were said to be at least a thousand buffaloes killed in +Kolakotta on the occasion of the Karja. The buffaloes are killed in the +afternoon. Some grain is cooked in the houses, and, with some liquor, +is given to the Kudangs, who go through a performance of offering the +food to the Kulbas, and a man's or a woman's cloth, according as the +deceased is a male or female, is at this time given to the Kudang for +the Kulba of each deceased person, and of course the Kudang keeps the +offerings. The Kudang then tells the Kulba to begone, and trouble the +inmates no more. The house people, too, sometimes say to the Kulba +'We have now done quite enough for you: we have given you buffaloes, +liquor, food, and cloths; now you must go'. At about 8 P.M., the house +is set fire to, and burnt. Every house, in which there has been a death +within the last two years, is on this occasion burnt. After this, +the Kulba gives no more trouble, and does not come to reside in the +new hut that is built on the site of the burnt one. It never hurts +grown people, but may cause some infantile diseases, and is easily +driven away by a small sacrifice. In other parts of the Saora country, +the funeral rites and ceremonies are somewhat different to what they +are in Kolakotta. The burning of bodies, and burning of the fragments +of the bones, is the same everywhere in the Saora country. In one +village the Saoras said the bones were buried until another person +died, when the first man's bones were dug up and thrown away, and the +last person's bones put in their place. Perhaps they did not correctly +convey what they meant. I once saw a gaily ornamented hut, evidently +quite new, near a burning-place. Rude figures of birds and red rags +were tied to five bamboos, which were sticking up in the air about +8 feet above the hut, one at each corner, and one in the centre, +and the bamboos were split, and notched for ornament. The hut was +about 4 1/2 feet square, on a platform three feet high. There were +no walls, but only four pillars, one at each corner, and inside +a loft just as in a Saora's hut. A very communicative Saora said +he built the hut for his brother after he had performed the Limma, +and had buried the bones in the raised platform in the centre of the +hut. He readily went inside, and showed what he kept there for the +use of his dead brother's Kulba. On the loft were baskets of grain, +a bottle of oil for his body, a brush to sweep the hut; in fact +everything the Kulba wanted. Generally, where it is the custom to +have a hut for the Kulba, such hut is furnished with food, tobacco, +and liquor. The Kulba is still a Saora, though a spiritual one. In a +village two miles from that in which I saw the gaily ornamented hut, +no hut of any kind is built for the Kulba; the bones are merely covered +with grass. Weapons, ornaments, etc., are rarely burned with a body +outside the Kolakotta villages. In some places, perhaps one weapon, +or a few ornaments will be burned with it. In some places the Limma +and Guar feasts are combined, and in other places (and this is most +common) the Guar and Karja are combined, but there is no burning +of houses. In some places this is performed if crops are good. One +often sees, placed against the upright stones to the dead, pieces +of ploughs for male Kulbas, and baskets for sifting grain for female +Kulbas. I once came across some hundreds of Saoras performing the Guar +Karja. Dancing, with music, fantastically dressed, and brandishing +their weapons, they returned from putting up the stones to the village, +and proceeded to hack to pieces with their axes the buffaloes that +had been slaughtered--a disgusting sight. After dark, many of the +feasters passed my camp on their way home, some carrying legs and other +large pieces of the sacrificed buffaloes, others trying to dance in a +drunken way, swinging their weapons. During my last visit to Kolakotta, +I witnessed a kind of combination of the Limma and Guar (an uncommon +arrangement there) made owing to peculiar circumstances. A deceased +Saora left no family, and his relatives thought it advisable to get +through his Limma and Guar without delay, so as to run no risk of the +non-performance of these feasts. He had been dead about a month. The +Limma was performed one day, the feast calling together the deceased +ancestors the same evening; and the Guar on the following day. Part of +the Limma was performed in a house. Three men, and a female Kudang sat +in a row; in front of them there was an inverted pot on the ground, +and around it were small leaf cups containing portions of food. All +chanted together, keeping excellent time. Some food in a little leaf +cup was held near the earthen pot, and now and then, as they sang, +passed round it. Some liquor was poured on the food in the leaf cup, +and put on one side for the Kulba. The men drank liquor from the leaf +cups which had been passed round the earthen pot. After some silence +there was a long chant, to call together all spirits of ancestors +who had died violent deaths, and request them to receive the spirit +of the deceased among them; and portions of food and liquor were put +aside for them. Then came another long chant, calling on the Kulbas +of all ancestors to come, and receive the deceased and not to be +angry with him." + +It is stated [154] that, in the east of Gunupur, the Savaras commit +much cattle theft, partly, it is said, because custom enjoins big +periodical sacrifices of cattle to their deceased ancestors. In +connection with the Guar festival, Mr. Ramamurti Pantulu writes that +well-to-do individuals offer each one or two animals, while, among +the poorer members of the community, four or five subscribe small sums +for the purchase of a buffalo, and a goat. "There are," he continues, +"special portions of the sacrificed animals, which should, according +to custom, be presented to those that carried the dead bodies to +the grave, as well as to the Boya and Gomong. If a man is hanged, +a string is suspended in the house on the occasion of the Guar, so +that the spirit may descend along it. If a man dies of wounds caused +by a knife or iron weapon, a piece of iron or an arrow is thrust into +a rice-pot to represent the deceased." I gather further that, when a +Savara dies after a protracted illness, a pot is suspended by a string +from the roof of the house. On the ground is placed a pot, supported on +three stones. The pots are smeared with turmeric paste, and contain a +brass box, chillies, rice, onions, and salt. They are regarded as very +sacred, and it is believed that the ancestors sometimes visit them. + +Concerning the religion of the Savaras, Mr. Fawcett notes that their +name for deity is Sonnum or Sunnam, and describes the following:-- + +(1) Jalia. In some places thought to be male, and in others female. The +most widely known, very malevolent, always going about from one Saora +village to another causing illness or death; in some places said to eat +people. Almost every illness that ends in death in three or four days +is attributed to Jalia's malevolence. When mangoes ripen, and before +they are eaten cooked (though they may be eaten raw), a sacrifice of +goats, with the usual drinking and dancing, is made to this deity. In +some villages, in the present year (1887), there were built for +the first time, temples--square thatched places without walls--in +the villages. The reason given for building in the villages was that +Jalia had come into them. Usually erections are outside villages, and +sacrifice is made there, in order that Jalia may be there appeased, and +go away. But sometimes he will come to a village, and, if he does, it +is advisable to make him comfortable. One of these newly built temples +was about four feet square, thatched on the top, with no walls, just +like the hut for departed spirits. A Saora went inside, and showed +us the articles kept for Jalia's use and amusement. There were two +new cloths in a bamboo box, two brushes of feathers to be held in the +hand when dancing, oil for the body, a small looking-glass, a bell, +and a lamp. On the posts were some red spots. Goats are killed close +by the temple, and the blood is poured on the floor of the platform +thereof. There are a few villages, in or near which there are no +Jalia erections, the people saying that Jalia does not trouble them, +or that they do not know him. In one village where there was none, +the Saoras said there had been one, but they got tired of Jalia, +and made a large sacrifice with numerous goats and fowls, burnt his +temple, and drove him out. Jalia is fond of tobacco. Near one village +is an upright stone in front of a little Jalia temple, by a path-side, +for passers-by to leave the ends of their cheroots on for Jalia. + +(2) Kitung. In some parts there is a story that this deity produced +all the Saoras in Orissa, and brought them with all the animals of +the jungles to the Saora country. In some places, a stone outside the +village represents this deity, and on it sacrifices are made on certain +occasions to appease this deity. The stone is not worshipped. There +are also groves sacred to this deity. The Uriyas in the Saora hills +also have certain sacred groves, in which the axe is never used. + +(3) Rathu. Gives pains in the neck. + +(4) Dharma Boja, Lankan (above), Ayungang (the sun). The first name is, +I think, of Uriya origin, and the last the real Saora name. There is +an idea in the Kolakotta country that it causes all births. This deity +is not altogether beneficent, and causes sickness, and may be driven +away by sacrifices. In some villages, this deity is almost the only +one known. A Saora once told me, on my pointing to Venus and asking +what it was, that the stars are the children of the sun and moon, and +one day the sun said he would eat them all up. Woman-like, the moon +protested against the destruction of her progeny, but was obliged to +give in. She, however, managed to hide Venus while the others were +being devoured. Venus was the only planet he knew. In some parts, +the sun is not a deity. + +(5) Kanni. Very malevolent. Lives in big trees, so they are never +cut in groves which this deity is supposed to haunt. I frequently +saw a Saora youth of about 20, who was supposed to be possessed by +this deity. He was an idiot, who had fits. Numerous buffaloes had +been sacrificed to Kanni, to induce that deity to leave the youth, +but to no purpose. + +"There are many hill deities known in certain localities--Derema, +supposed to be on the Deodangar hill, the highest in the neighbourhood, +Khistu, Kinchinyung, Ilda, Lobo, Kondho, Balu, Baradong, etc. These +deities of the hills are little removed from the spirits of the +deceased Saoras. [Mr. Ramamurti Pantulu refers to two hills, one at +Gayaba called Jum-tang Baru, or eat cow hill, and the other about +eight miles from Parlakimedi, called Media Baru. At the former, a cow +or bull is sacrificed, because a Kuttung once ate the flesh of a cow +there; at the latter the spirits require only milk and liquor. This +is peculiar, as the Savaras generally hold milk in abhorrence.]" + +"There is invariably one fetish, and generally there are several +fetishes in every Saora house. In some villages, where the sun is the +chief deity (and causes most mischief), there are fetishes of the sun +god; in another village, fetishes of Jalia, Kitung, etc. I once saw +six Jalia fetishes, and three other fetishes in one house. There are +also, especially about Kolakotta, Kulba fetishes in houses. The fetish +is generally an empty earthen pot, about nine inches in diameter, +slung from the roof. The Kudang slings it up. On certain occasions, +offerings are made to the deity or Kulba represented by the fetish +on the floor underneath it. Rude pictures, too, are sometimes +fetishes. The fetish to the sun is generally ornamented with a rude +pattern daubed in white on the outside. In the village of Bori in the +Vizagapatam Agency, offerings are made to the sun fetish when a member +of the household gets pains in the legs or arms, and the fetish is +said on such occasion to descend of itself to the floor. Sacrifices +are sometimes made inside houses, under the fetishes, sometimes at +the door, and blood put on the ground underneath the fetish." + +It is noted by Mr. Ramamurti Pantulu that "the Kittungs are ten +in number, and are said to be all brothers. Their names are Bhima, +Rama, Jodepulu, Peda, Rung-rung, Tumanna, Garsada, Jaganta, Mutta, +and Tete. On some occasions, ten figures of men, representing the +Kittungs, are drawn on the walls of a house. Figures of horses and +elephants, the sun, moon and stars, are also drawn below them. The +Boya is also represented. When a woman is childless, or when her +children die frequently, she takes a vow that the Kittungpurpur +ceremony shall be celebrated, if a child is born to her, and grows +in a healthy state. If this comes to pass, a young pig is purchased, +and marked for sacrifice. It is fattened, and allowed to grow till +the child reaches the age of twelve, when the ceremony is performed. + +The Madras Museum possesses a series of wooden votive offerings +which were found stacked in a structure, which has been described to +me as resembling a pigeon-cot. The offerings consisted of a lizard +(Varanus), paroquet, monkey, peacock, human figures, dagger, gun, +sword, pick-axe, and musical horn. The Savaras would not sell them +to the district officer, but parted with them on the understanding +that they would be worshipped by the Government. + +I gather that, at the sale or transfer of land, the spirits are invoked +by the Boya, and, after the distribution of liquor, the seller or +mortgager holds a pipal (Ficus religiosa) leaf with a lighted wick +in it in his hand, while the purchaser or mortgagee holds another +leaf without a wick. The latter covers the palm of the former with +his leaf, and the terms of the transaction are then announced. + +Concerning the performance of sacrifices, Mr. Fawcett writes that +"the Saoras say they never practiced human sacrifice. Most Saora +sacrifices, which are also feasts, are made to appease deities or +Kulbas that have done mischief. I will first notice the few which do +not come in this category. (a) The feast to Jalia when mangoes ripen, +already mentioned, is one. In a village where the sun, and not Jalia, +is the chief deity, this feast is made to the sun. Jalia does not +trouble the village, as the Kudung meets him outside it now and +then, and sends him away by means of a sacrifice. [Sacrifices and +offerings of pigs or fowls, rice, and liquor, are also made at the +mahua, hill grain, and red gram festivals.] (b) A small sacrifice, +or an offering of food, is made in some places before a child is +born. About Kolakotta, when a child is born, a fowl or a pound or so +of rice, and a quart of liquor provided by the people of the house, +will be taken by the Kudang to the jungle, and the fowl sacrificed +to Kanni. Blood, liquor, and rice are left in leaf cups for Kanni, +and the rest is eaten. In every paddy field in Kolakotta, when the +paddy is sprouting, a sacrifice is made to Sattira for good crops. A +stick of the tree called in Uriya kendhu, about five or six feet +long, is stuck in the ground. The upper end is sharpened to a point, +on which is impaled a live young pig or a live fowl, and over it an +inverted earthen pot daubed over with white rings. If this sacrifice +is not made, good crops cannot be expected. [It may be noted that +the impaling of live pigs is practiced in the Telugu country.] [155] +When crops ripen, and before the grain is eaten, sacrifice is made +to Lobo (the earth). Lobo Sonnum is the earth deity. If they eat the +grain without performing this sacrifice, it will disagree with them, +and will not germinate properly when sown again. If crops are good, +a goat is killed, if not good, a pig or a fowl. A Kolakotta Saora told +me of another sacrifice, which is partly of a propitiatory nature. If +a tiger or panther kills a person, the Kudang is called, and he, +on the following Sunday, goes through a performance, to prevent +a similar fate overtaking others. Two pigs are killed outside the +village, and every man, woman, and child is made to walk over the +ground whereon the pig's blood is spilled, and the Kudang gives to +each individual some kind of tiger medicine as a charm. The Kudang +communicates with the Kulba of the deceased, and learns the whole +story of how he met his death. In another part of the Saora country, +the above sacrifice is unknown; and, when a person is killed by a tiger +or panther, a buffalo is sacrificed to the Kulba of the deceased three +months afterwards. The feast is begun before dark, and the buffalo +is killed the next morning. No medicine is used. Of sacrifices after +injury is felt, and in order to get rid of it, that for rain may be +noticed first. The Gomango, another important man in the village, +and the Kudang officiate. A pig and a goat are killed outside the +village to Kitung. The blood must flow on the stone. Then liquor and +grain are set forth, and a feast is made. About Kolakotta the belief +in the active malevolence of Kulbas is more noticeable than in other +parts, where deities cause nearly all mischief. Sickness and death are +caused by deities or Kulbas, and it is the Kudang who ascertains which +particular spirit is in possession of, or has hold of any sick person, +and informs him what is to be done in order to drive it away. He +divines in this way usually. He places a small earthen saucer, with +a little oil and lighted wick in it, in the patient's hand. With his +left hand he holds the patient's wrist, and with his right drops from +a leaf cup grains of rice on to the flame. As each grain drops, he +calls out the name of different deities, and Kulbas, and, whichever +spirit is being named as a grain catches fire, is that causing the +sickness. The Kudang is at once in communication with the deity or +Kulba, who informs him what must be done for him, what sacrifice made +before he will go away. There is, in some parts of the Saora country, +another method by which a Kudang divines the cause of sickness. He +holds the patient's hand for a quarter of an hour or so, and goes +off in a trance, in which the deity or Kulba causing the sickness +communicates with the Kudang, and says what must be done to appease +him. The Kudang is generally, if not always, fasting when engaged in +divination. If a deity or Kulba refuses to go away from a sick person, +another more powerful deity or Kulba can be induced to turn him out. + +A long account of a big sacrifice is given by Mr. Fawcett, of which +the following is a summary. The Kudang was a lean individual of about +40 or 45, with a grizzled beard a couple of inches in length. He +had a large bunch of feathers in his hair, and the ordinary Saora +waist-cloth with a tail before and behind. There were tom-toms with +the party. A buffalo was tied up in front of the house, and was to be +sacrificed to a deity who had seized on a young boy, and was giving him +fever. The boy's mother came out with some grain, and other necessaries +for a feed, in a basket on her head. All started, the father of the +boy carrying him, a man dragging the buffalo along, and the Kudang +driving it from behind. As they started, the Kudang shouted out some +gibberish, apparently addressed to the deity, to whom the sacrifice +was to be made. The party halted in the shade of some big trees. They +said that the sacrifice was to the road god, who would go away by the +path after the sacrifice. Having arrived at the place, the woman set +down her basket, the men laid down their axes and the tom-toms, and a +fire was lighted. The buffalo was tied up 20 yards off on the path, +and began to graze. After a quarter of an hour, the father took the +boy in his lap as he sat on the path, and the Kudang's assistant sat +on his left with a tom-tom before him. The Kudang stood before the +father on the path, holding a small new earthen pot in his hand. The +assistant beat the tom-tom at the rate of 150 beats to the minute. The +Kudang held the earthen pot to his mouth, and, looking up to the sun +(it was 9 A.M.), shouted some gibberish into it, and then danced round +and round without leaving his place, throwing up the pot an inch or so, +and catching it with both hands, in perfect time with the tom-tom, +while he chanted gibberish for a quarter of an hour. Occasionally, +he held the pot up to the sun, as if saluting it, shouted into it, and +passed it round the father's head and then round the boy's head, every +motion in time with the tom-tom. The chant over, he put down the pot, +and took up a toy-like bow and arrow. The bow was about two feet long, +through which was fixed an arrow with a large head, so that it could be +pulled only to a certain extent. The arrow was fastened to the string, +so that it could not be detached from the bow. He then stuck a small +wax ball on to the point of the arrow head, and, dancing as before, +went on with his chant accompanied by the tom-tom. Looking up at +the sun, he took aim with the bow, and fired the wax ball at it. He +then fired balls of wax, and afterwards other small balls, which the +Uriyas present said were medicine of some kind, at the boy's head, +stomach, and legs. As each ball struck him, he cried. The Kudang, +still chanting, then went to the buffalo, and fired a wax ball at +its head. He came back to where the father was sitting, and, putting +down the bow, took up two thin pieces of wood a foot long, an inch +wide, and blackened at the ends. The chant ceased for a few moments +while he was changing the bow for the pieces of wood, but, when he +had them in his hands, he went on again with it, dancing round as +before, and striking the two pieces of wood together in time. This +lasted about five minutes, and, in the middle of the dance, he put +an umbrella-like shade on his head. The dance over, he went to the +buffalo, and stroked it all over with the two pieces of wood, first +on the head, then on the body and rump, and the chant ceased. He then +sat in front of the boy, put a handful of common herbs into the earthen +pot, and poured some water into it. Chanting, he bathed the boy's head +with the herbs and water, the father's head, the boy's head again, +and then the buffalo's head, smearing them with the herbs. He blew +into one ear of the boy, and then into the other. The chant ceased, +and he sat on the path. The boy's father got up, and, carrying the +boy, seated him on the ground. Then, with an axe, which was touched +by the sick boy, he went up to the buffalo, and with a blow almost +buried the head of the axe in the buffalo's neck. He screwed the axe +about until he disengaged it, and dealt a second and a third blow +in the same place, and the buffalo fell on its side. When it fell, +the boy's father walked away. As the first blow was given, the Kudang +started up very excited as if suddenly much overcome, holding his arms +slightly raised before him, and staggered about. His assistant rushed +at him, and held him round the body, while he struggled violently as +if striving to get to the bleeding buffalo. He continued struggling +while the boy's father made his three blows on the buffalo's neck. The +father brought him some of the blood in a leaf cup, which he greedily +drank, and was at once quiet. Some water was then given him, and he +seemed to be all right. After a minute or so, he sat on the path with +the tom-tom before him, and, beating it, chanted as before. The boy's +father returned to the buffalo, and, with a few more whacks at it, +stopped its struggles. Some two or three men joined him, and, +with their axes and swords, soon had the buffalo in pieces. All +present, except the Kudang, had a good feed, during which the tom-tom +ceased. After the feed, Kudang went at it again, and kept it up at +intervals for a couple of hours. He once went for 25 minutes at 156 +beats to the minute without ceasing. + +A variant of the ceremonial here described has been given to me by +Mr. G. F. Paddison from the Gunapur hills. A buffalo is tied up to +the door of the house, where the sick person resides. Herbs and rice +in small platters, and a little brass vessel containing toddy, balls +of rice, flowers, and medicine, are brought with a bow and arrow. The +arrow is thicker at the basal end than towards the tip. The narrow +part goes, when shot, through a hole in the bow, too small to allow +of passage of the rest of the arrow. The Beju (wise woman) pours toddy +over the herbs and rice, and daubs the sick person over the forehead, +breasts, stomach, and back. She croons out a long incantation to +the goddess, stopping at intervals to call out "Daru," to attract +her attention. She then takes the bow and arrow, and shoots into the +air. She then stands behind the kneeling patient, and shoots balls +of medicine stuck on the tip of the arrow at her. The construction +of the arrow is such that the balls are dislodged from the tip of the +arrow. The patient is thus shot at all over the body, which is bruised +by the impact of the balls. Afterwards the Beju shoots one or two balls +at the buffalo, which is taken to a path forming the village boundary, +and killed with a tangi (axe). The patient is then daubed with blood +of the buffalo, rice and toddy. A feast concludes the ceremonial. + +The following account of a sacrifice to Rathu, who had given fever +to the sister of the celebrant Kudang, is given by Mr. Fawcett. "The +Kudang was squatting, facing west, his fingers in his ears, and +chanting gibberish with continued side-shaking of his head. About +two feet in front of him was an apparatus made of split bamboo. A +young pig had been killed over it, so that the blood was received in a +little leaf cup, and sprinkled over the bamboo work. The Kudang never +ceased his chant for an hour and a half. While he was chanting, some +eight Saoras were cooking the pig with some grain, and having a good +feed. Between the bamboo structure and the Kudang were three little +leaf cups, containing portions of the food for Rathu. A share of the +food was kept for the Kudang, who when he had finished his chant, +got up and ate it. Another performance, for which some dried meat +of a buffalo that had been sacrificed a month previously was used, +I saw on the same day. Three men, a boy, and a baby, were sitting +in the jungle. The men were preparing food, and said that they were +about to do some reverence to the sun, who had caused fever to some +one. Portions of the food were to be set out in leaf cups for the +sun deity." + +It is recorded by Mr. Ramamurti Pantulu that, when children are +seriously ill and become emaciated, offerings are made to monkeys and +blood-suckers (lizards), not in the belief that illness is caused by +them, but because the sick child, in its emaciated state, resembles +an attenuated figure of these animals. Accordingly, a blood-sucker +is captured, small toy arrows are tied round its body, and a piece of +cloth is tied on its head. Some drops of liquor are then poured into +its mouth, and it is set at liberty. In negotiating with a monkey, +some rice and other articles of food are placed in small baskets, +called tanurjal, which are suspended from branches of trees in the +jungle. The Savaras frequently attend the markets or fairs held +in the plains at the foot of the ghats to purchase salt and other +luxuries. If a Savara is taken ill at the market or on his return +thence, he attributes the illness to a spirit of the market called +Biradi Sonum. The bulls, which carry the goods of the Hindu merchants +to the market, are supposed to convey this spirit. In propitiating +it, the Savara makes an image of a bull in straw, and, taking it +out of his village, leaves it on the foot-path after a pig has been +sacrificed to it. + +"Each group of Savaras," Mr. Ramamurti writes, "is under the government +of two chiefs, one of whom is the Gomong (or great man) and the other, +his colleague in council, is the Boya, who not only discharges, in +conjunction with the Gomong, the duties of magistrate, but also holds +the office of high priest. The offices of these two functionaries are +hereditary, and the rule of primogeniture regulates succession, subject +to the principle that incapable individuals should be excluded. The +presence of these two officers is absolutely necessary on occasions +of marriages and funerals, as well as at harvest festivals. Sales +and mortgages of land and liquor-yielding trees, partition and +other dispositions of property, and divorces are effected in the +council of village elders, presided over by the Gomong and Boya, by +means of long and tedious proceedings involving various religious +ceremonies. All cases of a civil and criminal nature are heard +and disposed of by them. Fines are imposed as a punishment for all +sorts of offences. These invariably consist of liquor and cattle, +the quantity of liquor and the number of animals varying according +to the nature of the offence. The murder of a woman is considered +more heinous than the murder of a man, as woman, being capable of +multiplying the race, is the more useful. A thief, while in the +act of stealing, may be shot dead. It is always the man, and not +the woman, that is punished for adultery. Oaths are administered, +and ordeals prescribed. Until forty or fifty years ago, it is said +that the Savara magistrate had jurisdiction in murder cases. He +was the highest tribunal in the village, the only arbitrator in +all transactions among the villagers. And, if any differences arose +between his men and the inhabitants of a neighbouring village, for +settling which it was necessary that a battle should be fought, the +Gomong became the commander, and, leading his men, contested the cause +with all his might. These officers, though discharging such onerous +and responsible duties, are regarded as in no special degree superior +to others in social position. They enjoy no special privileges, and +receive no fees from the suitors who come up to their court. Except +on occasions of public festivals, over which they preside, they are +content to hold equal rank with the other elders of the village. Each +cultivates his field, and builds his house. His wife brings home fuel +and water, and cooks for his family; his son watches his cattle and +crops. The English officials and the Bissoyis have, however, accorded +to these Savara officers some distinction. When the Governor's +Agent, during his annual tour, invites the Savara elders to bheti +(visit), they make presents of a fowl, sheep, eggs, or a basket of +rice, and receive cloths, necklaces, etc. The Bissoyis exempt them +from personal service, which is demanded from all others." At the +Sankaranthi festival, the Savaras bring loads of firewood, yams +(Dioscorea tubers), pumpkins, etc., as presents for the Bissoyi, +and receive presents from him in return. + +Besides cultivating, the Savaras collect Bauhinia leaves, and sell +them to traders for making leaf platters. The leaves of the jel-adda +tree (Bauhinia purpurea) are believed to be particularly appreciated +by the Savara spirits, and offerings made to them should be placed +in cups made thereof. The Savaras also collect various articles of +minor forest produce, honey and wax. They know how to distil liquor +from the flowers of the mahua (Bassia latifolia). The process of +distillation has been thus described. [156] "The flowers are soaked +in water for three or four days, and are then boiled with water in an +earthenware chatty. Over the top of this is placed another chatty, +mouth downwards, the join between the two being made air-tight by +being tied round with a bit of cloth, and luted with clay. From a +hole made in the upper chatty, a hollow bamboo leads to a third pot, +specially made for the purpose, which is globular, and has no opening +except that into which the bamboo pipe leads. This last is kept cool +by pouring water constantly over it, and the distillate is forced +into it through the bamboo, and there condenses." + +In a report on his tour through the Savara country in 1863, the Agent +to the Governor of Madras reported as follows. "At Gunapur I heard +great complaints of the thievish habits of the Soura tribes on the +hills dividing Gunapur from Pedda Kimedy. They are not dacoits, but +very expert burglers, if the term can be applied to digging a hole +in the night through a mud wall. If discovered and hard pressed, +they do not hesitate to discharge their arrows, which they do with +unerring aim, and always with fatal result. Three or four murders +have been perpetrated by these people in this way since the country +has been under our management. I arranged with the Superintendent of +Police to station a party of the Armed Reserve in the ghaut leading +to Soura country. One or two cases of seizure and conviction will +suffice to put a check to the crime." + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district, that +"in 1864 trouble occurred with the Savaras. One of their headmen +having been improperly arrested by the police of Pottasingi, they +effected a rescue, killed the Inspector and four constables, and +burnt down the station-house. The Raja of Jeypore was requested to use +his influence to procure the arrest of the offenders, and eventually +twenty-four were captured, of whom nine were transported for life, +and five were sentenced to death, and hanged at Jalteru, at the foot +of the ghat to Pottasingi. Government presented the Raja with a rifle +and other gifts in acknowledgment of his assistance. The country did +not immediately calm down, however, and, in 1865, a body of police, +who were sent to establish a post in the hills, were attacked, +and forced to beat a retreat down the ghat. A large force was then +assembled, and, after a brief but harassing campaign, the post was +firmly occupied in January, 1866. Three of the ringleaders of this +rising were transported for life. The hill Savaras remained timid +and suspicious for some years afterwards, and, as late as 1874, +the reports mention it as a notable fact that they were beginning to +frequent markets on the plains, and that the low-country people no +longer feared to trust themselves above the ghats." + +In 1905, Government approved the following proposals for the +improvement of education among the Savaras and other hill tribes in +the Ganjam and Vizagapatam Agencies, so far as Government schools +are concerned:-- + +(1) That instruction to the hill tribes should be given orally +through the medium of their own mother tongue, and that, when a Savara +knows both Uriya and Telugu, it would be advantageous to educate him +in Uriya; + +(2) That evening classes be opened whenever possible, the buildings in +which they are held being also used for night schools for adults who +should receive oral instruction, and that magic-lantern exhibitions +might be arranged for occasionally, to make the classes attractive; + +(3) That concessions, if any, in the matter of grants admissible to +Savaras, Khonds, etc., under the Grant-in-aid Code, be extended to +the pupils of the above communities that attend schools in the plains; + +(4) That an itinerating agency, who could go round and look after the +work of the agency schools, be established and that, in the selection +of hill school establishments, preference be given to men educated +in the hill schools; + +(5) That some suitable form of manual occupation be introduced, +wherever possible, into the day's work, and the schools be supplied +with the requisite tools, and that increased grants be given for +anything original. + +Savara.--A name, denoting hill-men, adopted by Male Kudiyas. + +Savu (death).--A sub-division of Mala. + +Sayakkaran.--An occupational term, meaning a dyer, returned, at times +of census, by Tamil dyers. + +Sayumpadai Tangi.--The name, meaning supporter of the vanquished army, +of a section of Kallans. + +Sedan.--A synonym of Devanga. At times of census, Seda Dasi has been +returned by Devanga dancing-girls in the Madura district. The following +legend of Savadamma, the goddess of the weaver caste in Coimbatore, is +narrated by Bishop Whitehead. [157] "Once upon a time, when there was +fierce conflict between the men and the rakshasas, the men, who were +getting defeated, applied for help to the god Siva, who sent his wife +Parvati as an avatar or incarnation into the world to help them. The +avatar enabled them to defeat the rakshasas, and, as the weaver caste +were in the forefront of the battle, she became the goddess of the +weavers, and was known in consequence as Savadamman, a corruption of +Sedar Amman, Sedan being a title of the weavers. It is said that her +original home was in the north of India, near the Himalayas." + +Segidi.--The Segidis are a Telugu caste of toddy sellers and distillers +of arrack, who are found mainly in Ganjam and Vizagapatam. + +For the purposes of the Madras Abkari Act, toddy means fermented or +unfermented juice drawn from a cocoanut, palmyra, date, or any other +kind of palm-tree. It is laid down, in the Madras Excise Manual, that +"unfermented toddy is not subject to any taxation, but it must be +drawn in pots freshly coated internally with lime. Lime is prescribed +as the substance with which the interior of pots or other receptacles +in which sweet toddy is drawn should be coated, as it checks the +fermentation of the toddy coming in contact with it; but this effect +cannot be secured unless the internal lime coating of the toddy pot +or vessel is thorough, and is renewed every time that the pot is +emptied of its contents." It is noted by Bishop Caldwell [158] that +"it is the unfermented juice of the palmyra (and other palms) which +is used as food. When allowed to ferment, which it will do before +midday, if left to itself, it is changed into a sweet intoxicating +drink called kal or toddy." Pietro Della Valle records [159] that +he stayed on board till nightfall, "entertaining with conversation +and drinking tari, a liquor which is drawn from the cocoanut trees, +of a whitish colour, a little turbid, and of a somewhat rough taste, +though with a blending in sweetness, and not unpalatable, something +like one of our vini piccanti. It will also intoxicate, like wine, +if drunk over freely." Writing in 1673, Fryer [160] describes the +Natives as "singing and roaring all night long; being drunk with toddy, +the wine of the Cocoe." + +Arrack is a spirituous liquor distilled from the fermented sap of +various palms. In some parts of the Madras Presidency, arrack vendors +consider it unlucky to set their measures upside down. Some time ago, +the Excise Commissioner informs me, the Excise department had some +aluminium measures made for measuring arrack in liquor shops. It was +found that the arrack corroded the aluminium, and the measures soon +leaked. The shopkeepers were told to turn their measures upside down, +in order that they might drain. This they refused to do, as it would +bring bad luck to their shop. New measures with round bottoms were +evolved, which would not stand up. But the shopkeepers began to use +rings of india-rubber from soda-water bottles, to make them stand. An +endeavour has since been made to induce them to keep their measures +inverted by hanging them on pegs, so that they will drain without +being turned upside down. The case illustrates well how important a +knowledge of the superstitions of the people is in the administration +of their affairs. + +The Segidis do not draw the liquor from the palm-tree themselves, +but purchase it from the toddy-drawing castes, the Yatas and Gamallas. + +They have a caste headman, called Kulampedda, who settles disputes +with the assistance of a council. Like other Telugu castes, they have +intiperulu or house names, which are strictly exogamous. Girls are +married either before or after puberty. The custom of menarikam is +practiced, in accordance with which a man marries his maternal aunt's +daughter. A Brahman officiates at marriages, except the remarriage +of widows. When a widow is remarried, the caste-men assemble, and the +Kulampedda ties the sathamanam (marriage badge) on the bride's neck. + +The dead are usually cremated, and the washerman of the village +assists the chief mourner in igniting the pyre. A Satani conducts +the funeral ceremonies. + +The Segidis worship various village deities, and perantalammas, +or women who killed themselves during their husbands' lives or on +their death. + +The more well-to-do members of the caste take the title Anna. + +Sekkan (oil-man).--A synonym of Vaniyan. + +Sembadavan.--The Sembadavans are the fishermen of the Tamil country, +who carry on their calling in freshwater tanks (ponds), lakes and +rivers, and never in the sea. Some of them are ferrymen, and the name +has been derived from sem (good), padavan (boatmen). A legend runs +to the effect that the goddess Ankalamman, whom they worship with +offerings of sheep, pigs, fowls, rice, etc., was a Sembadava girl, of +whom Siva became enamoured, and Sembadavan is accordingly derived from +Sambu (Siva) or a corruption of Sivan padavan (Siva's boatmen). Some +members of the caste in the Telugu country returned themselves, at the +census, 1901, as Sambuni Reddi or Kapu. According to another legend, +the name is derived from sembu padavor or copper boatmen. Parvatha +Raja, disguised as a boatman, when sailing in a copper boat, threw +out his net to catch fish. Four Vedas were transformed into nets, with +which to catch the rakshasas, who assumed the form of fishes. Within +the nets a rishi was also caught, and, getting angry, asked the boatman +concerning his pedigree. On learning it, he cursed him, and ordained +that his descendants should earn their living by fishing. Hence the +Sembadavans call themselves Parvatha Rajavamsam. Yet another legend +states that the founder of the caste, while worshipping God, was +tried thus. God caused a large fish to appear in the water near the +spot at which he was worshipping. Forgetting all about his prayers, +he stopped to catch the fish, and was cursed with the occupation +of catching fish for ever. According to yet another account of the +origin of the Sembadavans, Siva was much pleased with their ancestors' +devotion to him when they lived upon the sea-shore by catching a few +fish with difficulty, and in recognition of their piety furnished them +with a net, and directed various other castes to become fish-eaters, +so that the Sembadavar might live comfortably. + +Of the Sembadavans of the North Arcot district, Mr. H. A. Stuart +writes [161] that they "act as boatmen and fishers. They have little +opportunity of exercising the former profession, but during heavy +freshes in big rivers they ferry people from bank to bank in round +leather-covered basket coracles, which they push along, swimming +or wading by the side, or assist the timid to ford by holding their +hands. At such times they make considerable hauls. During the rest +of the year they subsist by fishing in the tanks." + +"The Sembadavans of the South Arcot district," Mr. Francis writes, +[162] "are fresh-water fishermen and boatmen. Both their occupations +being of a restricted character, they have now in some cases taken to +agriculture, weaving, and the hawking of salted sea-fish, but almost +all of them are poor. They make their own nets, and, when they have +to walk any distance for any purpose, they often spin the thread +as they go along. Their domestic priests are Panchangi Brahmans, +and these tie the tali at weddings, and perform the purificatory +ceremonies on the sixteenth day after deaths." + +The Sembadavans consider themselves to be superior to Pattanavans, +who are sea-fishermen. They usually take the title Nattan, Kavandan, +Maniyakkaran, Paguththar, or Pillai. Some have assumed the title Guha +Vellala, to connect themselves with Guha, who rowed the boat of Rama +to Ceylon. At the census, 1901, Savalakkaran (q.v.) was returned as +a sub-caste. Savalalai or saval thadi is the flattened paddle for +rowing boats. A large number call themselves Pujari, (priest), and +wear the lingam enclosed in a silver casket or pink cloth, and the +sacred thread. It is the pujari who officiates at the temple services +to village deities. At Malayanur, in the South Arcot district, all +the Sembadavans call themselves pujari, and seem to belong to a single +sept called Mukkali (three-legged). + +Most of the Sembadavans call themselves Saivites, but a few, +e.g., at Kuppam in North Arcot, and other places, say that they +are Vaishnavites, and belong to Vishnu gotram. Even among those +who claimed to be Vaishnavites, a few were seen with a sandal paste +(Saivite) mark on the forehead. Their explanation was that they were +returning from the fields, where they had eaten their food. This they +must not do without wearing a religious emblem, and they had not with +them the mirror, red powder, water, etc., necessary for making the +Vaishnavite namam mark. They asserted that they never take a girl +in marriage from Saivite families without burning her tongue with a +piece of gold, and purifying her by punyavachanam. + +The Sembadavans at Chidambaram are all Saivites, and point out +with pride their connection with the temple. It appears that, on +a particular day, they are deputed to carry the idol in procession +through the streets, and their services are paid for with a modest +fee and a ball of cooked rice for each person. Some respect is shown +to them by the temple authorities, as the goddess, when being carried +in procession, is detained for some time in their quarters, and they +make presents of female cloths to the idol. + +The Sembadavans have exogamous septs, named after various heroes, +etc. The office of Nattan or Nattamaikkaran (headman) is confined to +a particular sept, and is hereditary. In some places he is assisted +by officers called Sangathikkar or Sangathipillai, through whom, +at a council, the headman should be addressed. At their council +meetings, representatives of the seven nadus (villages), into which +the Sembadavans of various localities are divided, are present. At +Malayanur these nadus are replaced by seven exogamous septs, viz., +Devar, Seppiliyan, Ethinayakan, Sangili, Mayakundali, Pattam, +and Panikkan. If a man under trial pleads not guilty to the charge +brought against him, he has to bear the expenses of the members of +council. Sometimes, as a punishment, a man is made to carry a basket +of rubbish, with tamarind twigs as the emblem of flogging, and a +knife to denote cutting of the tongue. Women are said to be punished +by having to carry a basket of rubbish and a broom round the village. + +Sembadavans who are ferrymen by profession do special worship to +Ganga, the goddess of water, to whom pongal (rice) and goats are +offered. It is believed that their immunity from death by drowning, +caused by the upsetting of their leather coracles, is due to the +protection of the goddess. + +The ceremonial when a girl reaches puberty corresponds to that +of various other Tamil castes. Meat is forbidden, but eggs are +allowed to be eaten. To ward off devils twigs of Vitex Negundo, +margosa (Melia Azadirachta), and Eugenia Jambolana are stuck in the +roof. Sometimes a piece of iron is given to the girl to keep. During +the marriage ceremonies, a branch of Erythrina indica is cut, and +tied, with sprays of the pipal (Ficus religiosa) and a piece of a +green bamboo culm, to one of the twelve posts, which support the +marriage pandal (booth). A number of sumangalis (married women) +bring sand, and spread it on the floor near the marriage dais, +with pots, two of which are filled with water, over it. The bride +and bridegroom go through a ceremony called sige kazhippu, with the +object of warding off the evil eye, which consists in pouring a few +drops of milk on their foreheads from a fig or betel leaf. To their +foreheads are tied small gold or silver plates, called pattam, of +which the most conspicuous are those tied by the maternal uncles. The +plate for the bridegroom is V-shaped like a namam, and that for the +bride like a pipal leaf. The bride and bridegroom go through a mock +ceremony representative of domestic life, and pot-searching. Seven +rings are dropped into a pot. If the girl picks up three of these, her +first-born will be a girl. If the bridegroom picks up five, it will +be a boy. Married women go in procession to an ant-hill, and bring +to the marriage booth a basket-load of the earth, which they heap up +round the posts. Offerings of balls of rice, cooked vegetables, etc., +are then made. After the wrist-threads (kankanam) have been removed, +the bride and bridegroom go to a tank, and go through a mock ploughing +ceremony. In some places, the purohits give the bridegroom a sacred +thread, which is finally thrown into a tank or well. + +By some Sembadavans a ceremony, called muthugunir kuththal (pouring +water on the back) is performed in the seventh month of pregnancy. The +woman stands on the marriage dais, and red-coloured water, and lights +are waved. Bending down, she places her hands on two big pots, and +milk is poured over her back from a betel leaf by all her relations. + +The Vaishnava Sembadavans burn, and the Saivites bury their dead in a +sitting posture. Fire is carried to the burial-ground by the barber. In +cases of burial the face is covered over by a cloth, in which a slit +is made, so that the top of the head and a portion of the forehead +are exposed. A figure representing Ganesa is made on the head with +ashes. All present throw sacred ashes, and a pie (copper coin) into +the grave, which is then filled in. While this is being done, a bamboo +stick is placed upright on the head of the corpse. On the surface +of the filled-in grave an oblong space is cleared, with the bamboo +in the centre. The bamboo is then removed, and water poured through +the hole left by it, and a lingam made, and placed over the opening. + +At Malayanur a ceremony called mayana or smasana kollai (looting the +burning-ground) is performed. The village of Malayanur is famous for +its Ankalamman temple, and, during the festival which takes place +immediately after the Sivaratri, some thousands of people congregate +at the temple, which is near the burning-ground. In front of the stone +idol is a large ant-hill, on which two copper idols are placed, and +a brass vessel, called korakkudai, is placed at the base of the hill, +to receive the various votive offerings. Early in the day, the pujari +(a Sembadavan) goes to a tank, and brings a decorated pot, called +pungkaragam, to the temple. Offerings are made to a new pot, and, +after a sheep has been sacrificed, the pot is filled with water, and +carried on the head of the pujari, who shows signs of possession by +the deity, through the streets of the village to the temple, dancing +wildly, and never touching the pot with his hands. It is believed that +the pot remains on the head, without falling, through the influence +of the goddess. When the temple is reached, another pujari takes up +a framework, to which are tied a head made of rice flour, with three +faces coloured white, black and red, representing the head of Brahma +which was cut off by Siva, and a pot with three faces on it. The +eyes of the flour figure are represented by hen's eggs. The pot is +placed beneath the head. Carrying the framework, and accompanied +by music, the pujari goes in procession to the burning-ground, and, +after offerings of a sheep, arrack, betel and fruits have been made +to the head of Brahma, it is thrown away. Close to the spot where +corpses are burnt, the pujaris place on the ground five conical heaps +(representing Ganesa), made of the ashes of a corpse. To these are +offered the various articles brought by those who have made vows, +which include cooked pulses, bangles, betel, parts of the human body +modelled in rice flour, etc. The offerings are piled up in a heap, +which is said to reach ten or twelve feet in height. Soon afterwards, +the people assembled fall on the heap, and carry off whatever they +can secure. Hundreds of persons are said to become possessed, eat the +ashes of the corpses, and bite any human bones, which they may come +across. The ashes and earth are much prized, as they are supposed to +drive away evil spirits, and secure offspring to barren women. Some +persons make a vow that they will disguise themselves as Siva, for +which purpose they smear their faces with ashes, put on a cap decorated +with feathers of the crow, egret, and peacock, and carry in one hand +a brass vessel called Brahma kapalam. Round their waist they tie a +number of strings, to which are attached rags and feathers. Instead +of the cap, Paraiyans and Valluvans wear a crown. The brass vessel, +cap, and strings are said to be kept by the pujari, and hired out +for a rupee or two per head. The festival is said to be based on the +following legend. Siva and Brahma had the same number of faces. During +the swayamvaram, Parvati, the wife of Siva, found it difficult to +recognise her husband, so Siva cut off Brahma's head. The head stuck +on to Siva's hand, and he could not get rid of it. To get rid of the +skull, and throw off the crime of murder, Siva wandered far and wide, +and came to the burning-ground at Malayanur, where various bhuthas +(devils) were busy eating the remains of corpses. Parvati also arrived +there, and failed to recognise Siva. Thereon the skull laughed, +and fell to the ground. The bhuthas were so delighted that they put +various kinds of herbs into a big vessel, and made of them a sweet +liquor, by drinking which Siva was absolved from his crime. For this +reason arrack is offered to him at the festival. A very similar rite is +carried out at Walajapet. A huge figure, representing the goddess, is +made at the burning-ground out of the ashes of burnt bodies mixed with +water, the eyes being made of hen's eggs painted black in the centre +to represent the pupils. It is covered over with a yellow cloth, and +a sweet-smelling powder (kadampam) is sprinkled over it. The following +articles, which are required by a married woman, are placed on it:--a +comb, pot containing colour-powder, glass bangles, rolls of palm leaf +for dilating the ear-lobes, and a string of black beads. Devotees +present as offerings limes, plantains, arrack, toddy, sugar-cane, +and various kinds of cooked grains, and other eatables. The goddess +is taken in procession from her shrine to the burning-ground, and +placed in front of the figure. The pujari (fisherman), who wears a +special dress for the occasion, walks in front of the idol, carrying +in one hand a brass cup representing the skull which Siva carried in +his hand, and in the other a piece of human skull bone, which he bites +and chews as the procession moves onward. When the burning-ground is +reached, he performs puja by breaking a cocoanut, and going round +the figure with lighted camphor in his hand. Goats and fowls are +sacrificed. A woman, possessed by a devil, seats herself at the feet +of the figure, and becomes wild and agitated. The puja completed, the +assembled multitude fall on the figure, and carry off whatever they +can grab of the articles placed on it, which are believed to possess +healing and other virtues. They also smear their bodies with the +ashes. The pujari, and some of the devotees, then become possessed, +and run about the burning-ground, seizing and gnawing partly burnt +bones. Tradition runs to the effect that, in olden times, they used to +eat the dead bodies, if they came across any. And the people are so +afraid of their doing this that, if a death should occur, the corpse +is not taken to the burning-ground till the festival is over. "In +some cases," Herbert Spencer writes, [163] "parts of the dead are +swallowed by the living, who seek thus to inspire themselves with the +good qualities of the dead; and we saw that the dead are supposed to +be honoured by this act." + +Sembunadu.--The name, meaning the Pandya country, of a sub-division +of Maravan. + +Semmadi.--A Telugu form of Sembadavan. + +Semman.--The Semmans are described, in the Madras Census Report, +1891, as "an insignificant caste of Tamil leather-workers, found only +in the districts of Madura and Tinnevelly (and in the Pudukottai +State). Though they have returned tailor and lime-burner as their +occupations, the original occupation was undoubtedly leather-work. In +the Tamil dictionaries Semman is explained as a leather-worker, and +a few of them, living in out-of-the way villages, have returned +shoe-making as their occupation. The Semmans are, in fact, a +sub-division of the Paraiyans, and they must have been the original +leather-workers of the Tamil tribes. The immigrant Chakkiliyans have, +however, now taken their place." The Semmans are described, in the +Madura Manual, as burning and selling lime for building purposes. In +the Census Report, 1901, the caste is said to have "two hypergamous +sub-divisions, Tondaman and Tolmestri, and men of the former take +wives from the latter, but men of the latter may not marry girls of +the former." + +Girls are married after puberty, and divorce and remarriage are freely +allowed. As the caste is a polluting one, the members thereof are +not allowed to use village wells, or enter caste Hindu temples. The +caste title is Mestri. + +Sem Puli (red tiger).--A section of Kallan. + +Senaikkudaiyan.--The Senaikkudaiyans are betel vine (Piper Betel) +cultivators and betel leaf sellers, who are found in large numbers +in the Tinnevelly district, and to a smaller extent in other parts +of the Tamil country. The original name of the caste is said to +have been Elai (leaf) Vaniyan, for which the more high-sounding +Senaikkudaiyan (owner of an army) or Senaittalavan (chief of an army) +has been substituted. They also called themselves Kodikkal Pillaimar, +or Pillaimars who cultivate betel gardens, and have adopted the title +Pillai. The titles Muppan and Chetti are also borne by members of +the caste. + +It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "the priests of +the Senaikkudaiyans are Vellalas, and occasionally Brahmans. They do +not wear the sacred thread. They burn their dead, and perform annual +sraddhas (memorial services). In 1891, following the Tanjore Manual, +they were wrongly classed with Vaniyans or oil-mongers, but they are +superior to these in social position, and are even said to rank above +Nattukottai Chettis. Yet it is stated that, in Tanjore, Paraiyans +will not enter the Senaikkudaiyans' houses to carry away dead cattle, +and ordinary barbers will not serve them, and food prepared by them +will not be accepted even by barbers or washermen. Somewhat similar +anomalies occur in the case of the Kammalas, and the explanation +may be that these two castes belonged to the old left-hand faction, +while the Pariyans, and the barbers and washermen belonged to the +right-hand. Paraiyans similarly will not eat in the houses of Beri +Chettis, who were of the left-hand faction." + +Senapati.--A title, denoting commander-in-chief, said to be sold to +Khoduras, and also occurring as a title of other Oriya castes, e.g., +Kurumo and Ronguni. Among the Rongunis, the title is practically an +exogamous sept. Senapati is further a name for Sales (Telugu weavers), +the headman among whom is called Pedda (big) Senapati. The headman +of the Salapu weavers, who do not intermarry with the Sales, is also +styled Senapati. It is also a title of the Raja of Sandur. + +Sendalai (red-headed man).--Returned as a sub-division of Konga +Vellalas at times of census. + +Sengundam (red dagger).--A synonym, connected with a caste legend, +of Kaikolan. + +Seniga (Bengal gram: Cicer arietinum).--An exogamous sept of Medara +and Pedakanti Kapu. + +Seniyan.--The name Seniyan is generally used to denote the +Karna Sale weavers, but at Conjeeveram it is applied to Canarese +Devangas. Elsewhere Canarese Devangas belong to the left-hand section, +but at Conjeeveram they are classed with the right-hand section. Like +other Devangas, the Conjeeveram Seniyans have exogamous house-names +and gotras, which are interesting inasmuch as new names have been, in +recent times, substituted for the original ones, e.g., Chandrasekhara +rishi, Nilakanta rishi, Markandeya rishi. The Devangas claim Markandeya +as their ancestor. The old house-name Picchi Kaya (water-melon: +Citrullus vulgaris) has been changed to Desimarada, and eating the +melon is tabu. A list of the house-names and gotras is kept by the +headman for reference. The Conjeeveram Seniyans are Lingayats, but are +not so strict as the Canarese Lingayats. Jangams are respected, but +rank after their own stone lingams. In the observance of death rites, a +staunch Lingayat should not bathe, and must partake of the food offered +to the corpse. These customs are not observed by the Seniyans. Until +quite recently, a man might tie a tali (marriage badge) secretly on +a girl's neck, with the consent of the headman and his relatives, +and the girl could then be given in marriage to no other man. This +custom is said to have been very common, especially in the case of a +man's maternal uncle's or paternal aunt's daughter. At Conjeeveram it +was extended to girls not so related, and a caste council was held, +at which an agreement was drawn up that the secret tali-tying was +forbidden, and, if performed, was not to be regarded as binding. The +priest of the Conjeeveram Seniyans is a Vellala Pandaram, who is the +head of the Tirugnana Sambanda Murti mutt (religious institution) +at Conjeeveram. + +Servai.--Servai, meaning service, has been recorded as the title of +Agamudaiyans and Valaiyans. Servaikaran or Servaigaran (captain or +commander) is the title of Agamudaiyan, Ambalakaran, Kallan, Maravan, +and Parivaram. It further occurs as the name for a headman among the +Vallambans, and it has been adopted as a false caste name by some +criminal Koravas in the south. + +Servegara.--The Servegaras are a caste found in South Canara, and to +a small extent in Bellary. "They are said to be a branch of the Konkan +Marathis of Goa, from whence they were invited by the Lingayat kings of +Nagara to serve as soldiers and to defend their forts (kote), whence +the alternative name of Koteyava (or Kotegara). Another name for them +is Ramakshatri. The mother-tongue of the Servegaras of South Canara is +Canarese, while their brethren in the north speak Konkani. They have +now taken to cultivation, but some are employed in the Revenue and +Police departments as peons (orderlies) and constables, and a few are +shopkeepers. The name Servegara is derived from the Canarese serve, an +army. In religion they are Hindus, and, like most West Coast castes, +are equally partial to the worship of Siva and Vishnu. They wear +the sacred thread. Karadi Brahmans are their priests, and they owe +allegiance to the head of the Sringeri mutt. Their girls are married +before puberty, and the remarriage of widows is neither allowed nor +practiced. Divorce is permitted only on the ground of the unchastity +of the wife. The body of a child under three years is buried, and that +of any person exceeding that age is cremated. They eat flesh, but do +not drink. Their titles are Nayak, Aiya, Rao, and Sheregar." [164] +In the Census Report, 1901, Bomman Valekara is returned as a synonym, +and Vilayakara as a sub-caste of Servegara. + +Setti.--See Chetti. + +Settukkaran.--A castle title, meaning economical people, sometimes +used by Devangas instead of Setti or Chetti. + +Sevagha Vritti.--A sub-division of Kaikolan. + +Sevala (service).--An exogamous sept of Golla. + +Shanan.--The great toddy-drawing caste of the Tamil country, which, +a few years ago, came into special prominence owing to the Tinnevelly +riots in 1899. "These were," the Inspector-General of Police writes, +[165] "due to the pretensions of the Shanans to a much higher position +in the religio-social scale than the other castes are willing to +allow. Among other things, they claimed admission to Hindu temples, +and the manager of the Visvanatheswara temple at Sivakasi decided to +close it. This partial victory of the Shanans was keenly resented by +their opponents, of whom the most active were the Maravans. Organised +attacks were made on a number of the Shanan villages; the inhabitants +were assailed; houses were burnt; and property was looted. The most +serious occurrence was the attack on Sivakasi by a body of over +five thousand Maravans. Twenty-three murders, 102 dacoities, and +many cases of arson were registered in connection with the riots in +Sivakasi, Chinniapuram, and other places. Of 1,958 persons arrested, +552 were convicted, 7 being sentenced to death. One of the ring-leaders +hurried by train to distant Madras, and made a clever attempt to prove +an alibi by signing his name in the Museum visitor's book. During +the disturbance some of the Shanans are said to have gone into the +Muhammadan fold. The men shaved their heads, and grew beards; and the +women had to make sundry changes in their dress. And, in the case of +boys, the operation of circumcision was performed." + +The immediate bone of contention at the time of the Tinnevelly +riots was, the Census Superintendent, 1901, writes, "the claim of the +Shanans to enter the Hindu temples, in spite of the rules in the Agama +Shastras that toddy-drawers are not to be allowed into them; but the +pretensions of the community date back from 1858, when a riot occurred +in Travancore, because female Christian converts belonging to it gave +up the caste practice of going about without an upper cloth." On this +point Mr. G. T. Mackenzie informs us [166] that "in the first quarter +of the nineteenth century, the female converts to Christianity in the +extreme south ventured, contrary to the old rules for the lower castes, +to clothe themselves above the waist. This innovation was made the +occasion for threats, violence, and series of disturbances. Similar +disturbances arose from the same cause nearly thirty years later, +and, in 1859, Sir Charles Trevelyan, Governor of Madras, interfered, +and granted permission to the women of the lower castes to wear a +cloth over the breasts and shoulders. The following proclamation was +issued by the Maharaja of Travancore:--We hereby proclaim that there +is no objection to Shanan women either putting on a jacket like the +Christian Shanan women, or to Shanan women of all creeds dressing in +coarse cloth, and tying themselves round with it as the Mukkavattigal +(fisherwomen) do, or to their covering their bosoms in any manner +whatever, but not like women of high castes." "Shortly after 1858, +pamphlets began to be written and published by people of the caste, +setting out their claims to be Kshatriyas. In 1874 they endeavoured +to establish a right to enter the great Minakshi temple at Madura, +but failed, and they have since claimed to be allowed to wear the +sacred thread, and to have palanquins at their weddings. They say +they are descended from the Chera, Chola and Pandya kings; they have +styled themselves Kshatriyas in legal papers; labelled their schools +Kshatriya academy; got Brahmans of the less particular kind to do +purohit's work for them; had poems composed on their kingly origin; +gone through a sort of incomplete parody of the ceremony of investiture +with the sacred thread; talked much but ignorantly of their gotras; +and induced needy persons to sign documents agreeing to carry them +in palanquins on festive occasions." [During my stay at Nazareth in +Tinnevelly, for the purpose of taking measurements of the Shanans, +I received a visit from some elders of the community from Kuttam, +who arrived in palanquins, and bearing weapons of old device.] Their +boldest stroke was to aver that the coins commonly known as Shanans' +cash were struck by sovereign ancestors of the caste. The author +of a pamphlet entitled 'Bishop Caldwell and the Tinnevelly Shanars' +states that he had met with men of all castes who say that they have +seen the true Shanar coin with their own eyes, and that a Eurasian +gentleman from Bangalore testified to his having seen a true Shanar +coin at Bangalore forty years ago. The coin referred to is the gold +Venetian sequin, which is still found in considerable numbers in the +south, and bears the names of the Doges (Paul Rainer, Aloy Mocen, +Ludov Manin, etc.) and a cross, which the Natives mistake for a toddy +palm. "If," Mr. Fawcett writes, [167] "one asks the ordinary Malayali +(native of Malabar) what persons are represented on the sequin, one +gets for answer that they are Rama and Sita: between them a cocoanut +tree. Every Malayali knows what an Amâda is; it is a real or imitation +Venetian sequin. I have never heard any explanation of the word Amâda +in Malabar. The following comes from Tinnevelly. Amâda was the consort +of Bhagavati, and he suddenly appeared one day before a Shanar, +and demanded food. The Shanar said he was a poor man with nothing +to offer but toddy, which he gave in a palmyra leaf. Amâda drank the +toddy, and performing a mantram (consecrated formula) over the leaf, +it turned into gold coins, which bore on one side the pictures of +Amâda, the Shanar, and the tree, and these he gave to the Shanar as +a reward for his willingness to assist him." + +In a petition to myself from certain Shanans of Nazareth, signed by +a very large number of the community, and bearing the title "Short +account of the Cantras or Tamil Xatras, the original but down-trodden +royal race of Southern India," they write as follows. "We humbly +beg to say that we are the descendants of the Pandya or Dravida +Xatra race, who, shortly after the universal deluge of Noah, first +disafforested and colonized this land of South India under the guidance +of Agastya Muni. The whole world was destroyed by flood about B.C. 3100 +(Dr. Hale's calculation), when Noah, otherwise called Vaivasvata-manu +or Satyavrata, was saved with his family of seven persons in an +ark or covered ship, which rested upon the highest mountain of the +Aryavarta country. Hence the whole earth was rapidly replenished by +his descendants. One of his grandsons (nine great Prajapatis) was +Atri, whose son Candra was the ancestor of the noblest class of the +Xatras ranked above the Brahmans, and the first illustrious monarch +of the post-diluvian world." + +"Apparently," the Census Superintendent continues, "judging from the +Shanan's own published statements of their case, they rest their +claims chiefly upon etymological derivations of their caste name +Shanan, and of Nadan and Gramani, their two usual titles. Caste +titles and names are, however, of recent origin, and little can +be inferred from them, whatever their meaning may be shown to +be. Brahmans, for example, appear to have borne the titles of +Pillai and Mudali, which are now only used by Sudras, and the +Nayak kings, on the other hand, called themselves Aiyar, which +is now exclusively the title of Saivite Brahmans. To this day the +cultivating Vellalas, the weaving Kaikolars, and the semi-civilised +hill tribe of the Jatapus use equally the title of Mudali, and the +Balijas and Telagas call themselves Rao, which is properly the title +of Mahratta Brahmans. Regarding the derivation of the words Shanan, +Nadan and Gramani, much ingenuity has been exercised. Shanan is not +found in the earlier Tamil literature at all. In the inscriptions +of Rajaraja Chola (A. D. 984-1013) toddy-drawers are referred to as +Iluvans. According to Pingalandai, a dictionary of the 10th or 11th +century, the names of the toddy-drawer castes are Palaiyar, Tuvasar, +and Paduvar. To these the Chudamani Nikandu, a Tamil dictionary of +the 16th century, adds Saundigar. Apparently, therefore, the Sanskrit +word Saundigar must have been introduced (probably by the Brahmans) +between the 11th and 16th centuries, and is a Sanskrit rendering of +the word Iluvan. From Saundigar to Shanan is not a long step in the +corruption of words. The Shanans say that Shanan is derived from the +Tamil word Sanrar or Sanror, which means the learned or the noble. But +it does not appear that the Shanans were ever called Sanrar or Sanror +in any of the Tamil works. The two words Nadan and Gramani mean the +same thing, namely, ruler of a country or of a village, the former +being a Tamil, and the latter a Sanskrit word. Nadan, on the other +hand, means a man who lives in the country, as opposed to Uran, the +man who resides in a village. The title of the caste is Nadan, and +it seems most probable that it refers to the fact that the Iluvan +ancestors of the caste lived outside the villages. (South Indian +Inscriptions, vol. II, part 1.) But, even if Nadan and Gramani both +mean rulers, it does not give those who bear these titles any claim +to be Kshatriyas. If it did, all the descendants of the many South +Indian Poligars, or petty chiefs, would be Kshatriyas." + +The Census Superintendent, 1891, states that the "Shanans are in +social position usually placed only a little above the Pallas and +the Paraiyans, and are considered to be one of the polluting castes, +but of late many of them have put forward a claim to be considered +Kshatriyas, and at least 24,000 of them appear as Kshatriyas in the +caste tables. This is, of course, absurd, as there is no such thing as +a Dravidian Kshatriya. But it is by no means certain that the Shanans +were not at one time a warlike tribe, for we find traces of a military +occupation among several toddy-drawing castes of the south, such +as the Billavas (bowmen), Halepaik (old foot soldiers), Kumarapaik +(junior foot). Even the Kadamba kings of Mysore are said to have +been toddy-drawers. 'The Kadamba tree appears to be one of the palms, +from which toddy is extracted. Toddy-drawing is the special occupation +of the several primitive tribes spread over the south-west of India, +and bearing different names in various parts. They were employed by +former rulers as foot-soldiers and bodyguards, being noted for their +fidelity. [168]' The word Shanan is ordinarily derived from Tamil saru, +meaning toddy; but a learned missionary derives it from san (a span) +and nar (fibre or string), that is the noose, one span in length, +used by the Shanans in climbing palm-trees." The latter derivation +is also given by Vellalas. + +It is worthy of note that the Tiyans, or Malabar toddy-drawers, +address one another, and are addressed by the lower classes as Shener, +which is probably another form of Shanar. [169] + +The whole story of the claims and pretensions of the Shanans is +set out at length in the judgment in the Kamudi temple case (1898) +which was heard on appeal before the High Court of Madras. And I may +appropriately quote from the judgment. "There is no sort of proof, +nothing, we may say, that even suggests a probability that the Shanars +are descendants from the Kshatriya or warrior castes of Hindus, +or from the Pandiya, Chola or Chera race of kings. Nor is there any +distinction to be drawn between the Nadars and the Shanars. Shanar is +the general name of the caste, just as Vellala and Maravar designate +castes. 'Nadar' is a mere title, more or less honorific, assumed by +certain members or families of the caste, just as Brahmins are called +Aiyars, Aiyangars, and Raos. All 'Nadars' are Shanars by caste, unless +indeed they have abandoned caste, as many of them have by becoming +Christians. The Shanars have, as a class, from time immemorial, +been devoted to the cultivation of the palmyra palm, and to the +collection of the juice, and manufacture of liquor from it. There +are no grounds whatever for regarding them as of Aryan origin. Their +worship was a form of demonology, and their position in general social +estimation appears to have been just above that of Pallas, Pariahs, +and Chucklies (Chakkiliyans), who are on all hands regarded as unclean, +and prohibited from the use of the Hindu temples, and below that of +Vellalas, Maravans, and other classes admittedly free to worship in +the Hindu temples. In process of time, many of the Shanars took to +cultivating, trade, and money-lending, and to-day there is a numerous +and prosperous body of Shanars, who have no immediate concern with +the immemorial calling of their caste. In many villages they own much +of the land, and monopolise the bulk of the trade and wealth. With +the increase of wealth they have, not unnaturally, sought for social +recognition, and to be treated on a footing of equality in religious +matters. The conclusion of the Sub-Judge is that, according to the +Agama Shastras which are received as authoritative by worshippers of +Siva in the Madura district, entry into a temple, where the ritual +prescribed by these Shastras is observed, is prohibited to all those +whose profession is the manufacture of intoxicating liquor, and the +climbing of palmyra and cocoanut trees. No argument was addressed to +us to show that this finding is incorrect, and we see no reason to +think that it is so.... No doubt many of the Shanars have abandoned +their hereditary occupation, and have won for themselves by education, +industry and frugality, respectable positions as traders and merchants, +and even as vakils (law pleaders) and clerks; and it is natural to +feel sympathy for their efforts to obtain social recognition, and +to rise to what is regarded as a higher form of religious worship; +but such sympathy will not be increased by unreasonable and unfounded +pretensions, and, in the effort to rise, the Shanars must not invade +the established rights of other castes. They have temples of their own, +and are numerous enough, and strong enough in wealth and education, to +rise along their own lines, and without appropriating the institutions +or infringing the rights of others, and in so doing they will have the +sympathy of all right-minded men, and, if necessary, the protection +of the Courts." + +In a note on the Shanans, the Rev. J. Sharrock writes [170] that they +"have risen enormously in the social scale by their eagerness for +education, by their large adoption of the freedom of Christianity, +and by their thrifty habits. Many of them have forced themselves +ahead of the Maravars by sheer force of character. They have still +to learn that the progress of a nation, or a caste, does not depend +upon the interpretation of words, or the assumption of a title, but +on the character of the individuals that compose it. Evolutions are +hindered rather than advanced by such unwise pretensions resulting +in violence; but evolutions resulting from intellectual and social +development are quite irresistible, if any caste will continue to +advance by its own efforts in the path of freedom and progress." + +Writing in 1875, Bishop Caldwell remarks [171] that "the great majority +of the Shanars who remain heathen wear their hair long; and, if they +are not allowed to enter the temples, the restriction to which they +are subject is not owing to their long hair, but to their caste, +for those few members of the caste, continuing heathens, who have +adopted the kudumi--generally the wealthiest of the caste--are as +much precluded from entering the temples as those who retain their +long hairs. A large majority of the Christian Shanars have adopted +the kudumi together with Christianity." + +By Regulation XI, 1816, it was enacted that heads of villages have, in +cases of a trivial nature, such as abusive language and inconsiderable +assaults or affrays, power to confine the offending members in the +village choultry (lock-up) for a time not exceeding twelve hours; +or, if the offending parties are of the lower castes of the people, +on whom it may not be improper to inflict so degrading a punishment, +to order them to be put in the stocks for a time not exceeding six +hours. In a case which came before the High Court it was ruled that +by "lower castes" were probably intended those castes which, prior to +the introduction of British rule, were regarded as servile. In a case +which came up on appeal before the High Court in 1903, it was ruled +that the Shanars belong to the lower classes, who may be punished by +confinement in the stocks. + +With the physique of the Shanans, whom I examined at Nazareth and +Sawyerpuram in Tinnevelly, and their skill in physical exercises I +was very much impressed. The programme of sports, which were organised +in my honour, included the following events:-- + + + Fencing and figure exercises with long sticks of iron-wood + (Mesua ferrea). + Figure exercises with sticks bearing flaming rags at each end. + Various acrobatic tricks. + Feats with heavy weights, rice-pounders, and pounding stones. + Long jump. + Breaking cocoanuts with the thrust of a knife or the closed fist. + Crunching whiskey-bottle glass with the teeth. + Running up, and butting against the chest, back, and shoulders. + Swallowing a long silver chain. + Cutting a cucumber balanced on a man's neck in two with a sword. + Falconry. + + +One of the good qualities of Sir Thomas Munro, formerly Governor of +Madras, was that, like Rama and Rob Roy, his arms reached to his knees, +or, in other words, he possessed the kingly quality of an Ajanubahu, +which is the heritage of kings, or those who have blue blood in +them. This particular anatomical character I have met with myself +only once, in a Shanan, whose height was 173 cm. and span of the arms +194 cm. (+ 21 cm.). Rob Roy, it will be remembered, could, without +stooping, tie his garters, which were placed two inches below the knee. + +For a detailed account of demonolatry among the Shanans, I would refer +the reader to the Rev. R. (afterwards Bishop) Caldwell's now scarce +'Tinnevelly Shanans' (1849), written when he was a young and impulsive +missionary, and the publication of which I believe that the learned +and kind-hearted divine lived to regret. + +Those Shanans who are engaged in the palmyra (Borassus flabellifer) +forests in extracting the juice of the palm-tree climb with marvellous +activity and dexterity. There is a proverb that, if you desire to +climb trees, you must be born a Shanan. A palmyra climber will, +it has been calculated, go up from forty to fifty trees, each forty +to fifty feet high, three times a day. The story is told by Bishop +Caldwell of a man who was sitting upon a leaf-stalk at the top of a +palmyra palm in a high wind, when the stalk gave way, and he came down +to the ground safely and quietly, sitting on the leaf, which served +the purpose of a natural parachute. Woodpeckers are called Shanara +kurivi by birdcatchers, because they climb trees like Shanars. "The +Hindus," the Rev. (afterwards Canon) A. Margöschis writes, [172] +"observe a special day at the commencement of the palmyra season, +when the jaggery season begins. Bishop Caldwell adopted the custom, +and a solemn service in church was held, when one set of all the +implements used in the occupation of palmyra-climbing was brought +to the church, and presented at the altar. Only the day was changed +from that observed by the Hindus. The perils of the palmyra-climber +are great, and there are many fatal accidents by falling from trees +forty to sixty feet high, so that a religious service of the kind was +particularly acceptable, and peculiarly appropriate to our people." The +conversion of a Hindu into a Christian ceremonial rite, in connection +with the dedication of ex votos, is not devoid of interest. In a note +[173] on the Pariah caste in Travancore, the Rev. S. Mateer narrates +a legend that the Shanans are descended from Adi, the daughter of a +Pariah woman at Karuvur, who taught them to climb the palm tree, and +prepared a medicine which would protect them from falling from the high +trees. The squirrels also ate some of it, and enjoy a similar immunity. + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Madura district, that Shanan +toddy-drawers "employ Pallans, Paraiyans, and other low castes to +help them transport the liquor, but Musalmans and Brahmans have, +in several cases, sufficiently set aside the scruples enjoined +by their respective faiths against dealings in potent liquor to +own retail shops, and (in the case of some Musalmans at least) +to serve their customers with their own hands." In a recent note, +[174] it has been stated that "L.M.S. Shanar Christians have, in many +cases, given up tapping the palmyra palm for jaggery and toddy as a +profession beneath them; and their example is spreading, so that a +real economic impasse is manifesting itself. The writer knows of one +village at least, which had to send across the border (of Travancore) +into Tinnevelly to procure professional tree-tappers. Consequent on +this want of professional men, the palm trees are being cut down, +and this, if done to any large extent, will impoverish the country." + +In the palmyra forests of Attitondu, in Tinnevelly, I came across a +troop of stalwart Shanan men and boys, marching out towards sunset, +to guard the ripening cholum crop through the night, each with a +trained dog, with leash made of fibre passed through a ring on the +neck-collar. The leash would be slipped directly the dog scented a +wild pig, or other nocturnal marauder. Several of the dogs bore the +marks of encounters with pigs. One of the party carried a musical +instrument made of a 'bison' horn picked up in the neighbouring jungle. + +The Shanans have a great objection to being called either Shanan or +Marameri (tree-climber), and much prefer Nadan. By the Shanans of +Tinnevelly, whom I visited, the following five sub-divisions were +returned:-- + +1. Karukku-pattayar (those of the sharp sword), which is considered +to be superior to the rest. In the Census Report, 1891, the division +Karukku-mattai (petiole of the palmyra leaf with serrated edges) +was returned. Some Shanans are said to have assumed the name of +Karukku-mattai Vellalas. + +2. Kalla. Said to be the original servants of the Karukku-pattayar, +doing menial work in their houses, and serving as palanquin-bearers. + +3. Nattati. Settled at the village of Nattati near Sawyerpuram. + +4. Kodikkal. Derived from kodi, a flag. Standard-bearers of the +fighting men. According to another version, the word means a betel +garden, in reference to those who were betel cultivators. + +5. Mel-natar (mel, west). Those who live in the western part of +Tinnevelly and in Travancore. + +At the census, 1891, Konga (territorial) and Madurai were returned as +sub-divisions. The latter apparently receives its name, not from the +town of Madura, but from a word meaning sweet juice. At the census, +1901, Tollakkadan (man with a big hole in his ears) was taken as +being a sub-caste of Shanan, as the people who returned it, and sell +husked rice in Madras, used the title Nadan. Madura and Tinnevelly are +eminently the homes of dilated ear-lobes. Some Tamil traders in these +two districts, who returned themselves as Pandyan, were classified +as Shanans, as Nadan was entered as their title. In Coimbatore, +some Shanans, engaged as shop-keepers, have been known to adopt the +name of Chetti. In Coimbatore, too, the title Muppan occurs. This +title, meaning headman or elder, is also used by the Ambalakaran, +Valayan, Sudarman, Senaikkudaiyan, and other castes. In the Tanjore +Manual, the Shanans are divided into Tennam, Panam, and Ichcham, +according as they tap the cocoanut, palmyra, or wild date (Phoenix +sylvestris). The name Enadi for Shanans is derived from Enadi Nayanar, +a Saivite saint. But it also means a barber. + +The community has, among its members, land-owners, and graduates in +theology, law, medicine, and the arts. Nine-tenths of the Native clergy +in Tinnevelly are said to be converted Shanans, and Tinnevelly claims +Native missionaries working in Madagascar, Natal, Mauritius, and the +Straits. The occupations of those whom I saw at Nazareth were merchant, +cultivator, teacher, village munsif, organist, cart-driver, and cooly. + +The Shanans have established a school, called Kshatriya Vidyasala, +at Virudupati in Tinnevelly. This is a free school, for attendance at +which no fee is levied on the pupils, for the benefit of the Shanan +community, but boys of other castes are freely admitted to it. It +is maintained by Shanans from their mahimai fund, and the teachers +are Brahmans, Shanans, etc. The word mahimai means greatness, glory, +or respectability. + +Shanbog.--The Magane Shanbog takes the place, in South Canara, of the +village Karnam or accountant. There are also temple Shanbogs, who are +employed at the more important temples. When social disputes come up +for decision at caste council meetings, the Shanbog appointed by the +caste records the evidence, and the Moktessor or Mukhtesar (chief +man) of the caste decides upon the facts. In some places in South +Canara Shanbog is used as a synonym for Sarasvat Brahman. In Mysore, +the Shanbog is said [175] to be "the village accountant, with hardly +an exception of the Brahman caste. The office is hereditary. In +some places they hold land free of rent, and in others on light +assessment. In some few places a fixed money allowance is given. In +all instances there are certain fixed fees payable to them in money +or kind by the ryots." + +It is noted by Mr. W. Robinson, in a report on the Laccadive islands +(1869), that "the Monegar has the assistance of one of the islanders +as a Karany, to take down depositions, and to read them, for the +character used is the Arabic. In addition to these duties, the Karany +has those of the Shanbogue. He keeps the accounts of the trees, and +the coir (cocoanut fibre) in the islands, and makes out and delivers +the accounts of coir brought to the coast." + +Shikari.--Shikari, meaning a sportsman or hunter, occurs as a synonym +of Irula, and a sub-division of Korava. The name shikari is also +applied to a Native who "accompanies European sportsmen as a guide +and aid, and to the European sportsman himself." [176] + +Sholaga.--In his account of the Sholagas or Solagas, early in the +last century, Buchanan [177] writes that they "speak a bad or old +dialect of the Karnata language, have scarcely any clothing, and sleep +round a fire, lying on a few plantain leaves, and covering themselves +with others. They live chiefly on the summits of mountains, where +the tigers do not frequent, but where their naked bodies are exposed +to a disagreeable cold. Their huts are most wretched, and consist of +bamboos with both ends stuck into the ground, so as to form an arch, +which is covered with plantain leaves." The up-to-date Sholaga, who +inhabits the jungles of Coimbatore between Dimbhum and Kollegal near +the Mysore frontier, is clad in a cotton loin-cloth, supplemented +by a coat of English pattern with regimental buttons, and smears +himself freely on special occasions, such as a visit to the Government +anthropologist, with sacred ashes in mimicry of the Lingayats. + +I gather from a correspondent that the following tradition concerning +their origin is current. In days of yore there lived two brothers in +the Geddesala hills, by name Karayan and Billaya or Madheswara. The +Uralis and Sholagas are descended from Karayan, and the Sivacharis +(Lingayats) from Madheswara. The two brothers fell into the hands +of a terrible Rakshasha (demon), by name Savanan, who made Karayan +a shepherd, but imprisoned Madheswara for not paying him sufficient +respect, and extracted all kinds of menial work from him. Last of all +he ordered him to make a pair of shoes, whereupon Madheswara asked +for his liberty for a few days, to enable him to have the shoes well +made. His request being granted, Madheswara betook himself to the +god Krishnamurti, and asked him for his help in his troubles. The +god was only too happy to assist, and suggested that the shoes +should be made of wax. Helped by Krishnamurti, Madheswara made a very +beautiful-looking pair of shoes. Krishnamurti then ordered him to pile +up and light a huge bonfire on a bare rocky hill east of Geddesala, +so as to make it nearly red-hot. The ashes were then cleared away, so +as to leave no trace of their plot. Madheswara then took the shoes, +and presented them to Savanan, who was much pleased with them, and +willingly acceded to Madheswara's request that he would put them on, +and walk along the rock. But, as soon as he stepped upon it, the +shoes melted, and Savanan fell heavily on the rock, clutching hold +of Madheswara as he fell, and trying to strangle him. Krishnamurti +had assembled all the gods to witness the carrying out of the plot, +and, telling each of them to pile a stone on Savanan's head, himself +rescued Madheswara from his clutches, and all jumped upon the Rakshasha +till no trace of him was left. While this was going on, Karayan was +tending Savanan's herds in the forest, and, when he came to hear +about it, was angry with his brother for not consulting him before +destroying Savanan. Flying from Karayan, who was armed with a knife, +Madheswara implored Krishnamurti's help, by which he was able to leap +from Kotriboli to the hill called Urugamalai, a distance of some ten +miles. The force of the leap caused the hill to bend--hence its name +meaning the bending hill. Finding that the hill was bending, and being +still hotly pursued by his brother, knife in hand, Madheswara again +appealed to Krishnamurti, and was enabled to make another leap of about +five miles to a hill called Eggaraimalai, which immediately began to +subside. Hence its name, meaning the subsiding hill. Thence he fled +to Munikanal, and concealed himself under a rock, closely followed +by Karayan, who slashed the rock with his knife, and left marks which +are visible to this day. From Munikanal he fled to the hill now known +as Madheswaranamalai, and hid in a rat hole. Karayan, not being able +to unearth him, sent for a lot of shepherds, and made them pen their +sheep and cattle over the hole. The effluvium became too strong for +the fugitive, so he surrendered himself to his brother, who pardoned +him on the understanding that, on deification, Karayan should have +prior claim to all votive offerings. To this Madheswara agreed, and +to this day Sivacharis, when doing puja, first make their offerings to +Karayan and afterwards to Madheswara. In connection with this legend, +any one proceeding to the top of Kotriboli hill at the present day is +expected to place a stone upon the rock, with the result that there +are many piles of stones there. Even Europeans are asked to do this. + +The Sholagas are said to call themselves men of five kulams, +or exogamous septs, among which are Chalikiri, Teneru, Belleri, +Surya (the sun), and Aleru. By members of the twelve kulam class, +everything is done by twelves. For example, on the twelfth day after a +birth, twelve elders are invited to the house to bless the child. At +a marriage, twelve of the bridegroom's relations go and fetch the +bride, and the wedding pandal (booth) has twelve posts. The parents +of the bridegroom pay twelve rupees to the bride's father, and a tali +(marriage badge) worth twelve annas is tied round the bride's neck. In +case of death, the body is borne on a stretcher made of twelve bamboos, +and mourning lasts for twelve days. + +Tribal disputes, e.g., quarrelling and adultery, are decided by +the Yejamana, assisted by a Pattagara and a few leading men of the +community. Under the orders of the two former is the Chalavathi or +village servant. The Yejamana, Pattagara, and Chalavathi must belong +respectively to the Chalikiri, Teneri, and Surya septs. + +When a girl reaches puberty, she occupies a separate hut for five days, +and then returns home after a bath. The maternal uncle should present +her with a new cloth, betel leaves and areca nuts, and plantain +fruits. In the formal marriage ceremony, the tali is tied by the +bridegroom inside a booth; the maternal uncle, if he can afford it, +presents a new cloth to the bride, and a feast is held. Sometimes +even this simple rite is dispensed with, and the couple, without any +formality, live together as man and wife, on the understanding that, at +some time, a feast must be given to a few of the community. I am told +that the Sholagas of the Burghur hills have a very extraordinary way +of treating expectant mothers. A few days before the event is expected +to take place, the husband takes his wife right away into the jungle, +and leaves her there alone with three days' supply of food. There +she has to stay, and do the best she can for herself. If she does not +come back at the end of the three days, the husband goes out and takes +her more food. But she may not return to her village till the baby is +born. When one of these unfortunate creatures comes back safely, there +is a great celebration in her honour, with beating of tom-tom, etc. + +The dead are buried with the body lying on its left side, and the +head to the south. On their return home from a funeral, those who +have been present thereat salute a lighted lamp. On the spot where +the dead person breathed his last, a little ragi (Eleusine Coracana) +paste and water are placed, and here, on the fourth day, a goat is +sacrificed, and offered up to the soul of the departed. After this +the son proceeds to the burial ground, carrying a stone, and followed +by men selected from each of the exogamous septs. Arrived near the +grave, they sit down, while the son places the stone on the ground, +and they then lift it in succession. The last man to do so is said +to fall into a trance. On his recovery, leaves (plantain, teak, +etc.) corresponding in number to the exogamous septs, are arranged +round the stone, and, on each leaf, different kinds of food are +placed. The men partake of the food, each from the leaf allotted to +his sept. The meal concluded, the son holds the stone in his hands, +while his companions pour ragi and water over it, and then carries it +away to the gopamane (burial-ground) of his sept, and sets it up there. + +On the occasion of a death in a Mala Vellala village, the Sholagas +come in crowds, with clarionets and drums, and bells on their legs, +and dance in front of the house. And the corpse is borne, in musical +procession, to the burning-ground. + +The staple food of the Sholagas is ragi paste and yams (Dioscorea), +which, like the Uralis, they supplement by sundry jungle animals +and birds. Paroquets they will not eat, as they regard them as their +children. + +Their main occupation is to collect minor forest produce, myrabolams, +vembadam bark (Ventilago madraspatana), avaram bark (Cassia +auriculata), deers' horns, tamarinds, gum, honey, soap-nuts, sheekoy +(Acacia Concinna),etc. The forests have been divided into blocks, +and a certain place within each block has been selected for the +forest depôt. To this place the collecting agents, mostly Sholagas +and Uralis, bring the produce, and there it is sorted and paid for +by special supervisors appointed for the work. + +In the Coimbatore district the Sholagas are said to collect honey +from rocky crevices. The combs are much larger than those found on +trees, and are supposed to contain twice as much wax in proportion +to the honey. On the Nilgiri hills honey-combs are collected by Jen +Kurumbas and Sholagas. The supply of honey varies according to the +nature of the season, and is especially plentiful and of good quality +when Strobilanthes Wightianus, S. Kunthiana, and other species are +in flower. + +It has been said that even wild beasts will scent a Sholaga, and flee +before the aroma. + +The Sholagas, who were examined by Dr. Rivers and myself, came to the +conclusion that the object of our enquiry was to settle them in a +certain place near London, and that the wools of different colours +(used for testing colour vision) given to them for selection, +were for tying them captive with. Others said that they could not +understand why the different organs of their bodies were measured; +perhaps to reduce or increase the size of their body to suit the +different works, which they were expected to do near London. It has +been pointed out to me, as an interesting fact, that a similarity +of idea concerning the modification of different organs to suit men +for the doing of special work has been arrived at by the jungle folk, +and by Mr. Wells in his book, 'The first men in the moon,' where the +lunar inhabitants are described as carrying on the practice. + +Of the experiences of a Sholaga when out with a European on a shooting +expedition, the following account has recently been given. [178] +"My husband was after a bear, and tracked Bruin to his cave. He had +torches made, and these he ordered to be thrust into the cave in the +hope of smoking the bear out, but, as nothing happened, he went into +the cave, accompanied by a Sholigar carrying a torch. As soon as they +got used to the light, they saw a small aperture leading into an inner +cave, and the Sholigar was told to put the torch in there. Hardly was +this done, when out rushed a large bear, knocking over the Sholigar, +and extinguishing the torch. My husband could not get his gun up in +time to fire, as the bear rushed through the cave into the jungle. Just +as the Sholigar was picking himself up, out rushed another bear. This +time my husband was ready, and fired. To the Sholigar's horror, Bruin +sank down wounded at the entrance to the outer cave, thus blocking the +exit, and keeping both tracker and my husband prisoners. The Sholigar +began whimpering, saying he was the father of a large family, and +did not wish to leave the children fatherless. Soon the bear, though +very badly wounded, managed to get to its feet, and crawl away into +the jungle, so liberating the prisoners." + +Concerning the Sholagas of the Mysore Province, [179] I gather +that they "inhabit the depths of the forests clothing the foot and +slopes of the Biligirirangam hills. They cultivate with the hoe small +patches of jungle clearings. Their chief god is Biligiri Rangasvami, +but they also worship Karaiyya, their tribal tutelary deity. Their +principal food is the ragi, which they grow, supplemented by wild +forest produce. They are partial to the flesh of deer, antelope, +pigs, sheep and goats. A few of them have, in recent years, come to +own lands. Like the Jenu Kurumbas, they are perfect trackers of wild +animals. Three kinds of marriage prevail among them. The first is +affected by the more well-to-do, who perform the ceremony with much +éclat under a shed with twelve pillars (bamboo posts), accompanied +by music and festivities, which continue for three days. The second +is more common, and seems to be a modified form of concubinage. The +poorer members resort to the third kind, which consists in the couple +eloping to a distant jungle, and returning home only after the bride +has become a mother. They speak a patois, allied to old Canarese or +Hale Kannada." [180] + +Shola Naiker.--A synonym of Jen Kurumbas in the Wynad. + +Sibbi Dhompti (brass vessel offering).--A subdivision of Madigas, +who, at marriages, offer food to the god in brass vessels. + +Siddaru.--A synonym of Jogi mendicants. + +Sika (kudumi or hair-knot).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Sikili (broom).--An exogamous sept of Madiga. + +Sikligar.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, eleven individuals +are returned as belonging to an Upper India caste of knife-grinders +(Sikligar). In the Madura Manual, Sikilkarars are described as +knife-grinders, who wander about in quest of work from village +to village. + +Sila (stone).--An exogamous sept of Omanaito. + +Silam (good conduct).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Silavant.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Silavant is recorded +as meaning the virtuous, and as being a sub-sect of Lingayats. In +the Mysore Census Report, Silavanta is given as a name for Lingayat +Nayindas. For the following note on the Silavantalu or Silevantalu +of Vizagapatam, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. + +They are a sect of Lingayats, who, though they do not admit it, appear +to be an offshoot of Pattu Sales, who became converts to the Lingayat +religion. They are engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths for males +and females. The religious observances which secured them their name, +meaning those who practice or possess particular religious customs, +have been thus described. In the seventh month of pregnancy, at the +time of quickening, a small stone linga is enclosed in black lac, +wrapped in a piece of silk cloth, and tied to the thread of the linga +which is on the woman's neck. The child is thus invested with the +linga while still in utero. When it is about a year old, and weaned, +the linga is taken off the mother's neck, and replaced by a silver +locket. The linga is tied on the neck of the child. At the beginning +of the twelfth year in the case of boys, and just before the marriage +of girls, this linga is taken off, and a fresh one suspended round +the neck by a guru. + +The Silavantalu are divided into exogamous septs, or intiperulu. The +custom of menarikam, whereby a man marries his maternal uncle's +daughter, is the rule. But, if the maternal uncle has no daughter, +he must find a suitable bride for his nephew. Girls are married before +puberty, and a Jangam, known as Mahesvara, officiates at weddings. + +The dead are buried in a sitting posture, facing north. The linga is +suspended round the neck of the corpse, and buried with it. Six small +copper plates are made, each containing a syllable of the invocation +Om na ma Si va ya. Two of these are placed on the thighs of the corpse, +one on the head, one on the navel, and two on the shoulders, and stuck +on with guggilam paste. The corpse is then tied up in a sack. The +relatives offer flowers to it, and burn camphor before it. The grave +is dug several feet deep, and a cavity or cell is made on the southern +side of it, and lined with bamboo matting. The corpse is placed within +the cell, and salt thrown into the grave before it is filled in. A +Jangam officiates at the funeral. Monthly and annual death ceremonies +are performed. A samathi or monument is erected over the grave. Such +a monument may be either in the form of a square mound (brindavan) +with niches for lights and a hole in the top, in which a tulsi (Ocimum +sanctum) is planted, or in the form of a small chamber. Relations go +occasionally to the grave, whereon they deposit flowers, and place +lights in the niches or chamber. + +The Silavantalu are strict vegetarians and total abstainers. Their +titles are Ayya and Lingam. + +Silpa (artisan).--A sub-division of the Kammalans, Panchalas or +Kamsalas, whose hereditary occupation is that of stone-masons. In the +Silpa Sastra, the measurements necessary in sculpture, the duties +of a Silpi, etc., are laid down. I am informed that the carver of +a stone idol has to select a male or female stone, according as the +idol is to be a god or goddess, and that the sex of a stone can be +determined by its ring when struck. + +Sindhu.--The Sindhuvallu (drummers) are Madigas, who go about +acting scenes from the Ramayana or Mahabharatha, and the story of +Ankamma. Sindhu also occurs as a gotra of Kurni. The beating of +the drum called sindhu is, I gather, sometimes a nuisance, for a +missionary writes to the paper enquiring whether there is any order +of Government against it, as the practice "causes much crime, and +creates extra work for police and magistrates. Village officials +believe they have no authority to suppress it, but there are some +who assert that it is nominally forbidden." + +Singamu-varu.--Singam is described, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as a class of beggars, who beg only from Sales. They are, +however, described by Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao as a class of itinerant +mendicants attached to the Devangas. "The name," he writes, "is +a variant of Simhamu-varu, or lion-men, i.e., as valourous as a +lion. They are paid a small sum annually by each Devanga village +for various services which they render, such as carrying fire before +a Devanga corpse to the burial-ground, acting as caste messengers, +and cleaning the weaving instruments." + +Sinnata (gold).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Siolo.--A small class of Oriya toddy-drawers, whose touch conveys +pollution. The Sondis, who are an Oriya caste of toddy-sellers, +purchase their liquor from the Siolos. + +Sipiti.--The Sipitis are described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, +as "Oriya temple priests and drummers; a sub-caste of Ravulo." In +an account of them as given to me, they are stated to be Smartas, +and temple priests of village deities, who wear the sacred thread, +but do not employ Brahmans as purohits, and are regarded as somewhat +lower in the social scale than the Ravulos. Some of their females are +said to have been unrecognised prostitutes, but the custom is dying +out. The caste title is Muni. (See Ravulo.) + +Sir.--A sub-division of Kanakkan. + +Sirpadam.--A sub-division of Kaikolan. + +Sirukudi.--A nadu or territorial division of Kallan. + +Siru Tali.--The name, indicating those who wear a small tali (marriage +badge), of a sub-division of Kaikolan and Maravan. + +Sitikan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as an +occupational sub-division of Maran. + +Sitra.--See Pano. + +Siva Brahmana.--Recorded as a synonym of Stanika. + +Sivachara.--It is noted, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, +that the Lingayats call themselves "Vira Saivas, Sivabhaktas, or +Sivachars. The Virasaiva religion consists of numerous castes. It +is a religion consisting of representatives from almost every caste +in Hindu society. People of all castes, from the highest to the +lowest, have embraced the religion. There are Sivachar Brahmins, +Sivachar Kshatriyas, Sivachar Vaisyas, Sivachar carpenters, Sivachar +weavers, Sivachar goldsmiths, Sivachar potters, Sivachar washermen, +and Sivachar barbers, and other low castes who have all followed the +popular religion in large numbers." + +Sivadvija.--The name, denoting Saivite Brahman, by which Mussads like +to be called. Also recorded as a synonym of Stanika. + +Sivaratri.--An exogamous sept of Odde, named after the annual +Mahasivaratri festival in honour of Siva. Holy ashes, sacred to Siva, +prepared by Smartas on this day, are considered to be very pure. + +Sivarchaka.--The word means those who do puja (worship) to +Siva. Priests at the temple of village deities are ordinarily known +as Pujari, Pusali, Occhan, etc., but nowadays prefer the title of +Umarchaka or Sivarchaka. The name Sivala occurs in the Madras Census +Report, 1901. + +Siviyar.--Siviyar means literally a palanquin-bearer, and is an +occupational name applied to those employed in that capacity. For this +reason a sub-division of the Idaiyans is called Siviyar. The Siviyars +of Coimbatore say that they have no connection with either Idaiyans or +Toreyas, but are Besthas who emigrated from Mysore during the troublous +times of the Muhammadan usurpation. The name Siviyar is stated to have +been given to them by the Tamils, as they were palanquin-bearers to +officers on circuit and others in the pre-railway days. They claim +origin, on the authority of a book called Parvatharaja Charithum, +from Parvatharaja. Their main occupations at the present day are tank +and river fishing, but some are petty traders, physicians, peons, +etc. Their language is Canarese, and their title Naickan. They have +eighteen marriage divisions or gotras, named after persons from whom +the various gotras are said to have been descended. On occasions +of marriage, when betel leaf is distributed, it must be given to +members of the different gotras in their order of precedence. In +cases of adultery, the guilty parties are tied to a post, and beaten +with tamarind switches. When a grown-up but unmarried person dies, +the corpse is made to go through a mock marriage with a human figure +cut out of a palm leaf. + +Sodabisiya.--A sub-division of Domb. + +Soi.--A title of Doluva. It is a form of Sui or Swayi. + +Solaga.--See Sholaga. + +Soliyan.--Soliyan or Soliya is a territorial name, meaning an +inhabitant of the Chola country, recorded as a sub-division of Karnam, +Idaiyan, Pallan, and Vellala. The equivalent Solangal occurs as an +exogamous sept of Vallamban, and Soliya illam (Malayalam, house) +as an exogamous sept of Panikkans in the Tamil country. Some Pallis +style themselves Solakanar (descendants of Chola kings), or Solakula +Kshatriya. (See Sozhia.) + +Somakshatri.--A name sometimes adopted by Canarese Ganigas in South +Canara. + +Somara.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small +class of potters in the Vizagapatam hills. + +Somari (idler).--A division of Yanadis, who do scavenging work, and eat +the refuse food thrown away by people from the leaf plate after a meal. + +Soma Varada (Sunday).--The name of Kurubas who worship their god +on Sundays. + +Sonagan.--See Jonagan. + +Sonar.--The Sonars or Sonagaras of South Canara are described by +Mr. H. A. Stuart [181] as a goldsmith caste, who "speak Konkani, which +is a dialect of Marathi, and are believed to have come from Goa. The +community at each station has one or two Mukhtesars or headmen, +who enquire into, and settle the caste affairs. Serious offences are +reported to the swamy of Sode, who has authority to excommunicate, or +to inflict heavy fines. They wear the sacred thread. Marriages within +the same gotra are strictly prohibited. Most of them are Vaishnavites, +but a few follow Siva. The dead are burned, and the ashes are thrown +into a river. They eat fish, but not flesh. Their title is Setti." They +consider it derogatory to work in metals other than gold and silver. + +In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Sunnari (or Sonnari) are +described as Oriya goldsmiths (see Risley, Tribes and Castes of +Bengal, Sonar). These goldsmiths, in the Oriya portion of the +Madras Presidency, are, I am informed, Kamsalas from the Telugu +country. Unlike the Oriyas, and like other Telugu classes, they +invariably have a house-name, and their mother tongue is Telugu. They +are Saivites, bury their dead, claim to be descendants of Viswakarma, +and call themselves Viswa Brahmans. They do not eat meals prepared +by Brahmans, or drink water at the hands of Brahmans. + +In former times, goldsmiths held the post of Nottakaran (tester) or +village shroff (money-changer). His function was to test the rupees +tendered when the land revenue was being gathered in, and see that +they were not counterfeit. There is a proverb, uncomplimentary to the +goldsmiths, to the effect that a goldsmith cannot make an ornament +even for his wife, without first secreting some of the gold or silver +given him for working upon. + +It has been noted [182] that "in Madras, an exceedingly poor country, +there is one male goldsmith to every 408 of the total population; in +England, a very rich country, there is only one goldsmith to every +1,200 inhabitants. In Europe, jewellery is primarily for ornament, +and is a luxury. In India it is primarily an investment, its ornamental +purpose being an incident." + +The South Indian goldsmith at work has been well described as +follows. [183] "A hollow, scooped out in the middle of the mud +floor (of a room or verandah), does duty for the fireplace, while, +close by, there is raised a miniature embankment, semi-circular in +shape, with a hole in the middle of the base for the insertion of +the bellows. Crucibles of clay or cow-dung, baked hard in the sun, +tongs and hammers, potsherds of charcoal, dirty tins of water, and +little packets of sal-ammoniac, resin, or other similar substances, +all lie scattered about the floor in picturesque confusion. Sitting, +or rather crouching on their haunches, are a couple of the Panchala +workmen. One of them is blowing a pan of charcoal into flame through an +iron tube some eighteen inches long by one in diameter, and stirring +up the loose charcoal. Another is hammering at a piece of silver +wire on a little anvil before him. With his miserable tools the Hindu +goldsmith turns out work that well might, and often deservedly does, +rank with the greatest triumphs of the jeweller's art." + +Sondi.--The Sondis or Sundis are summed up in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as "Oriya toddy-selling caste. They do not draw toddy themselves, +but buy it from Siolos, and sell it. They also distill arrack." The +word arrack or arak, it may be noted en passant, means properly +"perspiration, and then, first the exudation of sap drawn from the +date-palm; secondly, any strong drink, distilled spirit, etc." [184] +A corruption of the word is rack, which occurs, e.g., in rack punch. + +According to a Sanskrit work, entitled Parasarapaddati, Soundikas +(toddy-drawers and distillers of arrack) are the offspring of a +Kaivarata male and a Gaudike female. Both these castes are pratiloma +(mixed) castes. In the Matsya Purana, the Soundikas are said to +have been born to Siva of seven Apsara women on the bank of the +river Son. Manu refers to the Soundikas, and says that a Snataka +[185] may not accept food from trainers of hunting dogs, Soundikas, +a washerman, a dyer, pitiless man, and a man in whose house lives a +paramour of his wife. + +In a note on the allied Sunris or Sundis of Bengal, Mr. Risley writes +[186] that "according to Hindu ideas, distillers and sellers of strong +drink rank among the most degraded castes, and a curious story in the +Vaivarta Purana keeps alive the memory of their degradation. It is said +that when Sani, the Hindu Saturn, failed to adapt an elephant's head +to the mutilated trunk of Ganesa, who had been accidentally beheaded +by Siva, Viswakarma, the celestial artificer, was sent for, and by +careful dissection and manipulation he fitted the incongruous parts +together, and made a man called Kedara Sena from the slices cut off in +fashioning his work. This Kedara Sena was ordered to fetch a drink of +water for Bhagavati, weary and athirst. Finding on the river's bank a +shell full of water, he presented it to her, without noticing that a +few grains of rice left in it by a parrot had fermented and formed an +intoxicating liquid. Bhagavati, as soon as she had drunk, became aware +of the fact, and in her anger condemned the offender to the vile and +servile occupation of making spirituous liquor for mankind. Another +story traces their origin to a certain Bhaskar or Bhaskar Muni, who +was created by Krishna's brother, Balaram, to minister to his desire +for strong drink. A different version of the same legend gives them +for ancestor Niranjan, a boy found by Bhaskar floating down a river +in a pot full of country liquor, and brought up by him as a distiller." + +For the following note on the Sondis of Vizagapatam, I am indebted to +Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. According to a current tradition, there was, in +days of old, a Brahman, who was celebrated for his magical powers. The +king, his patron, asked him if he could make the water in a tank (pond) +burn, and he replied in the affirmative. He was, however, in reality +disconsolate, because he did not know how to do it. By chance he met a +distiller, who asked him why he looked so troubled, and, on learning +his difficulty, promised to help him on condition that he gave him +his daughter in marriage. To this the Brahman consented. The distiller +gave him a quantity of liquor to pour into the tank, and told him to +set it alight in the presence of the king. The Brahman kept his word, +and the Sondis are the descendants of the offspring of his daughter and +the distiller. The caste is divided into several endogamous divisions, +viz., Bodo Odiya, Madhya kula, and Sanno kula. The last is said to +be made up of illegitimate descendants of the two first divisions. + +The Sondis distil liquor from the ippa (Bassia) flower, rice, and +jaggery (crude sugar). There is a tradition that Brahma created the +world, and pinched up from a point between his eyebrows a little mud, +from which he made a figure, and endowed it with life. Thus Suka Muni +was created, and authorised to distil spirit from the ippa flowers, +which had hitherto been eaten by birds. + +When a girl reaches puberty, she is set apart in a room within +a square enclosure made with four arrows connected together by a +thread. Turmeric and oil are rubbed over her daily, and, on the +seventh day, she visits the local shrine. + +Girls are married before puberty. Some days before a wedding, a sal +(Shorea robusta) or neredu (Eugenia Jambolana) post is set up in +front of the bridegroom's house, and a pandal (booth) erected round +it. On the appointed day, a caste feast is held, and a procession +of males proceeds to the bride's house, carrying with them finger +rings, silver and glass bangles, and fifty rupees as the jholla tonka +(bride price). On the following day, the bride goes to the house of the +bridegroom. On the marriage day, the contracting couple go seven times +round the central post of the pandal, and their hands are joined by +the presiding Oriya Brahman. They then sit down, and the sacred fire +is raised. The females belonging to the bridegroom's party sprinkle +them with turmeric and rice. On the following day, a Bhondari (barber) +cleans the pandal, and draws patterns in it with rice flour. A mat +is spread, and the couple play with cowry shells. These are five +in number, and the bridegroom holds them tightly in his right hand, +while the bride tries to wrest them from him. If she succeeds in so +doing, her brothers beat the bridegroom, and make fun of him; if +she fails, the bridegroom's sisters beat and make fun of her. The +bride then takes hold of the cowries, and the same performance is +gone through. A basket of rice is brought, and some of it poured +into a vessel. The bridegroom holds a portion of it in his hand, and +the bride asks him to put it back. This, after a little coaxing, he +consents to do. These ceremonies are repeated during the next five +days. On the seventh day, small quantities of food are placed on +twelve leaves, and twelve Brahmans, who receive a present of money, +sit down, and partake thereof. The marriage of widows is permitted, +and a younger brother may marry the widow of an elder brother. + +The dead are burned, and death pollution lasts for ten days. Daily, +during this period, cooked food is strewed on the way leading to the +burning-ground. On the eleventh day, those under pollution bathe, +and the sacred fire (homam) is raised by a Brahman. As at a wedding, +twelve Brahmans receive food and money. Towards midnight, a new pot +is brought, and holes are bored in it. A lighted lamp and food are +placed in it, and it is taken towards the burning-ground and set down +on the ground. The dead man's name is then called out three times. He +is informed that food is ready, and asked to come. + +Men, but not women, eat animal food. The women will not partake of +the remnants of their husbands' meal on days on which they eat meat, +because, according to the legend, their female ancestor was a Brahman +woman. + +Among the Sondis of Ganjam, if a girl does not secure a husband +before she reaches maturity, she goes through a form of marriage +with an old man of the caste, or with her elder sister's husband, +and may not marry until the man with whom she has performed this +ceremony dies. On the wedding day, the bridegroom is shaved, and his +old waist-thread is replaced by a new one. The ceremonies commence +with the worship of Ganesa, and agree in the main with those of many +other Oriya castes. The remarriage of widows is permitted. If a widow +was the wife of the first-born or eldest son in a family, she may not, +after his death, marry one of his younger brothers. She may, however, +do so if she was married in the first instance to a second son. + +It is noted by Mr. C. F. MacCartie, in the Madras Census Report, 1881, +that "a good deal of land has been sold by Khond proprietors to other +castes. It was in this way that much territory was found some years +ago to be passing into the hands of the Sundis or professional liquor +distillers. As soon as these facts were brought to the notice of +Government, no time was lost in the adoption of repressive measures, +which have been completely successful, as the recent census shows a +great reduction in the numbers of these Sundis, who, now that their +unscrupulous trade is abolished, have emigrated largely to Boad +and other tracts. This is the only case to my knowledge in which a +special trade has decayed, and with the best results, as, had it not +been so, there is no doubt that the Khond population would very soon +have degenerated into pure adscripti glebæ, and the Sundis become +the landlords." + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district, that +"besides ippa (liquor distilled from the blossom of Bassia latifolia), +the hill people brew beer from rice, samai (the millet Panicum +miliare), and ragi (Eleusine Coracana). They mash the grain in the +ordinary manner, add some more water to it, mix a small quantity +of ferment with it, leave it to ferment three or four days, and +then strain off the grain. The beer so obtained is often highly +intoxicating, and different kinds of it go by different names, +such as londa, pandiyam, and maddikallu. The ferment which is used +is called the saraiya-mandu (spirit drug) or Sondi-mandu (Sondi's +drug), and can be bought in the weekly market. There are numerous +recipes for making it, but the ingredients are always jungle roots +and barks. [187] It is sold made up into small balls with rice. The +actual shop-keepers and still-owners in the hills, especially in the +Parvatipur and Palkonda agencies, are usually immigrants of the Sondi +caste, a wily class who know exactly how to take advantage of the sin +which doth so easily beset the hill man, and to wheedle from him, in +exchange for the strong drink which he cannot do without, his ready +money, his little possessions, his crops, and finally his land itself. + +"The Sondis are gradually getting much of the best land into +their hands, and many of the guileless hill ryots into their +power. Mr. Taylor stated in 1892 that 'the rate of interest on loans +extorted by these Sondis is 100 per cent. and, if this is not cleared +off in the first year, compound interest at 100 per cent. is charged on +the balance. The result is that, in many instances, the cultivators +are unable to pay in cash or kind, and become the gotis or serfs +of the sowcars, for whom they have to work in return for mere batta +(subsistence allowance), whilst the latter take care to manipulate +their accounts in such a manner that the debt is never paid off. A +remarkable instance of this tyranny was brought to my notice a few +days since. A ryot some fifty years ago borrowed Rs. 20; he paid back +Rs. 50 at intervals, and worked for the whole of his life, and died +in harness. For the same debt the sowcar (money-lender) claimed the +services of his son, and he too died in bondage, leaving two small sons +aged 13 and 9, whose services were also claimed for an alleged arrear +of Rs. 30 on a debt of Rs. 20 borrowed 50 years back, for which Rs. 50 +in cash had been repaid in addition to the perpetual labour of a man +for a similar period.' This custom of goti is firmly established, and, +in a recent case, an elder brother claimed to be able to pledge for +his own debts the services of his younger brother, and even those of +the latter's wife. Debts due by persons of respectability are often +collected by the Sondis by an exasperating method, which has led +to at least one case of homicide. They send Ghasis, who are one of +the lowest of all castes, and contact with whom is utter defilement +entailing severe caste penalties, to haunt the house of the debtor who +will not pay, insult and annoy him and his family, and threaten to +drag him forcibly before the Sondi." A friend was, on one occasion, +out after big game in the Jeypore hills, and shot a tiger. He asked +his shikari (tracker) what reward he should give him for putting him +on to the beast. The shikari replied that he would be quite satisfied +with twenty-five rupees, as he wanted to get his younger brother out +of pledge. Asked what he meant, he replied that, two years previously, +he had purchased as his wife a woman who belonged to a caste higher +than his own for a hundred rupees. He obtained the money by pledging +his younger brother to a sowcar, and had paid it all back except +twenty-five rupees. Meanwhile his brother was the bondsman of the +sowcar, and cultivating his land in return for simple food. + +It is further recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district, +that Dombu (or Domb) dacoits "force their way into the house of +some wealthy person (for choice the local Sondi liquor-seller and +sowcar--usually the only man worth looting in an Agency village, +and a shark who gets little pity from his neighbours when forced to +disgorge), tie up the men, rape the women, and go off with everything +of value." + +The titles of the Ganjam Sondis are Behara, Chowdri, Podhano, +and Sahu. In the Vizagapatam agency tracts, their title is said to +be Bissoyi. + +Sonkari.--The Sonkaris are a small class of Oriya lac bangle (sonka) +makers in Ganjam and Vizagapatam, who should not be confused with the +Telugu Sunkaris. The men are engaged in agriculture, and the women +manufacture the bangles, chains, chamaras (fly-flappers), kolatam +sticks (for stick play), and fans ornamented with devices in paddy +(unhusked rice) grains, which are mainly sold to Europeans as curios. + +Sonkari girls are married before puberty. A man should marry his +paternal aunt's daughter, but at the present day this custom is +frequently disregarded. Brahmans officiate at their marriages. The +dead are cremated. The caste title is Patro. + +Sonkuva.--A sub-division of Mali. + +Sonti (dried ginger).--An exogamous sept of Asili. + +Soppu (leaf).--The name for Koragas, who wear leafy garments. + +Sozhia.--A territorial name of sub-divisions of various Tamil classes +who are settled in what was formerly the Chola country, e.g., Brahman, +Chetti, Kaikolan, Kammalan, Pallan, and Vellala. + +Srishti Karnam.--A sub-division of Karnam. The name is variously spelt, +e.g., Sristi, Sishta, Sishti. The name Sishti Karanamalu is said to +have been assumed by Oddilu, who have raised themselves in life. [188] + +Stala (a place).--Lingayats sometimes use the word Staladavaru, +or natives of a place, to distinguish them from recent settlers. + +Stanika.--The Stanikas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as being "Canarese temple servants. They claim to be Brahmans, +though other Brahmans do not admit the claim; and, as the total of the +caste has declined from 4,650 in 1891 to 1,469, they have apparently +returned themselves as Brahmans in considerable numbers." The Stanikas +are, in the South Canara Manual, said to be "the descendants of +Brahmins by Brahmin widows and outcast Brahmin women, corresponding +with Manu's Golaka. They however now claim to be Siva Brahmins, +forcibly dispossessed of authority by the Madhvas, and state that +the name Stanika is not that of a separate caste, but indicates their +profession as managers of temples, with the title of Deva Stanika. This +claim is not generally conceded, and as a matter of fact the duties +in which Stanikas are employed are clearly those of temple servants, +namely, collecting flowers, sweeping the interiors of temples, looking +after the lamps, cleaning the temple vessels, ringing bells, and the +like. Many of them, however, are landowners and farmers. They are +generally Sivites, and wear the sacred thread. Their special deities +are Venkatramana and Ganapati. Dravida Brahmins officiate as their +priests, but of late some educated men of the caste have assumed the +priestly office. The caste has two sub-divisions, viz., Subramania and +Kumbla. Girls must be married in infancy, i.e., before they attain +puberty. Widow remarriage is neither permitted nor practiced. Their +other customs are almost the same as those of the Kota Brahmans. They +neither eat flesh nor drink liquor." It is stated in the Manual that +the Stanikas are called Shanbogs and Mukhtesars. But I am informed that +at an inquest or a search the Moktessors or Mukhtesars (chief men) +of a village are assembled, and sign the inquest report or search +list. The Moktessors of any caste can be summoned together. Some of +the Moktessors of a temple may be Stanikas. In the case of social +disputes decided at caste meetings, the Shanbog (writer or accountant) +appointed by the caste would record the evidence, and the Moktessor +would decide upon the facts. + +Of the two sections Subramanya and Kumbla, the former claim +superiority, and there is no intermarriage between them. The members of +the Subramanya section state that they belong to Rig Saka (Rig Veda) +and have gotras, such as Viswamitra, Angirasa, and Baradwaja, and +twelve exogamous septs. Of these septs, the following are examples:-- + + + Arli (Ficus religiosa). Konde, tassel or hair-knot. + Aththi (Ficus glomerata). Adhikari. + Bandi, cart. Pandita. + Kethaki (Pandanus fascicularis). Heggade. + + +The famous temple of Subramanya is said to have been in charge of the +Subramanya Stanikas, till it was wrested from them by the Shivalli +Brahmans. In former times, the privilege of sticking a golden ladle +into a heap of food piled up in the temple, on the Shasti day or sixth +day after the new moon in December, is said to have belonged to the +Stanikas. They also brought earth from an ant-hill on the previous +day. Food from the heap and earth are received as sacred articles by +devotees who visit the sacred shrine. A large number of Stanikas are +still attached to temples, where they perform the duties of cleaning +the vessels, washing rice, placing cooked food on the bali pitam (altar +stone), etc. The food placed on the stone is eaten by Stanikas, but +not by Brahmans. In the Mysore province, a Brahman woman who partakes +of this food loses her caste, and becomes a prostitute. + +At times of census, Sivadvija and Siva Brahman have been given as +synonyms of Stanika. + +Sthavara.--Recorded, at times of census, as a sub-division of +Jangam. The lingam, which Lingayats carry on some part of the body, +is called the jangama lingam or moveable lingam, to distinguish it +from the sthavara or fixed lingam of temples. + +Subuddhi.--A title, meaning one having good sense, among several +Oriya castes. + +Sudarman.--See Udaiyan. + +Suddho.--Two distinct castes go by this name, viz., the Savaras who +have settled in the plains, and a small class of agriculturists and +paiks (servants) in the low country of Ganjam. The Suddhos who live +in the hills eat fowls and drink liquor, which those in the plains +abstain from. The caste name Suddho means pure, and is said to have its +origin in the fact that Suddho paiks used to tie the turbans of the +kings of Gumsur. Like other Oriya castes, the Suddhos have Podhano, +Bissoyi, Behara, etc., as titles. The caste has apparently come into +existence in recent times. + +Sudra.--The fourth of the traditional castes of Manu. The Sudra Nayars +supply the female servants in the houses of Nambutiris. + +Sudra Kavutiyan.--A name adopted by barbers who shave Nayars, to +distinguish them from other barbers. + +Sudugadusiddha.--The name is derived from sudugadu, a +burning-ground. In the Mysore Census Report, 1901, they are +described as being "mendicants like the Jogis, like whom they +itinerate. They were once lords of burning-grounds, to whom the +Kulavadi (see Holeya), who takes the cloth of the deceased and a fee +for every dead body burned, paid something as acknowledging their +overlordship." These people are described by Mr. J. S. F. Mackenzie, +[189] under the name Sudgudu Siddha, or lords of the burning-ground, +as agents who originally belonged to the Gangadikara Vakkaliga caste, +and have become a separate caste, called after their head Sudgudu +Siddharu. They intermarry among themselves, and the office of agent is +hereditary. They have particular tracts of country assigned to them, +when on tour collecting burial fees. They can be recognised by the +wooden bell in addition to the usual metal one, which they always +carry about. Without this no one would acknowledge the agent's right +to collect the fees. + +Sugali.--Sugali and Sukali are synonyms of Lambadi. + +Sugamanchi Balija.--A name said to mean the best of Balijas, and used +as a synonym for Gazula Balija. + +Sukka (star).--An exogamous sept of Yerukala. The equivalent Sukra +occurs as a gotra of Oriya Kalinjis. + +Sule.--A Canarese name for professional prostitutes. Temple +dancing-girls object to the name, as being low. They call themselves +Vesyas or Besyas, Naiksani, or Naikini (Naik females). + +Sullokondia.--The highest sub-division of the Gaudos, from whose +hands Oriya Brahmans will accept water. + +Sunar.--See Sonar. + +Sundarattan.--A sub-division of Nattukottai Chetti. + +Sundi.--See Sondi. + +Sunkari.--The Sunkari or Sunkara-vandlu are cultivators, fishermen, +and raftsmen in the Godavari district. According to the Rev. J. Cain +[190] they come from some part of the Central Provinces, and are not +regarded as outcasts, as stated in the Central Provinces Gazetteer. + +Sunna Akki (thin rice).--A family name or bedagu of Donga Dasari. + +Sunnambukkaran (lime man).--An occupational name for Paravas, +Paraiyans, and other classes, who are employed as lime (chunam) +burners. Sunnapu, meaning shell or quick-lime, occurs as an exogamous +sept of Balija. + +Sunnata.--A sub-division of Kurumbas, who are said to make only +white blankets. + +Surakkudi.--A section or kovil (temple) of Nattukottai Chetti. + +Surti.--The name for domestic servants of Europeans in Bombay, who +come from Surat. + +Surya (the sun).--Recorded as a sept of Domb, Kuruba, and Pentiya, +and a sub-division of Ambalakkaran. The equivalent Suryavamsam (people +of the solar race) occurs as a sub-division of Razu, and as a synonym +of the Konda Doras or Konda Kapus, some of whom style themselves Raja +(= Razu) Kapus or Reddis. + +Sutakulam.--A name by which the Besthas call themselves. They claim +descent from the Rishi Suta Mahamuni. It has been suggested [191] +as probable that the Besthas gained the name from their superiority +in the culinary art, suta meaning cook. + +Sutarlu.--Recorded by the Rev. J. Cain [192] as bricklayers and masons +in the Godavari district. + +Suthala (needle).--An exogamous sept of Kamma. + +Svarupam.--Svarupam has been defined [193] as "a dynasty, +usually confined to the four principal dynasties, termed the Kola, +Nayaririppu, Perimbadappu, and Trippa Svarupam, represented by the +Kolatiri or Chirakal Rajah, the Zamorin, and the Cochin and Travancore +Rajahs." Svarupakkar or Svarupathil, meaning servants of Svarupams +or kingly houses, is an occupational sub-division of Nayar. + +Swayi.--A title of Alia, Aruva, Kalinji, and other Oriya classes. + +Swetambara (clad in white).--One of the two main divisions of the +Jains. + +Syrian Christian.--The following note, containing a summary of the +history of a community in connection with which the literature is +considerable, is mainly abstracted from the Cochin Census Report, +1901, with additions. + +The Syrian Christians have "sometimes been called the Christians of +the Serra (a Portuguese word, meaning mountains). This arose from the +fact of their living at the foot of the ghauts." [194] The glory of the +introduction of the teachings of Christ to India is, by time-honoured +tradition, ascribed to the apostle Saint Thomas. According to +this tradition so dearly cherished by the Christians of this coast, +about 52 A.D. the apostle landed at Malankara, or, more correctly, at +Maliankara near Cranganur (Kodungallur), the Mouziris of the Greeks, +or Muyirikode of the Jewish copper plates. Mouziris was a port near +the mouth of a branch of the Alwaye river, much frequented in their +early voyages by the Phoenician and European traders for the pepper and +spices of this coast, and for the purpose of taking in fresh water and +provisions. The story goes that Saint Thomas founded seven churches +in different stations in Cochin and Travancore, and converted, among +others, many Brahmans, notably the Cally, Calliankara, Sankarapuri, +and Pakalomattam Nambudri families, the members of the last claiming +the rare distinction of having been ordained as priests by the apostle +himself. He then extended his labours to the Coromandel coast, where, +after making many converts, he is said to have been pierced with a +lance by some Brahmans, and to have been buried in the church of +St. Thomé, in Mylapore, a suburb of the town of Madras. Writing +concerning the prevalence of elephantiasis in Malabar, Captain +Hamilton records [195] that "the old Romish Legendaries impute the +cause of those great swell'd legs to a curse Saint Thomas laid upon his +murderers and their posterity, and that was the odious mark they should +be distinguished by." "Pretty early tradition associates Thomas with +Parthia, [196] Philip with Phrygia, Andrew with Syria, and Bartholomew +with India, but later traditions make the apostles divide the various +countries between them by lot." [197] Even if the former supposition +be accepted, there is nothing very improbable in Saint Thomas having +extended his work from Parthia to India. Others argue that, even if +there be any truth in the tradition of the arrival of Saint Thomas +in India, this comprised the countries in the north-west of India, +or at most the India of Alexander the Great, and not the southern +portion of the peninsula, where the seeds of Christianity are said to +have been first sown, because the voyage to this part of India, then +hardly known, was fraught with the greatest difficulties and dangers, +not to speak of its tediousness. It may, however, be observed that +the close proximity of Alexandria to Palestine, and its importance +at the time as the emporium of the trade between the East and West, +afforded sufficient facilities for a passage to India. If the Roman +line of traffic viâ Alexandria and the Red Sea was long and tedious, +the route viâ the Persian Gulf was comparatively easy. + +When we come to the second century, we read of Demetrius of Alexandria +receiving a message from some natives of India, earnestly begging for +a teacher to instruct them in the doctrines of Christianity. Hearing +this, Pantænus, Principal of the Christian College of Alexandria, +an Athenian stoic, an eminent preacher and "a very great gnosticus, +who had penetrated most profoundly into the spirit of scripture," +sailed from Berenice for Malabar between 180 and 190 A.D. He found +his arrival "anticipated by some who were acquainted with the Gospel +of Mathew, to whom Bartholomew, one of the apostles, had preached, +and had left them the same Gospel in Hebrew, which also was preserved +until this time. Returning to Alexandria, he presided over the +College of Catechumens." Early in the third century, St. Hippolytus, +Bishop of Portus, also assigns the conversion of India to the apostle +Bartholomew. To Thomas he ascribes Persia and the countries of Central +Asia, although he mentions Calamina, "a city of India," as the place +where Thomas suffered death. The Rev. J. Hough [198] observes that +"it is indeed highly problematical that Saint Bartholomew was ever +in India." It may be remarked that there are no local traditions +associating the event with his name, and, if Saint Bartholomew +laboured at all on this coast, there is no reason why the earliest +converts of Malabar should have preferred the name of Thomas to that +of Bartholomew. Though Mr. Hough and Sir W. W. Hunter, [199] among +others, discredit the mission of St. Thomas in the first century, +they both accept the story of the mission of Pantænus. Mr. Hough says +that "it is probable that these Indians (who appealed to Demetrius) +were converts or children of former converts to Christianity." If, +in the second century, there could be children of former converts in +India, it is not clear why the introduction of Christianity to India +in the first century, and that by St. Thomas, should be so seriously +questioned and set aside as being a myth, especially in view of the +weight of the subjoined testimony, associating the work with the name +of the apostle. + +In the Asiatic Journal (Vol. VI), Mr. Whish refutes the assertions made +by Mr. Wrede in the Asiatic Researches (Vol. VII) that the Christians +of Malabar settled in that country "during the violent persecution +of the sect of Nestorius under Theodosius II, or some time after," +and says, with reference to the date of the Jewish colonies in India, +that the Christians of the country were settled long anterior to the +period mentioned by Mr. Wrede. Referring to the acts and journeyings +of the apostles, Dorotheus, Bishop of Tyre (254-313 A.D.), says "the +Apostle Thomas, after having preached the Gospel to the Parthians, +Medes, Persians, Germanians, Bactrians, and Magi, suffered martyrdom +at Calamina, a town of India." It is said that, at the Council of +Nice held in 325 A.D., India was represented by Johannes, Bishop of +India Maxima and Persia. St. Gregory of Nazianzen (370-392 A.D.), +in answering the reproach of his being a stranger, asks "Were not +the apostles strangers? Granting that Judæa was the country of +Peter, what had Paul in common with the Gentiles, Luke with Achaia, +Andrew with Epirus, John with Ephesus, Thomas with India, Mark with +Italy"? St. Jerome (390 A.D.) testifies to the general belief in +the mission of St. Thomas to India. He too mentions Calamina as the +town where the apostle met with his death. Baronius thinks that, +when Theodoret, the Church historian (430-458 A.D.), speaks of the +apostles, he evidently associates the work in India with the name of +St. Thomas. St. Gregory of Torus relates that "in that place in India, +where the body of Thomas lay before it was transferred to Edessa, +there is a monastery and temple of great size." Florentius asserts +that "nothing with more certainty I find in the works of the Holy +Fathers than that St. Thomas preached the Gospel in India." Rufinus, +who stayed twenty-five years in Syria, says that the remains of +St. Thomas were brought from India to Edessa. Two Arabian travellers +of the ninth century, referred to by Renaudot, assert that St. Thomas +died at Mailapur. + +Coming to modern times, we have several authorities, who testify to +the apostolic origin of the Indian Church, regarded as apocryphal by +Mr. Milne Rae, Sir W. W. Hunter, and others. The historian of the +'Indian Empire,' while rejecting some of the strongest arguments +advanced by Mr. Milne Rae, accepts his conclusions in regard to the +apostolic origin. The Romanist Portuguese in their enthusiasm coloured +the legends to such an extent as to make them appear incredible, +and the Protestant writers of modern times, while distrusting +the Portuguese version, are not agreed as to the rare personage +that introduced Christianity to India. Mr. Wrede asserts that the +Christians of Malabar settled in that country during the violent +persecution of the sect of Nestorius under Theodosius II, or some +time after. Dr. Burnell traces the origin to the Manichæan Thomas, +who flourished towards the end of the third century. Mr. Milne Rae +brings the occurrence of the event down to the sixth century of the +Christian era. Sir William Hunter, without associating the foundation +of the Malabar Church with the name of any particular person, states +the event to have taken place some time in the second century, +long before the advent of Thomas the Manichæan, but considers that +the name St. Thomas Christians was adopted by the Christians in the +eighth century. He observes that "the early legend of the Manichæan +Thomas in the third century and the later labours of the Armenian +Thomas, the rebuilder of the Malabar Church in the eighth century, +endeared that name to the Christians of Southern India." [It has +recently been stated, with reference to the tradition that it was +St. Thomas the apostle who first evangelised Southern India, that, +"though this tradition is no more capable of disproof than of proof, +those authorities seem to be on safer ground, who are content to +hold that Christianity was first imported into India by Nestorian or +Chaldæan missionaries from Persia and Mesopotamia, whose apostolic +zeal between the sixth and twelfth centuries ranged all over Asia, +even into Tibet and Tartary. The seat of the Nestorian Patriarchate +of Babylon was at Bagdad, and, as it claimed to be par excellence +the Church of St. Thomas, this might well account for the fact that +the proselytes it won over in India were in the habit of calling +themselves Christians of St. Thomas. It is, to say the least, a +remarkable coincidence that one of the three ancient stone crosses +preserved in India bears an inscription and devices, which are stated +to resemble those on the cross discovered near Singanfu in China, +recording the appearance of Nestorian missionaries in Shenshi in the +early part of the seventh century."] + +As already said, there are those who attribute the introduction of +the Gospel to a certain Thomas, a disciple of Manes, who is supposed +to have come to India in 277 A.D., finding in this an explanation +of the origin of the Manigramakars (inhabitants of the village +of Manes) of Kayenkulam near Quilon. Coming to the middle of the +fourth century, we read of a Thomas Cana, an Aramæan or Syrian +merchant, or a divine, as some would have it, who, having in his +travels seen the neglected conditions of the flock of Christ on the +Malabar coast, returned to his native land, sought the assistance of +the Catholics of Bagdad, came back with a train of clergymen and a +pretty large number of Syrians, and worked vigorously to better their +spiritual condition. He is said to have married two Indian ladies, +the disputes of succession between whose children appear, according +to some writers, to have given rise to the two names of Northerners +(Vadakkumbagar) and Southerners (Thekkumbagar)--a distinction which +is still jealously kept up. The authorities are, however, divided as +to the date of his arrival, for, while some assign 345 A.D., others +give 745 A.D. It is just possible that this legend but records the +advent of two waves of colonists from Syria at different times, and +their settlement in different stations; and Thomas Cana was perhaps +the leader of the first migration. The Syrian tradition explains +the origin of the names in a different way, for, according to it, +the foreigners or colonists from Syria lived in the southern street +of Cranganur or Kodungallur, and the native converts in the northern +street. After their dispersion from Cranganur, the Southerners kept +up their pride and prestige by refusing to intermarry, while the name +of Northerners came to be applied to all Native Christians other than +the Southerners. At their wedding feasts, the Southerners sing songs +commemorating their colonization at Kodungallur, their dispersion +from there, and settlement in different places. They still retain +some foreign tribe names, to which the original colony is said +to have belonged. A few of these names are Baji, Kojah, Kujalik, +and Majamuth. Their leader Thomas Cana is said to have visited the +last of the Perumals and to have obtained several privileges for the +benefit of the Christians. He is supposed to have built a church at +Mahadevarpattanam, or more correctly Mahodayapuram, near Kodungallur +in the Cochin State, the capital of the Perumals or Viceroys of Kerala, +and, in their documents, the Syrian Christians now and again designate +themselves as being inhabitants of Mahadevarpattanam. + +In the Syrian seminary at Kottayam are preserved two copper-plate +charters, one granted by Vira Raghava Chakravarthi,and the +other by Sthanu Ravi Gupta, supposed to be dated 774 A.D. and 824 +A.D. Specialists, who have attempted to fix approximately the dates +of the grants, however, differ, as will be seen from a discussion of +the subject by Mr. V. Venkayya in the Epigraphia Indica. [200] + +Concerning the plate of Vira Raghava, Mr. Venkayya there writes +as follows. "The subjoined inscription is engraved on both sides +of a single copper-plate, which is in the possession of the Syrian +Christians at Kottayam. The plate has no seal, but, instead, a conch is +engraved about the middle of the left margin of the second side. This +inscription has been previously translated by Dr. Gundert. [201] +Mr. Kookel Keloo Nair has also attempted a version of the grant. [202] +In the translation I have mainly followed Dr. Gundert." + +Translation. + +Hari! Prosperity! Adoration to the great Ganapati! On the day of (the +Nakshatra) Rohini, a Saturday after the expiration of the twenty-first +(day) of the solar month Mina (of the year during which) Jupiter (was) +in Makara, while the glorious Vira-Raghava-Chakravartin,--(of the race) +that has been wielding the sceptre for several hundred thousands +of years in regular succession from the glorious king of kings, +the glorious Vira-Kerala-Chakravartin--was ruling prosperously:-- + +While (we were) pleased to reside in the great palace, we conferred +the title of Manigramam on Iravikorttan, alias Seramanloka-pperun-jetti +of Magodaiyarpattinam. + +We (also) gave (him the right of) festive clothing, house pillars, +the income that accrues, the export trade (?), monopoly of trade, (the +right of) proclamation, forerunners, the five musical instruments, +a conch, a lamp in day-time, a cloth spread (in front to walk on), +a palanquin, the royal parasol, the Telugu (?) drum, a gateway with +an ornamental arch, and monopoly of trade in the four quarters. + +We (also) gave the oilmongers and the five (classes of) artisans as +(his) slaves. + +We (also) gave, with a libation of water--having (caused it to be) +written on a copper-plate--to Iravikorttan, who is the lord of +the city, the brokerage on (articles) that may be measured with +the para, weighed by the balance or measured with the tape, that +may be counted or weighed, and on all other (articles) that are +intermediate--including salt, sugar, musk (and) lamp oil--and also +the customs levied on these (articles) between the river mouth of +Kodungallur and the gate (gopura)--chiefly between the four temples +(tali) and the village adjacent to (each) temple. + +We gave (this) as property to Sêramân-lôka-pperun-jetti, alias +Iravikorttan, and to his children's children in due succession. + +(The witnesses) who know this (are):--We gave (it) with the knowledge +of the villagers of Panniyûr and the villagers of Sôgiram. We gave +(it) with the knowledge (of the authorities) of Vênâdu and Odunâdu. We +gave (it) with the knowledge (of the authorities) of Eranâdu and +Valluvanâdu. We gave (it) for the time that the moon and the sun +shall exist. + +The hand-writing of Sêramân-lôka-pperun-dattan Nambi Sadeyan, who wrote +(this) copper-plate with the knowledge of these (witnesses). + +Mr. Venkayya adds that "it was supposed by Dr. Burnell [203] that +the plate of Vîra-Râghava created the principality of Manigramam, +and the Cochin plates that of Anjuvannam. [204] The Cochin plates +did not create Anjuvannam, but conferred the honours and privileges +connected therewith to a Jew named Rabbân. Similarly, the rights +and honours associated with the other corporation, Manigrâmam, were +bestowed at a later period on Ravikkorran. It is just possible that +Ravikkorran was a Christian by religion. But his name and title give +no clue in this direction, and there is nothing Christian in the +document, except its possession by the present owners. On this name, +Dr. Gundert first said [205] 'Iravi Corttan must be a Nasrani name, +though none of the Syrian priests whom I saw could explain it, or had +ever heard of it.' Subsequently he added: 'I had indeed been startled +by the Iravi Corttan, which does not look at all like the appellation +of a Syrian Christian; still I thought myself justified in calling +Manigrâmam a Christian principality--whatever their Christianity may +have consisted in--on the ground that, from Menezes' time, these grants +had been regarded as given to the Syrian colonists.' Mr. Kookel Keloo +Nair considered Iravikkorran a mere title, in which no shadow of a +Syrian name is to be traced." + +Nestorius, a native of Germanicia, was educated at Antioch, where, +as Presbyter, he became celebrated, while yet very young, for his +asceticism, orthodoxy, and eloquence. On the death of Sisinnius, +Patriarch of Constantinople, this distinguished preacher of Antioch +was appointed to the vacant See by the Emperor Theodosius II, and +was consecrated as Patriarch in 428 A.D. The doctrine of a God-man +respecting Christ, and the mode of union of the human and the divine +nature in Him left undefined by the early teachers, who contented +themselves with speaking of Him and regarding Him as "born and unborn, +God in flesh, life in death, born of Mary, and born of God," had, long +before the time of Nestorius, begun to tax the genius of churchmen, and +the controversies in respect of this double nature of Christ had led +to the growth and spread of important heretical doctrines. Two of the +great heresies of the church before that of Nestorius are associated +with the names of Arius and Apollinaris. Arius "admitted both the +divine and the human nature of Christ, but, by making Him subordinate +to God, denied His divinity in the highest sense." Apollinaris, +undermining the doctrine of the example and atonement of Christ, +argued that "in Jesus the Logos supplied the place of the reasonable +soul." As early as 325 A.D. the first OEcumenical Council of Nice +had defined against the Arians, and decreed that "the Son was not +only of like essence, but of the same essence with the Father, and +the human nature, maimed and misinterpreted by the Apollinarians, had +been restored to the person of Christ at the Council of Constantinople +in 381." Nestorius, finding the Arians and Apollinarians, condemned +strongly though they were, still strong in numbers and influence +at Constantinople, expressed in his first sermon as Patriarch his +determination to put down these and other heretical sects, and +exhorted the Emperor to help him in this difficult task. But, while +vigorously engaged in the effectual extinction of all heresies, he +incurred the displeasure of the orthodox party by boldly declaring, +though in the most sincerely orthodox form, against the use of the +term Theotokos, that is, Mother of God, which, as applied to the +Virgin Mary, had then grown into popular favour, especially amongst +the clergy at Constantinople and Rome. While he himself revered the +Blessed Virgin as the Mother of Christ, he declaimed against the use +of the expression Mother of God in respect of her, as being alike +"unknown to the Apostles, and unauthorised by the Church," besides +its being inherently absurd to suppose that the Godhead can be born or +suffer. Moreover, in his endeavour to avoid the extreme positions taken +up by Arians and Apollinarians, he denied, while speaking of the two +natures in Christ, that there was any communication of attributes. But +he was understood on this point to have maintained a mechanical rather +than a supernatural union of the two natures, and also to have rent +Christ asunder, and divided Him into two persons. Explaining his +position, Nestorius said "I distinguish the natures, but I unite my +adoration." But this explanation did not satisfy the orthodox, who +understood him to have "preached a Christ less than divine." The clergy +and laity of Constantinople, amongst whom Nestorius had thus grown +unpopular, and was talked of as a heretic, appealed to Cyril, Bishop +of the rival See of Alexandria, to interfere on their behalf. Cyril, +supported by the authority of the Pope, arrived on the scene, and, at +the Council of Ephesus, hastily and informally called up, condemned +Nestorius as a heretic, and excommunicated him. After Nestorianism +had been rooted out of the Roman Empire in the time of Justinian, +it flourished "in the East," especially in Persia and the countries +adjoining it, where the churches, since their foundation, had been +following the Syrian ritual, discipline, and doctrine, and where +a strong party, among them the Patriarch of Seleucia or Babylon, +and his suffragan the Metropolitan of Persia, with their large +following, revered Nestorius as a martyr, and faithfully and formally +accepted his teachings at the Synod of Seleucia in 448 A.D. His +doctrines seem to have spread as far east as China, so that, in 551, +Nestorian monks who had long resided in that country are said to have +brought the eggs of the silkworm to Constantinople. Cosmos, surnamed +Indicopleustes, the Indian traveller, who, in 522 A.D., visited Male, +"the country where the pepper grows," has referred to the existence +of a fully organised church in Malabar, with the Bishops consecrated +in Persia. His reference, while it traces the origin of the Indian +church to the earlier centuries, also testifies to the fact that, +at the time of his visit, the church was Nestorian in its creed +"from the circumstance of its dependence upon the Primate of Persia, +who then unquestionably held the Nestorian doctrines." + +The next heresy was that of Eutyches, a zealous adherent of Cyril in +opposition to Nestorius at the Council of Ephesus in 431 A.D. But +Eutyches, in opposing the doctrine of Nestorius, went beyond Cyril +and others, and affirmed that, after the union of the two natures, +the human and the divine, Christ had only one nature the divine, +His humanity being absorbed in His divinity. After several years +of controversy, the question was finally decided at the Council of +Chalcedon in 451, when it was declared, in opposition to the doctrine +of Eutyches, that the two natures were united in Christ, but "without +any alteration, absorption, or confusion"; or, in other words, in the +person of Christ there were two natures, the human and the divine, +each perfect in itself, but there was only one person. Eutyches was +excommunicated, and died in exile. Those who would not subscribe to +the doctrines declared at Chalcedon were condemned as heretics; they +then seceded, and afterwards gathered themselves around different +centres, which were Syria, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Cyprus and +Palestine, Armenia, Egypt, and Abyssinia. The Armenians embraced +the Eutychian theory of divinity being the sole nature in Christ, +the humanity being absorbed, while the Egyptians and Abyssinians +held in the monophysite doctrine of the divinity and humanity being +one compound nature in Christ. The West Syrians, or natives of Syria +proper, to whom the Syrians of this coast trace their origin, adopted, +after having renounced the doctrines of Nestorius, the Eutychian +tenet. Through the influence of Severus, Patriarch of Antioch, they +gradually became Monophysites. The Monophysite sect was for a time +suppressed by the Emperors, but in the sixth century there took place +the great Jacobite revival of the monophysite doctrine under James +Bardæus, better known as Jacobus Zanzalus, who united the various +divisions, into which the Monophysites had separated themselves, +into one church, which at the present day exists under the name of +the Jacobite church. The head of the Jacobite church claims the rank +and prerogative of the Patriarch of Antioch--a title claimed by no +less than three church dignitaries. Leaving it to subtle theologians +to settle the disputes, we may briefly define the position of the +Jacobites in Malabar in respect of the above controversies. While +they accept the qualifying epithets pronounced by the decree passed +at the Council of Chalcedon in regard to the union of the two natures +in Christ, they object to the use of the word two in referring to +the same. So far they are practically at one with the Armenians, for +they also condemn the Eutychian doctrine; and a Jacobite candidate +for holy orders in the Syrian church has, among other things, to take +an oath denouncing Eutyches and his teachers. + +We have digressed a little in order to show briefly the position +of the Malabar church in its relation to Eastern Patriarchs in +the early, mediæval, and modern times. To resume the thread of our +story, from about the middle of the fourth century until the arrival +of the Portuguese, the Christians of Malabar in their spiritual +distress generally applied for Bishops indiscriminately to one of +the Eastern Patriarchs, who were either Nestorian or Jacobite; for, +as observed by Sir W. W. Hunter, "for nearly a thousand years from +the 5th to the 15th century, the Jacobite sect dwelt in the middle +of the Nestorians in the Central Asia," so that, in response to the +requests from Malabar, both Nestorian and Jacobite Bishops appear +to have visited Malabar occasionally, and the natives seem to have +indiscriminately followed the teachings of both. We may here observe +that the simple folk of Malabar, imbued but with the primitive form +of Christianity, were neither conversant with nor ever troubled +themselves about the subtle disputations and doctrinal differences +that divided their co-religionists in Europe and Asia Minor, and +were, therefore, not in a position to distinguish between Nestorian +or any other form of Christianity. Persia also having subsequently +neglected the outlying Indian church, the Christians of Malabar seem +to have sent their applications to the Patriarch of Babylon, but, +as both prelates then followed the Nestorian creed, there was little +or no change in the rituals and dogmas of the church. Dr. Day [206] +refers to the arrival of a Jacobite Bishop in India in 696 A.D. About +the year 823 A.D., two Nestorian Bishops, Mar Sapor and Mar Aprot, +appear to have arrived in Malabar under the command of the Nestorian +Patriarch of Babylon. They are said to have interviewed the native +rulers, travelled through the country, built churches, and looked +after the religious affairs of the Syrians. + +We know but little of the history of the Malabar Church for nearly six +centuries prior to the arrival of the Portuguese in India. We have, +however, the story of the pilgrimage of the Bishop of Sherborne to the +shrine of St. Thomas in India about 883 A.D., in the reign of Alfred +the Great; and the reference made to the prevalence of Nestorianism +among the St. Thomas' Christians of Malabar by Marco Polo, the +Venetian traveller. + +The Christian community seem to have been in the zenith of their glory +and prosperity between the 9th and 14th centuries, as, according +to their tradition, they were then permitted to have a king of +their own, with Villiarvattam near Udayamperur (Diamper) as his +capital. According to another version, the king of Villiarvattam was +a convert to Christianity. The dynasty seems to have become extinct +about the 14th century, and it is said that, on the arrival of the +Portuguese, the crown and sceptre of the last Christian king were +presented to Vasco da Gama in 1502. We have already referred to the +high position occupied by the Christians under the early kings, as +is seen from the rare privileges granted to them, most probably in +return for military services rendered by them. The king seems to have +enjoyed, among other things, the right of punishing offences committed +by the Christian community, who practically followed his lead. A more +reasonable view of the story of a Christian king appears to be that +a Christian chief of Udayamperur enjoyed a sort of socio-territorial +jurisdiction over his followers, which, in later times, seems to have +been so magnified as to invest him with territorial sovereignty. We +see, in the copper-plate charters of the Jews, that their chief was +also invested with some such powers. + +Mention is made of two Latin Missions in the 14th century, with +Quilon as head-quarters, but their labours were ineffectual, and their +triumphs but short-lived. Towards the end of the 15th, and throughout +the whole of the 16th century, the Nestorian Patriarch of Mesopotamia +seems to have exercised some authority over the Malabar Christians, as +is borne out by the occasional references to the arrival of Nestorian +Bishops to preside over the churches. + +Until the arrival of the Portuguese, the Malabar church was following +unmolested, in its ritual, practice and communion, a creed of the +Syro-Chaldæan church of the East. When they set out on their voyages, +conquest and conversion were no less dear to the heart of Portuguese +than enterprise and commerce. Though, in the first moments, the +Syrians, in their neglected spiritual condition, were gratified at +the advent of their co-religionists, the Romanist Portuguese, and +the Portuguese in their turn expected the most beneficial results +from an alliance with their Christian brethren on this coast, +"the conformity of the Syrians to the faith and practice of the 5th +century soon disappointed the prejudices of the Papist apologists. It +was the first care of the Portuguese to intercept all correspondence +with the Eastern Patriarchs, and several of their Bishops expired +in the prisons of their Holy Office." The Franciscan and Dominican +Friars, and the Jesuit Fathers, worked vigorously to win the Malabar +Christians over to the Roman Communion. Towards the beginning of +the last quarter of the 16th century, the Jesuits built a church at +Vaippacotta near Cranganur, and founded a college for the education of +Christian youths. In 1584, a seminary was established for the purpose +of instructing the Syrians in theology, and teaching them the Latin, +Portuguese and Syriac languages. The dignitaries who presided over +the churches, however, refused to ordain the students trained in the +seminary. This, and other causes of quarrel between the Jesuits and +the native clergy, culminated in an open rupture, which was proclaimed +by Archdeacon George in a Synod at Angamali. When Alexes de Menezes, +Archbishop of Goa, heard of this, he himself undertook a visitation +of the Syrian churches. The bold and energetic Menezes carried all +before him. Nor is his success to be wondered at. He was invested with +the spiritual authority of the Pope, and armed with the terrors of the +Inquisition. He was encouraged in his efforts by the Portuguese King, +whose Governors on this coast ably backed him up. Though the ruling +chiefs at first discountenanced the exercise of coercive measures +over their subjects, they were soon won over by the stratagems of the +subtle Archbishop. Thus supported, he commenced his visitation of the +churches, and reduced them in A.D. 1599 by the decrees of the Synod of +Diamper (Udayamperur), a village about ten miles to the south-east of +the town of Cochin. The decrees passed by the Synod were reluctantly +subscribed to by Archdeacon George and a large number of Kathanars, +as the native priests are called; and this practically converted +the Malabar Church into a branch of the Roman Church. Literature +sustained a very great loss at the hands of Menezes, "for this blind +and enthusiastic inquisitor destroyed, like a second Omar, all the +books written in the Syrian or Chaldæan language, which could be +collected, not only at the Synod of Diamper, but especially during +his subsequent circuit; for, as soon as he had entered into a Syrian +Church, he ordered all their books and records to be laid before him, +which, a few indifferent ones excepted, he committed to the flames, +so that at present neither books nor manuscripts are any more to be +found amongst the St. Thomé Christians." [207] + +Immediately after the Synod of Diamper, a Jesuit Father, Franciscus +Roz, a Spaniard by birth, was appointed Bishop of Angamali by Pope +Clement VIII. The title was soon after changed to that of Archbishop +of Cranganur. By this time, the rule of the Jesuits had become so +intolerable to the Syrians that they resolved to have a Bishop from +the East, and applied to Babylon, Antioch, Alexandria, and other +ecclesiastical head-quarters for a Bishop, as if the ecclesiastical +heads who presided over these places professed the same creed. The +request of the Malabar Christians for a Bishop was readily responded +to from Antioch, and Ahattala, otherwise known as Mar Ignatius, +was forthwith sent. Authorities, however, differ on this point, +for, according to some, this Ahattala was a Nestorian, or a protégé +of the Patriarch of the Copts. Whatever Ahattala's religious creed +might have been, the Syrians appear to have believed that he was +sent by the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch. The Portuguese, however, +intercepted him, and took him prisoner. The story goes that he +was drowned in the Cochin harbour, or condemned to the flames of +the Inquisition at Goa in 1653. This cruel deed so infuriated the +Syrians that thousands of them met in solemn conclave at the Coonen +Cross at Mattancheri in Cochin, and, with one voice, renounced their +allegiance to the Church of Rome. This incident marks an important +epoch in the history of the Malabar Church, for, with the defection +at the Coonen Cross, the Malabar Christians split themselves up into +two distinct parties, the Romo-Syrians who adhered to the Church of +Rome, and the Jacobite Syrians, who, severing their connection with +it, placed themselves under the spiritual supremacy of the Patriarch +of Antioch. The following passage explains the exact position of the +two parties that came into existence then, as also the origin of the +names since applied to them. "The Pazheia Kuttukar, or old church, +owed its foundation to Archbishop Menezes and the Synod of Diamper in +1599, and its reconciliation, after revolt, to the Carmelite Bishop, +Joseph of St. Mary, in 1656. It retains in its services the Syrian +language, and in part the Syrian ritual. But it acknowledges the +supremacy of the Pope and his Vicars Apostolic. Its members are +now known as Catholics of the Syrian rite, to distinguish them from +the converts made direct from heathenism to the Latin Church by the +Roman missionaries. The other section of the Syrian Christians of +Malabar is called the Puttan Kuttukar, or new church. It adheres +to the Jacobite tenets introduced by its first Jacobite Bishop, +Mar Gregory, in 1665." [208] We have at this time, and ever after, +to deal with a third party, that came into existence after the advent +of the Portuguese. These are the Catholics of the Latin rite, and +consist almost exclusively of the large number of converts gained by +the Portuguese from amongst the different castes of the Hindus. To +avoid confusion, we shall follow the fortunes of each sect separately. + +When the Portuguese first came to India, the Indian trade was +chiefly in the hands of the Moors, who had no particular liking +for the Hindus or Christians, and the arrival of the Portuguese was +therefore welcome alike to the Hindus and Christians, who eagerly +sought their assistance. The Portuguese likewise accepted their offers +of friendship very gladly, as an alliance, especially with the former, +gave them splendid opportunities for advancing their religious mission, +while, from a friendly intercourse with the latter, they expected not +only to further their religious interests, but also their commercial +prosperity. In the work of conversion they were successful, more +especially among the lower orders, the Illuvans, Mukkuvans, Pulayans, +etc. The labours of Miguel Vaz, afterwards Vicar-General of Goa, and +of Father Vincent, in this direction were continued with admirable +success by St. Francis Xavier. + +We have seen how the strict and rigid discipline of the Jesuit +Archbishops, their pride and exclusiveness, and the capture and murder +of Ahattala brought about the outburst at the Coonen Cross. Seeing +that the Jesuits had failed, Pope Alexander VII had recourse to the +Carmelite Fathers, who were specially instructed to do their best to +remove the schism, and to bring about a reconciliation; but, because +the Portuguese claimed absolute possession of the Indian Missions, +and as the Pope had despatched the Carmelite Fathers without the +approval of the King of Portugal, the first batch of these missionaries +could not reach the destined field of their labours. Another body of +Carmelites, who had taken a different route, however, succeeded in +reaching Malabar in 1656, and they met Archdeacon Thomas who had +succeeded Archdeacon George. While expressing their willingness +to submit to Rome, the Syrians declined to place themselves under +Archbishop Garcia, S.J., who had succeeded Archbishop Roz, S.J. The +Syrians insisted on their being given a non-Jesuit Bishop, and, in +1659, Father Joseph was appointed Vicar Apostolic of the "Sierra of +Malabar" without the knowledge of the King of Portugal. He came out +to India in 1661, and worked vigorously for two years in reconciling +the Syrian Christians to the Church of Rome. But he was not allowed +to continue his work unmolested, because, when the Dutch, who were +competing with the Portuguese for supremacy in the Eastern seas, took +the port of Cochin in 1663, Bishop Joseph was ordered to leave the +coast forthwith. When he left Cochin, he consecrated Chandy Parambil, +otherwise known as Alexander de Campo. + +By their learning, and their skill in adapting themselves to +circumstances, the Carmelite Fathers had continued to secure the +good-will of the Dutch, and, returning to Cochin, assisted Alexander +de Campo in his work. Father Mathew, one of their number, was allowed +to build a church at Chatiath near Ernakulam. Another church was +built at Varapuzha (Verapoly) on land given rent-free by the Raja of +Cochin. Since this time, Varapuzha, now in Travancore, has continued +to be the residence of a Vicar Apostolic. + +The history of a quarter of a century subsequent to this is +uneventful, except for the little quarrels between the Carmelite +Fathers and the native clergy. In 1700, however, the Archbishop of +Goa declined to consecrate a Carmelite Father nominated by the Pope +to the Vicariate Apostolic. But Father Anjelus, the Vicar Apostolic +elect, got himself consecrated by one Mar Simon, who was supposed +to be in communion with Rome. The Dutch Government having declined +admission to Archbishop Ribeiro, S.J., the nominee of the Portuguese +King to their dominions, Anjelus was invested with jurisdiction over +Cochin and Cranganur. Thereupon, the Jesuit Fathers sought shelter in +Travancore, and in the territories of the Zamorin. With the capture +of Cranganur by the Dutch, which struck the death-blow to Portuguese +supremacy in the East, the last vestige of the church, seminary and +college founded by the Jesuits disappeared. As the Dutch hated the +Jesuits as bigoted Papists and uncompromising schismatics, several +of the Jesuit Fathers, who were appointed Archbishops of Cranganur, +never set foot within their diocese, and such of them as accepted the +responsibility confined themselves to the territories of the Raja of +Travancore. It was only after the establishment of British supremacy +that the Jesuit Fathers were able to re-enter the scene of their early +labours. An almost unbroken line of Carmelite Fathers appointed by the +Pope filled the Vicariate till 1875, though the Archbishop of Goa and +the Bishop of Cochin now and then declined to consecrate the nominee, +and thus made feeble attempts on behalf of their Faithful King to +recover their lost position. + +Salvador, S.J., Archbishop of Cranganur, died in 1777. Five years +after this, the King of Portugal appointed Joseph Cariatil and +Thomas Paramakal, two native Christians, who had been educated at +the Propaganda College at Rome, as Archbishop and Vicar-General, +respectively, of the diocese of Cranganur. + +The native clergy at the time were mostly ignorant, and the discipline +amongst them was rather lax. The Propaganda attempted reforms in this +direction, which led to a rupture between the Latin and the native +clergy. The Carmelite Fathers, like the Jesuits, had grown overbearing +and haughty, and an attempt at innovation made by the Pope through +them became altogether distasteful to the natives. Serious charges +against the Carmelites were, therefore, formally laid before the +Pope and the Raja of Travancore by the Syrians. They also insisted +that Thomas should be consecrated Bishop. At this time, the Dutch +were all-powerful at the courts of native rulers, and, though the +Carmelite missionaries who had ingratiated themselves into the good +graces of the Dutch tried their best to thwart the Syrians in their +endeavours, Thomas was permitted to be consecrated Bishop, and the +Syrians were allowed the enjoyment of certain rare privileges. It +is remarkable that, at this time and even in much earlier times, +the disputes between the foreign and the native clergy, or between +the various factions following the lead of the native clergy, were +often decided by the Hindu kings, and the Christians accepted and +abided by the decisions of their temporal heads. + +In 1838, Pope Gregory XVI issued a Bull abolishing the Sees of +Cranganur and Cochin, and transferring the jurisdiction to the Vicar +Apostolic of Varapuzha. But the King of Portugal questioned the +right of the Pope, and this led to serious disputes. The abolition +of the smaller seminaries by Archbishop Bernardin of Varapuzha, and +his refusal to ordain candidates for Holy Orders trained in these +seminaries by the Malpans or teacher-priests, caused much discontent +among the Syrian Christians, and, in 1856, a large section of the +Syrians applied to the Catholic Chaldæan Patriarch of Babylon for +a Chaldæan Bishop. This was readily responded to by the Patriarch, +who, though under the Pope, thought that he had a prescriptive right +to supremacy over the Malabar Christians. Bishop Roccos was sent +out to Malabar in 1861, and though, owing to the charm of novelty, a +large section of the Christians at once joined him, a strong minority +questioned his authority, and referred the matter to the Pope. Bishop +Roccos was recalled, and the Patriarch was warned by the Pope against +further interference. + +Subsequently, the Patriarch, again acting on the notion that he had +independent jurisdiction over the Chaldæan Syrian church of Malabar, +sent out Bishop Mellus to Cochin. The arrival of this Bishop in 1874 +created a distinct split among the Christians of Trichur, one faction +acknowledging the supremacy of the Pope, and the other following the +lead of Bishop Mellus. This open rupture had involved the two factions +in a costly litigation. The adherents of Bishop Mellus contend that +their church, ever since its foundation in 1810 or 1812, has followed +the practice, ritual, and communion of the Chaldæan church of Babylon, +without having ever been in communion with Rome. The matter is sub +judice. They are now known by the name of Chaldæan Syrians. The Pope, +in the meanwhile, excommunicated Bishop Mellus, but he continued +to exercise spiritual authority over his adherents independently of +Rome. In 1887 the Patriarch having made peace with the Pope, Bishop +Mellus left India, and submitted to Rome in 1889. On the departure of +Bishop Mellus, the Chaldæan Syrians chose Anthony Kathanar, otherwise +known as Mar Abdeso, as their Archbishop. He is said to have been +a Rome Syrian priest under the Archbishop of Varapuzha. It is also +said that he visited Syria and Palestine, and received ordination +from the anti-Roman Patriarch of Babylon. Before his death in 1900, +he ordained Mar Augustine, who, under the title of Chorepiscopus, +had assisted him in the government of the Chaldæan church, and he +now presides over the Chaldæan Syrian churches in the State. + +In 1868, Bishop Marcellinus was appointed Coadjutor to the Vicar +Apostolic of Varapuzha, and entrusted with the spiritual concerns +of the Romo-Syrians. On his death in 1892, the Romo-Syrians were +placed under the care of two European Vicars Apostolic. We have +seen how the Jesuits had made themselves odious to the native +Christians, and how reluctantly the latter had submitted to their +rigid discipline. We have seen, too, how the Carmelites who replaced +them, in spite of their worldly wisdom and conciliatory policy, had +their own occasional quarrels and disputes with the native clergy and +their congregations. From the time of the revolt at the Coonen Cross, +and ever afterwards, the Christians had longed for Bishops of their +own nationality, and made repeated requests for the same. For some +reason or other, compliance with these requisitions was deferred for +years. Experience showed that the direct rule of foreign Bishops had +failed to secure the unanimous sympathy and hearty co-operation of the +people. The Pope was, however, convinced of the spiritual adherence of +the native clergy and congregation to Rome. In these circumstances, +it was thought advisable to give the native clergy a fair trial in +the matter of local supremacy. Bishops Medlycott and Lavigne, S.J., +who were the Vicars Apostolic of Trichur and Kottayam, were therefore +withdrawn, and, in 1896, three native Syrian priests, Father John +Menacheri, Father Aloysius Pareparambil, and Father Mathew Mackil, +were consecrated by the Papal Delegate as the Vicars Apostolic of +Trichur, Ernakulam, and Chenganacheri. + +The monopoly of the Indian missions claimed by the Portuguese, and the +frequent disputes which disturbed the peace of the Malabar church, +were ended in 1886 by the Concordat entered into between Pope Leo +XIII and the King of Portugal. The Archbishop of Goa was by this +recognised as the Patriarch of the East Indies with the Bishop of +Cochin as a suffragan, whose diocese in the Cochin State is confined +to the seaboard taluk of Cochin. The rest of the Latin Catholics of +this State, except a small section in the Chittur taluk under the +Bishop of Coimbatore, are under the Archbishop of Varapuzha. + +Since the revolt of the Syrians at the Coonen Cross in 1653, the +Jacobite Syrians have been governed by native Bishops consecrated by +Bishops sent by the Patriarch of Antioch, or at least always received +and recognised as such. In exigent circumstances, the native Bishops +themselves, before their death, consecrated their successors by the +imposition of hands. Immediately after the defection, they chose +Archdeacon Thomas as their spiritual leader. He was thus the first +Metran or native Bishop, having been formally ordained after twelve +years of independent rule by Mar Gregory from Antioch, with whose +name the revival of Jacobitism in Malabar is associated. The Metran +assumed the title of Mar Thomas I. He belonged to the family that +traced its descent from the Pakalomattom family, held in high respect +and great veneration as one of the Brahman families, the members of +which are supposed to have been converted and ordained as priests +by the apostle himself. Members of the same family continued to hold +the Metranship till about the year 1815, when the family is supposed +to have become extinct. This hereditary succession is supposed +by some to be a relic of the Nestorian practice. It may, however, +be explained in another way. The earliest converts were high-caste +Hindus, amongst whom an Anandravan (brother or nephew) succeeded to +the family estates and titles in pursuance of the joint family system +as current in Malabar. The succession of a brother or a nephew might, +therefore, be quite as much a relic of the Hindu custom. The Metrans +possessed properties. They were, therefore, interested in securing the +succession of their Anandravans, so that their properties might not +pass to a different family. Mar Thomas I was succeeded by his brother +Mar Thomas II, on whose death his nephew became Metran under the title +of Mar Thomas III. He held office only for ten days. Mar Thomas IV, +who succeeded him, presided over the church till 1728. Thomas III and +IV are said to have been consecrated by Bishop John, a scholar of great +repute, who, with one Bishop Basil, came from Antioch in 1685. During +the régime of Mar Thomas IV, and of his nephew Thomas V, Mar Gabriel, +a Nestorian Bishop, appeared on the scene in 1708. He seems to have +been a man without any definite creed, as he proclaimed himself a +Nestorian, a Jacobite, or a Romanist, according as one or the other +best suited his interests. He had his own friends and admirers among +the Syrians, with whose support he ruled over a few churches in the +north till 1731. The consecration of Mar Thomas V by Mar Thomas IV +was felt to be invalid, and, to remedy the defect, the assistance +of the Dutch was sought; but, being disappointed, the Christians had +recourse to a Jewish merchant named Ezekiel, who undertook to convey +their message to the Patriarch of Antioch. He brought from Bassorah +one Mar Ivanius, who was a man of fiery temper. He interfered with +the images in the churches. This led to quarrels with the Metran, +and he had forthwith to quit the State. Through the Dutch authorities +at Cochin, a fresh requisition was sent to the Patriarch of Antioch, +who sent out three Bishops named Basil, John, and Gregory. Their +arrival caused fresh troubles, owing to the difficulty of paying the +large sum claimed by them as passage money. In 1761, Mar Thomas V, +supposed to have died in 1765, consecrated his nephew Mar Thomas +VI. About this time, Gregory consecrated one Kurilos, the leader +of a faction that resisted the rule of Thomas VI. The disputes and +quarrels which followed were ended with the flight of Kurilos, who +founded the See of Anjoor in the north of Cochin and became the first +Bishop of Tholiyur. Through the kind intercession of the Maharaja of +Travancore, Thomas VI underwent formal consecration at the hands of +the Bishops from Antioch, and took the title of Dionysius I, known +also as Dionysius the Great. In 1775, the great Carmelite father Paoli +visited Mar Dionysius, and tried to persuade him to submit to Rome. It +is said that he agreed to the proposal, on condition of his being +recognised as Metropolitan of all the Syrians in Malabar, but nothing +came of it. A few years after this, the struggle for supremacy between +the Dutch and the English had ended in the triumph of the latter, +who evinced a good deal of interest in the Syrian Christians, and, +in 1805, the Madras Government deputed Dr. Kerr to study the history +of the Malabar Church. In 1809, Dr. Buchanan visited Mar Dionysius, +and broached the question of a union of the Syrian Church with +the Church of England. The proposal, however, did not find favour +with the Metropolitan, or his congregation. Mar Dionysius died in +1808. Before his death, he had consecrated Thomas Kathanar as Thomas +VIII. He died in 1816. His successor, Thomas IX, was weak and old, +and he was displaced by Ittoop Ramban, known as Pulikot Dionysius or +Dionysius II. He enjoyed the confidence and good-will of Colonel Munro, +the British Resident, through whose good offices a seminary had been +built at Kottayam in 1813 for the education of Syrian youths. He died +in 1818. Philixenos, who had succeeded Kurilos as Bishop of Tholiyur, +now consecrated Punnathara Dionysius, or Dionysius III. + +We have now to refer to an important incident in the history of the +Jacobite Syrians. Through the influence of the British Resident, +and in the hope of effecting the union proposed by Dr. Buchanan, +the Church Mission Society commenced their labours in 1816. The +English Missionaries began their work under favourable circumstances, +and the most cordial relations existed between the Syrians and the +missionaries for some years, so much so that the latter frequently +visited the Syrian churches, and even preached sermons. On the death +of Dionysius III in 1825, or as some say 1827, Cheppat Dionysius +consecrated by Mar Philixenos again, succeeded as Metropolitan under +the title of Dionysius IV. During his régime, there grew up among the +Syrians a party, who suspected that the missionaries were using their +influence with the Metropolitan, and secretly endeavouring to bring +the Syrians under the Protestant Church. The conservative party of +Syrians stoutly opposed the movement. They petitioned the Patriarch of +Antioch, who at once sent out a Bishop named Athanasius. On arrival +in 1825, a large number of Syrians flocked to him. He even went to +the length of threatening Mar Dionysius with excommunication. But the +Protestant missionaries and the British Resident came to the rescue +of the Metropolitan, and exercised their influence with the ruler +of Travancore, who forthwith deported Athanasius. The deportation +of Athanasius strengthened the position of the missionaries. The +British Resident, and through his influence the native ruler, often +rendered them the most unqualified support. The missionaries who +superintended the education of the Syrian students in the seminary, +having begun to teach them doctrines contrary to those of the Jacobite +Church, the cordiality and friendship that had existed between the +missionaries and the Metropolitan gradually gave place to distrust +and suspicion. The party that clung to the time-honoured traditions +and practices of their church soon fanned the flame of discord, and +snapped asunder the ties of friendship that had bound the Metropolitan +to the missionaries. Bishop Wilson of Calcutta proceeded to Travancore +to see if a reconciliation could be effected. But his attempts in this +direction proved fruitless, because the Syrians could not accept his +proposal to adopt important changes affecting their spiritual and +temporal concerns, such as doing away with prayers for the dead, +the revision of their liturgy, the management of church funds, +etc., and the Syrians finally parted company with the missionaries +in 1838. Soon after this, disputes arose in regard to the funds and +endowments of the seminary, but they were soon settled by arbitration +in 1840, and the properties were divided between the Metropolitan and +the missionaries. The missionaries had friends among the Jacobites, +some of whom became members of the Church of England. + +The Syrians were rather distressed, because they thought that +the consecration of their Metropolitan by Mar Philixenos was +insufficient. They therefore memorialised the Patriarch of +Antioch. There grew up also a party hostile to the Metropolitan, +and they sent to Antioch a Syrian Christian named Mathew. His +arrival at Antioch was most opportune. The Patriarch was looking +out for a proper man. Mathew was therefore welcomed, and treated +very kindly. He was consecrated as Metropolitan by the Patriarch +himself in 1842, and sent out with the necessary credentials. He +arrived in 1843 as Metropolitan of Malankara under the title of +Mathew Anastatius, and advanced his claims to the headship of the +Church, but Mar Dionysius resisted him, and sent an appeal to the +Patriarch of Antioch, in which he denounced Mathew as one who had +enlisted his sympathies with the Protestant missionaries. Upon this, +the Patriarch sent out one Cyril with power to expel Mathew, and, +with the connivance of Mar Dionysius, Cyril cut the gordian knot by +appointing himself as Metropolitan of Malabar. Disputes arising, +a committee was appointed to examine the claims of Athanasius and +Cyril. The credentials of Cyril were proved to be forged, whereupon +Athanasius was duly installed in his office in 1862, and Cyril fled +the country. Cyril having failed, the Patriarch sent another Bishop +named Stephanos, who contributed his mite towards widening the breach, +and, on the British Resident having ordered the Bishop to quit the +country, an appeal was preferred to the Court of Directors, who +insisted on a policy of non-interference. This bestirred Mar Cyril, +who reappeared on the scene, and fanned the flame of discord. Being +ordered to leave Mar Athanasius unmolested, he and his friends sent +one Joseph to Antioch, who returned with fresh credentials in 1866, +assumed the title of Dionysius V, claimed the office of Metropolitan, +and applied to the Travancore Government for assistance. Adopting +a policy of non-interference, the darbar referred him to the Law +Courts, in case he could not come to terms with Mar Athanasius. The +Patriarch of Antioch himself visited Cochin and Travancore in 1874, +and presided over a Synod which met at Mulanthurutha in the Cochin +State. Resolutions affirming the supremacy of Antioch, recognising Mar +Dionysius as the accredited Metropolitan of Malabar, and condemning +Mathew Athanasius as a schismatic, were passed by the members of the +assembly, and the Patriarch returned to Mardin in 1876. This, however, +did not mend matters, and the two parties launched themselves into a +protracted law suit in 1879, which ended in favour of Mar Dionysius +in 1889. Mar Athanasius, who had taken up an independent position, +died in 1875, and his cousin, whom he had consecrated, succeeded as +Metropolitan under the title of Mar Thomas Anastatius. He died in +1893, and Titus Mar Thoma, consecrated likewise by his predecessor, +presides over the Reformed Party of Jacobite Syrians, who prefer to +be called St. Thomas' Syrians. We have thus traced the history of the +Jacobite Syrians from 1653, and shown how they separated themselves +into two parties, now represented by the Jacobite Syrians under +Mar Dionysius, owing allegiance to the Patriarch of Antioch, and the +Reformed Syrians or St. Thomas' Syrians owning Titus Mar Thoma as their +supreme spiritual head. Thus, while the Jacobite Syrians have accepted +and acknowledged the ecclesiastical supremacy of the Patriarch of +Antioch, the St. Thomas' Syrians, maintaining that the Jacobite creed +was introduced into Malabar only in the seventeenth century after a +section of the church had shaken off the Roman supremacy, uphold the +ecclesiastical autonomy of the church, whereby the supreme control +of the spiritual and temporal affairs of the church is declared to be +in the hands of the Metropolitan of Malabar. The St. Thomas' Syrians +hold that the consecration of a Bishop by, or with the sanction of the +Patriarch of Babylon, Alexandria or Antioch, gives no more validity +or sanctity to that office than consecration by the Metropolitan of +Malabar, the supreme head of the church in Malabar, inasmuch as this +church is as ancient and apostolic as any other, being founded by the +apostle St. Thomas; while the Jacobites hold that the consecration of +a Bishop is not valid, unless it be done with the sanction of their +Patriarch. The St. Thomas' Syrians have, however, no objection to +receiving consecration from the head of any other episcopal apostolic +church, but they consider that such consecrations do not in any way +subject their church to the supremacy of that prelate or church. + +Both the Latins and the Romo-Syrians use the liturgy of the Church +of Rome, the former using the Latin, and the latter the Syriac +language. It is believed by some that the Christians of St. Thomas +formerly used the liturgy of St. Adæus, East Syrian, Edessa, but that +it was almost completely assimilated to the Roman liturgy by Portuguese +Jesuits at the Synod of Diamper in 1599. The Chaldæan Syrians also use +the Roman liturgy, with the following points of difference in practice, +communicated to me by their present ecclesiastical head:--(1) They +perform marriage ceremonies on Sundays, instead of week days as the +Romo-Syrians do. (2) While reading the Gospel, their priests turn +to the congregation, whereas the Romo-Syrian priests turn to the +altar. (3) Their priests bless the congregation in the middle of +the mass, a practice not in vogue among the Romo-Syrians. (4) They +use two kinds of consecrated oil in baptism, which does away with +the necessity of confirmation. The Romo-Syrians, on the other hand, +use only one kind of oil, and hence they have to be subsequently +confirmed by one of their Bishops. + +The liturgy used by the Jacobite Syrians and the St. Thomas' Syrians +is the same, viz., that of St. James. The St. Thomas' Syrians have, +however, made some changes by deleting certain passages from it. [A +recent writer observes that "a service which I attended at the quaint +old Syrian church at Kottayam, which glories in the possession of +one of the three ancient stone crosses in India, closely resembled, +as far as my memory serves me, one which I attended many years ago at +Antioch, except that the non-sacramental portions of the mass were +read in Malayalam instead of in Arabic, the sacramental words alone +being in both cases spoken in the ancient Syriac tongue.] In regard to +doctrine and practice, the following points may be noted:--(1) While +the Jacobite Syrians look upon the Holy Bible as the main authority in +matters of doctrine, practice, and ritual, they do not allow the Bible +to be interpreted except with the help of the traditions of the church, +the writings of the early Fathers, and the decrees of the Holy Synods +of the undivided Christian period; but the St. Thomas' Syrians believe +that the Holy Bible is unique and supreme in such matters. (2) While +the Jacobites have faith in the efficacy and necessity of prayers, +charities, etc., for the benefit of departed souls, of the invocation +of the Virgin Mary and the Saints in divine worship, of pilgrimages, +and of confessing sins to, and obtaining absolution from priests, the +St. Thomas' Syrians regard these and similar practices as unscriptural, +tending not to the edification of believers, but to the drawing away +of the minds of believers from the vital and real spiritual truths +of the Christian Revelation. (3) While the Jacobites administer the +Lord's Supper to the laity and the non-celebrating clergy in the +form of consecrated bread dipped in consecrated wine, and regard it +a sin to administer the elements separately after having united them +in token of Christ's resurrection, the St. Thomas' Syrians admit +the laity to both the elements after the act of uniting them. (4) +While the Jacobite Syrians allow marriage ceremonies on Sundays, +on the plea that, being of the nature of a sacrament, they ought to +be celebrated on Sundays, and that Christ himself had taken part in a +marriage festival on the Sabbath day, the St. Thomas' Syrians prohibit +such celebrations on Sundays as unscriptural, the Sabbath being +set apart for rest and religious exercises. (5) While the Jacobites +believe that the mass is as much a memorial of Christ's oblation on +the cross as it is an unbloody sacrifice offered for the remission +of the sins of the living and of the faithful dead, the St. Thomas' +Syrians observe it as a commemoration of Christ's sacrifice on the +cross. (6) The Jacobites venerate the cross and the relics of Saints, +while the St. Thomas' Syrians regard the practice as idolatry. (7) +The Jacobites perform mass for the dead, while the St. Thomas' Syrians +regard it as unscriptural. (8) With the Jacobites, remarriage, marriage +of widows, and marriage after admission to full priesthood, reduce a +priest to the status of a layman, and one united in any such marriage +is not permitted to perform priestly functions, whereas priests of +the St. Thomas' Syrian party are allowed to contract such marriages +without forfeiture of their priestly rights. (9) The Jacobite Syrians +believe in the efficacy of infant baptism, and acknowledge baptismal +regeneration, while the St. Thomas' Syrians, who also baptise infants, +deny the doctrine of regeneration in baptism, and regard the ceremony +as a mere external sign of admission to church communion. (10) The +Jacobites observe special fasts, and abstain from certain articles +of food during such fasts, while the St. Thomas' Syrians regard the +practice as superstitious. + +The Jacobite Syrian priests are not paid any fixed salary, but are +supported by voluntary contributions in the shape of fees for baptism, +marriages, funerals, etc. The Romo-Syrian and Latin priests are paid +fixed salaries, besides the above perquisites. The Syrian priests +are called Kathanars, while the Latin priests go by the name of +Padres. For the Jacobite Syrians, the morone or holy oil required +for baptism, consecration of churches, ordination of priests, etc., +has to be obtained from Antioch. The churches under Rome get it from +Rome. Unlike the Catholic clergy, the Jacobite clergy, except their +Metropolitan and the Rambans, are allowed to marry. + +The generality of Syrians of the present day trace their descent from +the higher orders of the Hindu society, and the observance by many of +them of certain customs prevalent more or less among high-caste Hindus +bears out this fact. It is no doubt very curious that, in spite of +their having been Christians for centuries together, they still retain +the traditions of their Hindu forefathers. It may sound very strange, +but it is none the less true, that caste prejudices which influence +their Hindu brethren in all social and domestic relations obtain +to some extent among some sections of the Syrian Christians, but, +with the spread of a better knowledge of the teachings of Christ, the +progress of English education, and contact with European Christians, +caste observances are gradually dying out. The following relics of +old customs may, however, be noted:-- + +(1) Some Christians make offerings to Hindu temples with as much +reverence as they do in their own churches. + +Some non-Brahman Hindus likewise make offerings to Christian churches. + +(2) Some sections of Syrians have faith in horoscopes, and get them +cast for new-born babies, just as Hindus do. + +(3) On the wedding day, the bridegroom ties round the neck of the bride +a tali (small ornament made of gold). This custom is prevalent among +all classes of Native Christians. On the death of their husbands, +some even remove the tali to indicate widowhood, as is the custom +among the Brahmans. + +(4) When a person dies, his or her children, if any, and near +relatives, observe pula (death pollution) for a period ranging from +ten to fifteen days. The observance imposes abstinence from animal +food. The pula ends with a religious ceremony in the church, with +feasting friends and relatives in the house, and feeding the poor, +according to one's means. Sradha, or anniversary ceremony for the soul +of the dead, is performed with services in the church and feasts in +the house. + +(5) In rural parts especially, the Onam festival of the Malayali +Hindus is celebrated with great éclat, with feasting, making presents +of cloths to children and relatives, out-door and in-door games, etc. + +(6) Vishu, or new-year's day, is likewise a gala day, when presents +of small coins are made to children, relatives, and the poor. + +(7) The ceremony of first feeding a child with rice (annaprasanam +or chorunu of the Hindus) is celebrated generally in the sixth month +after birth. Parents often make vows to have the ceremony done in a +particular church, as Hindu parents take their children to particular +temples in fulfilment of special vows. + +(8) The Syrians do not admit within their premises low-castes, e.g., +Pulayans, Paraiyans, etc., even after the conversion of the latter +to Christianity. They enforce even distance pollution, though not +quite to the same extent as Malayali Hindus do. Iluvans are allowed +admission to their houses, but are not allowed to cook their meals. In +some parts, they are not even allowed to enter the houses of Syrians. + +There are no intermarriages between Syrians of the various +denominations and Latin Catholics. Under very exceptional +circumstances, a Romo-Syrian contracts a marriage with one of +Latin rite, and vice versâ, but this entails many difficulties +and disabilities on the issues. Among the Latins themselves, there +are, again, no intermarriages between the communities of the seven +hundred, the five hundred, and the three hundred. The difference of +cult and creed has led to the prohibition of marriages between the +Romo-Syrians and Jacobite Syrians. The Jacobite Syrians properly so +called, St. Thomas' Syrians, and the Syro-Protestants do, however, +intermarry. The Southerners and Northerners do not intermarry; any +conjugal ties effected between them subject the former to some kind of +social excommunication. This exclusiveness, as we have already said, +is claimed on the score of their descent from the early colonists +from Syria. The Syrians in general, and the Jacobite Syrians in +particular, are greater stricklers to customs than other classes of +Native Christians. + +We have already referred to the privileges granted to the Syrians by +the Hindu kings in early times. They not only occupied a very high +position in the social scale, but also enjoyed at different times the +rare distinction of forming a section of the body-guard of the king and +the militia of the country. Education has of late made great progress +among them. The public service has now been thrown open to them, so +that those who have had the benefit of higher education now hold some +of the important posts in the State. In enterprises of all kinds, they +are considerably ahead of their Hindu and Musalman brethren, so that +we see them take very kindly to commerce, manufacture, agriculture, +etc.; in fact, in every walk of life, they are making their mark by +their industry and enterprise. [209] + +The following additional information is contained in the Gazetteer of +Malabar. "The men are to be distinguished by the small cross worn round +the neck, and the women by their tali, which has 21 beads on it, set +in the form of a cross. Their churches are ugly rectangular buildings +with flat or arched wooden roofs and whitewashed facades. They have no +spire, but the chancel, which is at the east end, is usually somewhat +higher than the nave. Between the chancel and the body of the church +is a curtain, which is drawn while the priest consecrates the elements +at the mass. Right and left of the chancel are two rooms, the vestry +and the sacristy. At the west end is a gallery, in which the unmarried +priests sometimes live. Most churches contain three altars, one in the +chancel, and the other two at its western ends on each side. There are +no images in Jacobite or Reformed churches, but there are sometimes +pictures. Crucifixes are placed on the altars, and in other parts of +the churches. The clergy and men of influence are buried in the nave +just outside the chancel. The Syrian Bishops are called Metrans. They +are celibates, and live on the contributions of their churches. They +wear purple robes and black silk cowls figured with golden crosses, a +big gold cross round the neck, and a ring on the fourth finger of the +right hand. Bishops are nominated by their predecessors from the body +of Rambans, who are men selected by priests and elders in advance to +fill the Episcopate. Metrans are buried in their robes in a sitting +posture. Their priests are called Cattanars. They should strictly +pass through the seven offices of ostiary, reader, exorcist, acolyte, +sub-deacon and deacon before becoming priests; but the first three +offices practically no longer exist. The priestly office is often +hereditary, descending by the marumakkattayam system (inheritance +in the female line). Jacobite and St. Thomas' Syrian priests are +paid by contributions from their parishioners, fees at weddings, +and the like. Their ordinary dress consists of white trousers, and +a kind of long white shirt with short sleeves and a flap hanging +down behind, supposed to be in the form of a cross. Over this the +Jacobites now wear a black coat. Priests are allowed to marry, except +in the Romo-Syrian community; but, among the Jacobites, a priest may +not marry after he has once been ordained, nor may he re-marry or +marry a widow. Malpans, or teachers, are the heads of the religious +colleges, where priests are trained. Jacobites also now shave clean, +while other Syrian priests wear the tonsure. Every church has not +more than four Kaikkars or churchwardens, who are elected from the +body of parishioners. They are the trustees of the church property, +and, with the priest, constitute a disciplinary body, which exercises +considerable powers in religious and social matters over the members +of the congregation. The Romo-Syrians follow the doctrines and ritual +of the Roman Catholics, but they use a Syriac version [210] of the +Latin liturgy. Jacobites and St. Thomas' Christians use the Syriac +liturgy of St. James. Few even of the priests understand Syriac, and, +in the Reformed Syrian churches, a Malayalam translation of the Syriac +liturgy has now been generally adopted. The Jacobites say masses for +the dead, but do not believe in purgatory; they invoke the Virgin +Mary, venerate the cross and relics of saints; they recognise only +three sacraments, baptism, marriage (which they always celebrate on +Sundays) and the mass; they prescribe auricular confession before +mass, and at the mass administer the bread dipped in the wine; they +recite the Eastern form of the Nicene Creed, and discourage laymen +from studying the Bible. The Reformed Syrians differ from them in +most of these points. The Jacobites observe the ordinary festivals of +the church; the day of the patron saint of each church is celebrated +with special pomp, and on the offerings made on that day the priests +largely depend for their income. They keep Lent, which they call the +fifty days' fast, strictly from the Sunday before Ash Wednesday, +abjuring all meat, fish, ghee, and toddy; and on Maundy Thursday +they eat a special kind of unsweetened cake marked with a cross, in +the centre of which the karnavan of the family should drive a nail, +and drink a kanji of rice and cocoanut-milk (the meal is said to +symbolize the Passover and the Last Supper, and the nail is supposed +to be driven into the eye of Judas Iscariot). + +"Amongst the Syrian Christians, as amongst the Mappillas, there +are many survivals of Hindu customs and superstitions, and caste +prejudices have by no means disappeared amongst the various sections +of the community. Southerners and Northerners will not intermarry, +and families who trace their descent from Brahmans and Nayars will, in +many cases, not admit lower classes to their houses, much less allow +them to cook for them or touch them. Most of the Syrians observe the +Onam and Vishnu festivals; the astrologer is frequently consulted to +cast horoscopes and tell omens; while it is a common custom for persons +suffering from diseases to seek a cure by buying silver or tin images +of the diseased limb, which their priest has blessed. Similar survivals +are to be noticed in their social ceremonies. A Pulikudi ceremony, +similar to that of the Hindus, was commonly performed till recently, +though it has now fallen into disuse. Immediately on the birth of a +child, three drops of honey in which gold has been rubbed are poured +into its mouth by its father, and the mother is considered to be under +pollution till the tenth day. Baptism takes place on the fourteenth +day amongst the Southern Jacobites, and amongst other divisions on +the fifty-sixth day. A rice-giving ceremony similar to the Hindu +Chorunnu is still sometimes performed in the fifth or sixth month, +when the child is presented by the mother with a gold cross, if a boy, +or a small gold coin or taluvam if a girl, to be worn round the neck. + +"Among the Jacobites early marriage was the rule until comparatively +recently, boys being married at ten or twelve years of age, and girls +at six or seven. Now the more usual age for marriage is sixteen in the +case of boys, and twelve in the case of girls. Weddings take place on +Sundays, and, amongst the Northerners, may be celebrated in either +the bride's or the bridegroom's parish church. On the two Sundays +before the wedding, the banns have to be called in the two churches, +and the marriage agreements concluded in the presence of the parish +priests (Ottu kalyanam). The dowry, which is an essential feature of +Syrian weddings, is usually paid on the Sunday before the wedding. It +should consist of an odd number of rupees, and should be tied up in a +cloth. On the Thursday before the wedding day, the house is decorated +with rice flour, and on the Saturday the marriage pandal (booth), is +built. The first ceremonial takes place on Saturday night when bride +and bridegroom both bathe, and the latter is shaved. Next morning +both bride and bridegroom attend the ordinary mass, the bridegroom +being careful to enter the church before the bride. Now-a-days +both are often dressed more or less in European fashion, and it +is essential that the bride should wear as many jewels as she has +got, or can borrow for the occasion. Before leaving his house, +the bridegroom is blessed by his guru to whom he gives a present +(dakshina) of clothes and money. He is accompanied by a bestman, +usually his sister's husband, who brings the tali. After mass, +a tithe (pathuvaram) of the bride's dowry is paid to the church as +the marriage fee, a further fee to the priest (kaikasturi), and a fee +called kaimuttupanam for the bishop. The marriage service is then read, +and, at its conclusion, the bridegroom ties the tali round the bride's +neck with threads taken from her veil, making a special kind of knot, +while the priest holds the tali in front. The priest and the bridegroom +then put a veil (mantravadi) over the bride's head. The tali should +not be removed so long as the girl is married, and should be buried +with her. The veil should also be kept for her funeral. The bridal +party returns home in state, special umbrellas being held over the +bride and bridegroom. At the gate they are met by the bride's sister +carrying a lighted lamp, and she washes the bridegroom's feet. The +married couple then go to the pandal, where they are ceremonially +fed with sweets and plantains by the priest and by representatives +of their two families, to the accompaniment of the women's kurava +(cry), and in the presence of the guests, who are seated in order of +precedence, the chief persons having seats of honour covered with +black rugs and white cloths (vellayum karimbadavum), traditionally +a regal honour. The bride and bridegroom are then led into the house +by the bestman and bride's uncle, the bride being careful to enter it +right foot first; and the guests are feasted in order of rank. It is +a peculiar custom of the Syrian Christians at these feasts to double +up the ends of the plantain leaves which serve them as plates, and +is supposed to be symbolical of the royal privilege of eating off a +double plate. Until the following Wednesday, the bestman sleeps with +the bridegroom in the bridal chamber, the bride occupying another +room. On Wednesday evening comes the ceremony called nalam kuli, +or fourth day bath. The bridegroom and the bestman, who are in the +bridal chamber, lock the door; the bride's mother knocks and begs the +bridegroom to come out, which he at last does after she has sung a +song (vathilturapattu) celebrating the attractions and virtues of the +bride. The bridegroom and bride then bathe, dress in new clothes, +and go to the pandal, where they perform paradakshinams round a +lighted lamp, and the bridegroom gives cloths to the bride's uncle, +mother, and grand-parents. The married couple are then escorted to the +bridal chamber, which has in the interval been cleaned and prepared for +them. The next morning they have to go to the bridegroom's or bride's +house as the case may be, and there eat together and go through a +ceremonial similar to that which they performed on the wedding day +in the other house. This concludes the marriage ceremonies, but on +Sunday the bridegroom and bride should attend mass together in the +bride's parish church if they were married in the bridegroom's, and +vice versâ. Amongst the Southern Jacobites, the ceremonies are very +similar, but the dowry is not paid till the marriage day, or till the +girl's first confinement. Half the pathuvaram is paid to the priest +instead of a kaikasturi, and the bridegroom puts a ring on the bride's +finger during the marriage service. After the church service, the +couple go to the bridegroom's house, where they are fed ceremonially +by the bride's mother, and the subsequent feast is at the expense of +the bride's people. On Monday morning, the bridegroom is ceremonially +fed by the bride's mother in the bridal chamber (manavalan choru), +and in the evening there is a ceremony called manavalan tazhukkal, in +which the bride and bridegroom are embraced in turn by their respective +parents and relations, after which there is a feast with singing of +hymns. Before the couple leave for the bride's house on Thursday, +there is a big feast, called kudivirunnu, given by the bridegroom to +the bride's people, followed by a ceremony called vilakku toduga, in +which men and women sing hymns and dance round a lighted lamp, which +they touch at intervals. Amongst the Romo-Syrians and the Reformed +sect, the marriage ceremonies have less trace of Hindu ritual; they +do not celebrate weddings on Sundays, and have no nalam kuli ceremony, +but a tali is usually tied in addition to the giving of a ring. + +"At funerals (except amongst the Reformed sect) it is usual for +each of the dead man's connections to bring a cloth to serve as +a shroud. Before the body is lowered into the grave, holy oil is +poured into the eyes, nostrils and ears. The mourners are under +pollution, and fast till the day of the second funeral or pula kuli +(purification), and till then masses should be said daily for the +dead. The pula kuli is celebrated usually on the 11th day, but +may be deferred till the 15th, 17th or 21st, or sometimes to the +41st. The mourners are incensed, while hymns are sung and prayers +offered. Each then gives a contribution of money to the priest, +and receives in return a pinch of cummin. A feast is then given to +the neighbours and the poor. On the 40th day there is another feast, +at which meat is eaten by the mourners for the first time. A requiem +mass should be said each month on the day of death for twelve months, +and on the first anniversary the mourning concludes with a feast." + +To the foregoing account of the Syrian Christians, a few stray notes +may be added. + +It is recorded by Sir M. E. Grant Duff, formerly Governor of Madras, +[211] that "the interesting body known as the Syrian Christians or +Christians of St. Thomas is divided into several groups much opposed +to each other. In an excellent address presented to me they said +that this was the occasion which, for the first time after ages of +separation, witnessed the spectacle of all the different sects of +their community, following divergent articles of faith, sinking for +once their religious differences to do honour to their friend." + +Some years ago, the wife of a District Judge of Calicut asked the +pupils of a school how long they had been Christians. "We were," came +the crushing reply, "Christians when you English were worshipping +Druids, and stained with woad." More recently, the master at a +college in Madras called on all Native Christians in his class to +stand up. Noticing that one boy remained seated, he called on him +for an explanation, when the youth explained that he was a Syrian +Christian, and not a Native Christian. + +It is noted by the Rev. W. J. Richards that "at the very time that +our King John was pulling out Jews' teeth to make them surrender +their treasures, Hindu princes were protecting Jewish and Christian +subjects, whose ancestors had been honoured by Royal grants for +hundreds of years." + +The Southerners say that they can be distinguished from the Northerners +by the red tinge of their hair. A man with reddish moustache, and +a dark-skinned baby with brilliant red hair, whose father had red +whiskers, were produced before me in support of the claim. + +As examples of Old and New Testament names occurring, in a changed +form, among Syrian Christians, the following may be cited:-- + + + Abraham, Abragam. + Joshua, Koshi. + Peter, Puthros, Ittiyerah, Itte. + Paul, Powlos. + John, Yohan, Sonanan, Chona. + Titus, Tetos. + Matthew, Mathai, Mathen. + Philip, Philippos, Papi, Eippe, Eapen. + Thomas, Thoma, Thommi, Thommen. + Joseph, Ouseph. + Jacob, Yacob, Chako + Alexander, Chandi. + Samuel, Chamuel. + Mary, Maria, Mariam. + Sarah, Sara. + Susannah, Sosa. + Rebecca, Rabka, Raca. + Elizabeth, Elspeth, Elia, Elacha. + Rachael, Rachi, Raghael, Chacha. + + +Syrian Christians take the name of their father, their own name, and +that of their residence. Whence arise such names as Edazayhikkal Mathoo +Philippos, Kunnampuram Thommen Chandi, and Chandakadayil Joseph Chommi. + +I have seen some Syrian Christian men tattooed with a cross on the +upper arm, and a cross and their initials on the forearm. + +In conclusion, I may, for the sake of comparison, place on record the +averages of the more important physical measurements of Northerner +and Southerner Syrian Christians and Nayars. + + + 30 Syrian 40 Nayars. + Christians. + Northerner. Southerner. + Stature 165.3 164.8 165.2 + Cephalic length 18.7 18.9 18.7 + Cephalic breadth 14.3 14.1 13.9 + Cephalic index 76.3 74.8 74.4 + Nasal height 4.9 4.9 4.9 + Nasal breadth 3.5 3.5 3.5 + Nasal index 72.3 71.6 71.1 + + +It may be noted that, in his 'Letters from Malabar,' Canter Visscher, +in the middle of the eighteenth century, writes that the St. Thomas' +Christians "keep very strict genealogical records, and they will +neither marry nor in any way intermingle with the new low-caste +Christians, being themselves mostly Castade Naiross, that is, nobility +of the Nayar caste, in token of which they generally carry a sword +in the hand, as a mark of dignity." + +It is stated by E. Petersen and F. V. Luschan [212] that "probably a +single people originally occupied the greater part of Asia Minor. They +are still represented as a compact group by the Armenians. The type +resembles the Dissentis type of His and Rütimeyer; the head extremely +short and high, stature moderate, skin dark, eyes dark, and hair dark +and smooth. It extends through the S. half of Asia Minor, N.E. to +the Caucasus, and E. to the Upper Euphrates. The Tachtadschy people, +a hill people living without serious mixture with other peoples, +give measurements closely like the Armenians." [The cephalic index +of Armenians is given by E. Chantre [213] as 85-86.] + +In the following table, the averages of some of the more important +measurements of the Syrian Christians and Tachtadschy people are +recorded:-- + + + Stature, Cephalic Cephalic Cephalic, + cm. length, cm. breadth, index. + cm. + + Syrian 165.3 18.7 14.3 76.3 + Christians, + Northerner + Syrian 164.8 18.9 14.1 74.8 + Christians, + Southerner + Tachtadschy 168. 17.9 15.3 85.7 + + + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[2] Pulikesin II, the Chalukyan King of Badami. + +[3] Manual of the Madura district. + +[4] South Indian Inscriptions, III, 31, page 82. + +[5] In the Oriental Manuscripts Library, Madras. + +[6] J. Burgess. Archæological Survey. Tamil and Sanskrit Inscriptions, +No. 11, p. 150. + +[7] Ibid. No. 12, p. 152. + +[8] History of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in +Indostan, 1861. + +[9] Geographical, statistical, and historical description of Hindostan +and the adjacent countries, 1820. + +[10] Ceylon, 1860. + +[11] South Indian Inscriptions, 1, 86-7, 105, 136, and III, I, +121, 123. + +[12] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[13] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[14] Vannikula Vilakkam. + +[15] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[16] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[17] Vannikula Vilakkam. + +[18] Gazetteer of the Tanjore district. + +[19] Manual of the Salem district. + +[20] Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar. + +[21] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[22] Gazetteer of the Tanjore district. + +[23] Gazetteer of the Tanjore district. + +[24] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[25] Madras Mail, 1906. + +[26] Malabar and its Folk, 1900. + +[27] Manual of Malabar. + +[28] Madras Mus. Bull., III, 3, 1901. + +[29] Monograph, Eth. Survey of Cochin. + +[30] A. Chatterton. Monograph on Tanning and Working in Leather, 1904. + +[31] Journey through Mysore, etc., 1807. + +[32] How we teach the Paraiya, 3rd ed., Madras, 1906. + +[33] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[34] Works, 1, 225, foot-note. + +[35] History of Mysore. + +[36] Op. cit. + +[37] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[38] Madras Journ. Lit. and Science, XI, 1840. + +[39] Native Life in Travancore. + +[40] Yule and Burnell. Hobson-Jobson. + +[41] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[42] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[43] Manual of the North Arcot district; Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[44] Report on the Methods of Capture and Supply of Fish in the Rivers +of the Nilgiri district, 1907. + +[45] Gazetteer of the Malabar district. + +[46] Gazetteer of Malabar. + +[47] Madras Census Report, 1881. + +[48] Madras Mus. Bull., V, 2, 1906. + +[49] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[50] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[51] Voyage to the East Indies, 1774 and 1781. + +[52] Loc. cit. + +[53] Ind. Ant., III, 1874. + +[54] The name Black Town was changed to Georgetown to commemorate +the visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales to Madras in 1906. + +[55] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[56] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[57] Ind. Ant. II, 1873. + +[58] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[59] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[60] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[61] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[62] A. P. Smith. Malabar Quart. Review, 1904. + +[63] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[64] Classified Collection of Tamil Proverbs, 1897. + +[65] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[66] Op. cit. + +[67] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[68] Madras Census Report, 1871. + +[69] Monograph Eth. Survey. Cochin. + +[70] Malabar and its Folk, 1900. + +[71] Journ. Roy. As. Soc., XVI. + +[72] C.M. Record, 1850. + +[73] Origin and History of the Paravas. Simon Casie +Chitty. Journ. Roy. As. Soc., IV, 1837. + +[74] Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life, 1901. + +[75] A description of ye East India Coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, +1703. + +[76] History of Tinnevelly. + +[77] Report on the Indian Pearl Fisheries in the Gulf of Manaar, 1905. + +[78] Shell of the gastropod mollusc, Turbinella rapa. + +[79] "This," Mr. Hornell writes, "is most improbable. They are more +probably the descendants of Naga fishermen settled in the district +prior to the immigration of Tamil invaders." + +[80] The Zamorin of Calicut. + +[81] Madras Mail, 1907. + +[82] Risley. Tribes and Castes of Bengal. + +[83] Gazetteer of the Malabar district. + +[84] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[85] Madras Mail, 1907. + +[86] By the Saurashtra Literary Societies of Madura and Madras, 1891. + +[87] Gazetteer of the Madura district. + +[88] A reddish geological formation, found all over Southern India. + +[89] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[90] Letters from Madras. By a Lady, 1843. + +[91] My Indian Journal, 1864. + +[92] Our Viceregal Life in India, 1889. + +[93] Roe and Fryer. Travels in India in the seventeenth century. + +[94] See Civil Suit No. 102 of 1880. + +[95] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[96] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[97] Manuals of Nellore and Kurnool. + +[98] Manual of Malabar. + +[99] Malabar Quarterly Review. V, 4, 1907. + +[100] Yule and Burnell. Hobson-Jobson. + +[101] This note is from an account by Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. + +[102] Gazetteer of the Malabar district. + +[103] Malabar Law and Custom. + +[104] Ibid. + +[105] Hobson-Jobson. + +[106] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[107] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[108] Linguistic Survey of India, IV, 1906. + +[109] Ind. Ant., II, 1873. + +[110] Loc. cit. + +[111] Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district. + +[112] Gazetteer of the Tanjore district. + +[113] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[114] Men and Women of India, February 1906. + +[115] Malabar and its Folk, 1900. + +[116] This account is mainly based on a note by Mr. L. K. Anantha +Krishna Aiyar. + +[117] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[118] Manual of the Vizagapatam district. + +[119] Manual of Malabar. + +[120] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[121] W. Crooke. Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces +and Oudh. + +[122] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[123] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[124] Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district. + +[125] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[126] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[127] Madras Census Report, 1871. + +[128] Birds of India. + +[129] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[130] Twelfth Tour of Lord Connemara, 1890. + +[131] See Thurston. Monograph on the Cotton Industry of the Madras +Presidency, 1897. + +[132] East and West, VI, 70, 1907. + +[133] Madras Mail, 1904. + +[134] Manual of the Chingleput district. + +[135] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[136] Ind. Ant., IV, 1875. + +[137] Malayalam and English Dictionary. + +[138] Sthanam = a station, rank or dignity. Moore: Malabar Law +and Custom. + +[139] Original Suit No. 31, 1887, Court of Calicut. Appeal No. 202, +1888, High Court of Madras. + +[140] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[141] See Malabar Quart. Review, II, 4, 1903. + +[142] Historical Sketches of the South of India: Mysore. + +[143] Moore: Malabar Law and Custom, 1905. + +[144] Manu. + +[145] Mysore Census Report, 1891, 1901. + +[146] Yule and Burnell. Hobson-Jobson. + +[147] Rev. H. Jensen. Classified Collection of Tamil Proverbs, 1897. + +[148] Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879. + +[149] South Indian Inscriptions, II, Part III, 1895. + +[150] Linguistic Survey of India, IV, 1906. + +[151] Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, 1, 1901. + +[152] The Rev. W. Taylor, Vol. III, 1862. + +[153] Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life, 1901. + +[154] Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district. + +[155] See Bishop Whitehead. Madras Museum Bull., Vol. 3, 136, 1907. + +[156] Gazetteer of Vizagapatam district. + +[157] Madras Museum Bulletin, V, 3, 1907. + +[158] Lectures on Tinnevelly Missions, 1857. + +[159] Viaggi, 1614-26. + +[160] A New Account of East India and Persia, 1698. + +[161] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[162] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[163] Principles of Sociology. + +[164] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[165] Administration Report, 1899. + +[166] Christianity in Travancore, 1901. + +[167] Madras Museum Bull., III, 3, 1901. + +[168] Rice. Mysore Inscriptions, p. 33. + +[169] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[170] Madras Mail, 1901. + +[171] Ind. Ant., IV, 1875. + +[172] Christianity and Caste, 1893. + +[173] Journ. Roy. As. Soc., XVI. + +[174] Madras Mail, 1907. + +[175] L. Rice, Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer. + +[176] Yule and Burnell. Hobson-Jobson. + +[177] Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, 1807. + +[178] Madras Mail, 1907. + +[179] Mysore Census Report, 1891. + +[180] Mysore Census Report, 1891. + +[181] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[182] Madras Census Report, 1881. + +[183] A Native. Pen-and-ink Sketches of Native Life in Southern +India, 1880. + +[184] Yule and Burnell. Hobson-Jobson. + +[185] A Snataka is a Brahman, who has just finished his student's +career. + +[186] Tribes and Castes of Bengal. + +[187] A very complicated recipe is given in the Manual of the +Vizagapatam district, 1869, p. 264. + +[188] Rev. J. Cain, Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879. + +[189] Ind. Ant. II, 1873. + +[190] Ind. Ant. VIII, 1879. + +[191] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[192] Ind. Ant. VIII, 1879. + +[193] Wigram, Malabar Law and Customs. + +[194] Rev. W. J. Richards. The Indian Christians of Saint Thomas. + +[195] A New Account of the East Indies, 1744. + +[196] Vide G. Milne Rae. The Syrian Church in India, 1892. + +[197] Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed. + +[198] See Hough, the History of Christianity in India from the +commencement of the Christian Era. + +[199] Indian Empire, 3rd edition. + +[200] IV. 290-97, 1896-7. + +[201] Madras Journ. Lit. and Science, XIII, part, 118. Dr. Gundert's +translation is reprinted in Mr. Logan's Malabar, Vol. II, Appendix XII. + +[202] Madras Journ. Lit. and Science, XXI, 35-38. + +[203] Ind. Ant., III, 1874. + +[204] See article on the Jews of Cochin. + +[205] Loc. cit. + +[206] Land of the Perumauls: Cochin past and present, 1863. + +[207] F. Wrede. Asiatic Researches, VII, 181. Account of the St. Thomé +Christians. + +[208] Hunter. Indian Empire. + +[209] In the preparation of the above sketch, the following +authorities, among others, were consulted: Sir W. W. Hunter, +Indian Empire and History of British India; J. Hough, History of +Christianity in India; T. Whitehouse, Lingerings of Light in a Dark +Land; G. T. Mackenzie, Christianity in Travancore; F. Day, Land of the +Perumauls; T. Logan, Manual of Malabar; Christian College Magazine, +Madras, Vol. VI; and Judgments of the Civil Courts of Travancore and +Cochin. To the bibliography relating to the Syrian Christians may also +be added L. M. Agur, Church History of Travancore, the Rev. G. Milne +Rae, the Syrian Church in India, and the Rev. W. J. Richards, the +Indian Christians of St. Thomas. The Malabar Quarterly Review, VI, +1 and 2, 1907, may also be consulted. + +[210] The Syriac is not a modern Syriac dialect, but is very like +the ancient Aramaic. + +[211] Notes from a Diary, 1881-86. + +[212] Recherches Anthropologiques dans le Caucase, IV, 1887. + +[213] Reisen in Lykien, Melyas, und Kibyratis, II, 1889. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Castes and Tribes of Southern India, by +Edgar Thurston + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42996 *** |