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diff --git a/42992-0.txt b/42992-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..89a7e15 --- /dev/null +++ b/42992-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15475 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42992 *** + + CASTES AND TRIBES + OF + SOUTHERN INDIA + + By + + EDGAR THURSTON, C.I.E., + + Superintendent, Madras Government Museum; Correspondant Étranger, + Société d'Anthropologie de Paris; Socio Corrispondante, Societa, + Romana di Anthropologia. + + Assisted by + + K. Rangachari, M.A., + of the Madras Government Museum. + + + + Volume II--C to J + + Government Press, Madras + + 1909. + + + + + + + + CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA. + + VOLUME II. + + +C + + +Canji (gruel).--An exogamous sept of Padma Sale. Canji is the word "in +use all over India for the water, in which rice has been boiled. It +also forms the usual starch of Indian washermen." [1] As a sept of +the Sale weavers, it probably has reference to the gruel, or size, +which is applied to the warp. + +Chacchadi.--Haddis who do scavenging work, with whom other Haddis do +not freely intermarry. + +Chadarapu Dhompti (square space marriage offering).--A sub-division +of Madigas, who, at marriages, offer food to the god in a square space. + +Chakala.--See Tsakala. + +Chakkan.--Recorded in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a Malabar +caste of oil-pressers (chakku means an oil-mill). Followers of this +calling are known also as Vattakkadans in South Malabar, and as +Vaniyans in North Malabar, but the former are the higher in social +status, the Nayars being polluted by the touch of the Vaniyans +and Chakkans, but not by that of the Vattakkadans. Chakkans and +Vaniyans may not enter Brahman temples. Their customs and manners are +similar to those of the Nayars, who will not, however, marry their +women." Chakkingalavan appears as a synonym for Chakkan. + +Chakkiliyan.--"The Chakkiliyans," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [2] +"are the leather-workers of the Tamil districts, corresponding to +the Madigas of the Telugu country. The Chakkiliyans appear to be +immigrants from the Telugu or Canarese districts, for no mention is +made of this caste either in the early Tamil inscriptions, or in early +Tamil literature. Moreover, a very large proportion of the Chakkiliyans +speak Telugu and Canarese. In social position the Chakkiliyans occupy +the lowest rank, though there is much dispute on this point between +them and the Paraiyans. Nominally they are Saivites, but in reality +devil-worshippers. The avaram plant (Cassia auriculata) is held in +much veneration by them, [3] and the tali is tied to a branch of it +as a preliminary to marriage. Girls are not usually married before +puberty. The bridegroom may be younger than the bride. Their widows +may remarry. Divorce can be obtained at the pleasure of either +party on payment of Rs. 12-12-0 to the other in the presence of +the local head of the caste. Their women are considered to be very +beautiful, and it is a woman of this caste who is generally selected +for the coarser form of Sakti worship. They indulge very freely in +intoxicating liquors, and will eat any flesh, including beef, pork, +etc. Hence they are called, par excellence, the flesh-eaters (Sanskrit +shatkuli)." It was noted by Sonnerat, in the eighteenth century, [4] +that the Chakkiliyans are in more contempt than the Pariahs, because +they use cow leather in making shoes. "The Chucklers or cobblers," +the Abbé Dubois writes, [5] "are considered inferiors to the Pariahs +all over the peninsula. They are more addicted to drunkenness and +debauchery. Their orgies take place principally in the evening, +and their villages resound, far into the night, with the yells and +quarrels which result from their intoxication. The very Pariahs refuse +to have anything to do with the Chucklers, and do not admit them to +any of their feasts." In the Madura Manual, 1868, the Chakkiliyans are +summed up as "dressers of leather, and makers of slippers, harness, +and other leather articles. They are men of drunken and filthy habits, +and their morals are very bad. Curiously enough, their women are held +to be of the Padmani kind, i.e., of peculiar beauty of face and form, +and are also said to be very virtuous. It is well known, however, that +zamindars and other rich men are very fond of intriguing with them, +particularly in the neighbourhood of Paramagudi, where they live in +great numbers." There is a Tamil proverb that even a Chakkili girl +and the ears of the millet are beautiful when mature. In the Tanjore +district, the Chakkiliyans are said [6] to be "considered to be of the +very lowest status. In some parts of the district they speak Telugu and +wear the namam (Vaishnavite sect mark) and are apparently immigrants +from the Telugu country." Though they are Tamil-speaking people, the +Chakkiliyans, like the Telugu Madigas, have exogamous septs called +gotra in the north, and kilai in the south. Unlike the Madigas, they do +not carry out the practice of making Basavis (dedicated prostitutes). + +The correlation of the most important measurements of the Madigas of +the Telugu country, and so-called Chakkiliyans of the city of Madras, +is clearly brought out by the following figures:-- + + + Thirty Madigas. Fifty Chakkiliyans. + cm. cm. + Stature 163.1 162.2 + Cephalic length 18.6 18.6 + Cephalic breadth 13.9 13.9 + Cephalic index 75. 75. + Nasal height 4.5 4.6 + Nasal breadth 3.7 3.6 + Nasal index 80.8 78.9 + + +The Chakkiliyan men in Madras are tattooed not only on the forehead, +but also with their name, conventional devices, dancing-girls, etc., +on the chest and upper extremities. + +It has been noticed as a curious fact that, in the Madura district, +"while the men belong to the right-hand faction, the women belong to +and are most energetic supporters of the left. It is even said that, +during the entire period of a faction riot, the Chakkili women keep +aloof from their husbands and deny them their marital rights." [7] + +In a very interesting note on the leather industry of the Madras +Presidency, Mr. A. Chatterton writes as follows. [8] "The position of +the Chakkiliyan in the south differs greatly from that of the Madiga +of the north, and many of his privileges are enjoyed by a 'sub-sect' +of the Pariahs called Vettiyans. These people possess the right of +removing dead cattle from villages, and in return have to supply +leather for agricultural purposes. The majority of Chakkiliyans +are not tanners, but leather-workers, and, instead of getting the +hides or skins direct from the Vettiyan, they prefer to purchase +them ready-tanned from traders, who bring them from the large tanning +centres. When the Chuckler starts making shoes or sandals, he purchases +the leather and skin which he requires in the bazar, and, taking +it home, first proceeds with a preliminary currying operation. The +leather is damped and well stretched, and dyed with aniline, the usual +colour being scarlet R.R. of the Badische Anilin Soda Fabrik. This +is purchased in the bazar in packets, and is dissolved in water, +to which a little oxalic acid has been added. The dye is applied +with a piece of rag on the grain side, and allowed to dry. After +drying, tamarind paste is applied to the flesh side of the skin, +and the latter is then rolled between the hands, so as to produce a +coarse graining on the outer side. In making the shoes, the leather is +usually wetted, and moulded into shape on wooden moulds or lasts. As +a rule, nothing but cotton is used for sewing, and the waxed ends of +the English cobbler are entirely unknown. The largest consumption of +leather in this Presidency is for water-bags or kavalais, which are +used for raising water from wells, and for oil and ghee (clarified +butter) pots, in which the liquids are transported from one place to +another. Of irrigation wells there are in the Presidency more than +600,000, and, though some of them are fitted with iron buckets, nearly +all of them have leather bags with leather discharging trunks. The +buckets hold from ten to fifty gallons of water, and are generally +made from fairly well tanned cow hides, though for very large buckets +buffalo hides are sometimes used. The number of oil and ghee pots +in use in the country is very large. The use of leather vessels for +this purpose is on the decline, as it is found much cheaper and more +convenient to store oil in the ubiquitous kerosine-oil tin, and it is +not improbable that eventually the industry will die out, as it has +done in other countries. The range of work of the country Chuckler +is not very extensive. Besides leather straps for wooden sandals, he +makes crude harness for the ryot's cattle, including leather collars +from which numerous bells are frequently suspended, leather whips for +the cattle drivers, ornamental fringes for the bull's forehead, bellows +for the smith, and small boxes for the barber, in which to carry his +razors. In some places, leather ropes are used for various purposes, +and it is customary to attach big coir (cocoanut fibre) ropes to the +bodies of the larger temple cars by leather harness, when they are +drawn in procession through the streets. Drum-heads and tom-toms are +made from raw hides by Vettiyans and Chucklers. The drums are often +very large, and are transported upon the back of elephants, horses, +bulls and camels. For them raw hides are required, but for the smaller +instruments sheep-skins are sufficient. The raw hides are shaved on +the flesh side, and are then dried. The hair is removed by rubbing +with wood-ashes. The use of lime in unhairing is not permissible, +as it materially decreases the elasticity of the parchment." The +Chakkiliyans beat the tom-tom for Kammalans, Pallis and Kaikolans, +and for other castes if desired to do so. + +The Chakkiliyans do not worship Matangi, who is the special deity of +the Madigas. Their gods include Madurai Viran, Mariamma, Muneswara, +Draupadi and Gangamma. Of these, the last is the most important, and +her festival is celebrated annually, if possible. To cover the expenses +thereof, a few Chakkiliyans dress up so as to represent men and women +of the Marathi bird-catching caste, and go about begging in the streets +for nine days. On the tenth day the festival terminates. Throughout +it, Gangamma, represented by three decorated pots under a small pandal +(booth) set up on the bank of a river or tank beneath a margosa (Melia +azadirachta), or pipal (Ficus religiosa) tree, is worshipped. On the +last day, goats and fowls are sacrificed, and limes cut. + +During the first menstrual period, the Chakkiliyan girl is kept under +pollution in a hut made of fresh green boughs, which is erected by her +husband or maternal uncle. Meat, curds, and milk are forbidden. On the +last day, the hut is burnt down. At marriages a Chakkiliyan usually +officiates as priest, or the services of a Valluvan priest may be +enlisted. The consent of the girl's maternal uncle to the marriage +is essential. The marriage ceremony closely resembles that of the +Paraiyans. And, at the final death ceremonies of a Chakkiliyan, as of a +Paraiyan, two bricks are worshipped, and thrown into a tank or stream. + +Lean children, especially of the Mala, Madiga, and Chakkiliyan +classes, are made to wear a leather strap, specially made for them +by a Chakkiliyan, which is believed to help their growth. + +At times of census, some Chakkiliyans have returned themselves as +Pagadaiyar, Madari (conceit or arrogance), and Ranaviran (brave +warrior). + +Chakkiyar.--The Chakkiyars are a class of Ambalavasis, of whom the +following account is given in the Travancore Census Report, 1901. The +name is generally derived from Slaghyavakkukar (those with eloquent +words), and refers to the traditional function of the caste in Malabar +society. According to the Jatinirnaya, the Chakkiyars represent a caste +growth of the Kaliyuga. The offence to which the first Chakkiyar owes +his position in society was, it would appear, brought to light after +the due performance of the upanayanasamskara. Persons, in respect +of whom the lapse was detected before that spiritualizing ceremony +took place, became Nambiyars. Manu derives Suta, whose functions are +identical with the Malabar Chakkiyar, from a pratiloma union, i.e., +of a Brahman wife with a Kshatriya husband. [9] The girls either +marry into their own caste, or enter into the sambandham form of +alliance with Nambutiris. They are called Illottammamar. Their jewelry +resembles that of the Nambutiris. The Chakkiyar may choose a wife +for sambandham from among the Nambiyars. They are their own priests, +but the Brahmans do the purification (punyaham) of house and person +after birth or death pollution. The pollution itself lasts for eleven +days. The number of times the Gayatri (hymn) may be repeated is ten. + +The traditional occupation of the Chakkiyans is the recitation of +Puranic stories. The accounts of the Avataras have been considered +the highest form of scripture of the non-Brahmanical classes, and +the early Brahmans utilised the intervals of their Vedic rites, i.e., +the afternoons, for listening to their recitation by castes who could +afford the leisure to study and narrate them. Special adaptations for +this purpose have been composed by writers like Narayana Bhattapada, +generally known as the Bhattatirippat, among whose works Dutavakya, +Panchalisvayamvara, Subhadrahana and Kaunteyashtaka are the most +popular. In addition to these, standard works like Bhogachampu and +Mahanataka are often pressed into the Chakkiyar's service. Numerous +upakathas or episodes are brought in by way of illustration, and the +marvellous flow of words, and the telling humour of the utterances, +keep the audience spell-bound. On the utsavam programme of every +important temple, especially in North Travancore, the Chakkiyarkuttu +(Chakkiyar's performance) is an essential item. A special building, +known as kuttampalam, is intended for this purpose. Here the Chakkiyar +instructs and regales his hearers, antiquely dressed, and seated on a +three-legged stool. He wears a peculiar turban with golden rim and silk +embossments. A long piece of cloth with coloured edges, wrapped round +the loins in innumerable vertical folds with an elaborateness of detail +difficult to describe, is the Chakkiyar's distinctive apparel. Behind +him stands the Nambiyar, whose traditional kinship with the Chakkiyar +has been referred to, with a big jar-shaped metal drum in front of +him called milavu, whose bass sound resembles the echo of distant +thunder. The Nambiyar is indispensable for the Chakkiyarkuttu, and +sounds his mighty instrument at the beginning, at the end, and also +during the course of his recitation, when the Chakkiyar arrives at +the middle and end of a Sanskrit verse. The Nangayar, a female of the +Nambiyar caste, is another indispensable element, and sits in front of +the Chakkiyar with a cymbal in hand, which she sounds occasionally. It +is interesting to note that, amidst all the boisterous merriment into +which the audience may be thrown, there is one person who has to sit +motionless like a statue. If the Nangayar is moved to a smile, the +kuttu must stop, and there are cases where, in certain temples, the +kuttu has thus become a thing of the past. The Chakkiyar often makes +a feint of representing some of his audience as his characters for +the scene under depictment. But he does it in such a genteel way that +rarely is offence taken. It is an unwritten canon of Chakkiyarkuttu +that the performance should stop at once if any of the audience so +treated should speak out in answer to the Chakkiyar, who, it may be +added, would stare at an admiring listener, and thrust questions on +him with such directness and force as to need an extraordinary effort +to resist a reply. And so realistic is his performance that a tragic +instance is said to have occurred when, by a cruel irony of fate, +his superb skill cost a Chakkiyar his life. While he was explaining +a portion of the Mahabharata with inimitable theatrical effect, +a desperate friend of the Pandavas rose from his seat in a fit of +uncontrollable passion, and actually knocked the Chakkiyar dead when, +in an attitude of unmistakable though assumed heartlessness, he, as +personating Duryodhana, inhumanely refused to allow even a pin-point +of ground to his exiled cousins. This, it is believed, occurred in +a private house, and thereafter kuttu was prohibited except at temples. + +It is noted, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "Chakkiyars or +Slaghyar-vakukar are a caste following makkattayam (inheritance from +father to son), and wear the punul (thread). They are recruited +from girls born to a Nambudiri woman found guilty of adultery, +after the date at which such adultery is found to have commenced, +and boys of similar origin, who have been already invested with +the sacred thread. Boys who have not been invested with the punul +when their mother is declared an adulteress, join the class known +as Chakkiyar Nambiyars, who follow marumakkattayam (inheritance in +the female line), and do not wear the thread. The girls join either +caste indifferently. Chakkiyars may marry Nangiyars, but Chakkiyar +Nambiyars may not marry Illotammamar." + +Chaliyan.--The Chaliyans are a caste of Malayalam cotton weavers, +concerning whom Mr. Francis writes as follows [10]:--"In dress and +manners they resemble the artisan castes of Malabar, but, like +the Pattar Brahmans, they live in streets, which fact probably +points to their being comparatively recent settlers from the east +coast. They have their own barbers called Potuvans, who are also +their purohits. They do not wear the sacred thread, as the Sale +weavers of the east coast do. They practise ancestor worship, but +without the assistance of Brahman priests. This is the only Malabar +caste which has anything to do with the right and left-hand faction +disputes, and both divisions are represented in it, the left hand +being considered the superior. Apparently, therefore, it settled in +Malabar some time after the beginnings of this dispute on the east +coast, that is, after the eleventh century A. D. Some of them follow +the marumakkatayam and others the makkatayam law of inheritance, +which looks as if the former were earlier settlers than the latter." + +The Chaliyans are so called because, unlike most of the west coast +classes, they live in streets, and Teruvan (teru, a street) occurs +as a synonym for the caste name. The right-hand section are said to +worship the elephant god Ganesa, and the left Bhagavati. + +The following account of the Chaliyans is given in the Gazetteer of the +Malabar district: "Chaliyans are almost certainly a class of immigrants +from the east coast. They live in regular streets, a circumstance +strongly supporting this view. The traditional account is to the same +effect. It is said that they were originally of a high caste, and were +imported by one of the Zamorins, who wished to introduce the worship +of Ganapathi, to which they are much addicted. The latter's minister, +the Mangatt Acchan, who was entrusted with the entertainment of the +new arrivals, and was nettled by their fastidiousness and constant +complaints about his catering, managed to degrade them in a body +by the trick of secretly mixing fish with their food. They do not, +like their counterparts on the east coast, wear the thread; but it is +noticeable that their priests, who belong to their own caste, wear it +over the right shoulder instead of over the left like the Brahman's +punul, when performing certain pujas (worship). In some parts, the +place of the regular punul is taken by a red scarf or sash worn in +the same manner. They are remarkable for being the only caste in +Malabar amongst whom any trace of the familiar east coast division +into right-hand and left-hand factions is to be found. They are so +divided; and those belonging to the right-hand faction deem themselves +polluted by the touch of those belonging to the left-hand sect, which +is numerically very weak. They are much addicted to devil-dancing, +which rite is performed by certain of their numbers called Komarams +in honour of Bhagavathi and the minor deities Vettekkorumagan and +Gulikan (a demon). They appear to follow makkatayam (descent from +father to son) in some places, and marumakkatayam (inheritance in +the female line) in others. Their pollution period is ten days, +and their purification is performed by the Talikunnavan (sprinkler), +who belongs to a somewhat degraded section of the caste." + +The affairs of the caste are managed by headmen called Uralans, and +the caste barber, or Pothuvan, acts as the caste messenger. Council +meetings are held at the village temple, and the fines inflicted on +guilty persons are spent in celebrating puja (worship) thereat. + +When a girl reaches puberty, the elderly females of Uralan families +take her to a tank, and pour water over her head from small cups +made of the leaves of the jak (Artocarpus integrifolia) tree. She is +made to sit apart on a mat in a room decorated with young cocoanut +leaves. Round the mat raw rice and paddy (unhusked rice) are spread, +and a vessel containing cocoanut flowers and cocoanuts is placed near +her. On the third evening, the washerman (Peruvannan) brings some +newly-washed cloths (mattu). He is presented with some rice and paddy, +which he ties up in a leaf, and does puja. He then places the cloths +on a plank, which he puts on his head. After repeating some songs +or verses, he sets it down on the floor. Some of the girl's female +relations take a lighted lamp, a pot of water, a measure of rice, +and go three times round the plank. On the following day, the girl +is bathed, and the various articles which have been kept in her room +are thrown into a river or tank. + +Like many other Malabar castes, the Chaliyans perform the tali kettu +ceremony. Once in several years, the girls of the village who have +to go through this ceremony are brought to the house of one of the +Uralans, where a pandal (booth) has been set up. Therein a plank, made +of the wood of the pala tree (Alstonia scholaris), a lighted lamp, +betel leaves and nuts, a measure of raw rice, etc., are placed. The +girl takes her seat on the plank, holding in her right hand a mimic +arrow (shanthulkol). The Pothuvan, who receives a fanam (coin) and +three bundles of betel leaves for his services, hands the tali to a +male member of an Uralan family, who ties it on the girl's neck. + +On the day before the wedding-day the bridegroom, accompanied by his +male relations, proceeds to the house of the bride, where a feast is +held. On the following day the bride is bathed, and made to stand +before a lighted lamp placed on the floor. The bridegroom's father +or uncle places two gold fanams (coins) in her hands, and a further +feast takes place. + +In the seventh month of pregnancy, the ceremony called puli kudi +(or drinking tamarind) is performed. The woman's brother brings a +twig of a tamarind tree, and, after the leaves have been removed, +plants it in the yard of the house. The juice is extracted from the +leaves, and mixed with the juice of seven cocoanuts. The elderly +female relations of the woman give her a little of the mixture. The +ceremony is repeated during three days. Birth pollution is removed +by a barber woman sprinkling water on the ninth day. + +The dead are buried. The son carries a pot of water to the grave, round +which he takes it three times. The barber makes a hole in the pot, +which is then thrown down at the head of the grave. The barber also +tears off a piece of the cloth, in which the corpse is wrapped. This +is, on the tenth day, taken by the son and barber to the sea or a tank, +and thrown into it. Three stones are set up over the grave. + +Chaliyan also occurs as an occupational title or sub-division of +Nayars, and Chaliannaya as an exogamous sept of Bant. In the Madras +Census Report, 1901, Chaliyan is given as a sub-caste of Vaniyan +(oil-pressers). Some Chaliyans are, however, oilmongers by profession. + +Challa.--Challa, meaning apparently eaters of refuse, occurs as +a sub-division of Yanadis, and meaning buttermilk as an exogamous +sept of Devanga. Challakuti, meaning those who eat old or cold food, +is an exogamous sept of Kapus. + +Chamar.--Nearly three hundred members of this Bengal caste of +tanners and workers in leather were returned at the census, 1901. The +equivalent Chamura occurs as the name of leather-workers from the +Central Provinces. + +Chandala.--At the census, 1901, more than a thousand individuals +returned themselves as Chandala, which is defined as a generic +term, meaning one who pollutes, to many low castes. "It is," +Surgeon-Major W. R. Cornish writes, [11] "characteristic of the +Brahmanical intolerance of the compilers of the code that the origin +of the lowest caste of all (the Chandala) should be ascribed to the +intercourse of a Sudra man and a Brahman woman, while the union of +a Brahman male with a Sudra woman is said to have resulted in one of +the highest of the mixed classes." By Manu it was laid down that "the +abode of the Chandala and Swapaca must be out of the town. They must +not have the use of entire vessels. Their sole wealth must be dogs +and asses. Their clothes must be the mantles of the deceased; their +dishes for food broken pots; their ornaments rusty iron; continually +must they roam from place to place. Let no man who regards his duty, +religious and civil, hold any intercourse with them, and let food be +given to them in potsherds, but not by the hand of the giver." + +Chandra (moon).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. The name Chandravamsapu +(moon people) is taken by some Razus, who claim to be Kshatriyas, +and to be descended from the lunar race of kings of the Mahabharata. + +Chanipoyina (those who are dead).--An exogamous sept of Orugunta Kapu. + +Chapa (mat).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Chappadi (insipid).--An exogamous sept of Jogi. + +Chapparam (a pandal or booth).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Chapparband.--The Chapparbands are manufacturers of spurious coin, +who hail from the Bombay Presidency, and are watched for by the +police. It is noted, in the Police Report, 1904, that good work was +done in Ganjam in tracing certain gangs of these coiners, and bringing +them to conviction. + +For the following note I am indebted to a report [12] by +Mr. H. N. Alexander of the Bombay Police Department. The name +Chapparband refers to their calling, chapa meaning an impression or +stamp. "Among themselves they are known as Bhadoos, but in Hindustan, +and among Thugs and cheats generally, they are known as Khoolsurrya, +i.e., false coiners. While in their villages, they cultivate the +fields, rear poultry and breed sheep, while the women make quilts, +which the men sell while on their tours. But the real business of this +class is to make and pass off false coin. Laying aside their ordinary +Muhammadan dress, they assume the dress and appearance of fakirs of the +Muddar section, Muddar being their Pir, and, unaccompanied by their +women, wander from village to village. Marathi is their language, +and, in addition, they have a peculiar slang of their own. Like all +people of this class, they are superstitious, and will not proceed +on an expedition unless a favourable omen is obtained. The following +account is given, showing how the false coin is manufactured. A mould +serves only once, a new one being required for every rupee or other +coin. It is made of unslaked lime and a kind of yellow earth called +shedoo, finely powdered and sifted, and patiently kneaded with water +to about the consistency of putty. One of the coins to be imitated +is then pressed with some of the preparation, and covered over, +and, being cut all round, is placed in some embers. After becoming +hardened, it is carefully laid open with a knife, and, the coin +being taken out, its impression remains. The upper and lower pieces +are then joined together with a kind of gum, and, a small hole being +made on one side, molten tin is poured in, and thus an imitation of +the coin is obtained, and it only remains to rub it over with dirt +to give it the appearance of old money. The tin is purchased in any +bazaar, and the false money is prepared on the road as the gang +travels along. Chapparbands adopt several ways of getting rid of +their false coin. They enter shops and make purchases, showing true +rupees in the first instance, and substituting false ones at the time +of payment. They change false rupees for copper money, and also in +exchange for good rupees of other currencies. Naturally, they look +out for women and simple people, though the manner of passing off +the base coin is clever, being done by sleight of hand. The false +money is kept in pockets formed within the folds of their langutis +(loin-cloths), and also hidden in the private parts." + +The following additional information concerning Chapparbands is +contained in the Illustrated Criminal Investigation and Law Digest +[13]:--"They travel generally in small gangs, and their women never +follow them. They consult omens before leaving their villages. They do +not leave their villages dressed as fakirs. They generally visit some +place far away from their residence, and there disguise themselves as +Madari fakirs, adding Shah to their names. They also add the title +Sahib, and imitate the Sawals, a sing-song begging tone of their +class. Their leader, Khagda, is implicitly obeyed. He is the treasurer +of the gangs, and keeps with him the instruments used in coining, and +the necessary metal pieces. But the leader rarely keeps the coins with +him. The duty of passing the false coins belongs to the Bhondars. A +boy generally accompanies a gang. He is called Handiwal. He acts +as a handy chokra (youngster), and also as a watch over the camp +when the false coins are being prepared. They generally camp on high +ground in close vicinity to water, which serves to receive the false +coins and implements, should danger be apprehended. When moving +from one camp to another, the Khagda and his chokra travel alone, +the former generally riding a small pony. The rest of the gang keep +busy passing the coins in the neighbourhood, and eventually join the +pair in the place pre-arranged. If the place be found inconvenient +for their purpose, another is selected by the Khagda, but sufficient +indication is given to the rest that the rendezvous might be found +out. This is done by making a mark on the chief pathway leading to +the place settled first, at a spot where another pathway leads from it +in the direction he is going. The mark consists of a mud heap on the +side of the road, a foot in length, six inches in breadth, and six in +height, with an arrow mark pointing in the direction taken. The Khagda +generally makes three of these marks at intervals of a hundred yards, +to avoid the chance of any being effaced. Moulds are made of Multani +or some sticky clay. Gopichandan and badap are also used. The clay, +after being powdered and sifted, is mixed with a little water and +oil, and well kneaded. The two halves of the mould are then roughly +shaped with the hand, and a genuine coin is pressed between them, +so as to obtain the obverse on one half and the reverse impression on +the other. The whole is then hardened in an extempore oven, and the +hole to admit the metal is bored, so as to admit of its being poured +in from the edge. The halves are then separated, and the genuine +rupee is tilted out; the molten alloy of tin or pewter is poured in, +and allowed to cool. According to the other method, badap clay brought +from their own country is considered the most suitable for the moulds, +though Multani clay may be used when they run out of badap. Two discs +are made from clay kneaded with water. These discs are then highly +polished on the inner surface with the top of a jvari stalk called +danthal. A rupee, slightly oiled, is then placed between the discs, +which are firmly pressed over it. The whole is then thoroughly hardened +in the fire. The alloy used in these moulds differs from that used in +the others, and consists of an alloy of lead and copper. In both cases, +the milling is done by the hand with a knife or a piece of shell. The +Chapperbands select their victims carefully. They seem to be fairly +clever judges of persons from their physiognomy. They easily find +out the duffer and the gull in both sexes, and take care to avoid +persons likely to prove too sharp for them. They give preference to +women over men. The commonest method is for the Bhondar to show a +quantity of copper collected by him in his character of beggar, and +ask for silver in its place. The dupe produces a rupee, which he looks +at. He then shakes his head sadly, and hands back a counterfeit coin, +saying that such coins are not current in his country, and moves on to +try the same trick elsewhere. Their dexterity in changing the rupees +is very great, the result of long practice when a Handiwal." + +Further information in connection with the Chapparbands has recently +been published by Mr. M. Paupa Rao Naidu, from whose account [14] +the following extract is taken. "Chapperbands, as their name implies, +are by profession builders of roofs, or, in a more general term, +builders of huts. They are Sheikh Muhammadans, and originally belonged +to the Punjab. During the Moghul invasion of the Carnatic, as far back +as 1687-88, a large number of them followed the great Moghul army as +builders of huts for the men. They appear to have followed the Moghul +army to Aurangabad, Ahmednagar, and Seringapatam until the year 1714, +when Bijapur passed into the hands of the Peshwas. The Chapperbands +then formed part of the Peshwa's army in the same capacity, and +remained as such till the advent of the British in the year 1818, +when it would appear a majority of them, finding their peculiar +profession not much in demand, returned to the north. A part of those +who remained behind passed into the Nizam's territory, while a part +settled down in the Province of Talikota. A legendary tale, narrated +before the Superintendent of Police, Raipur, in 1904, by an intelligent +Chapperband, shows that they learnt this art of manufacturing coins +during the Moghul period. He said 'In the time of the Moghul Empire, +Chapperbands settled in the Bijapur district. At that time, a fakir +named Pir Bhai Pir Makhan lived in the same district. One of the +Chapperbands went to this fakir, and asked him to intercede with God, +in order that Chapperbands might be directed to take up some profession +or other. The fakir gave the man a rupee, and asked him to take it to +his house quickly, and not to look backwards as he proceeded on his +way. As the man ran home, some one called him, and he turned round +to see who it was. When he reached his house, he found the rupee had +turned into a false one. The man returned to the fakir, and complained +that the rupee was a false one. The fakir was much enraged at the +man's account of having looked back as he ran, but afterwards said +that Chapperbands would make a living in future by manufacturing +false coins. Since that time, Chapperbands have become coiners of +false money.' On every Sunday, they collect all their false rupees, +moulds, and other implements, and, placing these in front of them, +they worship Pir Makhan, also called Pir Madar. They sacrifice a fowl +to him, take out its eyes and tail, and fix them on three thorns of +the trees babul, bir, and thalmakana; and, after the worship is over, +they throw them in the direction in which they intend to start. The +Chapperbands conceal a large number of rupees in the rectum, long +misusage often forming a cavity capable of containing ten to twenty +rupees. So also cavities are formed in the mouth below the tongue." + +In a case recorded by Mr. M. Kennedy, [15] "when a Chapperband was +arrested on suspicion, on his person being examined by the Civil +Surgeon, no less than seven rupees were found concealed in a cavity +in his rectum. The Civil Surgeon was of opinion that it must have +taken some considerable time to form such a cavity." A similar case +came before the Sessions Judge in South Canara a few years ago. + +The following case of swindling, which occurred in the Tanjore +district, is recorded in the Police Report, 1903. "A gang of +Muhammadans professed to be able to duplicate currency notes. The +method was to place a note with some blank sheets of paper between two +pieces of glass. The whole was then tied round with string and cloth, +and smoked over a fire. On opening the packet, two notes were found, +a second genuine one having been surreptitiously introduced. The +success of the first operations with small notes soon attracted +clients, some of them wealthy; and, when the bait had had time to +work, and some very large notes had been submitted for operation, the +swindlers declared that these large notes took longer to duplicate, +and that the packet must not be opened for several days. Before the +time appointed for opening, they disappeared, and the notes were +naturally not found in the packets. One gentleman was fleeced in this +way to the value of Rs. 4,600." The administration of an enema to a +false coiner will sometimes bring to light hidden treasure. + +Chaptegara.--The Chaptegaras or Cheptegaras are described by +Mr. H. A. Stuart [16] as "carpenters who speak Konkani, and are +believed to have come from the Konkan country. Caste affairs are +managed by a Gurikar or headman, and the fines collected are paid +to the Sringeri math. They wear the sacred thread, and employ Karadi +Brahmans as purohits. Infant marriage is practised, and widow marriage +is not permitted. The dead are burned if means allow; otherwise they +are buried. They are Saivites, and worship Durga and Ganapati. They +eat flesh and drink liquor. Their titles are Naik, Shenai, etc." It +is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that Saraswat Brahmans +will eat with them. Choutagara has been recorded as a corrupt form +of Chaptegara. + +Charamurti.--A class of Jangams, who go from village to village +preaching. + +Charodi.--The Charodis have been described [17] as "Canarese carpenters +corresponding to the Konkani Cheptegaras (or Chaptegaras), and there +is very little difference in the customs and manners of the two castes, +except that the former employ Shivalli and Konkanashta Brahmans instead +of Karadis. Their title is Naika." In the Madras Census Report, 1901, +Mesta is returned as a Konkani-speaking sub-caste of Charodi. + +Chatla (winnow).--An exogamous sept of Madiga. Chatla Dhompti occurs +as a sub-division of Madigas, who, at marriages, place the offering +of food, etc. (dhompti), in a winnow. + +Chatri.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as an equivalent +of Kshatriya. It occurs also as the name of an exogamous sept, +meaning umbrella, of the Holeyas. + +Chaturakshari.--A sub-division of Satanis, who believe in the efficacy +of the four syllables Ra-ma-nu-ja. + +Chaudari.--Chaudari, or Chowdari, is recorded as a title of Haddi, +Kalingi, and Komati. + +Chaya (colour) Kurup.--A class of Kollans in Malabar, who work +in lacquer. + +Cheli (goat).--An exogamous sept of Bottada and Mattiya. + +Chelu (scorpion).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. The equivalent thelu +occurs among the Padma Sales. + +Chembadi.--The Chembadis are a Telugu caste, the occupations of which +are fresh-water fishing, and rowing boats or coracles. In fishing, +unlike the Besthas who use a cast-net, they employ a large drag-net, +called baithivala, the two ends of which are fastened to poles. When +a new net is made, it is folded up, and placed on the edge of a pond +or tank. Mud is spread over it, and on it are placed three masses of +mud kneaded into a conical shape. These represent the God, and cakes, +called kudumulu, are set before them. A male member of the caste, +biting one of the cakes and keeping it between his teeth, goes round +the net, and then drags it to the water, in which the conical masses +become disintegrated. Like the Besthas, they smear a new net with the +blood of the first fish caught in it, but they do not burn a mesh of +the net. + +Some Chembadis regard Gurappa Gurunathadu as their caste deity, and +connect him, for some unknown reason, with the jammi tree (Prosopis +spicigera). Jammi occurs as the name of a gotra, and some children +are named Gurappa or Gurunathadu. When such children are five, seven, +or nine years old, they are taken on an auspicious day to a jammi +tree and shaved, after the tree has been worshipped with offerings +of cooked food, etc. + +At the betrothal ceremony in this caste, immediately after the girl +has taken up areca nuts, placed them in her lap, and folded them +in her cloth, the headman takes up the betel leaves and areca nuts +(thambulam) before him with crossed hands. This ceremony corresponds +to the thonuku thambulam of the lower classes, e.g., Malas and +Mangalas. Among the Mangalas and Tsakalas, the thambulam is said to be +taken up by a Balija Setti. For the funeral ceremonies, the Chembadis +engage a Dasari of their own caste. During their performances, flesh +and toddy may not be offered to the deceased person. + +Chembian.--A name assumed by some Pallis or Vanniyans, who claim that +they belong to the Chola race, on the supposition that Chembinadu is +a synonym for Chola. + +Chembillam (chembu, copper).--An exogamous section of Mukkuvan. + +Chembotti.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, it is stated that +the name Chembotti is derived from "chembu, copper, and kotti, he +who beats." They are coppersmiths in Malabar, who are distinct from +the Malabar Kammalans. They are supposed to be descendants of men +who made copper idols for temples, and so rank above the Kammalans +in social position, and about equally with the lower sections of the +Nayars. The name is also used as an occupational term by the Konkan +Native Christian coppersmiths. In the Cochin and Travancore Census +Reports, Chembukotti is recorded as an occupational title or sub-caste +of Nayars who work in copper, chiefly in temples and Brahman houses. + +In the Gazetteer of the Malabar district, the Chembottis are described +as copper-workers, whose traditional business is the roofing of the +Sri-kovil, or inner shrine of the temple with that metal. They are +said to have originally formed part of the Kammalan community. "When +the great temple at Taliparamba was completed, it was purified on a +scale of unprecedented grandeur, no less than a thousand Brahmans +being employed. What was their dismay when the ceremony was well +forward, to see a Chembotti coming from the Sri-kovil, where he had +been putting finishing touches to the roof. This appeared to involve +a recommencement of the whole tedious and costly ritual, and the +Brahmans gave vent to their feelings of despair, when a vision from +heaven reassured them, and thereafter the Chembottis have been raised +in the social scale, and are not regarded as a polluting caste." + +Chembetti, or Chemmatti, meaning hammer, occurs as an exogamous sept +of the Telugu Yanadis. + +Chempakaraman.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, +as an honorific title of Nayars. + +Chenchu.--The Chenchus or Chentsus are a Telugu-speaking jungle +tribe inhabiting the hills of the Kurnool and Nellore districts. In +a letter addressed to the Bengal Asiatic Society, [18] transmitting +vocabularies of various tribes inhabiting Vizagapatam, by Mr. Newill, +it is stated that "the Chenchu tribe, whose language is almost entirely +corrupt Hindi and Urdu with a few exceptions from Bengali, affords +one more example to the many forthcoming of an uncultured aboriginal +race having abandoned their own tongue." The compiler of the Kurnool +Manual (1885) remarks that Mr. Newill's vocabulary "seems to belong to +the dialect spoken by Lambadis, who sometimes wander about the hills, +and it is not unlikely that he was misled as to the character of the +persons from whom his list was taken." As examples of the words given +by Mr. Newill, the following may be quoted:-- + + + Bone, had. One, yek. + Cat, billeyi. Ten, das. + Ear, kan. Far, dur. + Elephant, hate. Drink, pi. + Tiger, bag. Sweet, mitha. + + +It is probable that Mr. Newill confused the Chenchus with the Bonthuk +Savaras (q.v.) who speak corrupt Oriya, and are called Chenchu vandlu, +and, like the Chenchus, believe that the god Narasimha of Ahobilam +married a girl belonging to their tribe. As a further example of the +confusion concerning the Chenchus, I may quote the remarks of Buchanan +[19] about the Irulas, who are a Tamil-speaking jungle tribe: "In +this hilly tract there is a race of men called by the other natives +Cad Eriligaru, but who call themselves Cat Chensu. The language of +the Chensu is a dialect of the Tamil, with occasionally a few Karnata +or Telinga words intermixed, but their accent is so different from +that of Madras that my servants did not at first understand what they +said. Their original country, they say, is the Animalaya forest below +the ghats, which is confirmed by their dialect." In the Census Report, +1901, Chenchu is said to be the name by which Irulas of North Arcot and +the Mysore plateau are called sometimes, and, in the Census Report, +1891, Chenchu is given as a sub-division of the Yanadis. There can +be little doubt that the Chenchus and Yanadis are descended from the +same original stock. Mackenzie, in the local records collected by him, +speaks of the Chenchus as being called Yanadi Chenchus. The Chenchus +themselves at the present day say that they and the Yanadis are one +and the same, and that the tribes intermarry. + +In Scott's 'Ferishta,' the Chenchus are described as they appeared +before Prince Muhammad Masúm, a son of Aurangzib, who passed through +the Kurnool district in 1694, as "exceedingly black, with long hair, +and on their heads wore caps made of the leaves of trees. Each man had +with him unbarbed arrows and a bow for hunting. They molest no one, +and live in caverns or under the shady branches of trees. The prince +presented some of them with gold and silver, but they did not seem +to put any value on either, being quite unconcerned at receiving +it. Upon the firing of a gun, they darted up the mountains with a +surprising swiftness uncommon to man. In Taylor's 'Catalogue raisonné +of Oriental Manuscripts,' the Chenchus are described as people who +"live to the westward of Ahobalam, Srisailam, and other places, in +the woods or wilds, and go about, constantly carrying in their hands +bows and arrows. They clothe themselves with leaves, and live on the +sago or rice of the bamboo. They rob travellers, killing them if they +oppose. This people afflict every living creature (kill for food is +supposed to be meant)." It is noted in the Kurnool Manual that in +former times the Chenchu headman used to "dispose of murder cases, +the murderer, on proof of guilt, being put to death with the same +weapons with which the murder was committed. [20] Captain Newbold, +writing in 1846, says that, passing through the jungle near Pacharla, +he observed a skull bleached by the sun dangling from the branch of +a tamarind tree, which he was informed was that of a murderer and +hill-robber put to death by the headman. In the time of the Nabobs, +some of the Chenchu murderers were caught and punished, but the +practice seems to have prevailed among them more or less till the +introduction of the new police in 1860, since which time all cases +are said to be reported to the nearest police officer." + +A Chenchu Taliari (village watchman), who came to see me at Nandyal, +was wearing a badge with his name engraved on it in Telugu, which +had been presented to him by Government in recognition of his +shooting with a double-barrelled gun two Donga Oddes who had robbed +a village. Another aged Taliari had a silver bangle bearing a Telugu +inscription, which had been given to him in acknowledgment of his +capturing a murderer who was wanted by the police, and came to his +hut. The casual visitor explained that he was on his way to Hyderabad, +but the Chenchu, noticing blood on his clothes, tied him to a post, +and gave information that he had secured him. The same man had also +received presents for reporting cases of illicit distillation under +the Abkari Act. + +In recent accounts of the Chenchus of the Nallamalai hills by a forest +officer, it is noted that pilgrims, on their way to the Srisailam +temple, "are exploited at every turn, the Chentzu being seen in his +true colours at this period, and, being among the most active agents in +the exactions, but not being by any means the only plunderer. In return +for the protection, the Chentzu levies a toll per head, and as much +more as he can extort. We had to interfere with the perquisites of one +drugged specimen of this race, who drew a knife on a peon (orderly), +and had to be sent down under escort.... It is commonly supposed that +the Chentzus are a semi-wild, innocent, inoffensive hill tribe, living +on roots, honey, wild fruits, and game. If this was so, we should +have no difficulty in controlling them. They are actually a semi-wild, +lazy, drinking set of brigands. They levy blackmail from every village +along the foot of the hills, and, if any ryot (cultivator) refuses +to pay up, his crop silently disappears on some moonless night. They +levy blackmail from every pilgrim to the shrines in the hills. They +levy blackmail from the graziers in the hills. They borrow money from +Komatis and Buniahs (merchants and money-lenders), and repay it in +kind--stolen timber, minor forest produce, etc. They are constantly +in debt to the Komatis, and are practically their slaves as regards +the supply of timber and other forest produce. They think nothing of +felling a tree in order to collect its fruits, and they fire miles of +forest in order to be able to collect with ease certain minor produce, +or to trace game. They poison the streams throughout the hills, and +in short do exactly as they please throughout the length and breadth +of the Nallamalais." The Conservator of Forests expressed his belief +that this picture was not overdrawn, and added that the Chenchus are +"a danger to the forest in many ways, and I have always thought it +a pity that they were given some of the rights at settlement, which +stand against their names. These rights were-- + + + (1) Rights of way, and to carry torches. + (2) Rights to draw and drink water from, wash or bathe in all + streams, springs, wells and pools. + (3) Rights to forest produce for home use. + (4) Rights to fish and shoot. + (5) Rights to graze a limited number of cattle, sheep and goats. + (6) Rights to collect for sale or barter certain minor produce. + + +In connection with right (3), the District Forest Officer suggested +that "the quantity to be taken annually must be limited, especially +in the case of wood, bamboos, fibre, firewood and honey. The quality +of the wood and of other forest produce should be defined. Chenchus do +not require teak or ebony beams or yegi (Pterocarpus Marsupium) spokes +and felloes for domestic purposes; but, as the right now stands, they +can fell whatever they like, and, though we may know it is for sale +to merchants, the Chenchus have only to say it is for domestic use, +and they cannot be punished. The wood should be limited to poles and +smaller pieces of third-class and unclassified trees." + +In 1898 the Governor in Council made the following rules for regulating +the exercise of the rights of the Chenchus living in the reserved +forests on the Nallamalais:-- + +1. The carrying of torches, and the lighting of fires in fire-protected +blocks during the fire season are prohibited. + +2. There shall be no right to wash or bathe in such springs, wells, +pools or portions of streams as are especially set apart for drinking +purposes by the District Forest Officer. + +3. No more than the quantity which the Collector may consider to be +actually required for domestic use shall be removed in the exercise of +the right to take wood, bamboos, fibre, thatching grass, firewood, +roots, fruits, honey and other forest produce. The term "other +forest produce" shall be taken to mean other minor forest produce, +not including tusks and horns. No wood other than poles and smaller +pieces of third class and unclassified trees shall be removed. + +4. No gudem (Chenchu village) shall, without the special permission +of the Collector, be allowed to keep a larger number of guns than that +for which licenses had been taken out at the time of settlement. Every +gun covered by a license shall be stamped with a distinctive mark or +number. The use of poison and explosives in water, and the setting +of cruives or fixed engines, or snares for the capture or destruction +of fish, are strictly prohibited. + +5. For purposes of re-generation, a portion of the area set apart +for the grazing of cattle, not exceeding one-fifth, may be closed +to grazing at any time, and for such length of time as the District +Forest Officer deems fit. + +6. The right of pre-emption of all minor forest produce collected +by the Chenchus for sale or barter shall be reserved to the Forest +department. The exercise of the right of collecting wood and other +produce for domestic use, and of collecting minor produce for sale +or barter, shall be confined to natural growth, and shall not include +forest produce which is the result of special plantation or protection +on the part of the Forest department. + +In connection with a scheme for dealing with the minor forest produce +in the Nallamalais, the Conservator of Forests wrote as follows in +1905. "I believe that it is generally recognised that it is imperative +to obtain the good-will of the Chenchus even at a considerable loss, +both from a political and from a forest point of view; the latter being +that, if we do not do so, the whole of the Nallamalai forests will, +at a not very remote date, be utterly destroyed by fire. The Chenchus, +being a most abnormal type of men, must be treated in an abnormal way; +and the proposals are based, therefore, on the fundamental principle of +allowing the two District Forest Officers a very free hand in dealing +with these people. What is mainly asked for is to make an experiment, +of endeavouring to get the Chenchus to collect minor produce for the +department, the District Forest Officers being allowed to fix the +remuneration as they like, in money or barter, as they may from time +to time find on the spot to be best." In commenting on the scheme, +the Board of Revenue stated that "action on the lines proposed is +justified by the present state of the Nallamalais. These valuable +forests certainly stand in danger of rapid destruction by fire, and, +according to the local officers, the Chenchus are almost entirely +responsible. The department has at present no means of bringing +influence to bear on the Chenchus, or securing their assistance in +putting out fires. Repressive measures will be worse than useless, +as the Chenchus will merely hide themselves, and do more damage than +ever. The only way of getting into touch with them is to enforce +the right of pre-emption in the matter of minor produce reserved +to Government at the time of forest settlement, and by dealing with +them in a just and generous way to secure their confidence. If this +is achieved, the department may hope to secure their co-operation +and valuable assistance in preventing jungle fires. The department +can certainly afford to sell at a profit, and at the same time give +the Chenchus better prices than the sowcars (money-lenders), who are +said invariably to cheat them. The Board believes that the ultimate +loss from advances will not be serious, as advances will ordinarily be +small in amount, except in cases where they may be required by Chenchus +to pay off sowcars. It will be well, therefore, if the Collector and +the District Forest Officers will ascertain as soon as possible how +much the Chenchus are indebted to the sowcars, as it will probably +be necessary for the success of the scheme to liquidate these debts." + +From a note on the Chenchus of the Nallamalai hills, I gather that +"a striking contrast is afforded between those who inhabit the belt of +forest stretching from Venkatapuram to Bairnuti, and those who dwell +in the jungle on the skirts of the great trunk road, which formed the +chief means of communication between the principal towns until the +Southern Mahratta railway diverted traffic into another channel. In +the former we behold the Chenchu semi-civilised and clothed. He +possesses flocks and herds, smiling fields and even gardens, and +evinces an aptitude for barter. The superiority of the Bairnuti +Chenchu has been brought about by the influence, example, labours, +and generosity of a single Englishman, who built a substantial stone +dwelling in the depths of the great Bairnuti forest. There also he +erected indigo vats, and planted indigo, and a grove of choice mango +grafts, orange and lime trees. He bought buffaloes, and by careful +selection and breeding evolved a magnificent type. These buffaloes +have now become almost entirely fruit-eaters, and are engaged in +seeking for and devouring the forest fruits, which--particularly the +mowhra and forest fig--litter the ground in vast quantities. This +habit of fruit-eating imparts to their milk a peculiarly rich nutty +flavour, and the cream is of abnormally rich quality. The Chenchus +manufacture this into ghee (clarified butter), which they turn to +profitable account. The brethren of the Bairnuti Chenchus dwelling in +the forest of Pacherla present very different conditions of life. They +accentuate their nakedness by a narrow bark thread bound round the +waist, into which are thrust their arrows and knife. This is their +full dress. The hair, they aver, is the great and natural covering +of mankind. Why, therefore, violate the ordinary laws of nature by +inventing supererogatory clothing? A missionary sportsman was fairly +non-plussed by these arguments, particularly when his interlocutors +pointed to a celebrated pass or gorge, through which the amorous +Kristna is averred to have pursued and captured a fascinating Chenchu +damsel. 'You see,' said the Chenchu logician, 'the beauty of her form +was so manifest in its rude simplicity that even the god could not +resist it.' En passant it may be noted that, when a Chenchu wishes +to express superlative admiration of a belle, he compares her to a +monkey. In his eyes, the supremest beauty of femininity is agility. The +girl who can shin up a lofty tree, and bring him down fruit to eat is +the acme of feminine perfection. 'Ah, my sweet monkey girl,' said a +demoralised Chenchu, who was too idle to climb up a tree himself, 'she +has been climbing trees all day, and throwing me fruit. There is not +a man in the forest who can climb like my monkey girl.' The Chenchus +are wisely employed by the authorities as road-police or Taliaris, to +prevent highway dacoities. This is an astute piece of diplomacy. The +Chenchus themselves are the only dacoits thereabouts, and the salary +paid them as road-police is virtually blackmail to induce them to +guarantee the freedom of the forest highways. The Chenchu barters +the produce of the forests in which he lives, namely, honey and wax, +deer horns and hides, tamarinds, wood apples (Feronia elephantum), +and mowhra (Bassia latifolia) fruit and flowers, and realises a very +considerable income from these sources. He reaps annually a rich +harvest of hides and horns. The sambur (Cervus unicolor) and spotted +deer (Cervus axis) shed their horns at certain seasons. These horns +are hidden in the rank luxuriant grass. But, when the heat of the dry +weather has withered it, the Chenchu applies fire to it by rubbing two +dried sticks together, and, walking in the wake of the flames, picks +up the horns disclosed to view by the reduction of the vegetation to +ashes. He supplements this method with his bow and rifle, and by the +latter means alone obtains his hides. The Chenchu is every bit as bad +a shot as the average aboriginal. He rarely stalks, but, when he does, +he makes up by his skill in woodcraft for his inexpertness with his +gun. He understands the importance of not giving the deer a slant of +his wind, and, if they catch a glimpse of him, he will stand motionless +and black as the tree trunks around. The ambush by the salt-lick or +water-hole, however, is his favourite method of sport. Here, fortified +with a supply of the pungent-smelling liquor which he illicitly +distils from the mowhra flower he will lie night and day ruthlessly +murdering sambur, spotted deer, nilgai (Boselaphus tràgocamelus); +four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis). Tigers often stalk +down, and drink and roll in the pool, but the Chenchu dares not draw +a bead on him. Perhaps the indifference of his shooting, of which he +is conscious, deters him." When in danger from tigers or leopards, the +Chenchus climb a tree, and shout. The Chenchus recognise two distinct +varieties of leopards called chirra puli and chirta puli, concerning +which Blanford writes as follows. [21] "Most of the sportsmen who +have hunted in Central India, and many native shikaris (sportsmen) +distinguish two forms, and in parts of the country there is some +appearance of two races--a larger form that inhabits the hills and +forests, and a smaller form commonly occurring in patches of grass +and bushes amongst cultivated fields and gardens. The larger form is +said to have a shorter tail, a longer head with an occipital crest, +and clearly defined spots on a paler ground-colour. The smaller form +has a comparatively longer tail, a rounder head, less clearly defined +spots, and rougher fur. I cannot help suspecting that the difference +is very often due to age." + +A Chenchu who was asked by me whether they kill wild beasts replied +that they are wild beasts themselves. In devouring a feast of +mutton provided for those who were my guests in camp, they certainly +behaved as such, gnawing at the bones and tearing off the flesh. To +the Chenchus a feast, on however liberal a scale the food may be, +is nothing without a copious supply of toddy, of which even infants +receive a small share. In the absence of toddy, they sometimes +manufacture illicit liquor from the flower-buds of the mahua (or +mowhra) tree. The man who gained the prize (a coarse cotton cloth) +in a shooting match with bow and arrow, with the head of a straw +scarecrow as bull's-eye, was in an advanced stage of intoxication, +and used his success as an argument in favour of drink. In a long +distance shooting match, the prize was won with a carry of 144 yards, +the arrow being shot high into the air. It was noted by Captain +Newbold that the Chenchus are not remarkably expert as archers, +to judge from the awkwardness they exhibited in dispatching an +unfortunate sheep picketed for them at forty yards, which was held out +to them as the prize for the best marksman. Some time ago a Chenchu, +who was the bully of his settlement, beat another Chenchu and his +wife. The injured man appealed to the District Forest Officer, and, +explaining that he knew the law did not allow him to kill his enemy, +applied for a written permit to go after him with a bow and arrow. + +Some Chenchus bear on the head a cap made of wax-cloth, deer or hare +skin. By the more fashionable the tufted ear or bushy tail-end of +the large Indian squirrel (Sciurus Indicus) is attached by way of +ornament to the string with which the hair of the head is tied into a +bunch behind. Leafy garments have been replaced by white loin-cloths, +and some of the women have adopted the ravike (bodice), in imitation +of the female costume in the plains. Boys, girls, and women wear +bracelets made of Phoenix or palmyra palm leaves. By some pieces of +stick strung on a thread, or seeds of Givotia rottleriformis, are +worn as a charm to ward off various forms of pain. Some of the women +are tattooed on the forehead, corners of the eyes, and arms. And I +saw a few men tattooed on the shoulder as a cure for rheumatism. + +The huts of which a present day gudem is composed are either in the +shape of bee-hives like those of the Yanadis, or oblong with sloping +roof, and situated in a grove near a pond or stream. The staple food +of the Chenchus consists of cereals, supplemented by yams (Dioscorea) +which are uprooted with a digging-stick tipped with iron, forest +fruits, and various animals such as peacock, crow, lizard (Varanus), +bear, and black monkey. They are very fond of the young flowers and +buds of the mahua tree, and tamarind fruits, the acidity of which is +removed by mixing with them the ashes of the bark of the same tree. + +The forest products collected by the Chenchus include myrabolams, +fruits of the tamarind, Semecarpus anacardiúm, Sapindus trifoliatus +(soap-nut), Buchanania latifolia, Buchanania angustifolia, and Ficus +glomerata; roots of Aristolochia Indica and Hemidesmus Indicus; seeds +of Abrus precatorius; flowers of Bassia latifolia; horns, and honey. + +The Chenchus recognise two kinds of bees, large and small, and +gather honey from nests in trees or rocks. It is stated in the +Cuddapah Manual that "the Yenadis or Chenchus alone are able to +climb miraculously into difficult and apparently inaccessible places, +and over perpendicular cliffs in some places from a hundred to two +hundred feet high. This they do by means of a plaited rope made of +young bamboos tied together. Accidents sometimes happen by the rope +giving way. It is a nervous sight to watch them climbing up and down +this frail support. From below the men look like little babies hanging +midway. The rope being fastened on the top of the cliff by means of +a peg driven into the ground or by a tree, the man swings suspended +in the air armed with a basket and a stick. The Chenchu first burns +some brushwood or grass under the hive, which is relinquished by most +of the bees. This accomplished, he swings the rope, until it brings +him close to the hive, which he pokes with his stick, at the same +time holding out his basket to catch the pieces broken off from the +hive. When the basket is full, he shakes the rope, and is drawn up +(generally by his wife's brother). The bamboo ropes are never taken +away; nor are they used a second time, a fresh one being made on each +occasion, and at each place. They are to be seen hanging for years, +until they decay and fall down of themselves." + +Like other Telugu classes, the Chenchus have exogamous septs or +intiperu, of which the following are examples:--gurram (horse), arati +(plantain tree), manla (trees), tota (garden), mekala (goats), indla +(houses), savaram (sovereign, gold coin), and gundam (pit). + +Of the marriage customs the following account is given in the Kurnool +Manual. "The Chenchus do not follow a uniform custom in respect to +marriage ceremonies. Their marriage is performed in three ways. A +man wishing to marry selects his own bride, and both retire for one +night by mutual consent from the gudem. On the following morning, when +they return, their parents invite their friends and relatives, and by +formally investing them with new clothes, declare them duly married. To +complete the ceremony, a meal is given to those assembled. The second +method is as follows. A small space, circular in form, is cleaned and +besmeared with cowdung. In the centre a bow and arrow tied together +are fixed in the ground, and the bride and bridegroom are made to +move round it, when the men assembled bless them by throwing some rice +over them, and the marriage is complete. According to the third mode, +a Brahmin is consulted by the elders of the family. An auspicious day +is fixed, and a raised pial (platform) is formed, on which the bride +and bridegroom being seated, a tali (marriage badge) is tied, and rice +poured over their heads. The services of the Brahmin are engaged for +three or four days, and are rewarded with a piece of new cloth and some +money. This ceremony resembles that of the ryot (cultivating) class +among the Hindus. It is evidently a recent Brahminical innovation. On +marriage occasions generally tom-toms, if available, are beaten, and +a dance takes place." In the second form of marriage, as described +to me, the bride and bridegroom sit opposite each other with four +arrows stuck in the ground between them. In Mackenzie's record it +is stated that the Chenchus make the bridal pair sit with a single +arrow between them, and, when there is no shadow, some elderly men and +women throw rice over their heads. The importance of the arrow with +the Chenchus, as with the Yanadis, is that the moment when it casts +no shadow is the auspicious time for the completion of the marriage +rite. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and the second husband +is said to be in most cases a brother of the deceased one. + +As an example of the Chenchu songs, the following marriage song, sung +by two men and a woman, and recorded by my phonograph, may be cited:-- + + + The tali was of avaram [22] leaves, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + The bashingham [23] was made of the leaf of a wild tree, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + Wild turmeric was used for the kankanam [24], + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + Wearing a garment made of the leaves of the paru tree, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + Wearing a bodice made of the leaves of the pannu tree, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + Roaming over inaccessible hills, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + Wandering through dense forests, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + Committing acts that ought not to be done, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + Obalesa's marriage was celebrated, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + A four-cornered dais was made, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + On the dais arrows were stuck, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + Bamboo rice was used to throw on the heads of the pair, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + Cocoanut cups were stuck on the points of the arrow, + Oh! the lord of the Chenchus. + The marriage was thus celebrated. + + +At a dance in my honour, men and women executed a series of step +dances in time with a drum (thappata) resembling a big tambourine, +which, at the conclusion of each dance, was passed to and fro through +a blazing fire of cholum straw to bring it up to the proper pitch. An +elderly hag went through a variety of gesticulations like those of +a Deva-dasi (dancing-girl). A man dressed up in straw and fragments +of mats picked up near my camp, and another disguised as a woman, +with bells round his ankles, supplied the comic business. + +In the Kurnool Manual it is stated that "as soon as a child is born, +the umbilical cord is cut (with a knife or arrow), and the child +is washed in cold or hot water, according as the season is hot or +cold. On the third day, all the women of the tribe are invited, and +served with betel nut. On the fourth day, an old woman gives a name to +the child. The baby is generally laid in a cradle made of deer skins, +and suspended from a bamboo by means of strings or dusara creepers." + +The dead are carried to the burial-place in a cloth slung on a +pole. The body, after it has been laid in the grave, is covered over +with leafy twigs, and the grave is filled in. The spot is marked by +a mound of earth and stones piled up. On the second or third day, +some cooked food is offered to the soul of the deceased person, near +the grave, and, after some of it has been set apart for the crows, +the remainder is buried in the mound or within the grave. The same +rite is repeated after the eighth day. + +The Chenchus are said [25], like the Yanadis, to worship a god +called Chenchu Devata, to whom offerings of honey and fruits are +sometimes made. They believe, as has been mentioned already, that +the god Narasimha of Ahobilam, whom they call Obalesudu, carried +off a beautiful Chenchu girl, named Chenchita, and married her. To +prevent the occurrence of a similar fate to other females of the +tribe, Chenchita ordained that they should in future be born ugly, +and be devoid of personal charms. The Chenchus claim Obalesudu as +their brother-in-law, and, when they go to the temple for the annual +festival, carry cloths as presents for the god and goddess. The legend +of their origin is told as follows by Captain Newbold. "Previous to the +incarnation of Sri Krishna in the Dwapara Yug (the third of the great +ages), the Chenchwars were shepherds of the Yerra Golla caste. Obal +Iswara, the swami (deity) of Obalam, a celebrated hill shrine in the +Nalla Mallas, having taken away and kept as a Chenchita a maid of +the Yerra Golla family, begat upon her children, of whom they are +descendants." Among other minor deities, the Chenchus are said to +worship Ankalamma, Potu Razu, Sunkalamma, Mallamma, and Guruppa. + +In the absence of lucifer matches, the Chenchus make fire with flint +and steel, and the slightly charred floss of the white cotton tree, +Eriodendron anfractuosum, I am informed that, like the Paniyans of +Malabar, they also obtain fire by friction, by means of the horizontal +or sawing method, with two pieces of split bamboo. + +Some Chenchus still exhibit the primitive short stature and high +nasal index, which are characteristic of other jungle tribes such as +the Kadirs, Paniyans, and Kurumbas. But there is a very conspicuous +want of uniformity in their physical characters, and many individuals +are to be met with, above middle height or tall, with long narrow +noses. A case is noted in the Kurnool Manual, in which a brick-maker +married a Chenchu girl. And I was told of a Boya man who had married +into the tribe, and was living in a gudem. In this way is the pure +type of Chenchu metamorphosed. + + + =============================================== + Stature, cm. | Nasal index. + -----------------------+----------------------- + AV. | MAX. | MIN. | AV. | MAX. | MIN. + -------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- + 162.5 | 175 | 149.6 | 81.9 | 95.7 | 68.1 + =============================================== + + +By the dolichocephalic type of head which has persisted, and which +the Chenchus possess in common with various other jungle tribes, +they are, as shown by the following table, at once differentiated +from the mesaticephalic dwellers in the plains near the foot of the +Nallamalais:-- + + + ================================================ + | Cephalic | Number of cases + ---- | Index. | in which index + | | exceeded 80. + -------------------+----------+----------------- + 40 Chenchus | 74.3 | 1 + 60 Gollas | 77.5 | 9 + 50 Boyas | 77.9 | 14 + 39 Tota Balijas | 78. | 10 + 49 Motati Kapus | 78. | 16 + 19 Upparas | 78.8 | 4 + 16 Mangalas | 78.8 | 7 + 17 Yerukalas | 78.6 | 6 + 12 Medaras | 80.7 | 8 + ================================================ + + +The visual acuity of the Chenchus was tested with Cohn's letter E, +No. 6. For clinical purposes, the visual acuity would be represented +by a fraction, of which 6 is the denominator, and the number of metres +at which the position of the letter was recognised by the individual +tested is the numerator, e.g., + + + V.A. = 13m/6 = 2.16. + + +The average distances in metres, at which the letter was +recognised by the various castes and tribes examined by myself and +Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, were as follows:-- + + + 16 Sholagas (Rivers) 12.9 + 94 Kotas 12.8 + 180 Badagas 12.6 + 50 Paraiyans 12.5 + 58 Telugu ryats 12.4 + 28 Chenchus 12.3 + 55 Uralis (Rivers) 12.2 + 30 Brahmans, Mysore 12.2 + 30 Non-Brahmans, Mysore 12.2 + + +In all classes, it may be noted, the average acuity was between 12 and +13 metres (13 to 14 yards), and ranged between V.A. = 2·15 and V.A. = +2·03. The maxima distances, at which the position of the letter was +recognised, were:--Sholaga, 18m; Paraiyan, 19m; Badaga and Dikshitar +Brahman, 20m. No cases of extraordinary hyper-acuity were met with. The +nine classes, or groups of classes examined, cover a wide range of +degrees of civilisation from the wild jungle Chenchus, Sholagas, and +Uralis, to the cultured Brahman. And, though the jungle man, who has +to search for his food and mark the tracks and traces of wild beasts, +undoubtedly possesses a specially trained keenness of vision for the +exigencies of his primitive life, the figures show that, as regards +ordinary visual acuity, he has no advantage over the more highly +civilised classes. + +There were, in 1904-05, two Board upper primary schools for the +Chenchus of the Kurnool district, which were attended by seventy-three +pupils, who were fed and clothed, and supplied with books and slates +free of charge. + +Chenu (dry field).--An exogamous sept of Kamma. + +Cheppat.--A sub-division of Maran. + +Cherukara.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Cheruku.--Cheruku (sugar-cane) or Cherukula has been recorded as an +exogamous sept of Boya, Jogi and Odde. + +Cheruman.--The Cherumans or Cherumukkal have been defined as a +Malayalam caste of agricultural serfs, and as members of an inferior +caste in Malabar, who are, as a rule, toilers attached to the soil. In +the Madras Census Report, 1891, it is stated that "this caste is +called Cheruman in South Malabar and Pulayan in North Malabar. Even +in South Malabar where they are called Cheruman, a large sub-division +numbering over 30,000 is called Pula Cheruman. The most important +of the sub-divisions returned are Kanakkan, Pula Cheruman, Eralan, +Kudan and Rolan. Kanakkan and Pula Cheruman are found in all the +southern taluks, Kudan almost wholly in Walluvanad, and Eralan in +Palghat and Walluvanad." In the Census Report, 1901, Alan (slave), +and Paramban are given as sub-castes of Cheruman. + +According to one version, the name Cheruma or Cheramakkal signifies +sons of the soil; and, according to another, Cheriamakkal means little +children, as Parasurama directed that they should be cared for, and +treated as such. The word Pulayan is said to be derived from pula, +meaning pollution. + +Of the Cherumans, the following account is given in the Gazetteer +of Malabar. "They are said to be divided into 39 divisions, the more +important of which are the Kanakka Cherumans, the Pula Cherumans or +Pulayas, the Era Cherumans or Eralans, the Roli Cherumans or Rolans, +and the Kudans. Whether these sub-divisions should be treated as +separate castes or not, it is hardly possible to determine; some +of them at least are endogamous groups, and some are still further +sub-divided. Thus the Pulayas of Chirakkal are said to be divided into +one endogamous and eleven exogamous groups, called Mavadan, Elamanam, +Tacchakudiyan, Kundaton, Cheruvulan, Mulattan, Talan, Vannatam, +Eramalodiyan, Mullaviriyan, Egudan, and Kundon. Some at least of these +group names obviously denote differences of occupation. The Kundotti, +or woman of the last group, acts as midwife; and in consequence the +group is considered to convey pollution by touch to members of the +other groups, and they will neither eat nor marry with those belonging +to it. Death or birth pollution is removed by a member of the Mavadan +class called Maruttan, who sprinkles cowdung mixed with water on the +feet, and milk on the head of the person to be purified. At weddings, +the Maruttan receives 32 fanams, the prescribed price of a bride, from +the bridegroom, and gives it to the bride's people. The Era Cherumans +and Kanakkans, who are found only in the southern taluks of the +district, appear to be divided into exogamous groups called Kuttams, +many of which seem to be named after the house-name of the masters whom +they serve. The Cherumans are almost solely employed as agricultural +labourers and coolies; but they also make mats and baskets." + +It is noted [26] by Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer that "from +traditions current among the Pulayas, it would appear that, once upon +a time, they had dominion over several parts of the country. A person +called Aikkara Yajaman, whose ancestors were Pulaya kings, is still +held in considerable respect by the Pulayas of North Travancore, +and acknowledged as their chieftain and lord, while the Aikkaranad +in the Kunnethnad taluk still remains to lend colour to the tale. In +Trivandrum, on the banks of the Velli lake, is a hill called Pulayanar +Kotta, where it is believed that a Pulaya king once ruled. In other +places, they are also said to have held sway. As a Paraya found +at Melkota the image of Selvapillai, as a Savara was originally in +possession of the sacred stone which became the idol in the temple of +Jaganath, so also is the worship of Padmanabha at Trivandrum intimately +connected with a Pulayan. Once a Pulaya woman, who was living with +her husband in the Ananthan kadu (jungle), suddenly heard the cry +of a baby. She rushed to the spot, and saw to her surprise a child +lying on the ground, protected by a snake. She took pity on it, and +nursed it like her own child. The appearance of the snake intimated +to her the divine origin of the infant. This proved to be true, +for the child was an incarnation of Vishnu. As soon as the Raja of +Travancore heard of the wonderful event, he built a shrine on the spot +where the baby had been found, and dedicated it to Padmanabha. The +Pulayas round Trivandrum assert to this day that, in former times, +a Pulaya king ruled, and had his castle not far from the present +capital of Travancore. The following story is also current among +them. The Pulayas got from the god Siva a boon, with spade and axe, +to clear forests, own lands, and cultivate them. When other people +took possession of them, they were advised to work under them." + +According to Mr. Logan, [27] the Cherumans are of two sections, one +of which, the Iraya, are of slightly higher social standing than the +Pulayan. "As the names denote, the former are permitted to come as +far as the eaves (ira) of their employers' houses, while the latter +name denotes that they convey pollution to all whom they meet or +approach." The name Cheruman is supposed to be derived from cheru, +small, the Cheruman being short of stature, or from chera, a dam or +low-lying rice field. Mr. Logan, however, was of opinion that there +is ample evidence that "the Malabar coast at one time constituted the +kingdom or Empire of Chera, and the nad or county of Cheranad lying on +the coast and inland south-east of Calicut remains to the present day +to give a local habitation to the ancient name. Moreover, the name of +the great Emperor of Malabar, who is known to every child on the coast +as Cheraman Perumal, was undoubtedly the title and not the name of the +Emperor, and meant the chief (literally, big man) of the Chera people." + +Of the history of slavery in Malabar an admirable account is given +by Mr. Logan, from which the following extracts are taken. "In 1792, +the year in which British rule commenced, a proclamation was issued +against dealing in slaves. In 1819, the principal Collector wrote +a report on the condition of the Cherumar, and received orders that +the practice of selling slaves for arrears of revenue be immediately +discontinued. In 1821, the Court of Directors expressed considerable +dissatisfaction at the lack of precise information which had been +vouchsafed to them, and said 'We are told that part of the cultivators +are held as slaves: that they are attached to the soil, and marketable +property.' In 1836, the Government ordered the remission in the +Collector's accounts of Rs. 927-13-0, which was the annual revenue from +slaves on the Government lands in Malabar, and the Government was at +the same time 'pleased to accede to the recommendation in favour of +emancipating the slaves on the Government lands in Malabar.' In 1841, +Mr. E. B. Thomas, the Judge at Calicut, wrote in strong terms a letter +to the Sadr Adalat, in which he pointed out that women in some taluks +(divisions) fetched higher prices, in order to breed slaves; that the +average cost of a young male under ten years was about Rs. 3-8-0, of +a female somewhat less; that an infant ten months old was sold in a +court auction for Rs. 1-10-6 independent of the price of its mother; +and that, in a recent suit, the right to twenty-seven slaves was the +'sole matter of litigation, and was disposed of on its merits.' In a +further letter, Mr. Thomas pointed out that the slaves had increased in +numbers from 144,000 at the Census, 1835, to 159,000 at the Census, +1842. It was apparently these letters which decided the Board of +Directors to send out orders to legislate. And the Government of India +passed Act V of 1843, of which the provisions were widely published +through Malabar. The Collector explained to the Cherumar that it was +in their interest, as well as their duty, to remain with their masters, +if kindly treated. He proclaimed that 'the Government will not order a +slave who is in the employ of an individual to forsake him and go to +the service of another claimant; nor will the Government interfere +with the slave's inclination as to where he wishes to work.' And +again, 'Any person claiming a slave as janmam, kanam or panayam, +the right of such claim or claims will not be investigated into at +any one of the public offices or courts.' In 1852, and again in 1855, +the fact that traffic in slaves still continued was brought to the +notice of Government, but on full consideration no further measures +for the emancipation of the Cherumar were deemed to be necessary. The +Cherumar even yet have not realised what public opinion in England +would probably have forced down their throats fifty years ago, and +there is reason to think that they are still, even now, with their +full consent bought and sold and hired out, although, of course, +the transaction must be kept secret for fear of the penalties of the +Penal Code, which came into force in 1862, and was the real final +blow at slavery in India. The slaves, however, as a caste will never +understand what real freedom means, until measures are adopted to +give them indefeasible rights in the small orchards occupied by them +as house-sites." It is noted by Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer that "though +slavery has been abolished many years ago, the name valliyal (a person +receiving valli, i.e., paddy given to a slave) still survives." + +By the Penal Code it is enacted that-- + + + Whoever imports, exports, removes, buys, sells, or disposes of any + person as a slave, or accepts, receives, or detains against his + will any person as a slave, shall be punished with imprisonment + for a term which may extend to seven years, and shall also be + liable to a fine. + + Whoever habitually imports, exports, removes, buys, sells, traffics + or deals in slaves, shall be punished with transportation for + life, or with imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years, + and shall be liable to a fine. + + Whoever unlawfully compels any person to labour against the will + of that person, shall be punished with imprisonment for a term + which may extend to one year, or with a fine, or with both. + + +"Very low indeed," Mr. S. Appadorai Iyer writes, [28] "is the social +position of these miserable beings. When a Cherumar meets a person +of superior caste; he must stand at a distance of thirty feet. If he +comes within this prohibited distance, his approach is said to cause +pollution, which is removed only by bathing in water. A Cherumar +cannot approach a Brahman village or temple, or tank. If he does so, +purification becomes necessary. Even while using the public road, if he +sees his lord and master, he has to leave the ordinary way and walk, it +may be in the mud, to avoid his displeasure by accidentally polluting +him. To avoid polluting the passer-by, he repeats the unpleasant +sound 'O, oh, O--'. [In some places, e.g., Palghat, one may often +see a Cheruman with a dirty piece of cloth spread on the roadside, +and yelling in a shrill voice 'Ambrane, Ambarane, give me some pice, +and throw them on the cloth.'] His position is intolerable in the +Native States of Cochin and Travancore, where Brahman influence is +in the ascendant; while in the Palghat taluk the Cherumars cannot, +even to this day, enter the bazaar." A melancholy picture has been +drawn of the Cherumans tramping along the marshes in mud, often wet +up to their waists, to avoid polluting their superiors. In 1904, a +Cheruman came within polluting distance of a Nayar, and was struck +with a stick. The Cheruman went off and fetched another, whereupon +the Nayar ran away. He was, however, pursued by the Cherumans. In +defending himself with a spade, the Nayar struck the foremost Cheruman +on the head, and killed him. [29] In another case, a Cheruman, who +was the servant of a Mappilla, was fetching grass for his master, +when he inadvertently approached some Tiyans, and thereby polluted +them. The indignant Tiyans gave not only the Cheruman, but his master +also, a sound beating by way of avenging the insult offered to them. + +The status of the Pulayas of the Cochin State is thus described by +Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer. "They abstain from eating food prepared +by the Velakkathalavans (barbers), Mannans (washermen), Panans, +Vettuvans, Parayans, Nayadis, Ulladans, Malayans, and Kadars. The +Pulayas in the southern parts of the State have to stand at a distance +of 90 feet from Brahmans and 64 feet from Nayars, and this distance +gradually diminishes towards the lower castes. They are polluted by +Pula Cherumas, Parayas, Nayadis, and Ulladans. [The Pula Cherumas are +said to eat beef, and sell the hides of cattle.] The Kanakka Cherumas +of the Chittur taluk pollute Era Cherumas and Konga Cherumas by touch, +and by approach within a distance of seven or eight feet, and are +themselves polluted by Pula Cherumas, Parayas, and Vettuvans, who have +to stand at the same distance. Pulayas and Vettuvans bathe when they +approach one another, for their status is a point of dispute as to +which is superior to the other. When defiled by the touch of a Nayadi, +a Cheruman has to bathe in seven tanks, and let a few drops of blood +flow from one of his fingers. A Brahman who enters the compound of a +Pulayan has to change his holy thread, and take panchagavyam (the five +products of the cow) so as to be purified from pollution. The Valluva +Pulayan of the Trichur taluk fasts for three days, if he happens to +touch a cow that has been delivered of a calf. He lives on toddy and +tender cocoanuts. He has also to fast three days after the delivery +of his wife." In ordinary conversation in Malabar, such expressions +as Tiya-pad or Cheruma-pad (that is, the distance at which a Tiyan +or Cheruman has to keep) are said to be commonly used. [30] + +By Mr. T. K. Gopal Panikkar the Cherumans are described [31] as +"a very inferior race, who are regarded merely as agricultural +instruments in the hands of the landlords their masters, who supply +them with houses on their estates. Their daily maintenance is supplied +to them by their masters themselves. Every morning the master's agent +summons them to his house, and takes them away to work in the fields, +in ploughing, drawing water from wells, and in short doing the whole of +the cultivation. In the evening a certain quantity of paddy (unhusked +rice) is distributed to them as wages. Both theory and practice, in +the great majority of cases, are that they are fed at the master's +cost the whole year round, whether they work in the fields or not. But +it is very seldom that they can have a holiday, regard being had to +the nature of agriculture in Malabar. It is the Cheruma that should +plough the land, sow the seed, transplant the seedlings, regulate +the flow of water in the fields, uproot the weeds, and see that the +crops are not destroyed by animals, or stolen. When the crops ripen, +he has to keep watch at night. The sentry house consists of a small +oval-shaped portable roof, constructed of palmyra and cocoanut leaves, +supported by four posts, across which are tied bamboos, which form +the watchman's bed. Wives sometimes accompany their husbands in their +watches. When the harvest season approaches, the Cheruman's hands +are full. He has to cut the crops, carry them to the barn (kalam), +separate the corn from the stalk, and winnow it. The second crop +operations immediately follow, and the Cheruma has to go through all +these processes again. It is in the summer season that his work is +light, when he is set to prepare vegetable gardens, or some odd job is +found for him by his master. The old, infirm, and the children look +after their master's cattle. Receiving his daily pittance of paddy, +the Cheruman enters his hut, and reserves a portion of it for the +purchase of salt, chillies, toddy, tobacco, and dried fish. The other +portion is reserved for food. The Cheruman spends the greater part +of his wages on toddy. It is a very common sight in Malabar to see +a group of Cherumans, including women and children, sitting in front +of a toddy shop, the Cheruman transferring the unfinished portion of +the toddy to his wife, and the latter to the children. A Cheruman, +however, rarely gets intoxicated, or commits crime. No recess is +allowed to the Cherumans, except on national holidays and celebrated +temple festivals observed in honour of the goddess Bhagavati or Kali, +when they are quite free to indulge in drink. On these days, their hire +is given in advance. With this they get intoxicated, and go to the +poora-paramba or temple premises, where the festival is celebrated, +in batches of four, each one tying his hands to another's neck, +and reciting every two seconds the peculiar sound: + + + Lalle lalle lalle ho. + Lalle lalle lalle ho. + + +"On the European plantations in the Wynad the Cherumans are in great +request, and many are to be seen travelling nowadays without fear in +railway carriages on their way to the plantations. A few also work +in the gold mines of Mysore." + +Like other servile classes, the Cherumans possess special privileges +on special occasions. For example, at the chal (furrow) ceremony in +Malabar "the master of the house, the cultivating agent, and Cherumans +assemble in the barn, a portion of the yard in front of the building +is painted with rice-water, and a lighted bell-lamp is placed near at +hand with some paddy and rice, and several cups made of the leaves +of the kanniram (Strychnos nux-vomica)--as many cups as there are +varieties of seed in the barn. Then, placing implicit faith in his +gods, and deceased ancestors, the master of the house opens the barn +door, followed by the Cheruman with a new painted basket containing the +leaf cups. The master then takes a handful of seed from a seed-basket, +and fills one of the cups, and the cultivating agent, head Cheruman, +and others who are interested in a good harvest, fill the cups till +the seeds are exhausted. The basket, with the cups, is next taken to +the decorated portion of the yard. A new ploughshare is fastened to a +new plough, and a pair of cattle are brought on to the scene. Plough, +cattle, and basket are all painted with rice-water. A procession +proceeds to the fields, on reaching which the head Cheruman lays +down the basket, and makes a mound of earth with the spade. To this a +little manure is added, and the master throws a handful of seed into +it. The cattle are then yoked, and one turn is ploughed by the head +Cheruman. Inside this at least seven furrows are made, and the plough +is dropped to the right. An offering is made to Ganapathi (the elephant +god), and the master throws some seed into a furrow. Next the head +Cheruman calls out 'May the gods on high and the deceased ancestors +bless the seed, which has been thrown broadcast, and the cattle which +are let loose; the mother and children of the house, the master, and +the slaves, may they also vouchsafe to us a good crop, good sunshine, +and good harvest.' A cocoanut is then cut on the ploughshare, and from +the cut portions several deductions are made. If the hinder part is +larger than the front one, the harvest will be moderate. If the cut +passes through the eyes of the nut, or if no water is left in the +cut portions, certain misfortune is foreboded. The cut fragments are +then taken with a little water inside them, and a leaf of the tulsi +plant (Ocimum sanctum) dropped in. If the leaf turns to the right, +a prosperous harvest is assured; whereas, if it turns to the left, +certain calamity will follow. This ceremonial concluded, there is +much shouting, and the names of all the gods may be heard called +out in a confused prayer. The party then breaks up, and the unused +seeds are divided among the workmen." [32] At the ceremony in Malabar, +when the transplantation of rice is completed, during which a goat is +sacrificed to Muni, the protector of cattle and field labourers, the +officiating priest is generally the cultivation agent of the family, +who is a Nayar, or sometimes a Cheruman. + +In connection with the harvest ceremonial in Cochin, Mr. Anantha +Krishna Iyer writes as follows. "There are some curious customs +connected with the harvest, prevailing among the Pulayas of the +southern parts of the State. Before reaping, the Pulaya headman asks +his master whether he may begin to reap. With his permission, he +faces the east, and puts the sickle to the stalks. The first bundle +he reserves for the gods of his master, and the second for those of +his castemen. Before thrashing, the same headman takes a few bundles +of corn from the sheaf intended for their gods, and sprinkles toddy on +them. Another Pulayan does the same for the various reapers, and says, +as he does so 'Come, thrashing corn, increase.' This is called filling +the thrashing floor, and each man thrashes his own sheaves. When the +thrashing is over, the headman puts his master's sheaf in the centre of +the floor, and his own at a short distance outside, in order that the +two sets of gods may look kindly on them. The headman is privileged +to measure the corn sitting with his two assistants, saying 'Come, +paddy, increase,' as he counts. He also calls out 'Good paddy, one', +'bad paddy, two', and so on, until he counts ten. The eleventh is the +share for the reaper. He takes a handful, and places it in a basket, +half of which falls to him, his assistants and the watchman, while the +other half is given away in charity to the poor men that come to the +thrashing place. In the northern parts of the State, before reaping, +offerings of goats, fowls, and cocoanuts, are made to Mallan and +Muni. The Cheruma headman faces east, and applies his sickle to the +stalks, reserving the first stalk for the deities above mentioned. The +corn is thrashed and measured by one of them, and, as he does so, he +says 'Labham' (profit) for one, 'Chetham' (loss) for two, and counts +up to ten. The eleventh goes to the share of the reapers. Thus they +get one para for every ten paras of corn. The poor people that attend +are also given a handful of the grain. After reaping, the members of +the castes named in the table below receive a small portion of the +corn for their services rendered to the farmers in the course of the +months during which cultivation has been carried on:-- + + + ==============+====================================+=============== + Caste. | Purpose for which paddy | Remuneration. + | is given. | + --------------+------------------------------------+--------------- + Carpenters | For making and repairing | A big bundle + | ploughs, etc. | of corn. + Blacksmiths | For making sickles, knives, | Do. + | and other tools. | + Parayan | For lifting and placing the | Do. + | loads of stalks on the heads | + | of the Cherumans, who carry | + | them to the farmyard. | + Washerman or | For keeping off birds, insects, | Do. + Mannan. | etc., from the fields by magic. | + Vilkurup | For treating Cherumas during | Do. + | their illness, and for shampooing | + | them. | + Kaniyan or | For giving information of the | Do. + astrologer. | auspicious times for ploughing, | + | sowing, transplanting | + | and reaping, and also of the | + | time for giving rice, vegetables, | + | oil, etc., to the | + | Cherumas during the Onam | + | festival. | + ==============+====================================+=============== + + +"The Pulayans receive, in return for watching, a small portion of +the field near the watchman's rest-hut, which is left unreaped for +him. It fetches him a para of paddy. + +"The Cherumas who are engaged in reaping get two bundles of corn each +for every field. For measuring the corn from the farmyard, a Cheruman +gets an edangazhy of paddy, in addition to his daily wage. Three paras +of paddy are set apart for the local village deity. During the month of +Karkadakam, the masters give every Cheruman a fowl, some oil, garlic, +mustard, anise seeds, pepper, and turmeric. They prepare a decoction +of seeds, and boil the flesh of the fowl in it, which they take for +three days, during which they are allowed to take rest. Three days' +wages are also given in advance." + +In Travancore, a festival named Macam is held, of which the following +account has been published. [33] "The Macam (tenth constellation +Regulus, which follows Thiru Onam in August), is regarded by Hindus +as a day of great festivity. One must enjoy it even at the cost of +one's children, so runs an adage. The day is considered to be so +lucky that a girl born under the star Regulus is verily born with a +silver spoon in her mouth. It was on Macam, some say, that the Devas, +to free themselves from the curse they were put under by a certain +sage, had to churn the sea of milk to procure ambrosia. Be the cause +which led to the celebration what it may, the Hindus of the present +day have ever been enthusiastic in its observance; only some of the +rude customs connected with it have died out in the course of time, +or were put a stop to by Government. Sham fights were, and are still, +in some places a feature of the day. Such a sham fight used to be +carried on at Pallam until, about a hundred years ago, it was stopped +through the intervention of Colonel Munro, the British Resident in +Travancore. The place is still called Patanilam (battle field), and +the tank, on opposite sides of which the contending parties assembled, +Chorakulam (pool of blood). The steel swords and spears, of curious +and various shapes, and shields large enough to cover a man, are +even now preserved in the local temple. Many lives were lost in these +fights. It is not generally known, even to people in these parts, that +a sham fight takes place on Macam and the previous day every year at +a place called Wezhapra, between the Changanacherry and Ambalapuzha +taluks. Three banyan trees mark the place. People, especially Pulayas +and Pariahs, to the number of many thousands, collect round the outside +trees with steel swords, spears, and slings in their hands. A small +bund (embankment) separates the two parties. They have to perform +certain religious rites near the tree which stands in the middle, +and, in doing so, make some movements with their swords and spears +to the accompaniment of music. If those standing on one side of the +bund cross it, a regular fight is the result. In order to avoid such +things, without at the same time interfering with their liberty to +worship at the spot, the Government this year made all the necessary +arrangements. The Police were sent for the purpose. Everything went +off smoothly but for one untoward event. The people had been told not +to come armed with steel weapons, but with wooden ones. They had to +put them down, and were then allowed to go and worship." + +Of conversion to Muhammadanism at the present time, a good example is +afforded by the Cherumans. "This caste," the Census Superintendent, +1881, writes, "numbered 99,009 in Malabar at the census of 1871, and, +in 1881, is returned as only 64,735. There are 40,000 fewer Cherumans +than there would have been but for some disturbing influence, and this +is very well known to be conversion to Muhammadanism. The honour of +Islam once conferred on the Cheruman, he moves at one spring several +places higher than that which he originally occupied." "Conversion +to Muhammadanism," Mr. Logan writes, "has had a marked effect in +freeing the slave caste in Malabar from their former burthens. By +conversion a Cheruman obtains a distinct rise in the social scale, +and, if he is in consequence bullied or beaten, the influence of the +whole Muhammadan community comes to his aid." It has been noted [34] +that Cheruman converts to Islam take part in the Moplah (Mappilla) +outbreaks, which from time to time disturb the peace of Malabar. + +The home of the Cheruman is called a chala or hut, which has a thatched +roof of grass and palm-leaves resembling an immense bee-hive. A big +underground cell, with a ceiling of planks, forms the granary of +the occupants of these huts. The chief house furniture consists of +a pestle and mortar, and two or three earthenware pots. + +The habitations of the Pulayas of Cochin are thus described by +Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer. "Their huts are generally called madams, +which are put up on the banks of fields, in the middle of rice flats, +or on trees along their borders, so as to enable them to watch the +crops after the toils of the day. They are discouraged from erecting +better huts, under the idea that, if settled more comfortably, they +would be less inclined to move as cultivation required. The madams +are very poor huts, supported on four small posts, and thatched with +leaves. The sides are protected with the same kind of leaves. There +is only one room, and the floor, though slightly raised, is very +damp during the rainy months. These temporary buildings are removed +after the harvest, and put up in places where cultivation has to be +carried on. All the members of the family sleep together in the same +hut. Small temporary huts are sometimes erected, which are little +better than inverted baskets. These are placed in the rice field +while the crop is on the ground, and near the stacks while it is being +thrashed. In the northern parts of the State, the Pulaya huts are made +of mud walls, and provided with wooden doors. The roofs are of bamboo +framework thatched with palmyra palm leaves. The floor is raised, +and the huts are provided with pyals (raised platforms) on three +sides. They have also small compounds (grounds) around them. There +is only one room inside, which is the sleeping apartment of the newly +married youngsters. The others, I am told, sleep on the verandahs. The +utensils consist of a few earthen pots for cooking and keeping water, +and a few earthen dishes for taking food. In addition to these, I +found a wooden mortar, a few pestles, two pans, two winnowing pans, +a fish basket for each woman, a few cocoanut shells for keeping +salt and other things, a few baskets of their own making, in one of +which a few dirty cloths were placed, some mats of their own making, +a bamboo vessel for measuring corn, and a vessel for containing toddy." + +"During the rainy season, the Cherumas in the field wear a few +green leaves, especially those of the plantain tree, tied round +their waists, and a small cone-shaped cap, made of plantain leaf, +is worn on the head. This practice, among the females, has fallen +into disuse in Malabar, though it is to some extent still found +in the Native States. The Cherumi is provided with one long piece +of thick cloth, which she wraps round her waist, and which does not +even reach the knees. She does not cover the chest." [35] The Cheruma +females have been described as wearing, when at work in the open, +a big oval-shaped handleless umbrella covered with palm leaves, +which they place on their back, and which covers the whole of their +person in the stooping attitude. The men use, during the rainy season, +a short-handled palm-leaf umbrella. + +The women are profusely decorated with cheap jewelry of which the +following are examples: + +1. Lobes of both ears widely dilated by rolled leaden ornaments. Brass, +and two glass bead necklets, string necklet with flat brass ornaments, +the size of a Venetian sequin, with device as in old Travancore gold +coins, with two brass cylinders pendent behind, and tassels of red +cotton. Three brass rings on right little finger; two on left ring +finger, one brass and two steel bangles on left wrist. + +2. Several bead necklets, and a single necklet of many rows of +beads. Brass necklet like preceding, with steel prong and scoop, +for removing wax from the ears and picking teeth, tied to one of the +necklets. Attached to, and pendent from one necklet, three palm leaf +rolls with symbols and Malayalam inscription to act as a charm in +driving away devils. Three ornamental brass bangles on right forearm, +two on left. Iron bangle on left wrist. Thin brass ring in helix of +each ear. Seventy thin brass rings (alandoti) with heavy brass ornament +(adikaya) in dilated lobe of each ear. + +3. In addition to glass bead necklets, a necklet with heavy +heart-shaped brass pendants. String round neck to ward off fever. + +4. String necklet with five brass cylinders pendent; five brass +bangles on right wrist; six brass and two iron bangles on left wrist. + +Right hand, one copper and five brass rings on middle finger; one +iron and three brass rings on little finger. + +Left hand, one copper and five brass rings on middle finger; three +brass and two copper rings on ring finger; one brass ring on little +finger. + +5. Trouser button in helix of left ear. + +6. Brass bead necklet with pendent brass ornament with legend "Best +superior umbrella made in Japan, made for Fazalbhoy Peeroo Mahomed, +Bombay." + +A Cheruman, at Calicut, had his hair long and unkempt, as he played +the drum at the temple. Another had the hair arranged in four matted +plaits, for the cure of disease in performance of a vow. A man who +wore a copper cylinder on his loin string, containing a brass strip +with mantrams (consecrated formulæ) engraved on it, sold it to me +for a rupee with the assurance that it would protect me from devils. + +Concerning the marriage ceremony of the Cherumans in Malabar, +Mr. Appadorai Iyer writes that "the bridegroom's sister is the +chief performer. It is she who pays the bride's price, and carries +her off. The consent of the parents is required, and is signified +by an interchange of visits between the parents of the bride and +bridegroom. During these visits, rice-water (conji) is sipped. Before +tasting the conji, they drop a fanam (local coin) into the vessel +containing it, as a token of assent to the marriage. When the +wedding party sets out, a large congregation of Cherumans follow, +and at intervals indulge in stick play, the women singing in chorus +to encourage them 'Let us see, let us see the stick play (vadi tallu), +Oh! Cheruman.' The men and women mingle indiscriminately in the dance +during the wedding ceremony. On the return to the bridegroom's hut, +the bride is expected to weep loudly, and deplore her fate. On entering +the bridegroom's hut, she must tread on a pestle placed across the +threshold." During the dance, the women have been described as letting +down their hair, and dancing with a tolerable amount of rhythmic +precision amid vigorous drumming and singing. According to another +account, the bridegroom receives from his brother-in-law a kerchief, +which the giver ties round his waist, and a bangle which is placed on +his arm. The bride receives a pewter vessel from her brother. Next +her cousin ties a kerchief round the groom's forehead, and sticks a +betel leaf in it. The bride is then handed over to the bridegroom. + +Of the puberty and marriage ceremonies of the Pulayas of Cochin, the +following detailed account is given by Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer. "When +a Pulaya girl comes of age, she is located in a separate hut. Five +Vallons (headmen), and the castemen of the kara (settlement), +are invited to take part in the performance of the ceremony. A +song, called malapattu, is sung for an hour by a Parayan to the +accompaniment of drum and pipe. The Parayan gets a para of paddy, +and his assistants three annas each. As soon as this is over, seven +cocoanuts are broken, and the water thereof is poured over the head +of the girl, and the broken halves are distributed among the five +Vallons and seven girls who are also invited to be present. Some more +water is also poured on the girl's head at the time. She is lodged +in a temporary hut for seven days, during which food is served to +her at a distance. She is forbidden to go out and play with her +friends. On the morning of the seventh day, the Vallons of the kara +and the castemen are again invited. The latter bring with them some +rice, vegetables, and toddy, to defray the expenses of the feast. At +dawn, the mother of the girl gives oil to the seven Pulaya maidens, +and to her daughter for an oil-bath. They then go to a neighbouring +tank (pond) or stream to bathe, and return home. The girl is then +neatly dressed, and adorned in her best. Her face is painted yellow, +and marked with spots of various colours. She stands before a few +Parayas, who play on their flute and drum, to cast out the demons, +if any, from her body. The girl leaps with frantic movements, if she +is possessed by them. In that case, they transfer them to a tree close +by driving a nail into the trunk after due offerings. If she is not +possessed, she remains unmoved, and the Parayas bring the music to +a close. The girl is again bathed with her companions, who are all +treated to a dinner. The ceremony then comes to an end with a feast +to the castemen. The ceremony described is performed by the Valluva +Pulayas in the southern parts, near and around the suburbs of Cochin, +but is unknown among other sub-tribes elsewhere. The devil-driving by +the Parayas is not attended to. Nor is a temporary hut erected for the +girl to be lodged in. She is allowed to remain in a corner of the hut, +but is not permitted to touch others. She is bathed on the seventh day, +and the castemen, friends and relations, are invited to a feast. + +"Marriage is prohibited among members of the same koottam (family +group). In the Chittur taluk, members of the same village do not +intermarry, for they believe that their ancestors may have been the +slaves of some local landlord, and, as such, the descendants of the +same parents. A young man may marry among the relations of his father, +but not among those of his mother. In the Palghat taluk, the Kanakka +Cherumas pride themselves on the fact that they avoid girls within +seven degrees of relationship. The marriage customs vary according +to the sub-division. In the southern parts of the State, Pulaya girls +are married before puberty, while in other places, among the Kanakka +Cherumas and other sub-tribes, they are married both before and after +puberty. In the former case, when a girl has not been married before +puberty, she is regarded as having become polluted, and stigmatised +as a woman whose age is known. Her parents and uncles lose all claim +upon her. They formally drive her out of the hut, and proceed to +purify it by sprinkling water mixed with cow-dung both inside and +outside, and also with sand. She is thus turned out of caste. She +was, in former times, handed over to the Vallon, who either married +her to his own son, or sold her to a slave master. If a girl is too +poor to be married before puberty, the castemen of the kara raise a +subscription, and marry her to one of themselves. + +"When a young Pulayan wishes to marry, he applies to his master, who +is bound to defray the expenses. He gives seven fanams [36] to the +bride's master, one fanam worth of cloth to the bride-elect, and about +ten fanams for the marriage feast. In all, his expenses amount to ten +rupees. The ceremony consists in tying a ring attached to a thread +round the neck of the bride. This is provided by her parents. When +he becomes tired of his wife, he may dispose of her to any other +person who will pay the expenses incurred at the marriage. There are +even now places where husband and wife serve different masters, but +more frequently they serve the same master. The eldest male child +belongs to the master of the mother. The rest of the family remain +with the mother while young, but, being the property of the owner, +revert to him when of an age to be useful. She also follows them, +in the event of her becoming a widow. In some places, a man brings +a woman to his master, and says that he wishes to keep her as his +wife. She receives her allowance of rice, but may leave her husband +as she likes, and is not particular in changing one spouse for +another. In other places, the marriage ceremonies of the Era Cherumas +are more formal. The bridegroom's party goes to the bride's hut, and +presents rice and betel leaf to the head of the family, and asks for +the bride. Consent is indicated by the bride's brother placing some +rice and cloth before the assembly, and throwing rice on the headman +of the caste, who is present. On the appointed day, the bridegroom +goes to the hut with two companions, and presents the girl with cloth +and twelve fanams. From that day he is regarded as her husband, and +cohabitation begins at once. But the bride cannot accompany him until +the ceremony called mangalam is performed. The bridegroom's party goes +in procession to the bride's hut, where a feast awaits them. The man +gives sweetmeats to the girl's brother. The caste priest recites the +family history of the two persons, and the names of their masters and +deities. They are then seated before a lamp and a heap of rice in a +pandal (booth). One of the assembly gets up, and delivers a speech on +the duties of married life, touching on the evils of theft, cheating, +adultery, and so forth. Rice is thrown on the heads of the couple, +and the man prostrates himself at the feet of the elders. Next day, +rice is again thrown on their heads. Then the party assembled makes +presents to the pair, a part of which goes to the priest, and a part +to the master of the husband. Divorce is very easy, but the money +paid must be returned to the woman. + +"In the Ooragam proverthy of the Trichur taluk, I find that the +marriage among the Pulayas of that locality and the neighbouring +villages is a rude form of sambandham (alliance), somewhat similar to +that which prevails among the Nayars, whose slaves a large majority of +them are. The husband, if he may be so called, goes to the woman's hut +with his wages, to stay therein with her for the night. They may serve +under different masters. A somewhat similar custom prevails among the +Pula Cherumas of the Trichur taluk. The connection is called Merungu +Kooduka, which means to tame, or to associate with. + +"A young man, who wishes to marry, goes to the parents of the young +woman, and asks their consent to associate with their daughter. If they +approve, he goes to her at night as often as he likes. The woman seldom +comes to the husband's hut to stay with him, except with the permission +of the thamar (landlord) on auspicious occasions. They are at liberty +to separate at their will and pleasure, and the children born of the +union belong to the mother's landlord. Among the Kanakka Cherumas +in the northern parts of the State, the following marital relations +are in force. When a young man chooses a girl, the preliminary +arrangements are made in her hut, in the presence of her parents, +relations, and the castemen of the village. The auspicious day is +fixed, and a sum of five fanams is paid as the bride's price. The +members assembled are treated to a dinner. A similar entertainment +is held at the bridegroom's hut to the bride's parents, uncles, and +others who come to see the bridegroom. On the morning of the day fixed +for the wedding, the bridegroom and his party go to the bride's hut, +where they are welcomed, and seated on mats in a small pandal put up +in front of the hut. A muri (piece of cloth), and two small mundus +(cloths) are the marriage presents to the bride. A vessel full of +paddy (unhusked rice), a lighted lamp, and a cocoanut are placed in +a conspicuous place therein. The bride is taken to the booth, and +seated by the side of the bridegroom. Before she enters it, she goes +seven times round it, with seven virgins before her. With prayers to +their gods for blessings on the couple, the tali (marriage badge) +is tied round the bride's neck. The bridegroom's sister completes +the knot. By a strange custom, the bride's mother does not approach +the bridegroom, lest it should cause a ceremonial pollution. The +ceremony is brought to a close with a feast to those assembled. Toddy +is an indispensable item of the feast. During the night, they amuse +themselves by dancing a kind of wild dance, in which both men and women +joyfully take part. After this, the bridegroom goes along to his own +hut, along with his wife and his party, where also they indulge in a +feast. After a week, two persons from the bride's hut come to invite +the married couple. The bride and bridegroom stay at the bride's hut +for a few days, and cannot return to his hut unless an entertainment, +called Vathal Choru, is given him. + +"The marriage customs of the Valluva Pulayas in the southern parts of +the State, especially in the Cochin and Kanayannur taluks, are more +formal. The average age of a young man for marriage is between fifteen +and twenty, while that of a girl is between ten and twelve. Before +a young Pulayan thinks of marriage, he has to contract a formal and +voluntary friendship with another young Pulayan of the same age and +locality. If he is not sociably inclined, his father selects one for +him from a Pulaya of the same or higher status, but not of the same +illam (family group). If the two parents agree among themselves, +they meet in the hut of either of them to solemnise it. They fix a +day for the ceremony, and invite their Vallon and the castemen of +the village. The guests are treated to a feast in the usual Pulaya +fashion. The chief guest and the host eat together from the same +dish. After the feast, the father of the boy, who has to obtain +a friend for his son, enquires of the Vallon and those assembled +whether he may be permitted to buy friendship by the payment of +money. They give their permission, and the boy's father gives the +money to the father of the selected friend. The two boys then clasp +hands, and they are never to quarrel. The new friend becomes from +that time a member of the boy's family. He comes in, and goes out +of their hut as he likes. There is no ceremony performed at it, +or anything done without consulting him. He is thus an inseparable +factor in all ceremonies, especially in marriages. I suspect that +the friend has some claims on a man's wife. The first observance in +marriage consists in seeing the girl. The bridegroom-elect, his friend, +father and maternal uncle, go to the bride's hut, to be satisfied with +the girl. If the wedding is not to take place at an early date, the +bridegroom's parents have to keep up the claim on the bride-elect by +sending presents to her guardians. The presents, which are generally +sweetmeats, are taken to her hut by the bridegroom and his friends, +who are well fed by the mother of the girl, and are given a few +necessaries when they take leave of her the next morning. The next +observance is the marriage negociation, which consists in giving +the bride's price, and choosing an auspicious day in consultation +with the local astrologer (Kaniyan). On the evening previous to the +wedding, the friends and relations of the bridegroom are treated to a +feast in his hut. Next day at dawn, the bridegroom and his friend, +purified by a bath, and neatly dressed in a white cloth with a +handkerchief tied over it, and with a knife stuck in their girdles, +go to the hut of the bride-elect accompanied by his party, and are +all well received, and seated on mats spread on the floor. Over a +mat specially made by the bride's mother are placed three measures of +rice, some particles of gold, a brass plate, and a plank with a white +and red cover on it. The bridegroom, after going seven times round +the pandal, stands on the plank, and the bride soon follows making +three rounds, when four women hold a cloth canopy over her head, +and seven virgins go in front of her. The bride then stands by the +side of the bridegroom, and they face each other. Her guardian puts +on the wedding necklace a gold bead on a string. Music is played, and +prayers are offered up to the sun to bless the necklace which is tied +round the neck of the girl. The bridegroom's friend, standing behind, +tightens the knot already made. The religious part of the ceremony +is now over, and the bridegroom and bride are taken inside the hut, +and food is served to them on the same leaf. Next the guests are +fed, and then they begin the poli or subscription. A piece of silk, +or any red cloth, is spread on the floor, or a brass plate is placed +before the husband. The guests assembled put in a few annas, and take +leave of the chief host as they depart. The bride is soon taken to +the bridegroom's hut, and her parents visit her the next day, and +get a consideration in return. On the fourth day, the bridegroom and +bride bathe and worship the local deity, and, on the seventh day, +they return to the bride's hut, where the tali (marriage badge) +is formally removed from the neck of the girl, who is bedecked with +brass beads round her neck, rings on her ears, and armlets. The next +morning, the mother-in-law presents her son-in-law and his friend +with a few necessaries of life, and sends them home with her daughter. + +"During the seventh month of pregnancy, the ceremony of puli kuti, or +tamarind juice drinking, is performed as among other castes. This is +also an occasion for casting out devils, if any, from the body. The +pregnant woman is brought back to the hut of her own family. The +devil-driver erects a tent-like structure, and covers it with plantain +bark and leaves of the cocoanut palm. The flower of an areca palm +is fixed at the apex. A cocoanut palm flower is cut out and covered +with a piece of cloth, the cut portion being exposed. The woman is +seated in front of the tent-like structure with the flower, which +symbolises the yet unborn child in the womb, in her lap. The water +of a tender cocoanut in spoons made of the leaf of the jack tree +(Artocarpus integrifolia) is poured over the cut end by the Vallon, +guardian, and brothers and sisters present. The devil-driver then +breaks open the flower, and, by looking at the fruits, predicts the +sex of the child. If there are fruits at the end nearest the stem, +the child will live and, if the number of fruits is even, there will +be twins. There will be deaths if any fruit is not well formed. The +devil-driver repeats an incantation, whereby he invokes the aid +of Kali, who is believed to be present in the tent. He fans the +woman with the flower, and she throws rice and a flower on it. He +repeats another incantation, which is a prayer to Kali to cast out +the devil from her body. This magical ceremony is called Garbha Bali +(pregnancy offering). The structure, with the offering, is taken up, +and placed in a corner of the compound reserved for gods. The devotee +then goes through the remaining forms of the ceremony. She pours into +twenty-one leaf spoons placed in front of the tent a mixture of cow's +milk, water of the tender cocoanut, flower, and turmeric powder. Then +she walks round the tent seven times, and sprinkles the mixture on +it with a palm flower. Next she throws a handful of rice and paddy, +after revolving each handful round her head, and then covers the +offering with a piece of cloth. She now returns, and her husband puts +into her mouth seven globules of prepared tamarind. The devil-driver +rubs her body with Phlomis (?) petals and paddy, and thereby finds +out whether she is possessed or not. If she is, the devil is driven +out with the usual offerings. The devil-driver gets for his services +twelve measures and a half of paddy, and two pieces of cloth. The +husband should not, during this period, get shaved. + +"When a young woman is about to give birth to a child, she is lodged +in a small hut near her dwelling, and is attended by her mother +and a few elderly women of the family. After the child is born, the +mother and the baby are bathed. The woman is purified by a bath on the +seventh day. The woman who has acted as midwife draws seven lines on +the ground at intervals of two feet from one another, and spreads over +them aloe leaves torn to shreds. Then, with burning sticks in the hand, +the mother with the baby goes seven times over the leaves backwards +and forwards, and is purified. For these seven days, the father should +not eat anything made of rice. He lives on toddy, fruits, and other +things. The mother remains with her baby in the hut for sixteen days, +when she is purified by a bath so as to be free from pollution, after +which she goes to the main hut. Her enangathi (relation by marriage) +sweeps the hut and compound, and sprinkles water mixed with cow-dung +on her body as she returns after the bath. In some places, the bark +of athi (Ficus glomerata) and ithi (Ficus Tsiela?) is well beaten and +bruised, and mixed with water. Some milk is added to this mixture, +which is sprinkled both inside and outside the hut. Only after this do +they think that the hut and compound are purified. Among the Cherumas +of Palghat, the pollution lasts for ten days. + +"The ear-boring ceremony is performed during the sixth or seventh +year. The Vallon, who is invited, bores the ears with a sharp +needle. The wound is healed by applying cocoanut oil, and the hole +is gradually widened by inserting cork, a wooden plug, or a roll of +palm leaves. The castemen of the village are invited, and fed. The +landlord gives the parents of the girl three paras of paddy, and this, +together with what the guests bring, goes to defray the expenses +of the ceremony. After the meal they go, with drum-beating, to the +house of the landlord, and present him with a para of beaten rice, +which is distributed among his servants. The ear-borer receives eight +edangazhis of paddy, a cocoanut, a vessel of rice, and four annas. + +"A woman found to be having intercourse with a Paraya is outcasted. She +becomes a convert to Christianity or Mahomedanism. If the irregularity +takes place within the caste, she is well thrashed, and prevented from +resorting to the bad practice. In certain cases, when the illicit +connection becomes public, the castemen meet with their Vallon, and +conduct a regular enquiry into the matter, and pronounce a verdict +upon the evidence. If a young woman becomes pregnant before marriage, +her lover, should he be a Pulaya, is compelled to marry her, as +otherwise she would be placed under a ban. If both are married, the +lover is well thrashed, and fined. The woman is taken before a Thandan +(Izhuva headman), who, after enquiry, gives her the water of a tender +cocoanut, which she is asked to drink, when she is believed to be +freed from the sin. Her husband may take her back again as his wife, +or she is at liberty to marry another. The Thandan gets a few annas, +betel leaves and areca nuts, and tobacco. Both the woman's father and +the lover are fined, and the fine is spent in the purchase of toddy, +which is indulged in by those present at the time. In the northern +parts of the State, there is a custom that a young woman before +marriage mates with one or two paramours with the connivance of her +parents. Eventually one of them marries her, but this illicit union +ceases at once on marriage." + +Of the death ceremonies among the Cherumas of South Malabar, I gather +that "as soon as a Cheruman dies, his jenmi or landlord is apprised +of the fact, and is by ancient custom expected to send a field spade, +a white cloth, and some oil. The drummers of the community are summoned +to beat their drums in announcement of the sad event. This drumming is +known as parayadikka. The body is bathed in oil, and the near relatives +cover it over with white and red cloths, and take it to the front +yard. Then the relatives have a bath, after which the corpse is removed +to the burying ground, where a grave is dug. All those who have come +to the interment touch the body, which is lowered into the grave after +some of the red cloths have been removed. A mound is raised over the +grave, a stone placed at the head, another at the feet, and a third in +the centre. The funeral cortège, composed only of males, then returns +to the house, and each member takes a purificatory bath. The red cloths +are torn into narrow strips, and a strip handed over as a sacred object +to a relative of the deceased. Meanwhile, each relative having on +arrival paid a little money to the house people, toddy is purchased, +and served to the assembly. The mourners in the house have to fast on +the day of the death. Next morning they have a bath, paddy is pounded, +and gruel prepared for the abstainers. An elder of the community, the +Avakasi, prepares a little basket of green palm leaves. He takes this +basket, and hangs it on a tree in the southern part of the compound +(grounds). The gruel is brought out, and placed on a mortar in the +same part of the compound. Spoons are made out of jack (Artocarpus +integrifolia) leaves, and the elder serves out the gruel. Then the +relatives, who have gathered again, make little gifts of money and +rice to the house people. Vegetable curry and rice are prepared, +and served to the visitors. A quaint ceremony called ooroonulka is +next gone through. A measure of rice and a measure of paddy in husk +are mixed, and divided into two shares. Four quarter-anna pieces are +placed on one heap, and eight on the other. The former share is made +over to the house people, and from the latter the Avakasi removes +four of the coins, and presents one to each of the four leading men +present. These four men must belong to the four several points of the +compass. The remaining copper is taken by the elder. From his share +of rice and paddy he gives a little to be parched and pounded. This +is given afterwards to the inmates. The visitors partake of betel and +disperse, being informed that the Polla or post-obituary ceremony +will come off on the thirteenth day. On the forenoon of this day, +the relatives again gather at the mourning place. The inmates of the +house bathe, and fish and rice are brought for a meal. A little of +the fish is roasted over a fire, and each one present just nibbles at +it. This is done to end pollution. After this the fish may be freely +eaten. Half a seer or a measure of rice is boiled, reduced to a pulpy +mass, and mixed with turmeric powder. Parched rice and the powder +that remains after the rice has been pounded, a cocoanut and tender +cocoanut, some turmeric powder, plantain leaves, and the rice that +was boiled and coloured with turmeric, are then taken to the burial +ground by the Avakasi, a singer known as a Kalladi or Moonpatkaren, +and one or two close relatives of the departed. With the pulped rice +the elder moulds the form of a human being. At the head of the grave +a little mound is raised, cabalistic lines are drawn across it with +turmeric, and boiled rice powder and a plantain leaf placed over +the lines. The cocoanut is broken, and its kernel cut out in rings, +each of which is put over the effigy, which is then placed recumbent +on the plantain leaf. Round the mound, strings of jungle leaves are +placed. Next the elder drives a pole into the spot where the chest of +the dead person would be, and it is said that the pole must touch the +chest. On one side of the pole the tender cocoanut is cut and placed, +and on the other a shell containing some toddy. Then a little copper +ring is tied on to the top of the pole, oil from a shell is poured over +the ring, and the water from the tender cocoanut and toddy are in turn +similarly poured. After this mystic rite, the Kalladi starts a mournful +dirge in monotone, and the other actors in the solemn ceremony join +in the chorus. The chant tells of the darkness and the nothingness +that were before the creation of the world, and unfolds a fanciful +tale of how the world came to be created. The chant has the weird +refrain Oh! ho! Oh! ho. On its conclusion, the effigy is left at the +head of the grave, but the Kalladi takes away the pole with him. The +performers bathe and return to the house of mourning, where the Kalladi +gets into a state of afflation. The spirit of the departed enters into +him, and speaks through him, telling the mourners that he is happy, +and does not want them to grieve over much for him. The Kalladi then +enters the house, and, putting a heap of earth in the corner of the +centre room, digs the pole into it. A light is brought and placed +there, as also some toddy, a tender cocoanut, and parched rice. The +spirit of the deceased, speaking again through the Kalladi, thanks +his people for their gifts, and beseeches them to think occasionally +of him, and make him periodical offerings. The assembly then indulge +in a feed. Rice and paddy are mixed together and divided into two +portions, to one of which eight quarter-annas, and to the other twelve +quarter-annas are added. The latter share falls to the Avakasi, while +from the former the mixture and one quarter-anna go to the Kalladi, +and a quarter-anna to each of the nearest relatives. The basket which +had been hung up earlier in the day is taken down and thrown away, +and the jenmi's spade is returned to him." [37] + +It is noted by Mr. Logan that "the Cherumans, like other classes, +observe death pollution. But, as they cannot at certain seasons afford +to be idle for fourteen days consecutively, they resort to an artifice +to obtain this end. They mix cow-dung and paddy, and make it into a +ball, and place the ball in an earthen pot, the mouth of which they +carefully close with clay. The pot is laid in a corner of the hut, and, +as long as it remains unopened, they remain free from pollution, and +can mix among their fellows. On a convenient day they open the pot, +and are instantly seized with pollution, which continues for forty +days. Otherwise fourteen days consecutive pollution is all that is +required. On the forty-first or fifteenth day, as the case may be, +rice is thrown to the ancestors, and a feast follows." + +The following account of the death ceremonies is given by +Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer. "When a Pulayan is dead, the castemen in +the neighbourhood are informed. An offering is made to the Kodungallur +Bhagavati, who is believed by the Pulayas to watch over their welfare, +and is regarded as their ancestral deity. Dead bodies are generally +buried. The relatives, one by one, bring a new piece of cloth, +with rice and paddy tied at its four corners, for throwing over the +corpse. The cloth is placed thereon, and they cry aloud three times, +beating their breasts, after which they retire. A few Parayas are +invited to beat drums, and play on their musical instruments--a +performance which is continued for an hour or two. After this, a few +bits of plantain leaves, with rice flour and paddy, are placed near +the corpse, to serve as food for the spirit of the dead. The bier is +carried to the graveyard by six bearers, three on each side. The pit +is dug, and the body covered with a piece of cloth. After it has been +lowered into it, the pit is filled in with earth. Twenty-one small +bits of leaves are placed over the grave, above the spot where the +mouth of the dead man is, with a double-branched twig fixed to the +centre, a cocoanut is cut open, and its water is allowed to flow in +the direction of the twig which represents the dead man's mouth. Such +of the members of the family as could not give him kanji (rice gruel) +or boiled rice before death, now give it to him. The six coffin-bearers +prostrate themselves before the corpse, three on each side of the +grave. The priest then puts on it a ripe and tender cocoanut for the +spirit of the dead man to eat and drink. Then all go home, and indulge +in toddy and aval (beaten rice). The priest gets twelve measures of +rice, the grave-diggers twelve annas, the Vallon two annas, and the +coffin-bearers each an anna. The son or nephew is the chief mourner, +who erects a mound of earth on the south side of the hut, and uses +it as a place of worship. For seven days, both morning and evening, +he prostrates himself before it, and sprinkles the water of a tender +cocoanut on it. On the eighth day, his relatives, friends, the Vallon, +and the devil-driver assemble together. The devil-driver turns round +and blows his conch, and finds out the position of the ghost, whether +it has taken up its abode in the mound, or is kept under restraint by +some deity. Should the latter be the case, the ceremony of deliverance +has to be performed, after which the spirit is set up as a household +deity. The chief mourner bathes early in the morning, and offers +a rice-ball (pinda bali) to the departed spirit. This he continues +for fifteen days. On the morning of the sixteenth day, the members of +the family bathe to free themselves from pollution, and their enangan +cleans the hut and the compound by sweeping and sprinkling water mixed +with cow-dung. He also sprinkles the members of the family, as they +return after the bath. The chief mourner gets shaved, bathes, and +returns to the hut. Some boiled rice, paddy, and pieces of cocoanut, +are placed on a plantain leaf, and the chief mourner, with the members +of his family, calls on the spirit of the dead to take them. Then +they all bathe, and return home. The castemen, who have assembled +there by invitation, are sumptuously fed. The chief mourner allows +his hair to grow as a sign of mourning (diksha), and, after the expiry +of the year, a similar feast is given to the castemen." + +The Cherumans are said by Mr. Gopal Panikkar to "worship certain +gods, who are represented by rude stone images. What few ceremonies +are in force amongst them are performed by priests selected from +their own ranks, and these priests are held in great veneration +by them. They kill cocks as offerings to these deities, who are +propitiated by the pouring on some stones placed near them of the +fresh blood that gushes from the necks of the birds." The Cherumans +are further said to worship particular sylvan gods, garden deities, +and field goddesses. In a note on cannibalism, [38] the writer states +that "some sixteen years ago a Nair was murdered in Malabar by some +Cherumans. The body was mutilated, and, on my asking the accused (who +freely confessed their crime) why had this been done? they answered +'Tinnal papam tirum, i.e., if one eats, the sin will cease'." It is +a common belief among various castes of Hindus that one may kill, +provided it is done for food, and this is expressed in the proverb +Konnapavam thinnal thirum, or the sin of killing is wiped away by +eating. The Cheruman reply probably referred only to the wreaking of +vengeance, and consequent satisfaction, which is often expressed by +the lower classes in the words pasi thirndadu, or hunger is satisfied. + +Concerning the religion of the Pulayas, Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer writes +as follows. "The Pulayas are animists, but are slowly coming on to +the higher forms of worship. Their gods are Parakutty, Karinkutty, +Chathan, and the spirits of their ancestors. Offerings to these gods +are given on Karkadaka and Makara Sankrantis, Onam, Vishu, and other +auspicious days, when one of the Pulayas present turns Velichapad +(oracle), and speaks to the assembly as if by inspiration. They are +also devout worshippers of Kali or Bhagavati, whose aid is invoked +in all times of danger and illness. They take part in the village +festivals celebrated in honour of her. Kodungallur Bhagavati is their +guardian deity. The deity is represented by an image or stone on a +raised piece of ground in the open air. Their priest is one of their +own castemen, and, at the beginning of the new year, he offers to the +goddess fowls, fruits, and toddy. The Pulayas also believe that spirits +exercise an influence over the members of their families, and therefore +regular offerings are given to them every year on Sankranti days. The +chief festivals in which the Pulayas take part are the following:-- + +1. Pooram Vela.--This, which may be described as the Saturnalia +of Malabar, is an important festival held at the village Bhagavati +temple. It is a festival, in which the members of all castes below +Brahmans take part. It takes place either in Kumbham (February-March), +or Meenam (March-April). The Cherumas of the northern part, as well +as the Pulayas of the southern parts of the State, attend the festival +after a sumptuous meal and toddy drinking, and join the procession. Toy +horses are made, and attached to long bamboo poles, which are carried +to the neighbourhood of the temple. As they go, they leap and dance +to the accompaniment of pipe and drum. One among them who acts as a +Velichapad (devil-dancer) goes in front of them, and, after a good deal +of dancing and loud praying in honour of the deity, they return home. + +2. Vittu Iduka.--This festival consists in putting seeds, or bringing +paddy seeds to the temple of the village Bhagavati. This also is +an important festival, which is celebrated on the day of Bharani, +the second lunar day in Kumbham. Standing at a distance assigned to +them by the village authorities, where they offer prayers to Kali, +they put the paddy grains, which they have brought, on a bamboo mat +spread in front of them, after which they return home. In the Chittur +taluk, there is a festival called Kathiru, celebrated in honour of +the village goddess in the month of Vrischikam (November-December), +when these people start from the farms of their masters, and go in +procession, accompanied with the music of pipe and drum. A special +feature of the Kathiru festival is the presence, at the temple of the +village goddess, of a large number of dome-like structures made of +bamboo and plantain stems, richly ornamented, and hung with flowers, +leaves, and ears of corn. These structures are called sarakootams, and +are fixed on a pair of parallel bamboo poles. These agrestic serfs bear +them in grand processions, starting from their respective farms, with +pipe and drum, shouting and dancing, and with fireworks. Small globular +packets of palmyra leaves, in which are packed handfuls of paddy rolled +up in straw, are also carried by them in huge bunches, along with the +sarakootams. These packets are called kathirkootoos (collection of +ears of corn), and are thrown among the crowd of spectators all along +the route of the procession, and also on arrival at the temple. The +spectators, young and old, scramble to obtain as many of the packets +as possible, and carry them home. They are then hung in front of the +houses, for it is believed that their presence will help in promoting +the prosperity of the family until the festival comes round again next +year. The greater the number of these trophies obtained for a family by +its members, the greater, it is believed, will be the prosperity of the +family. The festival is one of the very few occasions on which Pulayas +and other agrestic serfs, who are supposed to impart, so to speak, +a long distant atmospheric pollution, are freely allowed to enter +villages, and worship in the village temples, which generally occupy +central positions in the villages. Processions carrying sarakootams +and kathirkootoos start from the several farms surrounding the village +early enough to reach the temple about dusk in the evening, when the +scores of processions that have made their way to the temple merge +into one great concourse of people. The sarakootams are arranged in +beautiful rows in front of the village goddess. The Cherumas dance, +sing, and shout to their hearts content. Bengal lights are lighted, +and fireworks exhibited. Kathirkootoos are thrown by dozens and scores +from all sides of the temple. The crowd then disperses. All night, +the Pulayas and other serfs, who have accompanied the procession to +the temple, are, in the majority of cases, fed by their respective +masters at their houses, and then all go back to the farms. + +3. Mandalam Vilakku.--This is a forty-one days' festival in Bhagavati +temples, extending from the first of Vrischikam (November-December) +to the tenth of Dhanu (December-January), during which temples are +brightly illuminated both inside and outside at night. There is much +music and drum-beating at night, and offerings of cooked peas or +Bengal gram, and cakes, are made to the goddess, after which they are +distributed among those present. The forty-first day, on which the +festival terminates, is one of great celebration, when all castemen +attend at the temple. The Cherumas, Malayars, and Eravallars attend +the festival in Chittur. They also attend the Konga Pata festival +there. In rural parts of the State, a kind of puppet show performance +(olapava koothu) is acted by Kusavans (potters) and Tamil Chettis, +in honour of the village deity, to which they contribute their share +of subscription. They also attend the cock festival of Cranganore, +and offer sacrifices of fowls." + +For the following note on the religion of the Pulayas of Travancore, +I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Iyer. "The Pulayas worship +the spirits of deceased ancestors, known as Chavars. The Matan, +and the Anchu Tamprakkal, believed by the better informed section +of the caste to be the five Pandavas, are specially adored. The +Pulayas have no temples, but raise squares in the midst of groves, +where public worship is offered. Each Pulaya places three leaves +near each other, containing raw rice, beaten rice, and the puveri +(flowers) of the areca palm. He places a flower on each of these +leaves, and prays with joined hands. Chavars are the spirits of +infants, who are believed to haunt the earth, harassed by a number of +unsatisfied cravings. This species of supernatural being is held in +mingled respect and terror by Pulayas, and worshipped once a year with +diverse offerings. Another class of deities is called Tevaratumpuran, +meaning gods whom high caste Hindus are in the habit of worshipping +at Parassalay; the Pulayas are given certain special concessions on +festival days. Similar instances may be noted at Ochira, Kumaranallur, +and Nedumangad. At the last mentioned shrine, Mateer writes, [39] +'where two or three thousand people, mostly Sudras and Izhuvas, attend +for the annual festival in March, one-third of the whole are Parayas, +Kuravas, Vedars, Kanikkars, and Pulayas, who come from all parts +around. They bring with them wooden models of cows, neatly hung over, +and covered, in imitation of shaggy hair, with ears of rice. Many +of these images are brought, each in a separate procession from its +own place. The headmen are finely dressed with cloths stained purple +at the edge. The image is borne on a bamboo frame, accompanied by a +drum, and men and women in procession, the latter wearing quantities +of beads, such as several strings of red, then several of white, +or strings of beads, and then a row of brass ornaments like rupees, +and all uttering the Kurava cry. These images are carried round the +temple, and all amuse themselves for the day.' By far the most curious +of the religious festivals of the Pulayas is what is known as the Pula +Saturday in Makaram (January-February) at Sastamkotta in the Kunnattur +taluk. It is an old observance, and is most religiously gone through +by the Pulayas every year. The Valluvan, or caste priest, leads the +assembled group to the vicinity of the banyan tree in front of the +temple, and offerings of a diverse nature, such as paddy, roots, +plantain fruits, game, pulse, coins, and golden threads are most +devoutly made. Pulayas assemble for this ceremony from comparatively +distant places. A deity, who is believed to be the most important +object of worship among the Pulayas, is Utaya Tampuran, by which name +they designate the rising sun. Exorcism and spirit-dancing are deeply +believed in, and credited with great remedial virtues. The Kokkara, +or iron rattle, is an instrument that is freely used to drive out evil +spirits. The Valluvan who offers animal sacrifices becomes immediately +afterwards possessed, and any enquiries may be put to him without it +being at all difficult for him to furnish a ready answer. In North +Travancore, the Pulayas have certain consecrated buildings of their +own, such as Kamancheri, Omkara Bhagavathi, Yakshi Ampalam, Pey Koil, +and Valiyapattu Muttan, wherein the Valluvan performs the functions +of priesthood. The Pulayas believe in omens. To see another Pulaya, +to encounter a Native Christian, to see an Izhuva with a vessel in +the hand, a cow behind, a boat containing rice or paddy sacks, etc., +are regarded as good omens. On the other hand, to be crossed by a cat, +to see a fight between animals, to be encountered by a person with a +bundle of clothes, to meet people carrying steel instruments, etc., +are looked upon as very bad omens. The lizard is not believed to be +a prophet, as it is by members of the higher castes." + +Concerning the caste government of the Pulayas of Travancore, +Mr. Subramania Iyer writes as follows. "The Ayikkara Yajamanan, +or Ayikkara Tamara (king) is the head of the Pulaya community. He +lives at Vayalar in the Shertalley taluk in North Travancore, and +takes natural pride in a lace cap, said to have been presented to one +of his ancestors by the great Cheraman Perumal. Even the Parayas of +North Travancore look upon him as their legitimate lord. Under the +Tamara are two nominal headmen, known as Tatteri Achchan and Mannat +Koil Vallon. It is the Ayikkara Tamara who appoints the Valluvans, or +local priests, for every kara, for which they are obliged to remunerate +him with a present of 336 chuckrams. The Pulayas still keep accounts in +the earliest Travancorean coins (chuckrams). The Valluvan always takes +care to obtain a written authority from the Tamara, before he begins +his functions. For every marriage, a sum of 49 chuckrams and four +mulikkas [40] have to be given to the Tamara, and eight chuckrams and +one mulikka to the Valluvan. The Valluvan receives the Tamara's dues, +and sends them to Vayalar once or twice a year. Beyond the power of +appointing Valluvans and other office-bearers, the authority of the +Tamara extends but little. The Valluvans appointed by him prefer to +call themselves Head Valluvans, as opposed to the dignitaries appointed +in ancient times by temple authorities and other Brahmans, and have a +general supervising power over the Pulayas of the territory that falls +under their jurisdiction. Every Valluvan possesses five privileges, +viz., (1) the long umbrella, or an umbrella with a long bamboo +handle; (2) the five-coloured umbrella; (3) the bracelet of honour; +(4) a long gold ear-ring; (5) a box for keeping betel leaves. They +are also permitted to sit on stools, to make use of carpets, and to +employ kettle-drums at marriage ceremonials. The staff of the Valluvan +consists of (1) the Kuruppan or accountant, who assists the Valluvan +in the discharge of his duties; (2) the Komarattan or exorciser; (3) +the Kaikkaran or village representative; (4) the Vatikkaran, constable +or sergeant. The Kuruppan has diverse functions to perform, such as +holding umbrellas, and cutting cocoanuts from trees, on ceremonial +occasions. The Vatikkaran is of special importance at the bath that +succeeds a Pulaya girl's first menses. Adultery is looked upon as the +most heinous of offences, and used to be met with condign punishment +in times of old. The woman was required to thrust her hand into a +vessel of boiling oil, and the man was compelled to pay a fine of +336 or 64 chuckrams, according as the woman with whom he connected +himself was married or not, and was cast out of society after a most +cruel rite called Ariyum Pirayum Tittukka, the precise nature of which +does not appear to be known. A married woman is tried by the Valluvan +and other officers, when she shows disobedience to her husband." + +It is noted by Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer, that, "in the Palghat +taluk of South Malabar, it is said that the Cherumas in former times +used to hold grand meetings for cases of theft, adultery, divorce, +etc., at Kannati Kutti Vattal. These assemblies consisted of the +members of their caste in localities between Valayar forests and +Karimpuzha (in Valluvanad taluk), and in those between the northern +and southern hills. It is also said that their deliberations used to +last for several days together. In the event of anybody committing a +crime, the punishment inflicted on him was a fine of a few rupees, +or sometimes a sound thrashing. To prove his innocence, a man had +to swear 'By Kannati Swarupam (assembly) I have not done it.' It was +held so sacred that no Cheruman who had committed a crime would swear +falsely by this assembly. As time went on, they found it difficult +to meet, and so left off assembling together." + +In connection with the amusements of the Pulayas, Mr. Anantha Krishna +Iyer writes that "their games appear to be connected in some way with +their religious observances. Their favourite dance is the kole kali, +or club dance. A party of ten or twelve men, provided with sticks, +each a yard in length, stand in a circle, and move round, striking +at the sticks, keeping time with their feet, and singing at the same +time. The circle is alternately widened and narrowed. Vatta kali +is another wild dance. This also requires a party of ten or twelve +men, and sometimes young women join them. The party move in a circle, +clapping their hands while they sing a kind of rude song. In thattinmel +kali, four wooden poles are firmly stuck in the ground, two of which +are connected by two horizontal pieces of wood, over which planks are +arranged. A party of Pulayas dance on the top of this, to the music +of their pipe and drum. This is generally erected in front of the +Bhagavati temple, and the dancing takes place immediately after the +harvest. This is intended to propitiate the goddess. Women perform +a circular dance on the occasions of marriage celebrations." + +The Cherumas and Pulayas are, like the Koragas of South Canara, short +of stature, and dark-skinned. The most important measurements of the +Cherumans whom I investigated at Calicut were as follows:-- + + + ======================================================== + | Stature, cm. | Nasal index. |Cephalic index. + +--------------+---------------+--------------- + | Average. | Average. | Average. + ---------+--------------+---------------+--------------- + Males | 157.5 | 78.1 | 73.9 + Females | 147.8 | 77. | 74.8 + ======================================================== + + +Cheruppu-katti (shoemaker).--Said to be a Malayalam synonym for Madiga. + +Chetti.--It is noted in the Census Report, 1891, that "the name Chetti +is used both to denote a distinct caste, and also a title, and people +bearing this title describe themselves loosely as belonging to the +Chetti caste, in the same way as a Vellala will say that he is a +Mudali. This use of Chetti has caused some confusion in the returns, +for the sub-divisions show that many other castes have been included +as well as Chetti proper." Again, in the Census Report, 1901, it +is recorded that "Chetti means trader, and is one of those titular +or occupational terms, which are often loosely employed as caste +names. The weavers, oil pressers, and others use it as a title, and +many more tack it on to their names, to denote that trade is their +occupation. Strictly employed, it is nevertheless, the name of a +true caste." The Chettis are so numerous, and so widely distributed, +that their many sub-divisions differ very greatly in their ways. The +best known of them are the Beri Chettis, the Nagarattu Chettis, the +Kasukkar Chettis, and the Nattukottai Chettis. Of these, the Beri and +Nattukottai Chettis are dealt with in special articles. The following +divisions of Chettis, inhabiting the Madura district, are recorded +in my notes:-- + + + (a) Men with head clean-shaved:-- + + Ilavagai or Karnakudi. + Sundaraththan. + Ariyur. + Malampatti. + Palayapattu. + Thedakottai. + Periyakottai-vellan. + Puliyangudi. + Vallam or Tiruvappur. + Kurungalur. + + (b) Men with kudumi (hair knot):-- + + Puvaththukudi or Mannagudi. + Kiramangalam. + Vallanattu. + Marayakkara. + Pandukudi or Manjapaththu. + + +Of these, the Puvaththukudi Chettis, who receive their name from a +village in the Tanjore district, are mostly itinerant petty traders +and money-lenders, who travel about the country. They carry on their +shoulders a bag containing their personal effects, except when they +are cooking and sleeping. I am informed that the Puvaththukudi women +engage women, presumably with a flow of appropriate language ready +for the occasion, to abuse those with whom they have a quarrel. Among +the Puvaththukudi Chettis, marriages are, for reasons of economy, +only celebrated at intervals of many years. Concerning this custom, +a member of the community writes to me as follows. "In our village, +marriages are performed only once in ten or fifteen years. My own +marriage was celebrated in the year Nandana (1892-93). Then seventy +or eighty marriages took place. Since that time, marriages have only +taken place in the present year (1906). The god at Avadaiyar kovil +(temple) is our caste god. For marriages, we must receive from +that temple garlands, sandal, and palanquins. We pay to the temple +thirty-five rupees for every bridegroom through our Nagaraththar +(village headmen). The expenses incurred in connection with the +employment of washermen, barbers, nagasaram (musical instrument) +players, talayaris (watchmen), carpenters, potters, blacksmiths, +gurukkals (priests), and garland-makers, are borne collectively and +shared by the families in which marriages are to take place." Another +Chetti writes that this system of clubbing marriages together is +practised at the villages of Puvaththukudi and Mannagudi, and that +the marriages of all girls of about seven years of age and upwards are +celebrated. The marriages are performed in batches, and the marriage +season lasts over several months. + +Palayasengadam in the Trichinopoly district is the head-quarters of a +section of the Chettis called the Pannirendam (twelfth) Chettis. "These +are supposed to be descended from eleven youths who escaped long +ago from Kaveripatnam, a ruined city in Tanjore. A Chola king, says +the legend, wanted to marry a Chetti; whereupon the caste set fire +to the town, and only these eleven boys escaped. They rested on the +Ratnagiri hill to divide their property; but however they arranged it, +it always divided itself into twelve shares instead of eleven. The +god of Ratnagiri then appeared, and asked them to give him one share +in exchange for a part of his car. They did so, and they now call +themselves the twelfth Chettis from the number of the shares, and at +their marriages they carry the bridegroom round in a car. They are +said to be common in Coimbatore district." [41] + +At the census, 1871, some of the less fortunate traders returned +themselves as "bankrupt Chettis." + +The following castes and tribes are recorded as having assumed the +title Chetti, or its equivalent Setti:-- + + + Balija. Telugu trading caste. + Bant. Tulu cultivating caste. + Bilimagga, Devanga, Patnulkaran, Saliyan, Sedan, Seniyan. All + weaving classes. + Dhobi. Oriya washermen. + Ganiga. Oil pressers. + Gamalla. Telugu toddy-drawers. + Gauda. Canarese cultivators. + Gudigar. Canarese wood-carvers. + Jain. + Janappan. Said to have been originally a section of the Balijas, + and manufacturers of gunny-bags. + Kavarai. Tamil equivalent of Balija. + Komati. Telugu traders. + Koracha. A nomad tribe. + Kudumi. A Travancore caste, which does service in the houses of + Konkani Brahmans. + Mandadan Chetti. + Medara. Telugu cane splitters and mat makers. + Nayar. Occupational title of some Nayars of Malabar. + Pattanavan. Tamil fishermen. + Pattapu. Fishermen in the Telugu country. + Senaikkudaiyan. Tamil betel-vine growers and traders. + Shanan. The great toddy-drawing class of the Tamil country. + Sonar. Goldsmiths. + Toreya. Canarese fishermen. + Uppiliyan. Salt-workers. Some style themselves Karpura (camphor) + Chetti, because they used to manufacture camphor. + Vaniyan. Tamil oil-pressers. + Wynaadan Chetti. + + +Of proverbs relating to Chettis, [42] the following may be quoted:-- + + + He who thinks before he acts is a Chetti, but he who acts without + thinking is a fool. + + When the Chetti dies, his affairs will become public. + + She keeps house like a merchant caste woman, i.e., economically. + + Though ruined, a Chetti is a Chetti, and, though torn, silk is + still silk. + + The Chetti reduced the amount of advance, and the weaver the + quantity of silk in the border of the cloth. + + From his birth a Chetti is at enmity with agriculture. + + +In a note on secret trade languages Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao writes +as follows. [43] "The most interesting of these, perhaps, is that +spoken by petty shopkeepers and cloth merchants of Madras, who +are mostly Moodellys and Chettis by caste. Their business mostly +consists in ready-money transactions, and so we find that they have +a regular table of numerals. Numbers one to ten have been given +definite names, and they have been so long in use that most of them +do not understand the meaning of the terms they use. Thus madi (mind) +stands for one, mind being always represented in the Hindu shastras +as a single thing. Vene (act or deed) stands for two, for vene is +of two kinds only, nalvene and thivene or good and bad acts. Konam +(quality) stands for three, since three different sorts of qualities +are recognised in Hindu metaphysics. These are rajasam, thamasam, +and sathmikam. Shuruthi stands for four, for the Srutis or Vedas are +four in numbers. Sara (arrow) stands for five, after Panchasara, the +five-arrowed, a well-known name of Manmatha, the Indian Cupid. Matha +represents six, after the shan mathams or six systems of Hindu +philosophy. There stands for seven, after the seven oceans recognised +by the Sanskrit geographers. Giri (mountain) represents eight, since +it stands for ashtagiri or the eight mountains of the Hindus. Mani +stands for nine, after navamani, the nine different sorts of precious +stones recognised by the Hindus. Thisai represents ten, from the +ten points of the compass. The common name for rupee is velle or the +white thing. Thangam velle stands for half a rupee, pinji velle for +a quarter of a rupee, and pu velle for an eighth of a rupee. A fanam +(or 1-1/4 annas) is known as shulai. The principal objects with which +those who use this language have to deal with are padi or measure, +velle or rupee, and madi ana, one anna, so that madi padi means one +measure, madi velle one rupee, and madi ana one anna. Similarly with +the rest of the numerals. The merchants of Trichinopoly have nearly +the same table of numerals, but the names for the fractions of a rupee +vary considerably. Mundri ana is, with them, one anna; e ana is two +annas; pu ana is four annas; pani ana is eight annas and muna ana +is twelve annas. Among them also velle stands for a rupee. They have +besides another table of numerals in use, which is curious as being +formed by certain letters of the Tamil alphabet. Thus pina stands +for one, lana for two, laina for three, yana for four, lina for +five, mana for six, vana for seven, nana for eight, thina for nine, +and thuna for ten. These letters have been strung into the mnemonic +phrase Pillayalam Vanthathu, which literally means 'the children have +come'. This table is also used in connection with measures, rupees, +and annas. Dealers in coarse country-made cloths all over Madras +and the Chingleput district have a table of their own. It is a very +complete one from one pie to a thousand rupees. Occasionally Hindu +merchants are found using a secret language based on Hindustani. This +is the case in one part of Madras city. With them pav khane stands +for one anna, ada khane for two annas, pavak ruppe for one rupee, +and so on. Brokers have terms of their own. The Tamil phrase padiya +par, when used by them, means ask less or say less, according as +it is addressed to the purchaser or seller. Similarly, mudukka par +means ask a higher price. When a broker says Sivan thambram, it is to +be inferred that the price given out by the seller includes his own +brokerage. Telugu brokers have similar terms. Among them, the phrase +Malasu vakkadu and Nasi vakkadu denote respectively increase the rate, +and decrease the rate stated." + +Chevvula (ears).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Golla. + +Cheyyakkaran.--A Malayalam form of the Canarese Servegara. + +Chikala (broom).--An exogamous sept of Tottiyan. + +Chikka (small).--A sub-division of Kurni. + +Chikkudu (Dolichos Lablab).--An exogamous sept of Muka Dora. + +Chilakala (paroquet).--An exogamous sept of Boya, Kapu and Yanadi. + +Chilla (Strychnos potatorum: clearing-nut tree).--An exogamous sept +of Kuruba, and sub-division of Tottiyan. + +Chimala (ant).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Tsakala. + +Chimpiga (tailor).--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as +a Lingayat sub-caste of Rangari. In the Mysore Census Report, 1901, +Darjis are classified as follows:--"(1) Darji, Chippiga, or Namdev; +(2) Rangare." The first three, known by the collective name of Darji, +are professional tailors, while the Rangares are also dyers and +calico printers. + +Chimpiri (rags).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Chinerigadu.--A class of mendicants connected with the Padma +Sales. (See Devanga.) + +Chinda.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small +caste of Oriya cultivators in Ganjam and Vizagapatam. + +Chinese-Tamil Cross.--Halting in the course of an anthropological +expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, I came across +a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some time on +the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur and developed, +as the result of alliances with Tamil Pariah women, into a colony, +earning a modest livelihood by cultivating vegetables and coffee. + +The original Chinese who arrived on the Nilgiris were convicts from the +Straits Settlement, where there was no sufficient prison accommodation, +who were confined in the Nilgiri jail. It is recorded [44] that, in +1868, twelve of the Chinamen "broke out during a very stormy night, +and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for +them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight later. Some +police weapons were found in their possession, and one of the parties +of police had disappeared--an ominous circumstance. Search was made +all over the country for the party, and at length their four bodies +were found lying in the jungle at Walaghat, half way down the Sispara +ghat path, neatly laid out in a row with their severed heads carefully +placed on their shoulders." + +The measurements of a single family are recorded in the following +table:-- + + +======================================================================== + | |Cephalic|Cephalic|Cephalic| Nasal | Nasal |Nasal + | |length. |breadth.| index. |height.|breadth.|index. +---------+----------+--------+--------+--------+-------+--------+------- +Tamil |Mother of | 18.1 | 13.9 | 76.8 | 4.7 | 3.7 | 78.7 +Paraiyan.|children. | | | | | | +---------+----------+--------+--------+--------+-------+--------+------- +Chinese |Father of | 18.6 | 14.6 | 78.5 | 5.3 | 3.8 | 71.7 + |children. | | | | | | +---------+----------+--------+--------+--------+-------+--------+------- +Chinese- |Girl, | 17.6 | 14.1 | 80.1 | 4.7 | 3.2 | 68.1 + Tamil |aged 18 | | | | | | +---------+----------+--------+--------+--------+-------+--------+------- +Chinese- |Boy, | 18.1 | 14.3 | 79 | 4.6 | 3.3 | 71.7 +Tamil |aged 10 | | | | | | +---------+----------+--------+--------+--------+-------+--------+------- +Chinese- |Boy, | 17 | 14 | 82.4 | 4.4 | 3.3 | 72.7 +Tamil |aged 9 | | | | | | +---------+----------+--------+--------+--------+-------+--------+------- +Chinese- |Boy, | 17.1 | 13.7 | 80.1 | 4.1 | 2.8 | 68.3 +Tamil |aged 5 | | | | | | +=========+==========+========+========+========+=======+========+======= + + +The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, +in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged +to "cut him tail off." The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil +Paraiyan. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the +yellowish tint of the father than to that of the mother; and the +semi-Mongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose and +(in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones. + +To have recorded the entire series of measurements of the children +would have been useless for the purpose of comparison with those of +the parents, and I selected from my repertoire the length and breadth +of the head and nose, which plainly indicate the paternal influence +on the external anatomy of the offspring. The figures given in the +table bring out very clearly the great breadth, as compared with +the length, of the heads of all the children, and the resultant high +cephalic index. In other words, in one case a mesaticephalic (79), +and, in the remaining three cases, a sub-brachycephalic head (80.1; +80.1; 82.4) has resulted from the union of a mesaticephalic Chinaman +(78.5) with a sub-dolichocephalic Tamil Paraiyan (76.8). How great is +the breadth of the head in the children may be emphasised by noting +that the average head-breadth of the adult Tamil Paraiyan man is only +13.7 cm., whereas that of the three boys, aged ten, nine, and five +only, was 14.3, 14, and 13.7 cm. respectively. + +Quite as strongly marked is the effect of paternal influence on the +character of the nose; the nasal index, in the case of each child +(68.1; 71.772; 7; 68.3), bearing a much closer relation to that of +the long-nosed father (71.7) than to the typical Paraiyan nasal index +of the broad-nosed mother (78.7). + +It will be interesting to note hereafter what is the future of the +younger members of this quaint little colony, and to observe the +physical characters, temperament, fecundity, and other points relating +to the cross breed resulting from the blend of Chinese and Tamil. + +Chinna (little).--A sub-division of Boya, Kunnuvan, Konda Dora, +Pattanavan, and Pattapu, and an exogamous sept of Mala. Chinna, +chinnam, and chinnada, denoting gold, occur as exogamous septs of +Kuruba, Padma Sale, Toreya, and Vakkaliga. + +Chintala (tamarind: Tamarindus Indica).--An exogamous sept of Ghasi, +Golla, Madiga, and Mala. Chintyakula, or tamarind sept, occurs among +the Komatis; chintaginjala (tamarind seeds) as an exogamous sept of +Padma Sales, and of Panta Reddis, who may not touch or use the seeds; +and Chintakai or Chintakayala (tamarind fruit) as an exogamous sept +of Boyas and Devangas. + +Chirla (woman's cloth).--An exogamous sept of Kamma. + +Chitikan.--A synonym of Maran, indicating one whose occupation relates +to the funeral pyre. A Chitikan, for example, performs the funeral +rites for the Mussads. + +Chiti Karnam.--A name of the Oriya Karnam caste. A vulgar form of +Sresta Karnam (Sreshto Korono). + +Chitra Ghasi.--The Chitra Ghasis, for the following note on whom I +am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, are a class of artisans, whose +name, meaning Ghasis who make artistic things, bears reference to +their occupation. They are employed in the manufacture of brass and +bell-metal jewelry, such as is largely worn by the tribes inhabiting +the Jeypore Agency tracts, and are generally found attached to Kond +and Savara villages. They are a polluting class, and their dwellings +are consequently situated at some distance from the huts of the +villagers. Their language is a corrupt form of Oriya. + +Girls are usually married after puberty. A man can claim his paternal +aunt's daughter in marriage. When such a marriage is contemplated, +his parents take a little rice and a pot of liquor to the home of +the paternal aunt. If they are accepted, it is taken as a sign +that the match is agreed to, and the jholla tonka (bride-price) +of twelve rupees is paid. After some time has elapsed, the bride is +conducted to the home of her future husband, and the marriage is there +celebrated. A younger brother may marry the widow of an elder brother, +and, if such a woman contracts a marriage with some other man, her +second husband has to give a cow to the younger brother who has been +passed over. The dead are burnt, and death pollution is observed +for three days, during which the caste occupation is not carried +on. On the third day, the ashes are collected together, and a fowl +is killed. The ashes are then buried, or thrown into running water. + +Chitrakara or Chitrakaro.--The Chitrakaros of Ganjam, who are a class +of Oriya painters (chitra, painting), are returned in the Census +Report, 1901, as a sub-caste of Muchi. In the Mysore Census Report, +1891, the Chitragaras are said to be "also called Bannagara of the +Rachevar (or Raju) caste. They are painters, decorators and gilders, +and make trunks, palanquins, 'lacquer' toys and wooden images for +temples, cars, etc." At Channapatna in Mysore, I interviewed a Telugu +Chitrakara, who was making toys out of the white wood of Wrightia +tinctoria. The wood was turned on a primitive lathe, consisting of +two steel spikes fixed into two logs of wood on the ground. Seated on +the floor in front of his lathe, the artisan chucked the wood between +the spikes, and rotated it by means of a bow held in the right hand, +whereof the string was passed round the wood. The chisel was held +between the sole of the right foot and palm of the left hand. Colours +and varnish were applied to the rotating toy with sticks of paint like +sealing-wax, and strips of palm leaf smeared with varnish. In addition +to the turned toys, models of fruits were made from mud and sawdust, +cane cradles made by Medaras were painted and idols manufactured +for the Holi festival at Bangalore, and the figure of Sidi Viranna +for the local pseudo-hook-swinging ceremony. The Chitrakaras, whom +I saw at Tumkur, had given up making toys, as it did not pay. They +manufacture big wooden idols (grama devata), e.g., Ellamma and +Mariamma, and vehicles for various deities in the shape of bulls, +snakes, peacocks, lions, tigers, and horses. They further make painted +figures of Lakshmi, and heads of Gauri, the wife of Siva, decorated +with gold-leaf jewels, which are worshipped by Brahmans, Vakkaligas, +Komatis, and others at the annual Gauri puja; and mandahasa (god +houses) with pillars carved with figures of Narasimha and conventional +designs. These mandahasas serve as a receptacle for the household gods +(salagrama stone, lingam, etc.), which are worshipped daily by Smarta +and Madhva Brahmans. These Chitrakaras claimed to be Suryavamsam, +or of the lunar race of Kshatriyas, and wear the sacred thread. + +Chitravaliar.--A synonym of Alavan. + +Chogan.--See Izhava. + +Cholapuram or Sholavaram.--A sub-division of Chetti. + +Choliya Pattar.--A name for Pattar Brahmans in Malabar. + +Chondi.--See Sondi. + +Choutagara.--A corrupt form of Chaptegara. + +Chovatton.--Priests of Muttans and Tarakans. + +Chuditiya.--See Kevuto. + +Chunam (lime).--A sub-division of Toreyas, who are manufacturers of +lime. Chunam, made from calcined shells, limestone, etc., is largely +used for building purposes, and the chunam plaster of Madras has been +long celebrated for its marble-like polish. Chunam is also chewed +with betel. + +Chuvano.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small +Oriya cultivating caste, supposed to be of Kshatriya parentage. + + + + + + + +D + + +Daindla.--The name, denoting those who hid or ran away, of a +sub-division of Mala. + +Daivampati.--Recorded in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +caste included among Ambalavasis, and a sub-division of Nayar. + +Dakkala.--Dakkala or Dakkali is the name of a class of mendicants who +beg from Madigas only. In the Kurnool district they are said to have +divided the district with the Mushtis, and not to beg except within +their own limits. + +The following story is told as regards the origin of the Dakkalas. A +smith was asked to make a bottu (marriage badge) for Siva's wedding, +and for this purpose required bellows, fire-pot, hammer, etc. Jambuvadu +called his eldest son, and prepared the various implements from sundry +parts of the body, except the backbone. Being highly pleased at this, +the gods endowed the backbone with life, and the son went to his father +Jambuvadu, who failed to recognise him, and refused to admit him. He +was told that he must live as a beggar attached to the Madigas, and +was called Dakkala because he was brought to life from a vertebral +column (dakka). + +The Dakkalas wander from place to place. They may not enter Madiga +houses, outside which meals are given to them by males only, as +females are not allowed to serve them. Madiga women may not tread on +the footsteps of the Dakkalas. + +Dakku (fear).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Dakni.--Dakni or Deccani is defined in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as "a territorial name meaning a Musalman of the Deccan; +also a name loosely applied to converts to Islam." In the Tanjore +district, Muhammadans who speak Hindustani, and claim pure Muhammadan +descent, are spoken of as Daknis or Dakanis. In other Tamil districts +they are called Patanigal, to distinguish them from Labbais and +Marakkayars. The Daknis follow the Muhammadan ritual except in +their marriages, which afford an example of a blend between Hindu and +Muhammadan ceremonials. Like Hindus, they erect, at times of marriage, +a milk-post of bamboo, to which are tied a two-anna piece, and a bit +of sugar-candy done up in a Turkey red cloth. The post is handed to +the headman, who decorates it with a garland of flowers and a roll of +betel, and places it in a hole made in the court-yard of the house, +wherein milk has been sprinkled. On the following day, two big pots +are placed near the milk-post, and filled with water by four married +couples. Around the pots, nine kinds of seed grains are sprinkled. On +the third day, the bridegroom's party proceeds to the house of the +bride with thirteen trays of betel, fruits, flowers, sandal paste, +and a paste made of turmeric and henna (Lawsonia alba) leaves. The +bride is decorated, and sits on a plank. Women smear the face and +hands of the bridal couple with the pastes, and one of them, or the +bridegroom's sister, ties a string of black beads round the bride's +neck. While this is being done, no one should sneeze. Wrist threads +(kankanam) are tied on the wrists of the bride and bridegroom. On +the fourth day, the nikka rite is celebrated, and the newly-married +couple sit together while the nalagu ceremony of smearing them with +sandal, and waving coloured water (arati), is performed. The two pots +containing water are kept for forty days, and then examined. If the +water remains sweet, and does not "teem with vermin," it is regarded as +a good omen. The seed grains, too, should by this time have developed +into healthy seedlings. + +Dammula.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small class +of Telugu beggars, and priests in the temples of village goddesses. + +Dandasi.--The Dandasis are summed up in the Ganjam Manual as being +village watchmen, many of whom are great thieves. "It is curious," +Mr. S. P. Rice writes, [45] "to find that the word Naiko [meaning +leader or chief], which is corrupted into the Telugu Naidu, is +the caste distinction of the lowest class, the village watcher +and professional thief. This man, for all that his cognomen is so +lofty, goes by the generic name of Dandasi. This word means worthy +of punishment, and assuredly no appellation ever fitted its owner +more completely than does this. He is the village policeman and the +village thief, a curious mixture of callings." According to other +versions, the name is derived from danda, a stick, and asi, sword, +from dandabadi, a stout bamboo stick, or from dandapasi, stick and +rope, in reference to the insignia of the Dandasi's office. + +A large number of criminals, undergoing punishment in Ganjam for +robbery and thieving, are Dandasis. The members of the caste, +like the Tamil Kallans, believe that thieving is their traditional +occupation, and, as such, regard it as justifiable. There is a legend +that they adopted this occupation as their profession because their +ancestors assisted the Pandavas to escape from the lac fort which was +constructed by the Kurus with a view to killing them, by digging a +secret subterranean passage. According to another story, the Dandasis +are descended from the offspring of a clandestine amour of Krishna +with Dhuuthika, Radha's handmaid. The Dandasis perform an interesting +ceremony of initiation into the profession of thieving, when a child +is born. When it is three or five days old, the headman (Behara) is +invited to attend. A breach is made in the wall, or beneath the door +sill. Through this the infant is passed by the Behara three times, and +received by some members of the family. Each time the Behara repeats +the words "Enter, baby enter. May you excel your father!" The Dandasis, +when questioned concerning this custom, denied its existence, but some +admitted that it was carried out in former days. An old woman stated +that her grandchild was passed through a breach beneath the door, +but was not inclined to enter into details. + +A number of exogamous septs occur among the Dandasis, of which the +following may be noted. Members of the Santarasi sept must avoid using +mats made of the sedge which goes by this name. Kilalendias avoid +touching the bamboo posts used by washermen to support the ropes on +which cloths are hung to dry. They sacrifice a pig and seven fowls to +their gods on the new-moon day, on which the head of a male child is +first shaved. Diyasis show special reverence for the sun, and cloths, +mokkutos (forehead chaplets), garlands, and other articles to be used +by the bride and bridegroom at a wedding, are placed outside the house, +so that they may be exposed to it. Members of the Ekopothiriya sept +are regarded as low in the social scale, and the following legend +is narrated to account for this. A Dandasi went, with his relations +and friends, to the house of a Dandasi of the Ekopothiriya sept, +to arrange a marriage. The guests were hospitably received, and the +prospective bride asked her father what kind of curry was going to +be served to them. He replied that barikolora (backyard Momordica) +[46] was to be cooked. This aroused the curiosity of some of the +guests, who went to the backyard, where, instead of Momordica, they +saw several blood-suckers (lizards) running about. They jumped to the +conclusion that these were what the host referred to as barikolora, +and all the guests took their departure. Ekopothiriyas will not +partake of food from the same plate as their grown-up children, +even if a married daughter comes on a visit to them. + +The Dandasis worship various Takuranis (village deities), e.g., +Sankaithuni, Kulladankuni, Kombesari and Kalimuki. The gods are +either represented temporarily by brass vessels, or permanently +by three masses of clay, into each of which a small bit of gold is +thrust. When Bassia (mahua) buds or mangoes are first eaten in their +season, a sacrifice is made, and a goat and fowl are killed before +the produce of the harvest is first partaken of. + +The Dandasis have a headman, called Behara, who exercises authority +over several groups of villages, and each group is under a Nayako, +who is assisted by a Dondia. For every village there is a Bholloboya, +and, in some places, there is an officer, called Boda Mundi, appointed +by the Zamindar, to whom irregularities in the community have to be +reported. When a woman is delivered of a still-born child, the whole +family is under pollution for eleven days. The headman is then invited +to attend, and presents are given to him. He sprinkles water over +members of the family, and they are thereby freed from this pollution. + +A certain portion of the property stolen by Dandasis is set apart for +the headman, and, like the Tamil Kallans and Maravans, they seem to +have a blackmailing system. If a Dandasi is engaged as a watchman, +property is safe, or, if stolen, is recovered and restored to its +owner. + +Girls are married after puberty. A man may marry his maternal uncle's, +but not his paternal aunt's daughter. The marriage ceremonies +usually last three days, but are sometimes spread over seven days, +in imitation of the higher castes. On the day (gondo sono) before +the wedding day, seven new pots are brought from a potter's house, +and placed in a room. Seven women throw Zizyphus jujuba leaves over +them, and they are filled with water at a tank (pond). One of the pots +must be carried by the sister-in-law of the bridegroom. A brass vessel +is tied up, and worshipped. Towards evening, a fowl is sacrificed at +an 'ant' hill. The bridegroom is shaved on this day by his sister's +husband. Like other Oriya castes, the Dandasis collect water at seven +houses, but only from those of members of castes higher than their +own. The pot containing this water is hung up over the marriage dais +(bedi). On the wedding (bibha) day, the bridegroom sits on the dais, +with the bride, seated in her maternal uncle's lap or at his side, in +front of him. The headman, or some respected elder of the community, +places a betel nut cutter, on, or with some rice and betel nut between +the united hands of the contracting couple, and ties them together +with seven turns of a turmeric-dyed thread. He then announces that +... the granddaughter of ... and daughter of ... is united to ... the +grandson of ... and son of ... The parents of the bride and bridegroom +pour turmeric-water from a chank (Turbinella rapa) shell or leaf over +their united hands. The nut-cutter is removed by the bride's brother, +and, after striking the bridegroom, he goes away. The couple then play +with cowry (Cypræ arabica) shells, and, while they are so engaged, +the ends of their cloths are tied together, and the rice which is in +their hands is tied in a knot. When the play is finished, this knot +is untied, and the rice is measured in a small earthen pot, first on +behalf of the bride, and is pronounced to be all right. It is then +again measured, and said to have diminished in quantity. This gives +rise to jokes at the expense of the bridegroom, who is called a thief, +and other hard names. Those who imitate the ceremonial of the higher +castes make the bridegroom go away in feigned anger, after he has +broken the pot which is hanging over the dais. He is brought back by +his brother-in-law. + +On the occasion of the first menstrual period, a girl is under +pollution for seven days. If she is engaged to be married, her future +father-in-law makes her a present of jewels and money on the seventh +day, and thereby confirms the marriage contract. + +The dead are cremated. A widow accompanies the corpse of her husband +to the boundary of the village, carrying a ladle and pot, which she +throws down at the boundary, and returns home. On the day after the +funeral, the embers are extinguished, and an effigy of the deceased is +made on the spot where he was cremated, and food offered to it. Toddy +is distributed among those who have assembled at the house. On the +tenth day, food is offered on ten fragments of pots. On the eleventh +day, if the dead man was an important personage in the community, a +ceremony, corresponding to the jola jola handi of the higher castes, +is performed. A cloth is spread on the ground, on the spot where the +corpse was cremated, and the ground round it swept by women, whose +backs are turned towards the cloth, so that they cannot see it. Two +men, with swords or big knives, sit by the side of the cloth and +wait till an insect settles on the cloth. They then at once put the +swords or knives on the cloth, and, folding it up, place it on a new +winnowing-basket. It is taken home, placed on the floor, and connected +by means of a long thread with the household god (mass of clay or +vessel). It is then shaken near the god, so that the insect falls out. + +Dandasi further occurs as a sub-division of the Kondras, the members +of which have taken to the profession of village watchmen. + +Dandi (a staff).--A house name of Korava. + +Dandu (army).--A sub-division of Idiga, and an exogamous sept of +Boya and Kapu. It has been suggested that the name is not Dandu but +Dande, meaning pole, in reference to the apparatus used by the Idigas +in climbing palm trees for the extraction of toddy. Dandu Agasa, +indicating army washerman, occurs as a name for some Maratha Dhobis in +Mysore, whose forefathers probably accompanied armies in times of war. + +Dara (stream of water).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Darabala.--Taken, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste +of Mala. It is a common house-name among many Telugu castes. + +Darala (thread).--An exogamous sept of Madiga. + +Darzi.--Darzi or Darji is a Muhammadan occupational term, meaning +tailor. "The east," it has been said, [47] "now sews by machinery. The +name of Singer is known from the Mediterranean to the Pacific. In +every bazaar in India one may see men--they are always men, not +women--in turban or Mussalman cap, crouching over the needle-plate, +and working the pedals." The value of the imports of sewing-machines +rose, in British India, from Rs. 5,91,046 in 1901-02 to Rs. 10,06,625 +in 1904-05. + +Das.--The title of Jain immigrants from Northern India, most of whom +are established as merchants, and also of the Mahants of the Tirumala +(Tirupati) temple, e.g., Balaram Das, Bhagavan Das. + +Dasari.--"Dasari or Tadan," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [48] "is a +mendicant caste of Vaishnavas, the reputed descendants of a wealthy +Sudra of one of the northern districts, who, being devoid of offspring, +vowed that, should he be blessed with children, he would devote one +to the service of his god. He subsequently had many sons, one of whom +he named Dasan (servant), and placed entirely at the service of the +deity. Dasan forfeited all claim to participate in his father's estate, +and his offspring are therefore all beggars. + +"The caste, like that of the Satanis, is reinforced by idle members of +the lower Sudra classes, who, being branded by the gurus of Tirupati +and other shrines, become Dasaris thereby. They usually wander +about, singing hymns to a monotonous accompaniment upon a leather +instrument called tappai (tabret). Some Sudra castes engage them thus +to chant in front of the corpse at funerals, and many, accompanying +bands of pilgrims travelling to Tirupati, stimulate their religious +excitement by singing sacred songs. A few, called Yerudandis, (q.v.), +take possession of young bulls that have been devoted to a swami, +and teach them to perform tricks very cleverly. The bulls appear to +understand what is said to them, and go through various antics at +the word of command. Some Dasaris exhibit what is called the Panda +Servai performance, which consists in affecting to be possessed by +the spirit of the deity, and beating themselves all over the body +with a flaming torch, after covering it probably with some protecting +substance. In such modes do they wander about and receive alms, each +wearing as a distinction a garland of beads made of tulasi (Ocimum +sanctum) wood. Every Dasari is a Tengalai. They have six sub-divisions, +called Balija, Janappa, Palli, Valluva, Gangeddula, and Golla Dasaris, +which neither eat together nor intermarry. As these are the names of +existing and distinct castes, it is probable that the Dasaris were +formerly members of those classes, who, through their vagabond tastes, +have taken to a mendicant life. Beyond prohibiting widow remarriage, +they have no social restrictions." + +Concerning the mendicants of Anantapur, Mr. W. Francis writes [49] that +"the beggars who are most in evidence are the Dasaris. This community +is recruited from several castes, such as the Kapus, Balijas, Kurubas, +Boyas, and Malas, and members of it who belong to the last two of these +(which are low in the social scale) are not allowed to dine with the +others. All Dasaris are Vaishnavites, and admission to the community is +obtained by being branded by some Vaishnavite guru. Thenceforward the +novice becomes a Dasari, and lives by begging from door to door. The +profession is almost hereditary in some families. The five insignia of +a Dasari are the conch shell, which he blows to announce his arrival; +the gong which he strikes as he goes his rounds; the tall iron lamp +(with a cocoanut to hold the oil for replenishing it) which he keeps +lighted as he begs; the brass or copper vessel (sometimes with the +namam painted on it) suspended from his shoulder, in which he places +the alms received; and the small metal image of Hanuman, which he hangs +round his neck. Of these, the iron lamp is at once the most conspicuous +and the most indispensable. It is said to represent Venkatesa, and +it must be burning, as an unlighted lamp is inauspicious. Dasaris +also subsist by doing puja (worship) at ceremonial and festival +occasions for certain of the Hindu castes." In the Kurnool district, +when a girl is dedicated as a Basavi (dedicated prostitute), she +is not, as in some other parts of the country, married to an idol, +but tied by means of a garland of flowers to the tall standard lamp +(garudakambham) of a Dasari, and released by the man who is to receive +her first favours, or by her maternal uncle. + +The Dasaris in Mysore are described in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, +as "mendicants belonging to different classes of Sudras. They become +Dasas or servants dedicated to the God at Tirupati by virtue of a +peculiar vow, made either by themselves or their relatives, at some +moment of anxiety or danger, and live by begging in His name. Dasaris +are always Vaishnavites, as the vows are taken only by those castes +which are worshippers of that deity. Dasaris are invited by Sudras +on ceremonial days, and feasted. Properly speaking, Dasari is not a +caste, but simply an occupational division. Among certain castes, the +custom of taking a vow to become a Dasari prevails. In fulfilment of +that vow the person becomes a Dasari, and his eldest son is bound to +follow suit, the others taking to other walks of life. The following +castes take the vow of becoming Dasari:--Telugu Banajiga, Holeya, +Tigala, and Vakkaliga. The duty of a Dasari requires that he should +daily bathe his head, and take care that, while eating with the +profane, their victuals do not get mixed with his. Every Saturday, +after bathing and praying for some hours, he must cook his own food in +a clean pot. They go about the streets singing some Hari Keerthanams, +with a gong and conch to relieve the dull monotony of their mumblings." + +Concerning the synonym Tadan, this is stated [50] to be "a corruption +of the Sanskrit dasa which, with the Tamil termination an, stands for +dasan. The word is often used in this form, but often as Dasari. The +word is applied to Vaishnava mendicants. They go out every morning, +begging for alms of uncooked rice, and singing ballads or hymns. They +play on a small drum with their fingers, and often carry a conch shell, +which they blow. They are given to drinking." In the Nellore Manual, +the Dasrivandlu are summed up as being "mendicants and thieves in +the Telugu and Canarese countries. They usually practise what is +known as scissor-theft." The mendicant Dasaris, who are dealt with +in the present note, are stated by Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri [51] to +be called Gudi Dasari, as the gudi or temple is their home and to +be a set of quiet, innocent and simple people, leading a most idle +and stupid life. "Quite opposed," he adds, "to the Gudi Dasaris in +every way are the Donga Dasaris or thieving Dasaris. They are the +most dreaded of the criminal classes in the Bellary district. These +Donga Dasaris are only Dasaris in name." (See Donga Dasari.) + +Some Dasaris are servants under Vaishnava Brahmans, who act as gurus +to various castes. It is their duty to act as messengers to the guru, +and carry the news of his arrival to his disciples. At the time of +worship, and when the guru approaches a village, the Dasari has to +blow a long brass trumpet (tarai). As the Brahman may not approach +or touch his Paraiyan disciples, it is the Dasari who gives them +the holy water (thirtham). When a Paraiyan is to be branded, the +Brahman heats the instruments bearing the devices of the chank and +chakaram, and hands them to the Dasari, who performs the operation +of branding. For councils, settlement of marriage, and the decision +of other social matters, the Dasaris meet, at times of festivals, +at well-known places such as Tirutani, Tirupati or Tiruvallur. + +At the annual festival at the temple at Karamadi in the Coimbatore +district, which is visited by very large numbers, belonging for +the most part to the lower orders, various vows are fulfilled. These +include the giving of kavalam to Dasaris. Kavalam consists of plantain +fruits cut up into small slices, and mixed with sugar, jaggery (crude +sugar), fried grain, or beaten rice. The Dasaris are attached to the +temple, and wear short drawers, with strings of small brass bells tied +to their wrists and ankles. They appear to be possessed, and move +wildly about to the beating of drums. As they go about, the devotee +puts some of the kavalam into their mouths. The Dasaris eat a little, +and spit out the remainder into the hands of the devotees, who eat +it. This is believed to cure all diseases, and to give children to +those who partake of it. In addition to kavalam, some put betel leaves +into the mouths of the Dasaris, who, after chewing them, spit them into +the mouths of the devotees. At night the Dasaris carry large torches +made of rags, on which the devotees pour ghi (clarified butter). Some +say that, many years ago, barren women used to take a vow to visit +the temple at the festival time, and, after offering kavalam, have +sexual intercourse with the Dasaris. The temple authorities, however, +profess ignorance of this practice. + +When proceeding on a pilgrimage to the temple of Subramanya Swami at +Palni, some devotees pierce their cheeks with a long silver skewer, +which traverses the mouth cavity; pierce the tongue with a silver +arrow, which is protruded vertically through the protruded organ; +and place a silver shield (mouth-lock) in front of the mouth. Some +Dasaris have permanent holes in their cheeks, into which they insert +skewers when they go about the country in pursuit of their profession. + +For the following note on Dasaris in the Vizagapatam district, I am +indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The caste is an endogamous unit, +the members calling themselves Sankhu (or conch-blowing) Dasaris, +and is divided into numerous exogamous septs. The menarikam custom, +according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, +is followed. The remarriage of widows is permitted, but divorce is +forbidden. The dead are cremated, and the chinna (small) and pedda rozu +(big day) death ceremonies are observed. These Dasaris profess the +Tengalai form of Vaishnavism, and get themselves branded. The caste +is more secular, and less religious than in the southern districts. A +Dasari of the North Arcot or Anantapur type, with conch-shell, metal +gong, iron lamp, copper vessel, and metal image of Hanuman on his neck, +is scarcely met with. The Vizagapatam Dasaris are the most popular +among ballad-singers, and sing songs about heroes and heroines, +of which the following are the most appreciated:-- + +1. Bobbilipata, which describes the siege and conquest of Bobbili by +Bussy in 1757. + +2. Ammi Nayudupata, which describes the tyrannical behaviour of +one Ammi Nayudu, a village headman in the Palkonda taluk, who was +eventually murdered, to the great relief of those subject to him, +by one of his dependents. + +3. Lakshmammapata, which relates the life and death of Lakshmamma, +a Velama woman, who went against the menarikam custom of the caste, +and was put to death by her husband. + +4. Yerakammaperantala-pata, which recounts the story of one Yerakamma, +who committed sati. + +Yerakamma is the local goddess at Srungavarapukota in the Vizagapatam +district. The ballads sung about her say that she was the child of +Dasari parents, and that her birth was foretold by a Yerukala woman +(whence her name), who prophesied that she would have the gift of +second sight. She eventually married, and one day she begged her +husband not to go to his field, as she was sure he would be killed +by a tiger if he did. Her husband went notwithstanding, and was slain +as she had foreseen. She committed sati on the spot where her shrine +still stands, and at this there is a festival at Sivaratri. + +As ballad-singers, two Dasaris generally travel about together, +begging from house to house, or at the weekly market, one singing, +while the other plays, and joins in the chorus. + +The titles of these Dasaris are Anna and Ayya. + +Dasari has been recorded as an exogamous sept of the Koravas, Malas, +and Yerukalas. + +Dasi (servant).--The name for a non-Brahman female attendant upon a +Nambutiri Brahman woman, which should not, as sometimes happens, be +confused with Deva-dasi, (q.v.), which has quite another significance. + +Dayare (Muhammadan).--The Dayare, Daira, or Mahadev Muhammadans +are found in the Bangalore and Mysore districts of the Mysore +province. Concerning them, we are informed in the Mysore Gazetteer that +"they differ from the general body of Muhammadans in a point of belief +concerning the advent of Imam Mahadi. The Dayares maintain that he +has visited this earth and departed, while the orthodox Muhammadans +believe the Prophet (Imam) has not yet appeared, and that his coming +will be a sign of the end of the world. The following account of the +origin of this body of dissenters has been related. A child was born +of the Sayad sect of Muhammadans at Guzrat about four hundred years +ago, who was named Sayad Ahmed, and afterwards became distinguished +by the title of Alam (superior to Maulvi) in consequence of his great +learning. Sayad Ahmed proclaimed himself the equal of Mahomet, and +superior to all other Paigambars or messengers of god. He succeeded +in obtaining some followers who believed in him, and repaired to +Jivanpur in the Nizam's territories, where he took the name of Imam +Mahadi. From thence he, with some disciples, proceeded to Mecca, +but did not visit Medina. After some time he returned to Hyderabad, +still retaining the name of Imam Mahadi. Such pretensions could not be +tolerated by the great mass of Muhammadans, and Sayad Ahmed, together +with his disciples, being worsted in a great religious controversy, +was driven out of Hyderabad, and came to Channapatna in the Bangalore +district, where they settled. The descendants of these settlers +believe that Sayad Ahmed was the Prophet Imam Mahadi predicted in +the Koran. They offer prayers in a masjid of their own, separate from +other Muhammadans, and do not intermarry with the rest. They are an +enterprising body, and carry on a brisk trade in silk with the western +coast." They are mostly domiciled at Channapatna, where a considerable +industry in the cocoons of the mulberry silk-moth is carried on. + +When an adult Hindu joins the Dayares as a convert, an interesting +mock rite of circumcision is performed as a substitute for the real +operation. A strip of betel leaf is wrapped round the penis, so that +it projects beyond the glans, and is snipped instead of the prepuce. + +Like other Muhammadan classes of Southern India, the Dayares are as +a whole dolichocephalic. But the frequent occurrence of individuals +with a high cephalic index would seem to point to their recruitment +from the mesaticephalic or brachycephalic Canarese classes. + + + =================+=============+============+============= + | | | Number of + | | Number | times + Class. | Locality. | examined. | cephalic + | | | index + | | | exceeded 80. + -----------------+-------------+------------+------------- + Mappilla | Malabar | 40 | 0 + Saiyad | Madras | 40 | 2 + Pathan | Do. | 40 | 2 + Sheik | Do. | 40 | 2 + Dayare | Mysore | 40 | 8 + =================+=============+============+============= + + +Dayyalakulam (devil's family).--Recorded, at times of census, as a +sub-caste of Gollas, who are wrestlers and acrobats. + +Dedingi.--Recorded as a sub-division of Poroja. + +Dera.--Dera, Dendra, and Devara occur as synonyms of Devanga. + +Desa.--A sub-division of Balija. Desadhipati, denoting ruler of +a country, is a name assumed by some Janappans, who say that they +are Balijas. + +Desayi.--For the following account of the Desayi institution, +I am indebted to an excellent account thereof by Mr. S. M. Natesa +Sastri. [52] "The word Desayi means of the country. For almost every +taluk in the North Arcot district there is a headman, called the Desayi +Chetti, who may be said in a manner to correspond to a Justice of the +Peace. The headmen belong to the Kavarai or Balija caste, their family +name being Dhanapala--a common name among the Kavarais--which may be +interpreted as 'the protector of wealth.' The Dhanapala Desayi Chetti +holds sway over eighteen castes, Kavarai, Uppara, Lambadi, Jogi, Idiga, +Paraiyan, etc. All those that are called valangai, or right-hand caste, +fall within his jurisdiction. He has an establishment of two peons +(orderlies), who are castemen, and another menial, a sort of bugler, +who blows the horn whenever the Desayi Chetti goes on circuit. When +any deviation in the moral conduct of any man or woman occurs in a +village under the Desayi's jurisdiction, a report of it is at once +sent to the Desayi Chetti, through the Paraiya of the village, by +the Desayi's representative in that village. He has his local agent +in every village within his jurisdiction. On receipt of a report, +he starts on circuit to the village, with all the quaint-looking +paraphernalia attached to his office. He moves about from place to +place in his bullock coach, the inside of which is upholstered with +a soft cushion bed, with a profusion of pillows on all sides. The +Paraiya horn-blower runs in front of the carriage blowing the horn +(bhamka), which he carries suspended from his shoulder when it is +not in use. On the Desayi Chetti arriving at a village, the horn +is blown to announce his visit on professional matters. While he +camps at a village, people from the surrounding country within his +jurisdiction usually go to him with any representations they may +have to make to him as the head of their caste. The Desayi generally +encamps in a tope (grove) adjoining the village. At the sound of the +horn, the castemen on whose account the visit is made assemble at the +place of encampment, with the Desayi's local representative at their +head. The personal comforts of the Desayi are first attended to, and +he is liberally supplied with articles of food by the party on whose +account the visit has been undertaken. A large cup-shaped spoon is +the ensign of the Desayi. On the outer surface, all round its edge, +are carved in relief eighteen figures, each one being typical of +one of the castes of which the Desayi is the social head. Under each +figure is inscribed in Tamil the name of the caste which that figure +typifies. The figures are smeared with red powder and sandal, and +decorated with flowers. The menial, taking up the cup, rings the bell +attached to it, to summon the parties. As soon as the sound is heard, +the castemen amongst whom any offence has occurred assemble, each +house in the village being represented by a member, so as to make up a +panchayat (council). The Desayi's emblem is then placed in front of him +in the midst of the panchayat, and a regular enquiry held. Supposing +a person stands charged with adultery, the accused is brought before +the assembly, and the charge formally investigated with the advice of +the panchayat, the Desayi declares the accused guilty or not guilty, +as the case may be. In the event of a man being pronounced guilty, +the panchayat directs him to pay the aggrieved husband all the expenses +he had incurred in connection with his marriage. In addition to this, +a fine ranging from ten to twenty rupees is imposed on the offender by +the Desayi, and is collected at once. A small fraction of this fine, +never exceeding four annas, is paid to every representative who sits +in the panchayat, the balance going into the Desayi's pocket. If +the delinquent refuses to pay the fine, a council of the same men +is held, and he is excommunicated. The recalcitrant offender soon +realises the horrors of excommunication, and in a short time appears +before the Desayi, and falls prostrate at his feet, promising to +obey him. The Desayi then accompanies him to the village, calls the +panchayat again, and in their presence removes the interdict. On this +occasion, the excommunicated person has to pay double the amount of +the original fine. But disobedience is rare, as people are alive to +the serious consequences of excommunication. The Desayi maintains a +regular record of all his enquiries and judgments, and in the days +of the Nawabs these decisions were, it would appear, recognised by +the Courts of Justice. The same respect was, it is said, also shown +to the Desayi's decisions by the early courts of John Company. [53] + +"Every house belonging to the eighteen castes sends to the village +representative of the Desayi, who is called Periyatanakaran, a +pagoda (Rs. 3-8) in cash, besides rice, dhal (Cajanus Indicus), and +other articles of food for every marriage that takes place, in the +village. The representative reserves for himself all the perishable +articles, sending only the cash to the Desayi. Thus, for every marriage +within his jurisdiction, the Desayi gets one pagoda. Of late, in the +case of those Desayis who have purchased their rights as such from +the old Desayis, instead of a pagoda, a fee of two annas and a half +is levied on each marriage. Every death which occurs in a village +is equally a source of income to the Desayi, who receives articles +of food, and four annas or more, according to the circumstances of +the parties in whose house the death has occurred. As in the case +of marriage, the local representative appropriates to himself the +articles of food, and transmits the money to the Desayi. The local +agent keeps a list of all domestic occurrences that take place in +the village, and this list is most carefully scrutinised and checked +by the Desayi during his tours, and any amount left unpaid is then +collected. Whenever a marriage takes place in his own house, all +the houses within his jurisdiction are bound to send him rice, dhal, +and other articles, and any money they can afford to pay. Sometimes +rich people send large sums to the Desayi, to enable him to purchase +the clothes, jewels, etc., required for the marriage. When a Desayi +finds his work too heavy for him to attend to single-handed, he sells a +portion of his jurisdiction for some hundreds or thousands of rupees, +according to its extent, to some relation. A regular sale deed is +executed and registered." (See also Samaya.) + +Desikar.--A sub-division and title of Pandaram. + +Desur.--The name of a sub-division of Kapu, which is either +territorial, or possibly derived from deha, body, and sura, valour. + +Deva.--Deva or Devara, meaning God, has been recorded as a synonym of +Devanga and Ganiga or Gandla and a sept of Moger, and Deva Telikulakali +as a name for those who express and sell oils in the Vizagapatam +district. Devara occurs further as a title of the Jangams. At +the Madras Census, 1901, Devar was returned as the name of Telugu +merchants from Pondicherry trading in glassware. Devar is also the +title of Occhans, who are priests at temples of village deities. The +title of Maravans is Devan or Tevan. In South Canara, the Halepaiks +(toddy-drawers) are known as Devaru Makkalu (God's children), which, +it has been suggested, [54] is possibly a corruption of Tivaru or +Divaru Makkalu, meaning children of the islanders, in reference to +their supposed descent from early immigrants from the island of Ceylon. + +Deva-dasi.--In old Hindu works, seven classes of Dasis are mentioned, +viz., (1) Datta, or one who gives herself as a gift to a temple; (2) +Vikrita, or one who sells herself for the same purpose; (3) Bhritya, +or one who offers herself as a temple servant for the prosperity of +her family; (4) Bhakta, or one who joins a temple out of devotion; +(5) Hrita, or one who is enticed away, and presented to a temple; +(6) Alankara, or one who, being well trained in her profession, and +profusely decked, is presented to a temple by kings and noblemen; +(7) Rudraganika or Gopika, who receive regular wages from a temple, +and are employed to sing and dance. For the following general account +I am indebted to the Madras Census Report, 1901:-- + +"Dasis or Deva-dasis (handmaidens of the gods) are dancing-girls +attached to the Tamil temples, who subsist by dancing and music, and +the practice of 'the oldest profession in the world.' The Dasis were +probably in the beginning the result of left-handed unions between +members of two different castes, but they are now partly recruited by +admissions, and even purchases, from other classes. The profession +is not now held in the consideration it once enjoyed. Formerly +they enjoyed a considerable social position. It is one of the many +inconsistencies of the Hindu religion that, though their profession +is repeatedly and vehemently condemned by the Shastras, it has always +received the countenance of the church. The rise of the caste, and +its euphemistic name, seem both of them to date from about the ninth +and tenth centuries A.D., during which much activity prevailed in +Southern India in the matter of building temples, and elaborating the +services held in them. The dancing-girls' duties, then as now, were +to fan the idol with chamaras (Tibetan ox tails), to carry the sacred +light called kumbarti, and to sing and dance before the god when he +was carried in procession. Inscriptions [55] show that, in A.D. 1004, +the great temple of the Chola king Rajaraja at Tanjore had attached +to it four hundred talic' cheri pendugal, or women of the temple, +who lived in free quarters in the four streets round about it, and +were allowed tax-free land out of the endowment. Other temples had +similar arrangements. At the beginning of the last century there +were a hundred dancing-girls attached to the temple at Conjeeveram, +who were, Buchanan tells us, [56] 'kept for the honour of the deities +and the amusement of their votaries; and any familiarity between these +girls and an infidel would occasion scandal.' At Madura, Conjeeveram, +and Tanjore there are still numbers of them, who receive allowances +from the endowments of the big temples at these places. In former +days, the profession was countenanced not only by the church, but +also by the State. Abdur Razaak, a Turkish ambassador at the court +of Vijayanagar in the fifteenth century, describes [57] women of +this class as living in State-controlled institutions, the revenue +of which went towards the upkeep of the police. + +"At the present day they form a regular caste, having its own laws +of inheritance, its own customs and rules of etiquette, and its own +panchayats (councils) to see that all these are followed, and thus +hold a position, which is perhaps without a parallel in any other +country. Dancing-girls, dedicated to the usual profession of the +caste, are formally married in a temple to a sword or a god, the tali +(marriage badge) being tied round their necks by some men of their +caste. It was a standing puzzle to the census enumerators whether +such women should be entered as married in the column referring to +civil condition. + +"Among the Dasis, sons and daughters inherit equally, contrary to +ordinary Hindu usage. Some of the sons remain in the caste, and live +by playing music for the women to dance to, and accompaniments to +their songs, or by teaching singing and dancing to the younger girls, +and music to the boys. These are called Nattuvans. Others marry some +girl of the caste, who is too plain to be likely to be a success in +the profession, and drift out of the community. Some of these affix to +their names the terms Pillai and Mudali, which are the usual titles +of the two castes (Vellala and Kaikola) from which most of the Dasis +are recruited, and try to live down the stigma attaching to their +birth. Others join the Melakkarans or professional musicians. Cases +have occurred, in which wealthy sons of dancing-women have been allowed +to marry girls of respectable parentage of other castes, but they are +very rare. The daughters of the caste, who are brought up to follow +the caste profession, are carefully taught dancing, singing, the art +of dressing well, and the ars amoris, and their success in keeping up +their clientele is largely due to the contrast which they thus present +to the ordinary Hindu housewife, whose ideas are bounded by the day's +dinner and the babies. The dancing-girl castes, and their allies the +Melakkarans, are now practically the sole repository of Indian music, +the system of which is probably one of the oldest in the world. Besides +them and the Brahmans, few study the subject. The barbers' bands +of the villages usually display more energy than science. A notable +exception, however, exists in Madras city, which has been known to +attempt the Dead March in Saul at funerals in the Pariah quarters. + +"There are two divisions among the Dasis, called Valangai (right-hand) +and Idangai (left-hand). The chief distinction between them is that +the former will have nothing to do with the Kammalans (artisans) or +any other of the left-hand castes, or play or sing in their houses. The +latter division is not so particular, and its members are consequently +sometimes known as the Kammala Dasis. Neither division, however, +is allowed to have any dealings with men of the lowest castes, and +violation of this rule of etiquette is tried by a panchayat of the +caste, and visited with excommunication. + +"In the Telugu districts, the dancing-girls are called Bogams and +Sanis. They are supposed to be dedicated to the gods, just as the +Dasis are, but there is only one temple in the northern part of the +Presidency which maintains a corps of these women in the manner in +vogue further south. This exception is the shrine of Sri Kurmam +in Vizagapatam, the dancing-girls attached to which are known as +Kurmapus. In Vizagapatam most of the Bogams and Sanis belong to the +Nagavasulu and Palli castes, and their male children often call +themselves Nagavasulus, but in Nellore, Kurnool and Bellary they +are often Balijas and Yerukalas. In Nellore the Bogams are said to +decline to sing in the houses of Komatis. The men of the Sanis do +not act as accompanists to their women at nautch parties, as Bogam +and Dasi men do. + +"In the Oriya country the dancing-girl caste is called Guni, but there +they have even less connection with the temples than the Bogams and +Sanis, not being even dedicated to the god. + +"In the Canarese (or western) taluks of Bellary, and in the adjoining +parts of Dharwar and Mysore, a curious custom obtains among the Boyas, +Bedarus, and certain other castes, under which a family which has no +male issue must dedicate one of its daughters as a Basavi. The girl is +taken to a temple, and married there to the god, a tali and toe-rings +being put on her, and thenceforward she becomes a public woman, except +that she does not consort with any one of lower caste than herself. She +is not, however, despised on this account, and indeed at weddings she +prepares the tali (perhaps because she can never be a widow). Contrary +to all Hindu Law, she shares in the family property as though she was +a son, but her right to do so has not yet been confirmed by the Civil +Courts. If she has a son, he takes her father's name, but if only +a daughter, that daughter again becomes a Basavi. The children of +Basavis marry within their own caste, without restrictions of any kind. + +"In Malabar there is no regular community of dancing-girls; nor is +there among the Mussalmans of any part of the Presidency." + +"No doubt," Monier Williams writes, [58] "Dasis drive a profitable +trade under the sanction of religion, and some courtesans have been +known to amass enormous fortunes. Nor do they think it inconsistent +with their method of making money to spend it in works of piety. Here +and there Indian bridges and other useful public works owe their +existence to the liberality of the frail sisterhood." The large tank +(lake) at Channarayapatna in Mysore was built by two dancing-girls. + +In the Travancore Census Report, 1901, the Dasis of the Coromandel +coast are compared, in the words of a Sanskrit poet, to walking +flesh-trees bearing golden fruits. The observant Abbé Dubois noticed +that, of all the women in India, it is especially the courtesans who +are the most decently clothed, as experience has taught them that for +a woman to display her charms damps sensual ardour instead of exciting +it, and that the imagination is more easily captivated than the eye. + +It was noticed by Lord Dufferin, on the occasion of a Viceregal visit +to Madura, that the front part of the dress of the dancing-girls +hangs in petticoats, but the back is only trousers. + +The Rev. A. Margöschis writes in connection with the practice +of dilating the lobes of the ears in Tinnevelly, that, as it was +once the fashion and a mark of respectability to have long ears, +so now the converse is true. Until a few years ago, if a woman had +short ears, she was asked if she was a Deva-dasi, because that class +kept their ears natural. Now, with the change of customs all round, +even dancing-girls are found with long ears. "The dancing-girls are," +the Rev. M. Phillips writes, [59] "the most accomplished women among +the Hindus. They read, write, sing and play as well as dance. Hence +one of the great objections urged at first against the education of +girls was 'We don't want our daughters to become dancing-girls'." + +It is on record [60] that, in 1791, the Nabob of the Carnatic dined +with the Governor of Madras, and that, after dinner, they were diverted +with the dancing wenches, and the Nabob was presented with cordial +waters, French brandy and embroidered China quilts. The story is +told of a Governor of Madras in more recent times, who, ignorant of +the inverse method of beckoning to a person to advance or retreat in +the East, was scandalised when a nautch girl advanced rapidly, till +he thought she was going to sit in his lap. At a nautch in the fort +of the Mandasa Zemindar in honour of Sir M. E. Grant Duff, [61] the +dancing-girls danced to the air of Malbrook se va t'en guerre. Bussy +taught it to the dancing-girls, and they to their neighbours. In +the Vizagapatam and Godavari jungles, natives apostrophise tigers as +Bussy. Whether the name is connected with Bussy I know not. + +Of Deva-dasis at the Court of Tippoo Sultan, the following account +was published in 1801. [62] "Comme Souverain d'une partie du Visapour, +Tippoo-Saïb jouissoit de la facilité d'avoir parmi ses bayadères celles +qui étoient les plus renommées par leurs talens, leurs graces, leur +beauté, etc. Ces bayadères sont des danseuses supérieures dans leur +genre; tout danse et tout joue en même-tems chez elles; leur tête, +leurs yeux, leurs bras, leurs pieds, tout leur corps, semblent ne se +mouvoir que from enchanter; elles sont d'une incroyable légèreté, +et ont le jarret aussi fort que souple; leur taille est des plus +sveltes et des plus élégantes, et elles n'ont pas un mouvement +qui ne soit une grace. La plus âgée de ces femmes n'avoit pas plus +de seize à dix-sept ans. Aussi tot qu'elles atteignoient cet âge, +on les réformoit, et alors elles alloient courir les provinces, on +s'attachoient à des pagodes, dans lesqueles elles étoient entretenues, +et ou leurs charmes étoient un des meilleurs revenus des brames." + +General Burton narrates [63] how a civilian of the old school built +a house at Bhavani, and established a corps de ballet, i.e., a set +of nautch girls, whose accomplishments actually extended to singing +God save the King, and this was kept up by their descendants, so that, +when he visited the place in 1852, he was "greeted by the whole party, +bedizened in all their finery, and squalling the national anthem as if +they understood it, which they did not." With this may be contrasted +a circular from a modern European official, which states that "during +my jamabandy (land revenue settlement) tour, people have sometimes +been kind enough to arrange singing or dancing parties, and, as it +would have been discourteous to decline to attend what had cost money +to arrange, I have accepted the compliment in the spirit in which +it was offered. I should, however, be glad if you would let it be +generally known that I am entirely in accord with what is known as +the anti-nautch movement in regard to such performances." + +It was unanimously decided, in 1905, by the Executive Committee of +the Prince and Princess of Wales' reception fund, that there should +be no performance by nautch girls at the entertainment to be given +to Their Royal Highnesses at Madras. + +In a note on Basavis, the Collector of the Bellary district writes +that "it is usual among Hindus to dedicate a bull for public use on +the death of a member of their family. These are the breeding bulls +of the village flock. Similarly, cows are dedicated, and are called +Basavis. No stigma attaches to Basavis or their children, and they are +received on terms of equality by other members of their caste. The +origin of the institution, it has been suggested, may probably be +traced to the time when the Boyas, and other castes which dedicate +Basavis, were soldiers, and the Basavis acted as camp-followers and +nurses of the wounded in battle. According to Hindu custom, the wives +of the men could not be taken from their homes, and, other women of +the caste being required to attend to their comforts, the institution +of Basavis might have been started; or, if they existed before then as +religious devotees attached to temples, they might have been pressed +into their service, and the number added to as occasion required. In +Narayandevarkeri there are many Boyas and many Basavis. On the +car-festival day, the Boyas cannot take meals until the car is taken +back to its original place after the procession. Sometimes, owing to +some accident, this cannot be done the same day, and the car-drawing +Boyas sleep near the car, and do not go to their houses. Then it is +their Basavis who bring them food, and not their wives." At Adoni +I have seen a Basavi, who was working at a cotton press for a daily +wage of three annas, in full dress on a holiday in honour of a local +deity, wearing an elaborately chased silver waist belt and abundant +silver jewelry. The following are examples of petitions presented to +a European Magistrate and Superintendent of Police by girls who are +about to become Basavis:-- + + + Petition of __________ aged about 17 or 18. + + I have agreed to become a Basavi, and get myself stamped by my guru + (priest) according to the custom of my caste. I request that my + proper age, which entitles me to be stamped, may be personally + ascertained, and permission granted to be stamped. + + The stamping refers to branding with the emblems of the chank + and chakram. + + + + Petition of _____ wife of _____. + + I have got two daughters, aged 15 and 12 respectively. As I have + no male issues, I have got to necessarily celebrate the ceremony + in the temple in connection with the tying of the goddess's tali + to my two daughters under the orders of the guru, in accordance + with the customs of my caste. I, therefore, submit this petition + for fear that the authorities may raise any objection (under the + Age of Consent Act). I, therefore, request that the Honourable + Court may be pleased to give permission to the tying of the tali + to my daughters. + + + + Petition of two girls, aged 17 to 19. + + Our father and mother are dead. Now we wish to be like prostitutes, + as we are not willing to be married, and thus establish our + house-name. Our mother also was of this profession. We now request + permission to be prostitutes according to our religion, after we + are sent before the Medical Officer. + + +The permission referred to in the above petitions bears reference +to a decision of the High Court that, a girl who becomes a Basavi +being incapable of contracting a legal marriage, her dedication when +a minor is an offence under the Penal Code. + +At Adoni the dead body of a new-born infant was found in a ditch, +and a Basavi, working with others in a cotton factory, was suspected +of foul play. The station-house officer announced his intention +of visiting the factory, and she who was in a state of lactation, +and could produce no baby to account for her condition, would be +the culprit. Writing concerning the Basavis of the Bellary district, +[64] Mr. W. Francis tells us that "parents without male issue often, +instead of adopting a son in the usual manner, dedicate a daughter +by a simple ceremony to the god of some temple, and thenceforth, +by immemorial custom, she may inherit her parents' property, and +perform their funeral rites as if she was a son. She does not marry, +but lives in her parents' house with any man of equal or higher caste +whom she may select, and her children inherit her father's name and +bedagu (sept), and not those of their own father. If she has a son, +he inherits her property; if she has only a daughter, that daughter +again becomes a Basavi. Parents desiring male issue of their own, +cure from sickness in themselves or their children, or relief from +some calamity, will similarly dedicate their daughter. The children +of a Basavi are legitimate, and neither they nor their mothers are +treated as being in any way inferior to their fellows. A Basavi, +indeed, from the fact that she can never be a widow, is a most welcome +guest at weddings. Basavis differ from the ordinary dancing-girls +dedicated at temples in that their duties in the temples (which +are confined to the shrine of their dedication) are almost nominal, +and that they do not prostitute themselves promiscuously for hire. A +Basavi very usually lives faithfully with one man, who allows her +a fixed sum weekly for her maintenance, and a fixed quantity of new +raiment annually, and she works for her family as hard as any other +woman. Basavis are outwardly indistinguishable from other women, and +are for the most part coolies. In places there is a custom by which +they are considered free to change their protectors once a year at the +village car-festival or some similar anniversary, and they usually +seize this opportunity of putting their partner's affections to the +test by suggesting that a new cloth and bodice would be a welcome +present. So poor, as a rule, are the husbands that the police aver +that the anniversaries are preceded by an unusual crop of petty +thefts and burglaries committed by them in their efforts to provide +their customary gifts." A recent report of a Police Inspector in the +Bellary district states that "crimes are committed here and there, +as this is Nagarapanchami time. Nagarapanchami festival is to be +celebrated at the next Ammavasya or new-moon day. It is at that time +the people keeping the prostitutes should pay their dues on that day; +otherwise they will have their new engagements." + +In the Kurnool district, the Basavi system is practised by the Boyas, +but differs from that in vogue in Bellary and Mysore. The object of +making a Basavi, in these two localities, is to perpetuate the family +when there is no male heir. If the only issue in a family is a female, +the family becomes extinct if she marries, as by marriage she changes +her sept. To prevent this, she is not married, but dedicated as a +Basavi, and continues to belong to her father's sept, to which also +any male issue which is born to her belongs. In the Kurnool district +the motive in making Basavis is different. The girl is not wedded to +an idol, but, on an auspicious day, is tied by means of a garland +of flowers to the garuda kambham (lamp) of a Balija Dasari. She +is released either by the man who is to receive her first favours, +or by her maternal uncle. A simple feast is held, and a string of +black beads tied round the girl's neck. She becomes a prostitute, +and her children do not marry into respectable Boya families. + +"Basava women," Dr. E. Balfour writes, [65] "are sometimes married to +a dagger, sometimes to an idol. In making a female child over to the +service of the temple, she is taken and dedicated for life to some +idol. A khanjar, or dagger, is placed on the ground, and the girl who +is to undergo the ceremony puts a garland thereon. Her mother then puts +rice on the girl's forehead. The officiating priest then weds the girl +to the dagger, just as if he was uniting her to a boy in marriage, +by reciting the marriage stanzas, a curtain being held between the +girl and the dagger." In an account of the initiation ceremony of the +Basavis of the Bellary district Mr. F. Fawcett writes as follows. [66] +"A sword with a lime stuck on its point is placed upright beside the +novice, and held in her right hand. It represents the bridegroom, who, +in the corresponding ceremony of Hindu marriage, sits on the bride's +right. A tray, on which are a kalasyam (vessel of water) and a lamp, +is then produced, and moved thrice in front of the girl. She rises, +and, carrying the sword in her right hand, places it in the god's +sanctuary. Among the dancing-girls very similar ceremonies are +performed. With them, the girl's spouse is represented by a drum +instead of a sword, and she bows to it. Her insignia consist of a +drum and bells." In a further note on the dedication of Basavis, +Mr. Fawcett writes [67] that "a tali, on which is depicted the namam +of Vishnu, fastened to a necklace of black beads, is tied round her +neck. She is given by way of insignia a cane as a wand carried in the +right hand, and a gopalam or begging basket, which is slung on the left +arm. She is then branded with the emblems of the chank and chakra. In +another account [68] of the marriage ceremony among dancing-girls, +it is stated that the Bogams, who are without exception prostitutes, +though they are not allowed to marry, go through a marriage ceremony, +which is rather a costly one. Sometimes a wealthy Native bears the +expense, makes large presents to the bride, and receives her first +favours. Where no such opportunity offers itself, a sword or other +weapon represents the bridegroom, and an imaginary nuptial ceremony +is performed. Should the Bogam woman have no daughter, she invariably +adopts one, usually paying a price for her, the Kaikola (weaver) +caste being the ordinary one from which to take a child. + +Among the Kaikolan musicians of Coimbatore, at least one girl in +every family should be set apart for the temple service, and she +is instructed in music and dancing. At the tali-tying ceremony +she is decorated with jewels, and made to stand on a heap of paddy +(unhusked rice). A folded cloth is held before her by two Dasis, +who also stand on heaps of paddy. The girl catches hold of the cloth, +and her dancing master, who is seated behind her, grasping her legs, +moves them up and down in time with the music which is played. In the +evening she is taken, astride a pony, to the temple, where a new cloth +for the idol, the tali, and other articles required for doing puja +(worship) have been got ready. The girl is seated facing the idol, +and the officiating Brahman gives sandal and flowers to her, and ties +the tali, which has been lying at the feet of the idol, round her +neck. The tali consists of a golden disc and black beads. She continues +to learn music and dancing, and eventually goes through the form of +a nuptial ceremony, The relations are invited on an auspicious day, +and the maternal uncle, or his representative, ties a golden band on +the girl's forehead, and, carrying her, places her on a plank before +the assembled guests. A Brahman priest recites mantrams (prayers), +and prepares the sacred fire (homam). For the actual nuptials a rich +Brahman, if possible, and, if not, a Brahman of more lowly status is +invited. A Brahman is called in, as he is next in importance to, and +the representative of, the idol. As a Dasi can never become a widow, +the beads in her tali are considered to bring good luck to women +who wear them. And some people send the tali required for a marriage +to a Dasi, who prepares the string for it, and attaches to it black +beads from her own tali. A Dasi is also deputed to walk at the head +of Hindu marriage processions. Married women do not like to do this, +as they are not proof against evil omens, which the procession may +meet. And it is believed that Dasis, to whom widowhood is unknown, +possess the power of warding off the effects of inauspicious omens. It +may be remarked, en passant, that Dasis are not at the present day +so much patronised at Hindu marriages as in olden times. Much is due +in this direction to the progress of enlightened ideas, which have +of late been strongly put forward by Hindu social reformers. When +a Kaikolan Dasi dies, her body is covered with a new cloth removed +from the idol, and flowers are supplied from the temple, to which +she belonged. No puja is performed in the temple till the corpse is +disposed of, as the idol, being her husband, has to observe pollution. + +"In former times, dancing-girls used to sleep three nights at the +commencement of their career in the inner shrine of the Koppesvara +temple at Palivela in the Godavari district, so as to be embraced by +the god. But one of them, it is said, disappeared one night, and the +practice has ceased. The funeral pyre of every girl of the dancing +girl (Sani) caste dying in the village should be lit with fire brought +from the temple. The same practice is found in the Srirangam temple +near Trichinopoly." [69] + +The following account of Dasis in Travancore, where their total +strength is only about four hundred, is taken from a note by +Mr. N. Subramani Aiyer. "While the Dasis of Kartikappalli, Ambalapuzha, +and Shertallay belonged originally to the Konkan coast, those of +Shenkottah belonged to the Pandian country. But the South Travancore +Dasis are an indigenous class. The female members of the caste are, +besides being known by the ordinary name of Tevadiyal and Dasi, both +meaning servant of God, called Kudikkar, meaning those belonging to +the house (i.e., given rent free by the Sirkar), and Pendukal, or +women, the former of these designations being more popular than the +latter. Males are called Tevadiyan, though many prefer to be known +as Nanchinat Vellalas. Males, like these Vellalas, take the title +of Pillai. In ancient days Deva-dasis, who became experts in singing +and dancing, received the title of Rayar (king) which appears to have +been last conferred in 1847 A.D. The South Travancore Dasis neither +interdine nor intermarry with the dancing-girls of the Tamil-speaking +districts. They adopt girls only from a particular division of the +Nayars, Tamil Padam, and dance only in temples. Unlike their sisters +outside Travancore, they do not accept private engagements in houses +on the occasion of marriage. The males, in a few houses, marry the +Tamil Padam and Padamangalam Nayars, while some Padamangalam Nayars +and Nanchinat Vellalas in their turn take their women as wives. + +"When a dancing-woman becomes too old or diseased, and thus unable +to perform her usual temple duties, she applies to the temple +authorities for permission to remove her ear-pendants (todus). The +ceremony takes place at the palace of the Maharaja. At the appointed +spot the officers concerned assemble, and the woman, seated on +a wooden plank, proceeds to unhook the pendants, and places them, +with a nuzzur (gift) of twelve fanams (coins), on the plank. Directly +after this she turns about, and walks away without casting a second +glance at the ear-ornaments which have been laid down. She becomes +immediately a taikkizhavi or old mother, and is supposed to lead a +life of retirement and resignation. By way of distinction, a Dasi in +active service is referred to as atumpatram. Though the ear-ornaments +are at once returned to her from the palace, the woman is never again +permitted to put them on, but only to wear the pampadam, or antiquated +ear-ornament of Tamil Sudra women. Her temple wages undergo a slight +reduction, consequent on her proved incapacity. + +"In some temples, as at Keralapuram, there are two divisions +of dancing-girls, one known as the Murakkudi to attend to +the daily routine, the other as the Chirappukuti to serve on +special occasions. The special duties that may be required of the +South Travancore Dasis are:--(1) to attend the two Utsavas at Sri +Padmanabahswami's temple, and the Dusserah at the capital; (2) to meet +and escort members of the royal family at their respective village +limits; (3) to undertake the prescribed fasts for the Apamargam +ceremony in connection with the annual festival of the temple. On +these days strict continence is enjoined, and they are fed at the +temple, and allowed only one meal a day. + +"The principal deities of the dancing-girls are those to whom the +temples, in which they are employed, are dedicated. They observe +the new and full-moon days, and the last Friday of every month +as important. The Onam, Sivaratri, Tye-Pongal, Dipavali, and +Chitrapurnami are the best recognised religious festivals. Minor +deities, such as Bhadrakali, Yakshi, and Ghandarva are worshipped by +the figure of a trident or sword being drawn on the wall of the house, +to which food and sweetmeats are offered on Fridays. The priests on +these occasions are Occhans. There are no recognized headmen in the +caste. The services of Brahmans are resorted to for the purpose of +purification, of Nampiyans and Saiva Vellalas for the performance +of funeral rites, and of Kurukkals on occasions of marriage, and for +the final ceremonies on the sixteenth day after death. + +"Girls belonging to this caste may either be dedicated to temple +service, or married to a male member of the caste. No woman can +be dedicated to the temple after she has reached puberty. On the +occasion of marriage, a sum of from fifty to a hundred and fifty +rupees is given to the bride's house, not as a bride-price, but for +defraying the marriage expenses. There is a preliminary ceremony of +betrothal, and the marriage is celebrated at an auspicious hour. The +Kurukkal recites a few hymns, and the ceremonies, which include the +tying of the tali, continue for four days. The couple commence joint +life on the sixteenth day after the girl has reached puberty. It is +easy enough to get a divorce, as this merely depends upon the will +of one of the two parties, and the woman becomes free to receive +clothes from another person in token of her having entered into a +fresh matrimonial alliance. + +"All applications for the presentation of a girl to the temple are +made to the temple authorities by the senior dancing-girl of the +temple, the girl to be presented being in all cases from six to eight +years of age. If she is closely related to the applicant, no enquiries +regarding her status and claim need be made. In all other cases, formal +investigations are instituted, and the records taken are submitted to +the chief revenue officer of the division for orders. Some paddy (rice) +and five fanams are given to the family from the temple funds towards +the expenses of the ceremony. The practice at the Suchindrum temple is +to convene, on an auspicious day, a yoga or meeting, composed of the +Valiya Sri-kariyakkar, the Yogattil Potti, the Vattappalli Muttatu, +and others, at which the preliminaries are arranged. The girl bathes, +and goes to the temple on the morning of the selected day with two new +cloths, betel leaves and nuts. The temple priest places the cloths and +the tali at the feet of the image, and sets apart one for the divine +use. The tali consists of a triangular bottu, bearing the image of +Ganesa, with a gold bead on either side. Taking the remaining cloth +and the tali, and sitting close to the girl, the priest, facing to +the north, proceeds to officiate. The girl sits, facing the deity, +in the inner sanctuary. The priest kindles the fire, and performs all +the marriage ceremonies, following the custom of the Tirukkalyanam +festival, when Siva is represented as marrying Parvati. He then +teaches the girl the Panchakshara hymn if the temple is Saivite, +and Ashtakshara if it is Vaishnavite, presents her with the cloth, +and ties the tali round her neck. The Nattuvan, or dancing-master, +instructs her for the first time in his art, and a quantity of raw rice +is given to her by the temple authorities. The girl, thus married, +is taken to her house, where the marriage festivities are celebrated +for two or three days. As in Brahmanical marriages, the rolling of a +cocoanut to and fro is gone through, the temple priest or an elderly +Dasi, dressed in male attire, acting the part of the bridegroom. The +girl is taken in procession through the streets. + +"The birth of male children is not made an occasion for rejoicing, +and, as the proverb goes, the lamp on these occasions is only dimly +lighted. Inheritance is in the female line, and women are the absolute +owners of all property earned. When a dancing-girl dies, some paddy +and five fanams are given from the temple to which she was attached, +to defray the funeral expenses. The temple priest gives a garland, and +a quantity of ashes for decorating the corpse. After this, a Nampiyan, +an Occhan, some Vellala headmen, and a Kudikkari, having no pollution, +assemble at the house of the deceased. The Nampiyan consecrates a pot +of water with prayers, the Occhan plays on his musical instrument, +and the Vellalas and Kudikkari powder the turmeric to be smeared over +the corpse. In the case of temple devotees, their dead bodies must +be bathed with this substance by the priest, after which alone the +funeral ceremonies may proceed. The Karta (chief mourner), who is +the nearest male relative, has to get his whole head shaved. When +a temple priest dies, though he is a Brahman, the dancing-girl, +on whom he has performed the vicarious marriage rite, has to go to +his death-bed, and prepare the turmeric powder to be dusted over his +corpse. The anniversary of the death of the mother and maternal uncle +are invariably observed. + +"The adoption of a dancing-girl is a lengthy ceremony. The application +to the temple authorities takes the form of a request that the girl +to be adopted may be made heir to both kuti and pati, that is, to +the house and temple service of the person adopting. The sanction +of the authorities having been obtained, all concerned meet at the +house of the person who is adopting, a document is executed, and a +ceremony, of the nature of the Jatakarma, performed. The girl then +goes through the marriage rite, and is handed over to the charge of +the music teacher to be regularly trained in her profession." + +As bearing on the initiation, laws of inheritance, etc., of Deva-dasis, +the following cases, which have been argued in the Madras High Court, +may be quoted [70]:-- + +(a) In a charge against a dancing-girl of having purchased a young +girl, aged five, with the intent that she would be used for the purpose +of prostitution, or knowing it to be likely that she would be so used, +evidence was given of the fact of purchase for sixty rupees, and that +numerous other dancing-girls, residing in the neighbourhood, were in +the habit of obtaining girls and bringing them up as dancing-girls or +prostitutes, and that there were no instances of girls brought up by +dancing-girls ever having been married. One witness stated that there +were forty dancing-girls' houses in the town (Adoni), and that their +chief source of income was prostitution, and that the dancing-girls, +who have no daughters of their own, get girls from others, bring +them up, and eventually make them dancing-girls or prostitutes. He +added that the dancing-girls get good incomes by bringing up girls +in preference to boys. Another witness stated that dancing-girls, +when they grow old, obtain girls and bring them up to follow their +profession, and that good-looking girls are generally bought. [71] + +(b) The evidence showed that two of the prisoners were dancing-girls +of a certain temple, that one of them took the two daughters of the +remaining prisoner to the pagoda, to be marked as dancing-girls, and +that they were so marked, and their names entered in the accounts of +the pagoda. The first prisoner (the mother of the girls) disposed +of the children to the third prisoner for the consideration of a +neck ornament and thirty-five rupees. The children appeared to be of +the ages of seven and two years, respectively. Evidence was taken, +which tended to prove that dancing-girls gain their livelihood by +the performance of certain offices in pagodas, by assisting in the +performance of ceremonies in private houses, by dancing and singing +upon the occasion of marriage, and by prostitution. [72] + +(c) The first prisoner presented an application for the enrolment +of his daughter as a dancing-girl at one of the great pagodas. He +stated her age to be thirteen. She attained puberty a month or two +after her enrolment. Her father was the servant of a dancing-girl, the +second prisoner, who had been teaching the minor dancing for some five +years. The evidence showed that the second prisoner brought the girl +to the pagoda, that both first and second prisoners were present when +the bottu (or tali) was tied, and other ceremonies of the dedication +performed; that third prisoner, as Battar of the temple, was the +person who actually tied the bottu, which denotes that the Dasi is +wedded to the idol. There was the usual evidence that dancing-girls +live by prostitution, though occasionally kept by the same man for +a year or more. [73] + +(d) The plaintiff, a Deva-dasi, complained that, when she brought +offerings according to custom and placed them before the God at a +certain festival, and asked the Archakas (officiating priests) to +present the offerings to the God, burn incense, and then distribute +them, they refused to take the offerings on the ground that the +Deva-dasi had gone to a Komati's house to dance. She claimed damages, +Rs. 10, for the rejected offerings, and Rs. 40 for loss of honour, +and a perpetual injunction to allow her to perform the mantapa hadi +(sacrifice) at the Chittrai Vasanta festival. The priests pleaded +that the dancing-girl had, for her bad conduct in having danced at +a Komati's house, and subsequently refused to expiate the deed by +drinking panchagavyan (five products of the cow) according to the +shastras, been expelled both from her caste and from the temple. [74] + +(e) In a certain temple two dancing-girls were dedicated by the +Dharmakarta to the services of the temple without the consent of the +existing body of dancing-girls, and the suit was instituted against +the Dharmakarta and these two Deva-dasis, asking that the Court should +ascertain and declare the rights of the Deva-dasis of the pagoda in +regard (1) to the dedication of Deva-dasis, (2) to the Dharmakarta's +power to bind and suspend them; and that the Court should ascertain +and declare the rights of the plaintiff, the existing Deva-dasis, as +to the exclusion of all other Deva-dasis, save those who are related +to or adopted by some one of the Deva-dasis for the time being, +or those who, being approved by all, are elected and proposed to +the Dharmakarta for dedication. That the new Dasis may be declared +to have been improperly dedicated, and not entitled to any of the +rights of Deva-dasis, and restrained from attending the pagoda in that +character, and from interfering with the duly dedicated Deva-dasis +in the exercise of their office. That first defendant be restrained +from stamping and dedicating other Deva-dasis but such as are duly +approved. The Judge dismissed the case on the ground that it would be +contrary to public policy to make the declaration prayed for, as, in +so doing, the Court would be lending itself to bringing the parties +under the criminal law. In the appeal, which was dismissed, one of +the Judges remarked that the plaintiffs claimed a right exclusive to +themselves and a few other dancing-women, professional prostitutes, +to present infant female children for dedication to the temple as +dancing-girls to be stamped as such, and so accredited to become at +maturity professional prostitutes, private or public. [75] + +(f) A Deva-dasi sued to establish her right to the mirasi (fees) +of dancing-girls in a certain pagoda, and to be put in possession of +the said mirasi together with the honours and perquisites attached +thereto, and to recover twenty-four rupees, being the value of said +perquisites and honours for the year preceding. She alleged that the +Dharmakarta of the pagoda and his agents wrongfully dismissed her from +the office because she had refused to acquiesce in the admission by +the Dharmakarta of new dancing-girls into the pagoda service, of which +she claimed the monopoly for herself and the then existing families +of dancing-girls. The District Judge dismissed the suit, but the High +Court ordered a re-investigation as to the question of the existence of +an hereditary office with endowments or emoluments attached to it. [76] + +(g) A girl, aged seventeen, instituted a suit against the trustees of +a pagoda. It was alleged that a woman who died some years previously +was one of the dancing-women attached to the pagoda, and, as such, +entitled to the benefit of one of the temple endowments; that she +had taken in adoption the plaintiff, who was accordingly entitled +to succeed to her office and the emoluments attached to it; that +the plaintiff could not enter on the office until a bottu-tali had +been tied on her in the temple; and that the trustees did not permit +this to be done. The prayer of the plaint was that the defendants +be compelled to allow the tali to be tied in the temple in view to +the girl performing the dancing service, and enjoying the honours +and endowments attached thereto. The Judge dismissed the suit on the +ground that the claim was inadmissible, as being in effect a claim +by the plaintiff to be enlisted as a public prostitute. [77] + +(h) On the death of a prostitute dancing-girl, her adopted niece, +belonging to the same class, succeeds to her property, in whatever +way it is acquired, in preference to a brother remaining in +his caste. The general rule is that the legal relation between a +prostitute dancing-girl and her undegraded relations remaining in +caste be severed. [78] + +(i) A pauper sued his sister for the partition of property valued at +Rs. 34,662. The parties belonged to the Bogam caste in the Godavari +district. The woman pleaded that the property had been acquired by her +as a prostitute, and denied her brother's claim to it. He obtained +a decree for only Rs. 100, being a moiety of the property left by +their mother. The High Court held, on the evidence as to the local +custom of the caste, that the decree was right. [79] + +(j) The accused, a Madiga of the Bellary district, dedicated his minor +daughter as a Basavi by a form of marriage with an idol. It appeared +that a Basavi is incapable of contracting a lawful marriage, and +ordinarily practices promiscuous intercourse with men, and that her +sons succeed to her father's property. It was held that the accused +had committed an offence under the Penal Code, which lays down that +"whoever sells, lets to hire, or otherwise disposes of any minor +under the age of sixteen years, with intent that such minor shall be +employed or used for the purpose of prostitution, or for any unlawful +and immoral purpose, shall be punished, etc." The Sessions judge +referred to evidence that it was not a matter of course for Basavis +to prostitute themselves for money, and added: "The evidence is very +clear that Basavis are made in accordance with a custom of the Madiga +caste. It is also in evidence that one of the effects of making +a girl Basavi is that her male issue becomes a son of her father, +and perpetuates his family, whereas, if she were married, he would +perpetuate her husband's family. In this particular case, the girl was +made a Basavi that she might be heir to her aunt, who was a Basavi, +but childless. Siddalingana Gowd says that they and their issue inherit +the parents' property. There is evidence that Basavis are made on a +very large scale, and that they live in their parents' houses. There +is no evidence that they are regarded otherwise than as respectable +members of the caste. It seems as if the Basavi is the Madiga and +Bedar equivalent of the "appointed daughter" of Hindu law (Mitakshara, +Chap. I, s. xi, 3). Upon the whole, the evidence seems to establish +that, among the Madigas, there is a widespread custom of performing, in +a temple at Uchangidurgam, a marriage ceremony, the result of which is +that the girl is married without possibility of widowhood or divorce; +that she is at liberty to have intercourse with men at her pleasure; +that her children are heirs to her father, and keep up his family; +and that Basavi's nieces, being made Basavis, become their heirs. The +Basavis seem in some cases to become prostitutes, but the language used +by the witnesses generally points only to free intercourse with men, +and not necessarily to receipt of payment for use of their bodies. In +fact, they seem to acquire the right of intercourse with men without +more discredit than accrues to the men of their caste for intercourse +with women who are not their wives. [80] + +It may be observed that Deva-dasis are the only class of women, +who are, under Hindu law as administered in the British Courts, +allowed to adopt girls to themselves. Amongst the other castes, +a widow, for instance, cannot adopt to herself, but only to her +husband, and she cannot adopt a daughter instead of a son. A recent +attempt by a Brahman at Poona to adopt a daughter, who should +take the place of a natural-born daughter, was held to be invalid +by general law, and not sanctioned by local usage. [81] The same +would be held in Madras. "But among dancing-girls," Mayne writes, +[82] "it is customary in Madras and Western India to adopt girls to +follow their adoptive mother's profession, and the girls so adopted +succeed to their property. No particular ceremonies are necessary, +recognition alone being sufficient. In the absence, however, of a +special custom, and on the analogy of an ordinary adoption, only +one girl can be adopted." In Calcutta and Bombay these adoptions by +dancing-girls have been held invalid. [83] + +Of proverbs relating to dancing-girls, the following may be quoted:-- + +(1) The dancing-girl who could not dance said that the hall was not +big enough. The Rev. H. Jensen gives [84] as an equivalent "When the +devil could not swim, he laid the blame on the water." + +(2) If the dancing-girl be alive, and her mother dies, there will be +beating of drums; but, if the dancing-girl dies, there will be no such +display. This is explained by Jensen as meaning that, to secure the +favour of a dancing-girl, many men will attend her mother's funeral; +but, if the dancing-girl herself dies, there is nothing to be gained +by attending the funeral. + +(3) Like a dancing-girl wiping a child. Jensen remarks that a +dancing-girl is supposed to have no children, so she does not know +how to keep them clean. Said of one who tries to mend a matter, +but lacks experience, and makes things worse than they were before. + +(4) As when a boy is born in a dancing-girl's house. Jensen notes +that, if dancing-girls have children, they desire to have girls, +that they may be brought up to their own profession. + +(5) The dancing-girl, who was formerly more than filled with good +food in the temple, now turns a somersault to get a poor man's rice. + +(6) If a matron is chaste, she may live in the dancing-girl's street, + +The insigne of courtesans, according to the Conjeeveram records, +is a Cupid, that of a Christian, a curry-comb. [85] + +Devadiga.--The Devadigas are Canarese-speaking temple servants in South +Canara, concerning whom Mr. H. A. Stuart writes as follows. [86] "This +is a class of servants, chiefly musicians in Hindu temples. In the +reign of Mayura Varma, who built a number of new temples, it was found +that Brahmans could not perform all the services. It was, therefore, +ordained by him that the puja or worship alone should be performed by +the Brahmans, and that the Stanikas and Devadigas should perform the +other services in the temples. They are also called Moili (or Moyili), +but there is a caste called Kannada Moili which is quite distinct, +and Devadigas will not eat with them. Some of them cultivate lands, +and some are employed as peons and constables. They returned eleven +sub-divisions, but only one (Tulu) is numerically important. They +are Vaishnavites, and Tulu Brahmans are their priests. As regards +marriage, there is no fixed age. Remarriage of widows is permitted, +but it is practiced only in the case of young widows. The dead are +burned. They eat flesh, and drink liquor." + +The Devadigas or Moilis speak Tulu, and are mainly +agriculturists. Their traditional occupation, however, is said to +be service in temples (slaves or servants of the deva or god). A +large number of them, both male and female, are engaged as domestic +servants. Like the Bants, they follow the aliya santana law of +inheritance (in the female line), and they have the same balis +(septs) as the Bants and Billavas. In their marriage ceremonies, +they closely imitate the Bants. An interesting feature in connection +therewith is that, during the dhare ceremony, a screen is interposed +between the bride and bridegroom at the time when the dhare water is +poured. As a sign of betrothal, a ring is given to the bride-elect, +and she wears it on the little finger. The caste is a mixed one, +and here and there Devadigas are seen to have the typical prominent +cheek-bones and square face of the Jains. + +In the Census Report, 1901, Dakkera Devali, Padarti, and Valagadava +are returned as sub-divisions of Devadiga. + +Devala (belonging to God).--An exogamous sept of Odde. The equivalent +Devali has been recorded as a sub-caste of Devadiga, and Devalyal as a +division of the Todas. [87] A division of the Irulas of the Nilgiris, +settled near the village of Devala, is known by that name. + +Devanga.--The Devangas are a caste of weavers, speaking Telugu or +Canarese, who are found all over the Madras Presidency. Those whom +I studied in the Bellary district connected my operations in a vague +way with the pilag (plague) tax, and collection of subscriptions for +the Victoria Memorial. They were employed in weaving women's saris in +pure cotton, or with a silk border, which were sold to rich merchants +in the local bazaar, some of whom belong to the Devanga caste. They +laughingly said that, though they are professional weavers, they find +it cheapest to wear cloths of European manufacture. + +The Devangas are also called Jadaru or Jada (great men), Dendra, +Devara, Dera, Seniyan, and Sedan. At Coimbatore, in the Tamil country, +they are called Settukkaran (economical people). + +The following legend is narrated concerning the origin of the +caste. Brahma, having created Manu, told him to weave clothes for +Devas and men. Accordingly Manu continued to weave for some years, +and reached heaven through his piety and virtuous life. There being +no one left to weave for them, the Devas and men had to wear garments +of leaves. Vexed at this, they prayed to Brahma that he would rescue +them from their plight. Brahma took them to Siva, who at once created +a lustrous spirit, and called him Devalan. Struck with the brilliancy +thereof, all fled in confusion, excepting Parvati, who remained near +Siva. Siva told her that Devalan was created to weave clothes, to +cover the limbs and bodies of Devas and men, whose descendants are +in consequence called Devangas (Deva angam, limb of god). Devalan +was advised to obtain thread from the lotus stalks springing from +the navel of Vishnu, and he secured them after a severe penance. On +his way back, he met a Rakshasa, Vajradantan by name, who was doing +penance at a hermitage, disguised as a Sanyasi. Deceived by his +appearance, Devalan paid homage to him, and determined to spend the +night at the hermitage. But, towards the close of the day, the Rishi +and his followers threw off their disguise, and appeared in their +true colours as Asuras. Devalan sought the assistance of Vishnu, +and a chakra was given to him, with which he attempted to overthrow +the increasing number of Asuras. He then invoked the assistance +of Chaudanayaki or Chaudeswari, who came riding on a lion, and the +Asuras were killed off. The mighty Asuras who met their death were +Vajradantan (diamond-toothed), Pugainethran (smoke-eyed), Pugaimugan +(smoke-faced), Chithrasenan (leader of armies) and Jeyadrathan (owner +of a victory-securing car). The blood of these five was coloured +respectively yellow, red, white, green, and black. For dyeing threads +of different colours, Devalan dipped them in the blood. The Devangas +claim to be the descendants of Devalan, and say that they are Devanga +Brahmans, on the strength of the following stanza, which seems to +have been composed by a Devanga priest, Sambalinga Murti by name:-- + + + Manu was born in the Brahman caste. + He was surely a Brahman in the womb. + There is no Sudraism in this caste. + Devanga had the form of Brahma. + + +The legendary origin of the Devangas is given as follows in the +Baramahal Records. [88] "When Brahma the creator created the charam +and acharam, or the animate and inanimate creation, the Devatas or +gods, Rakshasas or evil demons, and the human race, were without a +covering for their bodies, which displeasing the god Narada or reason, +he waited upon Parameshwara or the great Lord at his palace on the +Kailasa Parvata or mount of paradise, and represented the indecent +state of the inhabitants of the universe, and prayed that he would +be pleased to devise a covering for their nakedness. Parameshwara saw +the propriety of Narada's request, and thought it was proper to grant +it. While he was so thinking, a male sprang into existence from his +body, whom he named Deva angam or the body of God, in allusion to the +manner of his birth. Deva angam instantly asked his progenitor why +he had created him. The God answered 'Repair to the pala samudram +or sea of milk, where you will find Sri Maha Vishnu or the august +mighty god Vishnu, and he will tell thee what to do.' Deva angam +repaired to the presence of Sri Maha Vishnu, and represented that +Parameshwara had sent him, and begged to be favoured with Vishnu's +commands. Vishnu replied 'Do you weave cloth to serve as a covering +to the inhabitants of the universe.' Vishnu then gave him some of +the fibres of the lotus flower that grew from his navel, and taught +him how to make it into cloth. Deva angam wove a piece of cloth, and +presented it to Vishnu, who accepted it, and ordered him to depart, +and to take the fibres of trees, and make raiment for the inhabitants +of the Vishnu loka or gods. Deva angam created ten thousand weavers, +who used to go to the forest and collect the fibre of trees, and make +it into cloth for the Devatas or gods and the human race. One day, +Deva angam and his tribe went to a forest in the Bhuloka or earthly +world, in order to collect the fibre of trees, when he was attacked +by a race of Rakshasas or giants, on which he waxed wroth, and, +unbending his jata or long plaited hair, gave it a twist, and struck +it once on the ground. In that moment, a Shakti, or female goddess +having eight hands, each grasping a warlike weapon, sprang from the +earth, attacked the Rakshasas, and defeated them. Deva anga named her +Chudeshwari or goddess of the hair, and, as she delivered his tribe +out of the hands of the Rakshasas, he made her his tutelary divinity." + +The tribal goddess of the Devangas is Chaudeswari, a form of Kali or +Durga, who is worshipped annually at a festival, in which the entire +community takes part either at the temple, or at a house or grove +specially prepared for the occasion. During the festival weaving +operations cease; and those who take a prominent part in the rites +fast, and avoid pollution. The first day is called alagu nilupadam +(erecting, or fixing of the sword). The goddess is worshipped, and +a sheep or goat sacrificed, unless the settlement is composed of +vegetarian Devangas. One man at least from each sept fasts, remains +pure, and carries a sword. Inside the temple, or at the spot selected, +the pujari (priest) tries to balance a long sword on its point on +the edge of the mouth of a pot, while the alagu men cut their chests +with the swords. Failure to balance the sword is believed to be +due to pollution brought by somebody to get rid of which the alagu +men bathe. Cow's urine and turmeric water are sprinkled over those +assembled, and women are kept at a distance to prevent menstrual or +other form of pollution. On the next day, called jothiarambam (jothi, +light or splendour) as Chaudeswari is believed to have sprung from +jothi, a big mass is made of rice flour, and a wick, fed with ghi +(clarified butter) and lighted, is placed in a cavity scooped out +therein. This flour lamp must be made by members of a pujari's family +assisted sometimes by the alagu boys. In its manufacture, a quantity +of rice is steeped in water, and poured on a plantain leaf. Jaggery +(crude sugar) is then mixed with it, and, when it is of the proper +consistency, it is shaped into a cone, and placed on a silver or brass +tray. On the third day, called panaka puja or mahanevedyam, jaggery +water is offered, and cocoanuts, and other offerings are laid before +the goddess. The rice mass is divided up, and given to the pujari, +setti, alagu men and boys, and to the community, to which small +portions are doled out in a particular order, which must be strictly +observed. For example, at Tindivanam the order is as follows:-- + + + Setti (headman). + Dhondapu family. + Bapatla family. + Kosanam family. + Modanam family. + + +Fire-walking does not form part of the festival, as the goddess +herself sprang from fire. + +In some places in the North Arcot district the festival lasts over +ten days, and varies in some points from the above. On the first day, +the people go in procession to a jammi (Prosopis spicigera) tree, +and worship a decorated pot (kalasam), to which sheep and goats are +sacrificed. From the second to the sixth day, the goddess and pot are +worshipped daily. On the seventh day, the jammi tree is again visited, +and a man carries on his back cooked rice, which may not be placed on +the ground, except near the tree, or at the temple. If the rice is not +set down en route thereto, it is accepted as a sign that the festival +may be proceeded with. Otherwise they would be afraid to light the +joti on the ninth day. This is a busy day, and the ceremonies of +sandhulu kattadam (binding the corners), alagu erecting, lighting +the flour mass, and pot worship are performed. Early in the morning, +goats and sheep are killed, outside the village boundary, in the +north, east, south, and west corners, and the blood is sprinkled +on all sides to keep off all foreign ganams or saktis. The sword +business, as already described, is gone through, and certain tests +applied to see whether the joti may be lighted. A lime fruit is +placed in the region of the navel of the idol, who should throw it +down spontaneously. A bundle of betel leaves is cut across with a +knife, and the cut ends should unite. If the omens are favourable, +the joti is lighted, sheep and goats are killed, and pongal (rice) +is offered to the joti. The day closes with worship of the pot. On the +last day the rice mass is distributed. All Devanga guests from other +villages have to be received and treated with respect according to +the local rules, which are in force. For this purpose, the community +divide their settlements into Sthalams, Payakattulu, Galugramatulu, +Petalu, and Kurugramalu, which have a definite order of precedence. + +Among the Devangas the following endogamous sections occur:--(1) +Telugu; (2) Canarese; (3) Hathinentu Manayavaru (eighteen house +people); (4) Sivachara; (5) Ariya; (6) Kodekal Hatakararu (weavers). + +They are practically divided into two linguistic sections, Canarese and +Telugu, of which the former have adopted the Brahmanical ceremonials +to a greater extent than the latter, who are more conservative. Those +who wear the sacred thread seem to preponderate over the non-thread +weavers in the Canarese section. To the thread is sometimes attached +metal charm-cylinder to ward off evil spirits. + +The following are examples of exogamous septs in the Telugu section:-- + + + Akasam, sky. + Anumala, seeds of Dolichos lablab. + Boggula, charcoal. + Bandla, rock or cart. + Chintakai, tamarind fruit. + Challa, buttermilk. + Chapparam, pandal or booth. + Dhoddi, cattle-pen, or courtyard. + Dhuggani, money. + Yerra, red. + Konda, mountain. + Kaththi, knife. + Bandari (treasurer). + Busam, grain. + Dhondapu (Cephalandra indica). + Elugoti, assembly. + Gattu, bank or mound. + Paidam, money. + Gonapala, old plough. + Gosu, pride. + Jigala, pith. + Katta, a dam. + Kompala, houses. + Konangi, buffoon. + Katikala, collyrium. + Kaththiri, scissors. + Moksham, heaven. + Pasupala, turmeric. + Pidakala, dried cow-dung cakes. + Pothula, male. + Pachi powaku, green tobacco. + Padavala, boat. + Pouzala, a bird. + Pammi, clay lamp. + Thalakoka, female cloth. + Thutla, hole. + Utla, ropes for hanging pots. + Vasthrala, cloths. + Matam, monastery. + Madira, liquor or heap of earth. + Medam, fight. + Masila, dirt. + Olikala, funeral pyre and ashes. + Prithvi, earth. + Peraka, tile. + Punjala, cock or male. + Pinjala, cotton-cleaning. + Pichchiga, sparrow. + Sika (kudumi: tuft of hair). + Sandala, lanes. + Santha, a fair. + Sajje (Setaria italica). + + +The majority of Devangas are Saivites, and wear the lingam. They do +not, however, wash the stone lingam with water, in which the feet +of Jangams have been washed. They are not particular as to always +keeping the lingam on the body, and give as an explanation that, +when they are at work, they have to touch all kinds of people. Some +said that merchants, when engaged in their business, should not wear +the lingam, especially if made of spatikam (quartz), as they have to +tell untruths as regards the value and quality of their goods, and +ruin would follow if these were told while the lingam was on the body. + +In some parts of Ganjam, the country folk keep a large number of +Brahmini bulls. When one of these animals dies, very elaborate funeral +ceremonies take place, and the dead beast is carried in procession +by Devangas, and buried by them. As the Devangas are Lingayats, +they have a special reverence for Basavanna, the sacred bull, and +the burying of the Brahmini bull is regarded by them as a sacred and +meritorious act. Other castes do not regard it as such, though they +often set free sacred cows or calves. + +Devangas and Padma Sales never live in the same street, and do not +draw water from the same well. This is probably due to the fact that +they belong to the left and right-hand factions respectively, and +no love is lost between them. Like other left-hand castes, Devangas +have their own dancing-girls, called Jathi-biddalu (children of the +castes), whose male offspring do achchupani, printing-work on cloth, +and occasionally go about begging from Devangas. In the Madras +Census Report, 1901, it is stated that "in Madura and Tinnevelly, +the Devangas, or Sedans, consider themselves a shade superior to the +Brahmans, and never do namaskaram (obeisance or salutation) to them, +or employ them as priests. In Madura and Coimbatore, the Sedans have +their own dancing-girls, who are called Devanga or Seda Dasis in the +former, and Manikkattal in the latter, and are strictly reserved for +members of the caste under pain of excommunication or heavy fine." + +Concerning the origin of the Devanga beggars, called Singamvadu, +the following legend is current. When Chaudeswari and Devalan were +engaged in combat with the Asuras, one of the Asuras hid himself +behind the ear of the lion, on which the goddess was seated. When +the fight was over, he came out, and asked for pardon. The goddess +took pity on him, and ordered that his descendants should be called +Singamvallu, and asked Devalan to treat them as servants, and support +them. Devangas give money to these beggars, who have the privilege +of locking the door, and carrying away the food, when the castemen +take their meals. In assemblies of Devangas, the hand of the beggar +serves as a spittoon. He conveys the news of death, and has as the +insignia of office a horn, called thuththari or singam. + +The office of headman, or Pattagar, is hereditary, and he is assisted +by an official called Sesha-raju or Umidisetti who is the servant of +the community, and receives a small fee annually for each loom within +his beat. + +Widow remarriage is permitted in some places, and forbidden +in others. There may be intermarriage between the flesh-eating +and vegetarian sections. But a girl who belongs to a flesh-eating +family, and marries into a vegetarian family, must abstain from meat, +and may not touch any vessel or food in her husband's family till +she has reached puberty. Before settling the marriage of a girl, +some village goddess, or Chaudeswari, is consulted, and the omens +are watched. A lizard chirping on the right is a good omen, and on +the left bad. Sometimes, red and white flowers, wrapped up in green +leaves, are thrown in front of the idol, and the omen considered good +or bad according to the flower which a boy or girl picks up. At the +marriage ceremony which commences with distribution of pan-supari +(betel) and Vigneswara worship, the bride is presented with a new +cloth, and sits on a three-legged stool or cloth-roller (dhonige). The +maternal uncle puts round her neck a bondhu (strings of unbleached +cotton) dipped in turmeric. The ceremonies are carried out according +to the Puranic ritual, except by those who consider themselves to +be Devanga Brahmans. On the first day the milk post is set up being +made of Odina Wodier in the Tamil, and Mimusops hexandra in the Telugu +country. Various rites are performed, which include tonsure, upanayanam +(wearing the sacred thread), padapuja (washing the feet), Kasiyatra +(mock pilgrimage to Benares), dharadhattam (giving away the bride), +and mangalyadharanam (tying the marriage badge, or bottu). The +proceedings conclude with pot searching. A pap-bowl and ring are +put into a pot. If the bride picks out the bowl, her first-born will +be a girl, and if the bridegroom gets hold of the ring, it will be +a boy. On the fifth day, a square design is made on the floor with +coloured rice grains. Between the contracting couple and the square a +row of lights is placed. Four pots are set, one at each corner of the +square, and eight pots arranged along each side thereof. On the square +itself, two pots representing Siva and Uma, are placed, with a row of +seedling pots near them. A thread is wound nine times round the pots +representing the god and goddess, and tied above to the pandal. After +the pots have been worshipped, the thread is cut, and worn, with the +sacred thread, for three months. This ceremony is called Nagavali. + +When a girl reaches puberty, a twig of Alangium Lamarckii is placed +in the menstrual hut to keep off devils. + +The dead are generally buried in a sitting posture. Before the grave is +filled in, a string is tied to the kudumi (hair knot) of the corpse, +and, by its means, the head is brought near the surface. Over it a +lingam is set up, and worshipped daily throughout the death ceremonies. + +The following curious custom is described by Mr. C. Hayavadana +Rao. Once in twelve years, a Devanga leaves his home, and joins +the Padma Sales. He begs from them, saying that he is the son of +their caste, and as such entitled to be supported by them. If alms +are not forthcoming, he enters the house, and carries off whatever +he may be able to pick up. Sometimes, if he can get nothing else, +he has been known to seize a lighted cigar in the mouth of a Sale, +and run off with it. The origin of this custom is not certain, but +it has been suggested that the Devangas and Sales were originally one +caste, and that the former separated from the latter when they became +Lingayats. A Devanga only becomes a Chinerigadu when he is advanced +in years, and will eat the remnants of food left by Padma Sales on +their plates. A Chinerigadu is, on his death, buried by the Sales. + +Many of the Devangas are short of stature, light skinned, with +sharp-cut features, light-brown iris, and delicate tapering +fingers. Those at Hospet, in the Bellary district, carried thorn +tweezers (for removing thorns of Acacia arabica from the feet), +tooth-pick and ear-scoop, suspended as a chatelaine from the +loin-string. The more well-to-do had these articles made of silver, +with the addition of a silver saw for paring the nails and cutting +cheroots. The name Pampanna, which some of them bore, is connected with +the nymph Pampa, who resides at Hampi, and asked Parameswara to become +her husband. He accordingly assumed the name of Pampapathi, in whose +honour there is a tank at Anagundi, and temple at Hampi. He directed +Pampa to live in a pond, and pass by the name of Pampasarovara. + +The Sedans of Coimbatore, at the time of my visit in October, were +hard at work making clothes for the Dipavali festival. It is at times +of festivals and marriages, in years of prosperity among the people, +that the weavers reap their richest harvest. + +In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Bilimagga (white loom) and Atagara +(weavers and exorcists) are returned as sub-castes of Devanga. The +usual title of the Devangas is Chetti. + +The shortness of stature of some of the weaving classes which I have +examined is brought out by the following average measurements:-- + + + cm. + Padma Sale 159.9 + Sukun Sale 160.3 + Togata 160.5 + Suka Sale 161.1 + + +Devendra.--A name assumed by some Pallans, who claim to be descended +from the king of the gods (devas). + +Dhabba (split bamboo).--Dhabba or Dhabbai is the name of a sub-division +of Koravas, who split bamboos, and make various articles therefrom. + +Dhakkado.--A small mixed class of Oriya cultivators, concerning whom +there is a proverb that a Dhakkado does not know his father. They +are described, in the Census Report, 1891, as "a caste of cultivators +found in the Jeypore agency tracts. They are said to be the offspring +of a Brahman and a Sudra girl, and, though living on the hills, they +are not an uncivilised hill tribe. Some prepare and sell the sacred +thread, others are confectioners. They wear the sacred thread, and +do not drink water from the hands of any except Brahmans. Girls are +married before puberty, and widow marriage is practiced. They are +flesh-eaters, and their dead are usually buried." + +In a note on the Dhakkados, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao writes that +"the illegitimate descendant of a Brahman and a hill woman of the +non-polluting castes is said to be known as a Dhakkado. The Dhakkados +assume Brahmanical names, but, as regards marriages, funerals, etc., +follow the customs of their mother's caste. Her caste people intermarry +with her children. A Dhakkado usually follows the occupation of his +mother's caste. Thus one whose mother is a Kevuto follows the calling +of fishing or plying boats on rivers, one whose mother is a Bhumia +is an agriculturist, and so on." + +Dhakur.--Stated, in the Manual of the Vizagapatam district, to be +illegitimate children of Brahmans, who wear the paieta (sacred thread). + +Dhanapala.--A sub-division of Gollas, who guard treasure while it is +in transit. + +Dhangar.--Dhangar, or Donigar, is recorded, in the Madras Census +Report, 1901, as a Marathi caste of shepherds and cattle-breeders. I +gather, from a note [89] on the Dhangars of the Kanara district in +the Bombay Presidency, that "the word Dhangar is generally derived +from the Sanskrit dhenu, a cow. Their home speech is Marathi, but they +can speak Kanarese. They keep a special breed of cows and buffaloes, +known as Dhangar mhasis and Dhangar gais which are the largest cattle +in Kanara. Many of Shivaji's infantry were Satara Dhangars." + +Dhaniala (coriander).--An exogamous sept of Kamma. Dhaniala Jati, +or coriander caste, is an opprobrious name applied to Komatis, +indicating that, in business transactions, they must be crushed as +coriander fruits are crushed before the seed is sown. + +Dhare.--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. In the Canara country, the +essential and binding part of the marriage ceremony is called dhare +(see Bant). + +Dharmaraja.--An exogamous sept of the Irulas of North Arcot. Dharmaraja +was the eldest of the five Pandavas, the heroes of the Mahabharatha. + +Dhippo (light).--An exogamous sept of Bhondari. The members thereof +may not blow out lights, or extinguish them in any other way. They +will not light lamps without being madi, i.e., wearing silk cloths, +or cloths washed and dried after bathing. + +Dhobi.--A name used for washerman by Anglo-Indians all over India. The +word is said to be derived from dhoha, Sanskrit, dhav, to wash. A +whitish grey sandy efflorescence, found in many places, from which, +by boiling and the addition of quicklime, an alkali of considerable +strength is obtained, is called Dhobi's earth. [90] "The expression +dhobie itch," Manson writes, [91] "although applied to any itching +ringworm-like affection of any part of the skin, most commonly +refers to some form of epiphytic disease of the crutch or axilla +(armpit)." The disease is very generally supposed to be communicated +by clothes from the wash, but Manson is of opinion that the belief +that it is contracted from clothes which have been contaminated by +the washerman is probably not very well founded. + +Dhobi is the name, by which the washerman caste of the Oriyas +is known. "They are said," Mr. Francis writes, [92] "to have come +originally from Orissa. Girls are generally married before maturity, +and, if this is not possible, they have to be married to a sword or +a tree, before they can be wedded to a man. Their ordinary marriage +ceremonies are as follows. The bridal pair bathe in water brought from +seven different houses. The bridegroom puts a bangle on the bride's +arm (this is the binding part of the ceremony); the left and right +wrists of the bride and bridegroom are tied together; betel leaf +and nut are tied in a corner of the bride's cloth, and a myrabolam +(Terminalia fruit) in that of the bridegroom; and finally the people +present in the pandal (booth) throw rice and saffron (turmeric) over +them. Widows and divorced women may marry again. They are Vaishnavites, +but some of them also worship Kali or Durga. They employ Bairagis, +and occasionally Brahmans, as their priests. They burn their dead, and +perform sraddha (annual memorial ceremony). Their titles are Chetti +(or Maha Chetti) and Behara." The custom of the bridal pair bathing +in water from seven different houses obtains among many Oriya castes, +including Brahmans. It is known by the name of pani-tula. The water +is brought by married girls, who have not reached puberty, on the +night preceding the wedding day, and the bride and bridegroom wash +in it before dawn. This bath is called koili pani snano, or cuckoo +water-bath. The koil is the Indian koel or cuckoo (Eudynamis honorata), +whose crescendo cry ku-il, ku-il, is trying to the nerves during the +hot season. + +The following proverbs [93] relating to washermen may be quoted:-- + + + Get a new washerman, and an old barber. + + The washerman knows the defects of the village (i.e., he learns + a good deal about the private affairs of the various families, + when receiving and delivering the clothes). + + When a washerman gets sick, his sickness must leave him at the + stone. The stone referred to is the large stone, on which the + washerman cleans cloths, and the proverb denotes that, however + sick a washerman may be, his work must be done. + + +Dhoddi.--Dhoddi, meaning a court or back-yard, cattle-pen, or +sheep-fold, has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Devanga, +Koppala Velama, Kama Sale, Mala, and Yanadi. + +Dhoddiyan.--A name given by Tamilians to Jogis. + +Dhollo.--Dhollo is recorded in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as +the same as Doluva. A correspondent informs me that Dhollo is said +to be different from Doluva. + +Dhoma (gnat or mosquito).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Dhondapu (Cephalandra indica).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. The fruit +is one of the commonest of native vegetables, and cooked in curries. + +Dhoni (boat).--An exogamous sept of Mila and Oruganti Kapu. In a +paper on the native vessels of South India by Mr. Edge, published in +the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, the dhoni is described as +"a vessel of ark-like form, about 70 feet long, 20 feet broad, and +11 feet deep, with a flat bottom or keel part, which at the broadest +place is 7 feet. + +"The whole equipment of these rude vessels, as well as their +construction, is the most coarse and unseaworthy that I have ever +seen." The dhoni, with masts, is represented in the ancient lead and +copper coinage of Southern India. + +Dhor.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, a few (164) individuals were +returned as "Dher, a low caste of Marathi leather workers." They were, +I gather from the Bombay Gazetteer, Dhors or tanners who dwell in +various parts of the Bombay Presidency, and whose home speech, names +and surnames seem to show that they have come from the Maratha country. + +Dhudala (calves).--An exogamous sept of Thumati Golla. + +Dhudho (milk).--A sept of Omanaito. + +Dhuggani (money).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Dhuliya.--Dhuliya or Dulia is a small class of Oriya cultivators, +some of whom wear the sacred thread, and employ Boishnobs as their +priests. Marriage before puberty is not compulsory, and widows can +remarry. They eat flesh. The dead are cremated. [94] The name is +said to be derived from dhuli, dust, with which those who work in the +fields are covered. Dhuliya also means carriers of dhulis (dhoolies), +which are a form of palanquin. + +Didavi.--A sub-division of Poroja. + +Digambara (space-clad or sky-clad, i.e., nude).--One of the two main +divisions of the Jains. The Digambaras are said [95] to "regard +absolute nudity as the indispensable sign of holiness, though the +advance of civilisation has compelled them to depart from the practice +of their theory." + +Divar.--See Deva. + +Diyasi.--An exogamous sept of Dandasi. The members thereof show special +reverence for the sun, and cloths, mokkutos (forehead chaplets), +garlands, and other articles to be used by the bride and bridegroom +at a wedding are placed outside the house, so that they may be exposed +to it. + +Dolaiya.--A title of Doluva and Odia. + +Dolobehara.--The name of headmen or their assistants among many Oriya +castes. In some cases, e.g., among the Haddis, the name is used as +a title by families, members of which are headmen. + +Doluva.--The Doluvas of Ganjam are, according to the Madras Census +Report, 1891, "supposed to be the descendants of the old Rajahs by +their concubines, and were employed as soldiers and attendants. The +name is said to be derived from the Sanskrit dola, meaning army." The +Doluvas claim to be descended from the Puri Rajahs by their concubines, +and say that some of them were employed as sirdars and paiks under +these Rajahs. They are said to have accompanied a certain Puri Rajah +who came south to wage war, and to have settled in Ganjam. They +are at the present day mainly engaged in agriculture, though some +are traders, bricklayers, cart-drivers, etc. The caste seems to be +divided into five sections, named Kondaiyito, Lenka, Rabba, Pottia, +and Beharania, of which the first two are numerically the strongest +and most widely distributed. Kondaiyito is said to be derived from +kondo, an arrow, and to indicate warrior. The Kondaiyitos sometimes +style themselves Rajah Doluvas, and claim superiority over the other +sections. It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "Oriya +Zamindars get wives from this sub-division, but the men of it cannot +marry into the Zamindar's families. They wear the sacred thread, +and are writers." In former days, the title writer was applied to +the junior grade of Civil Servants of the East India Company. It is +now used to denote a copying clerk in an office. + +Various titles occur among members of the caste, e.g., Bissoyi, +Biswalo, Dolei, Jenna, Kottiya, Mahanti, Majhi, Nahako, Porida, +Ravuto, Samulo, and Sani. + +The ordinary caste council system, with a hereditary headman, seems +to be absent among the Doluvas, and the affairs of the caste are +settled by leading members thereof. + +The Doluvas are Paramarthos, following the Chaitanya form of +Vaishnavism, and wearing a rosary of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) beads. They +further worship various Takuranis (village deities), among which +are Kalva, Bagadevi, Kotari, Maheswari, and Manickeswari. They are +in some places very particular regarding the performance of sradh +(memorial ceremony), which is carried out annually in the following +manner. On the night before the sradh day, a room is prepared for +the reception of the soul of the deceased. This room is called pitru +bharano (reception of the ancestor). The floor thereof is cleansed with +cow-dung water, and a lamp fed with ghi (clarified butter) is placed +on it by the side of a plank. On this plank a new cloth is laid for +the reception of various articles for worship, e.g., sacred grass, +Zizyphus jujuba leaves, flowers, etc. In front of the plank a brass +vessel, containing water and a tooth brush of Achyranthes aspera root, +is placed. The dead person's son throws rice and Zizyphus leaves into +the air, and calls on the deceased to come and give a blessing on the +following day. The room is then locked, and the lamp kept burning +in it throughout the night. On the following day, all old pots are +thrown away and, after a small space has been cleaned on the floor +of the house, a pattern is drawn thereon with flour in the form of +a square or oblong with twelve divisions. On each division a jak +(Artocarpus integrifolia) leaf is placed, and on each leaf the son +puts cooked rice and vegetables. A vessel containing Achyranthes +root, and a plank with a new cloth on it, are set by the side of +the pattern. After worship has been performed and food offered, +the cloth is presented to a Brahman, and the various articles used +in the ceremonial are thrown into water. + +Domb.--The name Domb or Dombo is said to be derived from the word +dumba, meaning devil, in reference to the thieving propensities +of the tribe. The Dombas, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [96] "are a +Dravidian caste of weavers and menials, found in the hill tracts of +Vizagapatam. This caste appears to be an offshoot of the Dom caste +of Bengal, Behar, and the North-Western Provinces. Like the Doms, +the Dombas are regarded with disgust, because they eat beef, pork, +horse-flesh, rats, and the flesh of animals which have died a natural +death, and both are considered to be Chandalas or Pariahs by the +Bengalis and the Uriyas. The Dombs weave the cloths and blankets +worn by the hill people, but, like the Pariahs of the plains, they +are also labourers, scavengers, etc. Some of them are extensively +engaged in trade, and they have, as a rule, more knowledge of the +world than the ryots who despise them. They are great drunkards." In +the Census Report, 1871, it was noted that "in many villages, the +Doms carry on the occupation of weaving, but, in and around Jaipur, +they are employed as horse-keepers, tom-tom beaters, scavengers, +and in other menial duties. Notwithstanding their abject position +in the social scale, some signs of progress may be detected amongst +them. They are assuming the occupation, in many instances, of petty +hucksters, eking out a livelihood by taking advantage of the small +difference in rates between market and market." + +"The Dombs," Mr. F. Fawcett writes, [97] "are an outcast jungle +people, who inhabit the forests on the high lands fifty to eighty or a +hundred miles from the east coast, about Vizagapatam. Being outcast, +they are never allowed to live within a village, but have their own +little hamlet adjoining a village proper, inhabited by people of +various superior castes. It is fair to say that the Dombs are akin +to the Panos of the adjoining Khond country, a Pariah folk who live +amongst the Khonds, and used to supply the human victims for the +Meriah sacrifices. Indeed, the Khonds, who hold them in contemptuous +inferiority, call them Dombas as a sort of alternative title to +Panos. The Paidis of the adjoining Savara or Saora country are also, +doubtless, kinsmen of the Dombs. [The same man is said to be called +Paidi by Telugus, Dombo by the Savaras, and Pano by the Khonds. It +is noted in the Census Report, 1881, that the Pano quarters in Khond +villages are called Dombo Sai.] In most respects their condition is +a very poor one. Though they live in the best part of the Presidency +for game, they know absolutely nothing of hunting, and cannot even +handle a bow and arrow. They have, however, one respectable quality, +industry, and are the weavers, traders, and money-lenders of the hills, +being very useful as middlemen between the Khonds, Sauras, Gadabas, +and other hill people on the one hand, and the traders of the plains +on the other. I am informed, on good authority, that there are some +Dombs who rise higher than this, but cannot say whether these are, +or are not crosses with superior races. Most likely they are, for +most of the Dombs are arrant thieves. It was this propensity for +thieving, in fact, which had landed some hundreds of them in the jail +at Vizagapatam when I visited that place, and gave me an opportunity +of recording their measurements." The averages of the more important +of these measurements are as follows:-- + + + cm. + Stature 161.9 + Cephalic length 18.8 + Cephalic breadth 14.3 + Cephalic index 75.6 + Nasal index 86.5 + + +It is noted by the Missionary Gloyer [98] that the colour of the +skin of the Dombs varies from very dark to yellow, and their height +from that of an Aryan to the short stature of an aboriginal, and that +there is a corresponding variation in facial type. + +For the following note on the Dombs, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana +Rao. They are the weavers, traders, musicians, beggars, and +money-lenders of the hills. Some own cattle, and cultivate. The +hill people in the interior are entirely dependent on them for their +clothing. A few Domb families are generally found to each village. They +act as middlemen between the hill people and the Komati traders. Their +profits are said to be large, and their children are, in some places, +found attending hill schools. As musicians, they play on the drum and +pipe. They are the hereditary musicians of the Maharaja of Jeypore. A +Domb beggar, when engaged in his professional calling, goes about +from door to door, playing on a little pipe. Their supposed powers +over devils and witches result in their being consulted when troubles +appear. Though the Dombs are regarded as a low and polluting class, +they will not eat at the hands of Komatis, Bhondaris, or Ghasis. Some +Dombas have become converts to Christianity through missionary +influence. + +In the Madras Census Report, 1891, the following sections of the +Dombs are recorded:--Onomia, Odia, Mandiri, Mirgam, and Kohara. The +sub-divisions, however, seem to be as follows:--Mirigani, Kobbiriya, +Odiya, Sodabisiya, Mandiri, and Andiniya. There are also various septs, +of which the following have been recorded among the Odiyas:--Bhag +(tiger), Balu (bear), Nag (cobra), Hanuman (the monkey god), Kochchipo +(tortoise), Bengri (frog), Kukra (dog), Surya (sun), Matsya (fish), +and Jaikonda (lizard). It is noted by Mr. Fawcett that "monkeys, frogs, +and cobras are taboo, and also the sunari tree (Ochna squarrosa). The +big lizard, cobras, frogs, and the crabs which are found in the paddy +fields, and are usually eaten by jungle people, may not be eaten." + +When a girl reaches puberty, she remains outside the hut for five +days, and then bathes at the nearest stream, and is presented with +a new cloth. In honour of the event, drink is distributed among her +relatives. Girls are usually married after puberty. A man can claim +his paternal aunt's daughter in marriage. When a proposal of marriage +is to be made, the suitor carries some pots of liquor, usually worth +two rupees, to the girl's house, and deposits them in front of it. If +her parents consent to the match, they take the pots inside, and drink +some of the liquor. After some time has elapsed, more liquor, worth +five rupees, is taken to the girl's house. A reduction in the quantity +of liquor is made when a man is proposing for the hand of his paternal +aunt's daughter, and, on the second occasion, the liquor will only be +worth three rupees. A similar reduction is made in the jholla tonka, +or bride price. On the wedding day, the bridegroom goes, accompanied +by his relations, to the bride's home, where, at the auspicious moment +fixed by the Desari, his father presents new cloths to himself and +the bride, which they put on. They stand before the hut, and on each +is placed a cloth with a myrabolam (Terminalia) seed, rice, and a few +copper coins tied up in it. The bridegroom's right little finger is +linked with the left little finger of the bride, and they enter the +hut. On the following day, the newly married couple repair to the home +of the bridegroom. On the third day, they are bathed in turmeric water, +a pig is killed, and a feast is held. On the ninth day, the knots in +the cloths, containing the myrabolams, rice, and coins, are untied, +and the marriage ceremonies are at an end. The remarriage of widows +is permitted, and a younger brother usually marries the widow of his +elder brother. + +It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district, that "some +of the Dombus of the Parvatipur Agency follow many of the customs +of the low-country castes, including menarikam (marriage with the +maternal uncle's daughter), and say they are the same as the Paidis +(or Paidi Malas) of the plains adjoining, with whom they intermarry." + +The corpses of the more prosperous Dombs are usually cremated. The +wood of the sunari tree and relli (Cassia fistula) may not be used +for the pyre. The son or husband of a deceased person has his head, +moustache, and armpits shaved on the tenth day. + +Domb women, and women of other tribes in the Jeypore Agency tracts, +wear silver ear ornaments called nagul, representing a cobra just +about to strike with tongue protruded. Similar ornaments of gold, +called naga pogulu (cobra-shaped earrings), are worn by women of some +Telugu castes in the plains of Vizagapatam. + +The personal names of the Dombs are, as among other Oriya castes, +often those of the day of the week on which the individual was born. + +Concerning the religion of the Dombs, Mr. Fawcett notes that "their +chief god--probably an ancestral spirit--is called Kaluga. There is +one in each village, in the headman's house. The deity is represented +by a pie piece (copper coin), placed in or over a new earthen pot +smeared with rice and turmeric powder. During worship, a silk cloth, +a new cloth, or a wet cloth may be worn, but one must not dress in +leaves. Before the mangoes are eaten, the first-fruits are offered +to the moon, at the full moon of the month Chitra." + +"When," Gloyer writes, "a house has to be built, the first thing is to +select a favourable spot, to which few evil spirits (dumas) resort. At +this spot they put, in several places, three grains of rice arranged in +such a way that the two lower grains support the upper one. To protect +the grains, they pile up stones round them, and the whole is lightly +covered with earth. When, after some time, they find on inspection +that the upper grain has fallen off, the spot is regarded as unlucky, +and must not be used. If the position of the grains remains unchanged, +the omen is regarded as auspicious. They drive in the first post, +which must have a certain length, say of five, seven, or nine ells, +the ell being measured from the tip of the middle finger to the +elbow. The post is covered on the top with rice straw, leaves, and +shrubs, so that birds may not foul it, which would be regarded as +an evil omen. [In Madras, a story is current, with reference to the +statue of Sir Thomas Munro, that he seized upon all the rice depôts, +and starved the people to death by selling rice in egg-shells at one +shell for a rupee, and, to punish him, the Government erected the +statue in an open place, so that the birds of the air might insult +him by polluting his face.] In measuring the house, odd numbers play +an important part. The number four (pura, or full number), however, +forms the proper measurement, whereby they measure the size of the +house, according to the pleasure of the builder. But now the Dissary +(Desari) decides whether the house shall be built on the nandi, dua, or +tia system, nandi signifying one, dua two, and tia three. This number +of ells must be added to the measurement of the house. Supposing that +the length of the house is twelve ells, then it will be necessary to +add one ell according to the nandi system, so that the length amounts +to thirteen ells. The number four can only be used for stables." + +"The Dumas," Gloyer continues, "are represented as souls of the +deceased, which roam about without a home, so as to cause to mankind +all possible harm. At the birth of a child, the Duma must be invited +in a friendly manner to provide the child with a soul, and protect it +against evil. For this purpose, a fowl is killed on the ninth day, +a bone (beinknochen) detached, and pressed in to the hand of the +infant. The relations are seated in solemn silence, and utter the +formula:--When grandfather, grandmother, father, or brother comes, +throw away the bone, and we will truly believe it. No sooner does the +sprawling and excited infant drop the bone, than the Dumas are come, +and boisterous glee prevails. The Dumas occasionally give vent to +their ghostly sounds, and cause no little consternation among the +inmates of a house, who hide from fear. Cunning thieves know how to +rob the superstitious by employing instruments with a subdued tone +(dumpftönende), or by emitting deep sounds from the chest. The yearly +sacrifice to a Duma consists of a black fowl and strong brandy. If +a member of a family falls ill, an extraordinary sacrifice has to +be offered up. The Duma is not regarded only as an evil spirit, but +also as a tutelary deity. He protects one against the treacherous +attacks of witches. A place is prepared for him in the door-hinge, or +a fishing-net, wherein he lives, is placed over the door. The witches +must count all the knots of the net, before they can enter. Devil +worship is closely connected with that of the Duma. The devil's +priests, and in rare cases priestesses, effect communion between +the people and the Dumas by a sort of possession, which the spirit, +entering into them, is said to give rise to. This condition, which is +produced by intoxicating drink and the fumes of burning incense, gives +rise to revolting cramp-like contortions, and muscular quiverings. In +this state, they are wont to communicate what sacrifices the spirits +require. On special occasions, they fall into a frenzied state, +in which they cut their flesh with sharp instruments, or pass long, +thin iron bars through the tongue and cheeks, during which operation no +blood must flow. For this purpose, the instruments are rubbed all over +with some blood-congealing material or sap. They also affect sitting +on a sacred swing, armed with long iron nails. [Mr. G. F. Paddison +informs me that he once saw a villager in the Vizagapatam district, +sitting outside the house, while groans proceeded from within. He +explained that he was ill, and his wife was swinging on nails with +their points upwards, to cure him.] The devil called Jom Duto, +or messenger of the going, is believed to be a one-eyed, limping, +black individual, whose hair is twisted into a frightfully long horn, +while one foot is very long, and the other resembles the hoof of a +buffalo. He makes his appearance at the death-bed, in order to drag +his victim to the realm of torture." + +Children are supposed to be born without souls, and to be afterwards +chosen as an abode by the soul of an ancestor. The coming of the +ancestor is signalised by the child dropping a chicken bone which +has been thrust into its hand, and much rejoicing follows among the +assembled relations. [99] + +Mr. Paddison tells me that some Dombs are reputed to be able to pour +blazing oil over their bodies, without suffering any hurt; and one +man is said to have had a miraculous power of hardening his skin, so +that any one could have a free shot at him, without hurting him. He +further narrates that, at Sujanakota in the Vizagapatam district, +the Dombs, notwithstanding frequent warnings, put devils into two +successive schoolmasters. + +Various tattoo devices, borne by the Dombs examined by Mr. Fawcett, +are figured and described by him. "These patterns," he writes, +"were said to be, one and all, purely ornamental, and not in any way +connected with totems, or tribal emblems." Risley, however, [100] +regards "four out of the twelve designs as pretty closely related to +the religion and mythology of the tribe; two are totems and two have +reference to the traditional avocations. Nos. 11 and 12 represent a +classical scene in Dom folk-lore, the story of King Haris-Chandra, who +was so generous that he gave all he had to the poor and sold himself +to a Dom at Benares, who employed him to watch his cremation ground at +night. While he was thus engaged, his wife, who had also been sold for +charitable purposes, came to burn the body of her son. She had no money +to pay her fees, and Haris-Chandra, not knowing her in the darkness, +turned her away. Fortunately the sun rose; mutual recognition followed; +the victims of promiscuous largesse were at once remarried, and Vishnu +intervened to restore the son to life. Tatu No. 11 shows Haris-Chandra +watching the burning-ground by moonlight; the wavy line is the Ganges; +the dots are the trees on the other side; the strokes on either side +of the king are the logs of wood, which he is guarding. In No. 12 +we see the sun rising, its first ray marked with a sort of fork, +and the meeting of the king and queen." + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district, that +"throughout the Jeypore country proper, the Dombus (and some Ghasis) +are by far the most troublesome class. Their favourite crime is +cattle-theft for the sake of the skins, but, in 1902, a Dombu gang in +Naurangpur went so far as to levy blackmail over a large extent of +country, and defy for some months all attempts at capture. The loss +of their cattle exasperates the other hill folk to the last degree, +and, in 1899, the Naiks (headmen) of sixteen villages in the north of +Jeypore taluk headed an organized attack on the houses of the Dombus, +which, in the most deliberate manner, they razed to the ground in some +fifteen villages. The Dombus had fortunately got scent of what was +coming, and made themselves scarce, and no bloodshed occurred. In the +next year, some of the Naiks of the Ramagiri side of Jeypore taluk +sent round a jack branch, a well-recognised form of the fiery cross, +summoning villagers other than Dombus to assemble at a fixed time +and place, but this was luckily intercepted by the police. The Agent +afterwards discussed the whole question with the chief Naiks of Jeypore +and South Naurangpur. They had no opinion of the deterrent effects +of mere imprisonment on the Dombus. 'You fatten them, and send them +back,' they said, and suggested that a far better plan would be to +cut off their right hands. [It is noted, in the Vizagapatam Manual, +1869, that in cases of murder, the Rajah of Jeypore generally had the +man's hands, nose, and ears cut off, but, after all that, he seldom +escaped the deceased's relatives.] They eventually proposed a plan +of checking the cattle-thefts, which is now being followed in much +of that country. The Baranaiks, or heads of groups of villages, were +each given brands with distinctive letters and numbers, and required +to brand the skins of all animals which had died a natural death or +been honestly killed; and the possession by Dombus, skin merchants, or +others, of unbranded skins is now considered a suspicious circumstance, +the burden of explaining which lies upon the possessor. Unless this, or +some other way of checking the Dombus' depredations proves successful, +serious danger exists that the rest of the people will take the +matter into their own hands and, as the Dombus in the Agency number +over 50,000, this would mean real trouble." It is further recorded +[101] that the Paidis (Paidi Malas), who often commit dacoities on +the roads, "are connected with the Dombus of the Rayagada and Gunupur +taluks, who are even worse. These people dacoit houses at night in +armed gangs of fifty or more, with their faces blacked to prevent +recognition. Terrifying the villagers into staying quiet in their huts, +they force their way into the house of some wealthy person (for choice +the local Sondi, liquor-seller and sowcar, [102] usually the only +man worth looting in an agency village, and a shark who gets little +pity from his neighbours when forced to disgorge), tie up the men, +rape the women, and go off with everything of value. Their favourite +method of extracting information regarding concealed property is to +sprinkle the houseowner with boiling oil." + +Dommara.--The Dommaras are a tribe of tumblers, athletes, and +mountebanks, some of whom wander about the country, while others +have settled down as agricultural labourers, or make combs out of +the wood of Elæodendron glaucum, Ixora parviflora, Pavetta indica, +Ficus bengalensis, etc., which they sell to wholesale merchants. They +are, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [103] "a nomad class of acrobats, +who, in many respects, recall the gipsies to mind, and raise the +suggestion that their name may possibly be connected with the Doms of +Northern India. They speak Telugu, Marathi, and Hindustani, but not +generally Tamil. They are skilful jugglers, and both men and women +are very clever tumblers and tight-rope dancers, exhibiting their +feats as they travel about the country. Some of them sell date mats +and baskets, some trade in pigs, while others, settled in villages, +cultivate lands. In social position they rank just above the Pariahs +and Madigas. They profess to be Vaishnavites [and Saivites]. Infant +marriage is not practiced. Widow remarriage is freely allowed, +and polygamy is common. Their marriage tie is very loose, and their +women often practice prostitution. They are a predatory class, great +drunkards, and of most dissolute habits. The dead are generally buried, +and [on the day of the final death ceremonies] cooked rice is thrown +out to be eaten by crows. In the matter of food, they eat all sorts of +animals, including pigs, cats, and crows." When a friend was engaged +in making experiments in connection with snake venom, some Dommaras +asked for permission to unbury the corpses of snakes and mungooses +for the purpose of food. + +The Dommaras are, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, summed up as being +buffoons, tumblers, acrobats, and snakecharmers, who travel from place +to place, and earn a precarious living by their exhibitions. In the +Madras Census Report, 1901, Domban, Kalaikuttadi (pole-dancer), and +Arya Kuttadi, are given as synonyms of Dommara. The Kuttadi are summed +up, in the Tanjore Manual, as vagabond dancers, actors, pantomimists, +and marionette exhibitors, who hold a very low position in the social +scale, and always perform in public streets and bazaars. + +By Mr. F. S. Mullaly [104] the Dommaras are divided into Reddi or +Kapu (i.e., cultivators) and Aray (Maratha). "The women," he writes, +"are proficient in making combs of horn and wood, and implements used +by weavers. These they hawk about from place to place, to supplement +the profits they derive from their exhibitions of gymnastic feats. In +addition to performing conjuring tricks, rope-dancing and the like, +the Dommaras hunt, fish, make mats, and rear donkeys and pigs. The +head of the tribe is called the Mutli Guru. He is their high priest, +and exercises supreme jurisdiction over them both in spiritual and +temporal matters. His head-quarters is Chitvel in the Cuddapah +district. The legend regarding the office of the Mutli Guru is +as follows. At Chitvel, or as it was then known Mutli, there once +lived a king, who called together a gathering of all the gymnasts +among his subjects. Several classes were represented. Polerigadu, +a Reddi Dommara, so pleased the king that he was presented with a +ring, and a royal edict was passed that the wearer of the ring and +his descendants should be the head of the Dommara class. The ring then +given is said to be the same that is now worn by the head of the tribe +at Chitvel, which bears an inscription in Telugu declaring that the +wearer is the high-priest or guru of all the Dommaras. The office +is hereditary. The dwellings of the Dommaras are somewhat similar +to those of the Koravars and Joghis, made of palmyra leaves plaited +into mats with seven strands. These huts, or gudisays, are located on +the outskirts of villages, and carried on the backs of donkeys when +on the march. Stolen cloths, unless of value, are not as a rule sold, +but concealed in the packs of their donkeys, and after a time worn. The +Dommaras are addicted to dacoity, robbery, burglary, and thefts. The +instrument used by them is unlike those used by other criminal classes: +it is of iron, about a foot long, and with a chisel-shaped point. As +cattle and sheep lifters they are expert, and they have their regular +receivers at most of the cattle fairs throughout the Presidency." + +It is noted, in the Nellore Manual, that the Dommaras "are stated by +the Nellore Tahsildar to possess mirasi rights in some villages; that I +take to mean that there is, in some villages, a customary contribution +for tumblers and mendicants, which, according to Wilson, was made in +Mysore the pretext for a tax named Dombar-lingada-vira-kaniki. This +tax, under the name Dombar tafrik, was levied in Venkatagiri in +1801." In the Madura district, Dommaras are found in some villages +formerly owned by zamindars, and they call themselves children of +the zamindars, by whom they were probably patronised. + +Being a criminal class, the Dommaras have a thief's language of their +own, of which the following are examples:-- + + + Bidam vadu, Dommara. + Poothi, policeman. + Marigam, pig. + Goparam, seven. + Dasa-masa, prostitute. + Kopparam, salt. + Kaljodu, goldsmith. + + +The Dommaras are said to receive into their community children of other +castes, and women of doubtful morals, and to practice the custom of +making Basavis (dedicated prostitutes). + +The Telugu Dommaras give as their gotra Salava patchi, the name +of a mythological bird. At times of marriage, they substitute a +turmeric-dyed string consisting of 101 threads, called bondhu, for +the golden tali or bottu. The marriage ceremonies of the Are Dommaras +are supervised by an old Basavi woman, and the golden marriage badge +is tied round the bride's neck by a Basavi. + +A Dommara, whom I interviewed at Coimbatore, carried a cotton bag +containing a miscellaneous assortment of rubbish used in his capacity +as medicine man and snake-charmer, which included a collection of +spurious jackal horns (nari kompu), the hairs round which were stained +with turmeric. To prove the genuineness thereof, he showed me not only +the horn, but also the feet with nails complete, as evidence that the +horns were not made from the nails. Being charged with manufacturing +the horns, he swore, by placing his hand on the head of a child who +accompanied him, that he was not deceiving me. The largest of the horns +in his bag, he gravely informed me, was from a jackal which he dug out +of its hole on the last new moon night. The possessors of such horns, +he assured me, do not go out with the pack, and rarely leave their +holes except to feed on dew, field rats, etc. These spurious horns +are regarded as a talisman, and it is believed that he who owns one +can command the realisation of every wish. (See Kuruvikkaran.) An +iron ring, which the Dommara was wearing on his wrist, was used as a +cure for hernia, being heated and applied as a branding agent over the +inguinal region. Lamp oil is then rubbed over the burn, and a secret +medicine, mixed with fowl's egg, administered. The ring was, he said, +an ancestral heir-loom, and as such highly prized. To cure rheumatism +in the big joints, he resorted to an ingenious form of dry cupping. A +small incision is made with a piece of broken glass over the affected +part, and the skin damped with water. The distal end of a cow's horn, +of which the tip has been removed, and plugged with wax, does duty for +the cup. A hole is pierced through the wax with an iron needle, and, +the horn being placed over the seat of disease, the air is withdrawn +from it by suction with the mouth, and the hole in the wax stopped +up. As the air is removed from the cavity of the horn, the skin rises +up within it. To remove the horn, it is only necessary to readmit air +by once more boring a hole through the wax. In a bad case, as many as +three horns may be applied to the affected part. The Pitt Rivers Museum +at Oxford possesses dry-cupping apparatus, made of cow horn, from +Mirzapur in Northern India and from Natal, and of antelope horn from an +unrecorded locality in India. In cases of scorpion sting the Dommara +rubbed up patent boluses with human milk or milk of the milk-hedge +plant (Euphorbia Tirucalli), and applied them to the part. For chest +pains he prescribed red ochre, and for infantile diseases myrabolam +(Terminalia) fruits mixed with water. In cases of snake-bite, a black +stone, said to be made of various drugs mixed together, and burnt, +is placed over the seat of the bite, and will, it was stated, drop +off of its own accord as soon as it has absorbed all the poison. It +is then put into milk or water to extract the poison, and the fluid +is thrown away as being dangerous to life if swallowed. As a remedy +for the bite of a mad dog, a plant, which is kept a secret, is mixed +with the milk of a white goat, pepper, garlic, and other ingredients, +and administered internally. A single dose is said to effect a cure. + +At Tarikeri in Mysore, a wandering troupe of Are (Maratha) Dommaras +performed before me. The women were decorated with jewels and +flowers, and carried bells on their ankles. The men had a row of bells +attached all round the lower edge of their short drawers. Before the +performance commenced, a Pillayar (Ganesa) was made with cowdung, +and saluted. The entertainment took place in the open air amid the +beating of drums, whistling, singing, and dialogue. The jests and +antics of the equivalent of the circus clown were a source of much +joy to the throng of villagers who collected to witness the tamasha +(spectacle). One of the principal performers, in the waits between his +turns, played the drum, or took a suck at a hooka (tobacco pipe) which +was passed round among the members of the troupe. The entertainment, +in which both men and women took part, consisted of various acrobatic +feats, turning summersaults and catherine wheels, stilt-walking, +and clever feats on the tight rope. Finally a man, climbing up a +lofty bamboo pole, spun himself rapidly round and round on the top +of it by means of a socket in an iron plate tied to his loin cloth, +into which a spike in the pole fitted. + +Dondia.--A title of Gaudo. + +Donga Dasari.--Dasari (servant of the god), Mr. Francis writes, [105] +"in the strict sense of the word, is a religious mendicant of the +Vaishnavite sect, who has formally devoted himself to an existence +as such, and been formally included in the mendicant brotherhood +by being branded on the shoulders with Vaishnavite symbols." Far +different are the Donga, or thief Dasaris, who receive their name +from the fact that "the men and women disguise themselves as Dasaris, +with perpendicular Vaishnava marks on their foreheads, and, carrying +a lamp (Garuda kambum), a gong of bell-metal, a small drum called +jagata, and a tuft of peacock feathers, go begging in the villages, +and are at times treated with the sumptuous meals, including cakes +offered to them as the disciples of Venkatesvarlu. [106]" + +In an interesting article on the Donga Dasaris, Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri +writes as follows. [107] "Quite opposed to the gudi (temple) Dasaris +are Donga Dasaris. They are the most dreaded of the criminal classes +in the Bellary district. In the early years of their settlement in +Bellary, these Donga Dasaris were said to have practiced kidnapping +boys and girls of other castes to strengthen their number, and even +now, as the practice stands, any person can become a Donga Dasari +though very few would like to become one. But, for all that, the +chief castes who furnished members to this brotherhood of robbery +were the scum of the Lingayats and the Kabberas. Of course, none +of the respectable members of these castes would join them, and +only those who were excommunicated found a ready home among these +Donga Dasaris. Sometimes Muhammadan budmashes (bad-mash, evil means +of livelihood) and the worst characters from other castes, also +become Donga Dasaris. The way an alien is made a Donga Dasari is as +follows. The regular Donga Dasaris take the party who wants to enter +their brotherhood to the side of a river, make him bathe in oil, give +him a new cloth, hold a council, and give a feast. They burn a twig +of the sami (Prosopis spicigera) or margosa (Melia Azadirachta) tree, +and slightly burn the tongue of the party who has joined them. This +is the way of purification and acceptance of every new member, +who, soon after the tongue-burning ceremony, is given a seat in the +general company, and made to partake of the common feast. The Donga +Dasaris talk both Telugu and Kanarese. They have only two bedagas +or family names, called Sunna Akki (thin rice) and Ghantelavaru +(men of the bell). As the latter is a family name of the Kabberas, +it is an evidence that members of the latter community have joined the +Donga Dasaris. Even now Donga Dasaris intermarry with Kabberas, i.e., +they accept any girl from a Kabbera family in marriage to one of their +sons, but do not give one of their daughters in marriage to a Kabbera +boy. Hanuman is their chief god. Venkatesa, an incarnation of Vishnu, +is also worshipped by many. But, in every one of their villages, they +have a temple dedicated to their village goddess Huligavva or Ellamma, +and it is only before these goddesses that they sacrifice sheep or +fowls. Vows are undertaken for these village goddesses when children +fall ill. In addition to this, these Donga Dasaris are notorious for +taking vows before starting on a thieving expedition, and the way these +ceremonies are gone through is as follows. The gang, before starting on +a thieving expedition, proceed to a jungle near their village in the +early part of the night, worship their favourite goddesses Huligavva +or Ellamma, and sacrifice a sheep or fowl before her. They place one +of their turbans on the head of the sheep or fowl that was sacrificed, +as soon as the head falls on the ground. If the turban turns to the +right, it is considered a good sign, the goddess having permitted +them to proceed on the expedition; if to the left, they return home +that night. Hanuman is also consulted in such expeditions, and the +way in which it is done is as follows. They go to a Hanuman temple +which is near their village, and, after worshipping him, garland +him with a wreath of flowers. The garland hangs on both sides of +the neck. If any flowers on the right side drop down first, it is +considered as a permission granted by the god to start on plundering +expeditions, and, conversely, these expeditions are never undertaken +if any flowers happen to drop from the left side first. The Donga +Dasaris start on their thieving raids with their whole family, wife +and children following. They are the great experts in house-breaking +and theft, and children are taught thieving by their mothers when +they are five or six years old. The mother takes her boy or girl +to the nearest market, and shows the child some cloth or vessel, +and asks it to bring it away. When it fails, it is thrashed, and, +when stroke upon stroke falls upon its back, the only reply it is +taught to give is that it knows nothing. This is considered to be +the reply which the child, when it grows up to be a man or woman, +has to give to the police authorities when it is caught in some +crime and thrashed by them to confess. Whenever the Donga Dasaris are +caught by the police, they give false names and false castes. They +have a cipher language among themselves. The Donga Dasari woman is +very loose, but, if she go astray with a Brahman, Lingayat, Kabbera, +Kuruba, Upparava, or Rajput, her tongue is burnt, and she is taken +back into the community. Widow remarriage freely prevails. They avoid +eating beef and pork, but have no objection to other kinds of flesh." + +Donga Odde.--The name for Oddes who practice thieving as a profession. + +Dongayato.--A sub-division of Gaudo. + +Dongrudiya.--A sub-division of Mali. + +Dora.--Dora, meaning lord, has been returned as the title of numerous +classes, which include Boya, Ekari, Jatapu, Konda Dora, Mutracha, +Patra, Telaga, Velama, and Yanati. The hill Kois or Koyis of the +Godavari district are known as Koi Dora or Doralu (lords). I am told +that, in some parts of the Telugu country, if one hears a native +referred to as Dora, he will generally turn out to be a Velama; +and that there is the following gradation in the social scale:-- + + + Velama Dora = Velama Esquire. + Kamma Varu = Mr. Kamma. + Kapu = Plain Kapu, without an honorific suffix. + + +In Southern India, Dorai or Durai (Master) is the equivalent of the +northern Sahib, and Dorasani (Mistress) of Memsahib. + +It is noted by Sir A. J. Arbuthnot [108] that "the appellation by which +Sir Thomas Munro was most commonly known in the Ceded districts was +that of Colonel Dora. And to this day it is considered a sufficient +answer to enquiries regarding the reason for any Revenue Rule, that +it was laid down by the Colonel Dora." + +Dorabidda, or children of chiefs, is the name by which Boyas, who +claim to be descended from Poligars (feudal chiefs) call themselves. + +Dravida.--A sub-division of Kamsala. South Indian Brahmans are called +Dravidas. + +Dubaduba.--Recorded, at times of census, as an Oriya form of +Budubudukala. + +Duddu (money).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Dudekula.--The Dudekulas are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [109] as +"Muhammadans who have taken to the trade of cotton-cleaning (dude, +cotton; ekula, to clean). By the Tamils they are called Panjari or +Panjukotti, which have the same significance. Though Muhammadans, +they have adopted or retained many of the customs of the Hindus around +them, tying a tali to the bride at marriage, being very ignorant of +the Muhammadan religion, and even joining in Hindu worship as far as +allowable. Circumcision is, however, invariable, and they are much +given to the worship of Muhammadan saints. In dress they resemble the +Hindus, and often shave off the beard, but do not leave a single lock +of hair upon the head, as most Hindus do. Over three hundred Hindus +have returned their caste as either Dudekula or Panjari, but these +are probably members of other castes, who call themselves Dudekula +as they are engaged in cotton-cleaning." + +The Dudekulas are described by Mr. W. Francis [110] as "a Muhammadan +caste of cotton-cleaners, and rope and tape-makers. They are either +converts to Islam, or the progeny of unions between Musalmans and the +women of the country. Consequently they generally speak the Dravidian +languages--either Canarese or Telugu--but some of them speak Hindustani +also. Their customs are a mixture of those of the Musalmans and the +Hindus. Inheritance is apparently according to Muhammadan law. They +pray in mosques, and circumcise their boys, and yet some of them +observe the Hindu festivals. They worship their tools at Bakrid and +not at the Dasara; they raise the azan or Muhammadan call to prayers +at sunset, and they pray at the tombs of Musalman saints." In the +Vizagapatam district, the Dudekulas are described as beating cotton, +and blowing horns. + +For the following note on the Dudekulas of the Ceded Districts, I am +indebted to Mr. Haji Khaja Hussain. They claim Bava Faqrud-din Pir +of Penukonda in the Anantapur district as their patron saint. Large +numbers of Muhammadans, including Dudekulas, collect at the annual +festival (mela) at his shrine, and offer their homage in the shape of +a fatiha. This, meaning opener, is the name of the first chapter of +the Koran, which is repeated when prayers are offered for the souls +of the departed. For this ceremony a pilau, made of flesh, rice and +ghi (clarified butter) is prepared, and the Khazi repeats the chapter, +and offers the food to the soul of the deceased saint or relation. + +The story of Faqrud-din Pir is as follows. He was born in A.H. 564 +(about A.D. 1122), and was King of Seistan in Persia. One day, while +he was administering justice, a merchant brought some horses before him +for sale. His attention was diverted, and he became for a time absorbed +in contemplation of the beauty of one of the horses. Awakening from his +reverie, he blamed himself for allowing his thoughts to wander when he +was engaged in the most sacred of his duties as a king. He summoned +a meeting of all the learned moulvis in his kingdom, and enquired of +them what was the penalty for his conduct. They unanimously decreed +that he should abdicate. Accordingly he placed his brother on the +throne, and, becoming a dervish, came to India, and wandered about +in the jungles. Eventually he arrived at Trichinopoly, and there met +the celebrated saint Tabri-Alam, whose disciple he became. After his +admission into holy orders, he was told to travel about, and plant +his miswak wherever he halted, and regard the place where it sprouted +as his permanent residence. The miswak, or tooth-brush, is a piece +of the root of the pilu tree (Salvadora persica), which is used by +Muhammadans, and especially Fakirs, for cleaning the teeth. When Bava +Faqrud-din arrived at Penukonda hill, he, as usual, planted the miswak, +which sprouted. He accordingly decided to make this spot his permanent +abode. But there was close by an important Hindu temple, and the idea +of a Muhammadan settling close to it enraged the Hindus, who asked +him to leave. He not only refused to do so, but allowed his disciples, +of whom a number had collected, to slaughter a sacred bull belonging +to the temple. The Hindus accordingly decided to kill Faqrud-din and +his disciples. The Raja collected an armed force, and demanded the +restoration of the bull. Faqrud-din ordered one of his disciples to +bring before him the skin, head, feet and tail of the animal, which +had been preserved. Striking the skin with his staff, he exclaimed +"Rise, Oh! bull, at the command of God." The animal immediately rose +in a complete state of restoration, and would not leave the presence +of his preserver. Alarmed at this miracle, the Hindus brandished their +swords and spears, and were about to fall on the Muhammadans, when a +dust-storm arose and blinded them. In their confusion, they began to +slay each other, and left the spot in dismay. The Raja then resolved to +kill the Muhammadans by poisoning them. He prepared some cakes mixed +with poison, and sent them to Faqrud-din for distribution among his +disciples. The saint, though he knew that the cakes were poisoned, +partook thereof of himself, as also did his disciples, without any +evil effect. A few days afterwards, the Raja was attacked with colic, +and his case was given up by the court physicians as hopeless. As a +last resort, he was taken before Faqrud-din, who offered him one of +the poisoned cakes, which cured him. Falling at his feet, the Raja +begged for pardon, and offered the village of Penukonda to Faqrud-din +as a jaghir (annuity). This offer was declined, and the saint asked +that the temple should be converted into a mosque. The Raja granted +this request, and it is said that large numbers of Hindus embraced +the Muhammadan religion, and were the ancestors of the Dudekulas. + +The Dudekulas, like the Hindus, like to possess some visible symbol +for worship, and they enrol great personages who have died among the +number of those at whose graves they worship. So essential is this +grave worship that, if a place is without one, a grave is erected in +the name of some saint. Such a thing has happened in recent times in +Banganapalle. A Fakir, named Alla Bakhsh, died at Kurnool. A Dudekula +of the Banganapalle State visited his grave, took away a lump of earth +from the ground near it, and buried it in a village ten miles from +Banganapalle. A shrine was erected over it in the name of the saint, +and has become very famous for the miracles which are performed at +it. An annual festival is held, which is attended by large numbers +of Muhammadans and Dudekulas. + +Some Dudekulas have names which, though at first sight they seem to be +Hindu, are really Muhammadan. For example, Kambannah is a corruption +of Kamal Sahib, and Sakali, which in Telugu means a washerman, seems +to be an altered form of Sheik Ali. Though Dudekulas say that they are +Muhammadans of the Sheik sect, the name Sheik is only occasionally +used as a prefix, e.g., Sheik Hussain or Sheik Ali. Names of males +are Hussain Sa, Fakir Sa, and Khasim Sa. Sa is an abbreviated form of +Sahib. One old Dudekula stated that the title Sahib was intended for +pucka (genuine) Muhammadans, and that the Dudekulas could not lay claim +to the title in its entirety. Instead of Sa, Bhai, meaning brother, +is sometimes used as a suffix to the name, e.g., Ghudu Bhai. Ghudu, +meaning ash-heap, is an opprobrious name given to children of those +whose offspring have died young, in the hope of securing long life to +them. The child is taken, immediately after birth, to an ash-heap, +where some of the ashes are sprinkled over it. Some Dudekulas adopt +the Hindu termination appa (father), anna (brother), or gadu, e.g., +Pullanna, Naganna, Yerkalappa, Hussaingadu, Hussainappa. Typical names +of females are Roshamma, Jamalamma, and Madaramma. They have dropped +the title Bibi or Bi, and adopted the Hindu title amma (mother). + +The ceremony of naming a child is generally performed on the sixth +day after its birth. The choice of a name is entrusted to an elderly +female member of the family. In some cases, the name of a deceased +ancestor who lived to an advanced age is taken. If a child dies +prematurely, there is a superstitious prejudice against its name, +which is avoided by the family. Very frequently a father and son, +and sometimes two or three brothers, have the same name. In such a +case prefixes are added to their names as a means of distinguishing +them, e.g., Pedda (big), Nadpi (middle), Chinna (little). Sometimes +two names are assumed by an individual, one a Hindu name for every +day use, the other Muhammadan for ceremonial occasions. + +The Dudekulas depend for the performance of their ceremonies largely on +the Khazi, by whom even the killing of a fowl for domestic purposes has +to be carried out. The Dudekula, like other Muhammadans, is averse +to taking animal life without due religious rites, and the zabh, +or killing of an animal for food, is an important matter. One who +is about to do so should first make vazu (ablution), by cleaning +his teeth and washing his mouth, hands, face, forearms, head and +feet. He should then face the west, and an assistant holds the animal +to be slaughtered upside down, and facing west. Water is poured into +its mouth, and the words Bismilla hi Alla hu Akbar uttered. The +operator then cuts the throat, taking care that the jugular veins +are divided. In remote villages, where a Khazi is not available, +the Dudekulas keep a sacrificial knife, which has been sanctified by +the Khazi repeating over it the same words from the Koran as are used +when an animal is slaughtered. + +The first words which a Muhammadan child should hear are those of the +azan, or call to prayer, which are uttered in its ear immediately after +birth. This ceremony is observed by those Dudekulas who live in towns +or big villages, or can afford the services of a Khazi. It is noted +by Mr. Francis that the Dudekulas raise the azan at sunset. A few, +who have been through a course of religious instruction at a Madrasa +(school), may be able to do this. A Muhammadan is supposed to raise +the azan five times daily, viz., before sunrise, between noon and 3 +P.M., between 4 and 6 P.M., at sunset, and between 8 P.M. and midnight. + +At the naming of an infant on the sixth day, the Dudekulas do not, +like other Muhammadans, perform the aguiga ceremony, which consists +of shaving the child's head, and sacrificing a he-goat. Children are +circumcised before the tenth year. On such occasions the Muhammadans +generally invite their friends, and distribute sweets and pan-supari +(betel leaf and areca nuts). The Dudekulas simply send for a barber, +Hindu or Muhammadan, who performs the operation in the presence of a +Khazi, if one happens to be available. When a girl reaches puberty, +the Dudekulas invite their friends to a feast. Other Muhammadans, +on the contrary, keep the fact a secret. + +At the betrothal ceremony, when sweets and pan-supari are taken by +the future bridegroom and his party to the house of the girl whom he +seeks in marriage, the female members of both families, and the girl +herself, are present. This fact shows the absence of the Muhammadan +gosha system among Dudekulas. A Muhammadan wedding lasts over five or +six days, whereas the ceremonies are, among the Dudekulas, completed +within twenty-four hours. On the night preceding the nikka day, a pilau +is prepared, and a feast is held at the bridegroom's house. On the +following morning, when it is still dark, the bridegroom, accompanied +by his relations, starts on horseback in procession, with beating +of drums and letting off of fireworks. The procession arrives at the +bride's house before sunrise. The Khazi is sent for, and the mahr is +settled. This is a nominal gift settled on the wife before marriage +by the bridegroom. On the death of a husband, a widow has priority of +claim on his property to the promised amount of the mahr. Two male +witnesses are sent to the bride, to obtain her assent to the union, +and to the amount of the mahr. The Khazi, being an orthodox Muhammadan, +treats the Dudekula bride as strictly gosha for the time being, and, +therefore, selects two of her near relatives as witnesses. The lutcha +(marriage badge), consisting of a single or double string of beads, +is brought in a cup filled with sandal paste. + +The Khazi chants the marriage service, and sends the lutcha in to +the bride with his blessing. It is tied round her neck by the female +relations of the bridegroom, and the marriage rites are over. + +The usual Muhammadan form of greeting among Muhammadans is the familiar +"Peace be with you." "And with you be peace." When a Dudekula greets +a Muhammadan, he simply bows, and, with members of his own community, +uses a Telugu form of salutation, e.g., niku mokkutamu. + +The Dudekulas, male and female, dress exactly like Hindus, but, +as a rule, the men do not shave their beard. + +Disputes, and social questions affecting the community, are settled +by a Khazi. + +With the increase in cotton mills, and the decline of the indigenous +hand-weaving industry, the demand for cotton-cleaning labour +has diminished, and some Dudekulas have, of necessity, taken to +agriculture. Land-owners are very scarce among them, but some +are abkari (liquor) contractors, village schoolmasters, and quack +doctors. In the Ceded Districts, the cotton-cleaning industry is +solely confined to the Dudekulas. + +The synonyms of Dudekula, Ladaf and Nurbash, recorded at times of +census, are corruptions of Nad-daf (a cotton dresser) and Nurbaf +(weaving). + +Dudi.--A title of Kurumos, who officiate as priests at the temples +of village deities. + +Dudi (cotton) Balija.--A name for traders in cotton in the Telugu +country, and an occupational sub-division of Komati. + +Durga (fort).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Dutan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, as a synonym of Ari. + +Dyavana (tortoise).--An exogamous sept of Moger. + + + + + + + +E + + +Eddulu (bulls).--See Yeddulu. + +Ediannaya (hornet's nest).--An exogamous sept of Bant. + +Egadavan.---Recorded, at times of census, as an exogamous sept +of Anappans, who are Canarese cattle-grazers settled in the Tamil +country. Possibly it is a corruption of Heggade, a title among Kurubas. + +Ekakshara.--A sub-division of Satani. The name is derived from +Ekakshara, meaning one syllable, i.e., the mystic syllable Om. + +Ekari.--This caste is summed up in the Madras Census Report, 1901, +under the names Ekari, Ekali, Yakari, and Yakarlu, as a sub-caste +of Mutracha. Mr. H. A. Stuart writes [111] that "Ekaris or Yakarlu +are a class of cultivators and village watchmen, found chiefly in +the northern taluks of North Arcot, and in the adjoining district of +Cuddapah. It is very doubtful whether the Ekaris and Mutrachas are +identical castes. The census statistics are, I think, sufficient to +throw grave doubt on this view. Neither name, for instance, appears +as a sub-division of the other, although this would certainly be +the case if they were synonymous. Nor is there any similarity in the +sub-divisions that are given. They are said, in the Nellore Manual, to +be hunters and mercenaries, and in Cuddapah, where they are known to +some as Boyas and Kiratas, they are classed as a forest tribe. It is +clear, however, that they enjoyed some authority, for several rose to +be poligars. Thus the poligars of Kallur, Tumba, Pulicherla, Bangari +and Gudipati are of this caste, and many of its members are village +policemen. They do not wear the sacred thread, but employ Brahmans as +their priests. Their ceremonies differ very little from those of the +Kapus. They are flesh-eaters, and their titles are Naidu and Dora. The +caste possesses some interest as being that which had, in 1891, the +highest proportion of widowed among females between the ages of 15 +and 39. Little is known of the caste history. Some assert that they +were formerly Hindu cotton cleaners, and that their name is derived +from the verb yekuta, to clean cotton. They returned 74 sub-divisions, +of which the most important seem to be Dodda (big) and Pala." + +There is neither intermarriage, nor free interdining between Ekaris +and Mutrachas. By some, Kampin, and Nagiripilla kayalu, and by others +Kammi and Yerrai were given as sub-divisions. + +One of the recognised names of washermen in Tamil is Egali or Ekali. + +Elakayan.--A sub-division of Nayar. It is recorded, in the Madras +Census Report, 1901, that "its hereditary occupation is to get plantain +leaves for the use of the Cherukunnu temple, where travellers are +fed daily by the Chirakkal Raja." + +Elayad.--For the following note on the Elayads or Ilayatus I am +indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. Ilayatu literally means younger, +and the name is employed to denote a caste, which is supposed to be +the last among the numerous sub-divisions of Malabar Brahmans. The +caste-men make use of two titles, Ilayatu and Nambiyatiri, the latter +of which has the same origin as Nambutiri, meaning a person worthy of +worship. Women are generally known as Ilayammas, and, in some parts +of North Travancore, also Kunjammas. By the caste-men themselves the +women are called Akattulavar, or those inside, in the same way as +Nambutiri women. Children are called Kunjunnis. The Ilayatus exact +from the Nayars the name of Ilayachchan, or little father. + +According to the Jatinirnaya, a work ascribed to Parasurama, the +Ilayatus were once Brahmans of undiminished purity, but became degraded +owing to the priestly service which was performed for a Nayar servant +attached to one of their households. Two members of the house of +Azhvancheri Tamprakkal were brothers. The younger resolved to go to a +foreign country, and could get no other Nayar servant than one who was +obliged to perform his mother's anniversary ceremony on the way. He +promised to act as the priest on this occasion, and is even believed +to have eaten the food prepared by the Nayar. When the matter became +known to his elder brother, he assembled all the Vaidik Brahmans, +and the younger brother was excommunicated. This tradition, like the +majority of Malabar traditions, has to be accepted with reserve. The +Ilayatus assert that, until interdicted by Rama Iyen Dalawa in revenge +for a supposed dishonour to him, they had the privilege of commensality +with Nambutiri Brahmans; but Rama Iyen's authority, large as it was, +did not extend to Cochin and British Malabar, where too the Ilayatus +appear to labour under the same difficulty. Those who encouraged +the higher classes of Nayars with ritualistic functions became Onnam +Parisha or the first party of Ilayatus, the remainder being grouped in +another class known as Randam or second party. The latter are lower in +the social scale than the former. The two sections do not intermarry, +and interdining is restricted to the male sex. + +The Ilayatus generally have a dejected appearance, and their +poverty is proverbial. Most of them earn only a scanty living by +their traditional occupation, and yet it is notorious that other +walks of life have absolutely no attraction for them. Not only is +English education not welcomed, but even the study of Sanskrit finds +only a few steadfast votaries. The Ilayatus are, however, a naturally +clever, and intelligent community, and, under favourable conditions, +are found to take a more prominent place in society. + +The house of an Ilayatu is, like that of a Nambutiri, called illam. It +is generally large, being the gift of some pious Nayar. Every Ilayatu +house possesses a serpent grove, where periodical offerings are +made. The dress and ornaments of the Ilayatus are exactly like those of +the Nambutiris. The wedding ornament is called kettu-tali. Children +wear a ring tied to a thread round the neck from the moment of +the first feeding ceremony. The Ilayatus are strict vegetarians, +and, though in some of their temples they have to make offerings of +liquor to the deity, they are strictly forbidden by caste rules from +partaking thereof. + +The chief occupation of the Ilayatus is the priesthood of the +Nayars. The first division perform this service only for the Ilakkar +or highest class of Nayars, while the second division do not decline +to be the priests of any section of that community. In performing +such services, the Ilayatus recite various liturgic texts, but +hardly any Vedic hymns. The Ilayatus have also been the recognised +priests in several North Travancore temples, the chief of which are +the Kainikkara Bhagavata shrine, the Payappara Sasta shrine, and the +Parekkavu Siva temple at Kuttattukulam. Ilayatus are the priests in +most of the snake groves of Malabar, that at Mannarsalay commanding +the greatest popularity and respect. + +Ilayatus are, in all matters of caste such as Smarta-vicharam, or +enquiry into charges of adultery, etc., governed by the Nambutiris, +who are assisted by Vaidiks belonging to the caste itself. It is +the latter who are the regular priests of the Ilayatus, and, though +ignorant of the Vedas, they seem to possess considerable knowledge +of the priestly functions as carried out in Malabar. Nambutiris are +sometimes invited to perform Isvaraseva, Sarpabali, and other religious +rites. Purification rites are performed by the caste priests only, +and no Nambutiri is called on to assist. Brahmans do not cook food +in the houses of Ilayatus. + +The Ilayatus are divided mostly into two septs or gotras, called +Visvamitra and Bharadvaja. The marriage of girls is performed before or +after puberty, between the twelfth and eighteenth years. No bride-price +is paid, but a sum of not less than Rs. 140 has to be paid to the +bridegroom. This is owing to the fact that, in an Ilayatu family, as +among the Nambutiris, only the eldest son can lead a married life. All +male members of a family, except the eldest, take to themselves some +Nayar or Ambalavasi woman. Widows do not remove their tuft of hair on +the death of their husband, but throw their marriage ornament on to +the funeral pyre, probably as a symbol of the performance of sati. The +Ilayatus resemble the Nambutiris in all questions of inheritance. + +The Ilayatus do not omit any of the sixteen religious ceremonies of +the Brahmans. The rules of name given are that the eldest son should +be named after the paternal grandfather, the second after the maternal +grandfather, and the third after the father. A parallel rule obtains +in giving names to daughters. + +The Ilayatus belong in the main to the white and black branches of the +Yajurveda, and observe the sutras of Bodhayana and Asvalayana. They +recite only twenty-four Gayatri hymns, thrice a day. Women are believed +to be polluted for ninety days after childbirth. + +It is noted in the Cochin Census Report, 1901, that the Elayads are +"their own priests, and for this reason, and from the fact that +Nayars perform sradhas (memorial service) in the houses of Elayads, +the Nambudris do not cook or take meals in their houses, nor do they, +Kshatriyas or Nampidis, take water from Elayads. In former times, the +Elayads used to take their meals in Nayar houses during the performance +of the sradha ceremony of the Nayars, as Brahmans generally do on such +ceremonial occasions amongst themselves, but they now decline to do it, +except in a few wealthy and influential families. Muthads and Elayads +wear the sacred thread. Though in many respects the Elayads are more +Brahmanical than the Muthads, the majority of the Ambalavasi castes +do not take the food cooked or touched by the Elayads. There are some +temples, in which they officiate as chief priests. The Muthad and +Elayad females are gosha. They both practice polygamy, and perform +Sarvaswadanam marriages like the Nambudris." + +Ella (boundary).--An exogamous sept of Mutracha. + +Elugoti (assembly).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Elugu (bear).--An exogamous sept of Yanadi. + +Eluttacchan.--Eluttacchan or Ezhuttacchan, meaning teacher or master +of learning, is the name for educated Kadupattans of Malabar employed +as schoolmasters. + +Eman.--A corruption of Yajamanan, lord, recorded, in the Travancore +Census Report, 1901, as a title of Nayar. + +Embrantiri.--Embrantiri or Embran is "a Malayalam name for Tulu +Brahmans settled in Malabar. They speak both Tulu and Malayalam. Some +of them call themselves Nambudris, but they never intermarry with +that class." [112] By Wigram they are defined [113] as "a class +of sacrificing Brahmans, chiefly Tulu, who officiate at Sudra +ceremonies." It is a name for the Tulu Shivalli Brahmans. + +Emme (buffalo).--See Yemme. + +Ena Korava.--See Korava. + +Enadi.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a name for +Shanans, derived from Enadi Nayanar, a Saivite saint. It also means +Ambattan, or barber." The word denotes a chief, barber, or minister. + +Enangan.--Enangan or Inangan is defined by Mr. K. Kannan Nayar [114] as +"a member of an Inangu, this being a community of a number of tarwads, +the members of which may interdine or intermarry, and are bound to +assist one another, if required, in the performance of certain social +and religious rites." It is noted, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that +"an Enangan or Inangan is a man of the same caste and sub-division +or marriage groups. It is usually translated kinsman, but is at once +wider and narrower in its connotation. My Enangans are all who can +marry the same people that I can. An Enangatti is a female member of +an Enangan's family." + +Eneti.--Said to be mendicants, who beg from Gamallas. (See Yanati.) + +Entamara.--See Yanati. + +Era.--Era Cheruman, or Eralan, is a sub-division of Cheruman. + +Eradi.--Eradi has been defined [115] as meaning "a cow-herd. A +sub-division of the Nayar caste, which formerly ruled in what is +now the Ernad taluk" of Malabar. In the Malabar Manual, Ernad is +said to be derived from Eradu, the bullock country. Eradi denotes, +according to the Census Report, 1891, "a settlement in Ernad. The +caste of Samantas, to which the Zamorin of Calicut belongs." + +Eravallar.--The Eravallars are a small forest tribe inhabiting +the Coimbatore district and Malabar. For the following note on the +Eravallars of Cochin, I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna +Iyer. [116] + +Eravallars are a wild tribe of inoffensive hill-men found in the +forests of the Cochin State, especially in the Chittur taluk. They +are also called Villu Vedans (hunters using bows). Their language +is Tamil, though some speak Malayalam. In addressing the elderly +members of the caste, they use the titles Muthan (elder) and Pattan +(grandfather). Names in use for males are Kannan (Krishna), Otukan, +Kothandan, Kecharan, and Attukaran, while females are called Kanni, +Keyi, Kaikayi, Otuka, and Ramayi. These Hindu divine names are recent +innovations after the names of members of the higher castes, with +whom they frequently come in contact. + +The Eravallars have no knowledge of the origin of their caste. They +appear to be a rude and primitive people, like the other jungle +tribes of the State, but are somewhat improving their status under +their masters. Their habits are less migratory than those of the +Malayars and Kadars. They live in villages called pathis, situated +in the forests. Their huts are similar to those of the Malayars and +Kadars. They propitiate their sylvan deities before the construction of +their huts, and also before their occupation. Some days are believed to +be lucky, as Mondays for sowing and weddings, Wednesdays for building, +and Fridays for reaping. + +Eravallars do not live as small independent communities, but are +mostly attached to farmers, under whom they work for a daily wage +of two edangazhis and a half of paddy (unhusked rice). The women +also work for the same wage, but never agree to serve in a state of +bondage. During the festival kathira in the village temple of their +landlords, when sheaves of corn are brought, every male member gets +from his landlord two veshtis (a cloth with a coloured border 3 +yards in length), and every woman a potava (coloured cloth 8 yards +in length). During the Onam and Vishu festivals, one para of paddy, +two cocoanuts, a small quantity of gingelly (Sesamum) and cocoanut +oil are also given. The landlords partly defray their marriage and +funeral expenses by a grant of a few paras of paddy, some salt and +chillies. Sometimes they agree to work for twenty valloms (a large corn +measure) a year. To improve their condition, they borrow money from +their landlords, and purchase a bullock or buffalo or two, to cultivate +a plot of land, after clearing a portion of the forest belonging to +their master. They raise some crops, and make some saving to pay off +the debt. Should they be so unfortunate as to fail in the undertaking, +they willingly mortgage themselves to their master, or to some other, +for the wages above mentioned, and wait for some favourable opportunity +to pay off the debt. Women never surrender themselves to work in a +state of bondage, but are independent day-labourers. The Eravallars +are, as certified by their masters, always truthful, honest, faithful +and god-fearing, and never, like the Pulayas of the northern parts +of the State, ungratefully run away from their masters. + +A girl, when she comes of age, is lodged in a separate hut (muttuchala) +erected at a distance of a furlong from the main hut. Only a few girl +friends are allowed to be in company with her during the period of her +seclusion, which is generally seven days, during which food is served +to her at a distance, when she comes to take it. No grown-up member +approaches her, for fear of pollution. She bathes on the morning of +the seventh day, and is then allowed to enter the hut. The day is +one of festivity to her friends and relations. If a girl is married +before she attains puberty, her husband contributes something for the +expenses of the ceremony. Should a woman cohabit with a man before +marriage and become pregnant, she used, in former times, to be put +to death, but is now turned out of caste. Instances of the kind are, +they say, extremely rare. + +An Eravallan who wishes to see his son married visits the parents +of a girl with his brother-in-law and a few relatives, who make +the proposal. If the parents agree, the wedding day is fixed, and +all the preliminary arrangements are made at the hut of the bride, +where the relatives assembled are treated to a dinner. The bride's +price is only a rupee. The parents of the bride and bridegroom visit +their respective landlords with a few packets of betel leaves, areca +nuts, and tobacco, and inform them of the marriage proposal. The +landlords give a few paras of paddy to defray a portion of the +wedding expenses. They celebrate their weddings on Mondays. On a +Monday previous to the wedding ceremony, the sister of the bridegroom, +with a few of her relations and friends, goes to the bride's hut, and +presents her parents with the bride's money, and a brass ring for the +bride. On the Monday chosen for the wedding, the same company, and a +few more, go there, and dress the girl in the new garment brought by +them. They are treated to a dinner as on the previous occasion. They +then return with the bride to the hut of the bridegroom, where also +the parties assembled are entertained. On the Monday after this, +the bridegroom and bride are taken to the bride's hut, where they +stay for a week, and then return to the bridegroom's hut. Marriage +is now formally over. The tali (marriage badge) tying is dispensed +with. This custom of marriage prevails among the Izhuvas of the +Chittur taluk. The bridegroom gets nothing as a present during the +wedding, but this is reserved for the Karkadaka Sankranthi, when he +is invited by his father-in-law, and given two veshtis and a turban, +after sumptuously feeding him. A widow can only marry a widower. It is +called Mundakettuka (marrying a widow). When they both have children, +the widower must make a solemn promise to his castemen that he will +treat and support the children by both marriages impartially. The +present of a brass ring and cloth is essential. A man can divorce +his wife, if he is not satisfied with her. The divorced wife can mate +only with a widower. Such cases, they say, are very rare among them. + +No ceremony is performed for a pregnant woman during the fifth or +seventh month. If she dreams of dogs, cats, or wild animals coming to +threaten her, it is believed that she is possessed of demons. Then a +devil-driver from this or some other caste is called in. He draws a +hideous figure (kolam) on the floor with powdered rice, turmeric, and +charcoal, and the woman is seated in front of it. He sings and beats +his small drum, or mutters his mantram (consecrated formula). A lamp +is lighted, and frankincense is burned. A kaibali is waved round the +woman's face. She is worked up to a hysterical state, and makes frantic +movements. Boiled rice, flattened rice, plantains, cocoanuts, and fowl +are offered to the demon. Quite satisfied, the demon leaves her, or +offers to leave her on certain conditions. If the woman remains silent +and unmoved all the time, it is supposed that no demon resides in her +body. Very often a yantram (charm) is made on a piece of cadjan (palm) +leaf, and rolled. It is attached to a thread, and worn round the neck. + +A woman in childbirth is located in a separate small hut (muttuchala) +erected at a distance from the main hut. Nobody attends upon her, +except her mother or some old woman to nurse her. As soon as delivery +takes place, the mother and child are bathed. Her pollution is for +seven days, during which she stays in the hut. She then bathes, and +is removed to another hut close to the main hut, and is again under +pollution for five months. Her diet during this period is simple, and +she is strictly forbidden to take meat. The only medicine administered +to her during the period is a mixture of pepper, dried ginger, and +palm sugar mixed with toddy. She comes back to the main hut after +purifying herself by a bath at the end of the five months. The day +is one of festivity. + +The Eravallers bury their dead, and observe death pollution for five +days. On the morning of the sixth day, the chief mourner, who may +be the son or younger brother, gets shaved, bathes, and offers to +the spirit of the departed boiled rice, parched rice, plantains, +and fowl. A feast is given to the castemen once a year, when they +have some savings. They think of their ancestors, who are propitiated +with offerings. + +They are pure animists, and believe that the forests and hills are full +of demons disposed to do them harm. Many of them are supposed to live +in trees, and to rule wild beasts. They also believe that there are +certain local demons, which are supposed to reside in rocks, trees, +or peaks, having influence over particular families or villages, and +that services rendered to them are intended to mitigate their hunger +rather than to seek benefits. Their gods are Kali, Muni, Kannimar, and +Karappu Rayan. Kali is adored to obtain her protection for themselves +and their families while living in the forest. Muni is worshipped for +the protection of their cattle, and to secure good harvest. Kannimar +(the seven virgins) and Karappu Rayan are their family deities, +who watch over their welfare. Offerings of boiled rice, plantains, +cocoanuts, and flattened rice are given to propitiate them. Kali and +Muni are worshipped in the forest, and the others in their huts. + +The main occupation of the Eravallers is ploughing dry lands for the +cultivation of chama (Panicum miliaceum), cholam (Sorghum vulgare), +dholl (Cajanus indicus) and gingelly (Sesamum indicum) seeds, and +sowing the seeds, which begin in the middle of May, and harvesting +in November. During these months, they are wholly occupied with +agriculture. During the other months of the year, gardening, fencing, +and thatching are their chief occupations. Offerings are made to Kali +and Muni, when they plough, sow, and reap. They are so propitiated, +as they are supposed to protect their corn from destruction by wild +beasts. The Eravallers are skilful hunters. Owing to their familiarity +and acquaintance with the forests, they can point out places frequented +by wild beasts, which they can recognise by smell, either to warn +travellers against danger, or to guide sportsmen to the game. Ten or +fifteen of them form a party, and are armed with knives, bows and +arrows. Some of them act as beaters, and the animal is driven to a +particular spot, where it is caught in a large net already spread, +shot, or beaten to death. Animals hunted are hares, porcupines, and +wild pigs. The game is always equally divided. Being good marksmen, +they take skilful aim at birds, and kill them when flying. + +The ordinary dietary is kanji (gruel) of chama or cholam, mixed +with tamarind, salt and chillies, prepared overnight, and taken +in the morning. The same is prepared for the midday meal, with a +vegetable curry consisting of dholl, horse gram (Dolichos biflorus), +and other grains grown in the garden of their masters, which they have +to watch. They eat the flesh of sheep, fowls, pigs, hares, quails, +and doves. They take food at the hands of Brahmans, Nayars, Kammalars, +and Izhuvas. They refuse to take anything cooked by Mannans, Panans, +Parayans, and Cherumans. They bathe when touched by a Chakkiliyan, +Parayan, or Cheruman. They stand a long way off from Brahmans and +Nayars. + +Both men and women are decently clad. Males wear veshtis, one end of +which hangs loose, and the other is tucked in between the legs. They +have a shoulder cloth, either hanging loosely over their shoulders, +or sometimes tied to the turban. They allow their hair to grow +long, but do not, for want of means, anoint it with oil. They grow +moustaches. They wear round the neck a necklace of small white beads to +distinguish them from Malayars, who are always afraid of them. Some +wear brass finger rings. Women wear a potava (coloured cloth), +half of which is worn round the loins, while the other half serves +to cover the body. The hair is not smoothed with oil. It is twisted +into a knot on the back. It is said that they take an oil bath once +a week. Their ear ornament is made of a long palmyra leaf rolled into +a disc, and the ear lobes are sufficiently dilated to contain them. + +Erkollar.--A Tamil form of the Telugu Yerragolla, which is sub-division +of Tottiyan. + +Ernadan.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Aranadans are +described as a hill tribe in Malabar, who kill pythons, and extract +an oil from them, which they sell to people on the plains as a remedy +for leprosy. These are, I have no doubt, the Ernadans, concerning +whom Mr. G. Hadfield writes to me as follows. They are a small +jungle tribe, found exclusively in Malabar, and are considered to +be the lowest of the jungle tribes by the inhabitants of Malabar, +who consider themselves polluted if an Ernadan approaches within +a hundred yards. Even Paniyans and Pariahs give them a wide berth, +and they are prohibited from coming within four hundred yards of a +village. One of their customs is very singular, viz., the father of +a family takes (or used to take) his eldest daughter as his second +wife. The Ernadans use bows and arrows, principally for shooting +monkeys, to the flesh of which they are very partial. They are not +particular as to what they eat, and are, in fact, on a par with +jackals in this respect, devouring snakes and the putrid flesh of +various animals. They are fond of collecting the fat of snakes, and +selling it. Muhammadans employ them in felling timber, and cultivating +fields. Their clothing is exceedingly scanty, and, when hard up, +they use wild plantain leaves for this purpose. + +Through Mr. Hadfield's influence with the tribe, Mr. F. Fawcett +was able to examine a few members thereof, who appeared before him +accompanied by their Mappilla master, at a signal from whom they ran +off like hares, to attend to their work in the fields. Their most +important measurements were as follows:-- + + + Max. Min. Av. + Stature (cm.) 156.6 150.6 154.5 + Cephalic index 85 77 81 + Nasal index 108.8 71.1 88.4 + + +The Ernadans, according to these figures, are short of stature, +platyrhine, with an unusually high cephalic index. + +Erra.--See Yerra. + +Erudandi.--See Gangeddu. + +Erudukkaran.--See Gangeddu. + +Erumai (buffalo).--An exogamous sept of Toreya. + +Eruman.--A sub-division of Kolayan. + +Ettarai (eight and a half).--An exogamous sept of Tamil goldsmiths. + +Ettuvitan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Eurasian.--Eurasian (Eur-asian) may, after the definition in +'Hobson-Jobson,' [117] be summed up as a modern name for persons of +mixed European and Indian blood, devised as being more euphemistic +than half-caste, and more precise than East-Indian. When the European +and Anglo-Indian Defence Association was established 17 years ago, +the term Anglo-Indian, after much consideration, was adopted as +best designating the community. According to Stocqueler, [118] the +name Eurasian was invented by the Marquis of Hastings. East Indian +is defined by Balfour [119] as "a term which has been adopted by all +classes of India to distinguish the descendants of Europeans and Native +mothers. Other names, such as half-caste, chatikar, and chi-chi, are +derogatory designations. Chattikar is from chitta (trousers) and kar +(a person who uses them). The Muhammadans equally wear trousers, but +concealed by their outer long gowns. The East Indians are also known +as Farangi (Frank), a person of Europe. The humbler East Indians, if +asked their race, reply that they are Wallandez or Oollanday, which is +a modification of Hollandais, the name having been brought down through +the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries from the Dutch. East Indians +have, in India, all the rights and privileges of Europeans. Races +with a mixture of European with Asiatic blood possess a proud and +susceptible tone of mind." For the purposes of the Lawrence Asylum, +Ootacamund, the word East Indian is restricted to the children of +European fathers by East Indian or Native mothers, or of East Indian +fathers and mothers, both of whom are the children of European fathers. + +By a ruling of the Government of India a few years ago, it was decided +that Eurasians appointed in England to official posts in India are, +if they are not statutory Natives, to be treated as Europeans as +regards the receipt of exchange compensation allowance. + +Some Eurasians have, it may be noted, had decorations or knighthood +conferred on them, and risen to the highest position in, and gained +the blue ribbon of, Government service. Others have held, or still +hold, positions of distinction in the various learned professions, +legal, medical, educational, and ecclesiastical. + +The influence of the various European nations--Portuguese, Dutch, +British, Danish, and French--which have at different times acquired +territory in peninsular India, is clearly visible in the polyglot +medley of Eurasian surnames, e.g., Gomes, Da Souza, Gonsalvez, Rozario, +Cabral, Da Cruz, Da Costa, Da Silva, Da Souza, Fernandez, Fonseca, +Lazaro, Henriquez, Xavier, Mendonza, Rodriguez, Saldana, Almeyda, +Heldt, Van Spall, Jansen, Augustine, Brisson, Corneille, La Grange, +Lavocat, Pascal, DeVine, Aubert, Ryan, McKertish, Macpherson, Harris, +Johnson, Smith, etc. Little did the early adventurers, in the dawn of +the seventeenth century, think that, as the result of their alliances +with the native women, within three centuries banns of marriage would +be declared weekly in Madras churches between, for example, Ben Jonson +and Alice Almeyda, Emmanuel Henricus and Mary Smith, Augustus Rozario +and Minnie Fonseca, John Harris and Clara Corneille. Yet this has +come to pass, and the Eurasian holds a recognised place among the +half-breed races of the world. + +The pedigree of the early Eurasian community is veiled in +obscurity. But the various modes of creation of a half-breed, which +were adopted in those early days, when the sturdy European pioneers +first came in contact with the native females, were probably as +follows:-- + + +A. European man (pure) B. Native woman (pure). +C. Male offspring of A + B (first D. Native woman. + cross) + +E. Female offspring of A + B (first F. European man. + cross) G. Native man. + +H. Male offspring of C + D I. Cross--female offspring + of A + B. + J. Native woman. + +K. Female offspring of C + D L. Cross--male offspring of + A + B. + M. European man. + N. Native man. + + +The Eurasian half-breed, thus established, has been perpetuated by +a variety of possible combinations:-- + + + European man Eurasian woman. + Native woman. + + Eurasian man Native woman. + Eurasian woman. + European woman. + + Native man Eurasian woman. + European woman. + + +In the early days of the British occupation of Madras, the traders and +soldiers, arriving with an inadequate equipment of females, contracted +alliances, regular or irregular, with the women of the country. And +in these early days, when our territorial possessions were keenly +contested with both European and Native enemies, an attempt was made, +under authority from high places, to obtain, through the medium of +the British soldier, and in accordance with the creed that crossing +is an essential means of improving a race, and rendering it vigorous +by the infusion of fresh blood from a separate stock, a good cross, +which should be available for military purposes. Later on, as the +number of the British settlers increased, connexions, either with +the Native women, or with the females of the recently established +Eurasian type, were kept up owing to the difficulty of communication +with the mother-country, and consequent difficulty in securing English +brides. Of these barbaric days the detached or semi-detached bungalows +in the spacious grounds of the old private houses in Madras remain +as a memorial. At the present day the conditions of life in India +are, as the result of steamer traffic, very different, and far more +wholesome. The Eurasian man seeks a wife as a rule among his own +community; and, in this manner, the race is mainly maintained. + +The number of Eurasians within the limits of the Madras Presidency +was returned, at the census, 1891, as 26,643. But on this point I +must call Mr. H. A. Stuart, the Census Commissioner, into the witness +box. "The number of Eurasians," he writes, "is 26,643, which is 20.76 +per cent. more than the number returned in 1881." The figures for +the last three enumerations are given in the following statement:-- + + + Year. Total. Males. Females. + 1871 26,460 13,091 13,359 + 1881 21,892 10,969 10,923 + 1891 26,643 13,141 13,502 + + +"It will be seen that, between 1871 and 1881, there was a great +decrease, and that the numbers in 1891 are slightly higher +than they were twenty years ago. The figures, however, are most +untrustworthy. The cause is not far to seek; many persons, who are +really Natives, claim to be Eurasians, and some who are Eurasians +return themselves as Europeans. It might be thought that the errors +due to these circumstances would be fairly constant, but the district +figures show that this cannot be the case. Take Malabar, for example, +which has the largest number of Eurasians after Madras, and where +the division between Native Christians with European names and +people of real mixed race is very shadowy. In 1871 there were in this +district 5,413 Eurasians; in 1881 the number had apparently fallen to +1,676; while in 1891 it had again risen to 4,193, or, if we include +South-east Wynaad, as we should do, to 4,439. It is to be regretted +that trustworthy statistics cannot be obtained, for the question +whether the true Eurasian community is increasing or decreasing is of +considerable scientific and administrative importance. The Eurasians +form but a very small proportion of the community, for there is only +one Eurasian in every 1,337 of the population of the Madras Presidency, +and it is more than probable that a considerable proportion of those +returned as Eurasians are in reality pure Natives who have embraced the +Christian religion, taken an English or Portuguese name, and adopted +the European dress and mode of living. In the matter of education, or +at least elementary education, they are more advanced than any other +class of the community, and compare favourably with the population +of any country in the world. They live for the most part in towns, +nearly one-half of their number being found in the city of Madras." + +In connection with the fact that, at times of census, Native Christians +and Pariahs, who masquerade in European clothes, return themselves +as Eurasians, and vice versâ, it may be accepted that some benefit +must be derived by the individual in return for the masking of his or +her nationality. And it has been pointed out to me that (as newspaper +advertisements testify) many ladies will employ a Native ayah rather +than a Eurasian nurse, and that some employers will take Eurasian +clerks into their service, but not Native Christians. It occasionally +happens that pure-bred Natives, with European name and costume, +successfully pass themselves off as Eurasians, and are placed on +a footing of equality with Eurasians in the matter of diet, being +allowed the luxury of bread and butter, coffee, etc. + +Mr. Stuart had at his command no special statistics of the occupations +resorted to by Eurasians, but states that the majority of them are +clerks, while very few obtain their livelihood by agriculture. In +the course of my investigations in the city of Madras, the following +occupations were recorded:-- + + + Accountant. + Attendant, Lunatic Asylum. + Baker. + Bandsman. + Bill collector. + Blacksmith. + Boarding-house keeper. + Boatswain. + Boiler smith. + Carpenter. + Chemist's assistant. + Clerk, Government. + Clerk, commercial. + Commission agent. + Compositor. + Compounder. + Contractor. + Coppersmith. + Crane attendant, harbour. + Draftsman. + Electric tram driver. + Electric tram inspector. + Engine-driver, ice factory. + Evangelist. + Filer. + Fireman. + Fitter. + Hammerer. + Harness-maker. + Jewel-smith. + Joiner. + Labourer. + Livery stable-keeper. + Mechanic. + Moulder. + Painter. + Petition writer. + Police Inspector. + Porter. + Printer. + Proof-reader. + Railway-- + Auditor. + Chargeman. + Engine-driver. + Engineer. + Goods clerk. + Guard. + Locomotive Inspector. + Parcels clerk. + Prosecuting Inspector. + Shunter. + Signaller. + Station-master. + Storekeeper. + Ticket collector. + Tool-keeper. + Block signaller. + Carriage examiner. + Reporter. + Rivetter. + Saddler. + Schoolmaster. + Sexton. + Spring-smith. + Stereotyper. + Steward. + Telegraph clerk. + Watchmaker. + Watchman. + + +In the Census Report, 1901, the following statistics of the occupation +of 5,718 Eurasians in Madras city (4,083), Malabar (1,149) and +Chingleput (486) are given. Most of those in the last of these three +reside in Perambur, just outside the Madras municipal limits:-- + + Number of + workers. + Endowments, scholarships, etc. 813 + Pensioners 438 + Railway clerks, station-masters, guards, etc. 427 + Tailors 378 + Merchants' and shop-keepers' clerks 297 + Railway operatives 262 + Teachers 243 + Public service 212 + Private clerks 211 + Mechanics (not railway) 203 + Carpenters 167 + Telegraph department 136 + Medical department 136 + Cooks, grooms, etc. 132 + Printing presses: workmen and subordinates 106 + Independent means 75 + Allowances from patrons, relatives and friends 72 + Survey and Public Works department 66 + Coffee and tea estate clerks and coolies 60 + Inmates of asylums 58 + Railway porters, etc. 57 + Musicians and actors 54 + Harbour service 50 + Workmen, gun carriage factories 48 + Postal department 48 + Non-commissioned officers, Army 46 + Mendicants 45 + Midwives 42 + Priests, ministers, etc. 41 + Tramway officials 35 + Sellers of hides and bones, shoe and boot makers, 33 + tanners, etc. + Local and Municipal service 30 + Shipping clerks, etc. 29 + Brokers and agents 28 + Lawyers' clerks 26 + Merchants and shop-keepers 24 + Landholders 24 + Watch and clock makers 23 + Money-lenders, etc. 22 + Military clerks 21 + Blacksmiths 18 + Chemists and druggists 16 + Prisoners 15 + Pleaders 12 + Brass and copper smiths 12 + Inmates of convents, etc. 11 + Ship's officers, etc. 10 + Prostitutes 10 + Authors, editors, etc. 10 + Cultivating tenants 8 + Club managers, etc. 8 + Hotel-keepers, etc. 7 + Minor occupations 363 + + +As bearing on the subject of Eurasian marriage, I am enabled, +through the courtesy of a railway chaplain and the chaplain of one +of the principal churches in the city of Madras, to place on record +the following statistics abstracted from the registers. It may, in +explanation, be noted that M indicates the bridegroom, F the bride, +and W widow or widower remarriage:-- + + +(a) Railway. + + =======+========+========+========+========+======= + M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. + -------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------- + 25 | 18 | 34 | 19 | 24 | 18 + 21 | 15 | 27 | 16 | 35 | 21 + 24 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 24 | 19 + 21 | 14 | 22 | 18 | 22 | 18 + 22 | 19 | 25 | 16 | 21 | 20 + 23 | 17 | 22 | 18 | 32 | 19 + 23 | 14 | 25 | 16 | 26 | 21 + 23 | 18 | 23 | 21 | 25 | 18 + 25 | 16 | W 42 | 18 | 33 | 19 + W 45 | 19 | 37 | 28 | 20 | 15 + 25 | 23 | 25 | 19 | 25 | 18 + 24 | 17 | 24 | 17 | 24 | 20 + 22 | 17 | 26 | 16 | 32 | 19 + W 42 | 18 | 24 | 19 | 27 | 18 + 40 | 16 | 23 | | | + 23 | 22 | 23 | | | + =======+========+========+========+========+====== + + +(b) Madras City. + + ========+========+========+========+========+====== + M. | F. | M. | F. | M. | F. + --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+------ + 33 | 26 | 28 | 19 | 27 | 18 + W 40 | 18 | 29 | 20 | W 39 | 19 + 23 | 26 | 23 | 21 | 27 | 31 + 23 | 23 | 26 | 21 | 23 | 14 + 25 | 21 | 22 | 18 | 33 | 24 + 29 | W 24 | 25 | 17 | 25 | 18 + 31 | 19 | 28 | W 35 | 25 | 18 + 28 | 25 | 24 | 18 | 21 | 19 + 26 | 17 | 26 | 19 | 24 | 20 + 23 | 15 | 32 | 26 | 26 | 19 + 23 | 18 | 26 | 18 | W 46 | W 39 + 23 | 19 | 27 | 18 | 23 | 25 + 30 | 24 | 25 | 21 | 22 | 20 + W 38 | 17 | 23 | 16 | 32 | 17 + 21 | 17 | 27 | 19 | 21 | 16 + 26 | 21 | 40 | 16 | 21 | W 30 + W 53 | W 43 | 28 | 15 | W 40 | 17 + 28 | 20 | 31 | 24 | 25 | 24 + 29 | 21 | 27 | 25 | 30 | 20 + W 43 | W 36 | 29 | 17 | W 43 | 23 + 20 | 16 | 24 | W 30 | 22 | 18 + 22 | 18 | W 42 | W 34 | | + ========+========+========+========+========+======= + + +Analysing these figures, with the omission of remarriages, we obtain +the following results:-- + + +(a) Railway. + + Bridegroom. Bride. + Average age 25-26 18-19 + Mean above average 28-29 19-20 + Mean below average 23-24 16-17 + Range of age 40-20 28-14 + + +(b) Madras City. + + Bridegroom. Bride. + Average age 26-27 19-20 + Mean above average 28-29 21-22 + Mean below average 23-24 17-18 + Range of age 40-20 31-14 + + +From the analysis of a hundred male cases in Madras, in which enquiries +were made with reference to the married state, in individuals ranging +in age from 21 to 50, with an average age of 33, I learn that 74 were +married; that 141 male and 130 female children had been born to them; +and that 26, whose average age was 25, were unmarried. The limits of +age of the men at the time of marriage were 32 and 16; of their wives +25 and 13. The greatest number of children born to a single pair +was 10. In only three cases, out of the seventy-four, was there no +issue. In fifty cases, which were examined, of married men, with an +average age of 34, 207 children had been born, of whom 91 had died, +for the most part in early life, from 'fever' and other causes. + +The racial position of Eurasians, and the proportion of black blood +in their veins, are commonly indicated, not by the terms mulatto, +quadroon, octoroon, sambo (or zambo), etc., but in fractions of a +rupee. The European pure breed being represented by Rs. 0-0-0, and +the Native pure breed by 16 annas (= 1 rupee), the resultant cross is, +by reference to colour and other tests, gauged as being half an anna in +the rupee (faint admixture of black blood), approaching European types; +eight annas (half and half); fifteen annas (predominant admixture of +black blood), approaching Native types, etc. + +The Eurasian body being enveloped in clothes, it was not till they +stripped before me, for the purpose of anthropometry, that I became +aware how prevalent is the practice of tattooing among the male +members of the community. Nearly all the hundred and thirty men +(of the lower classes) whom I examined were, in fact, tattooed to a +greater or less extent on the breasts, upper arms, forearms, wrists, +back of the hands, or shoulders. The following varied selection of +devices in blue, with occasional red, is recorded in my case-book:-- + + + Anchor. + Ballet girl with flag, stars and stripes. + Bracelets round wrists. + Burmese lady carrying umbrella. + Bird. + Bugles. + Conventional artistic devices. + Cross and anchor. + Crown and flags. + Crossed swords and pistols. + Dancing-girl. + Dancing-girl playing with cobras. + Elephant. + Floral devices. + Flowers in pot. + Hands joined in centre of a heart. + Hands joined, and clasping a flower. + Heart. + Heart and cross. + Initials of the individual, his friends, relatives, and inamorata, + sometimes within a heart or laurel wreath. + Lizard. + Mercy (word on left breast). + Mermaid. + Portraits of the man and his lady-love. + Queen Alexandra. + Royal arms and banners. + Sailing boat. + Scorpion. + Solomon's seal. + Steam boat. + Svastika (Buddhist emblem). + Watteau shepherdess. + + +The most elaborate patterns were executed by Burmese tattooers. The +initials of the individual's Christian and surnames, which +preponderated over other devices, were, as a rule, in Roman, but +occasionally in Tamil characters. + +In colour the Eurasians afford examples of the entire colour scale, +through sundry shades of brown and yellow, to pale white, and even +florid or rosy. The pilous or hairy system was, in the cases recorded +by me, uniformly black. The colour of the iris, like that of the +skin, is liable to great variation, from lustrous black to light, +with a predominance of dark tints. Blue was observed only in a +solitary instance. + +The Eurasian resists exposure to the sun better than the European, +and, while many wear solah topis (pith sun-hats), it is by no means +uncommon to see a Eurasian walking about in the middle of a hot day +with his head protected only by a straw hat or cap. + +The average height of the Eurasians examined by me in Madras, according +to my measurements of 130 subjects, is 166.6 cm. (5 feet 5-1/2 inches), +and compares as follows with that of the English and various Native +classes inhabiting the city of Madras:-- + + + cm. + English 170.8 + Eurasians 166.6 + Muhammadans 164.5 + Brahmans 162.5 + Pallis 162.5 + Vellalas 162.4 + Paraiyans 161.9 + + +The height, as might be expected, comes between that of the two +parent stocks, European and Native, and had, in the cases examined, +the wide range of 30.8 cm., the difference between a maximum of 183.8 +cm. (6 feet) and a minimum of 153 cm. (5 feet). + +The average length of the head was 18.6 cm. and the breadth 14.1 +cm. And it is to be noted that, in 63 per cent. of the cases examined, +the breadth exceeded 14 cm.:-- + + + Length. Breadth. Index. + cm. cm. + Brahmans 18.6 14.2 76.5 + Eurasians 18.6 14.1 76 + Muhammadans 18.7 13.9 76.1 + Vellalas 18.6 13.8 74.1 + Paraiyans 18.6 13.7 73.6 + Pallis 18.6 13.6 73 + + +The breadth of the head is very clearly brought out by the following +analysis of forty subjects belonging to each of the above six classes, +which shows at a glance the preponderance of heads exceeding 14 +cm. in breadth in Eurasians, Brahmans, and (to a less extent) +in Muhammadans:-- + + + 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 + cm. cm. cm. cm. + Eurasians ... 11 27 2 + Brahmans 1 9 27 3 + Muhammadans 2 17 21 ... + Vellalas ... 24 16 ... + Paraiyans ... 27 13 ... + Pallis 3 30 7 ... + + +The head of a cross-breed, it has been said, generally takes after the +father, and the breadth of the Eurasian head is a persisting result +of European male influence. The effect of this influence is clearly +demonstrated in the following cases, all the result of re-crossing +between British men and Eurasian women:-- + + + Length. Breadth. + cm. cm. + 19 14.5 + 18.4 14.2 + 19.2 14.2 + 20.2 14.6 + 19 14.6 + 19.4 14.3 + ---- ---- + Average 19.2 14.4 + Eurasian average 18.6 14.1 + + +The character of the nose is, as those who have studied ethnology in +India will appreciate, a most important factor in the differentiation +of race, tribe, and class, and in the determination of pedigree. "No +one," Mr. Risley writes, [120] "can have glanced at the literature +of the subject, and in particular, at the Védic accounts of the Aryan +advance, without being struck by the frequent references to the noses +of the people whom the Aryans found in possession of the plains of +India. So impressed were the Aryans with the shortcomings of their +enemies' noses that they often spoke of them as 'the noseless ones,' +and their keen perception of the importance of this feature seems +almost to anticipate the opinion of Dr. Collignon that the nasal index +ranks higher as a distinctive character than the stature or even the +cephalic index itself." + +In the subjoined table, based on the examination of forty members of +each class, the high proportion of leptorhine Eurasians, Muhammadans, +and Vellalas, with nasal indices ranging between 60 and 70, is at +once manifest, and requires no comment:-- + + + 60-70. 70-80. 80-90. 90-100. + Eurasians 19 17 3 1 + Muhammadans 17 18 4 1 + Vellalas 14 22 3 1 + Pallis 3 25 9 3 + Paraiyans 2 17 19 2 + + +I pass on to the Eurasians of the west coast. My visit to Calicut, +the capital of the Malabar district, was by chance coincident with the +commemoration of the four hundredth anniversary of the arrival of Vasco +da Gama at Calicut after his discovery of the sea-route from Europe +to India. Concerning the origin of the Indo-Portuguese half-breed, I +learn [121] that, on his return from the recapture of Goa, Albuquerque +brought with him the women he had carried away when the Portuguese +were driven out of the place. As soon as affairs became tolerably +settled again at that port, he had them converted to Christianity, +and married them to Portuguese men. No less than 450 of his men were +thus married in Goa, and others who desired to follow their example +were so numerous that Albuquerque had great difficulty in granting +their requests. The marriage of Portuguese men to native women had +already been sanctioned by Dom Manuel, but this privilege was only +to be conceded to men of proved character, and who had rendered good +service. Albuquerque, however, extended the permission to many far +beyond what he was authorised to do, and he took care that the women +so married were the daughters of the principal men of the land. This +he did in the hope of inducing them to become Christians. To those who +were married Albuquerque allotted lands, houses and cattle, so as to +give them a start in life, and all the landed property which had been +in possession of the Moorish mosques and Hindu pagodas he gave to the +principal churches of the city, which he dedicated to Santa Catherina. + +The names of some members of the community at Calicut recalled to +mind Pedro Alvares Cabral, who anchored before Calicut in 1500, +and established a factory at Cochin; the first Portuguese Governor, +Dom Franciso de Almeida; André Furtado de Mendonca, who concluded +a treaty with the king of Calicut; and many others, whose exploits +are handed down to posterity in the Indo-Portuguese archives. Though +Portuguese names persist at the present day, it does not follow of +necessity that their owners have any Portuguese blood in their veins, +for some are merely descendants of Native converts to Christianity, +or of household slaves of Portuguese officers. "In Malabar," writes the +Census Commissioner, 1881, "there is a section of Europeanized Native +Christians--Goa Roman Catholics--some of whom have adopted European +dress and customs; and in all districts the popular interpretation +of the word Eurasian is very liberal. There are many Pariahs and +Native Christians, who have adopted a travesty of European clothes, +and who would return themselves as Eurasians, if allowed to do so." + +A social distinction is made at Calicut between Eurasians and +East Indians. With a view at clearing up the grounds on which this +distinction is based, my interpreter was called on to submit a note on +the subject, which arrived couched in language worthy of Mark Twain. I, +therefore, reproduce it in the original Indo-Anglian. + +"Eurasians are classified to those who stand second in the list of +Europeans and those born in any part of India, and who are the Pedigree +of European descendants, being born of father European and mother East +Indian, and notwithstanding those who can prove themselves as really +good Indian descendants, such as mother and father of the same sex, +therefore these are called Eurasians. + +"East Indians are those offsprings of Christians of the East, and +they atimes gather the offsprings of Eurasians to the entering their +marriage to the East Indian females in the East Indian community, +thereby they are called East Indians. + +"Native Christians are those of Hindu nations converted into Christians +by their embracing the poles of Christianity. All Hindus thereby +converted are made Christians by a second Baptism are called Native +Christians. + +"Coaster. They are alluded to those who belong to the Coast, and who +come from a country that has a Sea Coast into that country that has +not got a Sea Coast is therefore called a Coaster. A very rude word." + +Speaking in general terms, it may be said that Eurasians are of greater +stature, and possess skins of lighter hue than the East Indians, +who, as the result of intermarriage with Native Christian women, +have reverted in the direction of the Native type. + +The Eurasians examined by me at Calicut, nearly all of whom were Roman +Catholics, were earning a livelihood in the following capacities:-- + + + Bandsman. Municipal inspector. + Boot-maker. Musician. + Bugler. Petition-writer. + Carpenter. Police constable. + Clerk. Railway guard. + Coffee estate writer. Schoolmaster. + Compositor. Tailor. + Copyist. Tin-smith. + Mechanic. Weaver. + + +As in Madras, so in Malabar, tattooing is very prevalent among the +male members of the community, and the devices are characterised by a +predominance of religious emblems and snakes. The following patterns +are recorded in my notes:-- + + + Bangle on wrist. + Boat. + Bird (the Holy Ghost). + Chalice. + Christ crucified. + Conventional and geometrical designs. + Cross. + Cross and crown. + Cross and heart. + Cross and I.N.R.I. + Crossed swords. + Fish. + Flags. + Flower. + Flower and leaves. + Initials. + Ladder. + Sacred heart. + Snake encircling forearms. + Snake coiled round forearm. + Solomon's seal. + Steam boat. + + +There are, in North Malabar, many individuals, whose fathers were +European. Writing, in 1887, concerning the Tiyan community, Mr. Logan +states [122] that "the women are not as a rule excommunicated if +they live with Europeans, and the consequence is that there has +been among them a large admixture of European blood, and the caste +itself has been materially raised in the social scale. In appearance +some of the women are almost as fair as Europeans." On this point, +the Report of the Malabar Marriage Commission, 1894, states that "in +the early days of British rule, the Tiyan women incurred no social +disgrace by consorting with Europeans, and, up to the last generation, +if the Sudra girl could boast of her Brahmin lover, the Tiyan girl +could show more substantial benefits from her alliance with a white +man of the ruling race. Happily the progress of education, and the +growth of a wholesome public opinion, have made shameful the position +of a European's concubine; and both races have thus been saved from +a mode of life equally demoralizing to each." + +During a visit to Ootacamund on the Nilgiri hills, I was enabled +to examine the physique of the elder boys at the Lawrence Asylum, +the object of which is "to provide for children of European and +East Indian officers and soldiers of Her Majesty's Army (British and +Native), and of Europeans and East Indians in the Medical Service, +military and civil, who are serving, or have served within the limits +of the Presidency of Madras, a refuge from the debilitating effects of +a tropical climate, and from the serious drawbacks to the well-being +of children incidental to a barrack life; to afford for them a plain, +practical, and religious education; and to train them for employment +in different trades, pursuits, and industries." As the result of +examination of thirty-three Eurasian boys, I was able to testify to +the excellence of their physical condition. [123] A good climate, with +a mean annual temperature of 58°, good food, and physical training, +have produced a set of boys well-nourished and muscular, with good +chests, shoulders, and body weight. + +Some final words are necessary on liability to certain diseases, +as a differentiating character between Eurasians and Europeans. The +Census Commissioner, 1891, states that Eurasians seem to be peculiarly +liable to insanity and leprosy. To these should be added elephantiasis +(filarial disease), concerning which Surgeon-Major J. Maitland writes +as follows [124] "Almost all the old writers on elephantiasis believed +that the dark races were more susceptible to the disease than white +people; but it is extremely doubtful if this is the case. It is true +that, in those countries where the disease is endemic, the proportion +of persons affected is much greater among the blacks than among the +whites; but it has to be borne in mind that the habits of the former +render them much more liable to the disease than the latter. The +majority of the white people, being more civilised, are more careful +regarding the purity of their drinking water than the Natives, +who are proverbially careless in this respect. In India, although +it is comparatively rare to meet with Europeans affected with the +disease, yet such cases are from time to time recorded. Eurasians +are proportionately more liable to the disease than pure Europeans, +but not so much so as Natives. Doctors Patterson and Hall of Bahia +[125] examined the blood of 309 persons in that place, and found the +following proportions affected with filaria; of whites, 1 in 26; of +blacks, 1 in 10-1/4; of the mixed race, 1 in 9. Doctor Laville [126] +states that, in the Society Islands, out of a total of 13 European and +American residents, 11 were affected with elephantiasis. Taking all +these facts into consideration, together with our knowledge of the +pathology of the disease, I do not think we are justified in saying +that the black races are more susceptible to the disease than white +people. On the other hand, owing to the nature of their habits, they +are much more liable to the diseases than are the white races." During +the five years 1893-97, ninety-eight Eurasians suffering from filarial +diseases were admitted into the General Hospital, Madras. + +To Colonel W. A. Lee, I.M.S., Superintendent of the Government Leper +Asylum, Madras, I am indebted for the following note on leprosy in its +relation to the Eurasian and European communities. "Europeans are by +no means immune to the disease, which, in the majority of instances, +is contracted by them through coitus with leprous individuals. Leprosy +is one of the endemic diseases of tropical and sub-tropical countries, +to the risk of contracting which Europeans who settle on the plains +of India, and their offspring from unions with the inhabitants of +the land, as well as the descendants of the latter, become exposed, +since, by the force of circumstances, they are thrown into intimate +contact with the Native population. The Eurasian community furnishes +a considerable number of lepers, and the disease, once introduced +into a family, has a tendency to attack several of its members, and +to reappear in successive generations, occasionally skipping one--a +feature akin to the biological phenomenon known as atavism, but of +perhaps doubtful analogy, for the possibility of a fresh infection +or inoculation has always to be borne in mind. There are numerous +instances of such hereditary transmission among the patients, +both Native and Eurasian, in the Leper Hospital. The spread of +the disease by contagion is slow, the most intimate contact even, +such as that between parent and child, often failing to effect +inoculation. Still there is much evidence in support of its being +inoculable by cohabitation, prolonged contact, wearing the same +clothing, sharing the dwelling, using the same cooking and eating +utensils, and even by arm-to-arm vaccination. Influenced by a belief in +the last mentioned cause, vaccination was formerly regarded with much +suspicion and dislike by Eurasians in Madras. But their apprehensions +on this score have abated since animal vaccine was substituted for the +humanised material. It has also for long been a popular belief among +the same class that the suckling of their infants by infected Native +wet-nurses is a common source of the disease. Attempts to reproduce +leprosy from supposed pure cultures of the leprosy bacillus have +invariably failed, and this strengthens the belief that the disease +would die out if sufferers from the tubercular or mixed forms were +segregated, and intermarriage with members of known leprous families +interdicted. Experience shows that, where such marriages are freely +entered into, a notable prevalence of the disease results, as at +Pondicherry for example, where the so-called creole population is +said to contain a large proportion of lepers from this cause." + +Writing concerning the prevalence of insanity in different classes, +the Census Commissioner, 1891, states that "it appears from the +statistics that insanity is far more prevalent among the Eurasians +than among any other class. The proportion is 1 insane person in +every 410. For England and Wales the proportion is 1 in every 307, +and it is significant that the section of the population of Madras, +which shows the greatest liability to insanity, is that which has +an admixture of European blood. I have no information regarding the +prevalence of insanity among Eurasians for any other province or +State in India except Mysore, and there the proportion is 1 in 306." + +For the following tabular statement of admissions into the Government +Lunatic Asylum, Madras, I am indebted to Captain C. H. Leet-Palk, +I.M.S.:-- + + + ======+=================+=================+================ + | Eurasians. | Natives. | Europeans. + -- |-----------------|-----------------|---------------- + | Male. | Female. | Male. | Female. | Male. | Female. + ------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+-------- + 1893 | 6 | 7 | 110 | 55 | 15 | 4 + 1894 | 8 | 6 | 104 | 28 | 19 | 1 + 1895 | 10 | 6 | 113 | 18 | 11 | 4 + 1896 | 2 | 4 | 82 | 17 | 5 | ... + 1897 | 3 | 3 | 84 | 18 | 14 | 1 + ======+=======+=========+=======+=========+=======+======== + + +Leaving out of question the Europeans, in whom, owing to the +preponderance of the male sex in Madras, a greater number of male than +female lunatics is to be expected, and considering only Eurasians +and Natives, the far higher proportion of female as compared with +male lunatics in the Eurasian than in the Native community, is +very conspicuous. Taking, for example, the numbers remaining in the +Asylum in 1894. Whereas the proportion of Eurasian males to females +was 33:31, that of Natives was 30.6:6.8; and the high proportion of +female Eurasian inmates was visible in other years. The subject seems +to be one worthy of further study by those competent to deal with it. + + + + + + + +G + + +Gabit.--A Bombay fishing caste returned at the census, 1901. To Malpe +in the South Canara district, during the fishing season, come fishermen +with a flotilla of keeled and outrigged sailing boats from Ratnagiri +in the Bombay Presidency. Hither also come fishermen from Goa. The +reasons given by the Ratnagiri fishermen for coming southward are that +fish are not so abundant off their own coast, competition is keener, +and salt more expensive. Moreover, the crystals of Bombay salt are +too large for successful curing, and "do not agree with the fish, +of which the flesh is turned black." If, they said contemptuously, +they were to sun-dry fish by the local method, their people would +laugh at them for bringing back, not fish, but dried cow-dung for +fuel. The Ratnagiri boats go well out of sight of land to the fishing +ground, where they catch seir, pomfret, cat-fish (Arius), and other +big fish near the surface, and sharks in deeper water. If the fishing +is not good near Malpe, they may go south as far as Mangalore. To +the Ratnagiri fishermen the seir (Cybium) is the most valuable and +lucrative fish. Under existing arrangements, by which clashing of +interests is avoided, the fishery at Malpe is divided into two zones, +viz., the deep sea fished by the large Ratnagiri boats, and the +shallow littoral water by the smaller local and Goa boats. + +Gadaba.--The Gadabas are a tribe of agriculturists, coolies, and +hunters in the Vizagapatam district. Hunting is said to be gradually +decreasing, as many of the forests are now preserved, and shooting +without a license is forbidden. Men sometimes occupy themselves in +felling trees, catching birds and hares, and tracking and beating game +for sportsmen. The Gadabas are also employed as bearers in the hills, +and carry palanquins. There is a settlement of them on the main road +between Sembliguda and Koraput, in a village where they are said to +have been settled by a former Raja expressly for such service. It +is said that the Gadabas will not touch a horse, possibly because +they are palanquin-bearers, and have the same objection to the rival +animal that a cabman has for a motor-car. + +There is a tradition that the tribe owes its name to the fact that +its ancestors emigrated from the banks of the Godabari (Godavari) +river, and settled at Nandapur, the former capital of the Rajas +of Jeypore. The Gadabas have a language of their own, of which a +vocabulary is given in the Vizagapatam Manual. This language is +included by Mr. G. A. Grierson [127] in the Munda linguistic family. + +The tribe is apparently divided into five sections, called Bodo (big) +or Gutob, Parenga, Olaro, Kaththiri or Kaththara, and Kapu. Of these, +the last two are settled in the plains, and say that they are Bodo +and Olaro Gadabas who migrated thither from the hills. As among the +Gadabas, so among the Savaras, there is a section which has settled +on the plains, and adopted Kapu as its name. In the Madras Census +Report, 1891, nearly a thousand Gadabas are returned as belonging to +the Chenchu sub-division. Chenchu is the name of a separate jungle +tribe in the Telugu country, and I have been unable to confirm the +existence of a Chenchu sub-division among the Gadabas. + +In the Madras Census Report, 1871, Mr. H. G. Turner states that "very +much akin to the Gadabas are a class called Kerang Kapus. They will +not admit any connexion with them; but, as their language is almost +identical, such gainsaying cannot be permitted them. They are called +Kerang Kapu from the circumstance of their women weaving cloths, +which they weave from the fibre of a jungle shrub called Kerang +(Calotropis gigantea)." Mr. H. A. Stuart remarks [128] that "the +Kapu Gadabas are possibly the Kerang Kapus mentioned by Mr. Turner +as akin to the Gadabas, for I find no mention of the caste under the +full name of Kerang Kapu, nor is Kerang found as a sub-division of +either Kapu or Gadaba." Writing concerning the numeral system of the +Kerang Kapus, Mr. Turner observes that it runs thus: Moi, Umbar, +Jugi, O, Malloi, Turu, Gu, Tammar, Santing, Goa, and for eleven +(1 and following numbers), they prefix the word Go, e.g., Gommoi, +Gombaro, etc. The Kerang Kapus can count up to nineteen, but have no +conception of twenty. According to Mr. W. Francis, the only tribe on +the hills which has this system of notation is the Bonda Poraja. The +Gadabas have very similar names for the first five numerals; but, +after that, lapse into Oriya, e.g., sat, at, no, das, etc. The +Bonda Poraja numerals recorded by Mr. Francis are muyi, baar, gii, +oo, moloi, thiri, goo, thamam, and so on up to nineteen, after which +they cannot count. This system, as he points out, agrees with the one +described by Mr. Turner as belonging to the Kerang Kapus. The Gutob +Gadaba numerals recorded by Mr. C. A. Henderson include muititti (1 + +a hand), and martitti (2 + a hand). + +Some Gadaba women wear a bustle or dress improver, called irre or +kitte. This article of attire is accounted for by the following +tradition. "A goddess visited a Gadaba village incognito, and asked +leave of one of the women to rest on a cot. She was brusquely told that +the proper seat for beggars was the floor, and she consequently decreed +that thenceforth all Gadaba women should wear a bustle to remind them +to avoid churlishness." [129] The Gadaba female cloths are manufactured +by themselves from cotton thread and the fibre of silloluvada or ankudi +chettu (Holarrhena antidysenterica) and boda luvada or bodda chettu +(Ficus glomerata). The fibre is carefully dried, and dyed blue or +reddish-brown. The edges of the cloth are white, a blue strip comes +next, while the middle portion is reddish-brown with narrow stripes +of white or blue at regular intervals. The Gadabas account for the +dress of their women by the following legend. When Rama, during his +banishment, was wandering in the forests of Dandaka, his wife Sita +accompanied him in spite of his entreaties to the contrary. It was one +of the cruel terms of his stepmother Kaika that Rama should wear only +clothing made from jungle fibre, before leaving the capital. According +to the Hindu religion, a virtuous wife must share both the sorrows +and joys of her lord. Consequently Sita followed the example of Rama, +and wore the same kind of clothing. They then left the capital amidst +the loud lamentation of the citizens. During their wanderings, they met +some Gadaba women, who mocked and laughed at Sita. Whereupon she cursed +them, and condemned them to wear no other dress but the cloth made of +fibre. In a note on the Gadabas, [130] Mr. L. Lakshminarayan writes +that "although mill-prepared cloths are fast replacing house-spun +cloths in all communities, yet, in the case of the Gadabas, there +is a strong superstition which prevents the use of cloths prepared +outside, particularly in regard to the cloths worn by their women. The +legend (about Sita) is fully believed by the Gadabas, and hence their +religious adherence to their particular cloth. At the time of marriage, +it is absolute that the Gadaba maiden should wear this fibre-made +cloth, else misfortune will ruin the family. A bundle of twigs is +brought, and the stems freed of leaves are bruised and twisted to +loosen the bark, and are then dried for two or three days, after which +the bark is ripped out and beaten down smooth with heavy sticks, +to separate the bark from the fibre. The fibre is then collected, +and combed down smooth, and spun into a tolerably fine twist. It +is this twist that the Gadaba maiden weaves in her crude loom, +and prepares from it her marriage sari. According to a good custom +among these people, a Gadaba maiden must learn to weave her cloths +before she becomes eligible for marriage. And no Gadaba ever thinks +of marrying a wife who cannot prepare her own cloths. Men can use +cotton and other cloths, whereas women cannot do so, for they are +under the curse of Sita. But the passion for fineries in woman is +naturally so strong that the modern Gadaba woman is now taking the +liberty of putting cotton thread for the woof and ankudu fibre for +the warp, and thus is able to turn out a more comfortable and finer +cloth. But some old crones informed me that this mixed cloth is not +so auspicious as that prepared wholly from the fibre." + +Some Gadaba women wear immense earrings made of long pieces of brass +wire wound into a circle, which hang down from a hole in the ear, +and sometimes reach to the shoulders. The wire is sold in the shandy +(market) at so much a cubit. The head-dress of some of the women +consists of a chaplet of Oliva shells, and strings of beads of various +sizes and colours, or the red and black berries of Abrus precatorius, +with pendants which hang over the forehead. The women also wear +bead necklaces, to which a coin may sometimes be seen attached +as a pendant. Bracelets and rings are as a rule made of brass or +copper, but sometimes silver rings are worn. Toe-rings and brass or +silver anklets are considered fashionable ornaments. Among the Olaro +Gadabas, the wearing of brass anklets by a woman indicates that she is +married. For teaching backward children to walk, the Gadabas employ +a bamboo stick split so as to make a fork, the prongs of which are +connected by a cross-bar. The apparatus is held by the mother, and +the child, clutching the cross-bar, toddles along. + +Among the Bodo and Olaro sections, the following septs occur:--Kora +(sun), Nag (cobra), Bhag (tiger), Kira (parrot), and Gollari +(monkey). The Gadabas who have settled in the plains seem to have +forgotten the sept names, but will not injure or kill certain animals, +e.g., the cobra. + +Girls are as a rule married after puberty. When a young man's parents +think it time for him to get married, they repair to the home of +an eligible girl with rice and liquor, and say that they have come +to ask a boon, but do not mention what it is. They are treated to +a meal, and return home. Some time afterwards, on a day fixed by +the Disari, three or four aged relatives of the young man go to the +girl's house, and the match is fixed up. After a meal, they return +to their homes. On the day appointed for the wedding ceremonies, +the bridegroom's relations go to the home of the bride, taking with +them a rupee towards the marriage expenses, a new cloth for the girl's +mother, and half a rupee for the females of the bride's village, which +is regarded as compensation for the loss of the girl. To the bride are +given a glass bead necklace, and brass bangles to be worn on the right +wrist. A feast follows. On the following day, the bride is conducted +to the village of the bridegroom, in front of whose home a pandal +(booth), made of four bamboo poles, covered with green leaves, has +been erected. Within the pandal, stems of the sal (Shorea robusta), +addagirli, and bamboo joined together, are set up as the auspicious +post. Beside this a grindstone is placed, on which the bride sits, +with the bridegroom seated on her thighs. The females present throw +turmeric powder over them, and they are bathed with turmeric-water +kept ready in a new pot. They are then presented with new cloths, and +their hands are joined together by the officiating Disari. A feast, +with much drinking, follows, and the day's proceedings conclude with +a dance. On the following day, mud is heaped up near the pandal, into +which the Disari throws a handful of it. The remainder of the mud +is carried into the pandal by the contracting couple, who pour water +over it, and throw it over those who are assembled. All then proceed +to a stream, and bathe. A further feast and dance follows, of which +the newly married couple are spectators, without taking part in it. + +In a note on marriage among the Parenga Gadabas, Mr. G. F. Paddison +writes that they have two forms of marriage rite, one of which +(biba) is accompanied by much feasting, gifts of bullocks, toddy, +rice, etc. The most interesting feature is the fight for the bride +with fists. All the men on each side fight, and the bridegroom has +to carry off the bride by force. Then they all sit down, and feast +together. In the other form (lethulia), the couple go off together +to the jungle, and, when they return, pay twenty rupees, or whatever +they can afford, to the girl's father as a fine. A dinner and regular +marriage follow elopement and payment of the fine. + +The ghorojavai system, according to which a man works for a stated +period for his future father-in-law, is practiced by the Gadabas. But a +cash payment is said to be now substituted for service. The remarriage +of widows is permitted, and a younger brother may marry the widow of +his elder brother. If she does not marry him, the second husband has +to pay a sum of money, called in Oriya the rand tonka, to him. When +a man divorces his wife, her relations are summoned, and he pays her +two rupees before sending her away. Of this sum, one rupee is paid as +buchni for suspicion regarding her chastity, and the other as chatni +for driving her away. A divorced woman may remarry. + +In the hills, the village headman is called Janni or Nayako, and in +the plains Naidado. He is assisted by a Kirasani, who is also the +caste priest. + +Concerning the religion of the Gadabas, Mr. H. D. Taylor writes [131] +that it is "simple, and consists of feasts at stated intervals. The +chief festival is Ittakaparva, or hunting feast, in March and April. On +this occasion, the whole male population turns out to hunt, and, +if they return unsuccessful, the women pelt them with cow-dung on +their return to the village; if, however, successful, they have their +revenge upon the women in another way. The chief deities (though +spoken of generally under the term Devata or Mahaprabhu) are Ganga +Devi or Takurani, Iswara or Mouli, Bhairava, and Jhankara. It is +Iswara or Mouli who is worshipped at Chaitra. Jhankara is the god +of land, rainfall and crops, and a cow is sacrificed to him. There +are not, as a rule, temples, but the puja (worship) place consists +of a sacred grove surrounded with a circle of stones, which takes +the name of Jhankara from the god to whom puja is performed. Ganga +Devi, Iswara and Mouli have temples at certain places, but as a +rule there is no building, and the site of puja is marked by trees +and stones. To Iswara a she-buffalo is sacrificed at Chaitra. To the +other Devatas cocks and goats are sacrificed. Ganga Devi or Takurani +is the goddess of life and health, both of men and cattle; to her +pigs, goats, and pigeons are sacrificed. There are one or two curious +superstitions. If a member of the caste is supposed to be possessed +of a devil, he or she is abused and beaten by other members of the +caste until the devil is cast out. In some parts the superstition is +that a piece of wild buffalo horn buried in the ground of the village +will avert or cure cattle disease." Sometimes a sal or kosangi tree +is planted, and surrounded by a bamboo hedge. It is worshipped with +animal sacrifices at harvest time, and the Kirasani acts as priest. + +"There is," Mr. G. F. Paddison writes, "rather a curious custom +in connection with a village goddess. Close to her shrine a swing +is kept. On this swing, once a year at the great village festival, +thorns are placed, and the village priest or priestess sits on them +without harm. If the pujari is a male, he has been made neuter. But, +if the village is not fortunate enough to possess a eunuch, a woman +performs the ceremony. [At the fire-walking ceremony at Nuvagode +in Ganjam, the priest sits on a thorny swing, and is endowed with +prophetic powers.] When there is small-pox or other epidemic disease +in a village, a little go-cart is built, composed of a box on legs +fixed to a small board on wheels. In this box is placed a little +clay image, or anything else holy, and carried away to a distant +place, and left there. A white flag is hoisted, which looks like +quarantine, but is really intended, I think, to draw the goddess +back to her shrine. Vaccination is regarded as a religious ceremony, +and the Gadabas, I believe, invariably present the vaccinator as the +officiating priest with rice." + +The Gadabas, like other hill tribes, name their children after the +day of the week on which they are born. On the plains, however, +some give their children low-country names, e.g., Ramudu, Lachigadu, +Arjanna, etc. + +Males are, as a rule, burnt; but, if a person dies in the night or +on a rainy day, the corpse is sometimes buried. Women and children +are usually buried, presumably because they are not thought worth the +fuel necessary for cremation. Only relations are permitted to touch a +corpse. Death pollution is observed for three days, during which the +caste occupation must not be engaged in. Stone slabs are erected to the +memory of the dead, and sacrifices are offered to them now and again. + +The Gadabas have a devil dance, which they are willing to perform +before strangers in return for a small present. It has been thus +described by Captain Glasfurd. [132] "At the time of the Dusserah, +Holi, and other holidays, both men and women dance to the music of a +fife and drum. Sometimes they form a ring by joining hands all round, +and with a long hop spring towards the centre, and then hop back +to the full extent of their arms, while they at the same time keep +circling round and round. At other times, the women dance singly or +in pairs, their hands resting on each other's wrists. When fatigued, +they cease dancing, and sing. A man steps out of the crowd, and sings +a verse or two impromptu. One of the women rejoins, and they sing +at each other for a short time. The point of these songs appears to +consist in giving the sharpest rejoinder to each other. The woman +reflects upon the man's ungainly appearance and want of skill as a +cultivator or huntsman, and the man retorts by reproaching her with +her ugliness and slatternly habits." In connection with dancing, +Mr. Henderson writes that "all the Gadaba dancing I have seen was the +same as that of the Porjas, and consisted of a sort of women's march, +at times accompanied by a few men who wander round, and occasionally +form a ring through which the line of women passes. Sometimes the +men get on each other's shoulders, and so form a sort of two-storied +pyramid. The women's song is comparatively quite melodious." + +In recent years, some Gadabas have emigrated to Assam, to work in +the tea-gardens. But emigration has now stopped by edict. + +For the information contained in this article, I am mainly indebted to +notes by Mr. C. A. Henderson, Mr. W. Francis, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, +and the Kumara Raja of Bobbili. + +Gadi (cart).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Gadidhe Kandla (donkey's eyes).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Gadu.--A common suffix to the name of individuals among various Telugu +classes, e.g., Ramigadu, Subbigadu. + +Gaduge (throne).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Gaita.--A sub-division of Konda Razu. + +Gajjal (a small bell).--A sub-division of Toreya. + +Gali.--Gali or Galollu, meaning wind, devil, or spirit, is recorded +as an exogamous sept of Kamma, Kuruba, and Mala. + +Gamalla.--The Gamallas are a class of toddy-drawers, and distillers and +vendors of arrack in the Telugu country and are supposed to be Idigas +who have bettered themselves, and separated from that caste. Both +Gamallas and Idigas worship the deity Kattamayya. At the census, +1891, some returned Idiga as their sub-division. In the Cuddapah +district some toddy-drawers style themselves Asilivandlu. Possibly +the Idiga, Gamalla, and Asili toddy-drawing classes only represent +three endogamous sections of a single caste. In the Nellore district, +the toddy-drawers style themselves Gamandla or Gavandlavandlu, +and say that they have one gotra Kaumandlapu or Gaumandlapu. It +is probable that the name Gamandla or Gavandla has been coined by +Brahman purohits, to connect the caste with Kaumandala Maharishi of +the Puranas. The Gamallas say that they were created to draw toddy +by the sage Kavundinya, and that they belong to the Gaundla varnam +(caste). I am informed that a Puranam, called Gamandla or Gamudi +Puranam, has been created. In the social scale, the toddy-drawers +appear to occupy a higher position in the Telugu than in the Tamil +country, and they are sometimes said to be Telagas or Balijas, +who have adopted toddy-drawing as a profession. The more prosperous +members of the community are toddy and arrack (liquor) shop-keepers, +and the poorer members extract toddy from the palm-trees. + +The Kapus of the Nellore district employ Gamallas as their cooks +and domestic servants, and all menial service and cooking are done +by Gamallas in the houses of Kapus on the occasion of festivals +and marriages. + +Concerning the origin of the Gamallas, the following legend is +current. A Rishi was doing penance by standing on his head, and, like +the chamæleon, living on light and air, instead of food. According to +some, the Rishi was Kaumandla, while others do not know his name. An +Idiga girl passed by the Rishi, carrying a pot filled with toddy, +which polluted the air, so that the Rishi could not continue the +penance. Being struck with the girl's beauty, he followed her to her +home, and pointed out to her that she was the cause of his mishap. He +asked her to become his wife, but she announced that she was already +married. Eventually, however, they became secretly united, and, in +consequence, the whole town caught fire. The girl's husband, returning +home with some toddy, was amazed at the sight, and she, to protect him, +hid the Rishi in a vat. Into this vat the husband poured the toddy, +which made the Rishi breathe hard, so that the toddy, for the first +time on record, began to foam. Noticing this, the husband found a +lingam, into which the Rishi had been transformed. This lingam was +worshipped by the Gamandlas, and they are at the present day Saivites. + +Like other Telugu castes, the Gamallas have exogamous septs, such as +parvathala (hills), kudumalu (a cake), annam (cooked rice), and pandhi +(pig). Among gotras, the following may be noted:--kavundinya, karunya, +vachalya, and surapandesvara (sura panda, toddy pot). + +Marriage is, as a rule, adult, and remarriage of widows is permitted, +though the tendency at the present day is to abandon the practice. At +the wedding of a widow, the bottu (marriage badge) is tied round her +neck at night. Prior to the marriage ceremony, the worship of female +ancestors must be performed. A new female cloth, betel, and flowers, +are placed on a tray, and worshipped by the mothers of the contracting +couple. The cloth is given as a present to a sister or other near +relation of the bride or bridegroom. + +The dead are cremated, and the widow breaks one or two of her +bangles. Fire must be carried to the burning-ground by the father of +the deceased, if he is alive. On the day following cremation, the hot +embers are extinguished, and the ashes collected, and shaped into an +effigy, near the head of which three conical masses of mud and ashes +are set up. To these representatives of Rudra, Yama, and the spirit +of the departed, cooked rice and vegetables are offered up on three +leaves. One of the leaves is given to the Jangam, who officiates at +the rite, another to a washerman, and the third is left, so that the +food on it may be eaten by crows. All, who are assembled, wait till +these birds collect, and the ashes are finally poured on a tree. On +the ninth, tenth, or eleventh day after death, a ceremony called +the peddadinam (big day) is performed. Cooked rice, curry, meat, +and other things, are placed on a leaf inside the house. Sitting +near this leaf, the widow weeps and breaks one or two of the glass +bangles, which she wears on the wrist. The food is then taken to a +stream or tank (pond), where the agnates, after shaving, bathing, and +purification, make an effigy of the dead person on the ground. Close +to this cooked rice and vegetables are placed on three leaves, and +offered to the effigy. The widow's remaining bangles are broken, and +she is presented with a new cloth, called munda koka (widow's cloth) +as a sign of her condition. All Gamallas, rich or poor, engage on +this occasion the services of Mala Pambalas and Bainedus (musicians +and story-tellers) to recite the story of the goddess Ankamma. The +performance is called Ankamma kolupu. Some of the Malas make on +the ground a design, called muggu, while the others play on the +drum, and carry out the recitation. The design must be made in five +colours, green (leaves of Cassia auriculata), white (rice flour), red +(turmeric and lime), yellow (turmeric), and black (burnt rice-husk). It +represents a male and female figure (Virulu, heroes), who are supposed +to be the person whose peddadinam is being celebrated, and an ancestor +of the opposite sex. If the family can afford it, other designs, for +example of Ankamma, are also drawn. On the completion of the muggu, +cocoanuts, rice, and betel are offered, and a fowl is sacrificed. + +Like many other Telugu castes, the Gamallas have a class of beggars, +called Eneti, attached to them, for whom a subscription is raised +when they turn up. + +The Gamallas are mostly Saivites, and their priests are Aradhya +Brahmans, i.e., Telugu Brahmans, who have adopted some of the customs +of the Lingayats. They worship a variety of gods and goddesses, who +include Potharaju, Katamayya, Gangamma, Mathamma, and Thallamma, or +Thadlamma. Once or twice during the year, a pot of toddy is brought +from every house to the shrine of Thallamma, and the liquor contained +in some of the pots is poured on the floor, and the remainder given +to those assembled, irrespective of caste. + +At the festival of Dipavali, the celebrants bathe in the early +morning, and go, in wet clothes, to an ant-hill, before which +they prostrate themselves, and pour a little water into one of +the holes. Round the hill they wind five turns of cotton thread, +and return home. Subsequently they come once more to the ant-hill +with a lamp made of flour paste. Carrying the light, they go thrice +or five times round the hill, and throw into a hole therein split +pulse (Phaseolus Mungo). During the whole of this day they fast. On +the following morning they again go to the hill, pour milk into it, +and snap the threads wound round it. + +At the festival of Sankaranthi, the principal member of every family +observes the worship of ancestors. Various articles are placed in a +room on leaf plates representing the ancestors, who are worshipped +by the celebrant after he has been purified by bathing. Taking a +little of the food from each leaf, he places it on a single leaf, +which is worshipped, and placed in the court-yard, so that the crows +may partake thereof. The remainder of the food is distributed among +the members of the family. + +At the census, 1901, some Gamallas returned themselves as Settigadu +(Chetti). + +Gampa (basket).--A sub-division of Kamma and Telaga, and an exogamous +sept of Odde. The name, among the Kammas, refers to a deadly struggle +at Gandikota, in which some escaped by hiding in baskets. Gampa dhompti +is the name of a sub-division of the Madigas, whose marriage offerings +to the god are placed in a basket. + +Ganayata.--Recorded, at times of census, as a sub-division of Lingayat +Jangams in the Nellore, Cuddapah, and Kurnool districts. The Sanskrit +word Ganam means Siva's attendants. + +Gandham (sandal paste).--An exogamous sept of Balijas, one +sub-division of whom is called Gandhavallu or Gandhapodi (sandal +perfume sellers). The paste made by rubbing sandal (Santalum album) +wood on a stone with water is widely used in connection with Hindu +ceremonial observance. A Brahman, for example, after worshipping, +smears his body with the paste. At festivals, and other ceremonial +occasions, sandal paste is distributed to guests along with betel +leaves and areca nuts (pan-supari). Gandhapodi also occurs as an +exogamous sept of Boya. + +Gandikota.--A sub-division of Kamma. Gandi Kottei is recorded [133] as +a sub-division of Kapu or Reddi, "found only in Madura and Tinnevelly, +and also known simply as Kottei Reddis. Kottei is the Tamil for a fort, +the corresponding Telugu word being kota. Their females do not appear +in public." + +Gandla.--See Ganiga. + +Gangadikara.--Gangadikara, said doubtfully to mean those who lived +on the banks of the Ganges, has been recorded as a sub-division of +the Holeyas, Okkiliyans, and Vakkaligas. The name probably refers to +Gangavadi, the country of the Gangas, a royal line which ruled over +the greater part of the modern Mysore in former times. + +Gangeddu.--The Gangeddulu are a class of mendicants, who travel about +the country exhibiting performing bulls. "The exhibition of sacred +bulls, known as Gangeddulu (Ganga's bulls) is very common in the towns +and villages of Southern India. The presence of the swami (god) bull, +as he is popularly called, is made known by his keeper playing on a +small drum, which emits a dismal, booming sound, in the intervals of +addressing his dumb companion in a piercing voice. The bull is led +about from house to house, and made to go through several tricks, +which he does with evident zest. The keeper in the meanwhile talks +to him, and puts questions to him, to which he replies by shakes of +his head. He will kneel down in an attitude of worship, with his head +inclined to the ground, or he will approach you, and gently rub his +nozzle against your hand. Usually a diminutive cow accompanies the +bull, and, like him, is grandly attired, and resounds with tinkling +bells. She is introduced to the spectators as the bull's ammagaru, +that is consort or spouse. Then a scene between the pair is enacted, +the gist of which is that the husband is displeased with the wife, +and declines to hold converse with her. As a result of the difference, +he resolves to go away, and stalks off in high dudgeon. The keeper +attempts to make peace between them, and is rewarded by being charged +by the irate husband and knocked down, though no harm is done to him +as the animal's horns are padded. The keeper rises, shakes himself, and +complains woefully of the treatment he has received. Indeed, it is only +after a great deal of coaxing and wheedling, and promises of buying +him endless quantities of rice cakes and other bazaar delicacies, +that the bull condescends to return, and a reconciliation is effected." + +For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The +Gangeddulu, Erudandis, or Perumal Madukkarans, often acquire and +train deformed male calves. It is a popular superstition that +for a family to keep such animals in its possession is to court +destruction. Consequently, when one is born, information is sent +to a Gangeddu, who, on his arrival, is sumptuously fed. The calf is +then washed, and a new cloth tied to its horns. A small present of +money is made to the Gangeddu, and he takes the animal away. Temples +sometimes dispose of their deformed calves in a similar manner. When +the trained animals are exhibited in public, the deformity, which +is the hall-mark of a genuine Gangeddu, is shown, usually at the +commencement of the performance, or at any time at the bidding of any +of the spectators. It is only after the exhibition of the deformity, +which is usually concealed within the trappings of the animal, that +remuneration, generally in kind, or in old rags and copper coins, is +doled out to them. Villagers worship the bulls, when they happen to +pass their houses, and, as soon as they enter a village, the females +wash the feet of the animals with milk and water. They then adorn +their foreheads with kunkumam (aniline powder) and turmeric paste, +and burn incense and camphor before them. Cocoanuts, plantains, betel +leaves and areca nuts, and money are also offered in a plate, and are +the perquisite of the Gangeddu. The bulls are thus venerated, as they +represent Basavanna, the sacred bull which is the vehicle of Siva. + +The language of the Gangeddulu is Telugu, but those who have migrated +to the Tamil country also speak the language of the south. They profess +the Vaishnavite religion, and are of the Tengalai persuasion. They +have Brahman gurus (religious preceptors), who reside at Srirangam, +Tirupati, and other places. By them the Gangeddulu are branded on the +shoulder with the emblems of the chank and chakram, and initiated +into the mysteries of the Dasari priesthood. But, though they call +themselves Dasaris, the Gangeddulu have no marital or other connection +with the Dasaris. In addition to training and exhibiting the performing +bulls and cultivating land, the Gangeddulu officiate as Dasaris in +the month of Peratasi (September-October). Their principal insignia of +office are the chank shell, which is blown to announce their arrival, +and the iron lamp (called Garudasthambha), which is kept burning, and +is said to represent Venkatesa, the presiding deity at Tirupati. As +Dasaris, little is expected of them, except offering fruits to the god, +and assisting at funerals. Several proverbs, of which the following +are examples, are current concerning this aspect of their life:-- + +The mistake of a Dasari is excused with an apology. + +The songs of a Dasari are known only to the god, i.e., they are +unintelligible and unreal. + +For the song of a Dasari alms are the payment, i.e., that is all the +song is worth. + +Sing again what you have sung, oh! Dasari with dirty teeth. + +When a beggar was asked whether he was a Dasari or a Jangam, he +replied that it depends on the next village. This in reference to +his being a time-server. + +A Gangeddu mendicant is, like his bulls, picturesquely attired. He +is very punctilious about having his sect-mark on the forehead, +invariably wears a turban, and his body is clothed in a long white +cloth robe. When going about with the performing bulls, the Gangeddulu +generally travel in pairs, one carrying a drum, and the other a +bell-metal gong. One of them holds in one hand the nose-rope of the +bull, and in the other the whip. The bulls are dressed up in a patch +work quilt with two eye-holes in it. Of names which are given to the +animals, Rama and Lakshmana are very popular. The tameness of the +bulls is referred to in the proverb "As mild as a Gangeddu." + +The Perumal Madukkarans, or Perumal Erudukkarans, both of which +names indicate those who lead bulls about, are found chiefly in +the Chingleput, North and South Arcot districts. "Every now and +then," Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri writes, [134] "throughout Madras, +a man dressed up as a buffoon is to be seen leading about a bull, as +fantastically got up as himself with cowries (Cypræa arabica shells) +and rags of many colours, from door to door. The bull is called in +Tamil Perumal erudu, and in Telugu Ganga eddu, the former meaning +Vishnu's bull and the latter Ganga's bull. The origin of the first is +given in a legend, but that of the last is not clear. The conductors +of these bulls are neatherds of high caste, called Pu Idaiyan, i.e., +flower neatherds (see Idaiyan), and come from villages in the North +and South Arcot districts. They are a simple and ignorant set, +who firmly believe that their occupation arises out of a command +from the great god Venkatachalapati, the lord of the Venkatachala +near Tirupaddi (Tirupati) in the North Arcot district. Their legend +is as follows. Among the habitual gifts to the Venkatachala temple +at Tirupaddi were all the freaks of nature of the neighbourhood as +exhibited in cattle, such as two-tailed cows, five-legged bulls, +four-horned calves, and so on. The Pu Idaiyans, whose original +duty was to string flowers for the temple, were set to graze these +abortions. Now to graze cows is an honour, but to tend such creatures +as these the Pu Idaiyans regarded as a sin. So they prayed to +Venkatachalapati to show them how they could purge it away. On this, +the god gave them a bull called after himself the Perumal bull and +said: 'My sons, if you take as much care of this bull as you would +of your own children, and lead it from house to house, begging its +food, your sin will be washed away.' Ever since then they have been +purging themselves of their original sin. The process is this. The bull +leader takes it from house to house, and puts it questions, and the +animal shakes its head in reply. This is proof positive that it can +reason. The fact is the animal is bought when young for a small sum, +and brought up to its profession. Long practice has made its purchasers +experts in selecting the animals that will suit them. After purchase +the training commences, which consists in pinching the animal's ears +whenever it is given bran, and it soon learns to shake its head at +the sight of bran. I need hardly say that a handful of bran is ready +in its conductor's hands when the questions are put to it. It is also +taught to butt at any person that speaks angrily to it. As regards the +offerings made to these people, one-sixth goes to feeding the bulls, +and the remaining five-sixths to the conductors. They look upon it as +'good work', but the village boys and girls think it the greatest fun +in the world to watch its performances, and the advent of a Vishnu's +bull is hailed by the youngsters with the greatest delight." + +Gangimakkalu.--Gangimakkalu, or Gangaputra, meaning children or +sons of Ganga, the goddess of water, is the name of a sub-division +of Kabbera. The allied Gangavamsamu, or people of Ganga, is a name +for Jalaris. + +Ganiga or Gandla.--The name Ganiga is derived from the Telugu +ganuga, meaning an oil-mill. The Ganigas are said [135] to be "the +oil pressers of the Canarese people, corresponding to the Telugu +Gandla and the Tamil Vaniyan. This caste is sub-divided into three +sections, none of whom eat together or intermarry. These sections are +the Hegganigas, who yoke two oxen to a stone oil-mill; Kirganigas, +who make oil in wooden mills; and Ontiyeddu Ganigas, who yoke only +one animal to the mill. They are collectively known as Jotipans or +Jotinagarams (people of the city of light). In addition to pressing +oil, they also make palm-leaf umbrellas, cultivate land, and work as +labourers. They employ Brahmans to perform their ceremonies. Their +guru is the head of the Vyasaraya mutt at Anegundi. Early marriage is +practiced. Widow remarriage is not allowed. They eat fish, mutton, +and fowls, but do not drink liquor. Chetti is their title." In +the Madras Census Report, 1891, it is stated that the guru of the +Ganigas is the head of the mutt at Sringeri, and that they employ +Havig Brahmans for their ceremonies. Sringeri is the name of a Smarta +(Saivite) mutt or religious institution at several places, such as +Tanjore and Kumbakonam; and there is a town of this name in Mysore, +from which the mutt derives its name. + +Concerning the Ganigas of the Mysore Province, +Mr. V. N. Narasimmiyengar writes as follows. [136] "The account locally +obtained connects this caste with the Nagartas, as forming the leading +communities of the left-hand faction, in opposition to the Lingayats +and other castes composing the right-hand faction. Caste supremacy is +ever associated in India with preternatural mythology. If the average +Brahman traces his nobility literally to the face of Brahma, according +to the Vedic Purusha Sukta, every other castelet claims a patent of +superiority in a similar miraculous origin. The Ganigas allege that +they immigrated from the north at a time beyond living memory. A +Mysore noble, named Mallaraje Ars, established and first peopled the +pete (market town) of Bangalore, when the Ganigas first came there, +followed by the Nagartas, who are said to have been co-emigrants +with the Ganigas. Mallaraj made Sattis and Yajamans (headmen) of +the principal members of the two castes, and exempted them from the +house-tax. The Ganigas are both Vaishnavites and Saivites. Their +guru is known as Dharmasivacharsvami in the Madras Presidency, and +certain gotras (family names) are said to be common to the Ganigas +and Nagartas, but they never eat together or intermarry. The Ganigas +claim the peculiar privilege of following the Vishnu image or car +processions, throughout the province, with flags exhibiting the figures +of Hanuman and Garuda, and torches. These insignia are alleged to +have been aboriginally given to an ancestor, named Siriyala Satti, +by Rama, as a reward for a valuable gem presented by him. The Ganigas +call themselves Dharmasivachar Vaisyas like the Nagartas, and the feud +between them used often to culminate in much bitter unpleasantness. The +order includes a small division of the linga-wearing oilmongers, +known as Sajjana (good men), whose population is a small fraction of +the community. The Sajjanas, however, hold no social intercourse of +any kind with the other sub-divisions." + +The Ganigas of Sandur, in the little Maratha State of that name, +returned Yenne (oil) and Kallu (stone) as sub-divisions. The average +cephalic index of these Ganigas was very high, being 80.5 as against +77.6 for the Ganigas of Mysore city. + +"The oil-mill of the Ganigas is," Mr. W. Francis writes, [137] "a sort +of large wooden mortar, usually formed out of the heart of a tamarind +tree, and firmly imbedded in the ground. A wooden cylinder, shod with +iron, fits roughly into the cavity. A cross beam is lashed to this +in such a way that one end is close to the ground, and to this a pair +of bullocks or buffaloes are fastened. By an arrangement of pullies, +the pressure of the cylinder can be increased at pleasure. As the +bullocks go round the trough, the seeds are crushed by the action of +the cylinder, so that the expressed oil falls to the bottom, while +the residuum, as oil-cake, adheres to the side of the mortar." + +The following note refers to the Onteddu (single bullock) Ganigas, +who claim superiority over those who employ two bullocks in working +their oil-mills. The former belong to the right-hand, and the latter +to the left-hand faction. Among them are various sub-divisions, +of which the Deva and Onteddu may intermarry, while the Kasi, Teli +(gingelly: Sesamum), and Chandanapu are endogamous. Like other Telugu +castes they have gotras, some of which are interesting, as there are +certain prohibitions connected with them. For example, members of +the Badranollu and Balanollu gotras may not cut the tree Erythroxylon +monogynum. In like manner, members of the Viranollu and Viththanollu +gotras are forbidden to cut Feronia elephantum, and those of the +Vedanollu gotra to cut Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. Members of certain +other gotras do not cultivate turmeric, sugarcane, or the millet +(Panicum miliare). + +The Onteddu Ganigas are Saivites, and disciples of Lingayat Brahmans +(Aradhyas). Some, however, wear the sacred thread, and others bear +on the forehead the red streak of the Vaishnavites. In some places, +their special deity is Chaudeswara, who is the god of some of the +weaving classes. In the Kistna district they claim Mallikarjunasvami +as their deity. + +Their primary occupation is oil-pressing, but some are traders in +cotton, oil-seeds, etc., or cultivators. In some localities, the +animal which works the oil-mill is not blindfolded, while it is in +others, because, it is said, it would otherwise fall down after a few +revolutions. Crushing gingelly oil is, according to the Shastras, a +sinful act, but condoned inasmuch as Devatas use this oil for lamps, +and men in temples. For the removal of the oil-cake, or turning the +seeds in the mill, the left hand only is used. Burning the tongue +with a piece of gold, as a means of purification after some offence +has been committed, is a common practice. + +The marriage rites conform, for the most part, to the Telugu type. But, +while the wrist thread is being tied on, common salt is held in the +hand. A dagger (baku) is then given to the bridegroom, who keeps it +with him till the conclusion of the ceremonies. On the wedding day, +the bridegroom wears the sacred thread. The tali is not an ordinary +bottu, but a thread composed of 101 thin strings, which is removed on +the last day, and replaced by a bottu. On the third day, the bride and +bridegroom worship a jammi tree (Prosopis spicigera), and the latter, +removing his sacred thread, throws it on the tree. Five young men, +called Bala Dasulu, also worship the tree, and, if they are wearing +the sacred thread, throw it thereon. The dead are as a rule buried, in +a sitting posture if the deceased was an orthodox Saivite. If a young +man dies a bachelor, the corpse is married to an arka plant (Calotropis +gigantea), and decorated with a wreath made of the flowers thereof. The +final death ceremonies are performed on the eleventh day. Food is +offered to crows and the soul of the dead person, who is represented +by a wooden post dressed with his clothes. The bangles of a widow are +broken near the post, which is finally thrown into a tank or stream. + +Ganiga further occurs as an occupational name for Lingayat oil-vendors, +and for Mogers who are employed as oil-pressers. + +Ganta.--Ganta or Gantla, meaning a bell, has been recorded as an +exogamous sept of Kamma and Balija. Gantelavaru, or men of the bell, +is given by Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri [138] as the family name of one +section of the Donga (thieving) Dasaris, and of the Kabberas, who are +said to join the ranks of this criminal class. Gantugazula occurs, +in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Koracha. In +the Vizagapatam Manual, the Tiragati Gantlavallu are described as +repairing hand-mills, catching antelopes, and selling their skins. + +Ganti (a hole pierced in the ear-lobe).--An exogamous sept of Gudala. + +Garadi.--Garadi or Garadiga is the name of a class of mendicants +in the Telugu country and Mysore who are snake-charmers, practice +sleight of hand, and perform various juggling and mountebank tricks. + +Garappa (dry land).--A synonym of Challa Yanadi. + +Gatti.--A small caste of cultivators, found chiefly near Kumbla +and Someswara in the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara. Other names +for the caste are Poladava and Holadava, both signifying men of the +field. Like the Bants, they follow the aliya santana law of inheritance +(in the female line), have exogamous septs or balis, and, on the day +of the final death ceremonies, construct car-like structures, if the +deceased was an important personage in the community. The Bants and +Gattis interdine, but do not intermarry. The headman of the Gattis +is called Gurikara. The God of the Someswara temple is regarded as +the caste deity, and every family has to pay an annual fee of four +annas to this temple. Failure to do so would entail excommunication. + +Gattu (bank or mound).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Gaud.--A title of Sadar. + +Gauda.--The Gaudas or Gaudos are a large caste of Canarese cultivators +and cattle-breeders. "Gauda and Gaudo," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [139] +"are really two distinct castes, the former being Canarese and the +latter Uriya. Each name is, however, spelt both ways. The two names +are, I presume, etymologically the same. The ordinary derivation is +from the Sanskrit go, a cow, but Dr. Gustav Oppert contends [140] +that the root of Gauda is a Dravidian word meaning a mountain. Among +the Canarese, and to a less extent among the Uriyas also, the +word is used in an honorific sense, a custom which is difficult +to account for if Dr. Oppert's philology is correct." "Gaudas," +Mr. Stuart writes further, [141] "also called Halvaklumakkalu +(children of the milk class), are very numerously represented in +the South Canara district. They have a somewhat elaborate system +of caste government. In every village there are two headmen, the +Grama Gauda and the Vattu or Gattu Gauda. For every group of eight +or nine villages there is another head called the Magane Gauda, +and for every nine Maganes there is a yet higher authority called the +Kattemaneyava. The caste is divided into eighteen baris or balis, which +are of the usual exogamous character. The names of some of these are as +follows: Bangara (gold), Nandara, Malara (a bundle of glass bangles, +as carried about for sale), Salu, Hemmana (pride or conceit), Kabru, +Goli (Portulaca oleracea, a pot-herb), Basruvogaru (basru, belly), +Balasanna, and Karmannaya. Marriage is usually adult, and sexual +license before marriage with a member of the caste is tolerated, +though nominally condemned. The dhare form of marriage (see Bant) +is used, but the bridal pair hold in their joined hands five betel +leaves, one areca nut and four annas, and, after the water has been +poured, the bridegroom ties a tali to the neck of the bride. Divorce +is permitted freely, and divorced wives and widows can marry again. A +widow with children, however, should marry only her late husband's +elder brother. If she marries any one else, the members of her former +husband's family will not even drink water that has been touched +by her. They burn their dead. On the third day, the ashes are made +into the form of a man, which is cut in two, buried, and a mound +made over it. In the house two planks are placed on the ground, and +covered with a cloth. On one of these, a vessel containing milk is +placed, and on the other a lamp, rice, cocoanut, pumpkin, etc., are +deposited. The agnates and some boys go round the plank three times, +and afterwards go to the mound, taking with them the various articles +in a cloth. Three plantain leaves are spread in front of the mound, +and cooked food, etc., placed thereon. Four posts are set up round +the mound, and cloths stretched over them, and placed round the +sides. On the sixteenth day, sixteen plantain leaves are placed in +a row, and one leaf is laid apart. Cakes, cooked fowl's flesh, toddy +and arrack (liquor) are placed on the leaves in small leaf-cups. The +assembled agnates then say "We have done everything as we should do, +and so our ancestors who have died must take the man who is now dead +to their regions. I put the leaf which is apart in the same row with +the sixteen leaves." + +"Once a year, in the month of Mituna (June-July), the Gaudas perform +a ceremony for the propitiation of all deceased ancestors. They have +a special preference for Venkataramaswami, to whom they make money +offerings once a year in September. They employ Brahmins to give them +sacred water when they are under pollution, but they do not seek their +services for ordinary ceremonies. They are, for the most part, farmers, +but some few are labourers. The latter receive three or four seers of +paddy a day as wages. Their house language is Tulu in some places, and +Canarese in others, but all follow the ordinary system of inheritance, +and not the custom of descent through females. Their title is Gauda." + +As bearing on the superstitious beliefs of the people of South +Canara, the following case, which was tried before the Sessions +Judge in 1908, may be cited. A young Gauda girl became pregnant by +her brother-in-law. After three days' labour, the child was born. The +accused, who was the mother of the girl, was the midwife. Finding the +delivery very difficult, she sent for a person named Korapulu to come +and help her. The child was, as they thought, still-born. On its head +was a red protuberance like a ball; round each of its forearms were +two or three red bands; the eyes and ears were fixed very high in the +head; and the eyes, nose, and mouth were abnormally large. Korapulu +and the girl's younger sister at once carried the mother out of the +out-house lest the devil child should do her harm or kill her. The +accused called for a man named Isuf Saiba, who was standing in the yard +outside. He came in, and she asked him to call some of the neighbours, +to decide what to do. The child, she said, was a devil child, and must +be cut and killed, lest it should devour its mother. While they were +looking at the child, it began to move and roll its eyes about, and +turn on the ground. It is a belief of the villagers that such a devil +child, when born and brought in contact with the air, rapidly grows, +and causes great trouble, usually killing the mother, and sometimes +killing all the inmates of the house. The accused told Isuf Saiba to +cover the child with a vessel, which he did. Then there was a sound +from inside the vessel, either of the child moving or making some +sound with its mouth. The accused then put her hand under the vessel, +dragged the child half way out, and then, while Isuf Saiba pressed +the edge of the earthenware vessel on the abdomen of the child, +the accused took a knife, and cut the body in half. When the body +was cut in two, there was no blood, but a mossy green liquid, or a +black liquid, oozed out. The accused got two areca leaves, and put +one piece of the child on one, and one on the other, and told Isuf +Saiba to get a spade, and come and bury them. So they went out into +the jungle close to the house, and Isuf Saiba dug two holes about +half a yard deep, one on one hillock, and one on another. In these +two holes the two pieces of the child were separately buried. The +object of this was to prevent the two pieces joining together again, +in which case the united devil child would have come out of the grave, +and gone to kill its mother. The birth and death of this devil child +were not kept secret, but were known throughout the village. + +Gauda or Gaudu further occurs as a title of Idiga, Kuruba, and +Vakkaliga, an exogamous sept and gotra of Kuruba and Kurni, and a +sub-division of Golla. + +Gaudi.--It is recorded, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, that a +Maleru (temple servant) woman, who cohabits with one of a lower class +than her own, is degraded into a Gaudi. + +Gaudo.--The Gaudos are described, in the Madras Census Reports, 1891 +and 1901, as "the great pastoral caste of the Ganjam Oriyas. Like those +of all the cowherd classes, its members say that they are descended +from the Yadava tribe, in which Krishna was born (cf. Idaiyan). The +majority of the Gaudos in the northern districts are now cultivators, +but there is evidence that the keeping and breeding of cattle is +their traditional occupation. The most important sub-division is +Sollokhondia; many of them are herdsmen and milk-sellers. Fourteen +sub-divisions have been reported. They are Apoto, Behara, Bolodiya, +Dongayato, Dumalo, Gopopuriya, Kolata, Komiriya, Kusilya, Ladia, +Madhurapurya, Mogotho, Pattilia, and Sollokhondia." In the Census +Report, 1871, it is noted that "there are many Gowdus of high social +standing, who have gotten unto themselves much wealth in cattle. These +men own, in many instances, large herds of buffaloes, which, being +reared in the boundless pastures of the hills, are much prized by +the cartmen of the low country for draught purposes." + +Of the sub-division noted above, Behara is apparently a title +only. Bolodiya is the name of a section of the Tellis, who +use pack-bullocks (bolodi, a bull) for carrying grain about the +country. Pattilia must be a mistake for Pachilia. The sections among +the Gaudos which are recognised by all castes in the Ganjam district +are Sollokhondia, Bhatta, Gopopuriya, Madhurapuriya, Mogotho, +Apoto, and Pachilia. These, with the exception of Gopopuriya and +Madhurapuriya, seem to be endogamous sub-divisions. The Bhatta Gaudos +go by the name of Gopopuriya in some places and Madhurapuriya in +others, both these names being connected with the legendary history +of the origin of the caste. The Apoto and Bhatta Gaudos are sometimes +employed as palanquin-bearers. The Mogotho Gaudos, who live on the +hills, are regarded as an inferior section, because they do not abstain +from eating fowls. The Sollokhondia section is regarded as superior, +and consequently all Oriya castes, Brahman and non-Brahman, will accept +water at the hands of members thereof. An orthodox Oriya non-Brahman, +and all Oriya Brahmans, will not receive water from Telugu or Tamil +Brahmans, whom they call Komma Brahmans, Komma being a corrupt form +of karma, i.e., Brahmans who are strict in the observance of the +various karmas (ceremonial rites). + +The Sollokhondia Gaudos are agriculturists, rear cattle and sheep, +and sometimes earn a living by driving carts. They have gotras, +among which the most common are Moiro (peacock), Nagasiro (cobra), +and Kochimo (tortoise). Their caste council is presided over by a +hereditary headman called Mahankudo, who is assisted by a Bhollobaya, +Desiya, and Khorsodha or Dhondia. The Khorsodha is the caste servant, +and the Desiya eats with a delinquent who is received back into the +fold after he has been tried by the council. The Sollokhondias are for +the most part Paramarthos, i.e., followers of the Chaitanya form of +Vaishnavism. They show a partiality for the worship of Jagannathaswami, +and various Takuranis (village deities) are also reverenced. Bairagis +are the caste priests. + +The marriage prohibitions among the Sollokhondias are those which hold +good among many Oriya castes, but marriage with the maternal uncle's +daughter (menarikam) is sometimes practiced. On the evening preceding +the marriage day (bibha), after a feast, the bride and bridegroom's +parties go to a temple, taking with them all the articles which are +to be used in connection with the marriage ceremonial. On their way +back, seven married girls, carrying seven vessels, go to seven houses, +and beg water, which is used by the bridal couple for their baths on +the following day. Either on the day before the wedding day, or on +the bibha day, the bridegroom is shaved, and the bride's nails are +pared. Sometimes a little of the hair of her forehead is also cut +off. The marriage rites do not materially differ from those of the +Bhondaris (q.v.). + +The dead, excepting young children, are burnt. The eldest son carries a +pot of fire to the burning ground. On the day following cremation, the +mourners revisit the spot, and, after the fire has been extinguished, +make an image of a man with the ashes on the spot where the corpse +was burnt. To this image food is offered. Seven small flags, made +of cloths dyed with turmeric, are stuck into the shoulders, abdomen, +legs, and head of the image. A fragment of calcined bone is carried +away, put into a lump of cow-dung, and kept near the house of the +deceased, or near a tank (pond). On the ninth day after death, +towards evening, a bamboo, split or spliced into four at one end, +is set up in the ground outside the house beneath the projecting +roof, and on it a pot filled with water is placed. On the spot where +the deceased breathed his last, a lamp is kept. A hole is made in +the bottom of the pot, and, after food has been offered to the dead +man, the pot is thrown into a tank. On the tenth day, a ceremony is +performed on a tank bund (embankment). The piece of bone, which has +been preserved, is removed from its cow-dung case, and food, fruits, +etc., are offered to it, and thrown into the tank. The bone is taken +home, and buried near the house, food being offered to it until the +twelfth day. On the eleventh day, all the agnates bathe, and are +touched with ghi (clarified butter) as a sign of purification. Sradh +(memorial service) is performed once a year on Sankaranthi (Pongal) +day. Food, in the form of balls, is placed on leaves in the backyard, +and offered to the ancestors. Some food is also thrown up into the air. + +All sections of the Gaudos have adopted infant marriage. If a girl +fails to secure a husband before she attains puberty, she has to +go through a form of marriage called dharma bibha, in which the +bridegroom is, among the Sollokhondias, represented by an old man, +preferably the girl's grandfather, and among the other sections by +a sahada or shadi tree (Streblus asper) or an arrow (khando). + +Like various other Oriya castes, the Gaudos worship the goddess Lakshmi +on Thursdays in the month of November, which are called Lakshmi +varam, or Lakshmi's day. The goddess is represented by a basket +filled with grain, whereon some place a hair ball, which has been +vomited by a cow. The ball is called gaya panghula, and is usually +one or two inches in diameter. The owner of a cow which has vomited +such a ball regards it as a propitious augury for the prosperity of +his family. A feast is held on the day on which the ball is vomited, +and, after the ball has been worshipped, it is carefully wrapped up, +and kept in a box, in which it remains till it is required for further +worship. Some people believe that the ball continues to grow year +by year, and regard this as a very good sign. Bulls are said not to +vomit the balls, and only very few cows do so. + +Gauliar.--A synonym for Lingayat Gollas, or Kannadiyans. + +Gaundala.--A synonym of Gamalla. + +Gauri.--A division of Okkiliyan, named after Gauri, Siva's consort. The +equivalent Gaura occurs among the Komatis, and Gauriga among the +Medaras. One division of the Kabberas is called Gaurimakkalu, or sons +of Gauri. + +Gautama.--A Brahmanical gotra adopted by Bhatrazus, Khatris, and +Kondaiyamkottai Maravans. Gautama was a sage, and the husband of +Ahalya, who was seduced by Indra. + +Gavala (cowry shell: Cypræa arabica).--An exogamous sept of Madiga. A +cotton thread string, with cowries strung on it, is one of the insignia +of a Madiga Matangi. + +Gavalla.--A synonym for Gamalla. + +Gavara.--It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "this +caste is practically confined to the Vizagapatam district, and they +have been classed as cultivators on the strength of a statement to +that effect in the District Manual. Gavara is, however, an important +sub-division of Komatis (traders), and these Gavaras are probably in +reality Gavara Komatis. These are so called after Gauri, the patron +deity of this caste." + +For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. A +tradition is current that the Gavaras originally lived at Vengi, the +ancient capital of the Eastern Chalukyan kings, the ruins of which +are near Ellore in the Godavari district. The king was desirous of +seeing one of their women, who was gosha (in seclusion), but to this +they would not consent. Under orders from the king, their houses were +set on fire. Some of them bolted themselves in, and perished bravely, +while others locked up their women in big boxes, and escaped with them +to the coast. They immediately set sail, and landed at Pudimadaka +in the Anakapalli taluk. Thence they marched as far as Kondakirla, +near which they founded the village of Wadapalli or Wodapalli, meaning +the village of the people who came in boats. They then built another +village called Gavarla Anakapalli. They received an invitation from +king Payaka Rao, the founder of Anakapalli, and, moving northwards, +established themselves at what is now known as Gavarapeta in the town +of Anakapalli. They began the foundation of the village auspiciously +by consecrating and planting the sandra karra (Acacia sundra), which +is not affected by 'white-ants,' instead of the pala karra (Mimusops +hexandra), which is generally used for this purpose. Consequently, +Anakapalli has always flourished. + +The Gavaras speak Telugu, and, like other Telugu castes, have various +exogamous septs or intiperulu. + +Girls are married either before or after puberty. The custom of +menarikam, by which a man marries his maternal uncle's daughter, +is in force, and it is said that he may also marry his sister's +daughter. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and a woman who has +had seven husbands is known as Beththamma, and is much respected. + +Some Gavaras are Vaishnavites, and others Saivites, but difference in +religion is no bar to intermarriage. Both sections worship the village +deities, to whom animal sacrifices are offered. The Vaishnavites show +special reverence to Jagganathaswami of Orissa, whose shrine is visited +by some, while others take vows in the name of this god. On the day +on which the car festival is celebrated at Puri, local car festivals +are held in Gavara villages, and women carry out the performance +of their vows. A woman, for example, who is under a vow, in order +that she may be cured of illness or bear children, takes a big pot +of water, and, placing it on her head, dances frantically before the +god, through whose influence the water, which rises out of the pot, +falls back into it, instead of being spilt. + +The Vaishnavites are burnt, and the Saivites buried in a sitting +posture. The usual chinna (little) and pedda rozu (big day) death +ceremonies are performed. + +Men wear a gold bangle on the left wrist, and another on the right +arm. Women wear a silver bangle on the right wrist, and a bracelet of +real or imitation coral, which is first worn at the time of marriage, +on the left wrist. They throw the end of their body-cloth over the +left shoulder. They do not, like women of other non-Brahman castes +in the Vizagapatam district, smoke cigars. + +The original occupation of the caste is said to have been trading, +and this may account for the number of exogamous septs which are +named after Settis (traders). At the present day, the Gavaras +are agriculturists, and they have the reputation of being very +hard-working, and among the best agriculturists in the Vizagapatam +district. The women travel long distances in order to sell vegetables, +milk, curds, and other produce. + +The caste titles are Anna, Ayya, and occasionally Nayudu. + +Gaya (cow).--An exogamous sept of Kondra. + +Gayinta.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small +caste of hill cultivators, speaking Oriya and Telugu. The name is +said to be derived from gayinti, an iron digging implement. Gayinta +is reported to be the same as Gaintia, a name of Enetis or Entamaras. + +Gazula.--Gazula or Gazul (glass bangle) has been recorded as a +sub-division of Balija, Kapu, and Toreya. The Gazula Balijas make +glass bangles. The Toreyas have a tradition that they originated from +the bangles of Machyagandhi, the daughter of a fisherman on the Jumna, +who was married to king Shantanu of Hastinapur. + +Gedala (buffaloes).--A sept of Bonthuk Savara. + +Geddam (beard).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Padma Sale. + +Gejjala (bells tied to the legs while dancing).--An exogamous sept +of Balija and Korava. + +Gejjegara.--A sub-caste of the Canarese Panchalas. They are described, +in the Mysore Census Report, 1891, as makers of small round bells +(gungru), which are used for decorating the head or neck of bullocks, +and tied by dancing-girls round their ankles when dancing. + +Genneru (sweet-scented oleander).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Gentoo.--Gentoo or Jentu, as returned at times of census, is +stated to be a general term applied to Balijas and Telugu speaking +Sudras generally. The word is said by Yule and Burnell [142] to be +"a corruption of the Portuguese Gentio, a gentile or heathen, which +they applied to the Hindus in contradistinction to the Moros or Moors, +i.e., Mahomedans. The reason why the term became specifically applied +to the Telugu people is probably because, when the Portuguese arrived, +the Telugu monarchy of Vijayanagar was dominant over a great part of +the peninsula." In a letter written from prison to Sir Philip Francis, +Rajah Nuncomar referred to the fact that "among the English gentry, +Armenians, Moores and Gentoos, few there is who is not against +me." Gentoo still survives as a caste name in the Madras Quarterly +Civil List (1906). + +Ghair-i-Mahdi.--The name, meaning without Mahdi, of a sect of +Muhammadans, who affirm that the Imam Mahdi has come and gone, while +orthodox Muhammadans hold that he is yet to come. + +Ghasi.--See Haddi. + +Ghontoro.--A small caste of Oriyas, who manufacture brass and +bell-metal rings and bangles for the hill people. The name is derived +from ghonto, a bell-metal plate. + +Gidda (vulture).--A sept of Poroja. + +Gikkili (rattle).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Giri Razu.--A contraction of Puragiri Razu or Puragiri Kshatriya, +by which names some Perikes style themselves. + +Goa.--A sub-division of Kudubis, who are said to have emigrated from +Goa to South Canara. + +Go Brahman.--A name given to Brahmans by Kammalans, who style +themselves Visva Brahmans. + +Godagula.--The Godagulas are recorded, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as being the same as the Gudalas, who are a Telugu caste of +basket-makers. According to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, to whom I am +indebted for the following note, they are a distinct caste, speaking +Oriya, and sometimes calling themselves Odde (Oriya) Medara. Like the +Medaras, they work in split bamboo, and make sundry articles which are +not made by other castes who work in this medium. Unlike the Gudalas, +they are a polluting class, and have the following legend to account +for their social degradation. God told them to make winnows and +other articles for divine worship. This, they did, and, after they +had delivered them, they attended a marriage feast, at which they eat +flesh and drank liquor. On their return, God called on them to vomit +the food which they had partaken of, and they accordingly brought up +the meat and drink, whereon God cursed them, saying "Begone, you have +eaten forbidden food." They craved for forgiveness, but were told in +future to earn their living as bamboo-workers. The custom of menarikam, +according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, +is so rigidly enforced that, if the uncle refuses to give his daughter +in marriage, the man has a right to carry her off, and then pay a fine, +the amount of which is fixed by the caste council. A portion thereof +is given to the girl's parents, and the remainder spent on a caste +feast. If the maternal uncle has no daughter, a man may, according to +the eduru (or reversed) menarikam custom, marry his paternal aunt's +daughter. Six months before the marriage ceremony takes place, the +pasupu (turmeric) ceremony is performed. The bridegroom's family pay +six rupees to the bride's family, to provide the girl with turmeric, +wherewith she adorns herself. On the day fixed for the wedding, +the parents of the bridegroom go with a few of the elders to the +bride's house, and couple the request to take away the girl with +payment of nine rupees and a new cloth. Of the money thus given, +eight rupees go to the bride's parents, and the remainder to the +caste. The bride is conducted to the home of the bridegroom, who +meets her at the pandal (booth) erected in front of his house. They +are bathed with turmeric water, and sacred threads are put on their +shoulders by the Kula Maistri who officiates as priest. The couple +then play with seven cowry (Cyproea arabica) shells, and, if the +shells fall with the slit downwards, the bride is said to have won; +otherwise the bridegroom is the winner. This is followed by the mudu +akula homam, or sacrifice of three leaves. A new pot, containing a +lighted wick, is placed before the couple. On it are thrown leaves +of the rayi aku (Ficus religiosa), marri aku (Ficus Bengalensis), +and juvvi aku (Ficus Tsiela). The Kula Maistri of the bridegroom's +party spreads out his right hand over the mouth of the pot. On it the +bride places her hand. The bridegroom then places his hand on hers, +and the Kula Maistri of the bride's village puts his hand on that +of the bridegroom. The elders then call out in a loud voice "Know, +caste people of Vaddadi Madugula; know, caste people of Kimedi; know, +caste people of Gunupuram and Godairi; know, caste people of all the +twelve countries, that this man and woman have become husband and wife, +and that the elders have ratified the ceremony." The contracting couple +then throw rice over each other. On the morning of the following day, +the saragatha ceremony is performed. The bridegroom's party repair +to the bank of the local stream, where they are met by the caste +people, who are presented with betel, a cheroot, and a pot of jaggery +(crude sugar) water as cool drink. The sacred threads worn by the +bride and bridegroom are removed at the conclusion of the marriage +ceremonies. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and a younger +brother may marry the widow of an elder brother, or vice versâ. Divorce +is also allowed, and a divorcée may remarry. Her new husband has to +pay a sum of money, a portion of which goes to the first husband, +while the remainder is devoted to a caste feast. The dead are burnt, +and the chinna rozu (little day) death ceremony is observed. + +Goda-jati (wall people).--A sub-division of Kammas. The name has +reference to a deadly struggle at Gandikota, in which some escaped +by hiding behind a wall. + +Goda-poose (wall polishing).--An exogamous sept of Tsakala. + +Godari.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as Telugu +leather-workers in Ganjam and Vizagapatam. They are stated, in the +Vizagapatam Manual, to make and sell slippers in that district. Godari +is, I gather, a synonym of Madiga, and not a separate caste. + +Goddali (spade or axe).--An exogamous sept of Odde and Panta Reddi. + +Godomalia (belonging to, or a group of forts).--A sub-division of +Bhondari, the members of which act as barbers to Rajahs who reside +in forts. + +Golaka.--Recorded in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a name meaning +bastard, and clubbed with the Moilis, or temple servants in South +Canara descended from dancing-girls. In the Mysore Census Report, +1901, it is defined as a term applied to the children of Brahmans by +Malerus, or temple servants. + +Goli (Portulaca oleracea: a pot-herb).--An exogamous sept of Gauda. + +Golkonda.--A sub-division of Tsakala. + +Golla.--"The Gollas," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [143] "are the great +pastoral caste of the Telugu people. The traditions of the caste +give a descent from the god Krishna, whose sportings with the milk +maids play a prominent part in Hindu mythology. The hereditary +occupation of the Gollas is tending sheep and cattle, and selling +milk, but many of them have now acquired lands and are engaged +in farming, and some are in Government service. They are quiet, +inoffensive, and comparatively honest. In the time of the Nabobs, +this last characteristic secured to them the privilege of guarding +and carrying treasure, and one sub-division, Bokhasa Gollas, owes its +origin to this service. Even now those who are employed in packing +and lifting bags of money in the district treasuries are called +Gollas, though they belong to other castes. As a fact they do hold +a respectable position, and, though poor, are not looked down upon, +for they tend the sacred cow. Sometimes they assert a claim to be +regarded as representatives of the Go-Vaisya division. Their title +is Mandadi, but it is not commonly used." Mr. Stuart writes further +[144] that "the social status of the Gollas is fairly high, for they +are allowed to mix freely with the Kapu, Kamma, and Balija castes, +and the Brahmans will take buttermilk from their hands. They employ +Satanis as their priests. In their ceremonies there is not much +difference between them and the Kapus. The name Golla is generally +supposed to be a shortened form of Sanskrit Gopala" (protector of +cows). The Gollas also call themselves Konanulu, or Konarlu, and, +like the Tamil Idaiyans, sometimes have the title Konar. Other titles +in common use are Anna, Ayya, and occasionally Nayudu. + +In the Manual of the Kurnool district, it is stated that the Gollas +"keep sheep, and sell milk and ghi (clarified butter). They eat and +mess with the Balijas, and other high caste Sudras; but, unlike their +brethren of the south, in the matter of street processions, they are +classed with goldsmiths, or the left-hand section. When any one is +reduced to poverty, the others give him each a sheep, and restore his +flock. They occasionally dedicate their girls to Venkatesa as Basavis" +(prostitutes). + +It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district, that "in +the country round Madgole, legends are still recounted of a line of +local Golla chieftains, who gave their name to Golgonda, and built +the forts, of which traces still survive in those parts". Each Telugu +New Year's day, it is stated, Gollas come across from Godavari, and go +round the Golla villages, reciting the names of the progenitors of the +fallen line, and exhibiting paintings illustrative of their overthrow. + +"At Vajragada (diamond fort) are the ruins of a very large fortress, +and local tradition gives the names of seven forts, by which it was +once defended. These are said to have been constructed by the Golla +kings. A tale is told of their having kidnapped a daughter of the +ruler of Madgole, and held out here against his attacks for months, +until they were betrayed by a woman of their own caste, who showed +the enemy how to cut off their water-supply. They then slew their +womenkind, says the story, dashed out against the besiegers, and fell +to a man, fighting to the last." + +Concerning the Gollas of Mysore, I gather [145] that "there are +two main divisions in this caste, viz., Uru (village) and Kadu +(forest). The two neither intermarry, nor eat together. A section of +the Gollas, by guarding treasure while on transit, have earned the +name of Dhanapala. In fact, one of the menial offices in Government +treasuries at the present day is that of Golla. The caste worships +Krishna, who was born in this caste. The Kadu Gollas are said to have +originally immigrated from Northern India, and are still a nomadic +tribe, living in thatched huts outside the villages. Some of their +social customs are akin to those of the Kadu Kurubas. It is said +that, on the occurrence of a childbirth, the mother with the babe +remains unattended in a small shed outside the village from seven +to thirty days, when she is taken back to her home. In the event +of her illness, none of the caste will attend on her, but a Nayak +(Beda) woman is engaged to do so. Marriages among them are likewise +performed in a temporary shed erected outside the village, and the +attendant festivities continue for five days, when the marriage +couple are brought into the village. The Golla is allowed to marry +as many wives as he likes, and puberty is no bar to marriage. They +eat flesh, and drink spirituous liquors. The wife cannot be divorced +except for adultery. Their females do not wear the bodice (ravike) +usually put on by the women of the country. Nor do they, in their +widowhood, remove or break the glass bangles worn at the wrists, as is +done in other castes. But widows are not allowed to remarry. Only 98 +persons have returned gotras, the chief being Yadava, Karadi, Atreya, +and Amswasa. The first two are really sub-sects, while Atreya is the +name of a Brahmin Rishi." Yadava, or descendant of King Yadu, from +whom Krishna was descended, also occurs as a synonym for Idaiyan, +the great Tamil shepherd class. + +Concerning the Adivi, or forest Gollas, Mr. F. Fawcett writes +as follows. [146] "The people of every house in the village let +loose a sheep, to wander whither it will, as a sort of perpetual +scapegoat. When a woman feels the first pains of labour, she is turned +out of the village into a little leaf or mat hut about two hundred +yards away. In this hut she must bring forth her offspring unaided, +unless a midwife can be called in to be with her before the child is +born. For ninety days the woman lives in the hut by herself. If any one +touches her, he or she is, like the woman, outcasted, and turned out +of the village for three months. The woman's husband generally makes +a little hut about fifty yards from her, and watches over her; but he +may not go near her on pain of being outcasted for three months. Food +is placed on the ground near the woman's hut, and she takes it. On +the fourth day after parturition, a woman of the village goes to her, +and pours water on her, but she must not come in contact with her. On +the fifth day, the village people clear of stones and thorny bushes a +little bit of ground about ten yards on the village side of the hut, +and to this place the woman removes her hut. No one can do it for her, +or help her. On the ninth, fifteenth, and thirtieth days, she removes +the hut in the same way nearer to the village, and, again, once in +each of the two following months. On the ninetieth day, the headman +of the village calls the woman to come out of the hut. The dhobi +(washerman) then washes her clothes. She puts on clean clothes, and +the headman takes her to the temple of their tutelary deity Junjappa, +where the caste pujari breaks cocoanuts, and then accompanies her +to her house, where a purificatory ceremony is performed. Junjappa, +it is said, takes good care of the mother and child, so that death +is said to be unknown." + +It is stated [147] that, in the Chitaldrug district of Mysore, +"the wife of the eldest son in every family is not permitted to clean +herself with water after obeying the calls of nature. It is an article +of their belief that their flocks will otherwise not prosper." + +Writing in the early part of the last century about the Gollas, +Buchanan informs us that "this caste has a particular duty, +the transporting of money, both belonging to the public and +to individuals. It is said that they may be safely intrusted with +any sum; for, each man carrying a certain value, they travel in +bodies numerous in proportion to the sum put under their charge; +and they consider themselves bound in honour to die in defence of +their trust. Of course, they defend themselves vigorously, and are +all armed; so that robbers never venture to attack them. They have +hereditary chiefs called Gotugaru, who with the usual council settle +all disputes, and punish all transgressions against the rules of +caste. The most flagrant is the embezzlement of money entrusted to +their care. On this crime being proved against any of the caste, the +Gotugaru applies to Amildar, or civil magistrate, and having obtained +his leave, immediately causes the delinquent to be shot. Smaller +offences are atoned for by the guilty person giving an entertainment." + +The Golla caste has many sub-divisions, of which the following are +examples:-- + + + Erra or Yerra (red). Said to be the descendants of a Brahman by + a Golla woman. + + Ala or Mekala, who tend sheep and goats. + + Puja or Puni. + + Gangeddu, who exhibit performing bulls. + + Gauda, who, in Vizagapatam, visit the western part of the district + during the summer months, and settle outside the villages. They + tend their herds, and sell milk and curds to the villagers. + + Karna. + + Pakanati. + + Racha (royal). + + Peddeti. Mostly beggars, and considered low in the social scale, + though when questioned concerning themselves they say they are + Yerra Gollas. + + +At the census, 1901, the following were returned as sub-castes of +the Gollas:-- + +Dayyalakulam (wrestlers), Perike Muggalu or Mushti Golla (beggars and +exorcists), Podapotula (who beg from Gollas), Gavadi, and Vadugayan, +a Tamil synonym for Gollas in Tinnevelly. Another Tamil synonym for +Golla is Bokhisha Vadugar (treasury northerners). Golla has been given +as a sub-division of Dasaris and Chakkiliyans, and Golla Woddar (Odde) +as a synonym of a thief class in the Telugu country. In a village +near Dummagudem in the Godavari district, the Rev. J. Cain writes, +[148] are "a few families of Basava Gollalu. I find they are really +Kois, whose grandfathers had a quarrel with, and separated from, their +neighbours. Some of the present members of the families are anxious +to be re-admitted to the society and privileges of the neighbouring +Kois. The word Basava is commonly said to be derived from bhasha, +a language, and the Gollas of this class are said to have been so +called in consequence of their speaking a different language from +the rest of the Gollas." + +Like many other Telugu castes, the Gollas have exogamous septs or +intiperu, and gotras. As examples of the former, the following may +be quoted:-- + + + Agni, fire. + Avula, cows. + Chinthala, tamarind. + Chevvula, ears. + Gundala, stones. + Gurram, horse. + Gorrela, sheep. + Gorantla, henna (Lawsonia alba). + Kokala, woman's cloth. + Katari, dagger. + Mugi, dumb. + Nakkala, jackal. + Saddikudu, cold rice or food. + Sevala, service. + Ullipoyala, onions. + Vankayala, brinjal (Solanum melongena). + + +Some of these sept names occur among other classes, as follows:-- + + + Avula, Balijas, Kapus, and Yerukalas. + Chinthala, Devangas, Komatis, Malas, and Madigas. + Gorantla, Padma Sales. + Gorrela, Kammas, Kapus. + Gurram, Malas, Padma Sales, and Togatas. + Nakkala, Kattu Marathis, and Yanadis. + + +Those who belong to the Raghindala (Ficus religiosa) gotra are not +allowed to use the leaves of the sacred fig or pipal tree as plates +for their food. Members of the Palavili gotra never construct palavili, +or small booths, inside the house for the purpose of worship. Those who +belong to the Akshathayya gotra are said to avoid rice coloured with +turmeric or other powder (akshantalu). Members of the Kommi, Jammi, +and Mushti gotras avoid using the kommi tree, Prosopis spicigera, +and Strychnos Nux-vomica respectively. + +Of the various sub-divisions, the Puja Gollas claim superiority over +the others. Their origin is traced to Simhadri Raju, who is supposed +to have been a descendant of Yayathi Raja of the Mahabaratha. Yayathi +had six sons, the last of whom had a son named Kariyavala, whose +descendants were as follows:-- + + + Penubothi (his son), + | + Avula Amurthammayya, + | + Kalugothi Ganganna, + | + Oli Raju, + | + Simhadri Raju. + | + +------------+-------+------+-------------+ + | | | | + Peddi Erunuka Noranoka Poli + Raju. Raju. Raju. Raju. + + +The Gollas are believed to be descended from the four last kings. + +According to another legend, there were five brothers, named Poli Raju, +Erranoku Raju, Katama Raju, Peddi Raju, and Errayya Raju, who lived +at Yellamanchili, which, as well as Sarvasiddhi, they built. The +Rajas of Nellore advanced against them, and killed them, with all +their sheep, in battle. On this, Janagamayya, the son of Peddi Raju, +who escaped the general slaughter, made up his mind to go to Kasi +(Benares), and offer oblations to his dead father and uncles. This +he did, and the gods were so pleased with him that they transported +him in the air to his native place. He was followed by three persons, +viz., (1) Kulagentadu, whose descendants now recite the names of the +progenitors of the caste; (2) Podapottu (or juggler), whose descendants +carry metal bells, sing, and produce snakes by magic; (3) Thevasiyadu, +whose descendants paint the events which led to the destruction of +the Golla royalty on large cloths, and exhibit them to the Gollas +once a year. At the time when Janagamayya was translated to heaven, +they asked him how they were to earn their living, and he advised them +to perform the duties indicated, and beg from the caste. Even at the +present day, their descendants go round the country once a year, after +the Telugu New Year's day, and collect their dues from Golla villages. + +By religion the Gollas are both Vallamulu (Vaishnavites) and +Striramanthulu (Saivites), between whom marriage is permissible. They +belong to the group of castes who take part in the worship of +Ankamma. A special feature of their worship is that they place in +a bamboo or rattan box three or four long whip-like ropes made of +cotton or Agave fibre, along with swords, sandals and idols. The +ropes are called Virathadlu, or heroes' ropes. The contents of the +box are set beneath a booth made of split bamboo (palavili), and +decorated with mango leaves, and flowers. There also is placed a pot +containing several smaller pots, cowry shells, metal and earthenware +sandals, and the image of a bull called bolli-avu (bull idol). When +not required for the purpose of worship, the idols are hung up in a +room, which may not be entered by any one under pollution. + +Some Karna Gollas earn their living by selling poultry, or by going +about the country carrying on their head a small box containing idols +and Virathadlu. Placing this at the end of a street, they do puja +(worship) before it, and walk up and down with a rope, with which +they flagellate themselves. As they carry the gods (Devarlu) about, +these people are called Devara vallu. + +As the Gollas belong to the left-hand section, the Pedda Golla, +or headman, has only a Madiga as his assistant. + +At the marriages of Mutrachas, Madigas, and some other classes, a +form of worship called Virala puja is performed with the object of +propitiating heroes or ancestors (viralu). A kindred ceremony, called +Ganga puja, is carried out by the Gollas, the expenses of which amount +to about a hundred rupees. This Ganga worship lasts over three days, +during which nine patterns, called muggu, are drawn on the floor in +five colours, and represent dhamarapadmam (lotus flower), palavili +(booth), sulalu (tridents), sesha panpu (serpent's play?), alugula +simhasanam (throne of Sakti), Viradu perantalu (hero and his wife), +Ranivasam (Rani's palace), bonala (food), and Ganga. The last is +a female figure, and probably represents Ganga, the goddess of +water, though one of the Golla ancestors was named Gangi Raju. The +patterns must be drawn by Madigas or Malas. Three Pambalas, or Madigas +skilled in this work, and in reciting the stories of various gods and +goddesses, commence their work on the afternoon of the third day, +and use white powder (rice flour), and powders coloured yellow +(turmeric), red (turmeric and chunam), green (leaves of Cassia +auriculata), and black (charred rice husk). On an occasion when my +assistant was present, the designs were drawn on the floor of the +courtyard of the house, which was roofed over. During the preparation +of the designs, people were excluded from the yard, as some ill-luck, +especially an attack of fever, would befall more particularly boys +and those of feeble mind, if they caught sight of the muggu before +the drishti thiyadam, or ceremony for removing the evil eye has been +performed. Near the head of the figure of Ganga, when completed, was +placed an old bamboo box, regarded as a god, containing idols, ropes, +betel, flowers, and small swords. Close to the box, and on the right +side of the figure, an earthen tray, containing a lighted wick fed +with ghi (clarified butter) was set. On the left side were deposited +a kalasam (brass vessel) representing Siva, a row of chembus (vessels) +called bonalu (food vessels), and a small empty box tied up in a cloth +dyed with turmeric, and called Brammayya. Between these articles and +the figure, a sword was laid. Several heaps of food were piled up +on the figure, and masses of rice placed near the head and feet. In +addition, a conical mass of food was heaped up on the right side of +the figure, and cakes were stuck into it. All round this were placed +smaller conical piles of food, into which broomsticks decorated with +betel leaves were thrust. Masses of food, scooped out and converted +into lamps, were arranged in various places, and betel leaves and nuts +scattered all over the figure. Towards the feet were set a chembu +filled with water, a lump of food coloured red, and incense. The +preparations concluded, three Gollas stood near the feet of the figure, +and took hold of the red food, over which water had been sprinkled, +the incense and a fowl. The food and incense were then waved in front +of the figure, and the fowl, after it had been smoked by the incense, +and waved over the figure, had its neck wrung. This was followed by the +breaking of a cocoanut, and offering fruits and other things. The three +men then fell prostrate on the ground before the figure, and saluted +the goddess. One of them, an old man, tied little bells round his legs, +and stood mute for a time. Gradually he began to perspire, and those +present exclaimed that he was about to be possessed by the spirit +of an ancestor. Taking up a sword, he began to cut himself with it, +especially in the back, and then kept striking himself with the blunt +edge. The sword was wrested from him, and placed on the figure. The +old man then went several times round the muggu, shaking and twisting +his body into various grotesque attitudes. While this was going on, +the bridegroom appeared on the scene, and seated himself near the +feet of the figure. Throwing off his turban and upper cloth, he fell +on the floor, and proceeded to kick his legs about, and eventually, +becoming calmer, commenced to cry. Being asked his name, he replied +that he was Kariyavala Raju. Further questions were put to him, to +which he made no response, but continued crying. Incense and lights +were then carried round the image, and the old man announced that the +marriage would be auspicious, and blessed the bride and bridegroom +and the assembled Gollas. The ceremony concluded with the burning of +camphor. The big mass of food was eaten by Puni Gollas. + +It is stated in the Manual of the Nellore district that, when a Golla +bridegroom sets out for the house of his mother-in-law, he is seized +on the way by his companions, who will not release him until he has +paid a piece of gold. + +The custom of illatom, or application of a son-in-law, obtains among +the Gollas, as among the Kapus and some other Telugu-classes. [149] + +In connection with the death ceremonies, it may be noted that the +corpse, when it is being washed, is made to rest on a mortar, and +two pestles are placed by its side, and a lighted lamp near the head. + +There is a proverb to the effect that a Golla will not scruple to +water the milk which he sells to his own father. Another proverb +refers to the corrupt manner in which he speaks his mother-tongue. + +The insigne of the caste at Conjeeveram is a silver churning +stick. [150] + +Gollari (monkey).--An exogamous sept of Gadaba. + +Gomma.--Recorded by the Rev. J. Cain as the name for Koyis who live +near the banks of the Godavari river. Villages on the banks thereof +are called gommu ullu. + +Gonapala (old plough).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Gondaliga.--The Gondaligas are described, in the Mysore Census Report, +1901, as being mendicants "of Mahratta origin like the Budabudikes, +and may perhaps be a sub-division of them. They are worshippers of +Durgi. Their occupation, as the name indicates, is to perform gondala, +or a kind of torch-light dance, usually performed in honour of Amba +Bhavani, especially after marriages in Desastha Brahman's houses, +or at other times in fulfilment of any vow." + +Gone (a sack).--An exogamous sept of Maala. The Gone Perikes have been +summed up as being a Telugu caste of gunny-bag weavers, corresponding +to the Janappans of the Tamil country. Gunny-bag is the popular and +trading name for the coarse sacking and sacks made from jute fibre, +which are extensively used in Indian trade. [151] Gone is further an +occupational sub-division of Komati. + +The Gonigas of Mysore are described, in the Census Report, 1901, +as sack-weavers and makers of gunny-bags, agriculturists, and grain +porters at Bangalore; and it is noted that the abnormal fall of 66 +per cent. in the number of the caste was due to their being confounded +with Ganigas. + +Gonjakari.--A title of Haddi. + +Gonji (Glycosmis penlaphylla).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Gopalam (alms given to beggars).--An exogamous sept of Togata. + +Gopalan (those who tend cattle).--A synonym of Idaiyan. + +Gopopuriya.--A sub-division of Gaudo. + +Gorantla (Lawsonia alba: henna).--An exogamous sept of Golla and +Padma Sale. The leaves of this plant are widely used by Natives as +an article of toilet for staining the nails, and by Muhammadans for +dyeing the hair red. + +Gorava.--A synonym of Kuruba. + +Goravaru.--A class of Canarese mendicants. + +Gore.--Recorded, at times of census, as a synonym of Lambadi. Gora +means trader or shop-keeper, and trading Lambadis may have assumed +the name. + +Gorige (Cyamopsis psoralioides).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Gorrela (sheep).--An exogamous sept of Golla, Kamma, and Kapu. Konda +gorri (hill sheep) occurs as an exogamous sept of Jatapu. + +Gosangi.--A synonym for Madiga, recorded as Kosangi, in the Madras +Census Report, 1901. The Gosangulu are described in the Vizagapatam +Manual (1869), as "beggars who style themselves descendants of +Jambavanta, the bear into which Brahma transformed himself, to +assist Rama in destroying Ravana. The Gosangis are considered to be +illegitimate descendants of Madigas, and a curious thing about them +is that their women dress up like men, and sing songs when begging. As +mendicants they are attached to the Madigas." + +Gosayi or Goswami.--The Gosayis are immigrant religious mendicants +from Northern and Western India. I gather from the Mysore Census +Reports that "they mostly belong to the Dandi sub-division. The Gosayi +is no caste; commonly any devotee is called a Gosayi, whether he +lives a life of celibacy or not; whether he roams about the country +collecting alms, or resides in a house like the rest of the people; +whether he leads an idle existence, or employs himself in trade. The +mark, however, that distinguishes all who bear this name is that +they are devoted to a religious life. Some besmear their bodies +with ashes, wear their hair dishevelled and uncombed, and in some +instances coiled round the head like a snake or rope. They roam +about the country in every direction, visiting especially spots +of reputed sanctity, and as a class are the pests of society and +incorrigible rogues. Some of them can read, and a few may be learned; +but for the most part they are stolidly ignorant. Most of them wear +a yellowish cloth, by which they make themselves conspicuous. The +Gosayis, although by profession belonging to the religious class, +apply themselves nevertheless to commerce and trade. As merchants, +bankers and tradesmen, they hold a very respectable position. They +never marry. One of the chief peculiarities of this caste is that +Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras, the two former especially, +may, if they choose, become Gosayis; but if they do so, and unite +with the members of this fraternity in eating and drinking, holding +full and free intercourse with them, they are cut off for ever from +their own tribes. It is this circumstance which constitutes Gosayis +a distinct and legitimate caste, and not merely a religious order. At +death a horrible custom is observed. A cocoanut is broken on the head +of the deceased by a person specially appointed for the purpose, until +it is smashed to pieces. The body is then wrapped in a reddish cloth, +and thrown into the Ganges. A partial explanation of this practice is +furnished in Southern India. The final aim of Hindu religious life is +Nirvana or Moksham in the next life, and this can only be attained by +those holy men, whose life escapes, after smashing the skull, through +the sushumna nadi, a nerve so called, and supposed to pervade the +crown of the head. The dying or dead Sanyasi is considered to have +led such a holy life as to have expired in the orthodox manner, and +the fiction is kept up by breaking the skull post mortem, in mimicry +of the guarantee of his passage to eternal bliss. Accordingly, the +dead body of a Brahman Sanyasi in Southern India undergoes the same +process and is buried, but never burned or thrown into the river." + +A few Gosayis, at the Mysore census, returned gotras, of which the +chief were Achuta and Daridra (poverty-stricken). In the Madras +Census Report, 1901, Mandula (medicine man) and Bavaji are returned +as a sub-division and synonym of Gosayi. The name Guse or Gusei is +applied to Oriya Brahmans owing to their right of acting as gurus or +family priests. + +Gosu (pride).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Goundan.--It is noted, in the Salem Manual, that "some of the +agricultural classes habitually append the title Goundan as a sort +of caste nomenclature after their names, but the word applies, +par excellence, to the head of the village, or Ur Goundan as he is +called." As examples of castes which take Goundan as their title, +the Pallis, Okkiliyans, and Vellalas may be cited. A planter, or +other, when hailing a Malayali of the Shevaroy hills, always calls +him Goundan. + +Goyi (lizard: Varanus).--An exogamous sept of Bottada. + +Gramani.--The title of some Shanans, and of the headman of the +Khatris. In Malabar, the name gramam (a village) is applied to a +Brahmanical colony, or collection of houses, as the equivalent of +the agraharam of the Tamil country. [152] + +Gudala.--The Gudalas are a Telugu caste of basket-makers in Vizagapatam +and Ganjam. The name is derived from guda, a basket for baling +water. For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana +Rao. The original occupation of the caste is said to have been the +collection of medicinal herbs and roots for native doctors and sick +persons, which is still carried on by some Gudalas at Saluru town. The +principal occupations, however, are the manufacture of bamboo baskets, +and fishing in fresh water. + +Like other Telugu castes, the Gudalas have exogamous septs or +intiperulu, e.g., korra (Setaria italica), paththi (cotton), nakka +(jackal) and ganti (hole pierced in the ear-lobe). The custom of +menarikam, whereby a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, +is practiced. Marriage generally takes place before a girl reaches +puberty. A Brahman officiates at weddings. The bride-price (voli) +consists of a new cloth for the bride, and seven rupees for her +parents, which are taken by the bridegroom's party to the bride's +house, together with some oil and turmeric for the bridal bath, and +the sathamanam (marriage badge). A feast is held, and the sathamanam +is tied on the bride's neck. The newly married pair are conducted +to the house of the bridegroom, where a further feast takes place, +after which they return to the bride's home, where they remain for +three days. Widows are permitted to remarry thrice, and the voli on +each successive occasion is Rs. 3, Rs. 2, and Rs. 2-8-0. When a widow +is remarried, the sathamanam is tied on her neck near a mortar. + +The members of the caste reverence a deity called Ekkaladevata, +who is said to have been left behind at their original home. The +dead are cremated, and the chinna rozu (little day) death ceremony +is observed. On the third day, cooked rice is thrown over the spot +where the corpse was burnt. + +Gudavandlu.--Recorded, in the Nellore Manual, as Vaishnavites, +who earn their livelihood by begging. The name means basket people, +and probably refers to Satanis, who carry a basket (guda) when begging. + +Gudi (temple).--A sub-division of Okkiliyan, an exogamous sept of Jogi, +and a name for temple Dasaris, to distinguish them from the Donga or +thieving Dasaris. + +Gudigara.--In the South Canara Manual, the Gudigaras are summed up as +follows. "They are a Canarese caste of wood-carvers and painters. They +are Hindus of the Saivite sect, and wear the sacred thread. Shivalli +Brahmans officiate as their priests. Some follow the aliya santana +mode of inheritance (in the female line), others the ordinary +law. They must marry within the caste, but not within the same gotra +or family. Infant marriage is not compulsory, and they have the dhare +form of marriage. Among those who follow the aliya santana law, both +widows and divorced women may marry again, but this is not permitted +among the other sections. The dead are either cremated or buried, +the former being the preferential mode. The use of alcoholic liquor, +and fish and flesh is permitted. Their ordinary title is Setti." + +"The Gudigars, or sandal-wood carvers," Mr. D'Cruz writes, [153] +"are reported to have come originally from Goa, their migration +to Mysore and Canara having been occasioned by the attempts of the +early Portuguese invaders to convert them to Christianity. The fact +that their original language is Konkani corroborates their reputed +Konkanese origin. They say that the derivation of the word Gudigara +is from gudi, a temple, and that they were so called because they +were, in their own country, employed as carvers and painters in the +ornamentation of temples. Another derivation is from the Sanskrit +kuttaka (a carver). They assert that their fellow castemen are +still employed in turning, painting, and other decorative arts at +Goa. Like the Chitrakaras (ornamenters or decorative artists), they +claim to be Kshatriyas, and tradition has it that, to escape the +wrath of Parasu Rama in the sixth incarnation of Vishnu, who vowed +to destroy all Kshatriyas, they adopted the profession of carvers +and car-builders. They are also expert ivory-carvers, and it has been +suggested that they may be distantly connected with the Kondikars, or +ivory-carvers of Bengal. The art of sandalwood carving is confined +to a few families in the Sorab and Sagar taluks of the Shimoga +district, in the north-west corner of the province. There are two +or three families in Sagar, and about six in Sorab, which contribute +in all about thirty-five artisans employed in the craft. The art is +also practiced by their relations, who found a domicile in Hanavar, +Kumpta, Sirsi, Siddapur, Biligi, and Banavasi in the North Canara +district. But the work of the latter is said to be by no means so fine +as that executed by the artisans of Sorab and Sagar. The artisans +of North Canara, however, excel in pith-work of the most exquisite +beauty. They usually make basingas, i.e., special forehead ornaments, +richly inlaid with pearls, and worn on the occasion of marriage. The +delicate tools used by the wood-carvers are made from European umbrella +spokes, ramrods, and country steel. The main stimulus, which the art +receives from time to time at the present day, is from orders from the +Government, corporate public bodies, or Maharajas, for address boxes, +cabinets, and other articles specially ordered for presentations, +or for the various fine-art exhibition, for which high prices are +paid." In conversation with the workmen from Sorab and Sagar for work +in the palace which is being built for H. H. the Maharaja of Mysore, +it was elicited that there are some Gudigars, who, from want of a due +taste for the art, never acquire it, but are engaged in carpentry and +turning. Others, having acquired land, are engaged in cultivation, +and fast losing all touch with the art. At Udipi in South Canara, +some Gudigars make for sale large wooden buffaloes and human figures, +which are presented as votive offerings at the Iswara temple at +Hiriadkap. They also make wooden dolls and painted clay figures. + +The following extracts from Mr. L. Rice's 'Mysore Gazetteer' may be +appropriately quoted. "The designs with which the Gudigars entirely +cover the boxes, desks, and other articles made, are of an extremely +involved and elaborate pattern, consisting for the most part of +intricate interlacing foliage and scroll-work, completely enveloping +medallions containing the representation of some Hindu deity or subject +of mythology, and here and there relieved by the introduction of animal +forms. The details, though in themselves often highly incongruous, +are grouped and blended with a skill that seems to be instinctive in +the East, and form an exceedingly rich and appropriate ornamentation, +decidedly oriental in style, which leaves not the smallest portion +of the surface of the wood untouched. The material is hard, and the +minuteness of the work demands the utmost care and patience. Hence +the carving of a desk or cabinet involves a labour of many months, +and the artists are said to lose their eyesight at a comparatively +early age. European designs they imitate to perfection." And again: +"The articles of the Gudigar's manufacture chiefly in demand are +boxes, caskets and cabinets. These are completely covered with minute +and delicate scroll-work, interspersed with figures from the Hindu +Pantheon, the general effect of the profuse detail being extremely +rich. The carving of Sorab is considered superior to that of Bombay +or Canton, and, being a very tedious process requiring great care, is +expensive. The Gudigars will imitate admirably any designs that may be +furnished them. Boards for album-covers, plates from Jorrock's hunt, +and cabinets surrounded with figures, have thus been produced for +European gentlemen with great success." A gold medal was awarded to +the Gudigars at the Delhi Durbar Exhibition, 1903, for a magnificent +sandal-wood casket (now in the Madras Museum), ornamented with panels +representing hunting scenes. + +When a marriage is contemplated, the parents of the couple, in the +absence of horoscopes, go to a temple, and receive from the priest some +flowers which have been used for worship. These are counted, and, if +their number is even, the match is arranged, and an exchange of betel +leaves and nuts takes place. On the wedding day, the bridegroom goes, +accompanied by his party, to the house of the bride, taking with him +a new cloth, a female jacket, and a string of black beads with a small +gold ornament. They are met en route by the bride's party. Each party +has a tray containing rice, a cocoanut, and a looking-glass. The +females of one party place kunkuma (red powder) on the foreheads +of those of the other party, and sprinkle rice over each other. At +the entrance to the marriage pandal (booth), the bride's brother +pours water at the feet of the bridegroom, and her father leads +him into the pandal. The new cloth, and other articles, are taken +inside the house, and the mother or sister of the bridegroom, with +the permission of the headman, ties the necklet of black beads on the +bride's neck. Her maternal uncle takes her up in his arms, and carries +her to the pandal. Thither the bridegroom is conducted by the bride's +brother. A cloth is held as a screen between the contracting couple, +who place garlands of flowers round each other's necks. The screen is +then removed. A small vessel, containing milk and water, and decorated +with mango leaves, is placed in front of them, and the bride's mother, +taking hold of the right hand of the bride, places it in the right +hand of the bridegroom. The officiating Brahman places a betel leaf +and cocoanut on the bride's hand, and her parents pour water from a +vessel thereon. The Brahman then ties the kankanams (wrist-threads) +on the wrists of the contracting couple, and kindles the sacred fire +(homam). The guests present them with money, and lights are waved +before them by elderly females. The bridegroom, taking the bride by +hand, leads her into the house, where they sit on a mat, and drink +milk out of the same vessel. A bed is made ready, and they sit on it, +while the bride gives betel to the bridegroom. On the second day, +lights are waved, in the morning and evening, in front of them. On +the third day, some red-coloured water is placed in a vessel, into +which a ring, an areca nut, and rice are dropped. The couple search +for the ring, and, when it has been found, the bridegroom puts it on +the finger of the bride. They then bathe, and try to catch fish in +a cloth. After the bath, the wrist-threads are removed. + +Gudisa (hut).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Kapu. + +Gudiya.--The Gudiyas are the sweet-meat sellers of the Oriya +country. They rank high in the social scale, and some sections of +Oriya Brahmans will accept drinking water at their hands. Sweet-meats +prepared by them are purchased for marriage feasts by all castes, +including Brahmans. The caste name is derived from gudo (jaggery). The +caste is divided into two sections, one of which is engaged in selling +sweet-meats and crude sugar, and the other in agriculture. The former +are called Gudiyas, and the latter Kolata, Holodia, or Bolasi Gudiyas +in different localities. The headman of the caste is called Sasumallo, +under whom are assistant officers, called Behara and Bhollobaya. In +their ceremonial observances on the occasion of marriage, death, etc., +the Gudiyas closely follow the Gaudos. They profess the Paramartho +or Chaitanya form of Vaishnavism, and also worship Takuranis (village +deities). + +The Gudiyas are as particular as Brahmans in connection with the +wearing of sect marks, and ceremonial ablution. Cloths worn during the +act of attending to the calls of nature are considered to be polluted, +so they carry about with them a special cloth, which is donned for +the moment, and then removed. Like the Gudiyas, Oriya Brahmans always +carry with them a small cloth for this purpose. + +The titles of the Gudiyas are Behara, Sahu, and Sasumallo. In the +Madras Census Report, 1901, the caste name is given as Godiya. + +Gudugudupandi.--A Tamil synonym for Budubudukala. + +Guha Vellala.--The name assumed by some Sembadavans with a view +to connecting themselves with Guha (or Kuha), who rowed the boat +of Rama to Ceylon, and, as Vellalas, gaining a rise in the social +scale. Maravans also claim descent from Guha. + +Gujarati.--A territorial name, meaning people from Gujarat, some +of whom have settled in the south where they carry on business +as prosperous traders. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Gujjar +is returned as a synonym. At a public meeting held in Madras, in +1906, to concert measures for establishing a pinjrapole (hospital +for animals) it was resolved that early steps should be taken to +collect public subscriptions from the Hindu community generally, +and in particular from the Nattukottai Chettis, Gujaratis, and other +mercantile classes. The mover of the resolution observed that Gujaratis +were most anxious, on religious grounds, to save all animals from pain, +and it was a religious belief with them that it was sinful to live in +a town where there was no pinjrapole. A pinjrapole is properly a cage +(pinjra) for the sacred bull (pola) released in the name of Siva. [154] +It is noted by Mr. Drummond [155] that every marriage and mercantile +transaction among the Gujaratis is taxed with a contribution ostensibly +for the pinjrapole. In 1901, a proposal was set on foot to establish +a Gujarati library and reading-room in Madras, to commemorate the +silver jubilee of the administration of the Gaekwar of Baroda. + +Gulimi (pickaxe).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Gullu (Solanum ferox).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Gulti.--A section of Boya, members of which are to be found in Choolay, +Madras City. + +Gummadi (Cucurbita maxima).--An exogamous sept of Tsakalas, who will +not cultivate the plant, or eat the pumpkin thereof. + +Guna.--Guna or Guni is a sub-division of Velama. The name is derived +from the large pot (guna), which dyers use. + +Guna Tsakala (hunchbacked washerman).--Said to be a derisive name +given to Velamas by Balijas. + +Gundala (stones).--An exogamous sept of Golla. + +Gundam (pit).--An exogamous sept of Chenchu. + +Gundu (cannon-ball).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Guni.--Guni is the name of Oriya dancing-girls and prostitutes. It +is derived from the Sanskrit guna, meaning qualifications or skill, +in reference to their possession of qualification for, and skill +acquired by training when young in enchanting by music, dancing, etc. + +Gunta (well).--A sub-division of Boyas, found in the Anantapur +district, the members of which are employed in digging wells. + +Guntaka (harrow).--An exogamous sept of Kapu. + +Guntala (pond).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Gupta.--A Vaisya title assumed by some Muttans (trading caste) of +Malabar, and Tamil Pallis. + +Guri.--Recorded, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as a caste of Paiks or +fighting men. Gurikala (marksman) occurs, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as a sub-division of Patra. + +Gurram (horse).--An exogamous sept of Chenchu, Golla, Mala, Padma Sale, +and Togata. The Gurram Togatas will not ride on horseback. Kudire, +also meaning horse, occurs as a gotra or exogamous sept of Kurni +and Vakkaliga. + +Gurukkal.--For the following note on the Gurukkals or Kurukkals of +Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The Kurukkals +are priests of castes, whose religious rites are not presided over +by Ilayatus. They are probably of Tamil origin. Males are often +called Nainar and females Nachchiyar, which are the usual titles +of the Tamil Kurukkals also. In the Keralolpatti the caste men are +described as Chilampantis, who are the adiyars or hereditary servants +of Padmanabhaswami in Trivandrum. They seem to have been once known +also as Madamutalis or headmen of matts, and Tevara Pandarams, +or Pandarams who assisted the Brahman priest in the performance +of religious rites in the Maharaja's palace. It is said that the +Kurukkals originally belonged to the great Vaisya branch of Manu's +fourfold system of caste, and migrated from the Pandyan country, and +became the dependants of the Kupakkara family of Pottis in Trivandrum, +whose influence, both religious and secular, was of no mean order in +mediæval times. These Pottis gave them permission to perform all the +priestly services of the Ambalavasi families, who lived to the south +of Quilon. It would appear from the Keralolpatti and other records +that they had the kazhakam or sweeping and other services at the inner +entrance of Sri Padmanabha's temple till the time of Umayamma Rani in +the eighth century of the Malabar era. As, however, during her reign, +a Kurukkal in league with the Kupakkara Potti handed over the letter +of invitation, entrusted to him as messenger, for the annual utsavam +to the Tarnallur Nambudiripad, the chief ecclesiastical functionary of +the temple, much later than was required, the Kurukkal was dismissed +from the temple service, and ever afterwards the Kurukkals had no +kazhakam right there. There are some temples, where Kurukkals are the +recognised priests, and they are freely admitted for kazhakam service +in most South Travancore temples. To the north of Quilon, however, the +Variyars and Pushpakans enjoy this right in preference to others. Some +Kurukkals kept gymnasia in former times, and trained young men in +military exercises. At the present day, a few are agriculturists. + +The Kurukkals are generally not so fair in complexion as other +sections of the Ambalavasis. Their houses are known as bhavanams +or vidus. They are strict vegetarians, and prohibited from drinking +spirituous liquor. The females (Kurukkattis) try to imitate Nambutiri +Brahmans in their dress and ornaments. The arasilattali, which closely +resembles the cherutali, is worn round the neck, and the chuttu in +the ears. The mukkutti, but not the gnattu, is worn in the nose. The +minnu or marriage ornament is worn after the tali-kettu until the death +of the tali-tier. The females are tattooed on the forehead and hands, +but this practice is going out of fashion. The sect marks of women are +the same as those of the Nambutiris. The Kurukkals are Smartas. The +Tiruvonam asterism in the month of Avani (August-September) furnishes +an important festive occasion. + +The Kurukkals are under the spiritual control of certain men in their +own caste called Vadhyars. They are believed to have been originally +appointed by the Kuppakkara Pottis, of whom they still take counsel. + +The Kurukkals observe both the tali-kettu kalyanam and sambandham. The +male members of the caste contract alliances either within the caste, +or with Marans, or the Vatti class of Nayars. Women receive cloths +either from Brahmans or men of their own caste. The maternal uncle's +or paternal aunt's daughter is regarded as the most proper wife for +a man. The tali-kettu ceremony is celebrated when a girl is seven, +nine or eleven years old. The date for its celebration is fixed by her +father and maternal uncle in consultation with the astrologer. As many +youths are then selected from among the families of the inangans or +relations as there are girls to be married, the choice being decided +by the agreement of the horoscopes of the couple. The erection of +the first pillar of the marriage pandal (booth) is, as among other +Hindu castes, an occasion for festivity. The ceremony generally +lasts over few days, but may be curtailed. On the wedding day, the +bridegroom wears a sword and palmyra leaf, and goes in procession to +the house of the bride. After the tali has been tied, the couple are +looked on as being impure, and the pollution is removed by bathing, +and the pouring of water, consecrated by the hymns of Vadhyars, over +their heads. For the sambandham, which invariably takes place after a +girl has reached puberty, the relations of the future husband visit +her home, and, if they are satisfied as to the desirability of the +match, inform her guardians of the date on which they will demand the +horoscope. When it is received on the appointed day, the astrologer +is consulted, and, if he is favourably inclined, a day is fixed for +the sambandham ceremony. The girl is led forward by her maternal +aunt, who sits among those who have assembled, and formally receives +cloths. Cloths are also presented to the maternal uncle. Divorce is +common, and effected with the consent of the Vadhyar. Inheritance is in +the female line (marumakkathayam). It is believed that, at the time of +their migration to Travancore, the Kurukkals wore their tuft of hair +(kudumi) behind, and followed the makkathayam system of inheritance +(in the male line). A change is said to have been effected in both +these customs by the Kupakkara Potti in the years 1752 and 1777 of +the Malabar era. + +The Kurukkals observe most of the religious ceremonies of the +Brahmans. No recitation of hymns accompanies the rites of namakarana +and annaprasana. The chaula and upanayana are performed between the +ninth and twelfth years of age. On the previous day, the family priest +celebrates the purificatory rite, and ties a consecrated thread round +the right wrist of the boy. The tonsure takes place on the second day, +and on the third day the boy is invested with the sacred thread, and +the Gayatri hymn recited. On the fourth day, the Brahmacharya rite +is closed with a ceremony corresponding to the Samavartana. When a +girl reaches puberty, some near female relation invites the women of +the village, who visit the house, bringing sweetmeats with them. The +girl bathes, and reappears in public on the fifth day. Only the +pulikudi or drinking tamarind juice, is celebrated, as among the +Nayars, during the first pregnancy. The sanchayana, or collection +of bones after the cremation of a corpse, is observed on the third, +fifth, or seventh day after death. Death pollution lasts for eleven +days. Tekketus are built in memory of deceased ancestors. These are +small masonry structures built over graves, in which a lighted lamp +is placed, and at which worship is performed on anniversary and other +important occasions (See Brahman.) + +Gutob.--A sub-division of Gadaba. + +Gutta Koyi.--Recorded by the Rev. J. Cain as a name for hill Koyis. + +Guvvala (doves).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Mutracha. + + + + + + + +H + + +Haddi.--The Haddis are a low class of Oriyas, corresponding to +the Telugu Malas and Madigas, and the Tamil Paraiyans. It has been +suggested that the name is derived from haddi, a latrine, or hada, +bones, as members of the caste collect all sorts of bones, and trade in +them. The Haddis play on drums for all Oriya castes, except Khondras, +Tiyoros, Tulabinas, and Sanis. They consider the Khondras as a very +low class, and will not purchase boiled rice sold in the bazaar, +if it has been touched by them. Castes lower than the Haddis are the +Khondras and Jaggalis of whom the latter are Telugu Madigas, who have +settled in the southern part of Ganjam, and learnt the Oriya language. + +The Haddis may be divided into Haddis proper, Rellis, and Chachadis, +which are endogamous divisions. The Haddis proper never do sweeping +or scavenging work, which are, in some places, done by Rellis. The +Relli scavengers are often called Bhatta or Karuva Haddis. The +Haddis proper go by various names, e.g., Sudha Haddi, Godomalia +Haddi, etc., in different localities. The Haddis work as coolies and +field labourers, and the selling of fruits, such as mango, tamarind, +Zizyphus Jujuba, etc., is a favourite occupation. In some places, the +selling of dried fish is a monopoly of the Rellis. Sometimes Haddis, +especially the Karuva Haddis, sell human or yak hair for the purpose +of female toilette. The Haddis have numerous septs or bamsams, one +of which, hathi (elephant) is of special interest, because members +of this sept, when they see the foot-prints of an elephant, take some +dust from the spot, and make a mark on the forehead with it. They also +draw the figure of an elephant, and worship it when they perform sradh +(memorial service for the dead) and other ceremonies. + +There are, among the Haddi communities, two caste officers entitled +Behara and Nayako, and difficult questions which arise are settled +at a meeting of the officers of several villages. It is said that +sometimes, if a member of the caste is known to have committed an +offence, the officers select some members of the caste from his +village to attend the meeting, and borrow money from them. This is +spent on drink, and, after the meeting, the amount is recovered from +the offender. If he does not plead guilty at once, a quarrel ensues, +and more money is borrowed, so as to increase the debt. In addition +to the Behara and Nayako, there are, in some places, other officials +called Adhikari or Chowdri, or Bodoporicha and Bhollobhaya. The caste +title is Nayako. Members of higher castes are sometimes, especially if +they have committed adultery with Haddi women, received into the caste. + +Girls are married after puberty. Though contrary to the usual Oriya +custom, the practice of menarikam, or marriage with the maternal +uncle's daughter, is permitted. When the marriage of a young man +is contemplated, his father, accompanied by members of his caste, +proceeds to the home of the intended bride. If her parents are +in favour of the match, a small space is cleared in front of the +house, and cow-dung water smeared over it. On this spot the young +man's party deposit a pot of toddy, over which women throw Zizyphus +Jujuba leaves and rice, crying at the same time Ulu-ula. The village +officials, and a few respected members of the caste, assemble in +the house, and, after the engagement has been announced, indulge +in a drink. On an auspicious day, the bridegroom's party go to the +home of the bride, and place, on a new cloth spread on the floor, the +bride-price (usually twenty rupees), and seven betel leaves, myrabolams +(Terminalia fruits), areca nuts, and cakes. Two or three of the nuts +are then removed from the cloth, cut up, and distributed among the +leading men. After the wedding day has been fixed, an adjournment +is made to the toddy shop. In some cases, the marriage ceremony is +very simple, the bride being conducted to the home of the bridegroom, +where a feast is held. In the more elaborate form of ceremonial, the +contracting couple are seated on a dais, and the Behara or Nayako, +who officiates as priest, makes fire (homam) before them, which he +feeds with twigs of Zizyphus Jujuba and Eugenia Jambolana. Mokuttos +(forehead chaplets) and wrist-threads are tied on the couple, and their +hands are connected by the priest by means of a turmeric-dyed thread, +and then disconnected by an unmarried girl. The bride's brother arrives +on the scene, dressed up as a woman, and strikes the bridegroom. This +is called solabidha, and is practiced by many Oriya castes. The ends +of the cloths of the bride and bridegroom are tied together, and they +are conducted inside the house, the mother-in-law throwing Zizyphus +leaves and rice over them. + +Like other Oriya castes, the Haddis observe pollution for seven days +on the occasion of the first menstrual period. On the first day, the +girl is seated, and, after she has been smeared with oil and turmeric +paste, seven women throw Zizyphus leaves and rice over her. She is +kept either in a corner of the house, or in a separate hut, and has +by her a piece of iron and a grinding-stone wrapped up in a cloth. If +available, twigs of Strychnos Nux-vomica are placed in a corner. Within +the room or hut, a small framework, made of broom-sticks and pieces of +palmyra palm leaf, or a bow, is placed, and worshipped daily. If the +girl is engaged to be married, her future father-in-law is expected +to give her a new cloth on the seventh day. + +The Haddis are worshippers of various Takuranis (village deities), +e.g., Kalumuki, Sathabavuni, and Baidaro. Cremation of the dead is more +common than burial. Food is offered to the deceased on the day after +death, and also on the tenth and eleventh days. Some Haddis proceed, +on the tenth day, to the spot where the corpse was cremated or buried, +and, after making an effigy on the ground, offer food. Towards night, +they proceed to some distance from the house, and place food and fruits +on a cloth spread on the ground. They then call the dead man by his +name, and eagerly wait till some insect settles on the cloth. As soon +as this happens, the cloth is folded up, carried home, and shaken over +the floor close to the spot where the household gods are kept, so that +the insect falls on sand spread on the floor. A light is then placed +on the sanded floor, and covered with a new pot. After some time, +the pot is removed, and the sand examined for any marks which may be +left on it. This ceremony seems to correspond to the jola jola handi +(pierced pot) ceremony of other castes (see Bhondari). + +"The Rellis," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [156] "are a caste of +gardeners and labourers, found chiefly in the districts of Ganjam +and Vizagapatam. In Telugu the word relli or rellis means grass, +but whether there is any connection between this and the caste name +I cannot say. They generally live at the foot of the hills, and sell +vegetables, mostly of hill production." + +For the following note on the Rellis of Vizagapatam, I am indebted +to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The Rellis are also known as Sachchari, and +they further call themselves Sapiri. The caste recognises the custom +of menarikam, by which a man marries his maternal uncle's daughter. A +girl is usually married after puberty. The bride-price is paid sometime +before the day fixed for the marriage. On that day, the bride goes, +with her parents, to the house of the bridegroom. The caste deities +Odda Polamma (commonly known as Sapiri Daivam) and Kanaka Durgalamma +are invoked by the elders, and a pig and sheep are sacrificed to +them. A string of black beads is tied by the bridegroom round the +bride's neck, and a feast is held, at which the sacrificed animals +are eaten, and much liquor is imbibed. On the following morning, +a new cloth, kunkumam (red powder), and a few pieces of turmeric +are placed in a small basket or winnow, and carried in procession, +to the accompaniment of music, through the streets by the bride, +with whom is the bridegroom. The ceremony is repeated on the third +day, when the marriage festivities come to an end. In a note on the +Rellis of Ganjam, Mr. S. P. Rice writes [157] that "the bridegroom, +with the permission of the Village Magistrate, marches straight into +the bride's house, and ties a wedding necklace round her neck. A +gift of seven and a half rupees and a pig to the castemen, and of +five rupees to the bride's father, completes this very primitive +ceremony." Widows are allowed to remarry, but the string of beads is +not tied round the neck. The caste deities are usually represented by +crude wooden dolls, and an annual festival in their honour, with the +sacrifice of pigs and sheep, is held in March. The dead are usually +buried, and, as a rule, pollution is not observed. Some Rellis have, +however, begun to observe the chinnarozu (little day) death ceremony, +which corresponds to the chinnadinamu ceremony of the Telugus. The +main occupation of the caste is gardening, and selling fruits and +vegetables. The famine of 1875-76 reduced a large number of Rellis +to the verge of starvation, and they took to scavenging as a means +of earning a living. At the present day, the gardeners look down on +the scavengers, but a prosperous scavenger can be admitted into their +society by paying a sum of money, or giving a feast. Pollution attaches +only to the scavengers, and not to the gardening section. In the +Census Report, 1901, the Pakais or sweepers in the Godavari district, +who have, it is said, gone thither from Vizagapatam, are returned as +a sub-caste of Relli. The usual title of the Rellis is Gadu. + +The Haddis who inhabit the southern part of Ganjam are known as Ghasis +by other castes, especially Telugu people, though they call themselves +Haddis. The name Ghasi has reference to the occupation of cutting +grass, especially for horses. The occupational title of grass-cutter +is said by Yule and Burnell [158] to be "probably a corruption +representing the Hindustani ghaskoda or ghaskata, the digger or cutter +of grass, the title of a servant employed to collect grass for horses, +one such being usually attached to each horse, besides the syce or +horsekeeper (groom). In the north, the grass-cutter is a man; in the +south the office is filled by the horsekeeper's wife." It is noted in +'Letters from Madras' [159] that "every horse has a man and a maid +to himself; the maid cuts grass for him; and every dog has a boy. I +inquired whether the cat had any servants, but I found he was allowed +to wait upon himself." In addition to collecting and selling grass, +the Ghasis are employed at scavenging work. Outsiders, even Jaggalis +(Madigas), Paidis, and Panos, are admitted into the Ghasi community. + +The headman of the Ghasis is called Bissoyi, and he is assisted by +a Behara and Gonjari. The Gonjari is the caste servant, one of whose +duties is said to be the application of a tamarind switch to the back +of delinquents. + +Various exogamous septs or bamsams occur among the Ghasis, of which +naga (cobra), asvo (horse), chintala (tamarind), and liari (parched +rice) may be noted. Adult marriage is the rule. The betrothal +ceremony, at which the kanyo mulo, or bride-price, is paid, is the +occasion of a feast, at which pork must be served, and the Bissoyi +of the future bride's village ties a konti (gold or silver bead) +on her neck. The marriage ceremonial corresponds in the main with +that of the Haddis elsewhere, but has been to some extent modified by +the Telugu environment. The custom, referred to by Mr. S. P. Rice, +of suspending an earthen pot filled with water from the marriage +booth is a very general one, and not peculiar to the Ghasis. It is +an imitation of a custom observed by the higher Oriya castes. The +striking of the bridegroom on the back by the bride's brother is the +solabidha of other castes, and the mock anger (rusyano) in which the +latter goes away corresponds to the alagi povadam of Telugu castes. + +At the first menstrual ceremony of a Ghasi girl, she sits in a space +enclosed by four arrows, round which a thread is passed seven times. + +The name Odiya Toti (Oriya scavenger) occurs as a Tamil synonym for +Haddis employed as scavengers in Municipalities in the Tamil country. + +Hajam.--The Hindustani name for a barber, and used as a general +professional title by barbers of various classes. It is noted, in +the Census Reports, that only fifteen out of more than two thousand +individuals returned as Hajam were Muhammadans, and that, in South +Canara, Hajams are Konkani Kelasis, and of Marathi descent. + +Halaba.--See Pentiya. + +Halavakki.--A Canarese synonym for Budubudukala. + +Halepaik.--The Halepaiks are Canarese toddy-drawers, who are found in +the northern taluks of the South Canara district. The name is commonly +derived from hale, old, and paika, a soldier, and it is said that +they were formerly employed as soldiers. There is a legend that one +of their ancestors became commander of the Vijayanagar army, was made +ruler of a State, and given a village named Halepaikas as a jaghir +(hereditary assignment of land). Some Halepaiks say that they belong +to the Tengina (cocoanut palm) section, because they are engaged in +tapping that palm for toddy. + +There is intermarriage between the Canarese-speaking Halepaiks and +the Tulu-speaking Billava toddy-drawers, and, in some places, the +Billavas also call themselves Halepaiks. The Halepaiks have exogamous +septs or balis, which run in the female line. As examples of these, +the following may be noted:-- + +Chendi (Cerbera Odollum), Honne (Calophyllum inophyllum), Tolar (wolf), +Devana (god) and Ganga. It is recorded [160] of the Halepaiks of the +Canara district in the Bombay Presidency that "each exogamous section, +known as a bali (literally a creeper), is named after some animal or +tree, which is held sacred by the members of the same. This animal, +tree or flower, etc., seems to have been once considered the common +ancestor of the members of the bali, and to the present day it is both +worshipped by them, and held sacred in the sense that they will not +injure it. Thus the members of the nagbali, named apparently after +the nagchampa flower, will not wear this flower in their hair, as +this would involve injury to the plant. The Kadavebali will not kill +the sambhar (deer: kadave), from which they take their name." The +Halepaiks of South Canara seem to attach no such importance to the +sept names. Some, however, avoid eating a fish called Srinivasa, +because they fancy that the streaks on the body have a resemblance +to the Vaishnavite sectarian mark (namam). + +All the Halepaiks of the Kundapur taluk profess to be Vaishnavites, and +have become the disciples of a Vaishnava Brahman settled in the village +of Sankarappakodlu near Wondse in that taluk. Though Venkataramana is +regarded as their chief deity, they worship Baiderkulu, Panjurli, +and other bhuthas (devils). The Pujaris (priests) avoid eating +new grain, new areca nuts, new sugarcane, cucumbers and pumpkins, +until a feast, called kaidha puja, has been held. This is usually +celebrated in November-December, and consists in offering food, etc., +to Baiderkulu. Somebody gets possessed by the bhutha, and pierces +his abdomen with an arrow. + +In their caste organisation, marriage and death ceremonies, the +Halepaiks closely follow the Billavas. They do not, however, construct +a car for the final death ceremonies. As they are Vaishnavites, +after purification from death pollution by their own caste barber, +a Vaishnavite mendicant, called Dassaya, is called in, and purifies +them by sprinkling holy water and putting the namam on their foreheads. + +There are said to be some differences between the Halepaiks and +Billavas in the method of carrying out the process of drawing +toddy. For example, the Halepaiks generally grasp the knife with +the fingers directed upwards and the thumb to the right, while the +Billavas hold the knife with the fingers directed downwards and the +thumb to the left. For crushing the flower-buds within the spathe +of the palm, Billavas generally use a stone, and the Halepaiks a +bone. There is a belief that, if the spathe is beaten with the bone +of a buffalo which has been killed by a tiger, the yield of toddy +will, if the bone has not touched the ground, be greater than if an +ordinary bone is used. The Billavas generally carry a long gourd, +and the Halepaiks a pot, for collecting the toddy in. + +Halige (plank).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Hallikara (village man).--Recorded, in the Mysore Census Report, +1901, as a division of Vakkaliga. + +Halu (milk).--An exogamous sept of Holeya and Kurni, a sub-division of +Kuruba, and a name for Vakkaligas who keep cattle and sell milk. Halu +mata (milk caste) has been given as a synonym for Kuruba. In the +Mysore Census Report, 1901, Halu Vakkal-Makkalu, or children of the +milk caste, occurs as a synonym for Halu Vakkaliga, and, in the South +Canara Manual, Halvaklumakkalu is given as a synonym for Gauda. The +Madigas call the intoxicant toddy halu. (See Pal.) + +Hanbali.--A sect of Muhammadans, who are followers of the Imam Abu +'Abdi 'llah Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, the founder of the fourth orthodox sect +of the Sunnis, who was born at Baghdad A.H. 164 (A.D. 780). "His fame +began to spread just at the time when disputes ran highest concerning +the nature of the Qur'an, which some held to have existed from +eternity, whilst others maintained it to be created. Unfortunately +for Ibn Hanbal, the Khalifah-at-Muttasim was of the latter opinion, +to which this doctor refusing to subscribe, he was imprisoned, and +severely scourged by the Khalifah's order." [161] + +Handa.--A title of Canarese Kumbaras. + +Handichikka.--The Handichikkas are stated [162] to be "also generally +known as Handi Jogis. This caste is traced to the Pakanati sub-section +of the Jogis, which name it bore some five generations back when the +traditional calling was buffalo-breeding. But, as they subsequently +degenerated to pig-rearing, they came to be known as Handi Jogi or +Handichikka, handi being the Canarese for pig. + +Hanifi.--A sect of Muhammadans, named after Abu Hanifah Anhufman, +the great Sunni Imam and jurisconsult, and the founder of the Hanifi +sect, who was born A.H. 80 (A.D. 700). + +Hanuman.--Hanuman, or Hanumanta, the monkey god, has been recorded +as a sept of Domb, and gotra of Medara. + +Hari Shetti.--A name for Konkani-speaking Vanis (traders). + +Haruvar.--A sub-division of the Badagas of the Nilgiri hills. + +Hasala.--Concerning the Hasalas or Hasulas, Mr. Lewis Rice writes that +"this tribe resembles the Soliga (or Sholagas). They are met with along +the ghâts on the north-western frontier of Mysore. They are a short, +thick-set race, very dark in colour, and with curled hair. Their chief +employment is felling timber, but they sometimes work in areca nut +gardens and gather wild cardamoms, pepper, etc. They speak a dialect +of Canarese." + +In the Mysore Census Report, 1891, it is stated that "the Hasalaru +and Maleru are confined to the wild regions of the Western Malnad. In +the caste generation, they are said to rank above the Halepaikas, +but above the Holeyas and Madigas. They are a diminutive but muscular +race, with curly hair and dolichocephalous head. Their mother-tongue +is Tulu. Their numbers are so insignificantly small as not to be +separately defined. They are immigrants from South Canara, and lead a +life little elevated above that of primordial barbarism. They live in +small isolated huts, which are, however, in the case of the Hasalas, +provided not only with the usual principal entrance, through which +one has to crawl in, but also with a half-concealed hole in the rear, +a kind of postern, through which the shy inmates steal out into +the jungle at the merest suspicion of danger, or the approach of a +stranger. They collect the wild jungle produce, such as cardamoms, +etc., for their customary employers, whose agrestic slaves they have +virtually become. Their huts are annually or periodically shifted from +place to place, usually the most inaccessible and thickest parts of +the wilderness. They are said to be very partial to toddy and arrack +(alcoholic liquor). It is expected that these savages smuggle across +the frontier large quantities of wild pepper and cardamoms from the +ghat forests of the province. Their marriage customs are characterised +by the utmost simplicity, and the part played therein by the astrologer +is not very edifying. Their religion does not seem to transcend devil +worship. They bury the dead. A very curious obsequial custom prevails +among the Hasalas. When any one among them dies, somebody's devil is +credited with the mishap, and the astrologer is consulted to ascertain +its identity. The latter throws cowries (shells of Cyproea moneta) +for divination, and mentions some neighbour as the owner of the devil +thief. Thereupon, the spirit of the dead is redeemed by the heir or +relative by means of a pig, fowl, or other guerdon. The spirit is +then considered released, and is thence forward domiciled in a pot, +which is supplied periodically with water and nourishment. This may +be looked upon as the elementary germ of the posthumous care-taking, +which finds articulation under the name of sradh in multifarious forms, +accompanied more or less with much display in the more civilised +sections of the Hindu community. The Hasalaru are confined to +Tirthahalli and Mudigere." + +It is further recorded in the Mysore Census Report, 1891, that "in most +of the purely Malnad or hilly taluks, each vargdar, or proprietor of +landed estate, owns a set of servants styled Huttalu or Huttu-alu and +Mannalu or Mannu-alu. The former is the hereditary servitor of the +family, born in servitude, and performing agricultural work for the +landholder from father to son. The Mannalu is a serf attached to the +soil, and changes hands with it. They are usually of the Holaya class, +but, in some places, the Hasalar race have been entertained." (See +Holeya.) + +Concerning the Hasalaru, Mr. H. V. Nanjundayya writes to me that +"their marriages take place at night, a pujari of their caste ties +the tali, a golden disc, round the bride's neck. Being influenced by +the surrounding castes, they have taken of late to the practice of +inviting the astrologer to be present. In the social scale they are a +little superior to Madigas and Holeyas, and, like them, live outside +the village, but they do not eat beef. Their approach is considered +to defile a Brahman, and they do not enter the houses of non-Brahmans +such as Vakkaligas and Kurubas. They have their own caste barbers +and washermen, and have separate wells to draw water from." + +Hasbe.--Hasbe or Hasubu, meaning a double pony pack-sack, has been +recorded as an exogamous sept of Holeya and Vakkaliga. + +Hastham (hand).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Hatagar.--A sub-division of Devangas, who are also called Kodekal +Hatagaru. + +Hathi (elephant).--A sept of the Oriya Haddis. When members of this +sept see the foot-prints of an elephant, they take some dust from +the spot, and make a mark on the forehead with it. They also draw +the figure of an elephant, and worship it, when they perform sradh +(memorial service for the dead) and other ceremonies. + +Hathinentu Manayavaru (eighteen house).--A sub-division of Devanga. + +Hatti (hut or hamlet).--An exogamous sept of Kappilliyan and Kuruba. + +Hattikankana (cotton wrist-thread).--A sub-division of Kurubas, +who tie a cotton thread round the wrist at the marriage ceremony. + +Heggade.--The Heggades are summed up, in the Madras Census +Report, 1901, as being a class of Canarese cultivators and +cattle-breeders. Concerning the Heggades of South Canara, +Mr. H. A. Stuart writes [163] that they "are classified as +shepherds, but the present occupation of the majority of them is +cultivation. Their social position is said to be somewhat inferior to +that of the Bants. They employ Brahmins as their priests. In their +ceremonies, the rich follow closely the Brahminical customs. On the +second day of their marriage, a pretence of stealing a jewel from +the person of the bride is made. The bridegroom makes away with the +jewel before dawn, and in the evening the bride's party proceeds to +the house where the bridegroom is to be found. The owner of the house +is told that a theft has occurred in the bride's house and is asked +whether the thief has taken shelter in his house. A negative answer +is given, but the bride's party conducts a regular search. In the +meanwhile a boy is dressed to represent the bridegroom. The searching +party mistake this boy for the bridegroom, arrest him, and produce +him before the audience as the culprit. This disguised bridegroom, +who is proclaimed to be the thief, throws his mask at the bride, +when it is found to the amusement of all present that he is not the +bridegroom. The bride's party then, confessing their inability to find +the bridegroom, request the owner of the house to produce him. He is +then produced, and conducted in procession to the bride's house." + +Some Bants who use the title Heggade wear the sacred thread, follow +the hereditary profession of temple functionaries, and are keepers +of the demon shrines which are dotted all over South Canara. + +Of the Heggades who have settled in the Coorg country, the +Rev. G. Richter states [164] that "they conform, in superstitions and +festivals, to Coorg custom, but are excluded from the community of the +Coorgs, in whose presence they are allowed to sit only on the floor, +whilst the former occupy a chair, or, if they are seated on a mat, +the Heggades must not touch it." In the Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer, +Heggade is defined by Mr. L. Rice as the headman of a village, the +head of the village police, to whom, in some parts of the Province, +rent-free lands are assigned for his support. + +Heggade is sometimes used as a caste name by Kurubas, and occurs as +an exogamous sept of Stanikas. + +Hegganiga.--A sub-division of Ganigas, who use two oxen for their +oil-pressing mills. + +Helava.--Helava, meaning lame person, is the name of a class of +mendicants, who, in Bellary, Mysore, and other localities, are the +custodians of village histories. They generally arrive at the villages +mounted on a bullock, and with their legs concealed by woollen +blankets. They go from house to house, giving the history of the +different families, the names of heroes who died in war, and so forth. + +Hijra (eunuchs).--See Khoja. + +Hire (big).--A sub-division of Kurni. + +Hittu (flour).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Holadava.--A synonym of Gatti. + +Holeya.--The bulk of the Holeyas are, in the Madras Presidency, found +in South Canara, but there are a considerable number in Coimbatore and +on the Nilgiris (working on cinchona, tea, and coffee estates). In the +Manual of the South Canara district it is noted that "Holeyas are the +field labourers, and former agrestic serfs of South Canara, Pulayan +being the Malayalam and Paraiyan the Tamil form of the same word. The +name is derived by Brahmins from hole, pollution, and by others from +hola, land or soil, in recognition of the fact that, as in the case of +the Paraiyan, there are customs remaining which seem to indicate that +the Holeyas were once masters of the land; but, whatever the derivation +may be, it is no doubt the same as that of Paraiyan and Pulayan. The +Holeyas are divided into many sub-divisions, but the most important +are Mari, Mera, and Mundala or Bakuda. The Mera Holeyas are the most +numerous, and they follow the ordinary law of inheritance through +males, as far as that can be said to be possible with a class of people +who have absolutely nothing to inherit. Of course, demon propitiation +(bhuta worship) is practically the exclusive idea of the Holeyas, +and every one of the above sub-divisions has four or five demons to +which fowls, beaten rice, cocoanuts and toddy, are offered monthly +and annually. The Holeyas have, like other classes of South Canara, a +number of balis (exogamous septs), and persons of the same bali cannot +intermarry. Though the marriage tie is as loose as is usual among the +depressed and low castes of Southern India, their marriage ceremony is +somewhat elaborate. The bridegroom's party goes to the bride's house +on a fixed day with rice, betel leaf and a few areca nuts, and waits +the whole night outside the bride's hut, the bridegroom being seated +on a mat specially made by the bride. On the next morning the bride +is made to sit opposite the bridegroom, with a winnowing fan between +them filled with betel leaf, etc. Meanwhile the men and women present +throw rice over the heads of the couple. The bride then accompanies +the bridegroom to his hut, carrying the mat with her. On the last day +the couple take the mat to a river or tank where fish may be found, +dip the mat into the water, and catch some fish, which they let go +after kissing them. A grand feast completes the marriage. Divorce is +easy, and widow marriage is freely practiced. Holeyas will eat flesh +including beef, and have no caste scruples regarding the consumption +of spirituous liquor. Both men and women wear a small cap made of +the leaf of the areca palm." The Holeyas who were interviewed by us +all said that they do not go through the ceremony of catching fish, +which is performed by Shivalli Brahmans and Akkasales. + +"All Tulu Brahmin chronicles," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes [165] "agree +in ascribing the creation of Malabar and Canara, or Kerala, Tuluva, +and Haiga to Parasu Rama, who reclaimed from the sea as much land as +he could cover by hurling his battle-axe from the top of the Western +Ghauts. A modified form of the tradition states that Parasu Rama +gave the newly reclaimed land to Naga and Machi Brahmins, who were +not true Brahmins, and were turned out or destroyed by fishermen and +Holeyas, who held the country till the Tulu Brahmins were introduced +by Mayur Varma (of the Kadamba dynasty). All traditions unite in +attributing the introduction of the Tulu Brahmins of the present day +to Mayur Varma, but they vary in details connected with the manner +in which they obtained a firm footing in the land. One account says +that Habashika, chief of the Koragas, drove out Mayur Varma, but was +in turn expelled by Mayur Varma's son, or son-in-law, Lokaditya of +Gokarnam, who brought Brahmins from Ahi-Kshetra, and settled them in +thirty-two villages. Another makes Mayur Varma himself the invader +of the country, which till then had remained in the possession of the +Holeyas and fishermen who had turned out Parasu Rama's Brahmins. Mayur +Varma and the Brahmins whom he had brought from Ahi-Kshetra were again +driven out by Nanda, a Holeya chief, whose son Chandra Sayana had, +however, learned respect for Brahmins from his mother, who had been a +dancing-girl in a temple. His admiration for them became so great that +he not only brought back the Brahmins, but actually made over all his +authority to them, and reduced his people to the position of slaves. A +third account makes Chandra Sayana, not a son of a Holeya king, +but a descendant of Mayur Varma and a conqueror of the Holeya king." + +In Coorg, the Rev. G. Richter writes, [166] "the Holeyas are found in +the Coorg houses all over the country, and do all the menial work for +the Coorgs, by whom, though theoretically freemen under the British +Government, they were held as gleboe adscripti in a state of abject +servitude until lately, when, with the advent of European planters, +the slave question was freely discussed, and the 'domestic institution' +practically abolished. The Holeyas dress indifferently, are of dirty +habits, and eat whatever they can get, beef included. Their worship +is addressed to Eiyappa Devaru and Chamundi, or Kali goddess once +every month; and once every year they sacrifice a hog or a fowl." + +Of the Holeyas of the Mysore province, the following account is given +in the Mysore Census Reports, 1891 and 1901. "The Holeyas number +502,493 persons, being 10.53 per cent. of the total population. They +constitute, as their name implies, the back-bone of cultivation in the +country. Hola is the Kanarese name for a dry-crop field, and Holeya +means the man of such field. The caste has numerous sub-divisions, +among which are Kannada, Gangadikara, Maggada (loom), and Morasu. The +Holeyas are chiefly employed as labourers in connection with +agriculture, and manufacture with hand-looms various kinds of coarse +cloth or home-spun, which are worn extensively by the poorer classes, +notwithstanding that they are being fast supplanted by foreign cheap +fabrics. In some parts of the Mysore district, considerable numbers +of the Holeyas are specially engaged in betel-vine gardening. As +labourers they are employed in innumerable pursuits, in which manual +labour preponderates. The Aleman sub-division furnishes recruits +as Barr sepoys. It may not be amiss to quote here some interesting +facts denoting the measure of material well-being achieved by, +and the religious recognition accorded to the outcastes at certain +first-class shrines in Mysore. At Melkote in the Mysore district, +the outcastes, i.e., the Holeyas and Madigs, are said to have been +granted by the great Visishtadvaita reformer, Ramanujacharya, the +privilege of entering the Vishnu temple up to the sanctum sanctorum, +along with Brahmans and others, to perform worship there for three days +during the annual car procession. The following anecdote, recorded by +Buchanan, [167] supplies the raison d'être for the concession, which +is said to have also been earned by their forebears having guarded the +sacred murti or idol. On Ramanujacharya going to Melkota to perform +his devotions at that celebrated shrine, he was informed that the +place had been attacked by the Turk King of Delhi, who had carried +away the idol. The Brahman immediately set out for that capital, and +on arrival found that the King had made a present of the image to his +daughter, for it is said to be very handsome, and she asked for it +as a plaything. All day the princess played with the image, and at +night the god assumed his own beautiful form, and enjoyed her bed, +for Krishna is addicted to such forms of adventures. Ramanujacharya, +by virtue of certain mantras, obtained possession of the image, +and wished to carry it off. He asked the Brahmans to assist him, +but they refused; on which the Holeyas volunteered, provided the +right of entering the temple was granted to them. Ramanujacharya +accepted their proposal, and the Holeyas, having posted themselves +between Delhi and Melkota, the image of the god was carried down in +twenty-four hours. The service also won for the outcastes the envied +title of Tiru-kulam or the sacred race. In 1799, however, when the +Dewan (prime minister) Purnaiya visited the holy place, the right of +the outcastes to enter the temple was stopped at the dhvaja stambham, +the consecrated monolithic column, from which point alone can they +now obtain a view of the god. On the day of the car procession, the +Tiru-kulam people, men, women and children, shave their heads and +bathe with the higher castes in the kalyani or large reservoir, and +carry on their head small earthen vessels filled with rice and oil, +and enter the temple as far as the flagstaff referred to above, where +they deliver their offerings, which are appropriated by the Dasayyas, +who resort simultaneously as pilgrims to the shrine. Besides the +privilege of entering the temple, the Tiru-kula Holeyas and Madigs +have the right to drag the car, for which service they are requited by +getting from the temple two hundred seers of ragi (grain), a quantity +of jaggery (crude sugar), and few bits of the dyed cloth used for +decorating the pandal (shed) which is erected for the procession. At +the close of the procession, the representatives of the aforesaid +classes receive each a flower garland at the hands of the Sthanik or +chief worshipper, who manages to drop a garland synchronously into +each plate held by the recipients, so as to avoid any suspicion of +undue preference. In return for these privileges, the members of the +Tiru-kulam used to render gratuitous services such as sweeping the +streets round the temple daily, and in the night patrolling the whole +place with drums during the continuance of the annual procession, +etc. But these services are said to have become much abridged and +nearly obsolete under the recent police and municipal régime. The +privilege of entering the temple during the annual car procession +is enjoyed also by the outcastes in the Vishnu temple at Belur in +the Hassan district. It is, however, significant that in both the +shrines, as soon as the car festival is over, i.e., on the 10th day, +the concession ceases, and the temples are ceremonially purified. + +"In the pre-survey period, the Holeya or Madig Kulvadi, in the maidan +or eastern division, was so closely identified with the soil that his +oath, accompanied by certain formalities and awe-inspiring solemnities, +was considered to give the coup de grâce to long existing and vexatious +boundary disputes. He had a potential voice in the internal economy +of the village, and was often the fidus Achates of the patel (village +official). In the malnad, however, the Holeya had degenerated into the +agrestic slave, and till a few decades ago under the British rule, +not only as regards his property, but also with regard to his body, +he was not his own master. The vargdar or landholder owned him as +a hereditary slave. The genius of British rule has emancipated him, +and his enfranchisement has been emphasized by the allurements of the +coffee industry with its free labour and higher wages. It is, however, +said that the improvement so far of the status of the outcastes in +the malnad has not been an unmixed good, inasmuch as it is likewise +a measure of the decadence of the supari (betel) gardens. Be that as +it may, the Holeya in the far west of the province still continues +in many respects the bondsman of the local landholder of influence; +and some of the social customs now prevailing among the Holeyas there, +as described hereunder, fully bear out this fact. + +"In most of the purely malnad or hilly taluks, each vargdar, or +proprietor of landed estate, owns a set of servants called Huttalu +or Huttu-Alu and Mannalu or Mannu-Alu. The former is the hereditary +servitor of the family, born in servitude, and performing agricultural +work for the landholder from father to son. The Mannalu is a serf +attached to the soil, and changes with it. These are usually of the +Holeya class, but in some places men of the Hasalar race have been +entertained. To some estates or vargs only Huttu-alus are attached, +while Mannu-alus work on others. Notwithstanding the measure of +personal freedom enjoyed by all men at the present time, and the +unification of the land tenures in the province under the revenue +survey and settlement, the traditions of birth, immemorial custom, +ignorance, and never-to-be-paid-off loads of debt, tend to preserve +in greater or less integrity the conditions of semi-slavery under +which these agrestic slaves live. It is locally considered the acme +of unwisdom to loosen the immemorial relations between capital and +labour, especially in the remote backwoods, in which free labour +does not exist, and the rich supari cultivation whereof would be +ruined otherwise. In order furthermore to rivet the ties which bind +these hereditary labourers to the soil, it is alleged that the local +capitalists have improvised a kind of Gretna Green marriage among +them. A legal marriage of the orthodox type contains the risk of a +female servant being lost to the family in case the husband happened +not to be a Huttalu or Mannalu. So, in order to obviate the possible +loss, a custom prevails according to which a female Huttalu or +Mannalu is espoused in what is locally known as the manikattu form, +which is neither more nor less than licensed concubinage. She may +be given up after a time, subject to a small fine to the caste, and +anybody else may then espouse her on like conditions. Not only does +she then remain in the family, but her children will also become the +landlord's servants. These people are paid with a daily supply of +paddy or cooked food, and a yearly present of clothing and blankets +(kamblis). On special occasions, and at car feasts, they receive in +addition small money allowances. + +"In rural circles, in which the Holeyas and Madigs are kept at arm's +length by the Bramanical bodies, and are not allowed to approach +the sacerdotal classes beyond a fixed limit, the outcastes maintain +a strict semi-religious rule, whereby no Brahman can enter the +Holeya's quarters without necessitating a purification thereof. They +believe that the direst calamities will befall them and theirs if +otherwise. The ultraconservative spirit of Hindu priestcraft casts +into the far distance the realization of the hope that the lower +castes will become socially equal even with the classes usually termed +Sudras. But the time is looming in the near distance, in which they +will be on a level in temporal prosperity with the social organisms +above them. Unlike the land tenures said to prevail in Chingleput +or Madras, the Mysore system fully permits the Holeyas and Madigs +to hold land in their own right, and as sub-tenants they are to be +found almost everywhere. The highest amount of land assessment paid +by a single Holeya is Rs. 279 in the Bangalore district, and the +lowest six pies in the Kolar and Mysore districts. The quota paid by +the outcastes towards the land revenue of the country aggregates no +less than three lakhs of rupees, more than two-thirds being paid by +the Holeyas, and the remainder by the Madigs. These facts speak for +themselves, and afford a reliable index to the comparative well-being +of these people. Instances may also be readily quoted, in which +individual Holeyas, etc., have risen to be money-lenders, and enjoy +comparative affluence. Coffee cultivation and allied industries have +thrown much good fortune into their lap. Here and there they have also +established bhajane or prayer houses, in which theistic prayers and +psalms are recited by periodical congregation. A beginning has been +made towards placing the facilities of education within easy reach +of these depressed classes." + +In connection with the Holeyas of South Canara, it is recorded [168] +that "the ordinary agricultural labourers of this district are Holeyas +or Pariahs of two classes, known as Mulada Holeyas and Salada Holeyas, +the former being the old hereditary serfs attached to Muli wargs +(estates), and the latter labourers bound to their masters' service by +being in debt to them. Nowadays, however, there is a little difference +between the two classes. Neither are much given to changing masters, +and, though a Mulada Holeya is no longer a slave, he is usually as much +in debt as a Salada Holeya, and can only change when his new master +takes the debt over. To these labourers cash payments are unknown, +except occasionally in the case of Salada Holeyas, where there is a +nominal annual payment to be set off against interest on the debt. In +other cases interest is foregone, one or other of the perquisites +being sometimes docked as an equivalent. The grain wage consists of +rice or paddy (unhusked rice), and the local seer is, on the average, +as nearly as possible one of 80 tolas. The daily rice payments to men, +women, and children vary as follows:-- + + + Men from 1 seer to 2 seers. + Women from 2/3 seer to 2 seers. + Children from 3/8 seer to 1 seer. + + +"In addition to the daily wages, and the midday meal of boiled rice +which is given in almost all parts, there are annual perquisites or +privileges. Except on the coast of the Mangalore taluk and in the +Coondapoor taluk, every Holeya is allowed rent free from 1/8 to 1/3 +acre of land, and one or two cocoanut or palmyra trees, with sometimes +a jack or mango tree in addition. The money-value of the produce of +this little allotment is variously estimated at from 1 to 5 rupees +per annum. Throughout the whole district, cloths are given every +year to each labourer, the money value being estimated at 1 rupee per +adult, and 6 annas for a child. It is also customary to give a cumbly +(blanket) in the neighbourhood of the ghauts, where the damp and cold +render a warm covering necessary. On three or four important festivals, +presents of rice and other eatables, oil and salt are given to each +labourer, or, in some cases, to each family. The average value of these +may be taken at 1 rupee per labourer, or Rs. 4 per family. Presents +are also made on the occasion of a birth, marriage, or funeral, the +value of which varies very much in individual cases. Whole families +of Holeyas are attached to the farms, but, when their master does not +require their services, he expects them to go and work elsewhere in +places where such work is to be got. In the interior, outside work is +not to be had at many seasons, and the master has to pay them even if +there is not much for them to do, but, one way or another, he usually +manages to keep them pretty well employed all the year round." + +In a note on the Kulwadis, Kulvadis or Chalavadis of the Hassan +district in Mysore, Captain J. S. F. Mackenzie writes [169] that +"every village has its Holigiri--as the quarter inhabited by the +Holiars is called--outside the village boundary hedge. This, I thought, +was because they are considered an impure race, whose touch carries +defilement with it. Such is the reason generally given by the Brahman, +who refuses to receive anything directly from the hands of a Holiar, +and yet the Brahmans consider great luck will wait upon them if they +can manage to pass through the Holigiri without being molested. To this +the Holiars have a strong objection, and, should a Brahman attempt +to enter their quarters, they turn out in a body and slipper him, +in former times it is said to death. Members of the other castes may +come as far as the door, but they must not enter the house, for that +would bring the Holiar bad luck. If, by chance, a person happens to +get in, the owner takes care to tear the intruder's cloth, tie up +some salt in one corner of it, and turn him out. This is supposed +to neutralize all the good luck which might have accrued to the +trespasser, and avert any evil which might have befallen the owner of +the house. All the thousand-and-one castes, whose members find a home +in the village, unhesitatingly admit that the Kulwadi is de jure the +rightful owner of the village. He who was is still, in a limited sense, +'lord of the village manor.' If there is a dispute as to the village +boundaries, the Kulwadi is the only one competent to take the oath as +to how the boundary ought to run. The old custom for settling such +disputes was as follows. The Kulwadi, carrying on his head a ball +made of the village earth, in the centre of which is placed some +water, passes along the boundary. If he has kept the proper line, +everything goes well; but should he, by accident, even go beyond +his own proper boundary, then the ball of earth, of its own accord, +goes to pieces, the Kulwadi dies within fifteen days, and his house +becomes a ruin. Such is the popular belief. Again, the skins of all +animals dying within the village boundaries are the property of the +Kulwadi, and a good income he makes from this source. To this day a +village boundary dispute is often decided by this one fact. If the +Kulwadis agree, the other inhabitants of the villages can say no +more. When--in our forefathers' days, as the natives say--a village +was first established, a stone called 'karu kallu' is set up. To this +stone the Patel once a year makes an offering. The Kulwadi, after the +ceremony is over, is entitled to carry off the rice, etc., offered. In +cases where there is no Patel, the Kulwadi goes through the yearly +ceremony. But what I think proves strongly that the Holia was the +first to take possession of the soil is that the Kulwadi receives, +and is entitled to receive, from the friends of any person who dies +in the village, a certain fee or as my informant forcibly put it, +'They buy from him the ground for the dead.' This fee is still called +in Canarese nela haga, from nela earth, and haga, a coin worth 1 +anna 2 pies. In Munzerabad the Kulwadi does not receive this fee +from those ryots who are related to the headman. Here the Kulwadi +occupies a higher position. He has, in fact, been adopted into the +Patel's family, for, on a death occurring in such family, the Kulwadi +goes into mourning by shaving his head. He always receives from the +friends the clothes the deceased wore, and a brass basin. The Kulwadi, +however, owns a superior in the matter of burial fees. He pays yearly +a fowl, one hana (4 annas 8 pies), and a handful of rice to the agent +of the Sudgadu Siddha, or lord of the burning ground (q.v.)." + +A Kulwadi, whom I came across, was carrying a brass ladle bearing the +figure of a couchant bull (Basava) and a lingam under a many-headed +cobra canopy. This ladle is carried round, and filled with rice, money, +and betel, on the occasion of marriages in those castes, of which the +insignia are engraved on the handle. These insignia were as follows:-- + + + Weavers--Shuttle and brush. + Bestha--Fish. + Uppara--Spade and basket for collecting salt. + Korama--Baskets and knife for splitting canes and bamboos. + Idiga--Knife, and apparatus for climbing palm-trees. + Hajam--Barber's scissors, razor, and sharpening stone. + Ganiga--Oil-press. + Madavali--Washerman's pot, fire-place, mallet, and stone. + Kumbara--Potter's wheel, pots, and mallet. + Vakkaliga--Plough. + Chetti--Scales and basket. + Kuruba--Sheep-shears. + + +A small whistle, called kola-singanatha, made of gold, silver, or +copper, is tied round the neck of some Holeyas, Vakkaligas, Besthas, +Agasas and Kurubas, by means of threads of sheep's wool intertwined +sixteen times. All these castes are supposed to belong to the family +of the God Bhaira, in whose name the whistle is tied by a Bairagi at +Chunchingiri near Nagamangala. It is usually tied in fulfilment of +a vow taken by the parents, and the ceremony costs from a hundred to +two hundred rupees. Until the vow is fulfilled, the person concerned +cannot marry. At the ceremony, the Bairagi bores a hole in the right +ear-lobe of the celebrant with a needle called diksha churi, and from +the wound ten drops of blood fall to the ground (cf. Jogi Purusha). He +is then bathed before the whistle is tied round his neck. As the result +of wearing the whistle, the man attains to the rank of a priest in +his caste, and is entitled to receive alms and meals on festive and +ceremonial occasions. He blows his whistle, which emits a thin squeak, +before partaking of food, or performing his daily worship. + +It is noted in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, that the marriage of the +Holeyas is "nothing but a feast, at which the bridegroom ties the bottu +(marriage badge) round the bride's neck. The wife cannot be divorced +except for adultery. Widows are prohibited from remarrying, but the +caste winks at a widow's living with a man." In an account given to +me of marriage among the Gangadikara Holeyas, I was told that, if a +girl reaches puberty without being married, she may live with any man +whom she likes within the caste. If he pays later on the bride price +of twelve rupees, the marriage ceremonies take place, and the issue +becomes legitimate. On the first day of these ceremonies, the bride +is taken to the house of her husband-elect. The parties of the bride +and bridegroom go, accompanied by music, to a river or tank, each with +four new earthen pots, rice, betel, and other things. The pots, which +are decorated with flowers of the areca palm, are filled with water, +and set apart in the houses of the contracting couple. This ceremonial +is known as bringing the god. At night the wrist-threads (kankanam), +made of black and white wool, with turmeric root and iron ring tied +on them, are placed round the wrists of the bride and bridegroom. On +the following day, cotton thread is passed round the necks of three +brass vessels, and also round the head of the bridegroom, who sits +before the vessels with hands folded, and betel leaves stuck between +his fingers. Married women anoint him with oil and turmeric, and he +is bathed. He is then made to stand beneath a tree, and a twig of the +jambu (Eugenia Jambolana) tree is tied to the milk-post. A similar +ceremony is performed by the bride. The bridegroom is conducted to +the marriage booth, and he and the bride exchange garlands and put +gingelly (Sesamum) and jirige (cummin) on each other's heads. The +bottu is passed round to be blessed, and tied by the bridegroom on +the bride's neck. This is followed by the pouring of milk over the +hands of the contracting couple. On the third day, the wrist-threads +are removed, and the pots thrown away. + +The Holeyas have a large number of exogamous septs, of which the +following are examples:-- + + + Ane, elephant. Hasubu, pack-sack. + Male, garland. Malige, jasmine. + Nerali, Eugenia Jambolana. Tene, Setaria italica. + Hutta, ant-hill. Chatri, umbrella. + Halu, milk. Mola, hare. + Kavane, sling. Jenu, honey. + + +It is recorded in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, that "351 out of +the entire population of 577,166 have returned gotras, the names +thereof being Harichandra, Kali, Yekke, and Karadi. In thus doing, +it is evident that they are learning to venerate themselves, like +others in admittedly higher grades of society." + +Some Holeya families are called Hale Makkalu, or old children of the +Gangadikara Vakkaligas, and have to do certain services for the latter, +such as carrying the sandals of the bridegroom, acting as messenger +in conveying news from place to place, carrying fire before corpses +to the burning-ground, and watching over the burning body. It is said +that, in the performance of these duties, the exogamous septs of the +Holeya and Vakkaliga must coincide. + +In the Census Report, 1901, Balagai, Bakuda, Begara or Byagara, +Kusa (or Uppara) Maila, and Ranivaya (belonging to a queen) are +recorded as sub-sects of the Holeyas. Of these, Balagai is a synonym, +indicating that the Holeyas belong to the right-hand section. The +Bakudas are said to resent the application of that name to them, and +call themselves Aipattukuladavaru, or the people of fifty families, +presumably from the fact that they are divided into fifty balis or +families. These balis are said to be named after deceased female +ancestors. Begara or Byagara is a synonym, applied to the Holeyas +by Kanarese Lingayats. Maila means dirt, and probably refers to the +washerman section, just as Mailari (washerman) occurs among the Malas. + +The Tulu-speaking Holeyas must not be confounded with the +Canarese-speaking Holeyas. In South Canara, Holeya is a general name +applied to the polluting classes, Nalkes, Koragas, and the three +divisions of Holeyas proper, which differ widely from each other in +some respects. These divisions are-- + + + (1) Bakuda or Mundala--A stranger, asking a woman if her husband + is at home, is expected to refer to him as her Bakuda, and + not as her Mundala. + (2) Mera or Mugayaru, which is also called Kaipuda. + (3) Mari or Marimanisaru. + + +Of these, the first two sections abstain from beef, and consequently +consider themselves superior to the Mari section. + +The Bakudas follow the aliya santana law of succession (in the female +line), and, if a man leaves any property, it goes to his nephew. They +will not touch dead cows or calves, or remove the placenta when a +cow calves. Nor will they touch leather, especially in the form of +shoes. They will not carry cots on which rice sheaves are thrashed, +chairs, etc., which have four legs, but, when ordered to do so, either +break off one leg, or add an extra leg by tying a stick to the cot +or chair. The women always wear their cloth in one piece, and are +not allowed, like other Holeyas, to have it made of two pieces. The +Bakudas will not eat food prepared or touched by Bilimaggas, Jadas, +Paravas or Nalkes. The headman is called Mukhari. The office is +hereditary, and, in some places, is, as with the Guttinaya of the +Bants, connected with his house-site. This being fixed, he should +remain at that house, or his appointment will lapse, except with the +general consent of the community to his retaining it. In some places, +the Mukhari has two assistants, called Jammana and Bondari, of whom +the latter has to distribute toddy at assemblies of the caste. On all +ceremonial occasions, the Mukhari has to be treated with great respect, +and even an individual who gets possessed by the bhutha (devil) +has to touch him with his kadasale (sword). In cases of adultery, +a purificatory ceremony, called gudi suddha, is performed. The erring +woman's relations construct seven small huts, through which she has to +pass, and they are burned down. The fact of this purificatory ceremony +taking place is usually proclaimed by the Bondari, and the saying is +that 280 people should assemble. They sprinkle water brought from a +temple or sthana (devil shrine) and cow's urine over the woman just +before she passes through the huts. A small quantity of hair from her +head, a few hairs from the eyelids, and nails from her fingers are +thrown into the huts. In some places, the delinquent has to drink a +considerable quantity of salt-water and cow-dung water. + +Her relatives have to pay a small money fine to the village deity. The +ordeal of passing through huts is also practiced by the Koragas of +South Canara. "The suggestion," Mr. R. E. Enthoven writes, "seems +to be a rapid representation of seven existences, the outcaste +regaining his (or her) status after seven generations have passed +without further transgression. The parallel suggested is the law of +Manu that seven generations are necessary to efface a lapse from the +law of endogamous marriage." + +The special bhuthas of the Bakudas are Kodababbu and Kamberlu (or +Kangilu), but Jumadi, Panjurli, and Tanimaniya are also occasionally +worshipped. For the propitiation of Kodababbu, Nalkes are engaged +to put on the disguise of this bhutha, whereas Bakudas themselves +dress up for the propitiation of Kamberlu in cocoanut leaves tied +round the head and waist. Thus disguised, they go about the streets +periodically, collecting alms from door to door. Kamberlu is supposed +to cause small-pox, cholera, and other epidemic diseases. + +On the day fixed for the betrothal ceremony, among the Bakudas, a +few people assemble at the home of the bride-elect, and the Mukharis +of both parties exchange betel or beat the palms of their hands, +and proclaim that all quarrels must cease, and the marriage is +to be celebrated. Toddy is distributed among those assembled. The +bride's party visit the parents of the bridegroom, and receive then +or subsequently a white cloth, four rupees, and three bundles of +rice. On the wedding day, those who are present seat themselves in +front of the house where the ceremony is to take place, and are given +betel to chew. A new mat is spread, and the bride and bridegroom +stand thereon. If there is a Kodababbu sthana in the vicinity, the +jewels belonging thereto are worn by the bridegroom, who also wears +a red cap, which is usually kept in the sthana, and carries in his +hand the sword (kadasale) belonging thereto. The Mukhari or Jammana +asks if the five groups of people, from Barkur, Mangalore, Shivalli, +Chithpadi, Mudanidambur, and Udayavara, are present. Five men come +forward, and announce that this is so, and say "all relationship +involving prohibited degrees may snap, and cease to exist." A tray of +rice and a lamp are placed before the contracting couple, and those +present throw rice over their heads. All then go to the toddy shop, +and have a drink. They then return to the house and partake of a meal, +at which the bridegroom and his bestman (maternal uncle's son) are +seated apart. Cooked rice is heaped up on a leaf before the bridegroom, +and five piles of fish curry are placed thereon. First the bridegroom +eats a portion thereof, and the remainder is finished off by the +bestman. The bridal couple then stand once more on the mat, and the +Mukhari joins their hands, saying "No unlawful marriage should take +place. Prohibited relationship must be avoided." He sprinkles water +from culms of Cynodon Dactylon over the united hands. + +The body of a dead Bakuda is washed with hot water, in which mango +(Mangifera indica) bark is steeped. The dead are buried. The day for +the final death ceremonies (bojja) is usually fixed by the Mukhari +or Jammana. On that day, cooked food is offered to the deceased, and +all cry "muriyo, muriyo." The son, after being shaved, and with his +face veiled by a cloth, carries cooked rice on his head to a small +hut erected for the occasion. The food is set down, and all present +throw some of it into the hut. + +The Mera or Mugayar Holeyas, like the Bakudas, abstain from eating +beef, and refuse to touch leather in any form. They have no objection +to carrying four-legged articles. Though their mother tongue is Tulu, +they seem to follow the makkala santana law of inheritance (in the male +line). Their headman is entitled Kuruneru, and he has, as the badge +of office, a cane with a silver band. The office of headman passes to +the son instead of to the nephew. Marriage is called Badathana, and +the details of the ceremony are like those of the Mari Holeyas. The +dead are buried, and the final death ceremonies (bojja or savu) are +performed on the twelfth or sixteenth day. A feast is given to some +members of the community, and cooked food offered to the deceased at +the house and near the grave. + +The Mari or Marimanisaru Holeyas are sometimes called Karadhi +by the Bakudas. Like certain Malayalam castes, the Holeyas have +distinct names for their homes according to the section. Thus, +the huts of the Mari Holeyas are called kelu, and those of the +Mera Holeyas patta. The headmen among the Mari Holeyas are called +Mulia, Boltiyadi, and Kallali. The office of headman follows in +the female line of succession. In addition to various bhuthas, such +as Panjurli and Jumadi, the Mari Holeyas have two special bhuthas, +named Kattadhe and Kanadhe, whom they regard as their ancestors. At +times of festivals, these ancestors are supposed to descend on earth, +and make their presence known by taking possession of some member +of the community. Men who are liable to be so possessed are called +Dharipuneyi, and have the privilege of taking up the sword and bell +belonging to the bhuthasthana when under possession. + +Marriage among the Mari Holeyas is called porathavu. At the betrothal +ceremony, the headmen of the contracting parties exchange betel leaves +and areca nuts. The bride-price usually consists of two bundles of +rice and a bundle of paddy (unhusked rice). On the wedding day the +bridegroom and his party go to the home of the bride, taking with +them a basket containing five seers of rice, two metal bangles, one +or two cocoanuts, a comb, and a white woman's cloth, which are shown +to the headman of the bride's party. The two headmen order betel leaf +and areca nuts to be distributed among those assembled. After a meal, +a mat is spread in front of the hut, and the bride and bridegroom stand +thereon. The bridegroom has in his hand a sword, and the bride holds +some betel leaves and areca nuts. Rice is thrown over their heads, +and presents of money are given to them. The two headmen lift up the +hands of the contracting couple, and they are joined together. The +bride is lifted up so as to be a little higher than the bridegroom, +and is taken indoors. The bridegroom follows her, but is prevented +from entering by his brother-in-law, to whom he gives betel leaves +and areca nuts. He then makes a forcible entrance into the hut. + +When a Mari Holeya girl reaches puberty, she is expected to remain +within a hut for twelve days, at the end of which time the castemen +are invited to a feast. The girl is seated on a pattern drawn on the +floor. At the four corners thereof, vessels filled with water are +placed. The girl's mother holds over her head a plantain leaf, and +four women belonging to different balis (septs) pour water thereon +from the vessels. These women and the girl then sit down to a meal, +and eat off the same leaf. + +Among the Mari Holeyas, the dead are usually buried, and the final +death ceremonies are performed on the twelfth day. A pit is dug near +the grave, into which an image of the deceased, made of rice straw, +is put. The image is set on fire by his son or nephew. The ashes are +heaped up, and a rude hut is erected round them by fixing three sticks +in the ground, and covering them with a cloth. Food is offered on a +leaf, and the dead person is asked to eat it. + +The Kusa Holeyas speak Canarese. They object to carrying articles +with four legs, unless the legs are crossed. They do not eat beef, +and will not touch leather. They consider themselves to be superior +to the other sections of Holeyas, and use as an argument that their +caste name is Uppara, and not Holeya. Why they are called Uppara +is not clear, but some say that they are the same as the Upparas +(salt workers) of Mysore, who, in South Canara, have descended in +the social scale. The hereditary occupation of the Upparas is making +salt from salt earth (ku, earth). The headman of the Kusa Holeyas +is called Buddivant. As they are disciples of a Lingayat priest at +the mutt at Kudli in Mysore, they are Saivites. Every family has to +pay the priest a fee of eight annas on the occasion of his periodical +visitations. The bhuthas specially worshipped by the Kusa Holeyas are +Masti and Halemanedeyya, but Venkataramana of Tirupati is by some +regarded as their family deity. Marriage is both infant and adult, +and widows are permitted to remarry, if they have no children. + +At Tumkur, in the Mysore Province, I came across a settlement of people +called Tigala Holeya, who do not intermarry with other Holeyas, and +have no exogamous septs or house-names. Their cranial measurements +approach more nearly to those of the dolichocephalic Tamil Paraiyans +than those of the sub-brachycephalic Holeyas; and it is possible +that they are Tamil Paraiyans, who migrated, at some distant date, +to Mysore. + + + ==================+============+===========+========= + ---- | Cephalic | Cephalic | Cephalic + | length. | breadth. | index. + ------------------+------------+-----------+--------- + | cm. | cm. | + | | | + Tamil Paraiyan | 18.6 | 13.7 | 73.6 + Tigala Holeya | 18.5 | 13.9 | 75.1 + Holeya | 17.9 | 14.1 | 79.1 + ==================+============+===========+========= + + +Holodia Gudiya.--A name for the agricultural section of the Oriya +Gudiyas. + +Holuva (holo, plough).--A synonym of Pentiya, and the name of a +section of Oriya Brahmans, who plough the land. + +Hon.--Hon, Honnu, and Honne, meaning gold, have been recorded as +gotras or exogamous septs of Kurni, Odde, and Kuruba. + +Honne (Calophyllum inophyllum or Pterocarpus Marsupium).--An exogamous +sept of Halepaik and Moger. The Halepaiks sometimes call the sept +Sura Honne. + +Honnungara (gold ring).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Huli (tiger).--An exogamous sub-sept of Kappiliyan. + +Hullu (grass).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Hunise (tamarind).--An exogamous sub-sept of Kappiliyan. + +Hutta (ant-hill).--An exogamous sept of Gangadikara Holeya. + +Huvvina (flowers).--An exogamous sept of Odde and Vakkaliga. + + + + + + + +I + + +Ichcham (date-palm: Phoenix sylvestris).--Ichcham or Ichanjanar is +recorded, in the Tanjore Manual, as a section of Shanan. The equivalent +Ichang occurs as a tree or kothu of Kondaiyankottai Maravans. + +Idacheri.--An occupational name for a section of Nayars, who make +and sell dairy produce. The word corresponds to Idaiyan in the Tamil +country. + +Idaiyan.--The Idaiyans are the great pastoral or shepherd caste of the +Tamil country, but some are landowners, and a few are in Government +employ. Those whom I examined at Coimbatore were engaged as milkmen, +shepherds, cultivators, gardeners, cart-drivers, shopkeepers, +constables, family doctors, and mendicants. + +It is recorded in the Tanjore Manual that "the Rev. Mr. Pope says that +Ideir are so-called from idei, middle, being a kind of intermediate +link between the farmers and merchants." Mr. Nelson [170] considers +this derivation to be fanciful, and thinks that "perhaps they are so +called from originally inhabiting the lands which lay midway between +the hills and the arable lands, the jungly plains, suited for pasturage +[i.e., the middle land out of the five groups of land mentioned in +Tamil works, viz., Kurinji, Palai, Mullai, Marutam, Neytal]. [171] +The class consists of several clans, but they may be broadly divided +into two sections, the one more thoroughly organised, the other +retaining most of the essential characteristics of an aboriginal +race. The first section follow the Vaishnava sect, wear the namam, +and call themselves Yadavas. Those belonging to the second section +stick to their demon worship, and make no pretensions to a descent from +the Yadava race. They daub their foreheads with the sacred cow-dung +ashes, and are regarded, apparently from this circumstance alone, +to belong to the Saiva sect." + +In the Madras Census Report, 1871, it is noted that milkmen and +cowherds appear to hold a social position of some importance, +and even Brahmans do not disdain to drink milk or curds from their +hands. Further, the Census Superintendent, 1901, writes that "the +Idaiyans take a higher social position than they would otherwise do, +owing to the tradition that Krishna was brought up by their caste, and +to the fact that they are the only purveyors of milk, ghi (clarified +butter), etc., and so are indispensable to the community. All Brahmans, +except the most orthodox, will accordingly eat butter-milk and butter +brought by them. In some places they have the privilege of breaking +the butter-pot on the Gokulashtami, or Krishna's birthday, and get +a new cloth and some money for doing it. They will eat in the houses +of Vellalas, Pallis, and Nattamans." + +The Idaiyans claim that Timma Raja, the prime minister of Krishna +Deva Raya of Vijayanagar, who executed various works in the Chingleput +district, was an Idaiyan by caste. + +The Idaiyans have returned a large number of divisions, of which the +following may be noted:-- + +Kalkatti and Pasi. The women, contrary to the usual Tamil custom, +have black beads in their tali-string. The practice is apparently +due to the influence of Telugu Brahman purohits, as various Telugu +castes have glass beads along with the bottu (marriage badge). In +like manner, the married Pandamutti Palli women wear a necklace of +black beads. According to a legend, pasi is a pebble found in rivers, +from which beads are made. A giant came to kill Krishna when he was +playing with the shepherd boys on the banks of a river. He fought +the giant with these pebbles, and killed him. + +Pal, milk. Corresponds to the Halu (milk) division of the Canarese +Kuruba shepherd caste. + +Pendukkumekki, denoting those who are subservient to their women. A +man, on marriage, joins his wife's family, and he succeeds to the +property, not of his father, but of his father-in-law. + +Siviyan or Sivala. An occupational name, meaning palanquin-bearer. + +Sangukatti, or those who tie the conch or chank shell (Turbinella +rapa). It is narrated that Krishna wanted to marry Rukmani, whose +family insisted on marrying her to Sishupalan. When the wedding was +about to take place, Krishna carried off Rukmani, and placed a bangle +made of chank shell on her wrist. + +Samban, a name of Siva. Most members of this division put on the +sacred ashes as a sectarian mark. It is said that the Yadavas were in +the habit of making offerings to Devendra, but Krishna wanted them +to worship him. With the exception of a few Yadavas and Paraiyans +who were also employed in grazing cattle, all the shepherds refused +to do so. It is stated that "in ancient times, men of the Idaiyan +caste ranked only a little above Paraiyans, and that the Idaicheri, +or Idaiyan suburb, was always situated close to the Paraicheri, +or Paraiyan's suburb, in every properly constituted village." [172] + +Pudunattu or Puthukkanattar, meaning people of the new country. The +Idaiyans claim that, when Krishna settled in Kishkindha, he peopled +it with members of their caste. + +Perun (big) Tali, and Siru (small) Tali, indicating those whose +married women wear a large or small tali. + +Panjaram or Pancharamkatti. The name is derived from the peculiar +gold ornament called panjaram or pancharam shaped like a many-rayed +sun, and having three dots on it, which is worn by widows. It is +said that in this division "widow marriage is commonly practiced, +because Krishna used to place a similar ornament round the necks of +the Idaiyan widows of whom he became enamoured, to transform them +from widows into married women, to whom pleasure was not forbidden, +and that this sub-division is the result of these amours." [173] + +Maniyakkara. Derived from mani, a bell, such as is tied round the +necks of cattle, sheep and goats. + +Kalla. Most numerous in the area inhabited by the Kallan +caste. Possibly an offshoot of this caste, composed of those who +have taken to the occupation of shepherds. Like the Kallans, this +sub-division has exogamous septs or kilais, e.g., Deva (god), Vendhan +(king). + +Sholia. Territorial name denoting inhabitants of the Chola country. + +Anaikombu, or elephant tusk, which was the weapon used by Krishna +and the Yadavas to kill the giant Sakatasura. + +Karutthakadu, black cotton country. A sub-division found mostly in +Madura and Tinnevelly, where there is a considerable tract of black +cotton soil. + +The Perumal Madukkarans or Perumal Erudukkarans (see Gangeddu), who +travel about the country exhibiting performing bulls, are said to +belong to the Pu (flower) Idaiyan section of the Idaiyan caste. This +is so named because the primary occupation thereof was, and in some +places still is, making garlands for temples. + +In the Gazetteer of the Madura district, it is recorded that "Podunattu +(Pudunattu?) Idaiyans have a tradition that they originally belonged +to Tinnevelly, but fled to this district secretly one night in a body +in the time of Tirumala Nayakkan, because the local chief oppressed +them. Tirumala welcomed them, and put them under the care of the +Kallan headman Pinnai Devan, decreeing that, to ensure that this +gentleman and his successors faithfully observed the charge, they +should always be appointed by an Idaiyan. That condition is observed +to this day. In this sub-division a man has the same right to marry +his paternal aunt's daughter as is possessed by the Kallans. But, +if the woman's age is much greater than the boy's, she is usually +married instead to his cousin, or some one else on that side of the +family. A Brahman officiates at weddings, and the sacred fire is used, +but the bridegroom's sister ties the tali (marriage badge). Divorce +and the remarriage of widows are prohibited. The dead, except +infants, are burnt. Caste affairs are settled by a headman called +the Nattanmaikaran, who is assisted by an accountant and a peon. All +three are elected. The headman has the management of the caste fund, +which is utilised in the celebration of festivals on certain days in +some of the larger temples of the district. Among these Podunattus, +an uncommon rule of inheritance is in force. A woman who has no male +issue at the time of her husband's death has to return his property to +his brother, father, or maternal uncle, but is allotted maintenance, +the amount of which is fixed by a caste panchayat (council). Among the +Valasu and Pendukkumekki sub-divisions, another odd form of maintenance +subsists. A man's property descends to his sons-in-law, who live with +him, and not to his sons. The sons merely get maintenance until they +are married." + +In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Pondan or Pogandan is recorded as +a sub-caste of Idaiyans, who are palanquin-bearers to the Zamorin +of Calicut. In this connection, it is noted by Mr. K. Kannan Nayar +[174] that "among the Konar (cowherds) of Poondurai near Erode (in the +Coimbatore district), who, according to tradition, originally belonged +to the same tribe as the Gopas living in the southern part of Kerala, +and now forming a section of the Nayars, the former matrimonial +customs were exactly the same as those of the Nayars. They, too, +celebrated tali-kettu kalyanam, and, like the Nayars, did not make +it binding on the bride and bridegroom of the ceremony to live as +husband and wife. They have now, however, abandoned the custom, +and have made the tying of the tali the actual marriage ceremony." + +The typical panchayat (village council) system exists among the +Idaiyans, and the only distinguishing feature is the existence of a +headman, called Kithari or Kilari, whose business it is to look after +the sheep of the village, to arrange for penning them in the fields. In +some places the headman is called Ambalakkaran. In bygone days, +those who were convicted of adultery were tied to a post, and beaten. + +In some places, when a girl reaches puberty, her maternal uncle, or +his sons, build a hut with green cocoanut leaves, which she occupies +for sixteen days, when purificatory ceremonies are performed. + +The marriage ceremonies vary according to locality, and the following +details of one form therefore, as carried out at Coimbatore, may be +cited. When a marriage between two persons is contemplated, a red and +white flower, tied up in separate betel leaves, are thrown before the +idol at a temple. A little child is told to pick up one of the leaves, +and, if she selects the one containing the white flower, the omens are +considered auspicious, and the marriage will be arranged. On the day +of the betrothal, the future bridegroom's father and other relations +go to the girl's house with presents of a new cloth, fruits, and +ornaments. The bride price (pariyam) is paid, and betel exchanged. The +bridegroom-elect goes to the girl's cousins (maternal uncle's sons), +who have a right to marry her, and presents them with four annas and +betel. The acceptance of these is a sign that they consent to the +marriage. On the marriage day, the bridegroom plants the milk-post, +after it has been blessed by a Brahman purohit, and is shaved by a +barber. The bride and her female relations fetch some earth, and a +platform is made out of it in the marriage pandal (booth). The Brahman +makes fire (homam), and places a cowdung Pillayar (Ganesa) in the +pandal. The bride then husks some rice therein. The relations of the +bride and bridegroom fetch from the potter's house seven pots called +adukupanai, two large pots, called arasanipanai, and seven earthen +trays, and place them in front of the platform. The pots are filled +with water, and a small bit of gold is placed in each. The bridegroom +goes to a Pillayar shrine, and, on his return, the bride's brother +washes his feet, and puts rings on his second toes. The kankanams +(wrist-threads) are tied on the wrists of the contracting couple, +and the bridegroom takes his seat within the pandal, to which the +bride is carried in the arms of one of her maternal uncles, while +another carries a torch light placed on a mortar. The bride takes her +seat by the side of the bridegroom, and the light is set in front +of them. The tali is taken round to be blessed by those assembled, +and handed to the bridegroom, who ties it on the bride's neck. The +couple then put a little earth in each of the seven trays, and sow +therein nine kinds of grain. Two vessels, containing milk and whey, +are placed before them, and the relations pour a little thereof +over their heads. The right hand of the bridegroom is placed on the +left hand of the bride, and their hands are tied together by one of +the bride's maternal uncle's sons. The bride is then carried into +the house in the arms of an elder brother of the bridegroom. At the +threshold she is stopped by the maternal uncle's sons, who may beat +the man who is carrying her. The bridegroom pays them each four annas, +and he and the bride are allowed to enter the house. On the night of +the wedding day, they are shut up in a room. During the following +days the pots are worshipped. On the seventh day, the ends of the +cloths of the newly married couple are tied together, and they bathe +in turmeric water. The wrist-threads are removed, they rub oil over +each other's heads, and bathe in a tank. The bride serves food to the +bridegroom, and their relations eat off the same leaf, to indicate +the union between the two families. Into one of the large pots a gold +and silver ring, and into the other an iron style and piece of palm +leaf are dropped. The couple perform the pot-searching ceremony, +and whichever gets hold of the gold ring or style is regarded as +the more clever of the two. The bridegroom places his right foot, +and the bride her left foot on a grindstone, and they look at the +star Arundathi. The stone represents Ahalliya, the wife of the sage +Gautama, who was cursed by her husband for her misconduct with Indra, +and turned into a stone, whereas Arundathi was the wife of Vasishta and +a model of chastity. The newly married couple, by placing their feet +on the stone, indicate their intention of checking unchaste desires, +and by looking at Arundathi, of remaining faithful to each other. The +bride decorates a small grindstone with a cloth and ornaments, and +takes it round to all her relations who are present, and who bless +her with a hope that she will have many children. + +In the Marava country, a grown-up Idaiyan girl is sometimes married +to a boy of ten or twelve. Among some Idaiyans, it is customary for +the tali to be tied by the sister of the bridegroom, and not by the +bridegroom, who must not be present when it is done. + +It is said that, in some places, like the Gollas, when an Idaiyan +bridegroom sets out for the house of his bride, he is seized +by his companions, who will not release him till he has paid a +piece of gold. In the Madura Manual it is noted that "at an Idaiyan +wedding, on the third day, when the favourite amusement of sprinkling +turmeric-water over the guests is concluded, the whole party betake +themselves to the village tank (pond). A friend of the bridegroom +brings a hoe and a basket, and the young husband fills three baskets +with earth from the bottom of the tank, while the wife takes them +away, and throws the earth behind. They then say 'We have dug a ditch +for charity.' This practice may probably be explained by remembering +that, in arid districts, where the Idaiyans often tend their cattle, +the tank is of the greatest importance." + +It is said that the Siviyan and Pendukkumekki sub-divisions take low +rank, as the remarriage of widows is freely permitted among them. In +the Ramnad territory of the Madura district, the marriage of widows +is attributed to compulsion by a Zamindar. According to the story, +the Zamindar asked an Idaiyan whether he would marry a widow. The +reply was that widows are aruthukattadhavar, i.e., women who will +not tie the tali string again, after snapping it (on the husband's +decease). This was considered impertinent by the Zamindar, as marriage +of widows was common among the Maravars. To compel the Idaiyans to +resort to widow marriage, he took advantage of the ambiguity of the +word aruthukattadhavar, which would also mean those who do not tie +up in a bundle after cutting or reaping. At the time of the harvest +season, the Zamindar sent his servants to the Idaiyans with orders +that they were not to tie up the rice plants in sheaves. This led +to severe monetary loss, and the Idaiyans consented reluctantly to +widow remarriage. + +On the death of a married Idaiyan, at Coimbatore, the corpse is +placed in a seated posture. A measure of rice, a lighted lamp, and a +cocoanut are placed near it, and burning fire-wood is laid at the door +of the house. When the relations and friends have arrived, the body is +removed from the house, and placed in a pandal, supported behind by a +mortar. The male relations put on the sacred thread, and each brings +a pot of water from a tank. The widow rubs oil over the head of the +corpse, and some one, placing a little oil in the hands thereof, rubs +it over her head. On the way to the burning-ground, a barber carries +a fire-brand and a pot, and a washerman carries the mat, cloths, and +other articles used by the deceased. When the idukadu, a spot made to +represent the shrine of Arichandra who is in charge of the burial or +burning ground, is reached, the polluted articles are thrown away, +and the bier is placed on the ground. A Paraiyan makes a cross-mark +at the four corners of the bier, and the son, who is chief mourner, +places a small coin on three of the marks, leaving out the one at +the north-east corner. The Paraiyan takes these coins and tears a +bit of cloth from the winding-sheet, which is sent to the widow. At +the burning-ground, the relations place rice, water, and small coins +in the mouth of the corpse. The coins are the perquisite of the +Paraiyan. The son, who is clean-shaved, carries a pot of water on his +shoulder thrice round the pyre, and, at each turn, the barber makes a +hole in it with a chank shell, when the head is reached. Finally the +pot is broken near the head. The sacred threads are thrown by those +who wear them on the pyre, and the son sets fire to it, and goes away +without looking back. The widow meanwhile has broken her tali string, +and thrown it into a vessel of milk, which is set on the spot where the +deceased breathed his last. The son, on his return home after bathing, +steps across a pestle placed at the threshold. Arathi (wave offering) +is performed, and he worships a lighted lamp within the house. On +the following day, rice and Sesbania grandiflora are cooked, and +served to the relatives by the widow's brothers. Next day, milk, ghi +(clarified butter), curds, tender cocoanuts, nine kinds of grain, +water, and other articles required for worship, are taken to the +burning-ground. The smouldering ashes are extinguished with water, +and the fragments of the bones are collected, and placed on a leaf. A +miniature plough is made, and the spot on which the body was burned +is ploughed, and the nine kinds of grain are sown. On his return +home, a turban is placed on the head of the son who acted as chief +mourner by his maternal uncles. A new cloth is folded, and on it a +betel leaf is placed, which is worshipped for sixteen days. On the +sixteenth day, a Brahman makes a human figure with holy grass, which +has to be worshipped by the chief mourner not less than twenty-five +times, and he must bathe between each act of worship. The bones are +then carried in a new earthen pot, and floated on a stream. At night, +food is cooked, and, with a new cloth, worshipped. Rice is cooked at +the door. A cock is tied to a sacrificial post, called kazhukumaram, +set up outside the house, to which the rice is offered. One end +of a thread is tied to the post, and the other end to a new cloth, +which is worshipped inside the house. The thread is watched till it +shakes, and then broken. The door is closed, and the cock is stuck +on the pointed tip of the post, and killed. An empty car is carried +in procession through the streets, and alms are given to beggars. A +widow should remain gosha (in seclusion) for twelve months after her +husband's death. When a grown-up, but unmarried male or female dies, +a human figure, made out of holy grass, is married to the corpse, +and some of the marriage rites are performed. + +The Idaiyans are Vaishnavites, and the more civilised among them +are branded like Vaishnava Brahmans. Saturday is considered a holy +day. Their most important festival is Krishna Jayanti, or Sri Jayanti, +in honour of Krishna's birthday. They show special reverence for the +vessels used in dairy operations. + +The proverb that the sense of an Idaiyan is on the back of his neck, +for it was there that he received the blows, refers to "the story +of the shepherd entering the gate of his house with a crook placed +horizontally on his shoulders, and finding himself unable to get in, +and his being made able to do so by a couple of blows on his back, +and the removal of the crook at the same time. Another proverb is +that there is neither an Andi among Idaiyans, nor a Tadan among the +potters. The Andi is always a Saivite beggar, and, the Idaiyans being +always Vaishnavites, they can never have in their midst a beggar of +the Saivite sect, or vice versâ. Being extremely stupid, whenever +any dispute arises among them, they can never come to any definite +settlement, or, as the proverb says, the disputes between Idaiyans +are never easily settled. Keeping and rearing cattle, grazing and +milking them, and living thereby, are their allotted task in life, +and so they are never good agriculturists. This defect is alluded to +in the proverb that the field watered by the Idaiyan, or by a member +of the Palli caste, must ever remain a waste." [175] + +Other proverbs, quoted by the Rev. H. Jensen, [176] are as follows:-- + + + The shepherd can get some fool to serve him. + + Like a shepherd who would not give anything, but showed an ewe + big with young. + + The shepherd destroyed half, and the fool half. + + +In 1904, an elementary school for Idaiyans, called the Yadava school, +was established at Madura. + +The usual title of the Idaiyans is Konan or Kon meaning King, but, +in the Census Report, 1901, the titles Pillai and Kariyalan are also +recorded. In the Census Report, 1891, Idaiya is given as a sub-division +of Vakkaiga; and, in the Salem Manual, Idaiyan appears as a synonym +of Shanan. + +For the following note on the Idaiyans who have settled in Travancore, +I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. They consist of two +well-defined sections, namely, the Tamil-speaking Idaiyans, who are +but recent immigrants, and largely found in Tevala, Agastisvaram +and Shenkotta, and the Malayalam-speaking branch, who are early +settlers residing chiefly in Kartikapalli and other taluks of Central +Travancore. The Idaiyans are not largely found in Travancore, because +a branch of the indigenous Sudra community, the Idacheri Nayars, are +engaged in the same occupation. They are divided into two classes, +viz., Kangayan (shepherds) and Puvandans, who neither interdine nor +intermarry. The latter appear to be divided into four classes, Pasi, +Gopalan, Nambi, and Valayitayan. Puvandan is another form of the +word Pondan, which means a palanquin-bearer. It is well known that, +in the Tamil country, this was one of the duties of the Idaiyans, +as is evident from a sub-division called Sivi or Siviyar (palanquin) +existing among them. In the early settlement records of Travancore, +they are referred to as Sibis. Many fancy, though incorrectly, that +the word means one who collects flowers. As the Sibis were experts in +palanquin-bearing, they must have been brought from the Tamil country +to serve the mediæval Rajas. At the present day, besides pursuing their +traditional occupation, they also engage in agriculture and trade. The +position of the Puvandans in society is not low. They are entitled +to the services of the Brahman's washerman and barber, and they may +enter temples, and advance as far as the place to which Nayars go, +except in some parts of Central Travancore. They are flesh-eaters, and +the drinking of intoxicating liquor is not prohibited. On ceremonial +occasions, women wear the Tamil Idaiya dress, while at other times +they adopt the attire of Nayar women. Their ornaments are foreign, +and clearly indicate that they are a Tamil caste. The marriage badge +is called sankhu tali, and a small conch-shaped ornament forms its +most conspicuous feature. Besides the ordinary Hindu deities, they +worship Matam, Yakshi, and Maruta. At weddings, the Idaiyan bridegroom +holds a sword in his left hand, while he takes hold of the bride by +the right hand. Funeral ceremonies are supervised by a barber, who +officiates as priest. Corpses are either burnt or buried. Though they +appear to observe only eleven days' death pollution, they cannot enter +a temple until the expiry of sixteen days. An anniversary ceremony in +memory of the deceased is performed on the new-moon day in the month of +Karkatakam (July-August), and, on this day, most members of the caste +go to Varkalai to perform the rite. Many purely Tamil names are still +preserved in the caste, such as Tambi, Chami, Bhagavati, and Chattu. + +Idakottu (those who break).--An exogamous sept of Oddes, who, during +their work as navvies, break stones. + +Idangai (left-hand).--Recorded, at times of census, as a division +of Deva-dasis, who do service for castes belonging to the left-hand +section. + +Idiga.--The Telugu toddy-drawers, whose hereditary occupation is the +extraction of the juice of the date and palmyra palms, go by different +names in different localities. Those, for example, who live in the +Salem, North Arcot and Chingleput districts, are called Idigas or +Indras. In the Northern Circars and the Nellore district, they are +known as Gamallas or Gamandlas, and in the Cuddapah district as Asilis. + +It is recorded, in the North Arcot Manual, that "Idiga is one of the +toddy-drawing castes of the Telugu country, the name being derived +from Telugu idchu, to draw. The Idigas are supposed to be a branch +of the Balija tribe, separated on account of their occupation. They +are chiefly Vaishnavites, having Satanis as their priests. They are +divided into two classes, the Dandu (army) [177] Idigas and the Balija +Idigas, of whom the former used originally to distil arrack, but, +now that the manufacture is a monopoly, they usually sell it. The +Balija Idigas extract toddy, the juice of the palm tree. They differ +from the Shanans in some of their professional customs, for, while +the Tamilians in climbing tie their knives behind them, the Telugus +tie them on the right thigh. Tamilian drawers extract the juice from +palmyras and cocoanuts, but rarely from the date, and the Telugus from +the palmyras and dates, but never from cocoanuts. The chief object +of their worship is Yellamma, the deity who presides over toddy and +liquor. On every Sunday, the pots containing liquor are decorated +with flowers, saffron, etc., and offerings are made to them." + +In the Madras Census Report, 1901, it is stated that "it is said that +the Idigas are the descendants of Balijas from Rajahmundry in Godavari +district, and that their occupation separated them into a distinct +caste. They are divided into two endogamous sections called either +Dandu and Palli, or Patha (old) and Kotta (new). The headman of the +caste is called Gaudu. They employ Brahmans as purohits for their +ceremonies, and these Brahmans are received on terms of equality by +other Brahmans. They bury their dead, and observe pollution for twelve +days, during which they abstain from eating flesh. The consumption +of alcohol is strictly prohibited, and is severely punished by the +headman of the caste. They eat with all Balijas, except the Gazulu +section. Their titles are Aiya, Appa, and Gaudu." + +It is noted by Mr. F. Fawcett that "in the northern districts, among +the Telugu population, the toddy-drawers use a ladder about eight +or nine feet in length, which is placed against the tree, to avoid +climbing a third or fourth of it. While in the act of climbing up or +down, they make use of a wide band, which is passed round the body +at the small of the back, and round the tree. This band is easily +fastened with a toggle and eye. The back is protected by a piece of +thick soft leather. It gives great assistance in climbing, which it +makes easy. All over the southernmost portion of the peninsula, among +the Shanans and Tiyans, the ladder and waist-band are unknown. They +climb up and down with their hands and arms, using only a soft grummel +of coir (cocoanut fibre) to keep the feet near together." + +The Idigas claim to be descended from Vyasa, the traditional compiler +of the Mahabharata. In a note by Mr. F. R. Hemingway on the Idigas of +the Godavari district, they are said to worship a deity, to whom they +annually offer fowls on New Year's day, and make daily offerings of +a few drops of toddy from the first pot taken from the tree. In this +district they are commonly called Chetti. + +The insigne of the Idigas, as recorded at Conjeeveram, is a +ladder. [178] + +Idiya (pounder).--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as +a division of Konkani Sudras. The Idiyans prepare rice in a special +manner. Paddy is soaked in water, and roasted over a fire. While +hot, it is placed in a mortar, and pounded with a pestle. This rice +is called avil, which is said to be largely used as a delicacy in +Travancore, and to be employed in certain religious ceremonies. + +The Idiyans are stated to have left their native land near Cochin, +and settled in Travancore at the invitation of a former sovereign. On +arrival in the land of their adoption, they were given, free of tax, +cocoanut gardens and rice land. In return, they were required to +supply, free of charge, the palace of the Maharajah and the temple +of Sri Padmanabhaswami at Trivandrum with as much beaten rice (avil) +as might be required from time to time. + +Iga (fly).--An exogamous sept of Mutracha. The equivalent Igala occurs +as an exogamous sept of Yanadi. + +Ilai (leaf).--Ilai or Ele has been recorded as a sub-division of +Tigalas and Toreyas who cultivate the betel vine (Piper betle). Elai +Vaniyan occurs as a synonym of Senaikkudaiyans, who are betel leaf +sellers in Tinnevelly. + +Ilaiyattakudi.--A sub-division of Nattukottai Chetti. + +Ilakutiyan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Ilamagan.--The Ilamagans are described by Mr. Francis [179] as "a +cultivating caste found chiefly in the Zamindari taluk of Tiruppattur +in Madura. The word literally means a young man, but the young is +interpreted by other castes in the sense of inferior. One says that it +is made up of the sons of Vallamban females and Vellala males, another +that it is a mixture of outcasted Valaiyans, Kallans and Maravans, and +a third that it is descended from illegitimate children of the Vellalas +and Pallis. Like the Kallans and Valaiyans, the members of the caste +stretch the lobes of their ears, and leave their heads unshaven. The +caste is divided into two or three endogamous sections of territorial +origin. They do not employ Brahmans as purohits; their widows may marry +again; their dead are usually buried; and they will eat pork, mutton, +fowls, and fish. They are thus not high in the social scale, and are, +in fact, about on a par with the Kallans. The headmen of the caste are +called Ambalam." It is suggested, in the Census Report, 1891, that, +from the fact that Ilamagan appears as a sub-division of the Maravans, +it may perhaps be inferred that the two castes are closely allied. + +Ilampi.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Ilayatu.--See Elayad. + +Illa (of a house).--An exogamous sept of Yanadi. + +Illam.--Defined by Mr. Wigram [180] as meaning the house of an ordinary +Nambudri Brahman. It is recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, +1901, as a sub-division of Nayar. The name Illam Vellala has been +assumed by some Panikkans in the Tamil country, whose exogamous septs +are called Illam. In Travancore, Ilakkar or Illathu, meaning those +attached to Brahman houses, is said to be an occupational sub-division +of Nayars. Ilakkar further occurs as an exogamous sept of Mala Arayans, +known as the Three Thousand. + +Illuvellani.--The name, derived from illu, house, and vellani, those +who do not go out, of a sub-division of Kammas, whose wives are kept +gosha (in seclusion). + +Inaka Mukku Bhatrazu.--Beggars attached to Padma Sales. + +Inangan.--See Enangan. + +Ina Pulaya.--A sub-division of Pulayans of Travancore. + +Indla (house).--An exogamous sept of Chenchu and Mutracha. + +Indra.--See Idiga. + +Inichi (squirrel).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Inravar.--A Tamil form of Indra. + +Ippi (Bassia longifolia: mahua).--An exogamous sept of Panta +Reddi. Members of the Ippala gotra of the Besthas may not touch or +use the ippa (or ippi) tree. + +Iranderudhu (two bullocks).--A sub-division of Vaniyans, who use two +bullocks for their oil-mills. + +Irani (earthen vessel used at marriages).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Irani.--A territorial name, meaning Persian, of the Shiah section +of the Moghal tribe of Muhammadans. The Iranis or Beluchis are +described by Mr. Paupa Rao Naidu [181] as a troublesome nomad tribe +"committing crime all over India openly from the houses and shops +of villages and towns, mostly in broad daylight, with impunity, and +escaping punishment except in rare cases. Their ostensible profession +is merchandise, dealing in the following articles:--ponies, knives, +scissors, padlocks, false stones, false pearls, trinkets of several +kinds, toys, beads, quicksilver, and false coins of different kinds. + +Their camp generally consists of a few small tents, a few ponies, +pack saddles to secure their culinary utensils, their dirty clothes, +the leather or gunny bags containing their articles of merchandise; +a few fighting cocks, and cages of birds. They are very fond of cock +fighting, even on wagers of 10 to 50 rupees on each. They train these +cocks specially brought up to fight." For information concerning the +criminal methods of the Iranis, I would refer the reader to Mr. Paupa +Rao Naidu's account thereof. + +Iranyavarma.--The name of one of the early Pallava kings, returned +at times of census as a caste name by some wealthy Pallis, who also +gave themselves the title of Solakanar, or descendants of Chola Kings. + +Irattai Sekkan.--A sub-division of Vaniyans, who use two bullocks +for their oil-mills. + +Iraya.--A name for Cherumans, in Malabar, who are permitted to come +as far as the eaves (ira) of their employers' houses. + +Irchakkollan (timber sawyer).--A synonym, in Travancore, of Tacchan +(carpenter) Kammalan. + +Irkuli.--Irkuli or Irangolli Vellala, said to mean Vellalas who killed +dampness, is a name assumed by some Vannans. + +Irpina (comb).--An exogamous sept of Kamma. + +Irulas of the Nilgiris. In the Kotagiri bazaar, which is an excellent +hunting-ground for the anthropologist, may be seen gathered together +on market-day Kotas, Badagas, Kanarese, Irulas, Kurumbas, and an +occasional Toda from the Kodanad mand. A tribal photograph was taken +there, with the result that a deputation subsequently waited on me +with a petition to the effect that "We, the undersigned, beg to submit +that your honour made photos of us, and has paid us nothing. We, +therefore, beg you to do this common act of justice." The deputation +was made happy with a pourboire. + +In my hunt after Irulas, which ended in an attack of malarial +fever, it was necessary to invoke the assistance and proverbial +hospitality of various planters. On one occasion news reached me +that a gang of Irulas, collected for my benefit under a promise +of substantial remuneration, had arrived at a planter's bungalow, +whither I proceeded. The party included a man who had been "wanted" +for some time in connection with the shooting of an elephant on +forbidden ground. He, suspecting me of base designs, refused to be +measured, on the plea that he was afraid the height-measuring standard +was the gallows. Nor would he let me take his photograph, fearing +(though he had never heard of Bertillonage) lest it should be used +for the purpose of criminal identification. Unhappily a mischievous +rumour had been circulated that I had in my train a wizard Kurumba, +who would bewitch the Irulas, in order that I might abduct them +(for what purpose was not stated). + +As the Badagas are the fairest, so the Irulas are the darkest-skinned +of the Nilgiri tribes, on some of whom, as has been said, charcoal +would leave a white mark. The name Irula, in fact, means darkness or +blackness (irul), whether in reference to the dark jungles in which the +Irulas, who have not become domesticated by working as contractors or +coolies on planters' estates, dwell, or to the darkness of their skin, +is doubtful. Though the typical Irula is dark-skinned and platyrhine, +I have noted some who, as the result of contact metamorphosis, +possessed skins of markedly paler hue, and leptorhine noses. + +The language of the Irulas is a corrupt form of Tamil. In their +religion they are worshippers of Vishnu under the name of Rangasvami, +to whom they do puja (worship) at their own rude shrines, or at the +Hindu temple at Karaimadai, where Brahman priests officiate. "An +Irula pujari," Breeks writes, [182] "lives near the Irula temples, +and rings a bell when he performs puja to the gods. He wears the Vishnu +mark on his forehead. His office is hereditary, and he is remunerated +by offerings of fruit and milk from Irula worshippers. Each Irula +village pays about two annas to the pujari about May or June. They say +that there is a temple at Kallampalla in the Sattiyamangalam taluk, +north of Rangasvami's peak. This is a Siva temple, at which sheep +are sacrificed. The pujari wears the Siva mark. They don't know the +difference between Siva and Vishnu. At Kallampalla temple is a thatched +building, containing a stone called Mariamma, the well-known goddess +of small-pox, worshipped in this capacity by the Irulas. A sheep is +led to this temple, and those who offer the sacrifice sprinkle water +over it, and cut its throat. The pujari sits by, but takes no part +in the ceremony. The body is cut up, and distributed among the Irulas +present, including the pujari." + +In connection with the shrine on Rangasvami peak, the following note +is recorded in the Gazetteer of the Nilgiris. "It is the most sacred +hill on all the plateau. Hindu legend says that the god Rangasvami +used to live at Karaimadai on the plains between Mettupalaiyam and +Coimbatore, but quarrelled with his wife, and so came and lived here +alone. In proof of the story, two footprints on the rock not far +from Arakod village below the peak are pointed out. This, however, +is probably an invention designed to save the hill folk the toilsome +journey to Rangasvami's car festival at Karaimadai, which used once +to be considered incumbent upon them. In some places, the Badagas +and Kotas have gone even further, and established Rangasvami Bettus +of their own, handy for their own particular villages. On the real +Rangasvami peak are two rude walled enclosures sacred to the god +Ranga and his consort, and within these are votive offerings (chiefly +iron lamps and the notched sticks used as weighing machines), and two +stones to represent the deities. The hereditary pujari is an Irula, +and, on the day fixed by the Badagas for the annual feast, he arrives +from his hamlet near Nandipuram, bathes in a pool below the summit, +and marches to the top shouting 'Govinda! Govinda!' The cry is taken +up with wild enthusiasm by all those present, and the whole crowd, +which includes Badagas, Irulas, and Kurumbas, surrounds the enclosures, +while the Irula priest invokes the deities by blowing his conch and +beating his drum, and pours oblations over, and decorates with flowers, +the two stones which represent them. That night, two stone basins on +the summit are filled with ghee and lighted, and the glare is visible +for miles around. The ceremonies close with prayers for good rain and +fruitfulness among the flocks and herds, a wild dance by the Irula, +and the boiling (called pongal, the same word as pongal the Tamil +agricultural feast) of much rice in milk. About a mile from Arakod +is an overhanging rock called the kodai-kal or umbrella stone, under +which is found a whitish clay. This clay is used by the Irulas for +making the Vaishnava marks on their foreheads at this festival." + +The following account of an Irula temple festival is given by +Harkness. [183] "The hair of the men, as well as of the women and +children, was bound up in a fantastic manner with wreaths of plaited +straw. Their necks, ears, and ankles were decorated with ornaments +formed of the same material, and they carried little dried gourds, +in which nuts or small stones had been inserted. They rattled them as +they moved, and, with the rustling of their rural ornaments, gave a +sort of rhythm to their motion. The dance was performed in front of +a little thatched shed, which, we learnt, was their temple. When it +was concluded, they commenced a sacrifice to their deity, or rather +deities, of a he-goat and three cocks. This was done by cutting the +throats of the victims, and throwing them down at the feet of the idol, +the whole assembly at the same time prostrating themselves. Within the +temple there was a winnow, or fan, which they called Mahri--evidently +the emblem of Ceres; and at a short distance, in front of the former, +and some paces in advance one of the other, were two rude stones, +which they call, the one Moshani, the other Konadi Mari, but which +are subordinate to the fan occupying the interior of the temple." + +A village near a coffee estate, which I inspected, was, at the time +of my visit, in the possession of pariah dogs and nude children, +the elder children and adults being away at work. The village was +protected against nocturnal feline and other feral marauders by +a rude fence, and consisted of rows of single-storied huts, with +verandah in front, made of split bamboo and thatched, detached huts, +an abundance of fowl-houses, and cucurbitaceous plants twining up rough +stages. Surrounding the village were a dense grove of plantain trees, +castor-oil bushes, and cattle pens. + +When not engaged at work on estates or in the forest, the Irulas +cultivate, for their own consumption, ragi (Eleusine Coracana), +samai (Panicum miliare), tenai (Setaria italica), tovarai (Cajanus +indicus), maize, plantains, etc. They also cultivate limes, oranges, +jak fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia), etc. They, like the Kotas, will +not attend to cultivation on Saturday or Monday. At the season of +sowing, Badagas bring cocoanuts, plantains, milk and ghi (clarified +butter), and give them to the Irulas, who, after offering them before +their deity, return them to the Badagas. + +"The Irulas," a recent writer observes, "generally possess a small +plot of ground near their villages, which they assiduously cultivate +with grain, although they depend more upon the wages earned by +working on estates. Some of them are splendid cattle-men, that is, +in looking after the cattle possessed by some enterprising planter, +who would add the sale of dairy produce to the nowadays pitiable +profit of coffee planting. The Irula women are as useful as the men +in weeding, and all estate work. In fact, planters find both men and +women far more industrious and reliable than the Tamil coolies." + +"By the sale of the produce of the forests," Harkness writes, "such +as honey and bees wax, or the fruit of their gardens, the Irulas are +enabled to buy grain for their immediate sustenance, and for seed. But, +as they never pay any attention to the land after it is sown, or indeed +to its preparation further than by partially clearing it of the jungle, +and turning it up with the hoe; or, what is more common, scratching it +into furrows with a stick, and scattering the grain indiscriminately, +their crops are, of course, stunted and meagre. When the corn is ripe, +if at any distance from the village, the family to whom the patch or +field belongs will remove to it, and, constructing temporary dwellings, +remain there so long as the grain lasts. Each morning they pluck as +much as they think they may require for the use of that day, kindle +a fire upon the nearest large stone or fragment of rock, and, when it +is well heated, brush away the embers, and scatter the grain upon it, +which, soon becoming parched and dry, is readily reduced to meal, +which is made into cakes. The stone is now heated a second time, and +the cakes are put on it to bake. Or, where they have met with a stone +which has a little concavity, they will, after heating it, fill the +hollow with water, and, with the meal, form a sort of porridge. In this +way the whole family, their friends, and neighbours, will live till the +grain has been consumed. The whole period is one of merry-making. They +celebrate Mahri, and invite all who may be passing by to join in the +festivities. These families will, in return, be invited to live on +the fields of their neighbours. Many of them live for the remainder +of the year on a kind of yam, which grows wild, and is called Erula +root. To the use of this they accustom their children from infancy." + +Some Irulas now work for the Forest Department, which allows them +to live on the borders of the forest, granting them sites free, +and other concessions. Among the minor forest produce, which they +collect, are myrabolams, bees-wax, honey, vembadam bark (Ventilago +Madraspatana), avaram bark (Cassia auriculata), deer's horns, +tamarinds, gum, soapnuts, and sheekoy (Acacia concinna). The forests +have been divided into blocks, and a certain place within each block +has been selected for the forest depot. To this place the collecting +agents--mostly Sholagars and Irulas--bring the produce, and then it +is sorted, and paid for by special supervisors. [184] The collection +of honey is a dangerous occupation. A man, with a torch in his hand, +and a number of bamboo tubes suspended from his shoulders, descends +by means of ropes or creepers to the vicinity of the comb. The sight +of the torch drives away the bees, and he proceeds to fill the bamboos +with the comb, and then ascends to the top of the rock. [185] + +The Irulas will not (so they say) eat the flesh of buffaloes or cattle, +but will eat sheep and goat, field-rats, fowls, deer, pig (which they +shoot), hares (which they snare with skilfully made nets), jungle-fowl, +pigeons, and quail (which they knock over with stones). + +They informed Mr. Harkness that, "they have no marriage contract, the +sexes cohabiting almost indiscriminately; the option of remaining in +union, or of separating, resting principally with the female. Some +among them, the favourites of fortune, who can afford to spend +four or five rupees on festivities, will celebrate their union by +giving a feast to all their friends and neighbours; and, inviting +the Kurumbars to attend with their pipe and tabor, spend the night +in dance and merriment. This, however, is a rare occurrence." The +marriage ceremony, as described to me, is a very simple affair. A +feast is held, at which a sheep is killed, and the guests make a +present of a few annas to the bridegroom, who ties up the money in +a cloth, and, going to the bride's hut, conducts her to her future +home. Widows are permitted to marry again. + +When an Irula dies, two Kurumbas come to the village, and one shaves +the head of the other. The shorn man is fed, and presented with +a cloth, which he wraps round his head. This quaint ceremonial is +supposed, in some way, to bring good luck to the departed. Outside the +house of the deceased, in which the corpse is kept till the time of the +funeral, men and women dance to the music of the Irula band. The dead +are buried in a sitting posture, with the legs crossed tailorwise. Each +village has its own burial-ground. A circular pit is dug, from the +lower end of which a chamber is excavated, in which the corpse, clad +in its own clothes, jewelry, and a new cloth, is placed with a lamp +and grain. The pit is then filled in, and the position of the grave +marked by a stone. On the third day a sheep is said to be killed, +and a feast held. The following description of an annual ceremony +was given to me. A lamp and oil are purchased, and rice is cooked in +the village. They are then taken to the shrine at the burial-ground, +offered up on stones, on which some of the oil is poured, and puja +is done. At the shrine, a pujari, with three white marks on the +forehead, officiates. Like the Badaga Devadari, the Irula pujari at +times becomes inspired by the god. + +Writing concerning the Kurumbas and Irulas, Mr. Walhouse says [186] +that "after every death among them, they bring a long water-worn stone +(devva kotta kallu), and put it into one of the old cromlechs sprinkled +over the Nilgiri plateau. Some of the larger of these have been found +piled up to the cap-stone with such pebbles, which must have been the +work of generations. Occasionally, too, the tribes mentioned make +small cromlechs for burial purposes, and place the long water-worn +pebbles in them." + +The following sub-divisions of the tribe have been described to +me:--Poongkaru, Kudagar (people of Coorg), Kalkatti (those who tie +stone), Vellaka, Devala, and Koppilingam. Of these, the first five +are considered to be in the relation of brothers, so far as marriage +is concerned, and do not intermarry. Members of these five classes +must marry into the Koppilingam sub-division. At the census, 1901, +Kasuva or Kasuba was returned as a sub-caste. The word means workmen, +in allusion to the abandonment of jungle life in favour of working +on planters' estates, and elsewhere. + +It is recorded by Harkness that "during the winter, or while they +are wandering about the forests in search of food, driven by hunger, +the families or parties separate from one another. On these occasions +the women and young children are often left alone, and the mother, +having no longer any nourishment for her infant, anticipates its +final misery by burying it alive. The account here given was in every +instance corroborated, and in such a manner as to leave no doubt in +our minds of its correctness." + +The following notes are abstracted from my case-book. + +Man, æt. 30. Sometimes works on a coffee estate. At present engaged in +the cultivation of grains, pumpkins, jak-fruit, and plantains. Goes +to the bazaar at Mettupalaiyam to buy rice, salt, chillies, oil, +etc. Acquires agricultural implements from Kotas, to whom he pays +annual tribute in grains or money. Wears brass earrings obtained from +Kotas in exchange for vegetables and fruit. Wears turban and plain +loin-cloth, wrapped round body and reaching below the knees. Bag +containing tobacco and betel slung over shoulder. Skin very dark. + +Woman, æt. 30. Hair curly, tied in a bunch behind round a black cotton +swab. Wears a plain waist-cloth, and print body-cloth worn square +across breasts and reaching below the knees. Tattooed on forehead. A +mass of glass bead necklaces. Gold ornament in left nostril. Brass +ornament in lobe of each ear. Eight brass bangles on right wrist; +two brass and six glass bangles on left wrist. Five brass rings on +right first finger; four brass and one tin ring on right forefinger. + +Woman, æt. 25. Red cadjan (palm leaf) roll in dilated lobes of +ears. Brass and glass bead ornament in helix of right ear. Brass +ornament in left nostril. A number of bead necklets, one with young +cowry shells pendent, another consisting of a heavy roll of black +beads. The latter is very characteristic of Irula female adornment. One +steel bangle, eight brass bangles, and one chank-shell bangle on right +wrist; three lead, six glass bangles, and one glass bead bangle on +left wrist. One steel and one brass ring on left little finger. + +Woman, æt. 35. Wears loin-cloth only. Breasts fully exposed. Cap of +Badaga pattern on head. + +Girl, æt. 8. Lobe of each ear being dilated by a number of wooden +sticks like matches. + +Average stature 159.8 cm.; nasal index 85 (max. 100). + +Irulas of Chingleput, North and South Arcot. The Irulas, or Villiyans +(bowmen), who have settled in the town of Chingleput, about fifty miles +distant from Madras, have attained to a higher degree of civilisation +than the jungle Irulas of the Nilgiris, and are defined, in the +Census Report, 1901, as a semi-Brahmanised forest tribe, who speak +a corrupt Tamil. + +In a note on the Irulas, Mackenzie writes as follows. [187] "After +the Yuga Pralayam (deluge, or change from one Yuga to another) the +Villars or Irulans, Malayans, and Vedans, supposed to be descendants of +a Rishi under the influence of a malignant curse, were living in the +forests in a state of nature, though they have now taken to wearing +some kind of covering--males putting on skins, and females stitched +leaves. Roots, wild fruits, and honey constitute their dietary, and +cooked rice is always rejected, even when gratuitously offered. They +have no clear ideas about God, though they offer rice (wild variety) +to the goddess Kanniamma. The legend runs that a Rishi, Mala Rishi +by name, seeing that these people were much bothered by wild beasts, +took pity on them, and for a time lived with them. He mixed freely +with their women, and as the result, several children were born, +who were also molested by wild animals. To free them from these, the +Rishi advised them to do puja (worship) to Kanniamma. Several other +Rishis are also believed to have lived freely in their midst, and, +as a result, several new castes arose, among which were the Yanadis, +who have come into towns, take food from other castes, eat cooked +rice, and imitate the people amidst whom they happen to live." In +which respects the Irula is now following the example of the Yanadi. + +Many of the Chingleput Irulas are very dark-skinned, with narrow +chests, thin bodies, and flabby muscles, reminding me, in their +general aspect, of the Yanadis of Nellore. Clothing is, in the men, +reduced to a minimum--dhuti, and languti of dirty white cotton cloth, +or a narrow strip of gaudy Manchester piece-good. The hair is worn +long and ragged, or shaved, with kudimi, in imitation of the higher +classes. The moustache is slight, and the beard billy-goaty. Some of +the men are tattooed with a blue dot on the glabella, or vertical +mid-frontal line. For ornaments they have a stick in the helix, +or simple ornament in the ear-lobe. + +Their chief source of livelihood is husking paddy (rice), but they +also gather sticks for sale as firewood in return for pice, rice, and +sour fermented rice gruel, which is kept by the higher classes for +cattle. This gruel is also highly appreciated by the Yanadis. While +husking rice, they eat the bran, and, if not carefully watched, +will steal as much of the rice as they can manage to secrete about +themselves. As an addition to their plain dietary they catch field +(Jerboa) rats, which they dig out with long sticks, after they have +been asphyxiated with smoke blown into their tunnels through a small +hole in an earthen pot filled with dried leaves, which are set on +fire. When the nest is dug out, they find material for a meat and +vegetable curry in the dead rats, with the hoarded store of rice or +other grain. They feast on the bodies of winged white-ants (Termites), +which they search with torch-lights at the time of their seasonal +epidemic appearance. Some years ago a theft occurred in my house at +night, and it was proved by a plaster cast of a foot-print in the mud +produced by a nocturnal shower that one of my gardeners, who did not +live on the spot, had been on the prowl. The explanation was that he +had been collecting as a food-stuff the carcases of the winged ants, +which had that evening appeared in myriads. + +Some Irulas are herbalists, and are believed to have the powers +of curing certain diseases, snake-poisoning, and the bites of rats +and insects. + +Occasionally the Irulas collect the leaves of the banyan, Butea +frondosa, or lotus, for sale as food-platters, and they will eat +the refuse food left on the platters by Brahmans and other higher +classes. They freely enter the houses of Brahmans and non-Brahman +castes, and are not considered as carrying pollution. + +They have no fixed place of abode, which they often change. Some +live in low, palmyra-thatched huts of small dimensions; others under +a tree, in an open place, in ruined buildings, or the street pials +(verandah) of houses. Their domestic utensils consist of a few pots, +one or two winnows, scythes, a crow-bar, a piece of flint and steel for +making fire, and a dirty bag for tobacco and betel. In making fire, +an angular fragment of quartz is held against a small piece of pith, +and dexterously struck with an iron implement so that the spark falls +on the pith, which can be rapidly blown into a blaze. To keep the +children warm in the so-called cold season (with a minimum of 58° +to 60°), they put their babies near the fire in pits dug in the ground. + +For marital purposes they recognise tribal sub-divisions in a +very vague way. Marriage is not a very impressive ceremonial. The +bridegroom has to present new cloths to the bride, and his future +father- and mother-in-law. The cloth given to the last-named is called +the pal kuli (milk money) for having nursed the bride. Marriage is +celebrated on any day, except Saturday. A very modest banquet, in +proportion to their slender means, is held, and toddy provided, if +the state of the finances will run to it. Towards evening the bride +and bridegroom stand in front of the house, and the latter ties the +tali, which consists of a bead necklace with a round brass disc. In +the case of a marriage which took place during my visit, the bride +had been wearing her new bridal cloth for a month before the event. + +The Irulas worship periodically Kanniamma, their tribal deity, and +Mari, the general goddess of epidemic disease. The deity is represented +by five pots arranged in the form of a square, with a single pot in the +centre, filled with turmeric water. Close to these a lamp is lighted, +and raw rice, jaggery (crude sugar), rice flour, betel leaves and +areca nuts are offered before it. Mari is represented by a white rag +flag dyed with turmeric, hoisted on a bamboo in an open space near +their dwellings, to which fowls, sheep, and other cooked articles, +are offered. + +The dead are buried lying flat on the face, with the head to the +north, and the face turned towards the east. When the grave has been +half filled in, they throw into it a prickly-pear (Opuntia Dillenii) +shrub, and make a mound over it. Around this they place a row or two +of prickly-pear stems to keep off jackals. No monumental stone is +placed over the grave. + +By means of the following table a comparison can be readily made +between the stature and nasal index of the jungle Sholagas and Nilgiri +Irulas, and of the more civilised Irulas of Chingleput and Uralis +of Coimbatore:-- + + +===================+==========+============+============+============ + | Stature, |Nasal index,|Nasal index,|Nasal index, + | average. | average. | maximum. | minimum. +-------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------ +Sholagas | 159.3 | 85·1 | 107·7 | 72·8 +Irulas, Nilgiris | 159·8 | 84·9 | 100 | 72·3 +Irulas, Chingleput | 159·9 | 80·3 | 90·5 | 70 +Uralis | 159·5 | 80·1 | 97·7 | 65·3 +===================+==========+============+============+============ + + +The table shows clearly that, while all the four tribes are of short +and uniform stature, the nasal index, both as regards average, +maximum and minimum, is higher in the Sholagas and Irulas of the +Nilgiri jungles than in the more domesticated Irulas of Chingleput +and Uralis. In brief, the two former, who have mingled less with +the outside world, retain the archaic type of platyrhine nose to +a greater extent than the two latter. The reduction of platyrhiny, +as the result of civilisation and emergence from the jungle to the +vicinity of towns, is still further brought out by the following +figures relating to the two classes of Irulas, and the Kanikars of +Travancore, who still live a jungle life, and those who have removed +to the outskirts of a populous town:-- + + + ===========================+=============================== + | Nasal index. + ---- |----------+----------+--------- + | Average. | Maximum. | Minimum. + ---------------------------+----------+----------+--------- + Irulas, jungle | 84.9 | 100 | 72.3 + Kanikars, jungle | 84.6 | 105 | 72.3 + Kanikars, domesticated | 81.2 | 90.5 | 70.8 + Irulas, domesticated | 80.3 | 90.5 | 70 + ===========================+==========+==========+========= + + +The Irulas of North Arcot are closely related to those of +Chingleput. Concerning them, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes as follows. [188] +"Many members of this forest tribe have taken to agriculture in +the neighbouring villages, but the majority still keep to the hills, +living upon roots and wild animals, and bartering forest produce for a +few rags or a small quantity of grain. When opportunity offers, they +indulge in cattle theft and robbery. They disclaim any connection +with the Yanadis, whom they hate. Their aversion is such that they +will not even allow a Yanadi to see them eating. They offer worship to +the Sapta Kannikais or seven virgins, whom they represent in the form +of an earthenware oil-lamp, which they often place under the bandari +(Dodonoea viscosa ?), which is regarded by them as sacred. These lamps +are made by ordinary village potters, who, however, are obliged to +knead the clay with their hands, and not with their feet. Sometimes +they place these representatives of their goddess in caves, but, +wherever they place them, no Pariah or Yanadi can be allowed to +approach. The chief occasion of worship, as with the Kurumbas and +Yanadis, is at the head-shaving ceremony of children. All children at +these times, who are less than ten years old, are collected, and the +maternal uncle of each cuts off one lock of hair, which is fastened to +a ragi (Ficus religiosa) bough. They rarely contract marriages, the +voluntary association of men and women being terminable at the will +of either. The more civilised, however, imitate the Hindu cultivating +castes by tying a gold bead, stuck on a thread, round the bride's +neck, but the marriage tie thus formed is easily broken. They always +bury their dead. Some Irulas are credited with supernatural powers, +and are applied to by low Sudras for advice. The ceremony is called +suthi or rangam. The medium affects to be possessed by the goddess, +and utters unmeaning sounds, being, they say, unconscious all the +while. A few of his companions pretend to understand with difficulty +the meaning of his words, and interpret them to the inquirer. The +Irulas never allow any sort of music during their ceremonies, +nor will they wear shoes, or cover their body with more than the +scantiest rag. Even in the coldest and dampest weather, they prefer +the warmth of a fire to that of a cumbly (blanket). They refuse even +to cover an infant with a cloth, but dig a small hollow in the ground, +and lay the newly-born babe in it upon a few leaves of the bandari." + +There are two classes of Irulas in the North Arcot district, of +which one lives in towns and villages, and the other leads a jungle +life. Among the latter, as found near Kuppam, there are two distinct +divisions, called Iswaran Vagaira and Dharmaraja. The former set up +a stone beneath a temporary hut, and worship it by offering cooked +rice and cocoanuts on unam (Lettsomia elliptica) leaves. The god +Dharmaraja is represented by a vessel instead of a stone, and the +offerings are placed in a basket. In the jungle section, a woman may +marry her deceased husband's brother. The dead are buried face upwards, +and three stones are set up over the grave. + +The Irulas of South Arcot, Mr. Francis writes, [189] "are chiefly +found about the Gingee hills, talk a corrupt Tamil, are very dark +skinned, have very curly hair, never shave their heads, and never +wear turbans or sandals. They dwell in scattered huts--never more than +two or three in one place--which are little, round, thatched hovels, +with a low doorway through which one can just crawl, built among +the fields. They subsist by watching crops, baling water from wells, +and, when times are hard, by crime of a mild kind. In Villupuram and +Tirukkoyilur taluks, and round Gingee, they commit burglaries in +a mild and unscientific manner if the season is bad, and they are +pressed by want, but, if the ground-nut crop is a good one, they +behave themselves. They are perhaps the poorest and most miserable +community in the district. Only one or two of them own any land, and +that is only dry land. They snare hares now and again, and collect +the honey of the wild bees by letting themselves down the face of +cliffs at night by ladders made of twisted creepers. Some of them are +prostitutes, and used to display their charms in a shameless manner +at the Chettipalaiyam market near Gingee, decked out in quantities of +cheap jewellery, and with their eyelids darkened in clumsy imitation of +their sisters of the same profession in other castes. There is little +ceremony at a wedding. The old men of the caste fix the auspicious +day, the bridegroom brings a few presents, a pandal (booth) is made, +a tali is tied, and there is a feast to the relations. The rites at +births and deaths are equally simple. The dead are usually buried, +lying face upwards, a stone and some thorns being placed over the +grave to keep off jackals. On the eleventh day after the death, the +eldest son ties a cloth round his head--a thing which is otherwise +never worn--and a little rice is coloured with saffron (turmeric) +and then thrown into water. This is called casting away the sin, and +ill-luck would befall the eldest son if the ceremony were omitted. The +Irulans pay homage to almost all the gramadevatas (village deities), +but probably the seven Kannimars are their favourite deities." + +As already indicated, the Irulas, like the Yerukalas, indulge in +soothsaying. The Yerukala fortune-teller goes about with her basket, +cowry shells, and rod, and will carry out the work of her profession +anywhere, at any time, and any number of times in a day. The Irula, on +the contrary, remains at his home, and will only tell fortunes close to +his hut, or near the hut where his gods are kept. In case of sickness, +people of all classes come to consult the Irula fortune-teller, +whose occupation is known as Kannimar varniththal. Taking up his +drum, he warms it over the fire, or exposes it to the heat of the +sun. When it is sufficiently dry to vibrate to his satisfaction, +Kannimar is worshipped by breaking a cocoanut, and burning camphor and +incense. Closing his eyes, the Irula beats the drum, and shakes his +head about, while his wife, who stands near him, sprinkles turmeric +water over him. After a few minutes, bells are tied to his right +wrist. In about a quarter of an hour he begins to shiver, and breaks +out in a profuse perspiration. This is a sure sign that he is possessed +by Kanniamman. His wife unties his kudumi (tuft of hair), the shaking +of the head becomes more violent, he breathes rapidly, and hisses like +a snake. His wife praises Kannimar. Gradually the man becomes calmer, +and addresses those around him as if he were the goddess, saying, +"Oh! children. I have come down on my car, which is decorated with +mango flowers, margosa and jasmine. You need fear nothing so long +as I exist, and you worship me. This country will be prosperous, +and the people will continue to be happy. Ere long my precious car, +immersed in the tank (pond) on the hill, will be taken out, and after +that the country will become more prosperous," and so on. Questions +are generally put to the inspired man, not directly, but through +his wife. Occasionally, even when no client has come to consult him, +the Irula will take up his drum towards dusk, and chant the praises +of Kannimar, sometimes for hours at a stretch, with a crowd of Irulas +collected round him. + +The name Shikari (hunter) is occasionally adopted as a synonym for +Irula. And, in South Arcot, some Irulas call themselves Ten (honey) +Vanniyans or Vana (forest) Pallis. + +Irula (darkness or night).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Irumpu (iron) Kollan.--A sub-division of Kollan. + +Irunul (two strings).--A division of Marans in Travancore, in which +the remarriage of widows is permitted. + +Iruvu (black ant).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Isan (god).--A title of Koliyan. + +Iswaran Vagaira.--A division of the Irulas of North Arcot. The name +denotes that they belong to the Iswara (Siva) section. + +Ite.--The Itevandlu are a class of Telugu jugglers and acrobats, who +"exhibit shows, such as wrestling, climbing high posts, rope-walking, +etc. The women, like Dommara females, act as common prostitutes." [190] + +Itattara.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Izhava.--The Izhavans or Ilavans, and Tiyans, are the Malayalam +toddy-drawing castes of Malabar, Cochin and Travancore. The etymology +of the name Izhavan is dealt with in the article on Tiyans. + +For the following note on the Izhavas of Travancore, I am, when not +otherwise recorded, indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. These people +are known as Izhavas in South and parts of Central Travancore, and +Chovas in parts of Central and North Travancore. They constitute +17 per cent. of the total population of the State. Izhava is said +to mean those belonging to Izham, a corruption of Simhalam, one +of the old names of Ceylon. Jaffna, in the north of that island, +appears to have been specially known by the name of Izham, and from +this place the Izhavas are believed to have originally proceeded to +Malabar. Chova is supposed to be a corruption of Sevaka, or servant. In +some old boat songs current in Malabar, it occurs in the less corrupt +form of Chevaka. According to a legend, a Pandyan princess named +Alli married Narasimha, a Rajah of the Carnatic. The royal couple +migrated to Ceylon, and there settled themselves as rulers. On the line +becoming extinct, however, their relatives and adherents returned to +the continent, where they were accorded only a very low position in +society. It is said that they were the ancestors of the Izhavas. In +support of this theory, it is urged that, in South Travancore, the +Izhavas are known by the title of Mudaliyar, which is also the surname +of a division of the Vellalas at Jaffna; that the Vattis and Mannans +call them Mudaliyars; and that the Pulayas have ever been known to +address them only as Muttatampurans. But it may be well supposed that +the title may have been conferred upon some families of the caste in +consideration of meritorious services on behalf of the State. One of +the chief occupations, in which the Izhavas first engaged themselves, +was undoubtedly the cultivation of palm trees. In the famous grant +of 824 A.D., it is distinctly mentioned that they had a headman of +their guild, and their duty was planting up waste lands. They had two +special privileges, known as the foot-rope right and ladder right, +which clearly explain the nature of their early occupation. The +Syrian Christians appear to have a tradition that the Izhavas were +invited to settle on the west coast at their suggestion. The Izhavas +are said to have brought to Kerala a variety each of the areca palm, +champak, and lime tree, to whose vernacular names the word Izham is +even to-day invariably prefixed. In the middle ages, they were largely +employed as soldiers by the rulers of Malabar. Titles and privileges +were distributed among these soldiers. Canter Visscher, writing about +the Rajah of Ambalapuzha in the middle of the eighteenth century, +[191] observes that "the Rajah of Porkkad has not many Nayars, in the +place of whom he is served by Chegos," and that "in times of civil war +or rebellion, the Chegos are bound to take up arms for their lawful +sovereign." The Panikkans of Ambanat house in the Ambalapuzha taluk +were the leaders of the Izhava force, and many powers and privileges +were conferred upon this family by the Chembakasseri (Ambalapuzha) +princes. Even so late as the days of Maharaja Rama Verma, who died +in 973 M.E., large numbers of Izhavas were employed as soldiers +of the State, if we may believe the account of Friar Bartolomeo, +[192] who is generally a very accurate writer. The South Travancore +Izhavas used to divide themselves into two parties on the occasion +of the Onam festival, and fight at Kaithamukku near Trivandrum. Any +young man who did not attend this camp of exercise had a piece of +wood tied as a wedding ornament round his neck, was led in procession +thrice round the village, and transported to the sea-coast. + +The Izhavas proper are divided into three sub-sections called +Pachchili, Pandi, and Malayalam. The Pachchilis live in the tract of +land called Pachchalur in the Neyyattinkara taluk between Tiruvellam +and Kovalam. They are only a handful in number. The Pandis are +largely found in Trivandrum and Chirayinkil. Most of them take the +title of Panikkan. The Malayala Izhavas are sub-divided into four +exogamous groups or illams, named Muttillam, Madampi or Pallichal, +Mayanatti, and Chozhi. Pallichal is a place in the Neyyattinkara +taluk, and Mayannat in Quilon. The members of the Chozhi illam are +believed to have been later settlers. There is another division of +these Izhavas called Patikramams, based on a more or less geographical +distinction. These are also four in number, and called Pallikkattara, +Palattara, Irunkulamgara, and Tenganad, their social precedence being +in this order. Pallikkattara is in Chirayinkil, Palattara in Quilon, +Irunkulamgara in Trivandrum, and Tenganad in Neyyattinkara. The +Palattara section is the most orthodox, and rigorously preserves its +endogamous character, though some of the titular dignitaries among +the Chovas of Central Travancore have found it possible to contract +alliances with them. The divisions of the Illam and Patikkramam are +absent among the Chovas. Among these, however, there is a division +into Sthani or Melkudi, Tanikudi, and Kizhkudi, the first denoting +the titular head, the second the ordinary class, and the third +those under communal degradation. Among the last are included the +toddy-drawing families, Vaduvans, and Nadis. Vaduvans are the slaves of +the Izhavas, and, in ancient days, could be regularly bought and sold +by them. Nadis live in Kartikapalli and some other parts of Central +Travancore. They are people who have been outcasted from the community +for various offences by the headmen, and cannot enter the kitchen of +the ordinary Izhavas. They are served for ceremonial purposes not by +the regular priests of the Izhavas, but by a distinct outcaste sect +like themselves, known as Nadikuruppus. The Izhavattis, who are the +priests of the caste, form a distinct sect with special manners and +customs. Channan, a corruption of the Tamil word, Chanror or chiefmen, +is the most important of the titles of the Izhavas. This title was +conferred upon distinguished members of the caste as a family honour +by some of the ancient sovereigns of the country. Panikkan comes next +in rank, and is derived from pani, work. Tantan, from danda meaning +punishment or control, is a popular title in some parts. Asan, from +Acharya, a teacher, is extremely common. The recipients of this honour +were instructors in gymnastics and military exercises to Nayar and +Izhava soldiers in bygone times, and even now ruins of old kalaris +or exercise grounds attached to their houses are discernible in many +places. Some Izhavas in South Travancore appear to be honoured with +the title of Mudaliyar. Many families were invested with similar +honours by the ancient ruling houses of Ambalapuzha, Kayenkulam, +and Jayasimhanad (Quilon). Even now, some titles are conferred by the +Rajah of Idappalli. The wives of these dignitaries are respectively +known as Channatti, Panikkatti, etc. + +The houses of the Izhavas resemble those of the Nayars in form. Each +house is a group of buildings, the most substantial of which, known as +the arappura, stands in the centre. On the left side is the vadakkettu +or woman's apartment, including the kitchen. There is a court-yard +in front of the arappura, and a little building called kizhakkettu +enclosing it on the eastern side. Houses invariably face the east. The +main entrance stands a little to the south of the kizhakkettu, to the +south of which again is the tozhuttu or cow-shed. These buildings, of +course, are found only in rich houses, the poor satisfying themselves +with an arappura, a vatakketu, and a tozhuttu. A tekketu is to be seen +to the south of the arappura in some cases. This is erected mainly +to perpetuate the memory of some deceased member of the family known +for learning, piety, or bravery. A pitha or seat, a conch, a cane, +and a small bag containing ashes, are secured within. It is kept +scrupulously free from pollution, and worship is offered on fixed days +to the ancestors. The tekketu is enclosed on all the three sides, +except the east. This description of houses in South Travancore, +as far as Trivandrum, applies also to buildings erected to the north +as far as Quilon, though tekketus are not so largely found as in the +south. In some parts here, the southern room of the main buildings is +consecrated to the memory of ancestors. In Central Travancore there +are big kalaris to the south of the arappura in most of the ancient +houses, and antique weapons and images of tutelary divinities are +carefully preserved therein. + +In dress and ornament, the Izhavas closely resemble the Nayars. The +tattu form of dress is not prevalent among Izhava women. In the wearing +of the cloth, the left side comes inside instead of the right in the +case of South Travancore Izhava women, though this rule is not without +its exceptions. In South Travancore, the ornaments of women differ +considerably from those of the north. Here they wear the pampadam or +Tamil Sudra women's ear ornament, and adorn the wrists with a pair +of silver bangles. The nose ornaments mukkuthi and gnattu have only +recently begun to be worn, and are not very popular in Central and +North Travancore. This is a point in which Izhavas may be said to +differ from the South Travancore Nayar matrons. The ear ornament +of elderly Izhava women in North Travancore is of an antique type +called atukkam-samkhu-chakkravum. Women in the rural parts wear a +curious neck ornament called anti-minnu. Of late, all ornaments of +Nayar women are being worn by fashionable Izhava females. But Izhava +and Nayar women can be distinguished by the tie of the hair lock, +the Izhava women usually bringing it to the centre of the forehead, +while the Nayars place it on one side, generally the left. Tattooing +was once prevalent in South Travancore, but is gradually losing +favour. It was never in vogue in North Travancore. + +The Izhavas eat both fish and flesh. Rabbits, deer, pigs, sheep, +porcupines, fowls, doves, guinea-fowls, peacocks, and owls are +believed to make popular dishes. The sweetmeat called ariyunta, +and the curry known as mutirakkary, are peculiar to the Izhavas, +and prepared best by them. + +The most important occupation of the Izhavas till recently was +the cultivation of palm trees, and the preparation of toddy and +arrack. Barbosa, writing in the sixteenth century, states that "their +principal employment is to till the palm trees, and gather their +fruits; and to carry everything for hire from one point to another, +because they are not in the habit of transporting them with beasts +of burden, as there are none; and they hew stone, and gain their +livelihood by all kinds of labour. Some of them bear the use of arms, +and fight in the wars when it is necessary. They carry a staff in +their hand of a fathom's length as a sign of their lineage." With the +progress of culture and enlightenment, the occupation of extracting +liquor from the cocoanut palm has ceased to be looked upon with favour, +and such families as are now given to that pursuit have come to be +regarded as a low division of the Chovas. In some parts of Travancore, +the latter do not even enjoy the privilege of commensality with the +other Izhavas. Agriculture is a prominent profession, and there are +several wealthy and influential landlords in the community. There +is also a fair percentage of agricultural labourers. A preliminary +rite, called pozhutana sowing, is performed by farmers, who throw +three handfuls of rice seed on a clay image representing Ganesa, +and pray that their fields may yield a good harvest. Before the time +of reaping, on an auspicious morning, a few sheaves are brought, +and hung up in some prominent place in the house. This ceremony is +known as nira, and is common to all Hindu castes. At the end of it, +the inmates of the house partake of puttari or new rice. + +There are a few other customary rites observed by agriculturists, +viz.:-- + +(1) Metiyittu-varuka, or throwing the grains of the first sheaf +upon another, and covering it with its straw, this being afterwards +appropriated by the chief agricultural labourer present. + +(2) Koytu-pitichcha-katta-kotukkuka, or handing over the first sheaves +of grain fastened together with Strychnos Nux-vomica leaves to the +owner of the field, who is obliged to preserve them till the next +harvest season. + +(3) Kotuti, or offering of oblations of a few grains dipped in toddy +to the spirits of agricultural fields, the Pulaya priest crying aloud +'Poli, va, poli, va,' meaning literally May good harvest come. + +As manufacturers, the Izhavas occupy a position in Travancore. They +produce several kinds of cloth, for local consumption in the main, +and make mats, tiles, and ropes, with remarkable skill. They are +also the chief lemon-grass oil distillers of Travancore. In the +professions of medicine and astrology, the Izhavas have largely engaged +themselves. While it must be confessed that many of them are utter +strangers to culture, there are several who have received a sound +education, especially in Sanskrit. On the whole, the Izhavas may be +said to be one of the most industrious and prosperous communities on +the west coast. + +The Izhavas form a pious and orthodox Hindu caste. Though they +cannot enter the inner court-yard of temples, they attend there in +considerable numbers, and make their pious offerings. Over several +temples the Travancore Izhavas have a joint right with the Nayars. In +illustration, the shrines of Saktikulamgara in Karunagappali, and +Chettikulangara in Mavelikara, may be mentioned. Over these and other +temples, the rights that have been enjoyed from time immemorial by +certain Izhava families are respected even at the present day. In +most places, the Izhavas have their own temples, with a member of +their own or the Izhavatti caste as priest. As no provision had been +made in them for daily worship, there was no necessity in early times +for the regular employment of priests. The deity usually worshipped +was Bhadrakali, who was believed to help them in their military +undertakings. The offerings made to her involved animal sacrifices. The +temples are generally low thatched buildings with a front porch, an +enclosure wall, and a grove of trees. There are many instances, in +which the enclosure wall is absent. The Bhadrakali cult is gradually +losing favour under the teaching of a Vedantic scholar and religious +reformer named Nanan Asan. In many Central and South Travancore +shrines, images of Subramania have been set up at his instance, +and daily worship is offered by bachelor priests appointed by the +castemen. An association for the social, material, and religious +amelioration of the community, called Narayana Dharma Paripalana +Yogam, has been started. Its head-quarters is at Aruvippuram in the +Nayyatinkara taluk. Every morning, the sun is specially worshipped +by the cultured class. In ancient times, the adoration of Anchu +Tampurakkal or the five deities, now identified with the Pandavas +of the Mahabharata, prevailed among these people. This worship is +found among the Pulayas also. At Mayyanad in Quilon, there is still +an Izhava temple dedicated to these five lords. Women visit shrines on +all Mondays and Fridays, with a view to worshipping Gauri, the consort +of Siva. Male Izhavas devote the first and last days of a month, as +also that on which the star of their nativity falls, to religious +worship. The Izhavas of Central Travancore pay homage to a spirit +called Kayalil Daivam, or the deity of backwaters. When a village +becomes infected with small-pox or cholera, offerings are made to +the Bhadrakali shrine in that locality. The most important offering +goes by the name of Kalam Vaikkuka, or pot placing. A woman of the +house of the local Panikkan or chief member fasts, and, bearing a +pot containing five nalis (a small measure) of paddy (unhusked rice), +proceeds to all the other Izhava houses in the village, accompanied +by musical instruments. One woman from every house marches to the +shrine with her offering of paddy and a chuckram (nearly half an +anna). The priest receives the offerings, converts the paddy into +rice, and, depositing a portion of it in each of the pots, hands them +back to the votaries on the morning of the next day. Another ceremony +performed on such occasions is called Desakuruti, when women fast, and, +taking all the food-stuffs necessary, proceed to the temple. After the +sacrifice of a goat and fowls by the priest, they make an offering of +the food to the deity before dinner. Tukkam, or suspension, is another +propitiatory ceremony. A religious observance, known as Mamachchirappu, +finds favour with the Izhavas of Central Travancore in the month of +Vrischikam (November-December). Every Izhava bathes in the evening, +addresses the deities by their names for about an hour, and then +makes an offering of tender cocoanuts, fruits, and fried grain. This +takes place according to the convenience of each family from twelve +to forty-one days. + +In connection with the tukkam ceremony, Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna +Aiyar writes as follows. [193] "There are two kinds of hook-swinging, +namely Garuda (Brahmini kite) and thoni (boat) tukkam. The ceremony +is performed in fulfilment of a vow, to obtain some favour of the +deity Kali, before whose presence it is carried out. The performer +of the ceremony should bathe early in the morning, and be in a state +of preparation either for a year or for forty-one days by worshipping +the deity Bhagavati. He must strictly abstain from meat, all kinds of +intoxicating liquors, and association with women. During the morning +hours, the performer dresses himself in a garment tucked into the +waist-band, rubs his body with oil, and is shampooed particularly on +the back, a portion of the flesh in the middle of which is stretched +for the insertion of a hook. He is also taught by his instructor to +perform various feats called payitta. This he continues till the +festival, when he has to swing in fulfilment of the vow. In kite +swinging, a kind of car, resting on two axles provided with four +wheels, is employed. On it, there is a horizontal beam resting on +two vertical supports. A strong rope tied to a ring attached to the +beam is connected with the hook which passes through the flesh of the +back. Over the beam there is a kutaram (tent), which is tastefully +decorated. Inside it, two or three persons can swing at a time. There +is a different arrangement in some places. Instead of the beam and +the supports, there is a small pole, on which rests a horizontal beam +provided with a metallic ring at one end. The beam acts as a lever, so +that one end of it can be either raised or lowered, so as to give some +rest to the swinger. The rope tied to the ring is connected with the +hook and the waist-band. For boat swinging, the same kind of vehicle, +without wheels, is in use. For kite swinging, the performer has his +face painted green. He has to put on artificial lips and wings in +imitation of those of the kite, and wears long locks of hair like those +of an actor in a Kathakali. As he swings, the car is taken three, five, +seven, nine, or eleven times round the temple. In boat swinging, the +car is likewise carried round the temple, with the swinger performing +his feats, as in the case of kite swinging, to the accompaniment of +music. He has to put on the same kind of dress, except the lips and +wings. In pillayeduthutukkam, or swinging with a child in fulfilment +of a vow, the child is taken to the temple by his parents, who pay +to the temple authorities thirty-four chuckrams in Travancore, and +sixty-four puthans [194] in Cochin. The child is then handed over to +the swinger, who carries the child as he swings. These performances +are sometimes made at the expense of the temple, but more generally of +persons who make the outlay in fulfilment of a vow. In the latter case, +it costs as much as Rs. 150 for the kite swinger, but only Rs. 30 for +the boat swinger. During the festival, they are fed in the temple, +owing to their being in a state of vow. It is the Nayars, Kammalars, +Kuruppans, and Izhavas, who perform the swinging in fulfilment of a +vow. In the fight between the goddess Kali and the demon Darika, the +latter was completely defeated, and the former, biting him on the back, +drank his blood to gratify her feelings of animosity. Hook-swinging +symbolises this incident, and the bloodshed by the insertion of the +hook through the flesh is intended as an offering to the goddess." + +Of the hook-swinging ceremony as performed a few years ago at the +Kollangadu temple in Travancore, an excellent account is given by +the Rev. T. Knowles, [195] from which the following précis has been +compiled. In front of the temple was a booth containing the image of +the goddess Bhadrakali, a cruel deity, who is supposed to delight in +blood. At a little distance was the car. The bottom part of this was +very much like a lorry used when transporting large logs of timber +by means of elephants. There were four solid wheels of thick timber, +with a frame work, like a railway waggon on a small scale. To this +were attached two thick cable ropes. Joined to the sides of the car +were two upright posts, about 15 feet high, strengthened with stays +and cross-pieces. On the top was a piece of thick timber with a hole +in it, and the bottom rounded, which fitted into a cross-piece, +and allowed the long beam on which the men were swung to move up +or down. This beam was 35 or 40 feet long, and about 9 inches in +diameter. It was placed through the hole in the piece of timber +on the top of the upright frame, and balanced in the middle like a +huge see-saw. At one end of the hole was a covered canopy, and at +the other long ropes were fastened, which trailed on the ground. The +whole arrangement of the car was such that, by lowering one end of the +long beam to the ground, and fastening a man to it, and then pulling +down the other end by the ropes, the man could be raised into the +air to a height of some 40 feet or more. The whole car could then be +dragged by the thick cable ropes round the temple. While the subject +was being prepared for swinging, a mat was stretched above his head, +partly to do him honour, partly to protect him from the sun. His +head and neck were richly ornamented, and below he was bedecked with +peacock's feathers, and clad in a loin-cloth, which would bear some, +if not all the weight of his body. Amid the firing of mortars, beating +of tom-toms, the screeching of flutes, and the shouts of the crowd, +the canopied end of the long beam was lowered, and the devotee, lying +prone on the ground, was fastened to the beam by means of ropes passing +under his arms and around his chest. To some of the ropes, hooks were +fastened. The priests took hold of the fleshy part of the man's back, +squeezed up the flesh, and put some four hooks at least through it. A +rudely fashioned sword and shield were then given to the man, and he +was swung up into the air, waving the sword and shield, and making +convulsive movements. Slowly the people dragged the car round the +temple, a distance not quite as far as round St. Paul's cathedral. Some +of the men were suspended while the car was dragged round three or +four times. The next devotee was fastened in the same way to the beam, +but, instead of a sword and shield, the priests gave him an infant in +his arms, and devotee and infant were swung up in the air, and the car +dragged round the temple as before. Some children were brought forward, +whose parents had made vows about them. The little ones were made to +prostrate themselves before the image of Kali. Then the fleshy parts +of their sides were pinched up, and some wires put through. This done, +the wires were placed in the hands of the relatives, and the children +were led round and round the temple, as though in leading strings. It +is on record that, when the devotee has been specially zealous, the +whole machine has been moved to a considerable distance while he was +suspended from it, to the admiration of the gaping multitudes." + +In connection with the religion of the Ilavars, the Rev. S. Mateer +writes as follows. [196] "Demon worship, especially that of Bhadrakali, +a female demon described as a mixture of mischief and cruelty, is +the customary cultus of the caste, with sacrifices and offerings and +devil-dancing like the Shanars. Shastavu and Virabhadran are also +venerated, and the ghosts of ancestors. Groves of trees stand near +the temples, and serpent images are common, these creatures being +accounted favourites of Kali. They carry their superstitions and fear +of the demons into every department and incident of life. In some +temples and ceremonies, as at Paroor, Sarkarei, etc., they closely +associate with the Sudras. The Ilavar temples are generally low, +thatched buildings, with front porch, a good deal of wooden railing +and carving about them, an enclosure wall, and a grove or a few trees, +such as Ficus religiosa, Plumeria, and Bassia. At the Ilavar temple +near Chakki in the outskirts of Trevandrum, the goddess Bhadrakali +is represented as a female seated on an image, having two wings, +gilt and covered with serpents. Twice a year, fowls and sheep are +sacrificed by an Ilavan priest, and offerings of grain, fruit, +and flowers are presented. The side-piercing ceremony is also +performed here. A temple at Mangalattukonam, about ten miles south +of Trevandrum, at which I witnessed the celebration of the annual +festival on the day following Meena Bharani, in March or April, +may be taken as a fair example of the whole. In connection with +this temple may be seen a peculiar wooden pillar and small shrine +at the top, somewhat like a pigeon-house. This is called a tani +maram, and is a kind of altar, or residence, for the demon Madan, +resembling the temporary shrines on sticks or platforms erected by +the Pulayars. On it are carvings of many-headed serpents, etc., and +a projecting lamp for oil. For the festival, the ground around the +temple was cleared of weeds, the outhouses and sheds decorated with +flowers, and on the tani maram were placed two bunches of plantains, +at its foot a number of devil-dancing sticks. Close by were five or +six framework shrines, constructed of soft palm leaves and pith of +plantain tree, and ornamented with flowers. These were supposed to be +the residence of some minor powers, and in them were placed, towards +night, offerings of flowers, rice, plantains, cocoanuts, and blood. The +Ilavars who assemble for the festival wear the marks of Siva, a dot and +horizontal lines on the forehead, and three horizontal lines of yellow +turmeric on the chest. They begin to gather at the temple from noon, +and return home at night. The festival lasts for five days. Some of +the neighbouring Sudras and Shanars also attend, and some Pulayars, +who pay one chuckram for two shots of firework guns in fulfilment of +their vows. Offerings here are generally made in return for relief +from sickness or trouble of some kind. The pujari, or priest, is an +Ilavan, who receives donations of money, rice, etc. A kind of mild +hook-swinging ceremony is practised. On the occasion referred to, four +boys, about fifteen or sixteen years of age, were brought. They must +partly fast for five days previously on plain rice and vegetable curry, +and are induced to consent to the operation, partly by superstitious +fear, and partly by bribes. On the one hand they are threatened with +worse danger if they do not fulfil the vows made by their parents to +the devi (deity); on the other hand, if obedient, they receive presents +of fine clothes and money. Dressed in handsome cloths and turbans, +and adorned with gold bracelets and armlets, and garlands of flowers, +the poor boys are brought to present a little of their blood to the +sanguinary goddess. Three times they march round the temple; then +an iron is run through the muscles of each side, and small rattans +inserted through the wounds. Four men seize the ends of the canes, +and all go round in procession, with music and singing and clapping of +hands, five or seven times, according to their endurance, till quite +exhausted. The pujari now dresses in a red cloth, with tinsel border, +like a Brahman, takes the dancing-club in hand, and dances before the +demon. Cocks are sacrificed, water being first poured upon the head; +when the bird shakes itself, the head is cut off, and the blood poured +round the temple. Rice is boiled in one of the sheds in a new pot, and +taken home with the fowls by the people for a feast in the house. At +Mayanadu, the Bhagavathi of the small temple belonging to the Ilavars +is regarded as the sister of the one worshipped in the larger temple +used by the Sudras, and served by a Brahman priest; and the cars of the +latter are brought annually to the Ilavar's temple, and around it three +times before returning to their own temple. At the Ilavar's temple, +the same night, the women boil rice in new earthen pots, and the men +offer sheep and fowls in sacrifice. In further illustration of the +strange superstitious practices of this tribe, two more incidents may +be mentioned. An Ilavatti, whose child was unwell, went to consult an +astrologer, who informed her that the disease was caused by the spirit +of the child's deceased grandmother. For its removal he would perform +various incantations, for which he required the following, viz.:--water +from seven wells, dung from five cowsheds, a larva of the myrmeleon, +a crab, a frog, a green snake, a viral fish, parched rice, ada cake, +cocoanut, chilly, and green palm leaves. An Ilavan, who had for some +time been under Christian instruction, was led away by a brother, who +informed him that, if he built a small temple for the worship of Nina +Madan, and offered sacrifices, he should find a large copper vessel +full of gold coins hid underground, and under the charge of this +demon. The foolish man did so, but did not find a single cash. Now +the lying brother avers that the demon will not be satisfied unless +a human sacrifice is offered, which, of course, is impossible." + +The headmen of the Izhava caste are the Channans and Panikkans, +invested with these titles by the Sovereigns of this State who have +been already referred to. The limits of their jurisdiction were +generally fixed in the charters received from them by their rulers, +and even to-day their authority remains supreme in all social +matters. The priests, it may be noted, are only a minor class, +having no judicial functions. Chief among the offences against +the caste rules may be mentioned non-observance of pollution, +illicit connection, non-performance of the tali-kettu before the +age of puberty, non-employment of the village barber and washerman, +non-celebration of ceremonies in one's own village, and so on. The +headman comes to know of these through the agency of the village +barber or washerman, and also a class of secondary dignitaries known +as Kottilpattukar or Naluvitanmar. In every village, there are four +families, invested with this authority in olden times by the rulers of +the State on payment of fifty-nine fanams to the royal treasury. They +are believed to hold a fourth of the authority that pertains to the +chieftain of the village. If, on enquiry, an offence is proved, +a fine is imposed on the offender, which he is obliged to pay to +the local shrine. If the offence is grave, a feast has to be given +by him to the villagers. In cases of failure, the services of the +village priest and washerman, and also the barber, are refused, and +the culprit becomes ostracised from society. The headman has to be +paid a sum of ten chuckrams on all occasions of ceremonies, and the +Naluvitanmar four chuckrams each. There is a movement in favour of +educating the priests, and delegating some of the above powers to them. + +Three forms of inheritance may be said to prevail among the Izhavas +of Travancore, viz.: (1) makkathayam (inheritance from father to son) +in the extreme south; (2) marumakkatayam (through the female line) in +all taluks to the north of Quilon; (3) a mixture of the two between +Neyyatinkara and that taluk. According to the mixed mode, one's own +children are not left absolutely destitute, but some portion of +the property is given them for maintenance, in no case, however, +exceeding a half. In families observing the marumakkatayam law, +male and female heirs own equal rights. Partition, though possible +when all consent, rarely takes place in practice, the eldest male +member holding in his hands the management of the whole property. In +Quilon and other places, the widow and her children are privileged +to remain in her husband's house for full one year after his death, +and enjoy all the property belonging to him. + +On the subject of inheritance, the Rev. S. Mateer writes as +follows. "The nepotistic law of inheritance is, to a considerable +extent, followed by this caste. Those in the far south being +more closely connected with the Tamil people, their children +inherit. Amongst the Ilavars in Trevandrum district, a curious attempt +is made to unite both systems of inheritance, half the property +acquired by a man after his marriage, and during the lifetime of +his wife, going to the issue of such marriage, and half to the man's +nepotistic heirs. In a case decided by the Sadr Court, in 1872, the +daughter of an Ilavan claimed her share in the movable and immovable +property of her deceased father, and to have a sale made by him while +alive declared null and void to the extent of her share. As there was +another similar heir, the Court awarded the claimant a half share, and +to this extent the claim was invalidated. Their rules are thus stated +by G. Kerala Varman Tirumulpad:--'If one marries and gives cloth to +an Ilavatti (female), and has issue, of the property acquired by him +and her from the time of the union, one-tenth is deducted for the +husband's labour or individual profit; of the remainder, half goes +to the woman and her children, and half to the husband and his heirs +(anandaravans). The property which an Ilavan has inherited or earned +before his marriage devolves solely to his anandaravans, not to his +children. If an Ilavatti has continued to live with her husband, and +she has no issue, or her children die before obtaining any share of the +property, when the husband dies possessing property earned by both, +his heirs and she must mutually agree, or the castemen decide what +is fair for her support; and the husband's heir takes the remainder.'" + +The marriage of Izhava girls consists of two distinct rites, one +before they attain puberty called tali-kettu, and the other generally +after that period, but in some cases before, called sambandham. It is, +however, necessary that the girl must have her tali tied before some +one contracts sambandham with her. The tali-tier may be, but often +is not, as among the Nayars, the future husband of the girl. But, +even for him, the relation will not be complete without a formal +cloth presentation. The legitimate union for a person is with his +maternal uncle's or paternal aunt's daughter. Generally there is a +separate ceremony called Grihapravesam, or entrance into the house of +the bridegroom after sambandham. Widows may contract alliances with +other persons after the death of the first husband. In all cases, +the Izhava husband takes his wife home, and considers it infra dig. to +stay in the house of his father-in-law. + +The method of celebrating the tali-kettu differs in different +parts of Travancore. The following is the form popular in Central +Travancore. All the elderly members of the village assemble at the +house of the girl, and fix a pillar of jack (Artocarpus integrifolia) +wood at the south-east corner. On the Kaniyan (astrologer) being +three times loudly consulted as to the auspiciousness of the house he +gives an affirmative reply, and the guardian of the girl, receiving a +silver ring from the goldsmith, hands it over to the Vatti (priest), +who ties it on the wooden post. The carpenter, Kaniyan, and goldsmith +receive some little presents. The next item in the programme is the +preparation of the rice necessary for the marriage, and a quantity of +paddy (unhusked rice) is brought by the girl to the pandal ground, and +formally boiled in a pot. The pandal (booth) is generally erected on +the south side of the house. The chartu, or a chit from the Kaniyan, +certifying the auspiciousness of the match and the suitable date for +its formal adoption, is taken by the guardian and four Machchampis or +Inangans to the headman of the latter. These Machchampis are Izhavas +of the village, equal in status to the guardian of the girl. All +the preliminary arrangements are now over, and, on the day previous +to the marriage, the girl bathes, and, wearing the bleached cloths +supplied by the Mannan (washerman), worships the local deity, and +awaits the arrival of the bridegroom. In the evening, the wife of +the Vatti applies oil to her hair, and after a bath the rite known +as Kalati begins, as a preliminary to which a thread passing through +a silver ring is tied round her right wrist. Kalati is recitation of +various songs by the women of the village before the girl. This is +followed by Kanjiramala, or placing the girl before a line of carved +wooden images, and songs by the Vatti women. On the following day, the +girl is introduced, at the auspicious hour, within the katirmandapa or +raised platform decorated with sheaves of corn within the pandal. The +minnu or marriage ornament, prepared by the goldsmith, is handed +over to the priest, along with two cloths to be worn by the bride +and bridegroom. A string is made of thread taken from these cloths, +and the minnu attached to it. The mother-in-law of the bridegroom +now stands ready at the gate, and, on his arrival, places a garland +of flowers round his neck. The new cloths are then presented by +the Vatti and his wife to the bridegroom and bride respectively, +after some tender cocoanut leaves, emblematic of the established +occupation of the caste, are thrust into the bridegroom's waist by +the headman of the village. In former days, a sword took the place +of these leaves. The minnu is then tied round the neck of the bride, +and all parties, including the parent or guardian, give presents to +the bridegroom. The day's ceremony is then over, and the bridegroom +remains at the house of the bride. The string is removed from +the bride's wrist by the Vatti on the fourth day, and the couple +bathe. More than one girl may have the tali tied at the same time, +provided that there are separate bridegrooms for them. Only boys from +the families of Machchampis can become tali-tiers. + +The sambandham of North and Central Travancore differs from that +of South Travancore in some material respects. In the former, on +the appointed day, the bridegroom, who is a different person from +the tali-tier, accompanied by his relations and friends, arrives +at the bride's house, and the guardian of the former offers a sum +of money to the guardian of the latter. A suit of clothes, with ten +chuckrams or ten rasis (coins), is presented by the bridegroom to the +bride, who stands in a room within and receives it, being afterwards +dressed by his sister. The money goes by right to her mother, and is +known as Ammayippanam. Now comes the time for the departure of the +bride to her husband's house, when she receives from her guardian a +nut-cracker, lime-can, a dish filled with rice, and a mat. A red cloth +is thrown over her head, and a few members accompany the party for some +distance. In South Travancore, the bridegroom is accompanied, besides +others, by a companion, who asks in the midst of the assembly whether +they assent to the proposed alliance, and, on their favourable reply, +hands over a sum of money as an offering to the local shrine. Another +sum is given for the maintenance of the bride, and, in the presence of +the guardian, a suit of clothes is given to her by the bridegroom. The +wife is, as elsewhere, immediately taken to the husband's house. This +is called Kudivaippu, and corresponds to the Grahapravesam celebrated +by Brahmans. + +The following account of marriage among the Izhavas of Malabar is +given in the Gazetteer of that district. "A girl may be married before +puberty, but the consummation is not supposed to be effected till +after puberty, though the girl may live with her husband at once. If +the marriage is performed before puberty, the ceremony is apparently +combined with the tali-kettu kalyanam. The bride is fetched from the +devapura or family chapel with a silk veil over her head, and holding +a betel leaf in her right hand in front of her face. She stands in +the pandal on a plank, on which there is some rice. On her right +stand four enangans of the bridegroom, and on her left four of her +own. The elder of the bridegroom's enangans hands one of the bride's +enangans a bundle containing the tali, a mundu and pava (cloths), +some rice, betel leaves, and a coin called meymelkanam, which should +be of gold and worth at least one rupee. All these are provided by +the bridegroom. He next hands the tali to the bridegroom's sister, +who ties it. After this, all the enangans scatter rice and flowers +over the bride. In this caste, the claim of a man to the hand of his +paternal aunt's daughter is recognised in the ceremony called padikkal +tada (obstruction at the gate), which consists of a formal obstruction +offered by eleven neighbours to the bride's removal, when she is not +so related to her husband They are bought off by a fee of two fanams, +and a packet of betel leaf. The girl is then taken to the bridegroom's +house. If very young, she is chaperoned by a female relative. On the +fourth day there is a feast at the bridegroom's house called nalam +kalyanam and this concludes the ceremonies. Marriage after puberty +is called Pudamari. The ceremonial is the same, but there is no +padikkal tada." + +When an Izhava girl reaches puberty, the occasion is one for a four +days' religious ceremonial. On the first day, the Vatti priestess +anoints the girl with oil, and after a bath, dresses her in the cloth +supplied by the Mannatti (washerwoman). She is then laid on a broad +wooden plank, and is supposed not to go out until she bathes on the +fourth day. All the female relations of the family present her with +sweetmeats. On the seventh day, she is again taken to and from the +village tank (pond) with much éclat, and, on her return, she either +treads on cloths spread on the floor, or is carried by an elderly +woman. After this, she husks a quantity of paddy, and cooks the +rice obtained thence. If this ceremony takes place at the house of a +headman, the villagers present him with a vessel full of sugared rice. + +A two days' ceremonial, called Pulikudi in north Travancore, and +Vayattu Pongala in the south, which corresponds to the Pumsavana of +Brahmans, is observed at the seventh month of pregnancy. On the first +day, at twilight in the evening, the pregnant woman, preceded by the +priestess, proceeds to the foot of a tamarind tree on the southern +side of the compound. Arriving there, she receives a thread seven +yards in length, to which a silver ring is attached at one end, and, +by means of circumambulation, entwines the tree with the thread. If +the thread is by chance or inadvertence broken during this process, +the popular belief is that either the mother or the child will die +soon. Next day, the thread is unwound from the tree, and a handful of +tamarind leaves is given to the woman by her husband. On re-entering +the house, tamarind juice is poured through the hands of the husband +into those of the wife, who drinks it. The priestess then pours +a quantity of oil on the navel of the woman from a betel leaf, +and, from the manner in which it flows down, it is believed that +she is able to determine the sex of the unborn child. The woman +has to lean against a cutting of an ambazham (Spondias mangifera) +tree while she is drinking the juice, and this cutting has to be +planted in some part of the compound. If it does not grow properly, +the adversity of the progeny is considered to be sealed. The husband +is given a ring and other presents on this occasion. Women bathe on +the third, fifth, and nineteenth day after delivery, and wear the +mattu or changed cloth of the Mannatti, in order to be freed from +pollution. The name-giving ceremony of the child takes place on +the twenty-eighth day. It is decorated with a pair of iron anklets, +and a ribbon passed through a few pieces of iron is tied round its +waist. It is then held standing on a vessel filled with rice, and, +its left ear being closed, a name is muttered by its guardian into the +right ear. The first feeding ceremony is observed in the sixth month, +when the iron ornaments are removed, and replaced by silver and gold +ones. The ear-boring ceremony takes place at an auspicious hour on +some day before the child attains its seventh year. + +In former times, only the eldest male member of a family was cremated, +but no such restriction obtains at the present day. When a member +of the community dies, three handfuls of rice are placed in the +mouth of the corpse by the eldest heir after a bath, followed by +the sons, nephews, and grandsons of the deceased. Every relative +throws an unbleached cloth over the corpse, after which it is taken +to the burning-ground, where the pyre is lighted by the heir with +a consecrated torch handed to him by the priest. A wooden plank is +furnished by the carpenter, and an impression of the foot of the +deceased smeared with sandal paste is made on it. The name, and date +of the death of the deceased, are inscribed thereon, and it has to be +carefully preserved in the house of the heir. The record refreshes +his memory on occasions of sradh (memorial service), etc. When the +cremation is half completed, the contents of a tender cocoanut are +placed beside the head of the corpse as an offering, and prayers are +muttered. A pot full of water is then borne by the chief mourner on +his shoulder thrice round the corpse. As he does so, the priest pricks +the pot thrice with an iron instrument. Finally, the pot is broken +on the pyre, and the chief mourner returns home without turning back +and looking at the corpse. On the second day, an oblation of food +(pinda) is offered to the departed. The inmates of the house are fed +with conji (rice gruel) on this day by the relatives. The Sanchayana, +or collection of bones, takes place on the fifth day. Pollution lasts +for fifteen days in Central and North Travancore, but only for ten days +in the south. There are some rites, not observed necessarily by all +members of the caste, on the forty-first day, and at the end of the +first year. Persons who have died of contagious diseases, women who +die after conception or on delivery, and children under five years +of age, are buried. Pollution is observed only for nine days when +children die; and, in the case of men who die of contagious disease, +a special group of ceremonies is performed by the sorcerer. Those +who are under pollution, besides being forbidden to enter shrines +and other sanctuaries, may not read or write, or partake of liquor, +butter, milk, ghi, dhal, or jaggery. + + + + + + + +J + + +Jada.--Jada or Jandra, meaning great men, has been recorded as a +synonym of Devanga and Kurni. + +Jaggali.--The Jaggalis are defined, in the Manual of the Ganjam +district, as Uriya workers in leather in Ganjam. It is recorded, +in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "the traditional occupation +of this caste was apparently leatherworking, but now it is engaged in +cultivation and miscellaneous labour. Its members speak both Oriya and +Telugu. They admit outcastes from other communities to their ranks on +payment of a small fee. Marriage is either infant or adult, and widows +and divorcées may remarry. Satanis are employed as priests. They eat +beef and pork, and drink alcohol. They bury their dead. In some places +they work as syces (grooms), and in others as firewood-sellers and +as labourers. Patro and Behara are their titles." It may, I think, +be accepted that the Jaggalis are Telugu Madigas, who have settled +in Ganjam, and learnt the Oriya language. It is suggested that the +name is derived from the Oriya jagiba, watching, as some are village +crop-watchers. + +Jaikonda (lizard).--A sept of Domb. + +Jain.--"Few," Mr. T. A. Gopinatha Rao writes, [197] "even among +educated persons, are aware of the existence of Jainas and Jaina +centres in Southern India. The Madras Presidency discloses vestiges +of Jaina dominion almost everywhere, and on many a roadside a stone +Tirthankara, standing or sitting cross-legged, is a common enough +sight. The present day interpretations of these images are the same all +over the Presidency. If the images are two, one represents a debtor +and the other a creditor, both having met on the road, and waiting +to get their accounts settled and cleared. If it is only one image, +it represents a debtor paying penalty for not having squared up his +accounts with his creditor." + +It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "out of a +total of 25,716 Jains, as many as 22,273 have returned both caste and +sub-division as Jain. The remainder have returned 22 sub-divisions, +of which some, such as Digambara and Swetambara, are sectarian rather +than caste divisions, but others like Marvadi, Osval, Vellalan, etc., +are distinct castes. And the returns also show that some Jains have +returned well-known castes as their main castes, for we have Jain +Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Gaudas, Vellalas, etc. The Jain Bants, however, +have all returned Jain as their main caste." At the Madras census, +1901, 27,431 Jains were returned. Though they are found in nearly +every district of the Madras Presidency, they occur in the largest +number in the following:-- + + + South Canara 9,582 + North Arcot 8,128 + South Arcot 5,896 + + +At the Mysore census, 1901, 13,578 Jains were returned. It is +recorded in the report that "the Digambaras and Swetambaras are the +two main divisions of the Jain faith. The root of the word Digambara +means space clad or sky clad, i.e., nude, while Swetambara means +clad in white. The Swetambaras are found more in Northern India, +and are represented but by a small number in Mysore. The Digambaras +are said to live absolutely separated from society, and from all +worldly ties. These are generally engaged in trade, selling mostly +brass and copper vessels, and are scattered all over the country, +the largest number of them being found in Shimoga, Mysore, and Hassan +districts. Sravana Belagola, in the Hassan district, is a chief seat +of the Jains of the province. Tirthankaras are the priests of the +Jain religion, and are also known as Pitambaras. The Jain Yatis or +clergy here belong to the Digambara sect, and cover themselves with +a yellow robe, and hence the name Pithambara." The Dasa Banajigas of +Mysore style themselves Jaina Kshatriya Ramanujas. + +In connection with the terms Digambara and Swetambara, it is noted +by Bühler [198] that "Digambara, that is those whose robe is the +atmosphere, owe their name to the circumstance that they regard +absolute nudity as the indispensable sign of holiness, though the +advance of civilization has compelled them to depart from the practice +of their theory. The Swetambara, that is they who are clothed in +white, do not claim this doctrine, but hold it as possible that the +holy ones who clothe themselves may also attain the highest goal. They +allow, however, that the founder of the Jaina religion and his first +disciples disdained to wear clothes." + +The most important Jain settlement in Southern India at the present day +is at Sravana Belagola in Mysore, where the Jains are employed in the +manufacture of metal vessels for domestic use. The town is situated at +the base of two hills, on the summit of one of which, the Indra Betta, +is the colossal statue of Gomatesvara, Gummatta, or Gomata Raya, [199] +concerning which Mr. L. Rice writes as follows. [200] "The image is +nude, and stands erect, facing the north. The figure has no support +above the thighs. Up to that point it is represented as surrounded by +ant-hills, from which emerge serpents. A climbing plant twines itself +round both legs and both arms, terminating at the upper part of the arm +in a cluster of fruit or berries. The pedestal on which the feet stand +is carved to represent an open lotus. The hair is in spiral ringlets, +flat to the head, as usual in Jain images, and the lobe of the ears +lengthened down with a large rectangular hole. The extreme height +of the figure may be stated at 57 feet, though higher estimates have +been given--60 feet 3 inches by Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Duke +of Wellington), and 70 feet 3 inches by Buchanan." Of this figure, +Fergusson writes [201] that nothing grander or more imposing exists +anywhere out of Egypt, and even there no known statue surpasses it +in height, though, it must be confessed, they do excel it in the +perfection of art they exhibit." + +Other colossal statues of Gummata are situated on the summit +of hills outside the towns of Karkal and Venur or Yenur in South +Canara. Concerning the former, Dr. E. Hultzsch writes as follows. [202] +"It is a monolith consisting of the figure itself, of a slab against +which it leans, and which reaches up to the wrists, and of a round +pedestal which is sunk into a thousand-petalled lotus flower. The legs +and arms of the figure are entwined with vines (drâkshâ). On both sides +of the feet, a number of snakes are cut out of the slab against which +the image leans. Two inscriptions [203] on the sides of the same slab +state that this image of Bahubalin or Gummata Jinapati was set up by +a chief named Vîra-Pândya, the son of Bhairava, in A.D. 1431-32. An +inscription of the same chief is engraved on a graceful stone pillar +in front of the outer gateway. This pillar bears a seated figure of +Brahmadêva, a chief of Pattipombuchcha, the modern Humcha in Mysore, +who, like Vîra-Pândya, belonged to the family of Jinadatta, built +the Chaturmukha basti in A.D. 1586-87. As its name (chaturmukha, the +four-faced) implies, this temple has four doors, each of which opens +on three black stone figures of the three Tirthankaras Ari, Malli, +and Munisuvrata. Each of the figures has a golden aureole over the +head." According to a legend recorded by Mr. M. J. Walhouse, [204] +the Karkal statue, when finished, was raised on to a train of twenty +iron carts furnished with steel wheels, on each of which ten thousand +propitiatory cocoanuts were broken and covered with an infinity of +cotton. It was then drawn by legions of worshippers up an inclined +plane to the platform on the hill-top where it now stands. + +The legend of Kalkuda, who is said to have made the colossal statue +at "Belgula," is narrated at length by Mr. A. C. Burnell. [205] +Told briefly, the story is as follows. Kalkuda made a Gummata two +cubits higher than at Belur. Bairanasuda, King of Karkal, sent for +him to work in his kingdom. He made the Gummatasami. Although five +thousand people were collected together, they were not able to raise +the statue. Kalkuda put his left hand under it, and raised it, and set +it upright on a base. He then said to the king "Give me my pay, and the +present that you have to give to me. It is twelve years since I left +my house, and came here." But the king said "I will not let Kalkuda, +who has worked in my kingdom, work in another country," and cut off +his left hand and right leg. Kalkuda then went to Timmanajila, king +of Yenur, and made a Gummata two cubits higher than that at Karkal. + +In connection with the figure at Sravana Belagola, Fergusson suggests +[206] that the hill had a mass or tor standing on its summit, which +the Jains fashioned into a statue. + +The high priest of the Jain basti at Karkal in 1907 gave as his +name Lalitha Kirthi Bhattaraka Pattacharya Variya Jiyaswamigalu. His +full-dress consisted of a red and gold-embroidered Benares body-cloth, +red and gold turban, and, as a badge of office, a brush of peacock's +feathers mounted in a gold handle, carried in his hand. On ordinary +occasions, he carried a similar brush mounted in a silver handle. The +abhishekam ceremony is performed at Karkal at intervals of many +years. A scaffold is erected, and over the colossal statue are poured +water, milk, flowers, cocoanuts, sugar, jaggery, sugar-candy, gold +and silver flowers, fried rice, beans, gram, sandal paste, nine kinds +of precious stones, etc. + +Concerning the statue at Yenur, Mr. Walhouse writes [207] that "it +is lower than the Kârkala statue (41-1/2 feet), apparently by three +or four feet. It resembles its brother colossi in all essential +particulars, but has the special peculiarity of the cheeks being +dimpled with a deep grave smile. The salient characteristics of all +these colossi are the broad square shoulders, and the thickness and +remarkable length of the arms, the tips of the fingers, like Rob +Roy's, nearly reaching the knees. [One of Sir Thomas Munro's good +qualities was that, like Rama, his arms reached to his knees or, +in other words, he possessed the quality of an Ajanubahu, which is +the heritage of kings, or those who have blue blood in them.] Like +the others, this statue has the lotus enwreathing the legs and arms, +or, as Dr. Burnell suggests, it may be jungle creepers, typical of +wrapt meditation. [There is a legend that Bahubalin was so absorbed +in meditation in a forest that climbing plants grew over him.] A +triple-headed cobra rises up under each hand, and there are others +lower down." + +"The village of Mudabidure in the South Canara district," Dr. Hultzsch +writes, "is the seat of a Jaina high priest, who bears the title +Chârukirti-Panditâchârya-Svâmin. He resides in a matha, which is +known to contain a large library of Jaina manuscripts. There are +no less than sixteen Jaina temples (basti) at Mûdabidure. Several +of them are elaborate buildings with massive stone roofs, and are +surrounded by laterite enclosures. A special feature of this style +of architecture is a lofty monolithic column called mânastambha, +which is set up in front of seven of the bastis. In two of them +a flagstaff (dhvajastambha), which consists of wood covered with +copper, is placed between the mânastambha and the shrine. Six of +them are called Settarabasti, and accordingly must have been built +by Jaina merchants (Setti). The sixteen bastis are dedicated to the +following Tîrthankaras:--Chandranatha or Chandraprabha, Nêminâtha, +Pârsvanâtha, Âdinâtha, Mallinâtha, Padmaprabha, Anantanâtha, +Vardhamâna, and Sântinâtha. In two of these bastis are separate +shrines dedicated to all the Tîrthankaras, and in another basti the +shrines of two Yakshis. The largest and finest is the Hosabasti, i.e., +the new temple, which is dedicated to Chandranâtha, and was built in +A.D. 1429-30. It possesses a double enclosure, a very high mânastambha, +and a sculptured gateway. The uppermost storey of the temple consists +of wood-work. The temple is composed of the shrine (garbagriha), +and three rooms in front of it, viz., the Tîrthakaramandapa, the +Gaddigemandapa, and the Chitramandapa. In front of the last-mentioned +mandapa is a separate building called Bhairâdêvimandapa, which was +built in A.D. 1451-52. Round its base runs a band of sculptures, among +which the figure of a giraffe deserves to be noted. The idol in the +dark innermost shrine is said to consist of five metals (pancha-lôha), +among which silver predominates. The basti next in importance is the +Gurugalabasti, where two ancient talipot (srîtâlam) copies of the +Jaina Siddhânta are preserved in a box with three locks, the keys +of which are in charge of three different persons. The minor bastis +contain three rooms, viz., the Garbhagriha, the Tîrthakaramandapa, +and the Namaskâramandapa. One of the sights of Mûdabidire is the ruined +palace of the Chautar, a local chief who follows the Jaina creed, and +is in receipt of a pension from the Government. The principal objects +of interest at the palace are a few nicely-carved wooden pillars. Two +of them bear representations of the pancha-nârîturaga, i.e., the +horse composed of five women, and the nava-nârî-kunjara, i.e., the +elephant composed of nine women. These are fantastic animals, which are +formed by the bodies of a number of shepherdesses for the amusement +of their Lord Krishna. The Jains are divided into two classes, viz., +priests (indra) and laymen (srivaka). The former consider themselves as +Brâhmanas by caste. All the Jainas wear the sacred thread. The priests +dine with the laymen, but do not intermarry with them. The former +practice the makkalasantâna, i.e., the inheritance through sons, and +the latter aliya-santâna, i.e., the inheritance through nephews. The +Jainas are careful to avoid pollution from contact with outcastes, +who have to get out of their way in the road, as I noticed myself. A +Jaina marriage procession, which I saw passing, was accompanied by +Hindu dancing-girls. Near the western end of the street in which most +of the Jainas live, a curious spectacle presents itself. From a number +of high trees, thousands of flying foxes (fruit-bat, Pteropus medius) +are suspended. They have evidently selected the spot as a residence, +because they are aware that the Jainas, in pursuance of one of the +chief tenets of their religion, do not harm any animals. Following the +same street further west, the Jaina burial-ground is approached. It +contains a large ruined tank with laterite steps, and a number of +tombs of wealthy Jain merchants. These tombs are pyramidal structures +of several storeys, and are surmounted by a water-pot (kalasa) of +stone. Four of the tombs bear short epitaphs. The Jainas cremate +their dead, placing the corpse on a stone in order to avoid taking +the life of any stray insect during the process." + +In their ceremonials, e.g., marriage rites, the Jains of South Canara +closely follow the Bants. They are worshippers of bhuthas (devils), +and, in some houses, a room called padoli is set apart, in which +the bhutha is kept. When they make vows, animals are not killed, +but they offer metal images of fowls, goats, or pigs. + +Of the Jains of the North Arcot district, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes +[208] that "more than half of them are found in the Wandiwash taluk, +and the rest in Arcot and Polur. Their existence in this neighbourhood +is accounted for by the fact that a Jain dynasty reigned for many +years in Conjeeveram. They must at one time have been very numerous, as +their temples and sculptures are found in very many places, from which +they themselves have now disappeared. They have most of the Brahman +ceremonies, and wear the sacred thread, but look down upon Brahmans +as degenerate followers of an originally pure faith. For this reason +they object generally to accepting ghee (clarified butter) or jaggery +(crude sugar), etc., from any but those of their own caste. They are +defiled by entering a Pariah village, and have to purify themselves by +bathing and assuming a new thread. The usual caste affix is Nainar, +but a few, generally strangers from other districts, are called Rao, +Chetti, Das, or Mudaliyar. + +At Pillapalaiyam, a suburb of Conjeeveram in the Chingleput district, +is a Jain temple of considerable artistic beauty. It is noted by Sir +M. E. Grant Duff [209] that this is "left unfinished, as it would seem, +by the original builders, and adapted later to the Shivite worship. Now +it is abandoned by all its worshippers, but on its front stands the +census number 9-A--emblematic of the new order of things." + +Concerning the Jains of the South Arcot district, Mr. W. Francis +writes [210] that "there is no doubt that in ancient days the Jain +faith was powerful in this district. The Periya Puranam says that +there was once a Jain monastery and college at Pataliputra, the old +name for the modern Tirupapuliyur, and remains of Jain images and +sculptures are comparatively common in the district. The influence +of the religion doubtless waned in consequence of the great Saivite +revival, which took place in the early centuries of the present era, +and the Periya Puranam gives a story in connection therewith, which is +of local interest. It says that the Saivite poet-saint Appar was at one +time a student in the Jain college at Pataliputra, but was converted to +Saivism in consequence of the prayers of his sister, who was a devotee +of the deity in the temple at Tiruvadi near Panruti. The local king was +a Jain, and was at first enraged with Appar for his fervent support +of his new faith. But eventually he was himself induced by Appar to +become a Saivite, and he then turned the Paliputra monastery into +a temple to Siva, and ordered the extirpation of all Jains. Later +on there was a Jain revival, but this in its turn was followed by +another persecution of the adherents of that faith. The following +story connected with this latter occurs in one of the Mackenzie +Manuscripts, and is supported by existing tradition. In 1478 A.D., +the ruler of Gingee was one Venkatampettai, Venkatapati, [211] who +belonged to the comparatively low caste of the Kavarais. He asked the +local Brahmans to give him one of their daughters to wife. They said +that, if the Jains would do so, they would follow suit. Venkatapati +told the Jains of this answer, and asked for one of their girls as a +bride. They took counsel among themselves how they might avoid the +disgrace of connecting themselves by marriage with a man of such a +caste, and at last pretended to agree to the king's proposal, and +said that the daughter of a certain prominent Jain would be given +him. On the day fixed for the marriage, Venkatapati went in state to +the girl's house for the ceremony, but found it deserted and empty, +except for a bitch tied to one of the posts of the verandah. Furious +at the insult, he issued orders to behead all Jains. Some of the faith +were accordingly decapitated, others fled, others again were forced +to practice their rites secretly, and yet others became Saivites +to escape death. Not long afterwards, some of the king's officers +saw a Jain named Virasenacharya performing the rites peculiar to his +faith in a well in Velur near Tindivanam, and hauled him before their +master. The latter, however, had just had a child born to him, was +in a good temper, and let the accused go free; and Virasenacharya, +sobered by his narrow escape from death, resolved to become an +ascetic, went to Sravana Belgola, and there studied the holy books +of the Jain religion. Meanwhile another Jain of the Gingee country, +Gangayya Udaiyar of Tayanur in the Tindivanam taluk, had fled to the +protection of the Zamindar of Udaiyarpalaiyam in Trichinopoly, who +befriended him and gave him some land. Thus assured of protection, +he went to Sravana Belgola, fetched back Virasenacharya, and with +him made a tour through the Gingee country, to call upon the Jains +who remained there to return to their ancient faith. These people +had mostly become Saivites, taken off their sacred threads and put +holy ashes on their foreheads, and the name Nirpusi Vellalas, or +the Vellalas who put on holy ash, is still retained. The mission was +successful, and Jainism revived. Virasenacharya eventually died at +Velur, and there, it is said, is kept in a temple a metal image of +Parsvanatha, one of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, which he brought +from Sravana Belgola. The descendants of Gangayya Udaiyar still +live in Tayanur, and, in memory of the services of their ancestor +to the Jain cause, they are given the first betel and leaf on +festive occasions, and have a leading voice in the election of the +high-priest at Sittamur in the Tindivanam taluk. This high-priest, +who is called Mahadhipati, is elected by representatives from the +chief Jain villages. These are, in Tindivanam taluk, Sittamur itself, +Viranamur, Vilukkam, Peramandur, Alagramam, and the Velur and Tayanur +already mentioned. The high-priest has supreme authority over all Jains +south of Madras, but not over those in Mysore or South Canara, with +whom the South Arcot community have no relations. He travels round +in a palanquin with a suite of followers to the chief centres--his +expenses being paid by the communities he visits--settles caste +disputes, and fines, and excommunicates the erring. His control over +his people is still very real, and is in strong contrast to the waning +authority of many of the Hindu gurus. The Jain community now holds a +high position in Tindivanam taluk, and includes wealthy traders and +some of quite the most intelligent agriculturists there. The men use +the title of Nayinar or Udaiyar, but their relations in Kumbakonam +and elsewhere in that direction sometimes call themselves Chetti +or Mudaliyar. The women are great hands at weaving mats from the +leaves of the date-palm. The men, except that they wear the thread, +and paint on their foreheads a sect-mark which is like the ordinary +Vaishnavite mark, but square instead of semi-circular at the bottom, +and having a dot instead of a red streak in the middle, in general +appearance resemble Vellalas. They are usually clean shaved. The +women dress like Vellalas, and wear the same kind of tali (marriage +emblem) and other jewellery. The South Arcot Jains all belong to the +Digambara sect, and the images in their temples of the twenty-four +Tirthankaras are accordingly without clothing. These temples, the +chief of which are those at Tirunirankonrai [212] and Sittamur, are +not markedly different in external appearance from Hindu shrines, +but within these are images of some of the Tirthankaras, made of +stone or of painted clay, instead of representations of the Hindu +deities. The Jain rites of public worship much resemble those of the +Brahmans. There is the same bathing of the god with sacred oblations, +sandal, and so on; the same lighting and waving of lamps, and burning +of camphor; and the same breaking of cocoanuts, playing of music, +and reciting of sacred verses. These ceremonies are performed by +members of the Archaka or priest class. The daily private worship in +the houses is done by the laymen themselves before a small image of +one of the Tirthankaras, and daily ceremonies resembling those of the +Brahmans, such as the pronouncing of the sacred mantram at daybreak, +and the recital of forms of prayer thrice daily, are observed. The +Jains believe in the doctrine of re-births, and hold that the end of +all is Nirvana. They keep the Sivaratri and Dipavali feasts, but say +that they do so, not for the reasons which lead Hindus to revere these +dates, but because on them the first and the last of the twenty-four +Tirthankaras attained beatitude. Similarly they observe Pongal and +the Ayudha puja day. They adhere closely to the injunctions of their +faith prohibiting the taking of life, and, to guard themselves from +unwittingly infringing them, they do not eat or drink at night lest +they might thereby destroy small insects which had got unseen into +their food. For the same reason, they filter through a cloth all +milk or water which they use, eat only curds, ghee and oil which +they have made themselves with due precautions against the taking of +insect life, or known to have been similarly made by other Jains, +and even avoid the use of shell chunam (lime). The Vedakkarans +(shikari or hunting caste) trade on these scruples by catching +small birds, bringing them to Jain houses, and demanding money +to spare their lives. The Jains have four sub-divisions, namely, +the ordinary laymen, and three priestly classes. Of the latter, the +most numerous are the Archakas (or Vadyars). They do the worship in +the temples. An ordinary layman cannot become an Archaka; it is a +class apart. An Archaka can, however, rise to the next higher of the +priestly classes, and become what is called an Annam or Annuvriti, +a kind of monk who is allowed to marry, but has to live according +to certain special rules of conduct. These Annams can again rise +to the highest of the three classes, and become Nirvanis or Munis, +monks who lead a celibate life apart from the world. There is also a +sisterhood of nuns, called Aryanganais, who are sometimes maidens, and +sometimes women who have left their husbands, but must in either case +take a vow of chastity. The monks shave their heads, and dress in red; +the nuns similarly shave, but wear white. Both of them carry as marks +of their condition a brass vessel and a bunch of peacock's feathers, +with which latter they sweep clean any place on which they sit down, +lest any insect should be there. To both classes the other Jains make +namaskaram (respectful salutation) when they meet them, and both are +maintained at the cost of the rest of the community. The laymen among +the Jains will not intermarry, though they will dine with the Archakas, +and these latter consequently have the greatest trouble in procuring +brides for their sons, and often pay Rs. 200 or Rs. 300 to secure a +suitable match. Otherwise there are no marriage sub-divisions among the +community, all Jains south of Madras freely intermarrying. Marriage +takes place either before or after puberty. Widows are not allowed +to remarry, but are not required to shave their heads until they are +middle-aged. The dead are burnt, and the death pollution lasts for +twelve days, after which period purification is performed, and the +parties must go to the temple. Jains will not eat with Hindus. Their +domestic ceremonies, such as those of birth, marriage, death and so +on resemble generally those of the Brahmans. A curious difference +is that, though the girls never wear the thread, they are taught the +thread-wearing mantram, amid all the ceremonies usual in the case of +boys, when they are about eight years old." + +It is recorded, in the report on Epigraphy, 1906-1907, that at +Eyil in the South Arcot district the Jains asked the Collector for +permission to use the stones of the Siva temple for repairing their +own. The Collector called upon the Hindus to put the Siva temple in +order within a year, on pain of its being treated as an escheat. + +Near the town of Madura is a large isolated mass of naked rock, which +is known as Anaimalai (elephant hill). "The Madura Sthala Purana +says it is a petrified elephant. The Jains of Conjeeveram, says this +chronicle, tried to convert the Saivite people of Madura to the Jain +faith. Finding the task difficult, they had recourse to magic. They +dug a great pit ten miles long, performed a sacrifice thereon, and +thus caused a huge elephant to arise from it. This beast they sent +against Madura. It advanced towards the town, shaking the whole earth +at every step, with the Jains marching close behind it. But the Pandya +king invoked the aid of Siva, and the god arose and slew the elephant +with his arrow at the spot where it now lies petrified." [213] + +In connection with the long barren rock near Madura called Nagamalai +(snake hill), "local legends declare that it is the remains of a huge +serpent, brought into existence by the magic arts of the Jains, which +was only prevented by the grace of Siva from devouring the fervently +Saivite city it so nearly approaches." [214] Two miles south of Madura +is a small hill of rock named Pasumalai. "The name means cow hill, +and the legend in the Madura Sthala Purana says that the Jains, +being defeated in their attempt to destroy Madura by means of the +serpent which was turned into the Nagamalai, resorted to more magic, +and evolved a demon in the form of an enormous cow. They selected this +particular shape for their demon, because they thought that no one +would dare kill so sacred an animal. Siva, however, directed the bull +which is his vehicle to increase vastly in size, and go to meet the +cow. The cow, seeing him, died of love, and was turned into this hill." + +On the wall of the mantapam of the golden lotus tank (pothamarai) +of the Minakshi temple at Madura is a series of frescoes illustrating +the persecution of the Jains. For the following account thereof, I am +indebted to Mr. K. V. Subramania Aiyar. Sri Gnana Sammandha Swami, +who was an avatar or incarnation of Subramaniya, the son of Siva, +was the foremost of the sixty-three canonised saints of the Saivaite +religion, and a famous champion thereof. He was sent into the world +by Siva to put down the growing prevalence of the Jaina heresy, and +to re-establish the Saivite faith in Southern India. He entered on +the execution of his earthly mission at the age of three, when he was +suckled with the milk of spirituality by Parvati, Siva's consort. He +manifested himself first at the holy place Shiyali in the present +Tanjore district to a Brahman devotee named Sivapathabja Hirthaya +and his wife, who were afterwards reputed to be his parents. During +the next thirteen years, he composed about sixteen thousand thevaram +(psalms) in praise of the presiding deity at the various temples which +he visited, and performed miracles. Wherever he went, he preached the +Saiva philosophy, and made converts. At this time, a certain Koon +(hunch-back) Pandyan was ruling over the Madura country, where, +as elsewhere, Jainism had asserted its influence, and he and all +his subjects had become converts to the new faith. The queen and the +prime-minister, however, were secret adherents to the cult of Siva, +whose temple was deserted and closed. They secretly invited Sri Gnana +Sammandha to the capital, in the hope that he might help in extirpating +the followers of the obnoxious Jain religion. He accordingly arrived +with thousands of followers, and took up his abode in a mutt or +monastery on the north side of the Vaigai river. When the Jain priests, +who were eight thousand in number, found this out, they set fire to +his residence with a view to destroying him. His disciples, however, +extinguished the flames. The saint, resenting the complicity of the +king in the plot, willed that the fire should turn on him, and burn him +in the form of a virulent fever. All the endeavours of the Jain priests +to cure him with medicines and incantations failed. The queen and +the prime-minister impressed on the royal patient the virtues of the +Saiva saint, and procured his admission into the palace. When Sammandha +Swami offered to cure the king by simply throwing sacred ashes on him, +the Jain priests who were present contended that they must still be +given a chance. So it was mutually agreed between them that each +party should undertake to cure half the body of the patient. The +half allotted to Sammandha was at once cured, while the fever raged +with redoubled severity in the other half. The king accordingly +requested Sammandha to treat the rest of his body, and ordered the +Jaina priests to withdraw from his presence. The touch of Sammandha's +hand, when rubbing the sacred ashes over him, cured not only the +fever, but also the hunched back. The king now looked so graceful +that he was thenceforward called Sundara (beautiful) Pandyan. He was +re-converted to Saivism, the doors of the Siva temple were re-opened, +and the worship of Siva therein was restored. The Jain priests, not +satisfied with their discomfiture, offered to establish the merits of +their religion in other ways. They suggested that each party should +throw the cadjan (palm-leaf) books containing the doctrines of their +respective religions into a big fire, and that the party whose books +were burnt to ashes should be considered defeated. The saint acceding +to the proposal, the books were thrown into the fire, with the result +that those flung by Sammandha were uninjured, while no trace of the +Jain books remained. Still not satisfied, the Jains proposed that the +religious books of both parties should be cast into the flooded Vaigai +river, and that the party whose books travelled against the current +should be regarded as victorious. The Jains promised Sammandha that, +if they failed in this trial, they would become his slaves, and serve +him in any manner he pleased. But Sammandha replied: "We have already +got sixteen thousand disciples to serve us. You have profaned the name +of the supreme Siva, and committed sacrilege by your aversion to the +use of his emblems, such as sacred ashes and beads. So your punishment +should be commensurate with your vile deeds." Confident of success, +the Jains offered to be impaled on stakes if they lost. The trial took +place, and the books of the Saivites travelled up stream. Sammandha +then gave the Jains a chance of escape by embracing the Saiva faith, +to which some of them became converts. The number thereof was so great +that the available supply of sacred ashes was exhausted. Such of the +Jains as remained unconverted were impaled on stakes resembling a sula +or trident. It may be noted that, in the Mahabharata, Rishi Mandaviar +is said to have been impaled on a stake on a false charge of theft. And +Ramanuja, the Guru of the Vaishnavites, is also said to have impaled +heretics on stakes in the Mysore province. The events recorded in +the narrative of Sammandha and the Jains are gone through at five of +the twelve annual festivals at the Madura temple. On these occasions, +which are known as impaling festival days, an image representing a Jain +impaled on a stake is carried in procession. According to a tradition +the villages of Mela Kilavu and Kil Kilavu near Solavandan are so +named because the stakes (kilavu) planted for the destruction of the +Jains in the time of Tirugnana extended so far from the town of Madura. + +For details of the literature relating to the Jains, I would refer +the reader to A. Guérinot's 'Essai de Bibliographie Jaina,' Annales +du Musée Guimet, Paris, 1906. + +Jain Vaisya.--The name assumed by a small colony of "Banians," who +have settled in Native Cochin. They are said [215] to frequent the +kalli (stone) pagoda in the Kannuthnad taluk of North Travancore, +and believe that he who proceeds thither a sufficiently large number +of times obtains salvation. Of recent years, a figure of Brahma is +said to have sprung up of itself on the top of the rock, on which +the pagoda is situated. + +Jakkula.--Described [216] as an inferior class of prostitutes, mostly +of the Balija caste; and as wizards and a dancing and theatrical +caste. At Tenali, in the Kistna district, it was customary for each +family to give up one girl for prostitution. She was "married" to +any chance comer for one night with the usual ceremonies. Under the +influence of social reform, the members of the caste, in 1901, entered +into a written agreement to give up the practice. A family went back on +this, so the head of the caste prosecuted the family and the "husband" +for disposing of a minor for the purpose of prostitution. The records +state that it was resolved, in 1901, that they should not keep the +females as girls, but should marry them before they attain puberty. "As +the deeds of the said girls not only brought discredit on all of us, +but their association gives our married women also an opportunity +to contract bad habits, and, as all of our castemen thought it good +to give up henceforth the custom of leaving girls unmarried now in +vogue, all of us convened a public meeting in the Tenali village, +considered carefully the pros and cons, and entered into the agreement +herein mentioned. If any person among us fail to marry the girls in +the families before puberty, the managing members of the families +of the girls concerned should pay Rs. 500 to the three persons whom +we have selected as the headmen of our caste, as penalty for acting +in contravention of this agreement. If any person does not pay the +headmen of the caste the penalty, the headmen are authorised to +recover the amount through Court. We must abstain from taking meals, +living, or intermarriage with such of the families as do not now join +with us in this agreement, and continue to keep girls unmarried. We +must not take meals or intermarry with those that are now included in +this agreement, but who hereafter act in contravention of it. If any +of us act in contravention of the terms of the two last paragraphs, +we should pay a penalty of Rs. 50 to the headmen." + +Jalagadugu.--Defined, by Mr. C. P. Brown, [217] as "a caste of +gold-finders, who search for gold in drains, and in the sweepings +of goldsmiths' shops." A modest livelihood is also obtained, in +some places, by extracting gold from the bed of rivers or nullahs +(water-courses). The name is derived from jala, water, gadugu, +wash. The equivalent Jalakara is recorded, in the Bellary Gazetteer, +as a sub-division of Kabbera. + +In the city of Madras, gold-washers are to be found working in the +foul side drains in front of jewellers' shops. The Health Officer +to the Corporation informs me that he often chases them, and breaks +their pots for obstructing public drains in their hunt for pieces of +gold and other metals. + +For the following note on the gold-washers of Madras, I am indebted +to Dr. K. T. Mathew: "This industry is carried on in the city by the +Oddars, and was practically monopolised by them till a few years back, +when other castes, mostly of the lower orders, stepped in. The Oddars +now form a population of several thousands in the city, their chief +occupation being conservancy cooly work. The process of gold washing +is carried out by women at home, and by the aged and adults in their +spare hours. The ashes, sweepings, and refuse from the goldsmiths' +shops are collected on payment of a sum ranging from one rupee to ten +rupees per mensem, and are brought in baskets to a convenient place +alongside their huts, where they are stored for a variable time. The +drain silts from streets where there are a large number of jewellers' +shops are similarly collected, but, in this case, the only payment to +be made is a present to the Municipal peon. The materials so collected +are left undisturbed for a few days or several months, and this storing +away for a time is said to be necessary to facilitate the extraction of +the gold, as any immediate attempt to wash the stuff results in great +loss in the quantity obtained. From the heap as much as can be taken +on an ordinary spade is put into a boat-shaped tub open at one end, +placed close to the heap, and so arranged that the waste water from the +tub flows away from the heap behind, and collects in a shallow pool in +front. The water from the pool is collected in a small chatty (earthen +vessel), and poured over the heap in the tub, which is continually +stirred up with the other hand. All the lighter stuff in this way +flows out of the tub, and all the hard stones are every now and then +picked out and thrown away. This process goes on until about a couple +of handfuls of dark sand, etc., are left in the tub. To this a small +quantity of mercury is added, briskly rubbed for a minute or two, +and the process of washing goes on, considerable care being taken to +see that no particle of mercury escapes, until at last the mercury, +with a great many particles of metallic dust attached, is collected +in a small chatty--often a broken piece of a pot. The mercury, with +the metallic particles in it, is then well washed with clean water, +and put into a tiny bag formed of two layers of a piece of rag. The +mass is then gently pressed until all the mercury falls into a chatty +below, leaving a small flattened mass of dark substance in the bag, +which is carefully collected, and kept in another dry chatty. The +washing process is repeated until enough of the dark substance--about a +third of a teaspoonful--is collected. This substance is then mixed with +powdered common salt and brick-dust, put into a broken piece of a pot, +and covered with another piece. The whole is placed in a large earthen +vessel, with cow-dung cakes well packed above and below. A blazing +fire is soon produced, and kept up till the mass is melted. This mass +is carefully removed, and again melted with borax in a hole made in a +piece of good charcoal, by blowing through a reed or hollow bamboo, +until the gold separates from the mass. The fire is then suddenly +quenched, and the piece of gold is separated and removed." + +Jalari.--The Jalaris are Telugu fishermen, palanquin-bearers, and +cultivators in Ganjam and Vizagapatam. The name, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao +writes, is derived from jala, a net. Some are fresh-water fishermen, +while others fish with a cast-net (visuru valalu) from the sea-shore, +or on the open sea. They bear the name Gangavamsamu, or people of +Ganga, in the same way that a division of the Kabbera fishing caste +is called Gangimakkalu. In caste organisation, ceremonial, etc., +the Jalaris coincide with the Milas. They are called Noliyas by the +Oriyas of Ganjam. They have house-names like other Telugus, and their +females do not wear brass bangles, as low-caste Oriya women do. + +The Jalaris have two endogamous divisions, called panrendu kotla +(twelve posts), and edu kotla (seven posts), in reference to the number +of posts for the booth. The former claim superiority over the latter, +on the ground that they are illegitimate Jalaris, or recently admitted +into the caste. + +Like other Telugu castes, the Jalaris have a caste council under +the control of a headman called Pilla. In imitation of the Oriyas, +they have created an assistant headman called Dolobehara, and they +have the usual caste servant. + +In their puberty, marriage and death ceremonies, they closely follow +the Vadas and Palles. The prohibitions regarding marriage are of the +Telugu form, but, like the Oriya castes, the Jalaris allow a widow to +marry her deceased husband's younger brother. The marriage ceremonies +last for three days. On the first day, the pandal (booth), with the +usual milk-post, is erected. For every marriage, representatives of +the four towns Peddapatnam, Vizagapatam, Bimlipatam, and Revalpatnam, +should be invited, and should be the first to receive pan-supari (betel +leaves and areca nuts) after the pandal has been set up. Peddapatnam +is the first to be called out, and the respect may be shown to any +person from that town. The representatives of the other towns must +belong to particular septs, as follows:-- + + + Vizagapatam Buguri sept. + Revalpatnam Jonna sept. + Bimlipatam Sundra sept. + + +The Jalaris are unable to explain the significance of this "counting +towns," as they call it. Possibly Peddapatnam was their original +home, from which particular septs emigrated to other towns. On the +second day of the marriage ceremonies, the tying of the sathamanam +(marriage badge) takes place. The bridegroom, after going in procession +through the streets, enters the house at which the marriage is to be +celebrated. At the entrance, the maternal uncle of the bride stands +holding in his crossed hands two vessels, one of which contains water, +and the other water with jaggery (crude sugar) dissolved in it. The +bridegroom is expected to take hold of the vessel containing the +sweetened water before he enters, and is fined if he fails to do +so. When the bridegroom approaches the pandal, some married women +hold a bamboo pole between him and the pandal, and a new earthen +pot is carried thrice round the pole. While this is being done, the +bride joins the bridegroom, and the couple enter the pandal beneath +a cloth held up to form a canopy in front thereof. This ceremonial +takes place towards evening, as the marriage badge is tied on the +bride's neck during the night. An interesting feature in connection +with the procession is that a pole called digametlu (shoulder-pole), +with two baskets tied to the ends, is carried. In one of the baskets +a number of sieves and small baskets are placed, and in the other +one or more cats. This digametlu is always referred to by the Vadas +when they are questioned as to the difference between their marriage +ceremonies and those of the Jalaris. Other castes laugh at this custom, +and it is consequently dying out. + +The Jalaris always marry young girls. One reason assigned for this +is "the income to married young girls" at the time of the marriage +ceremonies. Two or more married couples are invited to remain at the +house in which the marriage takes place, to help the bridal couple in +their toilette, and assist at the nalagu, evil eye waving, and other +rites. They are rewarded for their services with presents. Another +instance of infant marriage being the rule on account of pecuniary +gain is found among the Dikshitar Brahmans of Chidambaram. Only married +males have a voice in temple affairs, and receive a share of the temple +income. Consequently, boys are sometimes married when they are seven +or eight years old. At every Jalari marriage, meals must be given to +the castemen, a rupee to the representatives of the patnams, twelve +annas to the headman and his assistant, and three rupees to the Malas. + +Like other Telugu castes, the Jalaris have intiperus (septs), +which resemble those of the Vadas. Among them, Jonna and Buguri are +common. In their religious observances, the Jalaris closely follow +the Vadas. + +The Madras Museum possesses a collection of clay and wooden figures, +such as are worshipped by the fishing castes at Gopalpur, and other +places on the Ganjam coast. Concerning these, Mr. J. D'A. C. Reilly +writes to me as follows. The specimens represent the chief gods +worshipped by the fishermen. The Tahsildar of Berhampur got them +made by the potters and carpenters, who usually make such figures for +the Gopalpur fishermen. I have found fishermen's shrines at several +places. Separate families appear to have separate shrines, some +consisting of large chatties (earthen pots), occasionally ornamented, +and turned upside down, with an opening on one side. Others are made +of bricks and chunam (lime). All that I have seen had their opening +towards the sea. Two classes of figures are placed in these shrines, +viz., clay figures of gods, which are worshipped before fishing +expeditions, and when there is danger from a particular disease which +they prevent; and wooden figures of deceased relations, which are quite +as imaginative as the clay figures. Figures of gods and relations +are placed in the same family shrine. There are hundreds of gods to +choose from, and the selection appears to be a matter of family taste +and tradition. The figures which I have sent were made by a potter +at Venkatarayapalle, and painted by a carpenter at Uppulapatti, +both villages near Gopalpur. The Tahsildar tells me that, when he +was inspecting them at the Gopalpur traveller's bungalow, sixty or +seventy fishermen objected to their gods being taken away. He pacified +them by telling them that it was because the Government had heard of +their devotion to their gods that they wanted to have some of them +in Madras. The collection of clay figures includes the following:-- + +Bengali Babu.--Wears a hat, and rides on a black horse. He blesses +the fishermen, secures large hauls of fish for them, and guards them +against danger when out fishing. + +Samalamma.--Wears a red skirt and green coat and protects the fishermen +from fever. + +Rajamma, a female figure, with a sword in her right hand, riding on +a black elephant. She blesses barren women with children, and favours +her devotees with big catches when they go out fishing. + +Yerenamma, riding on a white horse, with a sword in her right hand. She +protects fishermen from drowning, and from being caught by big fish. + +Bhagirathamma, riding on an elephant, and having eight or twelve +hands. She helps fishermen when fishing at night, and protects them +against cholera, dysentery, and other intestinal disorders. + +Nukalamma.--Wears a red jacket and green skirt, and protects the +fishing community against small-pox. + +Orosondi Ammavaru.--Prevents the boats from being sunk or damaged. + +Bhagadevi.--Rides on a tiger, and protects the community from cholera. + +Veyyi Kannula Ammavaru, or the goddess of a thousand eyes, represented +by a pot pierced with holes, in which a gingelly (Sesamum) oil light +is burnt. She attends to the general welfare of the fisher folk. + +Jali (Acacia arabica).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Jalli.--Jalli, meaning palm tassels put round the neck and horns of +bulls, occurs as an exogamous sept of Jogi. The name occurs further +as a sub-division of Kevuto. + +Jambava.--A synonym of the Madigas, who claim descent from the rishi +Audi Jambavadu. + +Jambu (Eugenia Jambolana).--An exogamous sept of Odde. + +Jambuvar (a monkey king with a bear's face).--An exogamous sept of +Kondaiyamkottai Maravan. + +Jamkhanvala (carpet-maker).--An occupational name for Patnulkarans +and Patvegars. + +Jammi (Prosopis spicigera).--A gotra of Gollas, members of which may +not use the tree. It is further a gotra of Chembadis. Children of this +caste who are named after the caste god Gurappa or Gurunathadu are +taken, when they are five, seven, or nine years old, to a jammi tree, +and shaved after it has been worshipped with offerings of cooked food, +etc. The jammi or sami tree is regarded as sacred all over India. Some +orthodox Hindus, when they pass it, go round it, and salute it, +repeating a Sanskrit verse to the effect that "the sami tree removes +sins; it is the destroyer of enemies; it was the bearer of the bows +and arrows of Arjuna, and the sight of it was very welcome to Rama." + +Janappan.--The Janappans, Mr. W. Francis writes, [218] "were +originally a section of the Balijas, but they have now developed +into a distinct caste. They seem to have been called Janappan, +because they manufactured gunny-bags of hemp (janapa) fibre. In Tamil +they are called Saluppa Chettis, Saluppan being the Tamil form of +Janappan. Some of them have taken to calling themselves Desayis or +Desadhipatis (rulers of countries), and say they are Balijas. They +do not wear the sacred thread. The caste usually speaks Telugu, +but in Madura there is a section, the women of which speak Tamil, +and also are debarred from taking part in religious ceremonies, and, +therefore, apparently belonged originally to some other caste." + +In a note on the Janappans of the North Arcot district [219] +Mr. H. A. Stuart states that Janappan is "the name of a caste, +which engages in trade by hawking goods about the towns and +villages. Originally they were merely manufacturers of gunny-bags +out of hemp (janapa, Crotalaria juncea), and so obtained their +name. But they are now met with as Dasaris or religious beggars, +sweetmeat-sellers, and hawkers of English cloths and other goods. By +the time they have obtained to the last honourable profession, they +assume to be Balijas. Telugu is their vernacular, and Chetti their +usual caste name. According to their own tradition, they sprung from +a yagam (sacrificial rite) made by Brahma, and their remote ancestor +thus produced was, they say, asked by the merchants of the country +to invent some means for carrying about their wares. He obtained some +seeds from the ashes of Brahma's yagam, which he sowed, and the plant +which sprang up was the country hemp, which he manufactured into +a gunny-bag. The Janapa Chettis are enterprising men in their way, +and are much employed at the fairs at Gudiyattam and other places +as cattle-brokers." + +The Saluppans say that they have twenty-four gotras, which are divided +into groups of sixteen and eight. Marriage is forbidden between members +of the same group, but permitted between members of the sixteen and +eight gotras. Among the names of the gotras, are the following:-- + + + Vasava. Madalavan. + Vamme. Piligara. + Mummudi. Mukkanda. + Pilli Vankaravan. Vadiya. + Makkiduvan. Thonda. + Thallelan. Kola. + Gendagiri. + + +The Janappans of the Telugu country also say that they have only +twenty-four gotras. Some of these are totemistic in character. Thus, +members of the Kappala (frog) gotra owe their name to a tradition +that on one occasion, when some of the family were fishing, they +caught a haul of big frogs instead of fish. Consequently, members of +this gotra do not injure frogs. Members of the Thonda or Thonda Maha +Rishi gotra abstain from using the fruit or leaves of the thonda plant +(Cephalandra indica). The fruits of this plant are among the commonest +of native vegetables. In like manner, members of the Mukkanda sept may +not use the fruit of Momordica Charantia. Those of the Vamme gotra +abstain from eating the fish called bombadai, because, when some of +their ancestors went to fetch water in the marriage pot, they found +a number of this fish in the water collected in the pot. So, too, +in the Kola gotra, the eating of the fish called kolasi is forbidden. + +In their marriage customs, those who live in the Telugu country follow +the Telugu Puranic form, while those who have settled in the Tamil +country have adopted some of the marriage rites thereof. There are, +however, some points of interest in their marriage ceremonies. On the +day fixed for the betrothal, those assembled wait silently listening +for the chirping of a lizard, which is an auspicious sign. It is said +that the match is broken off, if the chirping is not heard. If the +omen proves auspicious, a small bundle of nine to twelve kinds of +pulses and grain is given by the bridegroom's father to the father +of the bride. This is preserved, and examined several days after the +marriage. If the grain and pulses are in good condition, it is a sign +that the newly married couple will have a prosperous career. + +There are both Saivites and Vaishnavites among these people, +and the former predominate in the southern districts. Most of the +Vaishnavites are disciples of Bhatrazus. The Bhatrazu priest goes round +periodically, collecting his fees. Those among the Saivites who are +religiously inclined are disciples of Pandarams of mutts (religious +institutions). Those who have settled in the Salem district seem to +consider Damayanti and Kamatchi as the caste deities. + +The manufacture of gunny-bags is still carried on by some members of +the caste, but they are mainly engaged in trade and agriculture. In +the city of Madras, the sale of various kinds of fruits is largely +in the hands of the Janappans. + +Sathu vandlu, meaning a company of merchants or travellers, occurs +as a synonym of Janappan. + +In the Mysore Census Report, 1901, Janappa is returned as a +sub-division of the Gonigas, who are sack-weavers, and makers of +gunny-bags. + +Jandayi (flag).--An exogamous sept of Yanadi. + +Janga (calf of the leg).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Jangal Jati.--A synonym, denoting jungle folk, of the Kurivikarans +or Kattu Marathis. + +Jangam.--It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "strictly +speaking, a Jangam is a priest to the religious sect of Lingayats, +but the term is frequently loosely applied to any Lingayat, which +accounts for the large numbers under this head (102,121). Jangams +proper are said to be of two classes, Pattadikaris, who have a definite +head-quarters, and Charamurtis, who go from village to village, +preaching the principles of the Lingayat sect. Many Jangams are priests +to Sudras who are not Lingayats, others are merely religious beggars, +and others of them go in for trade." In the Census Report, 1891, it +is further recorded that "the full name is Jangama Lingayat, meaning +those who always worship a moveable lingam, in contradistinction +to the Sthavara (immoveable) lingam of the temples. Only two of +the sub-divisions returned are numerically important, Ganayata and +Sthavara. The sub-division Sthavara is curious, for a Sthavara Jangam +is a contradistinction in terms. This sub-division is found only in +the two northern districts, and it is possible that the Jangam caste, +as there found, is different from the ordinary Jangam, for, in the +Vizagapatam District Manual, the Jangams are said to be tailors." In +the Telugu country Lingayats are called Jangalu. + +The Ganta Jangams are so called, because they carry a metal bell +(ganta). + +The Jangams are thus referred to by Pietro della Valle. [220] +"At Ikkeri I saw certain Indian Friars, whom in their language they +call Giangama, and perhaps are the same with the sages seen by me +elsewhere; but they have wives, and go with their faces smeared with +ashes, yet not naked, but clad in certain extravagant habits, and a +kind of hood or cowl upon their heads of dyed linen of that colour +which is generally used amongst them, namely a reddish brick colour, +with many bracelets upon their arms and legs, filled with something +within that makes a jangling as they walk. I saw many persons come +to kiss their feet, and, whilst such persons were kissing them, and, +for more reverence, touching their feet with their foreheads, these +Giangamas stood firm with a seeming severity, and without taking +notice of it, as if they had been abstracted from the things of the +world." (See Lingayat.) + +Janjapul (sacred thread).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Janmi.--Janmi or Janmakaran means "proprietor" or "landlord"; the +person in whom the janman title rests. Janman denotes (1) birth, +birthright, proprietorship; (2) freehold property, which it was +considered disgraceful to alienate. Janmabhogam is the share in the +produce of the land, which is due to the Janmi." [221] In 1805-1806, +the Collector of Malabar obtained, for the purpose of carrying out +a scheme of assessment approved by Government, a return from all +proprietors of the seed, produce, etc., of all their fields. This +return is usually known as the Janmi pymaish of 981 M.E. (Malabar +era). [222] + +Writing to me concerning Malabar at the present day, a correspondent +states that "in almost every taluk we have jungle tribes, who call +themselves the men of Janmis. In the old days, when forests were sold, +the inhabitants were actually entered in the contract as part of +the effects, as, in former times, the landlord sold the adscripti +or ascripti glebæ with the land. Now that is not done. However, +the relationship exists to the following extent, according to what a +Tahsildar (native magistrate) tells me. The tribesmen roam about the +forests at will, and each year select a place, which has lain fallow +for five years or more for all kinds of cultivation. Sometimes they +inform the Janmis that they have done so, sometimes they do not. Then, +at harvest time, the Janmi, or his agent, goes up and takes his share +of the produce. They never try to deceive the Janmi. He is asked to +settle their disputes, but these are rare. They never go to law. The +Janmi can call on them for labour, and they give it willingly. If badly +treated, as they have been at times by encroaching plainsmen, they run +off to another forest, and serve another Janmi. At the Onam festival +they come with gifts for the Janmi, who stands them a feast. The +relation between the jungle folk and the Janmi shows the instinct +in a primitive people to have a lord. There seems to be no gain in +having a Janmi. His protection is not needed, and he is hardly ever +called in to interfere. If they refused to pay the Janmi his dues, +he would find it very hard to get them. Still they keep him." In the +middle of the last century, when planters first began to settle in +the Malabar Wynad, they purchased the land from the Janmis with the +Paniyans living on it, who were practically slaves of the landowners. + +The hereditary rights and perquisites claimed, in their villages, +by the astrologer, carpenter, goldsmith, washerman, barber, etc., +are called Cherujanmam. + +Janni.--The name of the caste priests of Jatapus. + +Japanese.--At the Mysore census, 1901, two Japanese were returned. They +were managers of the silk farm instituted on Japanese methods by +Mr. Tata of Bombay in the vicinity of Bangalore. + +Jat.--A few members of this North Indian class of Muhammadans, +engaged in trade, have been returned at times of census in Mysore. + +Jatapu.--The Jatapus are defined, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as "a civilised section of the Khonds, who speak Khond on the +hills and Telugu on the plains, and are now practically a distinct +caste. They consider themselves superior to those Khonds who still +eat beef and snakes, and have taken to some of the ways of the castes +of the plains." + +For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The +name Jatapu is popularly believed to be an abbreviated form of Konda +Jatapu Doralu, or lords of the Khond caste. To this caste the old +chiefs of the Palkonda Zamindari are said to have belonged. It is +divided into a number of septs, such, for example, as:-- + + + Thorika or Thoyika, who revere the thorika kodi, a species of + wild fowl. + + Kadrika, who revere another species of fowl. + + Mamdangi, who revere the bull or cow. + + Addaku, who revere the addaku (Bauhinia racemosa), which is used + by low-country people for eating-platters. + + Konda Gorre, who revere a certain breed of sheep. + + Navalipitta, who revere the peacock. + + Arika, who revere the arika (Paspalum scrobiculatum). + + +Other septs, recorded in the Census Report, 1901, are Koalaka (arrow), +Kutraki (wild goat), and Vinka (white ant, Termes). + +Marriage is celebrated either before or after a girl reaches puberty. A +man may claim his paternal aunt's daughter as his wife. The marriage +ceremonies closely resemble those of the low-country Telugu type. The +bride-price, called voli, is a new cloth for the bride's mother, rice, +various kinds of grain, and liquor. The bride is conducted to the house +of the bridegroom, and a feast is held. On the following morning, +the kallagolla sambramam (toe-nail cutting) ceremony takes place, +and, later on, at an auspicious hour, the wrist threads (kankanam) are +tied on the wrists of the contracting couple, and their hands joined +together. They then bathe, and another feast is held. The remarriage +of widows is allowed, and a younger brother may marry the widow of +his elder brother. Divorce is permitted, and divorcées may remarry. + +The dead are usually buried, but those who die from snake-bite are +said to be burnt. Death pollution lasts for three days, during which +the caste occupation of cultivating is not carried on. An annual +ceremony is performed by each family in honour of the dead. A fowl +or goat is killed, a portion of the day's food collected in a plate, +and placed on the roof of the house. Once in twenty years or so, all +the castemen join together, and buy a pig or cow, which is sacrificed +in honour of the ancestors. + +The caste goddess is Jakara Devata, who is propitiated with sacrifices +of pigs, sheep, and buffaloes. When the crop is gathered in, the +first fruits are offered to her, and then partaken of. + +The caste headman is called Nayudu or Samanthi, and he is assisted +by the Janni, or caste priest, who officiates at ceremonials, and +summons council meetings. + +The caste titles are Dora, Naiko, and Samanto. + +Jatikirtulu.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a class +of beggars in the Cuddapah district. The name means those who praise +the caste, and may have reference to the Bhatrazus. + +Jati Pillai (children of the caste).--A general name for beggars, +who are attached to particular castes, from the members of which they +receive alms, and at whose ceremonies they take part by carrying +flags in processions, etc. It is their duty to uphold the dignity +of the caste by reciting the story of its origin, and singing its +praises. As examples of Jati Pillais, the following may be cited:-- + + + Mailari attached to Komatis. + Viramushti attached to Beri Chettis and Komatis. + Nokkan attached to Pallis. + Mastiga attached to Madigas. + + +It is recorded by Mr. M. Paupa Rao Naidu [223] that some Koravas, who +go by the name of Jatipalli Koravas, "are prevalent in the southern +districts of the Madras Presidency, moving always in gangs, and +giving much trouble. Their women tattoo in return for grain, money, +or cloths, and help their men in getting acquainted with the nature +and contents of the houses." + +Jaura.--The Jauras are a small Oriya caste, closely allied to the +Khoduras, the members of which manufacture lac (jau) bangles and +other articles. Lac, it may be noted, is largely used in India for +the manufacture of bangles, rings, beads, and other trinkets worn as +ornaments by women of the poorer classes. Dhippo (light) and mohiro +(peacock) occur as common exogamous septs among the Jauras, and are +objects of reverence. The Jauras are mainly Saivites, and Suramangala +and Bimmala are the caste deities. Titles used by members of the +caste are Danse, Sahu, Dhov, and Mahapatro. + +Javvadi (civet-cat).--An exogamous sept of Medara. + +Jelakuppa (a fish).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Jen (honey).--A sub-division of Kurumba. + +Jenna.--A title of Oriya castes, e.g., Bolasi and Kalinji. + +Jerribotula (centipedes).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Jetti.--A Telugu caste of professional wrestlers and gymnasts, who, in +the Telugu districts, shampoo and rub in ointments to cure nerve pains +and other disorders. In Tanjore, though living in a Tamil environment, +they speak Telugu. They wear the sacred thread, and consider themselves +to be of superior caste, never descending to any degrading work. During +the days of the Rajas of Tanjore, they were employed in guarding +the treasury and jewel rooms. But, since the death of the late Raja, +most of them have emigrated to Mysore and other Native States, a few +only remaining in Tanjore, and residing in the fort. + +The Jettis, in Mysore, are said [224] to have been sometimes employed +as executioners, and to have despatched their victim by a twist of +the neck. [225] Thus, in the last war against Tipu Sultan, General +Matthews had his head wrung from his body by the "tiger fangs of +the Jetties, a set of slaves trained up to gratify their master with +their infernal species of dexterity." [226] + +They are still considered skilful in setting dislocated joints. In +a note regarding them in the early part of the last century, Wilks +writes as follows. "These persons constitute a distinct caste, +trained from their infancy in daily exercises for the express purpose +of exhibitions; and perhaps the whole world does not produce more +perfect forms than those which are exhibited at these interesting +but cruel sports. The combatants, clad in a single garment of light +orange-coloured drawers extending half-way down the thigh, have +their right arm furnished with a weapon, which, for want of a more +appropriate term, we shall name a cæstus, although different from +the Roman instruments of that name. It is composed of buffalo horn, +fitted to the hand, and pointed with four knobs, resembling very +sharp knuckles, and corresponding to their situation, with a fifth +of greater prominence at the end nearest the little finger, and at +right angles with the other four. This instrument, properly placed, +would enable a man of ordinary strength to cleave open the head of his +adversary at a blow; but, the fingers being introduced through the +weapon, it is fastened across them at an equal distance between the +first and second lower joints, in a situation, it will be observed, +which does not admit of attempting a severe blow, without the risk +of dislocating the first joints of all the fingers. Thus armed, and +adorned with garlands of flowers, the successive pairs of combatants, +previously matched by the masters of the feast, are led into the +arena; their names and abodes are proclaimed; and, after making their +prostrations, first to the Raja seated on his ivory throne, and then +to the lattices behind which the ladies of the court are seated, they +proceed to the combat, first divesting themselves of the garlands, +and strewing the flowers gracefully over the arena. The combat is a +mixture of wrestling and boxing, if the latter may be so named. The +head is the exclusive object permitted to be struck. Before the end +of the contest, both of the combatants may frequently be observed +streaming with blood from the crown of the head down to the sand of +the arena. When victory seems to have declared itself, or the contest +is too severely maintained, the moderators in attendance on the Raja +make a signal for its cessation by throwing down turbans and robes, +to be presented to the combatants. The victor frequently goes off the +arena in four or five somersaults, to denote that he retires fresh +from the contest. The Jettis are divided into five classes, and the +ordinary price of victory is promotion to a higher class. There are +distinct rewards for the first class, and in their old age they are +promoted to be masters of the feast." + +In an account of sports held before Tipu Sultan at Seringapatam, +James Scurry, who was one of his prisoners, writes as follows. [227] +"The getiees would be sent for, who always approached with their +masters at their head, and, after prostration, and making their +grand salams, touching the ground each time, they would be paired, +one school against another. They had on their right hands the +wood-guamootie (wajramushti) of four steel talons, which were fixed +to each back joint of their fingers, and had a terrific appearance +when their fists were closed. Their heads were close shaved, their +bodies oiled, and they wore only a pair of short drawers. On being +matched, and the signal given from Tippu, they begin the combat, +always by throwing the flowers, which they wear round their necks, +in each other's faces; watching an opportunity of striking with the +right hand, on which they wore this mischievous weapon which never +failed lacerating the flesh, and drawing blood most copiously. Some +pairs would close instantly, and no matter which was under, for the +gripe was the whole; they were in general taught to suit their holds to +their opponent's body, with every part of which, as far as concerned +them, they were well acquainted. If one got a hold against which his +antagonist could not guard, he would be the conqueror; they would +frequently break each other's legs and arms; and, if anyway tardy, +Tippu had means of infusing spirit into them, for there were always +two stout fellows behind each, with instruments in their hands that +would soon put them to work. They were obliged to fight as long as +Tippu pleased, unless completely crippled, and, if they behaved well, +they were generally rewarded with a turban and shawl, the quality +being according to their merit." + +The Jettis of Mysore still have in their possession knuckle-dusters of +the type described above, and take part annually in matches during the +Dasara festival. A Jetti police constable, whom I saw at Channapatna, +had wrestled at Baroda, and at the court of Nepal, and narrated to me +with pride how a wrestler came from Madras to Bangalore, and challenged +any one to a match. A Jetti engaged to meet him in two matches for +Rs. 500 each, and, after going in for a short course of training, +walked round him in each encounter, and won the money easily. + +The Mysore Jettis are said to be called, in some places, Mushtigas. And +some are stated to use a jargon called Mallabasha. [228] + +Jetti further occurs as the name of an exogamous sept of the Kavarais. + +Jew.--It has been said by a recent writer that "there is hardly a +more curious, and in some respects one might almost say a more weird +sight than the Jew town, which lies beyond the British Settlement at +Cochin. Crossing over the lagoon from the beautiful little island of +Bolghotty, where the British Residency for the Cochin State nestles +in a bower of tropical vegetation, one lands amidst cocoanut trees, +opposite to one of the old palaces of the Cochin Rajahs, and, passing +through a native bazaar crowded with dark-skinned Malayalis, one +turns off abruptly into a long narrow street, where faces as white as +those of any northern European race, but Semitic in every feature, +transport one suddenly in mind to the Jewish quarter in Jerusalem, +or rather perhaps to some ghetto in a Polish city." + +In the preparation of the following note, I have been much indebted to +the Cochin Census Report, 1901, and to a series of articles published +by Mr. Elkan N. Adler in the Jewish Chronicle. [229] + +The circumstances under which, and the time when the Jews migrated to +the Malabar Coast, are wrapped in obscurity. They themselves are able +to give accounts of only isolated incidents, since whatever records +they had were lost at the destruction by the Portuguese of their +original settlement at Cranganur in 1565, and by the destruction at a +later period of such fragments as remained in their possession in the +struggle between the Portuguese and the Dutch, for the Portuguese, +suspecting that the Jews had helped the Dutch, plundered their +synagogue in Cochin. + +It is recorded by the Dutch Governor Moens [230] that "when Heer +van Goens besieged Cochin, the Jews were quite eager to provide the +troops of the Dutch Company with victuals, and to afford them all +the assistance they could, hoping that they would enjoy under this +Company the greatest possible civil and religious liberty; but, +when the above-mentioned troops were compelled to leave this coast +before the end of the good monsoon, without having been able to take +Cochin, the Portuguese did not fail to make the Jews feel the terrible +consequences of their revenge. For, no sooner had the Dutch retreated, +than a detachment of soldiers was sent to the Jewish quarters, which +were pillaged and set fire to, whilst the inhabitants fled to the +high-lands, and returned only after Cochin was taken by the Dutch. + +"The Jews, who still hold that the Malabar Israelites were in +possession of an old copy of the Sepher Thora, say that this copy, +and all other documents, got lost on the occasion when the Portuguese +destroyed the Jewish quarters, but this is not likely. For, whereas +they had time to save their most valuable property according to their +own testimony, and to take it to the mountains, they would not have +failed to take along with them these documents, which were to them +of inestimable value. For it is related that for a new copy of the +Pentateuch which at that time was in their synagogue they had so much +respect, and took such great care of it, that they even secured this +copy, and took it along, and (when they returned) carried it back +with great rejoicing, as it was done in olden times with the Ark of +the Covenant." + +Writing in the eighteenth century, Captain Hamilton states [231] that +the Jews "have a synagogue at Cochin, not far from the King's Palace, +in which are carefully kept their Records, engraven on copper plates +in Hebrew characters; and when any of the characters decay, they +are new cut, so that they can show their own History from the Reign +of Nebuchadnezzar to this present time. Myn Heer Van Reeda, about the +year 1695, had an Abstract of their History translated from the Hebrew +into low Dutch. They declare themselves to be of the Tribe of Manasseh, +a Part whereof was, by order of that haughty Conqueror Nebuchadnezzar, +carried to the easternmost Province of his large Empire, which, it +seems, reached as far as Cape Comerin, which journey 200,000 of them +travelled in three years from their setting out of Babylon." + +The elders of the White Jews of Cochin have in their possession a +charter on two copper plates in Vatteluttu character, "the original +character which once prevailed over nearly all the Tamil country +and south-west coast, but which has long ceased to be used in the +former place, and, in the latter, is now only known in a later form, +used for drawing up documents by Hindu Rajas." [232] Concerning this +copper-plate charter, Mr. Adler writes that "the white Jews say that +they have always held it; the black Jews contend that it was originally +theirs. The title-deed is quaint in many ways. It consists of three +strips of copper, one of which is blank, one etched on both sides, +and the third on one side only. The characters are made legible by +being rubbed with whitening. The copper plates have a round hole in +the corner, through which a string was passed to tie them together +under seal, but the seal is lost. They are now kept together by a +thin and narrow copper band, which just fits." + +Taking Dr. Gundert's [233] and Mr. Ellis' [234] translation of the +charter as guides, Mr. Burnell translates it as follows:-- [235] + +Svasti Sri.--The king of kings has ordered (This is) the act of grace +ordered by His Majesty Srî Pârkaran Iravi Vanmar [236] wielding the +sceptre and reigning in a hundred thousand places, (in) the year +(which is) the opposite to the second year, the thirty-sixth year, +(on) the day he designed to abide in Mûyirikkôdu. [237] We have +given to Isuppu Irabbân [238] Ansuvannam (as a principality), and +seventy-two proprietary rights (appertaining to the dignity of a +feudal lord) also tribute by reverence (?) and offerings, and the +profits of Ansuvannam, and day-lamps, and broad garments (as opposed +to the custom of Malabar), and palankins, and umbrellas, and large +drums, and trumpets, and small drums and garlands, and garlands across +streets, etc., and the like, and seventy-two free houses. Moreover, +we have granted by this document on copper that he shall not pay +the taxes paid by the houses of the city into the royal treasury, +and the (above-said) privileges to hold (them). To Isuppu Irabbân, +prince of Ansuvannam, and to his descendants, his sons and daughters, +and to his nephews, and to (the nephews) of his daughters in natural +succession, Ansuvannam (is) an hereditary estate, as long as the world +and moon exist. Srî. The charter is witnessed by various local chiefs. + +A somewhat different reading is given by Dr. G. Oppert [239] who +renders the translation as follows:-- + +"Hail and happiness! The King of Kings, His Holiness Srî Bhaskara Ravi +Varma, who wields the sceptre in many hundred thousand places, has made +this decree on the day that he was pleased to dwell in Muyirikodu in +the thirty-sixth year of his reign. We have granted unto Joseph Rabban +Anjavannan the [dignity of] Prince, with all the seventy-two rights +of ownership. He shall [enjoy] the revenues from female elephants +and riding animals, and the income of Anjavannan. He is entitled to +be honoured by lamps by day, and to use broad-cloth and sedan chairs, +and the umbrella and the drums of the north and trumpets, and little +drums, and gates, and garlands over the streets, and wreaths, and so +on. We have granted unto him the land tax and weight tax. Moreover, +we have by these copper tablets sanctioned that, when the houses +of the city have to pay taxes to the palace, he need not pay, and +he shall enjoy other privileges like unto these. To Joseph Rabban, +the prince of Anjavannam, and to his descendants, and to his sons and +daughters, and to the nephews and sons-in-law of his daughters, in +natural succession, so long as the world and moon exist, Anjuvannam +shall be his hereditary possession." It is suggested by Dr. Oppert +that Anjuvannam is identical with the fifth or foreign caste. + +Dr. E. Hultzsch, the latest authority on the subject of the copper +plates, gives the following translation: [240] "Hail! Prosperity! (The +following) gift (prasada) was graciously made by him who had assumed +the title 'King of Kings' (Kogon), His Majesty (tiruvadi) the King +(ko), the glorious Bhaskara Ravivarman, in the time during which (he) +was wielding the sceptre and ruling over many hundred thousands of +places, in the thirty-sixth year after the second year, on the day on +which (he) was pleased to stay at Muyirikkodu. We have given to Issuppu +Irappan (the village of) Anjuvannam, together with the seventy-two +proprietary rights (viz.), the tolls on female elephants and other +riding-animals, the revenue of Anjuvannam, a lamp in day-time, +a cloth spread (in front to walk on), a palanquin, a parasol, a +Vaduga (i.e., Telugu?) drum, a large trumpet, a gateway, an arch, +a canopy (in the shape) of an arch, a garland, and so forth. We have +remitted tolls and the tax on balances. Moreover, we have granted with +(these) copper-leaves that he need not pay (the dues) which the (other) +inhabitants of the city pay to the royal palace (koyil), and that (he) +may enjoy (the benefits) which (they) enjoy. To Issuppu Irappan of +Anjuvannam, to the male children and to the female children born of +him, to his nephews, and to the sons-in-law who have married (his) +daughters (we have given) Anjuvannam (as) an hereditary estate for +as long as the world and the moon shall exist. Hail! Thus do I know, +Govardhana-Martandan of Venadu. Thus do I know, Kodai Srikanthan of +Venapalinadu. Thus do I know, Manavepala-Manavyan of Eralanadu. Thus +do I know, Irayiram of Valluvanadu. Thus do I know, Kodai Ravi of +Nedumpuraiyurnadu. Thus do I know, Murkham Sattan, who holds the office +of sub-commander of the forces. The writing of the Under-Secretary +Van--Talaiseri--Gandan Kunrappolan." + +"The date of the inscription," Dr. Hultzsch adds, "was the +thirty-sixth year opposite to the second year. As I have shown on a +previous occasion, [241] the meaning of this mysterious phrase is +probably 'the thirty-sixth year (of the king's coronation, which +took place) after the second year (of the king's yauvarajya).' The +inscription records a grant which the king made to Issuppu Irappan, +i.e., Joseph Rabban. The occurrence of this Semitic name, combined +with the two facts that the plates are still with the Cochin Jews, +and that the latter possess a Hebrew translation of the document, +proves that the donee was a member of the ancient Jewish colony on +the western coast. The grant was made at Muriyikkodu. The Hebrew +translation identifies this place with Kodunnallur (Cranganore), +where the Jewish colonists resided, until the bad treatment which +they received at the hands of the Portuguese induced them to settle +near Cochin. The object of the grant was Anjuvannam. This word means +'the five castes,' and may have the designation of that quarter of +Cranganore, in which the five classes of Artisans--Ain-Kammalar, +as they are called in the smaller Kottayam grant--resided." + +In a note on the Kottayam plate of Vira Raghava, which is in the +possession of the Syrian Christians, Rai Bahadur V. Venkayya writes +as follows. [242] "Vira-Raghava conferred the title of Manigramam +on the merchant Iravikkorran. Similarly Anjuvannam was bestowed by +the Cochin plates on the Jew Joseph Rabban. The old Malayalam work +Payyanur Pattola, which Dr. Gundert considered the oldest specimen +of Malayalam composition, refers to Anjuvannam and Manigramam. The +context in which the two names occur in this work implies that they +were trading institutions. In the Kottayam plates of Sthanu Ravi, +both Anjuvannam and Manigramam are frequently mentioned. Both of them +were appointed along with the six hundred to be 'the protectors' of +the grant. They were 'to preserve the proceeds of the customs duty +as they were collected day by day,' and 'to receive the landlord's +portion of the rent on land. If any injustice be done to them, +they may withhold the customs and the tax on balances, and remedy +themselves the injury done to them. Should they themselves commit +a crime, they are themselves to have the investigation of it.' To +Anjuvannam and Manigramam was granted the freehold of the lands of +the town (of Kollam?). From these extracts, and from the reference in +the Payyanur Pattola, it appears that Anjuvannam and Manigramam were +semi-independent trading corporations. The epithet Setti (merchant) +given to Ravikkorran, the trade rights granted to him, and the sources +of revenue thrown open to him as head of Manigramam, confirm the view +that the latter was a trading corporation. There is nothing either +in the Cochin grant, or in the subjoined inscription to show that +Anjuvannam and Manigramam were, as believed by Dr. Gundert and others, +Jewish and Christian principalities, respectively. It was supposed by +Dr. Burnell that the plate of Vira-Raghava created the principality +of Manigramam, and the Cochin plates that of Anjuvannam, and that, +consequently, the existence of these two grants is presupposed +by the plates of Sthanu Ravi, which mention both Anjuvannam and +Manigramam very often. The Cochin plates did not create Anjuvannam, +but conferred the honours and privileges connected therewith to a Jew +named Joseph Rabban. Similarly, the rights and honours associated with +the other corporation, Manigramam, was bestowed at a later period on +Ravikkorran. Therefore, Anjuvannam and Manigramam must have existed +as institutions even before the earliest of these three copper-plates +was issued. It is just possible that Ravikkorran was a Christian by +religion. But his name and title give no clue in this direction, and +there is nothing Christian in the document, except its possession by +the present owners." + +It is recorded by Mr. Francis Day [243] that Governor Moens obtained +three different translations of the plates, and gave as the most +correct version one, in which the following words occur:--"We, Erawi, +Wanwara, Emperor of Malabar ... give this deed of rights to the good +Joseph Rabban, that he may use the five colours, spread his religion +among the five castes." Mr. Burnell, however, notes that Dr. Gundert +has ascertained beyond doubt that Anjuvannan (literally five colours) +does not mean some privilege, but is the name of a place. + +Concerning the copper-plates, Governor Moens writes thus. "The +following translation is by the Jewish merchant Ezechiel Rabby, who +was an earnest explorer of anything that had any connection with his +nation. After this I will give another translation, which I got from +our second interpreter Barend Deventer, who was assisted by an old +and literary inhabitant of Malabar; and lastly I will add a third +one, which I obtained from our first interpreter Simon of Tongeren, +assisted by a heathen scribe of Calicut, in order thus not to allow +the Jews to be the judges in their own affair, but rather to enable +the reader to judge for himself in this doubtful matter. The first +translation runs thus:-- + + + "By the help of God, who created the universe and appoints + the kings, and whom I honour, I, Erawi Wanwara, Emperor of + Malabar, grant in the 36th year of our happy reign at the court + of Moydiricotta--alias Cranganore--this Act of Privileges to + the Jew Josep Rabaan, viz., that he may make use of the five + colours, spread his religion among the five castes or dynasties, + fire salutes on all solemnities, ride on elephants and horses, + hold stately processions, make use of cries of honour, and in + the day-time of torches, different musical instruments, besides a + big drum; that he may walk on roads spread with white linen, hold + tournaments with sticks, and sit under a stately curtain. These + privileges we give to Josep Rabaan and to the 72 households, + provided that the others of this nation must obey the orders + of his and their descendants so long as the sun shall shine + on the earth. This Act is granted in the presence of the Kings + of Trevancore, Tekkenkore, Baddenkenkore, Calicoilan, Aringut, + Sammoryn, Palcatchery, and Colastry; written by the secretary + Calembi Kelapen in the year 3481 Kalijogam. + + "'The second translation differs in important statements from the + first, and would deserve more attention when neutral people of + Malabar could be found, who could testify to the credibility of + the same; but, notwithstanding the trouble I have taken to find + such persons, it has been hitherto in vain. The second translation + runs thus:-- + + "'In the quiet and happy time of our reign, we, Erawi Wanwara, + imitator of (successor to ?) the sceptres, which for many hundreds + of thousands of years have reigned in justice and righteousness, + the glorious footsteps of whom we follow, now in the second year + of our reign, being the 36th year of our residence in the town + of Moydiricotta, grant hereby, on the obtained good testimony + of the great experience of Joseph Rabaan, that the said person + is allowed to wear long dresses of five colours, that he may use + carriages together with their appurtenances, and fans which are + used by the nobility. He shall have precedence to the five castes, + be allowed to burn day-lamps, to walk on spread out linen, to make + use of palanquins, Payeng umbrellas, large bent trumpets, drums, + staff, and covered seats. We give him charge over the 72 families + and their temples, which are found both here and elsewhere, and + we renounce our rights on all taxes and duties on both houses. He + shall everywhere be allowed to have lodgings. All these privileges + and prerogatives, explained in this charter, we grant to Joseph + Rabaan head of the five castes, and to his heirs, sons, daughters, + children's children, the sons-in-law married to the daughters, + together with their descendants, as long as the sun and moon shall + shine; and we grant him also all power over the five castes, as + long as the names of their descendants shall last. Witnesses hereof + are the Head of the country of Wenaddo named Comaraten Matandden; + the head of the country of Wenaaodea named Codei Cheri-canden; + the Head of the country of Erala named Mana Bepalamaan; the Head + of the country Walonaddo named Trawaren Chaten; the Head of the + country Neduwalur named Codei Trawi; besides the first of the + lesser rulers of territories of the part of Cusupady Pawagan, + namely the heir of Murkom Chaten named Kelokandan; written by + the secretary named Gunawendda Wanasen Nayr, Kisapa Kelapa; + signed by the Emperor. + + "'The third translation runs as follows:-- + + "'In the name of the Most High God, who created the whole world + after His own pleasure, and maintains justice and righteousness, + I, Erwij Barman, raise my hands, and thank His Majesty for his + grace and blessing bestowed on my reign in Cranganore, when + residing in the fortress of Muricotta. I have granted for good + reasons to my minister Joseph Raban the following privileges; + that he may wear five coloured cloths, long dresses, and hang on + the shoulders certain cloths; that they may cheer together, make + use of drums and tambourines, burn lights during the day, spread + cloths on the roads, use palanquins, umbrellas, trumpet torches, + burning torches, sit under a throne (?), and act as Head of all + the Jews numbering seventy-two houses, who will have to pay him + the tolls and taxes of the country, no matter in what part of the + country they are living; these privileges I give to Joseph Raban + and his descendants, be they males or females, as long as any + one of them is alive, and the sun and moon shine on the earth; + for this reason I have the same engraved on a copper-plate as an + everlasting remembrance. Witnesses are the Kings of Travancore, + Berkenkore, Sammorin, Arangolla, Palcatchery, Collastry, and + Corambenaddo; written by the secretary Kellapen. + + +"'The aforesaid copper-plate is written in the old broken Northern +Tamil language, but with different kinds of characters, viz., Sanskrit +and Tamil, and is now read and translated by a heathen scribe named +Callutil Atsja, who was born at Calicut, and who, during the war, +fled from that place, and stays at present on the hills. + + + "'When these translations are compared with one another, it will + be observed at once that, in the first, the privileges are granted + to the Jew Joseph Rabban, and to the 72 Jewish families, whereas, + in the second, no trace is found of the word Jew; and Joseph + Rabban is, in the third, not called a Jew, but the minister of + the king, although he may be taken for a Jew from the context in + the course of the translation, for he is there appointed as Head + of all the other Jews to the number of 72 houses. It is equally + certain that the name of Rabaan is not exclusively proper to the + Jews only. Furthermore, the first and last translations grant + the above-mentioned privileges not only to Joseph Rabaan, but + also to the 72 Jewish families, whereas, according to the second + translation, the same are given to Joseph Rabaan, his family + and offspring only. The second translation, besides, does not at + all mention the freedom granted, and the consent to spread the + Jewish religion among the five castes. Thus, it is obvious that + these three translations do not agree, that the first and third + coincide more with each other than they do with the second; that, + for that reason, the first and last translations deserve more to + be believed than the second, which stands alone; but that this, + for that very reason, does not prove what it, properly speaking, + ought to prove, and, whereas I am not acquainted with the Malabar + language, I prefer to refrain from giving my opinion on the + subject. For hitherto I have been unable to come across, either + among the people of Malabar and Canara, or among the literary + priests and natives, any one who was clever enough to translate + these old characters for the fourth time, notwithstanding the + fact that I had sent a copy of these characters to the north and + south of Cochin, in order to have them deciphered. + + "'The witnesses who were present at the granting of this charter + differ also. The first and third translations, however, seem also + to concur more with each other than with the second one. But the + discrepancy of the second translation lies in this, that in it + not the personal names of the witnesses are recorded, but only + their offices or dignities, in which they officiated at that time; + whereas the mistake in the first and third translations consists + herein, that the witnesses are called kings, and more so of those + places by which names these places were called some time after and + subsequently when times had changed, and by which names they are + still known. The second translation, however, calls them merely + heads of the countries, in the same manner as they were known at + the time of the Emperor, when these heads were not as yet kings, + because these heads bore the title of king and ruler only after + the well-known division of the Malabar Empire into four chief + kingdoms, and several smaller kingdoms and principalities. It must + be admitted, however, that the head of the country of Cochin is, + in the first and third translations, not mentioned by that name, + although the kingdom of Cochin is in reality one of the four + chief kingdoms of Malabar. I add this here for elucidation, + in order that one should not wonder, when reading this charter, + that inferior heads of countries and districts of the Malabar + Empire could be called kings, because the Empire being at that + time not as yet divided, they were not kings. It seems, therefore, + to have been a free translation, of which the translators of the + first and third translations have made use, and which has been + pointed out in the second translation. + + "'The other statements of this charter, especially the authority + over the five castes, must be explained according to the + ancient times, customs, and habits of the people of Malabar, + and need not be taken into consideration here. Whether this + charter has in reality been granted to the Jews or not, it is + certain that not at any time has a Jew had great authority over + his co-religionists, and still less over the so-called five + castes. Moreover, the property of the Jews has never been free + from taxes, notwithstanding the fact that the kings to whom they + were subject appointed as a rule as heads of the Jews men of their + own nationality. They were known by the name of Moodiliars, who + had no other authority than to dispose of small civil disputes, + and to impose small fines of money. + + "'There is, however, a peculiarity, which deserves to be + mentioned. Although, in the charter, some privileges are granted, + which were also given to other people, yet to no one was it ever + permitted to fire three salutes at the break of day, or on the + day of a marriage feast of one who entered upon the marriage + state, without a previous request and special permission. This + was always reserved, even to the present day, to the kings of + Cochin only. Yet up to now it was always allowed to the Jews + without asking first. And it is known that the native kings do + not easily allow another to share in outward ceremonies, which + they reserve for themselves. If, therefore, the Jews would have + arrogated to themselves this privilege without high authority, + the kings of Cochin would put a stop to this privilege of this + nation, whose residences are situated next to the Cochin palace, + but for this reason, I suppose, dare not do so.'" + + +Various authorities have attempted to fix approximately the date +of the copper-plate charter. Mr. Burnell gives 700 A.D. as its +probable date. The Rev. G. Milne Rae, accepting the date as fixed +by Mr. Burnell, argues that the Jews must have received the grant a +few generations after the settlement, and draws the conclusion that +they might have settled in the country some time about the sixth +century A.D. Dr. J. Wilson, in a lecture [244] on the Beni-Israels +of Bombay, adopts the sixth century of the Christian era as the +probable date of the arrival of the Beni-Israels in Bombay, about +which time also, he is inclined to think, the Cochin Jews came to +India, for their first copper-plate charter seems to belong to this +period. There is no tradition among the Jews of Cochin that they +and the Beni-Israels emigrated to the shores of India from the same +spot or at the same time, and the absence of any social intercourse +between the Beni-Israels and the Cochin Jews seems to go against +this theory. In one of the translations of the charter obtained by +the Dutch Governor Moens, the following words appear: "Written by the +Secretary Calembi Kelapoor, in the year 3481 of the Kali-yuga (i.e., +379 A.D.)." This date does not appear, however, in the translations +of Gundert, Ellis, Burnell and Oppert. The charter was given in the +thirty-sixth year of the reign of the donor Bhaskara Ravi Varma. And, +as all, except the last of the foreign Viceroys of Kerala, are said to +have been elected for twelve years only, Cheruman Perumal, reputed to +be the last of Perumals, who under exceptional circumstances had his +term extended, according to Malabar tradition, to thirty-six years, +may be identical with Bhaskara Ravi Varma, who, Mr. Day says, reigned +till 378 A.D. Mr. C. M. Whish gives a still earlier date, for he +fixes 231 A.D. as the probable date of the grant. In connection with +the claim to the antiquity of the settlement of the Jews in Malabar, +it is set forth in the Cochin Census Report that they "are supposed +to have first come in contact with a Dravidian people as early as +the time of Solomon about B.C. 1000, for 'philology proves that the +precious cargoes of Solomon's merchant ships came from the ancient +coast of Malabar.' It is possible that such visits were frequent +enough in the years that followed. But the actual settlement of +the Jews on the Malabar coast might not have taken place until long +afterwards. Mr. Logan, in the Manual of Malabar, writes that 'the +Jews have traditions, which carry back their arrival on the coast +to the time of their escape from servitude under Cyrus in the sixth +century B.C.,' and the same fact is referred to by Sir W. Hunter +in his 'History of British India.' This eminent historian, in his +'Indian Empire' speaks of Jewish settlements in Malabar long before +the second century A.D. A Roman merchant ship, that sailed regularly +from Myos Hormuz on the Red Sea to Arabia, Ceylon, and Malabar, is +reported to have found a Jewish colony in Malabar in the second century +A.D. In regard to the settlement of the Jews in Malabar, Mr. Whish +observes that 'the Jews themselves say that Mar Thomas, the apostle, +arrived in India in the year of our Lord 52, and themselves, the Jews, +in the year 69.' In view of the commercial intercourse between the +Jews and the people of the Malabar coast long before the Christian +era, it seems highly probable that Christianity but followed in the +wake of Judaism. The above facts seem to justify the conclusion that +the Jews must have settled in Malabar at least as early as the first +century A.D." + +At Cochin the Jews enjoyed full privileges of citizenship, and were +able to preserve the best part of their religious and civil liberty, +and to remain here for centuries unseen, unknown, and unsearched +by their persecutors. But, in the sixteenth century, they fell +victims by turns to the oppression of fanatical Moors and over-zealous +Christians. "In 1524, the Mahomedans made an onslaught on the Cranganur +Jews, slew a great number, and drove out the rest to a village to the +east; but, when they attacked the Christians, the Nayars of the place +retaliated, and in turn drove all the Mahomedans out of Cranganur. The +Portuguese enlarged and strengthened their Cranganur fort, and +compelled the Jews finally to desert their ancient settlement of +Anjuvannam." Thus, with the appearance of a powerful Christian nation +on the scene, the Jews experienced the terrors of a new exile and a +new dispersion, the desolation of Cranganur being likened by them to +the desolation of Jerusalem in miniature. Some of them were driven to +villages adjoining their ruined principality, while others seem to have +taken shelter in Cochin and Ernakulam. "Cranganore," Mr. Adler writes, +"was captured by the Mahomedan Sheikh or Zamorin in 1524, and razed +to the ground. The Rajah Daniel seems to have previously sent his +brother David to Europe to negociate with the Pope and the Portuguese +for an offensive and defensive alliance against the Zamorin. Anyhow, +a mysterious stranger, who called himself David Rubbeni, appeared in +Rome in March, 1524, and, producing credentials from the Portuguese +authorities in India and Egypt, was received with much honour by +the Pope, King John of Portugal, and the Emperor Charles the Fifth +in turn. After some years he fell a victim to the inquisition, but +his failure and non-return to India are more easily explained by the +fact that he was too late, and that the State he represented was no +longer existent, than by the cheap assumption of all our historians, +including Graetz, that he was an impostor with a cock-and-bull +story. Whether the famous diary of David Rubbeni is genuine or +not is less certain. But I have elsewhere sought to re-establish +this long-discredited ambassador, and here limit myself to drawing +attention to his name, which seems to have been David Rabbani. To +this day David is one of the commonest names among the Cochin Jews, +as well as the B'nei Israel, and Rabbani is the name of the ruling +family under the copper grant. Its alteration into Rubeni was due to +sixteenth century interest in the lost ten tribes, and a consequent +desire of identifying the Royal family as sprung from Reuben, the +first-born of Israel. Reuben, too, is a favourite name among the +B'nei Israel. With the destruction of their capital, the Jews left +and migrated, though to no great distance. Within 20 miles south +of Cranganore are four other places, all on the Cochin back-water, +where the Black Jews still have synagogues. Parur, Chennan Mangalam, +and Mala have each one synagogue, Ernakulam has two, and Cochin three, +of which one belongs to the White Jews. The Parur Jews have also +the ruins of another synagogue marked by a Ner Tamid, which they say +existed 400 years ago, when there were eighteen Bote Midrash (schools) +and 500 Jewish houses. This tradition further confirms the importance +of Cranganore before 1524. With the advent of the Dutch, better times +ensued for the Jews. The Dutch were bitter foes of the Portuguese +and their inquisition, and friends of their enemies. Naturally the +Jews were on the side of the Dutch, and, as naturally, had to suffer +for their temerity. In 1662 the Dutch attacked the Ranee's palace +at Mattancheri and besieged the adjoining town of Cochin, but had +to retire before Portuguese reinforcements. The Portuguese therefore +burnt the synagogue adjoining the palace, because they suspected the +Jews, no doubt with justice, of having favoured the Dutch. In the +following year, however, 'the Dutch renewed their attack on Cochin, +this time with complete success. The port and town fell into their +hands, and with it fell the Portuguese power in India. By a series +of treaties, Cochin and Holland became close allies, and the Dutch +settlement became firmly established in Cochin.' The Dutch helped +the White Jews to rebuild their synagogue. The Dutch clock is still +the pride of Cochin Jewry." + +It is well known that the Cochin Jews are generally divided into two +classes, the White and the Black. Writing in the early part of the +eighteenth century, [245] Baldæus states that "in and about the City +of Cochin, lived formerly some Jews, who even now have a synagogue +allow'd them without the Fortifications; they are neither White +nor Brown, but quite black. The Portuguese Histories mention that +at a certain time certain blasphemous papers against our Saviour, +with some severe reflections against the Jesuit Gonsalvus Pereira +(who afterwards suffer'd Martyrdom at Monopatapa) being found in a +box set in the Great Church for the gathering of Alms; and the same +being supposed to be laid there by some European Jews, who now and then +used to resort thither privately, this gave occasion to introduce the +Inquisition into Goa." It is noted by the Rev. J. H. Lord [246] that +"Jacob Saphir, a Jewish traveller, who visited his co-religionists +in Cochin in recent years, having described some of the Jews resident +there as black, hastens to tone down his words, and adds, they are not +black like the raven, or as the Nubians, but only as the appearance +of copper. But Hagim Jacob Ha Cohen, another modern Jewish traveller, +chastizing the latter for calling them black at all, declares that +he will write of this class everywhere as the non-white, and never +anywhere (God forbid!) as the Black." The Black Jews claim to have +been the earliest settlers, while the White Jews came later. But +the latter assert that the former are pure natives converted to the +Jewish faith. These two difficult, yet important, issues of priority of +settlement and purity of race have divided antiquarians and historians +quite as much as they have estranged the two classes of Jews themselves +from one another. According to the Rev. C. Buchanan, [247] the White +Jews dwelling in Jews' town in Mattancheri are later settlers than +the Black Jews. They had only the Bible written on parchment, and of +modern appearance, in their synagogue, but he managed to get from the +Black Jews much older manuscripts written on parchment, goat's skin, +and cotton paper. He says that "it is only necessary to look at their +countenances to be satisfied that their ancestors must have arrived in +India many years before the White Jews. Their Hindu complexion, and +their very imperfect resemblance to the European Jews, indicate that +they had been detached from the parent stocks in Judea many ages before +the Jews in the West, and that there have been marriages with families +not Israelitish." The Rev. J. Hough observes [248] that the Black Jews +"appear so much like the natives of India, that it is difficult at +first sight to distinguish them from the Hindu. By a little closer +observation, however, the Jewish contour of their countenances cannot +be mistaken." In the lecture already referred to, Dr. Wilson states +that "their family names, such as David Castile (David the Castilian) +go to prove that they (the White Jews) are descended of the Jews +of Spain, probably of those driven from that country in the reign +of Ferdinand and Isabella, and of German and Egyptian Jews. The real +ancient Jews of Cochin are the Black Jews' descendants, we believe, of +Judea-Arabians and Indian proselytes. Some rather obscure references +to the Jews of Cochin and Quilon are made by Benjamin of Tudela, who +returned to Spain from his eastern voyage in 1173. He found no White +Jews in India. Speaking of those in the pepper country near Chulam +(Quilon), he says that all the cities and countries inhabited by +these people contain only about 100 Jews (members of the synagogue), +who are of black colour as well as the other inhabitants." Referring +to Jan Linschoten's 'Itinerary,' published in Holland in 1596, +Mr. Adler observes that "the Jews who interested our traveller were +the 'rich merchants and of the king of Cochin's nearest counsellers, +who are most white of colour like men of Europe, and have many fair +women. There are many of them that came of the country Palestine and +Jerusalem thither, and spoke over all the exchange verie perfect and +good Spanish.' This directly confirms the view that the White Jews +were new comers from foreign lands. Their knowledge of Spanish is +now quite a thing of the past, but it proves that they were Sephardim." + +In regard to the claim of the White Jews to being the only genuine +Jews, it may be of interest to record the opinion of a Jew, Rabbi +David D'Beth Hithel, who travelled in Cochin in 1832. He says +that "the White Jews say of them (the Black Jews) that they are +descendants of numerous slaves who were purchased and converted to +Judaism, set free and carefully instructed by a rich White Jew some +centuries ago. At his cost, they say, were all their old synagogues +erected. The Black Jews believe themselves to be the descendants of +the first captivity, who were brought to India, and did not return +with the Israelites who built the second temple. This account I am +inclined to believe correct. Though called Black Jews--they are of +somewhat darker complexion than the White Jews--yet they are not of +the colour of the natives of the country, or of persons descended +from Indian slaves." This passage bears reference to a tradition +current among the Black Jews that they are the descendants of the +Jews who were driven out of the land of Israel thirteen years before +the destruction of the first temple built by Solomon. They are said +to have first come to Calicut, whence they emigrated to Cranganur. + +"The White Jews," Mr. Adler writes, "claiming that they, and they +alone, are the true descendants of the aboriginal Jews of Cranganur, +retain the copper tablets in their possession, and boast that, +about the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Rajah of Cochin +invested the head of the Hallegua family with the hereditary title +of Mudaliar or Noble [and a wand with a silver knob as a sign of his +dignity], with the power of punishing certain crimes. The males of +that family still bear the title, but their feudal rights have been +abrogated. Nowadays the number of White Jews has dwindled to less than +200, so that it was easy to procure a list of all their names. From +the foreign origin of their surnames (Kindel, Ashkenazi, Mizrahi, +Koder, Roby, Sassoon), as well as for other reasons, it seems certain +that the White Jews are late comers, who did not settle in India till +after the destruction of Cranganur. They were traders, who came to +Cochin; they prospered under the rule of the Dutch, and built their +synagogue and quarter after the Black Jews were already established +there. Though, now, they hold themselves jealously aloof from the +Black Jews, they were at first quite intimate and friendly. The Indian +environment has had the opposite effect to that which England has had +upon our Ashkenazim and our no longer exclusive Sephardim. In India +caste is varna, which means colour, and their difference in colour has +produced caste distinctions among the Indian Jews. But, although the +White Jews are fair, some of them are certainly not quite white, nor +are the Black Jews quite black. Some of the 'Black' Jews are hardly +distinguishable from their 'White' brethren. Their customs, ritual, +and religious observances are the same. Their synagogues are so alike +that it needs some keenness of eyesight to detect that two pictures +are not of the identical building. The only great (?) difference +is that the White Jews have theirs tiled with rare old blue tiles, +over which newspaper correspondents wax eloquent. They say the tiles +are old Dutch, but really they are genuine Chinese [blue and white +Canton China], [249] whereby hangs a tale. The synagogue was built +nearly 200 years ago in a corner of the Rajah's palace-yard. At that +time, the Dutch were in possession of what is now British Cochin, and +they were the only people trading with China. The Rajah, through his +allies the Dutch, had imported a large quantity of the best China +tiles to pave his Darbar hall, but the Jews, says Mr. Thurston, +thought they would just do for the synagogue they were building, so +they told the Rajah that he could not possibly use them, inasmuch as +bullock's blood had been employed in their manufacture. His Highness, +much perturbed at the indignity to so sacred an animal, bade them +take the tiles away, and never let him see them again. Hence their +presence in the synagogue. The other synagogue has tiles also, but +they are of gleaming white." The synagogues, it may be added, are +square whitewashed buildings, surmounted by a bell-tower. It is said +that the Kadyabagan synagogue of the Black Jews is admitted by the +White Jews to be the oldest at present existing, having been built +in the 12th century. + +It is recorded by Governor Moens that "in the Jewish quarters +(situated) next to the palace of the king of Cochin at Cochin de Sima +there are two synagogues, viz., one for the White Jews, and the other +for the Black Jews. The latter have readers of their own tribe, who +hold the services, but, when a White Rabbi comes to their synagogue, +the honour of conducting the service must be given to him." + +"The dates," the Rev. J. H. Lord writes, "of the synagogues of the +Black Jews altogether antedate those of the White. Thus, the date +on the mural slab of the now disused and dilapidated Cochin Angadi +synagogue is A.D. 1344 = 563 years ago. That of the Kadavambagom +synagogue in Cochin is A.D. 1639, or = 268 years ago. That of the +Cochin Theckumbagom synagogue is A.D. 1586, or = 321 years ago; +while that of the synagogue of the White Jews is A.D. 1666 or = +241 years ago. Hence the institutions of the Black Jews are the +more ancient. The tomb-stone dates of the Black Jews are also far +more ancient than those of the White Jews. The earliest date of any +tomb-stone of the Black Jews is six hundred years old." + +It is further noted by the Rev. J. H. Lord that "the Black Jews +are still the ones who make use of the privileges granted in the +copper-plate charter. They still carry a silk umbrella, and lamps +lit at day-time, when proceeding to their synagogue on the 8th day +after birth of sons. They spread a cloth on the ground, and place +ornaments of leaves across the road on occasions when their brides +and bridegrooms go to get married, and use then cadanans (mortars +which are charged with gunpowder, and fired), and trumpets. After +the wedding is over, four silk sunshades, each supported on four +poles, are borne, with lamps burning in front, as the bridal party +goes home. The Black Jews say that the White Jews use none of these, +and never have done so. The White Jews aver that they were accustomed +formerly to use such privileges, but have discontinued them." + +There is record of disputes between the White and Black Jews for as +early a time as that of the Dutch settlement, or even earlier. Jealousy +and strife between the two sections on matters of intermarriage and +equal privileges seem to have existed even during the time of the +Portuguese. Canter Visscher, in his 'Letters from Malabar,' [250] +refers to these party feelings. "The blacks," he writes, "have a +dark coloured Rabbi, who must stand back if a white one enters, +and must resign to him the honour of performing the divine service +in the synagogue. On the other hand, when the black Rabbis enter the +synagogue of Whites, they must only be hearers. There has lately been +a great dispute between the two races; the Black wishing to compel the +White Jewesses to keep their heads uncovered, like their own women, +and trying to persuade the Rajah to enforce such a rule. The dispute +ended, however, with permission given to every one, both men and women, +to wear what they chose." + +More than once, Jewish Rabbis have been appealed to on the subject of +racial purity, and they have on all occasions upheld the claims of a +section of the Black Jews to being Jews, and the White Jews have as +often repudiated such decisions, and questioned their validity. The +weight of authority, and the evidence of local facts, seem to militate +against the contention of the White Jews that the Black Jews do +not belong to the Israelitish community, but are the descendants of +emancipated slaves and half castes. The White Jews appear to have +maintained the purity of their race by declining intermarriage with +the Black Jews. It must be admitted that, in the earlier centuries, +the original settlers purchased numerous slaves, who have since then +followed the religion of their masters. It is recorded by Stavorinus +[251] that "when these Jews purchase a slave, they immediately manumit +him; they circumcise him and receive him as their fellow Israelite, +and never treat him as a slave." It is noted by Canter Visscher [252] +that "the Jews make no objection to selling their slaves who are +not of their own religion to other nations, obliging them, however, +when sold, to abandon the use of the Jewish cap, which they had +before worn on their heads. But slaves, male or female, once fully +admitted into their religion by the performance of the customary +rites, can never be sold to a stranger." The Jews are said to have +had former fugitive connections with the women of these converts, +and brought into existence a mixed race of Dravidians and Semitics. It +would be uncharitable to infer from this that all the Black Jews are +the descendants of converted slaves or half-castes, as it would be +unreasonable to suppose that all of them are the descendants of the +original settlers. It is noted by Mr. Adler that "the Rev. J. H. Lord +quotes an interesting pronouncement on the racial purity of the +Black Jews of Malabar made by Haham Bashi of Jerusalem in 1892. The +Rabbi is said to have referred to the Maharikash (R. Jacob Castro, +of Alexandria), whose responsum in 1610 confirmed the 'Jichus' or the +'Mejuchasim' and decided likewise. He is even said to have allowed +one of his relatives to marry a Brown Jew! Nowadays, the White Jews +hold aloof from the larger community, black or brown, and profess to +be of another caste altogether. But one of the most intelligent of +their number, who took us round the synagogues, professed to think +such exclusiveness exaggerated and unfair, and admitted that their own +grandfathers had lived with Black Jewesses in a more or less binding +marital relation, and it is abundantly clear that, till recently, +the Black and White Jews were quite friendly, and the very fact of +the White Jews holding the title-deeds merely proves that they were +trusted by the true owners to keep them for safe custody, as they +were richer and possessed safes. In an article in the 'Revue des +Deux Mondes,' [253] Pierre Loti, writing of the Black Jews, says that +"le rabbin me fait d'ameres doléances sur la fierté des rivaux de la +rue proche, qui ne veulent jamais consentir à contracter marriage, +ni même à frayer avec ses paroissiens. Et, pour comble, me dit-il, +le grand rabbin de Jérusalem, à qui on avait adressé une plainte +collective, le priant d'intervenir, s'est contenté d'émettre, en +réponse, cette généralité plutôt offensante: Pour nicher ensemble, +il faut être des moineaux de même plumage." + +In recent years, a distinction appears to have grown up among the +Black Jews, so that they now want to be distinguished as Brown Jews +and Black Jews, the former claiming to be Meyookhasim or genuine +Jews. In this connection, Mr. Adler writes that "the Black Jews are +themselves divided into two classes, the Black Jews proper, who are +darker, and have no surnames, and the noble, who have family names +and legitimate descent, and claim to be the true descendants of the +Cranganur or Singili Jews." + +The White Jews are generally known by the name of Paradesis +(foreigners). This designation is found in some of the Sirkar (State) +accounts, and also in a few Theetoorams or Royal writs granted to +them. It is argued that they must have been so called at first to +distinguish them from the more ancient Israelites. The existence for +centuries of three small colonies of Black Jews at Chennamangalam and +Mala in the Cochin State, and Parur in Travancore, at a distance of +five or six miles from Cranganur, shows that they must have sought +refuge in those places on being hard pressed by the Moors and the +Portuguese. There are no White Jews in any of these stations, nor +can they point to any vested interests in the tracts about Cranganur, +the most ancient Jewish settlement in the State. + +The Jews wear a long tunic of rich colour, a waistcoat buttoned up +to the neck, and full white trousers. They go about wearing a skull +cap, and put on a turban when they go to the synagogue. The Black +Jews dress more or less like the native Mahomedans. Many of them +put on shirts, and have skull caps like the Jonaka Mappilas. They +generally wear coloured cloths. The Jews invariably use wooden +sandals. These, and their locks brought down in front of the ears, +distinguish them from other sections of the population. The Jewesses +always wear coloured cloths. Hebrew is still the liturgical language, +and is studied as a classic by a few, but the home language is +Malayalam. The White Jews celebrate their marriages on Sundays, +but the Black Jews still retain the ancient custom of celebrating +them on Tuesdays after sunset. Though polygamy is not prohibited, +monogamy is the rule. The males generally marry at the age of 20, +while the marriageable age for girls is 14 or 15. Marriages are +generally celebrated on a grand scale. The festivities continue for +seven days in the case of the White Jews, and for fifteen days among +the Black Jews, who still make use of some of the ancient privileges +granted by the charter of Cheraman Perumal. The Jews of all sections +have adopted a few Hindu customs. Thus, before going to the synagogue +for marriage, a tali (marriage badge) is tied round the bride's neck +by some near female relative of the bridegroom (generally his sister) +in imitation of the Hindu custom, amidst the joyful shouts (kurava) +of women. Divorce is not effected by a civil tribunal. Marriages are +dissolved by the making good the amount mentioned in the kethuba or +marriage document. In regard to their funerals, the corpse is washed, +but not anointed, and is deposited in the burial-ground, which is +called Beth Haim, the house of the living. + +Like their brethren in other parts of the world, the Cochin Jews +observe the Sabbath feasts and fasts blended intimately with their +religion, and practice the rite of circumcision on the eighth day, when +the child is also named. The Passover is celebrated by the distribution +of unleavened bread, but no kid is killed, nor is blood sprinkled upon +the door-post and lintel. The other feasts are the feast of Pentecost, +feast of Trumpets, and feast of Tabernacles. The day of atonement, +and the anniversary of the destruction of Jerusalem, are observed as +fasts. On the day of atonement, the Jews pray in the synagogue from +5 A.M. till 7 P.M. The Jewish fasts commence from 5 P.M. on the day +previous to the fast, and end at 7 P.M. next day. Their days begin +and end with sunset. The feast of Tabernacles is observed with more +pomp and ceremony than other feasts. A pandal, or temporary shed, +with a flat roof, covered over with plaited leaves of the cocoanut +palm, and decorated with festoons, is put up in the court-yard of, +or near every house, beneath which the inmates of the house assemble +and take their meals. On the last day of the feast, a large can +filled with oil is lit up in front of the synagogue. On that day, +the congregation assembles in the synagogue. Persons of both sexes +and of all ages meet in the house of prayer, which is gorgeously +decorated for the occasion. On this day, when the books are taken +outside the synagogue by the male congregation, the females, who are +seated in the gallery, come into the synagogue, and, when the books +are taken back, they return to their gallery. + +The genuine Jews are, as indicated, known as M'yukhasim (those of +lineage or aristocracy), while converts from the low castes are +called non-M'yukhasim. According to the opinion of Jewish Rabbis, +Tabila, or the holy Rabbinical bath, removes the social disabilities +of the latter. Those who have had recourse to this bath are free +to marry genuine Jews, but respect for caste, or racial prejudice, +has invariably stood in the way of such marriages being contracted. + +From a recent note (1907), I gather that "the Jews, realising that +higher and more advanced education is needed, have bestirred +themselves, and are earnestly endeavouring to establish an +institution which will bring their education up to the lower secondary +standard. The proposed school will be open to both the White and +Black Jews. In order to place the school on a good financial basis, +one of the leading Jews, Mr. S. Koder, approached the Anglo-Jewish +Association for aid, and that Society has readily agreed to provide +a sum of £150 a year for the upkeep of the school. Generous, however, +as this offer is, it is found that the amount is insufficient to cover +the expenditure; so the Jews are going to raise a public subscription +amongst themselves, and they also intend to apply to the Cochin Darbar +for a grant under the Educational Code." [254] + +I was present at the Convocation of the Madras University in 1903, +when the Chancellor conferred the degree of Bachelor of Arts on the +first Jew who had passed the examination. + +According to the Cochin Census, 1901, there were 180 White, and 957 +Black Jews. + +Jhodia.--A sub-division of Poroja. + +Jhoria.--A sub-division of Gaudo. + +Jilaga (pith).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Jilakara (cumin seeds: Cuminum cyminum). An exogamous sept of Balija +and Togata. + +Jinigar.--"There are," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [255] "a few members +of this caste, chiefly in the Chendragiri taluk, whose ordinary +occupation it now is to paint pictures. They were, however, once, it +is said, artificers, and the account given of them is as follows. They +were originally Razus from the Northern Circars, who, coming to the +Chendragiri Raja for employment, were set to watch members of the +Kammala caste who served the Raja, in order to prevent idleness +or fraud. After some time, the Kammalans finished an idol's car, +and, being inflated with pride, demanded to be allowed to sit in it +before the swami was himself placed there. For their arrogance they +were expelled, and the Razus, having by observation learnt something +of their craft, discharged their duties to the community. Under the +Nabobs they abandoned this walk of life, and took to saddlery, whence +came their name from jini a saddle, and now they are merely muchis." + +Mr. W. Francis informs us [256] that "in Bellary wood-carving is done +by Jinigaras, who have taught the art to some Muhammadans, who are +now often more skilful than their teachers. Two of them made a teak +doorway, carved in the Chalukyan style, which obtained a medal at the +Arts Exhibition at the Delhi Darbar, and is now in the Madras Museum." + +At Nandyal in the Kurnool district, I recently saw a Jinigar, who +makes "lacquer" (gesso) fans, trays, large circular table tops, etc., +and paintings of Hindu deities and mythological subjects. He made +a number of panels used in the dado of Lady Curzon's boudoir at the +circuit house, Delhi. A medal was awarded to him for his gesso ware +at the Delhi Exhibition, but it was, in colouring, inferior to that +of the collection which was sent to the Indo-Colonial Exhibition +in 1886. The "lacquer" ware of Kurnool has been said to be perhaps +the finest Indian gesso work produced anywhere. The work turned out +at Mandasa in Ganjam is much bolder, and suitable for decoration on +a large scale. A similar method of decoration was formerly largely +used in Saracenic architectural decoration of interiors in various +countries. The patterns of the Kurnool ware are floral, and in slight +relief, and the colours are very bright with much gilding. At Nossam, +in Ganjam, leather dishmats are painted with pictures of deities and +floral designs. Native circular playing-cards, and fans made of palmyra +leaves or paper and cloth "lacquered" and painted in brilliant colours, +are also made here. + +In the Nellore district, the Jiniga-vandlu make toys, pictures, and +models in paper and pith. At Trichinopoly, very elaborate and accurate +models of the great Hindu temples, artificial flowers, bullock coaches, +etc., are made of the pith of sola (Æschynomene aspera), which is also +used in the construction of sola topis (sun-hats). The Madras Museum +possesses a very quaint pith model of the Raja of Tanjore in darbar, +with performing wrestlers and Deva-dasis, made many years ago. + +Jinka.--(Indian gazelle, Gazella bennetti).--An exogamous sept of +Padma Sale. The equivalent Jinkala is a sept of Boya. + +Jira.--In the Bellary district, a Lingayat who sells flowers calls +himself a Jira, and his caste Jira kula. + +Jirige (cumin: Cuminum cyminum).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba, and +gotra of Kurni. + +Jivala (an insect).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Jogi.--The Jogis, who are a caste of Telugu mendicants, are summed +up by Mr. H. A. Stuart [257] as being "like the Dasaris, itinerant +jugglers and beggars. They are divided into those who sell beads, and +those who keep pigs. They are dexterous snake-charmers, and pretend +to a profound knowledge of charms and medicine. They are very filthy +in their habits. They have no restrictions regarding food, may eat +in the house of any Sudra, and allow widows to live in concubinage, +only exacting a small money penalty, and prohibiting her from washing +herself with turmeric-water." In addition to begging and pig-breeding, +the Jogis are employed in the cultivation of land, in the destruction +of pariah dogs, scavenging, robbery and dacoity. Some of the women, +called Killekyata, are professional tattooers. The Jogis wander about +the country, taking with them (sometimes on donkeys) the materials +for their rude huts. The packs of the donkeys are, Mr. F. S. Mullaly +informs us, [258] "used as receptacles for storing cloths obtained +in predatory excursions. Jogis encamp on the outskirts of villages, +usually on a plain or dry bed of a tank. Their huts or gudisays are +made of palmyra leaves (or sedge) plaited with five strands forming +an arch." The huts are completely open in front. + +In the Tamil country, the Jogis are called Dhoddiyan or Tottiyan +(q.v.), and those who are employed as scavengers are known as +Koravas or Oddans. The scavengers do not mix with the rest of the +community. Some Jogis assert that they have to live by begging in +consequence of a curse brought on them by Parvati, concerning whose +breasts one of their ancestors made some indiscreet remarks. They +consider themselves superior to Malas and Madigas, but an Oddan +(navvy caste) will not eat in the house of a Jogi. They are said to +eat crocodiles, field rats, and cats. There is a tradition that a Jogi +bridegroom, before tying the bottu (marriage badge) on his bride's +neck, had to tie it by means of a string dyed with turmeric round the +neck of a female cat. People sometimes object to the catching of cats +by Jogis for food, as the detachment of a single hair from the body +of a cat is considered a heinous offence. To overcome the objection, +the Jogi says that he wants the animal for a marriage ceremony. On +one occasion, I saw a Madiga carrying home a bag full of kittens, +which, he said, he was going to eat. + +The Jogi mendicants go about, clad in a dirty loin-cloth (often red +in colour) and a strip of cloth over the shoulders, with cobras, +pythons, or rat snakes in baskets, and carrying a bag slung over the +shoulder. The contents of one of these bags, which was examined, were +fruits of Mimusops hexandra and flower-spikes of Lippia nodiflora (used +for medicine), a snake-charming reed instrument, a piece of cuttle-fish +shell, porcupine quills (sold to goldsmiths for brushes), a cocoanut +shell containing a powder, narrikombu (spurious jackals' horns) such as +are also manufactured by Kuruvikarans, and two pieces of wood supposed +to be an antidote for snake-poisoning. The women go about the streets, +decorated with bangles and necklaces of beads, sharks' vertebræ, and +cowry shells, bawling out "Subbamma, Lachchamma," etc., and will not +move on till alms are given to them. They carry a capacious gourd, +which serves as a convenient receptacle for stolen articles. + +Like other Telugu castes, the Jogis have exogamous septs or intiperu, +of which the following are examples:-- + + + Vagiti, court-yard. + Uluvala, horse-gram. + Jalli, tassels of palmyra leaves put round the necks of bulls. + Vavati (relationship). + Gundra, round. + Bindhollu, brass water-pot. + Cheruku, sugar-cane. + Chappadi, insipid. + Boda Dasiri, bald-headed mendicant. + Gudi, temple. + + +At the Mysore census, 1901, Killekyata, Helava, Jangaliga, and Pakanati +were returned as being Jogis. A few individuals returned gotras, such +as Vrishabha, Kaverimatha, and Khedrumakula. At the Madras census, +Siddaru, and Pamula (snake) were returned as sub-castes. Pamula is +applied as a synonym for Jogi, inasmuch as snake-charming is one of +their occupations. + +The women of the caste are said to be depraved, and prostitution is +common. As a proof of chastity, the ordeal of drinking a potful of +cow-dung water or chilly-water has to be undergone. If a man, proved +guilty of adultery, pleads inability to pay the fine, he has to walk +a furlong with a mill-stone on his head. + +At the betrothal ceremony, a small sum of money and a pig are given +to the bride's party. The pig is killed, and a feast held, with much +consumption of liquor. Some of the features of the marriage ceremony +are worthy of notice. The kankanams, or threads which are tied by the +maternal uncles to the wrists of the bride and bridegroom, are made +of human hair, and to them are attached leaves of Alangium lamarckii +and Strychnos Nux-vomica. When the bridegroom and his party proceed to +the bride's hut for the ceremony of tying the bottu (marriage badge), +they are stopped by a rope or bamboo screen, which is held by the +relations of the bride and others. After a short struggle, money is +paid to the men who hold the rope or screen, and the ceremonial is +proceeded with. The rope is called vallepu thadu or relationship rope, +and is made to imply legitimate connection. The bottu, consisting of a +string of black beads, is tied round the bride's neck, the bride and +bridegroom sometimes sitting on a pestle and mortar. Rice is thrown +over them, and they are carried on the shoulders of their maternal +uncles beneath the marriage pandal (booth). As with the Oddes and +Upparavas, there is a saying that a Jogi widow may mount the marriage +dais (i.e., remarry) seven times. + +When a girl reaches puberty, she is put in a hut made by her brother +or husband, which is thatched with twigs of Eugenia Jambolana, margosa +(Melia Azadirachta), mango (Mangifera Indica), and Vitex Negundo. On +the last day of the pollution ceremony the girl's clothes and the +hut are burnt. + +The dead are always buried. The corpse is carried to the burial-place, +wrapped up in a cloth. Before it is lowered into the grave, all present +throw rice over the eyes, and a man of a different sept to the deceased +places four annas in the mouth. Within the grave the head is turned +on one side, and a cavity scooped out, in which various articles of +food are placed. Though the body is not burnt, fire is carried to the +grave by the son. Among the Jalli-vallu, a chicken and small quantity +of salt are placed in the armpit of the corpse. On the karmandhiram, +or day of the final death ceremonies, cooked rice, vegetables, fruit, +and arrack are offered to the deceased. A cloth is spread near the +grave, and the son, and other agnates, place food thereon, while +naming, one after the other, their deceased ancestors. The food is +eaten by Jogis of septs other than the Jalli-vallu, who throw it into +water. If septs other than the Jalli were to do this, they would be +fined. Those assembled proceed to a tank or river, and make an effigy +in mud, by the side of which an earthen lamp is placed. After the +offering of cooked rice, etc., the lamp and effigy are thrown into +the water. A man who is celebrating his wife's death-rites then has +his waist-thread cut by another widower while bathing. + +The Jogis worship Peddavadu, Malalamma, Gangamma, Ayyavaru, Rudramma, +and Madura Virudu. + +Some women wear, in addition to the marriage bottu, a special bottu +in honour of one of their gods. This is placed before the god and +worn by the eldest female of a family, passing on at her death to +the next eldest. + +As regards the criminal propensities of the Jogis, Mr. Mullaly writes +as follows. [259] "On an excursion being agreed upon by members of +a Joghi gang, others of the fraternity encamped in the vicinity are +consulted. In some isolated spot a nim tree (Melia Azadirachta) is +chosen as a meeting place. Here the preliminaries are settled, and +their god Perumal is invoked. They set out in bands of from twelve +to fifteen, armed with stout bamboo sticks. Scantily clad, and with +their heads muffled up, they await the arrival of the carts passing +their place of hiding. In twos and threes they attack the carts, which +are usually driven off the road, and not unfrequently upset, and the +travellers are made to give all they possess. The property is then +given to the headman of the gang for safe-keeping, and he secretes it +in the vicinity of his hut, and sets about the disposal of it. Their +receivers are to be found among the 'respectable' oil-mongers of 11 +villages in the vicinity of their encampments, while property not +disposed of locally is taken to Madras. Readmission to caste after +conviction, when imprisonment is involved, is an easy matter. A feed +and drink at the expense of the 'unfortunate,' generally defrayed from +the share of property which is kept by his more fortunate kinsfolk, +are all that is necessary, except the ceremony common to other classes +of having the tongue slightly burnt by a piece of hot gold. This is +always performed by the Jangam (headman) of the gang. The boys of the +class are employed by their elders in stealing grain stored at kalams +(threshing-floors), and, as opportunity offers, by slitting grain +bags loaded in carts." + +Jogi.--A sub-division of Kudubi. + +Jogi Gurukkal.--See Yogi Gurukkal. + +Jogi Purusha.--The Purushas or Jogi Purushas seem to have come into +existence in recent times, and to be divided into two distinct classes, +one of which has crystallised into a caste, while the other merely +follows a cult practiced by several other castes. Those in South +Canara, who speak Marathi and Tulu, say that they form a caste, +which will not admit members of other castes into its ranks. There +is a head mutt (religious institution) at Kadiri, with subordinate +mutts at Halori and Bhuvarasu, all in South Canara. The Jogi Purushas +are disciples of one or other of these mutts. Their special deity +is Bairava, but some regard Gorakshanath as their god. They are +initiated into the Bairava cult by their priest. They may lead either +a celibate or married life. The celibates should have a hole bored in +the middle of the ear, and wear therein a ring of rhinoceros horn or +china-clay. Those who wish to lead a married life need not have a hole +in the ear, but, at the time of their initiation, a piece of clay is +pressed over the spot where the hole should be. All Jogi Purushas who +have become the disciples of a guru (spiritual instructor) of their +cult ought to have a brass, copper, or silver pipe, called singanatha, +tied on a thread round the neck. Before taking their meals, they are +expected to pray to Bairava, and blow the pipe. + +The Jogi Purushas follow the Makkalakattu system of inheritance (in +the male line), and, for their marriage ceremonies, engage a Karadi +Brahman. The dead are buried in a sitting posture. The bojja, or final +death ceremony, is usually performed on the twelfth day, and a Brahman +priest officiates thereat. The ceremony consists in offering food to +the crows, making presents to Brahmans, and undergoing purificatory +rites for the removal of death pollution. If the deceased has been +initiated into the Bairava cult, puja (worship) must be done at the +grave every alternate day from the third day till the bojja day. + +Some Jogi Purushas are professional mendicants, while others work as +coolies, peons, etc. + +Jonagan.--Jonagan is given, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as the +name applied to "Musalman traders of partly Hindu parentage. The word +is from the Tamil Sonagan, which means Arabia, and is not strictly +the name of any Musalman tribe, but is a loose term applied by the +Tamils to Musalmans of mixed descent." In the Gazetteer of South +Arcot, Mr. Francis says that "the term Jonagan or Sonagan, meaning +a native of Sonagan or Arabia, is applied by Hindus to both Labbais +and Marakkayars, but it is usually held to have a contemptuous +flavour." According to another version, Jonagan is applied to +sea-fishermen and boatmen, and the more prosperous traders are called +Marakkayars. In a note on the Mappillas of Malabar, Mr. Padmanabha +Menon writes that "the Muhammadans generally go by the name of Jonaga +Mappillas. Jonaka is believed to stand for Yavanaka, i.e., Greek." + +Joti (light).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Jotinagara.--Jotinagara (people of the city of light) and Jotipana +are high sounding synonyms of the Canarese oil-pressing Ganigas, +who express illuminant oils from seeds. In like manner, the Tamil +oil-pressing Vaniyans are known as Jotinagarattar and Tiru-vilakku +Nagarattar (dwellers in the city of holy lamps). + +Juda Mappilla.--A name by which the Cochin Jews are known. + +Julaha.--A few members of this Muhammadan class of weavers have been +returned at times of census. + +Jungu (cock's-comb).--A gotra of Kurni. + + + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] Yule and Burnell. Hobson-Jobson. + +[2] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[3] The bark of the avaram plant is one of the most valuable Indian +tanning agents. + +[4] Voyage to the East Indies, 1774 and 1781. + +[5] Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies. + +[6] Manual of the Tanjore district, 1883. + +[7] Manual of the Madura district. + +[8] Monograph of Tanning and Working in Leather, 1904. + +[9] Pratiloma, as opposed to an anuloma union, is the marriage of a +female of a higher caste with a man of a lower one. + +[10] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[11] Madras Census Report, 1871. + +[12] Madras Police Gazette, 1902. + +[13] I. No. 4. 1908, Vellore. + +[14] Criminal Tribes of India, No. III, 1907. + +[15] Criminal Classes in the Bombay Presidency. + +[16] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[17] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[18] Journal Asiatic Society, XXV, 1857. + +[19] Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar. + +[20] Journal Royal Asiatic Society, VIII, 1846. + +[21] Fauna, British India, Mammalia. + +[22] Cassia auriculata. + +[23] Marriage chaplet worn on the forehead. + +[24] Wrist-threads dyed with turmeric. + +[25] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[26] Monograph, Eth. Survey of Cochin, No. 6, 1906. + +[27] Manual of Malabar. + +[28] Calcutta Review, 1900. + +[29] Madras Police Report, 1904. + +[30] Gazetteer of the Malabar district. + +[31] Malabar and its Folk, 1900. + +[32] Karunakara Menon, Madras Mus. Bull., V. 2, 1906. + +[33] Madras Mail, 1908. + +[34] S. Appadorai Iyer. + +[35] Calcutta Review, 1900. + +[36] One fanam = four annas eight pies. + +[37] Madras Mail, 1895. + +[38] Ind. Ant., VIII, 1879. + +[39] Native Life in Travancore. + +[40] A mulikka is the collective name for a present of five betel +leaves, one areca nut, and two tobacco leaves. + +[41] Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly district. + +[42] Rev. H. Jensen, Classified Collection of Tamil Proverbs, 1897. + +[43] Madras Mail, 1904. + +[44] Gazetteer of the Nilgiris. + +[45] Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life. + +[46] The fruits of several species of Momordica are eaten by Natives. + +[47] Sidney Low. A Vision of India, 1906. + +[48] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[49] Gazetteer of the Anantapur district. + +[50] Manual of the Tanjore district. + +[51] Calcutta Review, 1905. + +[52] Madras Mail, 1901. + +[53] John Company, a corruption of Company Jehan, a title of the +English East India Company. + +[54] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[55] South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, part 3, p. 259. + +[56] Journey from Madras through Mysore, Canara and Malabar, 1807. + +[57] Elliott. History of India. + +[58] Brahmanism and Hinduism. + +[59] Evolution of Hinduism, 1903. + +[60] J. T. Wheeler. Madras in the Olden Time. + +[61] Notes from a Diary, 1881--86. + +[62] J. Michaud. Histoire des Progrès et de la Chûlte de l'Empire de +Mysore, sons les Règnes d'Hyder-Aly et Tippoo Saib. + +[63] An Indian Olio. + +[64] Manual of the Bellary district. + +[65] Cyclopædia of India. + +[66] Journ. Anth. Soc., Bombay, Vol. II. + +[67] Journ. Anth. Soc., Bombay, 1891. + +[68] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[69] Gazetteer of the Godavari district. + +[70] See also collection of decisions on the law of succession, +maintenance, etc., applicable to dancing-girls and their +issues. C. Ramachendrier, Madras, 1892. + +[71] Indian Law Reports, Madras Series, XXIII, 1900. + +[72] Ibid., Vol. V, 1869-70. + +[73] Ibid., Vol. I, 1876-78. + +[74] Ibid., Vol. VI, 1883. + +[75] Ibid., Vol. I, 1876-78. + +[76] Ibid., Vol. I, 1876-78. + +[77] Ibid., Vol. XIX, 1896. + +[78] Ibid., Vol. XIII, 1890. + +[79] Ibid., Vol. XIV, 1891. + +[80] Ibid., Vol. XV, 1892. + +[81] Ganga Bai v. Anant. 13 Bom., 690. + +[82] Hindu Law and Usage. + +[83] Macnaghten, Digest. + +[84] Classified Collection of Tamil Proverbs, 1897. + +[85] J. S. F. Mackenzie. Ind. Ant., IV, 1875. + +[86] Madras Census Report, 1891; Manual of the South Canara district. + +[87] Breeks. Account of the Primitive Tribes and Monuments of the +Nilgiris. + +[88] Section III, Inhabitants. Madras Government Press, 1907. + +[89] Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, XV, Part I, 1883. + +[90] Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson. + +[91] Tropical Diseases. + +[92] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[93] Rev. H. Jensen. Classified Collection of Tamil Proverbs, 1897. + +[94] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[95] G. Bühler on the Indian Sect of the Jainas, 1903. + +[96] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[97] Man., 1901. + +[98] Jeypore, Breklum, 1901. + +[99] Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district. + +[100] Man., 1902. + +[101] Ibid. + +[102] Money-lender. + +[103] Madras Census Report, 1891; Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[104] Notes on the Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency. + +[105] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[106] M. Paupa Rao Naidu. History of Railway Thieves. 3rd Edition, +1904. + +[107] Calcutta Review, 1905. + +[108] Memoir of Sir Thomas Munro. + +[109] Manual of the North Arcot district; Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[110] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[111] Manual of the North Arcot district; Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[112] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[113] Malabar Law and Custom. + +[114] Malabar Quarterly Review, VII, 3, 1908. + +[115] Wigram. Malabar Law and Custom. + +[116] Monograph. Eth. Survey of Cochin, No. 9, 1906. + +[117] Yule and Burnell, 2nd ed., 1903. + +[118] Handbook of British India, 1854. + +[119] Cyclopædia of India. + +[120] Journ. Anth. Inst., XX, 1891. + +[121] Danvers. The Portuguese in India, 1894. + +[122] Manual Of Malabar. + +[123] See Madras Museum Bulletin, II, 2, Table XXVI, 1898. + +[124] Elephantiasis and allied disorders, Madras, 1891. + +[125] Veterinarian, June, 1879. + +[126] Endemic Skin and other Diseases of India. Fox and Farquhar. + +[127] Linguistic Survey of India IV, 1906. + +[128] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[129] Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district. + +[130] Madras Mail, 1907. + +[131] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[132] Manual of the Vizagapatam district. + +[133] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[134] Ind. Ant. XVIII, 1889. + +[135] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[136] Mysore Census Report, 1891. + +[137] Gazetteer of the Bellary district. + +[138] Calcutta Review, 1905. + +[139] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[140] Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsha. + +[141] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[142] Hobson-Jobson. + +[143] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[144] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[145] Mysore Census Report, 1901. + +[146] Journ. Anth. Soc., Bombay, 1, 1888. + +[147] Mysore Census Report, 1891. + +[148] Ind. Ant. VIII, 1879. + +[149] See C. Ramchendrier, Collection of decisions of High Courts +and the Privy Council applicable to dancing-girls, illatom, etc., +Madras, 1892. + +[150] J. S. F. Mackenzie, Ind. Ant., IV, 1875. + +[151] Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson. + +[152] Wigram. Malabar Law and Custom. + +[153] Thurston. Monograph on Wood-carving in Southern India. 1903. + +[154] Yule and Burnell. Hobson-Jobson. + +[155] Illustrations of the Guzarattee, Mahratlee, and English +languages, 1808. + +[156] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[157] Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life. + +[158] Hobson-Jobson. + +[159] Letters from Madras. By a Lady. 1843. + +[160] Monograph, Eth. Survey of Bombay, 12, 1904. + +[161] T. P. Hughes., Dictionary of Islam. + +[162] Mysore Census Report, 1901. + +[163] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[164] Manual of Coorg. + +[165] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[166] Manual of Coorg. + +[167] Journey through Mysore, Canara and Malabar. + +[168] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[169] Ind. Ant. II, 1873. + +[170] Manual of the Madura district. + +[171] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[172] Manual of the Madura district. + +[173] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[174] Malabar Quart. Review, II, 1903. + +[175] Madras Mail, 1904. + +[176] Classified Collection of Tamil proverbs, 1897. + +[177] The Idigas are said to have been formerly employed as soldiers +under the Poligars. + +[178] J. S. F. Mackenzie, Ind. Ant., IV, 1875. + +[179] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[180] Malabar Law and Custom. + +[181] Criminal Tribes of India, No. III, Madras, 1907. + +[182] Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris. + +[183] Description of a singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting the +Neilgherry Hills, 1832. + +[184] A. W. Lushington, Indian Forester, 1902. + +[185] Agricultural Ledger Series, 1904. + +[186] Ind. VI, 1877. + +[187] Oriental Manuscripts. + +[188] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[189] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[190] Manual of the Nellore district. + +[191] Letters from Malabar. + +[192] Voyage to the East Indies. Translation, 1800. + +[193] Monograph Ethnograph: Survey of Cochin, No. 10, Izhavas, 1905. + +[194] Chuckrams and puthans are coins. + +[195] Wide World Magazine, September 1899. + +[196] Native Life in Travancore, 1883. + +[197] Malabar Quart. Review, IV, 3, 1905. See also T. C. Rice. Jain +Settlements in Karnata. Ibid., III, 4, 1904. + +[198] On the Indian Sect of the Jainas. Translation by J. Burgess, +1903. + +[199] The earlier Tirthankaras are believed to have been of prodigious +proportions, and to have lived fabulously long lives, but the later +ones were of more ordinary stature and longevity. + +[200] Inscriptions at Sravana Belagola. Archæological Survey of +Mysore, 1889. + +[201] History of Indian and Eastern Architecture. + +[202] Annual Report on Epigraphy, Madras, 1900-1901. + +[203] The inscriptions on the three Jaina Colossi of Southern +India have been published by Dr. Hultzsch in Epigraphia Indica, +VII, 1902-1903. + +[204] Ind. Ant., V, 1876. + +[205] Ind. Ant., XXV, 220, sq., 1896. + +[206] Op. cit. + +[207] Loc. cit. + +[208] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[209] Notes from a Diary, 1881-86. + +[210] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[211] Local oral tradition gives his name as Dupala Kistnappa Nayak. + +[212] Also known as Jaina Tirupati. + +[213] Gazetteer of the Madura district. + +[214] Ibid. + +[215] N. Sunkuni Wariar. Ind. Ant., XXI, 1892. + +[216] Madras Census Report, 1901; Nellore Manual. + +[217] Telugu Dictionary. + +[218] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[219] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[220] Travels into East India and Arabia deserta, 1665. + +[221] Wigram, Malabar Law and Custom. + +[222] Logan, Manual of Malabar, which contains full details concerning +Janmis. + +[223] History of Korawars, Erukalas, or Kaikaries. Madras, 1905. + +[224] Rice, Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer. + +[225] Narrative Sketches of the Conquest of Mysore, 1800. + +[226] Wilks' Historical Sketches: Mysore, 1810-17. + +[227] The captivity, sufferings, and escape of James Scurry, 1824. + +[228] Manual of the Bellary district. + +[229] May 11th, June 1st and 29th, 1906. + +[230] For the translations from the Dutch I am indebted to the kindness +of the Rev. P. Grote. + +[231] A new account of the East Indies, 1744. + +[232] A. C. Burnell, Ind. Ant. III, 1874. + +[233] Madras Journ. Lit. Science, XIII, Part I. + +[234] Ibid., Part II. + +[235] Loc. cit. + +[236] Bhâskara-Ravi-Varmâ. + +[237] This is explained in the Hebrew version by Cranganore, and Muyiri +is, no doubt, the original of the Mouziris of Ptolemy and the Periplus +of the Red Sea. It is (according to local tradition) the part where the +Travancore lines end, opposite to Cranganore but across the back-water. + +[238] I.e., Yusuf Rabbân. + +[239] Ueber die Jüdischen Colonien in Indien. Kohut Memorial Volume, +Semitic Studies, Berlin, 1897. + +[240] Epigraphia Indica, III, 1894-95. + +[241] Ind. Ant., XX, 1891. + +[242] Epigraphia Indica, IV, 1896-97. + +[243] The Land of the Permauls, or Cochin, its past and its present, +1863. + +[244] Ind. Ant., III, 1874. + +[245] A Description of ye East India Coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, +1703. + +[246] The Jews in India and the Far East, 1907. + +[247] Christian Researches in India, 1840. + +[248] History of Christianity in India, I, 470-71, 1839. + +[249] J. Splinter Stavorinus. Voyages to the East Indies, 1774-78. + +[250] Edition by Major Heber Drury, 1862. Letter XVIII. + +[251] Op. cit. + +[252] Loc. cit. + +[253] July, 1902. + +[254] Madras Mail, 1907. + +[255] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[256] Gazetteer of the Bellary district. + +[257] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[258] Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency. + +[259] Op. cit. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Castes and Tribes of Southern India, by +Edgar Thurston + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42992 *** |