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diff --git a/42991-0.txt b/42991-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed41efc --- /dev/null +++ b/42991-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13949 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42991 *** + + CASTES AND TRIBES + OF + SOUTHERN INDIA + + By + + EDGAR THURSTON, C.I.E., + + Superintendent, Madras Government Museum; Correspondant Étranger, + Société d'Anthropologie de Paris; Socio Corrispondante, Societa, + Romana di Anthropologia. + + Assisted by + + K. Rangachari, M.A., + of the Madras Government Museum. + + + + Volume I--A and B + + Government Press, Madras + + 1909. + + + + + + + +PREFACE. + + +In 1894, equipped with a set of anthropometric instruments +obtained on loan from the Asiatic Society of Bengal, I commenced an +investigation of the tribes of the Nilgiri hills, the Todas, Kotas, +and Badagas, bringing down on myself the unofficial criticism that +"anthropological research at high altitudes is eminently indicated +when the thermometer registers 100° in Madras." From this modest +beginning have resulted:--(1) investigation of various classes which +inhabit the city of Madras; (2) periodical tours to various parts +of the Madras Presidency, with a view to the study of the more +important tribes and classes; (3) the publication of Bulletins, +wherein the results of my work are embodied; (4) the establishment +of an anthropological laboratory; (5) a collection of photographs of +Native types; (6) a series of lantern slides for lecture purposes; +(7) a collection of phonograph records of tribal songs and music. + +The scheme for a systematic and detailed ethnographic survey of the +whole of India received the formal sanction of the Government of +India in 1901. A Superintendent of Ethnography was appointed for each +Presidency or Province, to carry out the work of the survey in addition +to his other duties. The other duty, in my particular case--the +direction of a large local museum--happily made an excellent blend with +the survey operations, as the work of collection for the ethnological +section went on simultaneously with that of investigation. The survey +was financed for a period of five (afterwards extended to eight) years, +and an annual allotment of Rs. 5,000 provided for each Presidency and +Province. This included Rs. 2,000 for approved notes on monographs, +and replies to the stereotyped series of questions. The replies +to these questions were not, I am bound to admit, always entirely +satisfactory, as they broke down both in accuracy and detail. I may, +as an illustration, cite the following description of making fire +by friction. "They know how to make fire, i.e., by friction of wood +as well as stone, etc. They take a triangular cut of stone, and one +flat oblong size flat. They hit one another with the maintenance of +cocoanut fibre or copper, then fire sets immediately, and also by +rubbing the two barks frequently with each other they make fire." + +I gladly place on record my hearty appreciation of the services +rendered by Mr. K. Rangachari in the preparation of the present +volumes. During my temporary absence in Europe, he was placed +in charge of the survey, and he has been throughout invaluable in +obtaining information concerning manners and customs, as interpreter +and photographer, and in taking phonograph records. + +For information relating to the tribes and castes of Cochin +and Travancore, I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to +Messrs. L. K. Anantha Krishna Aiyer and N. Subramani Aiyer, the +Superintendents of Ethnography for their respective States. The notes +relating to the Cochin State have been independently published at +the Ernakulam Press, Cochin. + +In the scheme for the Ethnographic Survey, it was laid down that +the Superintendents should supplement the information obtained from +representative men and by their own enquiries by "researches into the +considerable mass of information which lies buried in official reports, +in the journals of learned Societies, and in various books." Of this +injunction full advantage has been taken, as will be evident from +the abundant crop of references in foot-notes. + +It is impossible to express my thanks individually to the very large +number of correspondents, European and Indian, who have generously +assisted me in my work. I may, however, refer to the immense aid +which I have received from the District Manuals edited by Mr. (now +Sir) H. A. Stuart, I.C.S., and the District Gazetteers, which have +been quite recently issued under the editorship of Mr. W. Francis, +I.C.S., Mr. F. R. Hemingway, I.C.S., and Mr. F. B. Evans, I.C.S. + +My thanks are further due to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, to whom I am +indebted for much information acquired when he was engaged in the +preparation of the District Gazetteers, and for revising the proof +sheets. + +For some of the photographs of Badagas, Kurumbas, and Todas, I am +indebted to Mr. A. T. W. Penn of Ootacamund. + +I may add that the anthropometric data are all the result of +measurements taken by myself, in order to eliminate the varying error +resulting from the employment of a plurality of observers. + + +E. T. + + + + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The vast tract of country, over which my investigations in connection +with the ethnographic survey of South India have extended, is commonly +known as the Madras Presidency, and officially as the Presidency +of Fort St. George and its Dependencies. Included therein were the +small feudatory States of Pudukottai, Banganapalle, and Sandur, and +the larger Native States of Travancore and Cochin. The area of the +British territory and Feudatory States, as returned at the census, +1901, was 143,221 square miles, and the population 38,623,066. The +area and population of the Native States of Travancore and Cochin, +as recorded at the same census, were as follows:-- + + + Area. Population. + Sq. Miles. + Travancore 7,091 2,952,157 + Cochin 1,361 512,025 + + +Briefly, the task which was set me in 1901 was to record the 'manners +and customs' and physical characters of more than 300 castes and +tribes, representing more than 40,000,000 individuals, and spread +over an area exceeding 150,000 square miles. + +The Native State of Mysore, which is surrounded by the Madras +Presidency on all sides, except on part of the west, where the +Bombay Presidency forms the boundary, was excluded from my beat +ethnographically, but included for the purpose of anthropometry. As, +however, nearly all the castes and tribes which inhabit the Mysore +State are common to it and the Madras Presidency, I have given here +and there some information relating thereto. + +It was clearly impossible for myself and my assistant, in our travels, +to do more than carry out personal investigations over a small portion +of the vast area indicated above, which provides ample scope for +research by many trained explorers. And I would that more men, like my +friends Dr. Rivers and Mr. Lapicque, who have recently studied Man in +Southern India from an anthropological and physiological point of view, +would come out on a visit, and study some of the more important castes +and tribes in detail. I can promise them every facility for carrying +out their work under the most favourable conditions for research, +if not of climate. And we can provide them with anything from 112° +in the shade to the sweet half English air of the Nilgiri and other +hill-ranges. + +Routine work at head-quarters unhappily keeps me a close prisoner in +the office chair for nine months in the year. But I have endeavoured to +snatch three months on circuit in camp, during which the dual functions +of the survey--the collection of ethnographic and anthropometric +data--were carried out in the peaceful isolation of the jungle, +in villages, and in mofussil (up-country) towns. These wandering +expeditions have afforded ample evidence that delay in carrying +through the scheme for the survey would have been fatal. For, as in +the Pacific and other regions, so in India, civilisation is bringing +about a radical change in indigenous manners and customs, and mode +of life. It has, in this connection, been well said that "there will +be plenty of money and people available for anthropological research, +when there are no more aborigines. And it behoves our museums to waste +no time in completing their anthropological collections." Tribes +which, only a few years ago, were living in a wild state, clad in +a cool and simple garb of forest leaves, buried away in the depths +of the jungle, and living, like pigs and bears, on roots, honey, +and other forest produce, have now come under the domesticating, +and sometimes detrimental influence of contact with Europeans, with a +resulting modification of their conditions of life, morality, and even +language. The Paniyans of the Wynaad, and the Irulas of the Nilgiris, +now work regularly for wages on planters' estates, and I have seen +a Toda boy studying for the third standard instead of tending the +buffaloes of his mand. A Toda lassie curling her ringlets with the +assistance of a cheap German looking-glass; a Toda man smeared with +Hindu sect marks, and praying for male offspring at a Hindu shrine; +the abandonment of leafy garments in favour of imported cotton +piece-goods; the employment of kerosine tins in lieu of thatch; +the decline of the national turban in favour of the less becoming +pork-pie cap or knitted nightcap of gaudy hue; the abandonment of +indigenous vegetable dyes in favour of tinned anilin and alizarin dyes; +the replacement of the indigenous peasant jewellery by imported beads +and imitation jewellery made in Europe--these are a few examples of +change resulting from Western and other influences. + +The practice of human sacrifice, or Meriah rite, has been abolished +within the memory of men still living, and replaced by the equally +efficacious slaughter of a buffalo or sheep. And I have notes on a +substituted ceremony, in which a sacrificial sheep is shaved so as +to produce a crude representation of a human being, a Hindu sect mark +painted on its forehead, a turban stuck on its head, and a cloth around +its body. The picturesque, but barbaric ceremony of hook-swinging +is now regarded with disfavour by Government, and, some time ago, +I witnessed a tame substitute for the original ceremony, in which, +instead of a human being with strong iron hooks driven through the +small of his back, a little wooden figure, dressed up in turban and +body cloth, and carrying a shield and sabre, was hoisted on high and +swung round. + +In carrying out the anthropometric portion of the survey, it was +unfortunately impossible to disguise the fact that I am a Government +official, and very considerable difficulties were encountered owing +to the wickedness of the people, and their timidity and fear of +increased taxation, plague inoculation, and transportation. The +Paniyan women of the Wynaad believed that I was going to have the +finest specimens among them stuffed for the Madras Museum. An Irula +man, on the Nilgiri hills, who was wanted by the police for some mild +crime of ancient date, came to be measured, but absolutely refused to +submit to the operation on the plea that the height-measuring standard +was the gallows. The similarity of the word Boyan to Boer was once +fatal to my work. For, at the time of my visit to the Oddes, who have +Boyan as their title, the South African war was just over, and they +were afraid that I was going to get them transported, to replace the +Boers who had been exterminated. Being afraid, too, of my evil eye, +they refused to fire a new kiln of bricks for the club chambers at +Coimbatore until I had taken my departure. During a long tour through +the Mysore province, the Natives mistook me for a recruiting sergeant +bent on seizing them for employment in South Africa, and fled before my +approach from town to town. The little spot, which I am in the habit +of making with Aspinall's white paint to indicate the position of the +fronto-nasal suture and bi-orbital breadth, was supposed to possess +vesicant properties, and to blister into a number on the forehead, +which would serve as a means of future identification for the purpose +of kidnapping. The record of head, chest, and foot measurements, +was viewed with marked suspicion, on the ground that I was an army +tailor, measuring for sepoy's clothing. The untimely death of a +Native outside a town, at which I was halting, was attributed to my +evil eye. Villages were denuded of all save senile men, women, and +infants. The vendors of food-stuffs in one bazar, finding business +slack owing to the flight of their customers, raised their prices, +and a missionary complained that the price of butter had gone up. My +arrival at one important town was coincident with a great annual temple +festival, whereat there were not sufficient coolies left to drag the +temple car in procession. So I had perforce to move on, and leave the +Brahman heads unmeasured. The head official of another town, when he +came to take leave of me, apologised for the scrubby appearance of his +chin, as the local barber had fled. One man, who had volunteered to +be tested with Lovibond's tintometer, was suddenly seized with fear +in the midst of the experiment, and, throwing his body-cloth at my +feet, ran for all he was worth, and disappeared. An elderly Municipal +servant wept bitterly when undergoing the process of measurement, +and a woman bade farewell to her husband, as she thought for ever, +as he entered the threshold of my impromptu laboratory. The goniometer +for estimating the facial angle is specially hated, as it goes into the +mouth of castes both high and low, and has to be taken to a tank (pond) +after each application. The members of a certain caste insisted on +being measured before 4 P.M., so that they might have time to remove, +by ceremonial ablution, the pollution from my touch before sunset. + +Such are a few of the unhappy results, which attend the progress of +a Government anthropologist. I may, when in camp, so far as measuring +operations are concerned, draw a perfect and absolute blank for several +days in succession, or a gang of fifty or even more representatives +of different castes may turn up at the same time, all in a hurry to +depart as soon as they have been sufficiently amused by the phonograph, +American series of pseudoptics (illusions), and hand dynamometer, +which always accompany me on my travels as an attractive bait. When +this occurs, it is manifestly impossible to record all the major, or +any of the minor measurements, which are prescribed in 'Anthropological +Notes and Queries,' and elsewhere. And I have to rest unwillingly +content with a bare record of those measurements, which experience +has taught me are the most important from a comparative point of view +within my area, viz., stature, height and breadth of nose, and length +and breadth of head, from which the nasal and cephalic indices can +be calculated. I refer to the practical difficulties, in explanation +of a record which is admittedly meagre, but wholly unavoidable, +in spite of the possession of a good deal of patience and a liberal +supply of cheroots, and current coins, which are often regarded with +suspicion as sealing a contract, like the King's shilling. I have even +known a man get rid of the coin presented to him, by offering it, +with flowers and a cocoanut, to the village goddess at her shrine, +and present her with another coin as a peace-offering, to get rid of +the pollution created by my money. + +The manifold views, which have been brought forward as to the origin +and place in nature of the indigenous population of Southern India, +are scattered so widely in books, manuals, and reports, that it +will be convenient if I bring together the evidence derived from +sundry sources. + +The original name for the Dravidian family, it may be noted, was +Tamulic, but the term Dravidian was substituted by Bishop Caldwell, +in order that the designation Tamil might be reserved for the language +of that name. Dravida is the adjectival form of Dravida, the Sanskrit +name for the people occupying the south of the Indian Peninsula +(the Deccan of some European writers). [1] + +According to Haeckel, [2] three of the twelve species of +man--the Dravidas (Deccans; Sinhalese), Nubians, and Mediterranese +(Caucasians, Basque, Semites, Indo-Germanic tribes)--"agree in several +characteristics, which seem to establish a close relationship between +them, and to distinguish them from the remaining species. The chief +of these characteristics is the strong development of the beard +which, in all other species, is either entirely wanting, or but +very scanty. The hair of their heads is in most cases more or less +curly. Other characteristics also seem to favour our classing them +in one main group of curly-haired men (Euplocomi); at present the +primæval species, Homo Dravida, is only represented by the Deccan +tribes in the southern part of Hindustan, and by the neighbouring +inhabitants of the mountains on the north-east of Ceylon. But, +in earlier times, this race seems to have occupied the whole of +Hindustan, and to have spread even further. It shows, on the one hand, +traits of relationship to the Australians and Malays; on the other +to the Mongols and Mediterranese. Their skin is either of a light or +dark brown colour; in some tribes, of a yellowish brown. The hair of +their heads is, as in Mediterranese, more or less curled; never quite +smooth, like that of the Euthycomi, nor actually woolly, like that of +the Ulotrichi. The strong development of the beard is also like that +of the Mediterranese. Their forehead is generally high, their nose +prominent and narrow, their lips slightly protruding. Their language +is now very much mixed with Indo-Germanic elements, but seems to have +been originally derived from a very primæval language." + +In the chapter devoted to 'Migration and Distribution of Organisms,' +Haeckel, in referring to the continual changing of the distribution +of land and water on the surface of the earth, says: "The Indian +Ocean formed a continent, which extended from the Sunda Islands +along the southern coast of Asia to the east coast of Africa. This +large continent of former times Sclater has called Lemuria, from +the monkey-like animals which inhabited it, and it is at the same +time of great importance from being the probable cradle of the human +race. The important proof which Wallace has furnished by the help of +chronological facts, that the present Malayan Archipelago consists +in reality of two completely different divisions, is particularly +interesting. The western division, the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, +comprising the large islands of Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, was formerly +connected by Malacca with the Asiatic continent, and probably also +with the Lemurian continent, and probably also with the Lemurian +continent just mentioned. The eastern division, on the other hand, +the Austro-Malayan Archipelago, comprising Celebes, the Moluccas, +New Guinea, Solomon's Islands, etc., was formerly directly connected +with Australia." + +An important ethnographic fact, and one which is significant, is that +the description of tree-climbing by the Dyaks of Borneo, as given by +Wallace, [3] might have been written on the Anaimalai hills of Southern +India, and would apply equally well in every detail to the Kadirs who +inhabit those hills. [4] An interesting custom, which prevails among +the Kadirs and Mala Vedans of Travancore, and among them alone, so far +as I know, in the Indian Peninsula, is that of chipping all or some of +the incisor teeth into the form of a sharp pointed, but not serrated, +cone. The operation is said to be performed, among the Kadirs, with +a chisel or bill-hook and file, on boys at the age of eighteen, and +girls at the age of ten or thereabouts. It is noted by Skeat and +Blagden [5] that the Jakuns of the Malay Peninsula are accustomed +to file their teeth to a point. Mr. Crawford tells us further that, +in the Malay Archipelago, the practice of filing and blackening the +teeth is a necessary prelude to marriage, the common way of expressing +the fact that a girl has arrived at puberty being that she had her +teeth filed. In an article [6] entitled "Die Zauberbilderschriften +der Negrito in Malaka," Dr. K. T. Preuss describes in detail the +designs on the bamboo combs, etc., of the Negritos of Malacca, +and compares them with the strikingly similar designs on the bamboo +combs worn by the Kadirs of Southern India. He works out in detail +the theory that the design is not, as I called it [7] an ornamental +geometric pattern, but consists of a series of hieroglyphics. It is +noted by Skeat and Blagden [8] that "the Semang women wore in their +hair a remarkable kind of comb, which appears to be worn entirely +as a charm against diseases. These combs were almost invariably +made of bamboo, and were decorated with an infinity of designs, +no two of which ever entirely agreed. It was said that each disease +had its appropriate pattern. Similar combs are worn by the Pangan, +the Semang and Sakai of Perak, and most of the mixed (Semang-Sakai) +tribes." I am informed by Mr. Vincent that, as far as he knows, the +Kadir combs are not looked on as charms, and the markings thereon +have no mystic significance. A Kadir man should always make a comb, +and present it to his wife just before marriage or at the conclusion +of the marriage ceremony, and the young men vie with each other as +to who can make the nicest comb. Sometimes they represent strange +articles on the combs. Mr. Vincent has, for example, seen a comb with +a very good imitation of the face of a clock scratched on it. + +In discussing the racial affinities of the Sakais, Skeat and Blagden +write [8] that "an alternative theory comes to us on the high authority +of Virchow, who puts it forward, however, in a somewhat tentative +manner. It consists in regarding the Sakai as an outlying branch of +a racial group formed by the Vedda (of Ceylon), Tamil, Kurumba, and +Australian races.... Of these the height is variable, but, in all four +of the races compared, it is certainly greater than that of the Negrito +races. The skin colour, again, it is true, varies to a remarkable +degree, but the general hair character appears to be uniformly long, +black and wavy, and the skull-index, on the other hand, appears to +indicate consistently a dolichocephalic or long-shaped head." Speaking +of the Sakais, the same authorities state that "in evidence of their +striking resemblance to the Veddas, it is perhaps worth remarking +that one of the brothers Sarasin who had lived among the Veddas and +knew them very well, when shown a photograph of a typical Sakai, at +first supposed it to be a photograph of a Vedda." For myself, when I +first saw the photographs of Sakais published by Skeat and Blagden, +it was difficult to realise that I was not looking at pictures of +Kadirs, Paniyans, Kurumbas, or other jungle folk of Southern India. + +It may be noted en passant, that emigration takes place at the present +day from the southern parts of the Madras Presidency to the Straits +Settlements. The following statement shows the number of passengers +that proceeded thither during 1906:-- + + + Madras-- Total. + South Arcot Porto Novo 2,555 + Cuddalore 583 + Pondicherry 55 + Tanjore Negapatam 238 + and + Nagore 45,453 + Karikal 3,422 + + +"The name Kling (or Keling) is applied, in the Malay countries, to +the people of Continental India who trade thither, or are settled in +those regions, and to the descendants of settlers. The Malay use of +the word is, as a rule, restricted to Tamils. The name is a form of +Kalinga, a very ancient name for the region known as the Northern +Circars, i.e., the Telugu coast of the Bay of Bengal." [9] It is +recorded by Dr. N. Anandale that the phrase Orang Kling Islam (i.e., +a Muhammadan from the Madras coast) occurs in Patani Malay. He further +informs us [10] that among the Labbai Muhammadans of the Madura coast, +there are "certain men who make a livelihood by shooting pigeons with +blow-guns. According to my Labbai informants, the 'guns' are purchased +by them in Singapore from Bugis traders. There is still a considerable +trade, although diminished, between Kilakarai and the ports of Burma +and the Straits Settlements. It is carried on entirely by Muhammadans +in native sailing vessels, and a large proportion of the Musalmans of +Kilakarai have visited Penang and Singapore. It is not difficult to +find among them men who can speak Straits Malay. The local name for +the blow-gun is senguttan, and is derived in popular etymology from +the Tamil sen (above) and kutu (to stab). I have little doubt that +it is really a corruption of the Malay name of the weapon sumpitan." + +On the evidence of the very close affinities between the plants and +animals in Africa and India at a very remote period, Mr. R. D. Oldham +concludes that there was once a continuous stretch of dry land +connecting South Africa and India. "In some deposits," he writes, [11] +"found resting upon the Karoo beds on the coast of Natal, 22 out of +35 species of Mollusca and Echinodermata collected and specifically +identified, are identical with forms found in the cretaceous beds +of Southern India, the majority being Trichinopoly species. From the +cretaceous rocks of Madagascar, six species of cretaceous fossils were +examined by Mr. R. B. Newton in 1899, of which three are also found +in the Ariyalur group (Southern India). The South African beds are +clearly coast or shallow water deposits, like those of India. The +great similarity of forms certainly suggests continuity of coast +line between the two regions, and thus supports the view that the +land connection between South Africa and India, already shown to have +existed in both the lower and upper Gondwána periods, was continued +into cretaceous times." + +By Huxley [12] the races of mankind are divided into two primary +divisions, the Ulotrichi with crisp or woolly hair (Negros; Negritos), +and the Leiotrichi with smooth hair; and the Dravidians are included +in the Australoid group of the Leiotrichi "with dark skin, hair +and eyes, wavy black hair, and eminently long, prognathous skulls, +with well-developed brow ridges, who are found in Australia and in +the Deccan." There is, in the collection of the Royal College of +Surgeons' Museum, an exceedingly interesting "Hindu" skull from +Southern India, conspicuously dolichocephalic, and with highly +developed superciliary ridges. Some of the recorded measurements of +this skull are as follows:-- + + + Length 19.6 cm. + Breadth 13.2 cm. + Cephalic index 67.3 + Nasal height 4.8 cm. + Nasal breadth 2.5 cm. + Nasal index 52.1 cm. + + +Another "Hindu" skull, in the collection of the Madras Museum, +with similar marked development of the superciliary ridges, has the +following measurements:-- + + + Length 18.4 cm. + Breadth 13.8 cm. + Cephalic index 75 + Nasal height 4.9 cm. + Nasal breadth 2.1 cm. + Nasal index 42.8 + + +I am unable to subscribe to the prognathism of the Dravidian +tribes of Southern India, or of the jungle people, though aberrant +examples thereof are contained in the collection of skulls at +the Madras Museum, e.g., the skull of a Tamil man (caste unknown) +who died a few years ago in Madras (Pl. I-a). The average facial +angle of various castes and tribes which I have examined ranged +between 67° and 70°, and the inhabitants of Southern India may be +classified as orthognathous. Some of the large earthenware urns +excavated by Mr. A. Rea, of the Archæological Department, at the +"prehistoric" burial site at Aditanallur in the Tinnevelly district, +[13] contained human bones, and skulls in a more or less perfect +condition. Two of these skulls, preserved at the Madras Museum, +are conspicuously prognathous (Pl. I-b). Concerning this burial +site M. L. Lapieque writes as follows. [14] "J'ai rapporté un +specimen des urnes funéraires, avec une collection assez complète du +mobilier funéraire. J'ai rapporté aussi un crâne en assez bon état, +et parfaitement déterminable. Il est hyperdolichocéphale, et s'accorde +avec la série que le service d'archéologie de Madras a déja réunie. Je +pense que la race d'Adichanallour appartient aux Proto-Dravidiens." The +measurements of six of the most perfect skulls from Aditanallur in +the Madras Museum collection give the following results:-- + + + Cephalic Cephalic Cephalic + length, breadth, index. + cm. cm. + + 18.8 12.4 66. + 19.1 12.7 66.5 + 18.3 12.4 67.8 + 18. 12.2 67.8 + 18. 12.8 77.1 + 16.8 13.1 78. + + +The following extracts from my notes show that the hyperdolichocephalic +type survives in the dolichocephalic inhabitants of the Tamil country +at the present day:-- + + + Class Number Cephalic index below 70. + examined. + + Palli 40 64.4; 66.9; 67; 68.2; 68.9; 69.6. + Paraiyan 40 64.8; 69.2; 69.3; 69.5. + Vellala 40 67.9; 69.6. + + +By Flower and Lydekker, [15] a white division of man, called the +Caucasian or Eurafrican, is made to include Huxley's Xanthochroi +(blonde type) and Melanochroi (black hair and eyes, and skin of +almost all shades from white to black). The Melanochroi are said to +"comprise the greater majority of the inhabitants of Southern Europe, +North Africa, and South-west Asia, and consist mainly of the Aryan, +Semitic, and Hamitic families. The Dravidians of India, the Veddahs +of Ceylon, and probably the Ainus of Japan, and the Maoutze of China, +also belong to this race, which may have contributed something to +the mixed character of some tribes of Indo-China and the Polynesian +islands, and have given at least the characters of the hair to the +otherwise Negroid inhabitants of Australia. In Southern India they +are largely mixed with a Negrito element, and, in Africa, where +their habitat becomes coterminous with that of the Negroes, numerous +cross-races have sprung up between them all along the frontier line." + +In describing the "Hindu type," Topinard [16] divides the population of +the Indian peninsula into three strata, viz., the Black, Mongolian, and +the Aryan. "The remnants of the first," he says, "are at the present +time shut up in the mountains of Central India under the name of Bhils, +Mahairs, Ghonds, and Khonds; and in the south under that of Yenadis, +Kurumbas, etc. Its primitive characters, apart from its black colour +and low stature, are difficult to discover, but it is to be noticed +that travellers do not speak of woolly hair in India. [17] The second +has spread over the plateaux of Central India by two lines of way, +one to the north-east, the other to the north-west. The remnants of the +first invasion are seen in the Dravidian or Tamil tribes, and those of +the second in the Jhats. The third more recent, and more important as +to quality than as to number, was the Aryan." In speaking further of +the Australian type, characterised by a combination of smooth hair +with Negroid features, Topinard states that "it is clear that the +Australians might very well be the result of the cross between one +race with smooth hair from some other place, and a really Negro and +autochthonous race. The opinions held by Huxley are in harmony with +this hypothesis. He says the Australians are identical with the ancient +inhabitants of the Deccan. The features of the present blacks in India, +and the characters which the Dravidian and Australian languages have +in common, tend to assimilate them. The existence of the boomerang +in the two countries, and some remnants of caste in Australia, help +to support the opinion." + +Of the so-called boomerangs of Southern India, the Madras Museum +possesses three (two ivory, one wooden) from the Tanjore armoury +(Pl. II). Concerning them, the Dewan of Pudukkottai writes to me as +follows. "The valari or valai tadi (bent stick) is a short weapon, +generally made of some hard-grained wood. It is also sometimes made +of iron. It is crescent-shaped, one end being heavier than the other, +and the outer end is sharpened. Men trained in the use of the weapon +hold it by the lighter end, whirl it a few times over their shoulders +to give it impetus, and then hurl it with great force against the +object aimed at. It is said that there were experts in the art of +throwing the valari, who could at one stroke despatch small game, +and even man. No such experts are now forthcoming in the Pudukkottai +State, though the instrument is reported to be occasionally used in +hunting hares, jungle fowl, etc. Its days, however, must be counted as +past. Tradition states that the instrument played a considerable part +in the Poligar wars of the last century. But it now reposes peacefully +in the households of the descendants of the rude Kallan and Maravan +warriors, preserved as a sacred relic of a chivalric past, along +with other old family weapons in their puja (worship) room, brought +out and scraped and cleaned on occasions like the Ayudha puja day +(when worship is paid to weapons and implements of industry), and +restored to its place of rest immediately afterwards." At a Kallan +marriage, the bride and bridegroom go to the house of the latter, +where boomerangs are exchanged, and a feast is held. This custom +appears to be fast becoming a tradition. But there is a common saying +still current "Send the valai tadi, and bring the bride." [18] + +It is pointed out by Topinard, [19] as a somewhat important piece of +evidence, that, in the West, about Madagascar and the point of Aden in +Africa, there are black tribes with smooth hair, or, at all events, +large numbers of individuals who have it, mingled particularly among +the Somalis and the Gallas, in the region where M. Broca has an idea +that some dark, and not Negro, race, now extinct, once existed. At +the meeting of the British Association, 1898, Mr. W. Crooke gave +expression to the view that the Dravidians represent an emigration from +the African continent, and discounted the theory that the Aryans drove +the aboriginal inhabitants into the jungles with the suggestion that +the Aryan invasion was more social than racial, viz., that what India +borrowed from the Aryans was manners and customs. According to this +view, it must have been reforming aborigines who gained the ascendancy +in India, rather than new-comers; and those of the aborigines who +clung to their old ways got left behind in the struggle for existence. + +In an article devoted to the Australians, Professor R. Semon writes +as follows. "We must, without hesitation, presume that the ancestors +of the Australians stood, at the time of their immigration to the +continent, on a lower rung of culture than their living representatives +of to-day. Whence, and in what manner, the immigration took place, +it is difficult to determine. In the neighbouring quarter of the globe +there lives no race, which is closely related to the Australians. Their +nearest neighbours, the Papuans of New Guinea, the Malays of the Sunda +Islands, and the Macris of New Zealand, stand in no close relationship +to them. On the other hand, we find further away, among the Dravidian +aborigines of India, types which remind us forcibly of the Australians +in their anthropological characters. In drawing attention to the +resemblance of the hill-tribes of the Deccan to the Australians, +Huxley says: 'An ordinary cooly, such as one can see among the +sailors of any newly-arrived East India vessel, would, if stripped, +pass very well for an Australian, although the skull and lower jaw +are generally less coarse.' Huxley here goes a little too far in his +accentuation of the similarity of type. We are, however, undoubtedly +confronted with a number of characters--skull formation, features, +wavy curled hair--in common between the Australians and Dravidians, +which gain in importance from the fact that, by the researches +of Norris, Bleek, and Caldwell, a number of points of resemblance +between the Australian and Dravidian languages have been discovered, +and this despite the fact that the homes of the two races are so far +apart, and that a number of races are wedged in between them, whose +languages have no relationship whatever to either the Dravidian or +Australian. There is much that speaks in favour of the view that the +Australians and Dravidians sprang from a common main branch of the +human race. According to the laborious researches of Paul and Fritz +Sarasin, the Veddas of Ceylon, whom one might call pre-Dravidians, +would represent an off-shoot from this main stem. When they branched +off, they stood on a very low rung of development, and seem to have +made hardly any progress worth mentioning." + +In dealing with the Australian problem, Mr. A. H. Keane [20] refers to +the time when Australia formed almost continuous land with the African +continent, and to its accessibility on the north and north-west +to primitive migration both from India and Papuasia. "That such +migrations," he writes, "took place, scarcely admits of a doubt, +and the Rev. John Mathew [21] concludes that the continent was +first occupied by a homogeneous branch of the Papuan race either +from New Guinea or Malaysia, and that these first arrivals, to be +regarded as true aborigines, passed into Tasmania, which at that time +probably formed continuous land with Australia. Thus the now extinct +Tasmanians would represent the primitive type, which, in Australia, +became modified, but not effaced, by crossing with later immigrants, +chiefly from India. These are identified, as they have been by +other ethnologists, with the Dravidians, and the writer remarks that +'although the Australians are still in a state of savagery, and the +Dravidians of India have been for many ages a people civilized in +a great measure, and possessed of literature, the two peoples are +affiliated by deeply-marked characteristics in their social system as +shown by the boomerang, which, unless locally evolved, must have been +introduced from India.' But the variations in the physical characters +of the natives appear to be too great to be accounted for by a single +graft; hence Malays also are introduced from the Eastern Archipelago, +which would explain both the straight hair in many districts, and a +number of pure Malay words in several of the native languages." Dealing +later with the ethnical relations of the Dravidas, Mr. Keane says that +"although they preceded the Aryan-speaking Hindus, they are not the +true aborigines of the Deccan, for they were themselves preceded by +dark peoples, probably of aberrant Negrite type." + +In the 'Manual of Administration of the Madras Presidency,' +Dr. C. Macleane writes as follows. "The history proper of the south +of India may be held to begin with the Hindu dynasties formed by a +more or less intimate admixture of the Aryan and Dravidian systems of +government. But, prior to that, three stages of historical knowledge +are recognisable; first, as to such aboriginal period as there may +have been prior to the Dravidian; secondly, as to the period when +the Aryans had begun to impose their religion and customs upon the +Dravidians, but the time indicated by the early dynasties had not yet +been reached. Geology and natural history alike make it certain that, +at a time within the bounds of human knowledge, Southern India did not +form part of Asia. A large southern continent, of which this country +once formed part, has ever been assumed as necessary to account +for the different circumstances. The Sanscrit Pooranic writers, +the Ceylon Boodhists, and the local traditions of the west coast, +all indicate a great disturbance of the point of the Peninsula and +Ceylon within recent times. [22] Investigations in relation to race +show it to be by no means impossible that Southern India was once +the passage-ground, by which the ancient progenitors of Northern and +Mediterranean races proceeded to the parts of the globe which they now +inhabit. In this part of the world, as in others, antiquarian remains +show the existence of peoples who used successively implements of +unwrought stone, of wrought stone, and of metal fashioned in the +most primitive manner. [23] These tribes have also left cairns and +stone circles indicating burial places. It has been usual to set +these down as earlier than Dravidian. But the hill Coorumbar of the +Palmanair plateau, who are only a detached portion of the oldest +known Tamulian population, erect dolmens to this day. The sepulchral +urns of Tinnevelly may be earlier than Dravidian, or they may be +Dravidian.... The evidence of the grammatical structure of language is +to be relied on as a clearly distinctive mark of a population, but, +from this point of view, it appears that there are more signs of the +great lapse of time than of previous populations. The grammar of the +South of India is exclusively Dravidian, and bears no trace of ever +having been anything else. The hill, forest, and Pariah tribes use the +Dravidian forms of grammar and inflection.... The Dravidians, a very +primeval race, take a by no means low place in the conjectural history +of humanity. They have affinities with the Australian aborigines, +which would probably connect their earliest origin with that +people." Adopting a novel classification, Dr. Macleane, in assuming +that there are no living representatives in Southern India of any +race of a wholly pre-Dravidian character, sub-divides the Dravidians +into pre-Tamulian and Tamulian, to designate two branches of the same +family, one older or less civilised than the other. + +The importance, which has been attached by many authorities to the +theory of the connection between the Dravidians and Australians, +is made very clear from the passages in their writings, which I +have quoted. Before leaving this subject, I may appropriately cite +as an important witness Sir William Turner, who has studied the +Dravidians and Australians from the standpoint of craniology. [24] +"Many ethnologists of great eminence," he writes, "have regarded the +aborigines of Australia as closely associated with the Dravidians of +India. Some also consider the Dravidians to be a branch of the great +Caucasian stock, and affiliated therefore to Europeans. If these two +hypotheses are to be regarded as sound, a relationship between the +aboriginal Australians and the European would be established through +the Dravidian people of India. The affinities between the Dravidians +and Australians have been based upon the employment of certain words +by both people, apparently derived from common roots; by the use of +the boomerang, similar to the well-known Australian weapon, by some +Dravidian tribes; by the Indian peninsula having possibly had in a +previous geologic epoch a land connection with the Austro-Malayan +Archipelago, and by certain correspondences in the physical type +of the two people. Both Dravidians and Australians have dark skins +approximating to black; dark eyes; black hair, either straight, +wavy or curly, but not woolly or frizzly; thick lips; low nose with +wide nostrils; usually short stature, though the Australians are +somewhat taller than the Dravidians. When the skulls are compared +with each other, whilst they correspond in some particulars, they +differ in others. In both races, the general form and proportions are +dolichocephalic, but in the Australians the crania are absolutely +longer than in the Dravidians, owing in part to the prominence of +the glabella. The Australian skull is heavier, and the outer table +is coarser and rougher than in the Dravidian; the forehead also is +much more receding; the sagittal region is frequently ridged, and the +slope outwards to the parietal eminence is steeper. The Australians +in the norma facialis have the glabella and supra-orbital ridges +much more projecting; the nasion more depressed; the jaws heavier; +the upper jaw usually prognathous, sometimes remarkably so." Of twelve +Dravidian skulls measured by Sir William Turner, in seven the jaw was +orthognathous, in four, in the lower term of the mesognathous series; +one specimen only was prognathic. The customary type of jaw, therefore, +was orthognathic. [25] The conclusion at which Sir William Turner +arrives is that "by a careful comparison of Australian and Dravidian +crania, there ought not to be much difficulty in distinguishing one +from the other. The comparative study of the characters of the two +series of crania has not led me to the conclusion that they can be +adduced in support of the theory of the unity of the two people." + +The Dravidians of Southern India are divided by Sir Herbert Risley +[26] into two main groups, the Scytho-Dravidian and the Dravidian, +which he sums up as follows:-- + +"The Scytho-Dravidian type of Western India, comprising the Maratha +Braahmans, the Kunbis and the Coorgs; probably formed by a mixture of +Scythian and Dravidian elements, the former predominating in the higher +groups, the latter in the lower. The head is broad; complexion fair; +hair on face rather scanty; stature medium; nose moderately fine, +and not conspicuously long. + +"The Dravidian type extending from Ceylon to the valley of the Ganges, +and pervading the whole of Madras, Hyderabad, the Central Provinces, +most of Central India, and Chutia Nagpur. Its most characteristic +representatives are the Paniyans of the South Indian Hills and the +Santals of Chutia Nagpur. Probably the original type of the population +of India, now modified to a varying extent by the admixture of Aryan, +Scythian, and Mongoloid elements. In typical specimens, the stature +is short or below mean; the complexion very dark, approaching black; +hair plentiful with an occasional tendency to curl; eyes dark; head +long; nose very broad, sometimes depressed at the root, but not so +as to make the face appear flat." + +It is, it will be noted, observed by Risley that the head of the +Scytho-Dravidian is broad, and that of the Dravidian long. Writing some +years ago concerning the Dravidian head with reference to a statement +in Taylor's "Origin of the Aryans," [27] that "the Todas are fully +dolichocephalic, differing in this respect from the Dravidians, who +are brachycephalic," I published [28] certain statistics based on the +measurements of a number of subjects in the southern districts of the +Madras Presidency. These figures showed that "the average cephalic +index of 639 members of 19 different castes and tribes was 74.1; +and that, in only 19 out of the 639 individuals, did the index exceed +80. So far then from the Dravidian being separated from the Todas by +reason of their higher cephalic index, this index is, in the Todas, +actually higher than in some of the Dravidian peoples." Accustomed as +I was, in my wanderings among the Tamil and Malayalam folk, to deal +with heads in which the dolichocephalic or sub-dolichocephalic type +preponderates, I was amazed to find, in the course of an expedition +in the Bellary district (in the Canarese area), that the question +of the type of the Dravidian head was not nearly so simple and +straightforward as I had imagined. My records of head measurements +now include a very large series taken in the plains in the Tulu, +Canarese, Telugu, Malayalam, and Tamil areas, and the measurements +of a few Maratha (non-Dravidian) classes settled in the Canarese +country. In the following tabular statement, I have brought together, +for the purpose of comparison, the records of the head-measurements +of representative classes in each of these areas:-- + + +======================================================================== + | |Number | Cephalic Index |Number + | |of |=========================|of times + Class | Language |subjects|Average|Maximum,|Minimum,|index + | |examined| | cm. | cm. |was 80 + | | | | | |or above +==============+=============+========+=======+========+========+======== +Sukun Sale | Marathi | 30 | 82.2 | 90.0 | 73.9 | 21 +Suka Sale | Do. | 30 | 81.8 | 88.2 | 76.1 | 22 +Vakkaliga | Canarese | 50 | 81.7 | 93.8 | 72.5 | 27 +Billava | Tulu | 50 | 80.1 | 91.5 | 71.0 | 27 +Rangari | Marathi | 30 | 79.8 | 92.2 | 70.7 | 14 +Agasa | Canarese | 40 | 78.5 | 85.7 | 73.2 | 13 +Bant | Tulu | 40 | 78.0 | 91.2 | 70.8 | 12 +Kapu | Telugu | 49 | 78.0 | 87.6 | 71.6 | 16 +Tota Balija | Do. | 39 | 78.0 | 86.0 | 73.3 | 10 +Boya | Do. | 50 | 77.9 | 89.2 | 70.5 | 14 +Dasa Banajiga | Canarese | 40 | 77.8 | 86.2 | 72.0 | 11 +Ganiga | Do. | 50 | 77.6 | 85.9 | 70.5 | 11 +Golla | Telugu | 60 | 77.5 | 89.3 | 70.1 | 9 +Kuruba | Canarese | 50 | 77.3 | 83.9 | 69.6 | 10 +Bestha | Telugu | 60 | 77.1 | 85.1 | 70.5 | 9 +Pallan | Tamil | 50 | 75.9 | 87.0 | 70.1 | 6 +Mukkuvan | Malayalam | 40 | 75.1 | 83.5 | 68.6 | 2 +Nayar | Do. | 40 | 74.4 | 81.9 | 70.0 | 1 +Vellala | Tamil | 40 | 74.1 | 81.1 | 67.9 | 2 +Agamudaiyan | Do. | 40 | 74.0 | 80.9 | 66.7 | 1 +Paraiyan | Do. | 40 | 73.6 | 78.3 | 64.8 | +Palli | Do. | 40 | 73.0 | 80.0 | 64.4 | 1 +Tiyan | Malayalam | 40 | 73.0 | 78.9 | 68.6 | +======================================================================== + + +The difference in the character of the cranium is further brought out +by the following tables, in which the details of the cephalic indices +of typical classes in the five linguistic areas under consideration +are recorded:-- + + +(a) Tulu. Billava. + +71 ** +72 ** +73 * +74 +75 +76 *** +77 ***** +78 ****** +79 ** +80 ** Average. +81 *** +82 ***** +83 ******** +84 **** +85 **** +86 * +87 +88 +89 +90 * +91 * + + +(b) Canarese. Vakkaliga. + +73 * +74 +75 ** +76 ***** +77 ** +78 ***** +79 ******* +80 ** +81 *** +82 *** Average. +83 *** +84 ** +85 *** +86 *** +87 ** +88 ** +89 * +90 +91 * +92 * +93 * +94 * + + +(c) Telugu. Kapu. + +72 * +73 ******* +74 ** +75 ** +76 ******* +77 ****** +78 * Average. +79 **** +80 **** +81 ******* +82 ** +83 *** +84 * +85 * +86 +87 +88 * + + +(d) Vellala. Tamil. + +68 * +69 +70 * +71 *** +72 ********** +73 ******* +74 ** Average. +75 ****** +76 *** +77 **** +78 +79 +80 ** +81 * + + +(e) Malayalam. Nayar. + +70 ** +71 ***** +72 ***** +73 ****** +74 * Average. +75 ****** +76 **** +77 **** +78 *** +79 ** +80 +81 +82 * + + +These tables not only bring out the difference in the cephalic index +of the classes selected as representative of the different areas, +but further show that there is a greater constancy in the Tamil and +Malayalam classes than in the Tulus, Canarese and Telugus. The number +of individuals clustering round the average is conspicuously greater +in the two former than in the three latter. I am not prepared to +hazard any new theory to account for the marked difference in the +type of cranium in the various areas under consideration, and must +content myself with the observation that, whatever may have been the +influence which has brought about the existing sub-brachycephalic or +mesaticephalic type in the northern areas, this influence has not +extended southward into the Tamil and Malayalam countries, where +Dravidian man remains dolicho- or sub-dolichocephalic. + +As an excellent example of constancy of type in the cephalic index, +I may cite, en passant, the following results of measurement of the +Todas, who inhabit the plateau of the Nilgiri hills:-- + + +69 ** +70 ******* +71 *********** +72 ******* +73 ************** Average. +74 ********************* +75 ********* +76 ****** +77 * +78 * +79 * +80 +81 * + + +I pass on to the consideration of the type of cranium among various +Brahman classes. In the following tables, the results of measurement +of representatives of Tulu, Canarese, Marathi, Tamil and Malayalam +Brahmans are recorded:-- + + +============================================================================= + | |Number | Cephalic Index |Number + | |of |==========================|of times + Class | Language |subjects| | | |index + | |examined|Average.|Maximum.|Minimum.|was 80 + | | | | | |or above +===============+================+========+========+========+========+======== +Shivalli | Tulu | 30 | 80.4 | 96.4 | 69.4 | 17 +Mandya | Canarese | 50 | 80.2 | 88.2 | 69.8 | 31 +Karnataka | Do. | 60 | 78.4 | 89.5 | 69.8 | 19 +Smarta | | | | | | + (Desastha) | Marathi [29] | 43 | 76.9 | 87.1 | 71 | 9 +Tamil | | | | | | + (Madras city)| Tamil | 40 | 76.5 | 84 | 69 | 3 +Nambutiri | Malayalam [30] | | 76.3 | | | +Pattar | Tamil [31] | 25 | 74.5 | 81.4 | 69.1 | 2 +============================================================================= + + +(a) Tulu. Shivalli. + +69 * +70 +71 +72 * +73 * +74 +75 +76 **** +77 +78 *** +79 *** +80 ** Average. +81 *** +82 **** +83 ** +84 ** +85 +86 * +87 +88 * +89 * +90 +91 +92 +93 +94 +95 +96 * + + +(b) Canarese. Karnataka Smarta. + +70 * +71 ** +72 ** +73 ** +74 ****** +75 *** +76 **** +77 ***** +78 ********** Average. +79 ** +80 ***** +81 **** +82 **** +83 ** +84 ** +85 * +86 * +87 * +88 ** +89 * + + +(c) Tamil. Madras City. + +69 * +70 ** +71 * +72 * +73 ** +74 *** +75 **** +76 **** Average. +77 ****** +78 ***** +79 ***** +80 ** +81 +82 ** +83 * +84 * + + +(d) Tamil. Pattar. + +69 ** +70 * +71 *** +72 ** +73 *** +74 Average. +75 **** +76 ***** +77 +78 * +79 ** +80 * +81 * + + +Taking the evidence of the figures, they demonstrate that, like the +other classes which have been analysed, the Brahmans have a higher +cephalic index, with a wider range, in the northern than in the +southern area. + +There is a tradition that the Shivalli Brahmans of the Tulu country +came from Ahikshetra. As only males migrated from their home, they +were compelled to take women from non-Brahman castes as wives. The +ranks are said to have been swelled by conversions from these castes +during the time of Sri Madhvacharya. The Shivalli Brahmans are said +to be referred to by the Bants as Mathumaglu or Mathmalu (bride) +in allusion to the fact of their wives being taken from the Bant +caste. Besides the Shivallis, there are other Tulu Brahmans, who +are said to be recent converts. The Matti Brahmans were formerly +considered low by the Shivallis, and were not allowed to sit in the +same line with the Shivallis at meal time. They were only permitted +to sit in a cross line, separated from the Shivallis, though in the +same room. This was because the Matti Brahmans were supposed to be +Mogers (fishing caste) raised to Brahmanism by one Vathiraja Swami, +a Sanyasi. Having become Brahmans, they could not carry on their +hereditary occupation, and, to enable them to earn a livelihood, +the Sanyasi gave them some brinjal (Solanum Melongena) seeds, and +advised them to cultivate the plant. From this fact, the variety of +brinjal, which is cultivated at Matti, is called Vathiraja gulla. At +the present day, the Matti Brahmans are on a par with the Shivalli +Brahmans, and have become disciples of the Sodhe mutt (religious +institution) at Udipi. In some of the popular accounts of Brahmans, +which have been reduced to writing, it is stated that, during the time +of Mayura Varma of the Kadamba dynasty, [32] some Andhra Brahmans were +brought into South Canara. As a sufficient number of Brahmans were +not available for the purpose of yagams (sacrifices), these Andhra +Brahmans selected a number of families from the non-Brahman caste, +made them Brahmans, and chose exogamous sept names for them. Of these +names, Manoli (Cephalandra Indica), Perala (Psidium Guyava), Kudire +(horse), and Ane (elephant) are examples. + +A character, with which I am very familiar, when measuring the heads +of all sorts and conditions of natives of Southern India, is the +absence of convexity of the segment formed by the posterior portion +of the united parietal bones. The result of this absence of convexity +is that the back of the head, instead of forming a curve gradually +increasing from the top of the head towards the occipital region, +as in the European skull figured in plate IIIa, forms a flattened +area of considerable length almost at right angles to the base of +the skull as in the "Hindu" skull represented in plate IIIb. This +character is shown in a marked degree in plate IV, which represents +a prosperous Linga Banajiga in the Canarese country. + +In discussing racial admixture, Quatrefages writes as follows. [33] +"Parfois on trouve encore quelques tribus qui ont conservé plus on +moins intacts tous les caractères de leur race. Les Coorumbas du Malwar +[Malabar] et du Coorg paraissent former un noyau plus considérable +encore, et avoir conservé dans les jungles de Wynaad une indépendence +à peu près complète, et tous leurs caractères ethnologiques." The +purity of blood and ethnological characters of various jungle tribes +are unhappily becoming lost as the result of contact metamorphosis from +the opening up of the jungles for planter's estates, and contact with +more civilised tribes and races, both brown and white. In illustration, +I may cite the Kanikars of Travancore, who till recently were in the +habit of sending all their women into the seclusion of the jungle on +the arrival of a stranger near their settlements. This is now seldom +done, and some Kanikars have in modern times settled in the vicinity +of towns, and become domesticated. The primitive short, dark-skinned +and platyrhine type, though surviving, has become changed, and many +leptorhine or mesorhine individuals above middle height are to be met +with. The following are the results of measurements of Kanikars in +the jungle, and at a village some miles from Trivandrum, the capital +of Travancore:-- + + + =========================================================== + | Stature cm. | Nasal Index. + ==============+=======================+==================== + | Av. | Max. | Min. | Av. | Max. | Min. + Jungle | 155.2 | 170.3 | 150.2 | 84.6 | 105 | 72.3 + Domesticated | 158.7 | 170.4 | 148 | 81.2 | 90.5 | 70.8 + =========================================================== + + +Some jungle Chenchus, who inhabit the Nallamalai hills in the +Kurnool district, still exhibit the primitive short stature and high +nasal index, which are characteristic of the unadulterated jungle +tribes. But there is a very conspicuous want of uniformity in their +physical characters, and many individuals are to be met with, above +middle height, or tall, with long narrow noses. A case is recorded, +in which a brick-maker married a Chenchu girl. And I was told of a +Boya man who had married into the tribe, and was living in a gudem +(Chenchu settlement). + + + ========================================================= + | Stature cm. | Nasal Index. + ==============+=====================+==================== + | Av. | Max.| Min. | Av. | Max. |Min. + | 162.5 | 175 | 149.6 | 81.9 | 95.7 | 68.1 + ========================================================= + + +By the dolichocephalic type of cranium which has persisted, and which +the Chenchus possess in common with various other jungle tribes, they +are still, as shown by the following table, at once differentiated +from the mesaticephalic dwellers in the plains near the foot of the +Nallamalais:-- + + + ================================================ + | | Number of + | Cephalic| times the + | Index. | index was + | | 80 or over. + ========================+=========+============= + 40 Chenchus | 74.3 | 1 + 60 Gollas | 77.5 | 9 + 50 Boyas | 77.9 | 14 + 39 Tota Balijas | 78.0 | 10 + 49 Kapus | 78.8 | 16 + 19 Upparas | 78.8 | 4 + 16 Mangalas | 78.8 | 7 + 17 Verukalas | 78.6 | 6 + 12 Medaras | 80.7 | 8 + ================================================ + + +In a note on the jungle tribes, M. Louis Lapicque, [34] who carried +out anthropometric observations in Southern India a few years ago, +writes as follows. "Dans les montagnes des Nilghirris et d'Anémalé, +situées au coeur de la contrée dravidienne, on a signalé depuis +longtemps des petits sauvages crépus, qu'on a même pensé pouvoir, sur +des documents insuffisants, identifier avec les negritos. En réalité, +it n'existe pas dans ces montagnes, ni probablement nulle part dans +l'Inde, un témoin de la race primitive comparable, comme pureté, +aux Andamanais ni même aux autres Negritos. Ce que l'on trouve là, +c'est simplement, mais c'est fort précieux, une population métisse +qui continue au delà du Paria la série générale de l'Inde. Au bord +de la forêt vierge ou dans les collines partiellement défrichées, +il y a des castes demi-Parias, demi-sauvages. La hiérachie sociale +les classe au-dessous du Paria: on peut même trouver des groupes ou le +facies nègre, nettement dessiné, est tout à fait prédominant. Ehbien, +dans ces groupes, les chevelures sont en général frisées, et on en +observe quelques-unes qu'on peut même appeler crépues. On a donc le +moyen de prolonger par l'imagination la série des castes indiennes +jusq'au type primitif qui était (nous n'avons plus qu'un pas à faire +pour le reconstruire), un Nègre.... Nous sommes arrives à reconstituer +les traits nègres d'un type disparu en prolongeant une série graduée +de métis. Par la même méthode nous pouvons déterminer théoriquement +la forme du crâne de ce type. Avec une assez grande certitude, je +crois pouvoir affirmer, après de nombreuses mesures systématiques, +que le nègre primitif de l'Inde était sousdolichocéphale avec un +indice voisin de 75 ou 76. Sa taille, plus difficile à préciser, car +les conditions de vie modifient ce caractère, devait être petite, plus +haute pourtant que celle des Andamanais. Quant au nom qu'il convient +de lui attribuer, la discussion des faits sociaux et linguistiques +sur lesquels est fondée la notion de dravidien permet d'établir que +ce nègre était antérieur aux dravidiens; il faut done l'appeller +Prédravidien, ou, si nous voulons lui donner un nom qui ne soit pas +relatif à une autre population, on peut l'appeler Nègre Paria." + +In support of M. Lapicque's statement that the primitive inhabitant +was dolichocephalic or sub-dolichocephalic, I may produce the evidence +of the cephalic indices of the various jungle tribes which I have +examined in the Tamil, Malayalam, and Telugu countries:-- + + + =================================================== + | Cephalic Index. + |==========+==========+========== + | Average. | Maximum. | Minimum. + ==================+==========+==========+========== + Kadir | 72.9 | 80.0 | 69.1 + Irula, Chingleput | 73.1 | 78.6 | 68.4 + Kanikar | 73.4 | 78.9 | 69.1 + Mala Vedan | 73.4 | 80.9 | 68.8 + Panaiyan | 74.0 | 81.1 | 69.4 + Chenchu | 74.3 | 80.5 | 64.3 + Sholaga | 74.9 | 79.3 | 67.8 + Paliyan | 75.7 | 79.1 | 72.9 + Irula, Nilgiris | 75.8 | 80.9 | 70.8 + Kurumba | 76.5 | 83.3 | 71.8 + =================================================== + + +It is worthy of note that Haeckel defines the nose of the Dravidian +as a prominent and narrow organ. For Risley has laid down [35] that, +in the Dravidian type, the nose is thick and broad, and the formula +expressing the proportionate dimension (nasal index) is higher +than in any known race, except the Negro; and that the typical +Dravidian, as represented by the Male Paharia, has a nose as broad +in proportion to its length as the Negro, while this feature in the +Aryan group can fairly bear comparison with the noses of sixty-eight +Parisians, measured by Topinard, which gave an average of 69.4. In +this connection, I may record the statistics relating to the nasal +indices of various South Indian jungle tribes:-- + + + ==================================================== + | Nasal Index. + |================================ + | Average. | Maximum. | Minimum. + ===================+==========+==========+========== + Paniyan | 95.1 | 108.6 | 72.9 + Kadir | 89.8 | 115.4 | 72.9 + Kurumba | 86.1 | 111.1 | 70.8 + Sholaga | 85.1 | 107.7 | 72.8 + Mala Vedan | 84.9 | 102.6 | 71.1 + Irula, Nilgiris | 84.9 | 100. | 72.3 + Kanikar | 84.6 | 105. | 72.3 + Chenchu | 81.9 | 95.7 | 68.1 + ==================================================== + + +In the following table, I have brought together, for the purpose of +comparison, the average stature and nasal index of various Dravidian +classes inhabiting the plains of the Telugu, Tamil, Canarese, and +Malayalam countries, and jungle tribes:-- + + + ====================================================== + | | Nasal | + |Linguistic area.| Index.| Stature. + ===================+================+=======+========= + Paniyan | Jungle tribe | 95.1 | 157.4 + Kadir | Do. | 89.8 | 157.7 + Kurumba | Do. | 86.1 | 157.9 + Sholaga | Do. | 85.1 | 159.3 + Irula, Nilgiris | Do. | 84.9 | 159.8 + Mala Vedan | Do. | 84.9 | 154.2 + Kanikar | Do. | 84.6 | 155.2 + Chenchu | Do. | 81.9 | 162.5 + Pallan | Tamil | 81.5 | 164.3 + Mukkuvan | Malayalam | 81. | 163.1 + Paraiyan | Tamil | 80. | 163.1 + Palli | Do. | 77.9 | 162.5 + Ganiga | Canarese | 76.1 | 165.8 + Bestha | Telugu | 75.9 | 165.7 + Tiyan | Malayalam | 75. | 163.7 + Kuruba | Canarese | 74.9 | 162.7 + Boya | Telugu | 74.4 | 163.9 + Tota Balija | Do. | 74.4 | 163.9 + Agasa | Canarese | 74.3 | 162.4 + Agamudaiyan | Tamil | 74.2 | 165.8 + Golla | Telugu | 74.1 | 163.8 + Vellala | Tamil | 73.1 | 162.4 + Vakkaliga | Canarese | 73. | 167.2 + Dasa Banajiga | Do. | 72.8 | 165.3 + Kapu | Telugu | 72.8 | 164.5 + Nayar | Malayalam | 71.1 | 165.2 + ====================================================== + + +This table demonstrates very clearly an unbroken series ranging from +the jungle men, short of stature and platyrhine, to the leptorhine +Nayars and other classes. + +In plate V are figured a series of triangles representing (natural +size) the maxima, minima, and average nasal indices of Brahmans of +Madras city (belonging to the poorer classes), Tamil Paraiyans, and +Paniyans. There is obviously far less connection between the Brahman +minimum and the Paraiyan maximum than between the Brahman and Paraiyan +maxima and the Paniyan average; and the frequent occurrence of high +nasal indices, resulting from short, broad noses, in many classes has +to be accounted for. Sir Alfred Lyall somewhere refers to the gradual +Brahmanising of the aboriginal non-Arayan, or casteless tribes. "They +pass," he writes, "into Brahmanists by a natural upward transition, +which leads them to adopt the religion of the castes immediately +above them in the social scale of the composite population, among +which they settle down; and we may reasonably guess that this process +has been working for centuries." In the Madras Census Report, 1891, +Mr. H. A. Stuart states that "it has often been asserted, and is +now the general belief, that the Brahmans of the South are not pure +Aryans, but are a mixed Aryan and Dravidian race. In the earliest +times, the caste division was much less rigid than now, and a person +of another caste could become a Brahman by attaining the Brahmanical +standard of knowledge, and assuming Brahmanical functions; and, when +we see the Nambudiri Brahmans, even at the present day, contracting +alliances, informal though they be, with the women of the country, +it is not difficult to believe that, on their first arrival, such +unions were even more common, and that the children born of them would +be recognised as Brahmans, though perhaps regarded as an inferior +class. However, those Brahmans, in whose veins mixed blood is supposed +to run, are even to this day regarded as lower in the social scale, +and are not allowed to mix freely with the pure Brahman community." + +Popular traditions allude to wholesale conversions of non-Brahmans +into Brahmans. According to such traditions, Rajas used to feed +very large numbers of Brahmans (a lakh of Brahmans) in expiation of +some sin, or to gain religious merit. To make up this large number, +non-Brahmans are said to have been made Brahmans at the bidding +of the Rajas. Here and there are found a few sections of Brahmans, +whom the more orthodox Brahmans do not recognise as such, though the +ordinary members of the community regard them as an inferior class +of Brahmans. As an instance may be cited the Marakas of the Mysore +Province. Though it is difficult to disprove the claim put forward +by these people, some demur to their being regarded as Brahmans. + +Between a Brahman of high culture, with fair complexion, and long, +narrow nose on the one hand, and a less highly civilised Brahman +with dark skin and short broad nose on the other, there is a vast +difference, which can only be reasonably explained on the assumption +of racial admixture; and it is no insult to the higher members of +the Brahman community to trace, in their more lowly brethren, the +result of crossing with a dark-skinned, and broad-nosed race of short +stature. Whether the jungle tribe are, as I believe, the microscopic +remnant of a pre-Dravidian people, or, as some hold, of Dravidians +driven by a conquering race to the seclusion of the jungles, it is +to the lasting influence of some such broad-nosed ancestor that the +high nasal index of many of the inhabitants of Southern India must, +it seems to me, be attributed. Viewed in the light of this remark, +the connection between the following mixed collection of individuals, +all of very dark colour, short of stature, and with nasal index +exceeding 90, calls for no explanation:-- + + + ======================================================== + | Stature. | Nasal | Nasal | Nasal + | |height. |breadth.| Index. + ==================+==========+========+========+======== + | cm. | cm. | cm. | + Vakkaliga | 156 | 4.3 | 3.9 | 90.7 + Moger | 160 | 4.3 | 3.9 | 90.7 + Saiyad Muhammadan | 160 | 4.4 | 4 | 90.9 + Kammalan | 154.4 | 4.4 | 4 | 90.9 + Chakkiliyan | 156.8 | 4.4 | 4 | 90.9 + Vellala | 154.8 | 4.7 | 4.3 | 91.6 + Malaiyali | 158.8 | 4 | 3.7 | 92.5 + Konga Vellala | 157 | 4.1 | 3.8 | 92.7 + Pattar Brahman | 157.6 | 4.2 | 3.9 | 92.9 + Odde | 159.6 | 4.3 | 4 | 93 + Smarta Brahman | 159 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 95.1 + Palli | 157.8 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 95.1 + Pallan | 155.8 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 100 + Bestha | 156.8 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 100 + Mukkuvan | 150.8 | 4 | 4 | 100 + Agasa | 156.4 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 100 + Tamil Paraiyan | 160 | 4 | 4.2 | 105 + ======================================================== + + +I pass on to a brief consideration of the languages of Southern +India. According to Mr. G. A. Grierson [36] "the Dravidian family +comprises all the principal languages of Southern India. The name +Dravidian is a conventional one. It is derived from the Sanskrit +Dravida, a word which is again probably derived from an older +Dramila, Damila, and is identical with the name of Tamil. The name +Dravidian is, accordingly, identical with Tamulian, which name has +formerly been used by European writers as a common designation of the +languages in question. The word Dravida forms part of the denomination +Andhra-Dravida-bhasha, the language of the Andhras (i.e., Telugu), +and Dravidas (i.e., Tamilians), which Kumarila Bhatta (probably +7th Century A.D.) employed to denote the Dravidian family. In India +Dravida has been used in more than one sense. Thus the so-called five +Dravidas are Telugu, Kanarese, Marathi, Gujarati, and Tamil. In Europe, +on the other hand, Dravidian has long been the common denomination of +the whole family of languages to which Bishop Caldwell applied it in +his Comparative Grammar, and there is no reason for abandoning the +name which the founder of Dravidian philology applied to this group +of speeches." + +The five principal languages are Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Canarese, +and Oriya. Of these, Oriya belongs to the eastern group of the +Indo-Aryan family, and is spoken in Ganjam, and a portion of the +Vizagapatam district. The population speaking each of these languages, +as recorded at the census, 1901, was as follows:-- + + + Tamil 15,543,383 + Telugu 14,315,304 + Malayalam 2,854,145 + Oriya 1,809,336 + Canarese 1,530,688 + + +In the preparation of the following brief summary of the other +vernacular languages and dialects, I have indented mainly on the +Linguistic Survey of India, and the Madras Census Report, 1901. + +Savara.--The language of the Savaras of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. One +of the Munda languages. Concerning the Munda, linguistic family, +Mr. Grierson writes as follows. "The denomination Munda (adopted +by Max Müller) was not long allowed to stand unchallenged. Sir +George Campbell in 1866 proposed to call the family Kolarian. He +was of opinion that Kol had an older form Kolar, which he thought +to be identical with Kanarese Kallar, thieves. There is absolutely +no foundation for this supposition. Moreover, the name Kolarian is +objectionable, as seeming to suggest a connexion with Aryan which does +not exist. The principal home of the Munda languages at the present +day is the Chota Nagpur plateau. The Munda race is much more widely +spread than the Munda languages. It has already been remarked that +it is identical with the Dravidian race, which forms the bulk of the +population of Southern India." + +Gadaba.--Spoken by the Gadabas of Vizagapatam and Ganjam. One of the +Munda languages. + +Kond, Kandhi, or Kui.--The language of the Kondhs of Ganjam and +Vizagapatam. + +Gondi.--The language of the Gonds, a tribe which belongs to the +Central Provinces, but has overflowed into Ganjam and Vizagapatam. + +Gattu.--A dialect of Gondi, spoken by some of the Gonds in Vizagapatam. + +Koya or Koi.--A dialect of Gondi, spoken by the Koyis in the +Vizagapatam and Godavari districts. + +Poroja, Parja, or Parji.--A dialect of Gondi. + +Tulu.--The language largely spoken in South Canara (the ancient +Tuluva). It is described by Bishop Caldwell as one of the most highly +developed languages of the Dravidian family. + +Koraga.--Spoken by the Koragas of South Canara. It is thought by +Mr. H. A. Stuart [37] to be a dialect of Tulu. + +Bellera.--Spoken by the Belleras of South Canara, and regarded as a +dialect of Canarese or Tulu. + +Toda.--The language of the Todas of the Nilgiri hills, concerning +which Dr. W. H. R. Rivers writes as follows. [38] "Bernhard Schmid, +[39] who wrote in 1837, appears to have known more of the true Toda +language than any one who has written since, and he ascribes two-thirds +of the Toda vocabulary to Tamil, and was unable to trace the remaining +third to any other language. Caldwell [40] believed the language +of the Todas to be most closely allied to Tamil. According to Pope, +[41] the language was originally old Canarese with the addition of +a few Tamil forms, but he has included in his vocabulary words which +have probably been borrowed from the Badagas." + +Kota.--A mixture of Canarese and Tamil spoken by the Kotas of the +Nilgiri hills. + +Badaga.--The language of the Badagas of the Nilgiri hills. Said to +be an ancient form of Canarese. + +Irula.--Spoken by the Irulas of the Nilgiris, and said to be a dialect +of Tamil. According to Mr. Stuart, Kasuba or Kasuva is another dialect +of Tamil spoken by the sub-division of the Irulas which bears the +same name. + +Kurumba.--Spoken by the Kurumbas of the Nilgiri hills, Malabar, +and Mysore, and regarded as a dialect of Canarese. + +Konkani.--A dialect of Marathi, spoken almost entirely in the South +Canara district by Sarasvat and Konkani Brahmans and Roman Catholic +Christians. + +Marathi.--In the Tanjore district, the descendants of the former +Maratha Rajas of Tanjore speak this language. It is also spoken in +the Bellary district, which was formerly under Maratha dominion, +by various Maratha castes, and in the feudatory State of Sandur. + +Patnuli or Khatri.--A dialect of Gujarati, spoken by the Patnulkarans +who have settled for the most part in the town of Madura. They are +immigrants from Saurashtra in Gujarat, who are said to have come +south at the invitation of the Nayak kings of Madura. + +Lambadi.--The language of the nomad Lambadis, Brinjaris, or Sugalis. It +is described by Mr. W. Francis [42] as a patois "usually based on one +of the local vernaculars, and embroidered and diversified with thieves' +slang and expressions borrowed from the various localities in which +the tribe has sojourned. Cust thought that Lambadi was Semi-Dravidian, +but the point is not clear, and it has been classed as Indo-Aryan." + +Korava or Yerukala.--A dialect of Tamil spoken by the nomad caste +bearing these names. Like the Lambadis, they have a thieves' slang. + +Vadari.--Recorded as a vulgar Telugu dialect spoken by a wandering +tribe of quarrymen in the Bombay Presidency, the Berars, and +elsewhere. They are doubtless Oddes or Wudder navvies, who have +migrated from their home in the Telugu country. + + + + + +TABLE A. + +========================================================================== + | | | Length cm. | Breadth cm. | Index. |Index + |No.| Caste or |==============+==============+==============|80 and + | | Tribe. | Av.|Max.|Min.| Av.|Max.|Min.| Av.|Max.|Min.|over. +====+===+=============+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====== + | 40|Badaga, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Nilgiris |18.9|20.2|18. |13.6|14.5|12.8|71.7|77.5|66.1| 0 +M. | 18|Kanikar |18.8|19.5|18.2|13.6|14.2|13. |72.5|76.1|68.1| 0 +M. | 40|Mappilla, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Muhammadan |18.9|20. |18. |13.7|14.6|13. |72.8|78.5|68. | 0 +J. | 23|Kadir |18.4|19.4|17.2|13.4|13.8|12.5|72.9|80. |69. | 1 +M. | 40|Tiyan |18.9|20.3|17.8|13.7|14.9|12.6|73. |80.3|68.5| 1 +Tam.|40 |Palli |18.6|19.6|17.4|13.6|14.6|12.1|73. |80. |64.4| 1 +Tam.|40 |Irula |18.5|19.6|17. |13.5|14.4|12.8|73.1|78.6|68.4| 0 + |82 |Toda, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Nilgiris |19.4|20.4|18.2|14.2|15.2|13.3|73.3|81.3|68.7| 1 +J. |20 |Kaanikar |18.5|19.4|17.8|13.6|14.2|13. |73.4|78.9|69.1| 0 +Tam.|29 |Ambattan |18.6|19.2|18. |13.7|14.6|12.5|73.4|76.9|67.2| 0 +J. |25 |Mala Vedan |18.5|19.6|17.4|13.6|14.6|13. |73.4|80.9|68.8| 1 +Tam.|40 |Paraiyan |18.6|19.7|17. |13.7|14.5|13. |73.6|78.3|64.8| 0 +M. |25 |Cheruman |18.3|19.3|17.1|13.5|14.2|12.3|73.9|80.1|67.7| 1 +M. |25 |Paniyan |18.4|19.3|17.5|13.6|14.9|13. |74. |81.1|69.4| 1 +Tam.|40 |Agamudaiyan |18.8|20. |17.8|13.9|14.6|12.8|74. |80.9|66.7| 1 + |25 |Kota, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Nilgiris |19.2|20.2|18.3|14.2|15.1|13.4|74.1|79.1|69.9| 0 +Tam.|40 |Vellala |18.6|19.6|17.7|13.8|14.6|13.1|74.1|81.1|67.9| 2 +Tam.|20 |Smarta | | | | | | | | | | + | | Brahman |18. |19.2|17.8|14. |14.8|13. |74.2|80.4|67.8| 1 +Tam.|50 |Malaiyali |18.3|19.3|17. |13.6|14.4|12.8|74.3|82.8|61. | 2 +J. |40 |Chenchu |18.2|19.6|17.2|13.5|14.4|12.4|74.3|80.5|64.3| 1 +M. |40 |Nayar |18.7|19.8|17.4|13.9|15. |13.2|74.4|81.9|70.4| 1 +Tam.|25 |Pattar | | | | | | | | | | + | | Brahman |18.8|20.3|17.2|14. |15.1|13.1|74.5|81.4|69.1| 2 +Tam.|23 |Malasar |18.2|19.2|17.3|13.5|14.4|12.4|74.5|80. |70. | 1 +J. |57 |Urali |18.2|19.3|17.2|13.5|14.4|12.8|74.6|81.9|69.8| 1 +Tam.|50 |Chakkiliyan |18.6|19.8|17.6|13.9|15.2|13. |74.9|80.9|70.4| 1 +J. |20 |Sholaga |18.2|19.4|17.2|13.6|14.6|12.2|74.9|79.3|67.8| 0 +Tel.|30 |Madiga, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Adoni |18.6|20.2|17. |13.9|14.6|13. |75. |82.2|71.3| 2 +Tam.|40 |Kammalan |18.4|19.7|17.3|13.7|14.7|13.1|75. |81.5|68.4| 5 +M. |40 |Mukkuvan |19. |20.4|17.6|14.2|15.2|13.4|75.1|83.5|68.6| 2 +Tam.|40 |Sheik | | | | | | | | | | + | | Muhammadan |18.3|20. |16.7|13.8|14.5|12.8|75.6|81.6|71.5| 2 +C. |50 |Dayare | | | | | | | | | | + | | Muhammadan |18.5|19.7|17. |14. |15. |13. |75.6|83.3|68.5| 8 +Tam.|40 |Saiyad | | | | | | | | | | + | | Muhammadan |18.5|19.6|17.2|14. |15. |13.1|75.6|84.9|68.2| 2 +J. |26 |Paliyan |17.8|18.6|17.1|13.5|14. |13. |75.7|79.1|72.8| 0 +J. |25 |Irula |18. |19.1|17. |13.7|14.3|13.1|75.8|80.9|70.8| 1 +Tam.|50 |Pallan |18.3|19.6|17.2|13.9|14.9|12.6|75.9|87. |70.1| 6 +Tam.|42 |Idaiyan |18.3|19. |16.8|14. |14.6|13.2|76. |81.9|71.3| 5 +Tam.|40 |Pathan | | | | | | | | | | + | | Muhammadan |18.5|19.6|17.2|14.2|15.2|13.3|76.2|83.1|71.1| 2 +M. |24 |Pulayan |18.3|19.3|17. |13.9|15. |13. |76.3|83. |72.3| 5 +J. |22 |Kurumba |17.9|18.7|16.9|13.7|14.5|13. |76.4|83.3|71.8| 2 +Tel.|40 |Madiga, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Hospet |18.3|20. |17.2|14. |15.4|13. |76.5|83.3|68. | 8 +C. |50 |Sedan |18.4|19.4|17. |14.1|14.8|13.2|76.6|82.6|72.6| 7 +C. |40 |Toreya |18.3|19.2|17.2|14.1|15.2|13. |76.6|86.4|70.2| 5 +Mar.|24 |Desastha | | | | | | | | | | + | | Brahman |18.7|20.2|18. |14.4|15.2|13.2|77. |83.4|71. | 4 +Tel.|30 |Mala |18.4|19.8|16.8|14.2|14.8|13.4|77.1|85.9|70.3| 6 +Tel.|60 |Bestha |18.4|19.4|16.6|14.2|15.6|13.2|77.1|85.1|70.5| 11 +C. |50 |Kuruba, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Mysore |18.1|19.4|17.2|14. |15. |12.8|77.3|83.9|70.3| 9 +Tel.|40 |Odde |18.2|20.4|17.2|14.1|15.2|13.4|77.3|83.1|70.1| 10 +Tel.|60 |Golla |18.2|19.6|16.4|14.1|15.1|13.2|77.5|89.3|70.1| 12 +C. |40 |Dasa | | | | | | | | | | + | | Banajiga |18.6|19.8|17.3|14.4|15.6|13.4|77.8|85.5|72. | 11 +Tel.|25 |Komati, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Adoni |18.2|19.4|17. |14.3|15.2|13.3|77.9|88.2|72.2| 8 +C. |40 |Okkiliyan, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Coimbatore |18.2|19.4|17. |14.2|15.2|13.2|77.9|88.2|71.7| 9 +C. |50 |Boya |18. |19.2|16.8|14. |15.2|13. |77.9|89.2|70.5| 14 +Tu. |40 |Bant |18.5|20. |17. |14.4|16.6|13.1|78. |91.2|70.8| 12 +Tel.|49 |Kapu |18.2|19.8|16.8|14.2|15.6|13.2|78. |87.6|71.6| 16 +Tel.|39 |Tota | | | | | | | | | | +Tel.|39 | Balija |18.1|19. |17. |14.1|15. |13. |78. |86. |73.3| 10 +C. |60 |Madhva | | | | | | | | | | + | | Brahman |18.4|19.8|16.6|14.3|15.2|13.2|78. |88.5|68. | 18 +C. |40 |Bedar, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Hospet |18.4|20. |16.8|14.3|15.2|13.2|78.1|85.3|70.8| 13 +Tel.|38 |Uppara |18. |19. |16.2|14. |15.2|13.2|78.1|87.8|71.7| 9 +C. |25 |Linga | | | | | | | | | | + | | Banajiga, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Sandur |18.2|19.4|16.6|14.2|15. |13.4|78.3|87.9|73.7| 7 +C. |60 |Karnataka | | | | | | | | | | + | | Smarta | | | | | | | | | | + | | Brahman |18.5|20.7|17. |14.4|15.8|13.4|78.4|89.5|69.8| 19 +Tel.|30 |Padma | | | | | | | | | | + | | Sale |17.8|19.|16.5|14.1|15.1|13.2|78.7 |86.2|72.8| 10 +C. |50 |Kuruba, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Hospet |18.1|19.6|17. |14.2|15.4|13.4|78.9|88.4|72.9| 19 +Tel.|50 |Telugu | | | | | | | | | | + | | Banajiga |18.4|19.2|16.6|14.5|15.4|13.2|79. |89.5|71.9| 18 +C. |50 |Panchala |18.3|19.4|17.2|14.4|15.6|13. |79. |89.5|71.3| 23 +C. |50 |Holeya |17.9|19.6|16.6|14.1|15.2|13.2|79.1|87.4|70. | 20 +C. |25 |Bedar, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Adoni |18.1|19.2|17. |14.4|15. |13.6|79.4|85.9|74.1| 12 +Mar.|30 |Rangari |18.1|19.8|16.8|14.5|15.4|13.8|79.8|92.2|70.7| 14 +Tel.|25 |Togata |17.7|19. |16.2|14.2|14.8|13.6|80. |88.1|73.7| 13 +Tu. |50 |Billava |18.2|20.6|16.4|14.6|15.6|13.2|80.1|91.5|71. | 28 +C. |30 |Linga | | | | | | | | | | + | | Banajiga, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Adoni |18.1|19.4|16.7|14.4|15.2|13.6|80.1|87.4|74.1| 14 +C. |50 |Hebbar | | | | | | | | | | + | | Brahman |18.4|19.6|17.2|14.7|16.4|13.4|80.1|92.1|72.8| 21 +C. |50 |Mandya | | | | | | | | | | + | | Brahman |18.5|20.2|16.6|14.8|15.8|13.4|80.2|88.2|69.8| 31 +Tu. |30 |Shivalli | | | | | | | | | | + | | Brahman |18.5|19.6|16.8|14.9|16.2|13.6|80.4|96.4|72.3| 17 +C. |20 |Ganiga |18. |19.1|16.6|14.4|15.2|14. |80.5|86.7|74.5| 11 +C. |20 |Devanga |18. |19.6|17. |14.5|15.5|13.6|80.8|87.1|74.7| 10 +Tel.|25 |Komati |17.6|18.8|16.4|14.3|14.8|13.4|81. |87.1|74.5| 16 +C. |50 |Vakkaliga, | | | | | | | | | | + | | Mysore |17.7|19.5|15.8|14.5|15.7|13.2|81.7|93.8|72.5| 27 +Mar.|30 |Suka | | | | | | | | | | + | | Sale |17.7|18.8|16.6|14.5|15. |13.4|81.8|88.2|76.1| 22 +Mar.|30 |Sukun | | | | | | | | | | + | | Sale |17.6|19. |16. |14.4|15.4|13.6|82.2|90. |73.9| 21 +========================================================================== + + + + +TABLE B. + +====+===+============================+=================+================= + | | | Stature cm. | Nasal Index. + == |No.| Caste or Tribe. +=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+===== + | | | Av. | Max.|Min. | Av. | Max.|Min. +====+===+============================+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+===== +M. |40 |Nayar |165.2|179. |152.2| 71.1| 78.7|54.4 +C. |50 |Hebbar Brahman |163.2|174.4|150.8| 71.2| 87.2|55.4 +C. |60 |Karnataka Smarta Brahman |164.2|176. |150.6| 71.5| 91.5|61.1 +C. |50 |Dayare Muhammadan |166.4|181.8|150. | 71.5| 82.6|59.3 +Mar.|60 |Madhva Brahman |163.3|176.2|151.8| 72. | 93.2|58.8 +Tu. |40 |Bant |165.7|179.2|155.8| 72.2| 86.1|61.6 +Tam.|40 |Sheik Muhammadan |164.6|174.8|153.8| 72.4| 87. |60. +Tam.|29 |Ambattan |165.7|173.2|153.2| 72.4| 84.3|57.9 +Tu. |50 |Billava |163.2|175.8|149.4| 72.6| 92.8|60. +C. |50 |Sedan |163.3|177.2|153.2| 72.7| 92.9|59.3 +C. |40 |Dasa Banajiga |165.3|177.8|152. | 72.8| 82.6|59.3 +Tel.|49 |Kapu |164.5|177.6|152.6| 72.8| 90.5|62.7 +C. |50 |Mandya Brahman |165.7|177.8|150.6| 73. | 97.8|58.4 +C. |50 |Vakkaliga, Mysore |167.2|181. |155.2| 73. | 85. |62.3 +Tam.|40 |Vellala |162.4|172.8|153.2| 73.1| 91.5|60.8 +Tel.|30 |Padma Sale |159.9|171.4|153.8| 73.2| 83.7|61.5 +C. |40 |Okkiliyan |166. |179.6|154.6| 73.5| 90.7|63.5 +C. |50 |Kuruba, Mysore |163.6|174.2|152. | 73.5| 88.4|64. +Mar.|30 |Rangari |161.3|168.4|154.4| 73.6| 84.1|63.5 +Tam.|42 |Idaiyan |164.3|178. |154.6| 73.6| 91. |62.7 +Tel.|25 |K mati, Sandur |162.5|169.2|153.4| 74.1| 88.9|62.5 +C. |30 |Linga Banajiga |163.4|171.2|154. | 74.1| 85.7|60.4 +Tel.|60 |Golla |163.8|173.8|151. | 74.1| 83. |61.5 +M. |40 |Tiyan |164.2|171.6|155.2| 74.2| 85.7|61.5 +Tam.|40 |Agamudaiyan |165.8|175.6|153.6| 74.2| 88.9|73.8 +Tel.|39 |Tota Balija |163.9|176.8|149.6| 74.4| 83. |65.4 +C. |25 |Linga Banajiga, Sandur |165.6|173. |157.8| 74.6| 86.4|61.5 +Mar.|30 |Sukun Sale |160.3|167.6|152.5| 74.8| 84.4|61.5 +Mar.|30 |Suka Sale |161.1|170. |147.8| 74.8| 86.1|62.3 +C. |50 |Panchala |162.3|177.2|151.6| 74.8| 88.9|62. +C. |50 |Kuruba, Hospet |162.7|175.4|162.2| 74.9| 92.2|75.8 + .. |82 |Toda, Nilgiris |169.8|186.8|157.6| 74.9| 89.1|61.2 +C. |50 |Boya |160.8|171.6|151.9| 75. | 86. |66. +Tel.|50 |Telugu Banajiga |164.6|176.2|151.6| 75. | 97.7|66. +M. |40 |Mappilla, Muhammadan |164.8|174.4|145. | 75.1| 88.1|64. +C. |50 |Holeya |162.8|175.2|151.5| 75.1| 88.9|64.6 +... |40 |Badaga, Nilgiris |164.1|180.2|154. | 75.6| 88.4|62.7 +Mar.|24 |Desastha Brahman |163.4|175. |151.4| 75.8| 87.2|66.7 +Tel.|60 |Bestha |165.7|181. |155. | 75.9| 100.|63.3 +C. |30 |Toreya |164.2|180.6|156.4| 76.1| 87.2|62.7 +Tel.|30 |Mala |163.9|175. |153.8| 76.2| 93.2|67.3 +Tam.|40 |Pathan Muhammadan |164.4|177.6|155.6| 76.2| 83.1|71.1 +Tam.|25 |Pattar Brahman |164.3|175. |153.4| 76.5| 95.3|64.7 + ...|25 |Kota, Nilgiris |162.9|174.2|155. | 77.2| 92.9|64. +Tam.|40 |Palli |162.5|171.6|149.8| 77.3| 90.5|68.3 +Tam.|40 |Kammalan |159.7|171.8|146.4| 77.3| 90.9|63.3 +Tel.|40 |Odde |164.4|172.4|155. | 77.3| 93. |65.4 +C. |40 |Bedar, Hospet |165.4|176.6|156. | 77.5| 93. |78.1 +Tel.|40 |Madiga, Hospet |162.9|173.4|152.2| 77.5|90.1 |66.7 +Tel.|30 |Togata |160.5|168.9|151.4| 77.5|93.9 |68.8 +Tam.|50 |Malaiyali |163.9|173.2|153.2| 77.8|100. |63.8 +Tel.|25 |Komati, Adoni |161. |168.3|153.2| 77.8|100. |65.3 +Tam.|40 |Palli |162.5|169.4|151. | 77.9|95.1 |60.8 +M. |25 |Cheruman |157.5|166.4|145.8| 78.1|88.9 |69.6 +Tam.|50 |Chakkiliyan |162.2|174.5|150.3| 78.9|97.6 |64. +M. |24 |Pulayan |153. |162.6|143.4| 79.3|92.7 |68. +C. |25 |Bedar, Adoni |165.4|176.2|156.6| 79.4|91. |65.2 +Tam.|40 |Paraiyan |162.1|171.4|149.4| 80. |91.8 |66. +J. |57 |Urali |159.5|171.6|147.8| 80.1|97.7 |66.7 +Tam.|40 |Irula |159.9|166.8|150.2| 80.4|90.5 |79. +Tel.|30 |Madiga, Adoni |163.1|173.2|154.2| 80.8|102.6|69.4 +M. |40 |Mukkuvan |163.1|177.8|150.8| 81. |104.8|62.5 +M. |18 |Kanikar |158.7|170.4|148. | 81.2|90.5 |70.8 +Tam.|50 |Pallan |164.3|177.6|151.5| 81.5|100. |68.8 +J. |40 |Chenchu |162.5|175. |148. | 81.9|95.7 |68.1 +J. |26 |Pulayan |150.5|158.4|143.1| 82.9|100.2|70.8 +J. |20 |Kanikar |155.2|170.3|150.2| 84.6|105. |72.3 +J. |25 |Mala Vedan |154.2|163.8|140.8| 84.9|102.6|71.1 +J. |25 |Irula |159.8|168. |152. | 84.9|100. |72.3 +J. |20 |Sholaga |159.3|170.4|151.2| 85.1|107.7|72.8 +J. |22 |Kurumba |158. |167. |149.6| 86.1|111.1|70.8 +J. |23 |Malasar |161.2|170.5|152.8| 87.2|102.4|75.4 +J. |23 |Kadir |157.7|169.4|148.6| 89.8|115.4|72.9 +J. |25 |Paniyan |157.4|171.6|152. | 95.1|108.6|72.9 +============================================================================ + + + + + + + + CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA. + + +Abhisheka.--Abhisheka Pandarams are those who are made to pass through +some ceremonies in connection with Saiva Agama. + +Acchu Tali.--A sub-division of Vaniyan. The name refers to the peculiar +tali (marriage badge) worn by married women. + +Acchuvaru.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as +"Oriya-speaking carriers of grain, etc., on pack bullocks. Treated +as a sub-division of Gaudo." The Acchuvarus are not Oriya people, +but are attached to the Devanga weavers, and receive their name from +the fact that they do acchupani, i.e., thread the long comb-like +structures of the hand-loom. They correspond to the Jatipillais of +the Kaikolan weavers, who do acchuvelai. + +Acchu Vellala.--A name assumed by some Pattanavans. + +Achan.--Achan, meaning father or lord, was returned, at the Cochin +census, 1901, as a title of Nayars. According to Mr. Wigram [43] +it is used as a title of the following:-- + +1. Males in the Royal Family of Palghat. + +2. The minister of the Calicut Raja, known as Mangat Achan. + +3. The minister of the Cochin Raja, known as Paliyat Achan. + +4. The minister of the second Raja of Calicut, known as Chenli Achan. + +Acharapakam Chetti.--One of the sub-divisions of the Chettis, generally +grouped among the Beri Chettis (q.v.). + +Achari.--See Asari. + +Adapadava (man of the wallet).--A name, referring to the dressing-bag +which barbers carry, applied to Lingayat barbers in South Canara. + +Adapapa.--Returned in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste +of Balija. The name is applied to female attendants on the ladies of +the families of Zamindars, who, as they are not allowed to marry, lead +a life of prostitution. Their sons call themselves Balijas (see Khasa). + +Adavi (forest or jungle).--The name of a sub-division of Yanadis, +and also of a section of Gollas in Mysore. [44] + +Adaviyar.--Adaviyar or Ataviyar is the name of a class of +Tamil-speaking weavers found in the Tanjore and Tinnevelly districts. + +Addaku (Bauhinia racemosa).--A sept of Jatapu. The leaves of this +tree are largely used as food platters, in Madras, and generally on +the east coast. + +Addapu Singa.--Mendicants who beg only from Mangalas in the Telugu +country. + +Adhigari.--Defined by Mr. Wigram [45] as the head of the amsam or +parish in Malabar, corresponding to the Manigar (village munsiff) +in east coast districts and Patel in South Canara. The title Adhigari +(one in power) is assumed by some Agamudaiyans, and Adhikari occurs +as an exogamous sept of the Badagas, and the title of village headman +among some Oriya castes. In South Canara, it is a sept of Stanika. + +Adi (primitive or original).--The name of a division of Linga Balijas, +and of Velamas who have abandoned the practice of keeping their +females gosha (in seclusion). It is also applied by the Chenchus to +the original members of their tribe, from whom the man-lion Narasimha +obtained his bride Chenchita. + +Adichchan.--A sub-division of Nayar. + +Adikal (slaves or servants).--Included among the Ambalavasis. It +is recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, that "tradition +states that Sankaracharya, to test the fidelity of certain Brahmins +to the established ordinances of caste, went to a liquor-shop, and +drank some stimulants. Not recognising that the obligations, from +which adepts like Sankara were free, were none the less binding +on the proletariat, the Brahmins that accompanied the sage made +this an excuse for their drinking too. Sankara is said to have then +entered a foundry, and swallowed a cup of molten metal, and handed +another to the Brahmins, who had apparently made up their minds to +do all that may be done by the Acharya. But they begged to differ, +apologised to him as Atiyals or humble servants, and accepted social +degradation in expiation of their sinful presumption. They are now +the priests in temples dedicated to Bhadrakali, and other goddesses +who receive offerings of liquor. They practise sorcery, and aid in +the exorcising of spirits. They have the upanayana-samskara, and +wear the sacred thread. The simantam ceremony is not performed. They +are to repeat the Gayatri (hymn) ten times, and observe eleven days' +death pollution. Their own caste-men act as priests. The Atiyammamar +wear the same jewellery as the Nambutiri women, but they do not screen +themselves by a cadjan (palm leaf) umbrella when they go out in public, +nor are they accompanied by a Nayar maid." + +Adimittam.--An occupational sub-division of Marans, who clean the +court-yards of temples in Travancore. + +Adisaivar.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a +sub-caste of Vellala. They are singers of Devara hymns in Saiva +temples." The name indicates those who have been Saivites from the +beginning, as opposed to recent Saivites. Adisaivas are Saivites, who +have survived the absorbing influence of the Lingayat sect. Saivites +who profess the Lingayat doctrines are known as Virasaivas. Some +Pandarams, who belong to the Sozhia sub-division of the Vellalas, +regularly recite Tamil verses from Thevaram and Tiruvachagam in +Saivite temples. This being their profession, they are also called +Oduvar (readers or reciters). + +Aditya Varada.--Kurubas, who worship their God on Sunday. + +Adiyan.--Adiyan (adi, foot) has been defined [46] as meaning literally +"a slave, but usually applied to the vassals of Tamburans and other +powerful patrons. Each Adiyan had to acknowledge his vassalage +by paying annually a nuzur (gift of money) to his patron, and was +supposed also to be ready to render service whenever needed. This +yearly nuzur, which did not generally exceed one or two fanams, was +called adima-panam" (slave money), adima meaning feudal dependency +on a patron. + +Adiyodi.--Adiyodi or Atiyoti, meaning slave or vassal, has been +returned at times of census as a sub-division of Samantan. It is, +Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [47] "the caste of the Kadattanad Rajah in +North Malabar. The tradition is that, when he was driven out of his +territories in and around Calicut by the Zamorin, he took shelter +under the Rajah of Chirakkal, who gave him the Kadattanad country to +hold as his vassal. Some Atiyotis advance no pretension to be above +Nayars in rank." + +Adutton (a bystander).--A synonym for Kavutiyan, a caste of Malayalam +barbers. In like manner, the name Ambattan for Tamil barbers is said to +be derived from the Sanskrit amba (near), s'tha (to stand), indicating +that they stand near to shave their clients or treat their patients. + +Agamudaiyan.--The Agamudaiyans, Mr. W. Francis writes, [48] are "a +cultivating caste found in all the Tamil districts. In Chingleput, +North Arcot, Salem, Coimbatore and Trichinopoly, they are much less +numerous than they were thirty years ago. The reason probably is that +they have risen in the social scale, and have returned themselves as +Vellalas. Within the same period, their strength has nearly doubled +in Tanjore, perhaps owing to the assumption of the name by other +castes like the Maravans and Kallans. In their manners and customs +they closely follow the Vellalas. Many of these in the Madura district +are the domestic servants of the Marava Zamindars." The Agamudaiyans +who have settled in the North Arcot district are described [49] by +Mr. H. A. Stuart as "a class of cultivators differing widely from +the Agamudaiyans of the Madura district. The former are closely +allied to the Vellalas, while the latter are usually regarded as a +more civilised section of the southern Maravans. It may be possible +that the Agamudaiyans of North Arcot are the descendants of the first +immigrants from the Madura district, who, after long settlement in +the north, severed all connexions with their southern brethren." In +some districts, Agamudaiyan occurs as a synonym of Vellalas, Pallis +and Melakkarans, who consider that Agamudaiyan is a better caste name +than their own. + +The Agamudaiyans proper are found in the Tanjore, Madura, and +Tinnevelly districts. + +It is noted in the Tanjore Manual that Ahamudaiyar (the equivalent of +Agamudaiyan) is "derived from the root aham, which, in Tamil, has many +significations. In one of these, it means a house, in another earth, +and hence it has two meanings, householder and landholder; the suffix +Udeiyar indicating ownership. The word is also used in another form, +ahambadiyan, derived from another meaning of the same root, i.e., +inside. And, in this derivation, it signifies a particular caste, whose +office it was to attend to the business in the interior of the king's +palace, or in the pagoda." "The name," Mr. J. H. Nelson writes, [50] +"is said by the Rev. G. U. Pope, in his edition of the Abbé Dubois' +work, [51] to be derived from aham, a temple, and padi, a step, and to +have been given to them in consequence of their serving about the steps +of temples. But, independently of the fact that Madura pagodas are not +approached by flights of steps, this seems to be a very far-fetched and +improbable derivation of the word. I am inclined to doubt whether it +be not merely a vulgar corruption of the well-known word Ahamudeiyan, +possessor of a house, the title which Tamil Brahmans often use in +speaking of a man to his wife, in order to avoid the unpolite term +husband. Or, perhaps, the name comes from aham in the sense of earth, +and pati, master or possessor." + +Concerning the connection which exists between the Maravans, Kallans, +and Agamudaiyans (see Kallan), the following is one version of a +legend, which is narrated. The father of Ahalya decided to give her +in marriage to one who remained submerged under water for a thousand +years. Indra only managed to remain thus for five hundred years, but +Gautama succeeded in remaining for the whole of the stipulated period, +and became the husband of Ahalya. Indra determined to have intercourse +with her, and, assuming the guise of a cock, went at midnight to the +abode of Gautama, and crowed. Gautama, thinking that daybreak was +arriving, got up, and went to a river to bathe. While he was away, +Indra assumed his form, and accomplished his desire. Ahalya is said +to have recognised the deception after two children, who became the +ancestors of the Maravans and Kallans, were born to her. A third child +was born later on, from whom the Agamudaiyans are descended. According +to another version of the legend, the first-born child is said to have +faced Gautama without fear, and Agamudaiyan is accordingly derived +from aham or agam, pride, and udaiyan, possessor. There is a Tamil +proverb to the effect that a Kallan may come to be a Maravan. By +respectability he may develope into an Agamudaiyan, and, by slow +degrees, become a Vellala, from which he may rise to be a Mudaliar. + +Of the three castes, Kallan, Maravan and Agamudaiyan, the last are said +to have "alone been greatly influenced by contact with Brahmanism. They +engage Brahman priests, and perform their birth, marriage, and death +ceremonies like the Vellalas." [52] I am told that the more prosperous +Agamudaiyans in the south imitate the Vellalas in their ceremonial +observances, and the poorer classes the Maravans. + +Agamudaiyan has been returned, at times of census, as a sub-division of +Maravan and Kallan. In some places, the Agamudaiyans style themselves +sons of Sembunattu Maravans. At Ramnad, in the Madura district, they +carry the fire-pot to the burning ground at the funeral of a Maravan, +and also bring the water for washing the corpse. In the Tanjore +district the Agamudaiyans are called Terkittiyar, or southerners, +a name which is also applied to Kallans, Maravans, and Valaiyans. The +ordinary title of the Agamudaiyans is Servaikkaran, but many of them +call themselves, like the Vellalas, Pillai. Other titles, returned +at times of census, are Adhigari and Mudaliar. + +At the census, 1891, the following were returned as the more +important sub-divisions of the Agamudaiyans:--Aivali Nattan, +Kottaipattu, Malainadu, Nattumangalam, Rajaboja, Rajakulam, +Rajavasal, Kallan, Maravan, Tuluvan (cf. Tuluva Vellala) and +Servaikkaran. The name Rajavasal denotes those who are servants of +Rajas, and has been transformed into Rajavamsa, meaning those of kingly +parentage. Kottaipattu means those of the fort, and the Agamudaiyans +believe that the so-called Kottai Vellalas of the Tinnevelly +district are really Kottaipattu Agamudaiyans. One sub-division of +the Agamudaiyans is called Sani (cow-dung). Unlike the Maravans and +Kallans, the Agamudaiyans have no exogamous septs, or kilais. + +It is recorded, in the Mackenzie Manuscripts, that "among the Maravas, +the kings or the rulers of districts, or principal men, are accustomed +to perform the ceremony of tying on the tali, or in performing the +marriage at once in full, with reference to females of the Agambadiyar +tribe. The female children of such marriages can intermarry with the +Maravas, but not among the Agambadiyar tribe. On the other hand, the +male offspring of such marriages is considered to be of the mother's +tribe, and can intermarry with the Agambadiyas, but not in the tribe +of the Maravas." I am told that, under ordinary circumstances, the +offspring of a marriage between a Maravan and Agamudaiyan becomes an +Agamudaiyan, but that, if the husband is a man of position, the male +issues are regarded as Maravans. Adult marriage appears to be the +rule among the Agamudaiyans, but sometimes, as among the Maravans, +Kallans and other castes, young boys are, in the southern districts, +sometimes married to grown-up girls. + +The marriage ceremonial, as carried out among the poorer Agamudaiyans, +is very simple. The sister of the bridegroom proceeds to the home of +the bride on an auspicious day, followed by a few females carrying a +woman's cloth, a few jewels, flowers, etc. The bride is seated close +to a wall, facing east. She is dressed up in the cloth which has been +brought, and seated on a plank. Betel leaves, areca nuts, and flowers +are presented to her by the bridegroom's sister, and she puts them +in her lap. A turmeric-dyed string or garland is then placed round +the bride's neck by the bridegroom's sister, while the conch shell +(musical instrument), is blown. On the same day the bride is conducted +to the home of the bridegroom, and a feast is held. + +The more prosperous Agamudaiyans celebrate their marriages according +to the Puranic type, which is the form in vogue amongst most of the +Tamil castes, with variations. The astrologer is consulted in order +to ascertain whether the pair agree in some at least of the points +enumerated below. For this purpose, the day of birth, zodiacal signs, +planets and asterisms under which the pair were born, are taken into +consideration:-- + +1. Varam (day of birth).--Days are calculated, commencing with the +first day after the new moon. Counting from the day on which the +girl was born, if the young man's birthday happens to be the fourth, +seventh, thirteenth, sixteenth, or seventeenth, it is considered good. + +2. Ganam (class or tribe).--There are three ganams, called Manusha, +Deva, and Rakshasa. Of the twenty-seven asterisms, Aswini, Bharani, +etc., some are Manusha, some Deva, and some Rakshasa ganam. Ashtham +and Swathi are considered to be of Deva ganam, so individuals born +under these asterisms are regarded as belonging to Deva ganam. Those +born under the asterisms Bharani, Rogini, Puram, Puradam, Uththaradam, +etc., belong to the Manusha ganam. Under Rakshasa ganam are included +Krithika, Ayilyam, Makam, Visakam, and other asterisms. The bridal +pair should belong to the same ganam, as far as possible. Manusha +and Deva is a tolerable combination, whereas Rakshasa and Deva, +or Rakshasa and Manusha, are bad combinations. + +3. Sthridirgam (woman's longevity).--The young man's birthday should +be beyond the thirteenth day, counting from the birthday of the girl. + +4. Yoni (female generative organs).--The asterisms are supposed to +belong to several animals. An individual belongs to the animal to +which the asterism under which he was born belongs. For example, a +man is a horse if his asterism is Aswini, a cow if his asterism is +Uththirattadhi, and so on. The animals of husband and wife must be +on friendly terms, and not enemies. The elephant and man, horse and +cow, dog and monkey, cat and mouse, are enemies. The animals of man +and wife should not both be males. Nor should the man be a female, +or the wife a male animal. + +5. Rasi (zodiacal sign).--Beginning from the girl's zodiacal sign, +the young man's should be beyond the sixth. + +6. Rasyathipathi (planet in the zodiacal sign).--The ruling planets +of the zodiacal signs of the pair should not be enemies. + +7. Vasyam.--The zodiacal signs of the pair should be compatible, e.g., +Midunam and Kanni, Singam and Makaram, Dhanus and Minam, Thulam and +Makaram, etc. + +8. Rajju (string).--The twenty-seven asterisms are arranged at various +points on four parallel lines drawn across three triangles. These lines +are called the leg, thigh, abdomen, and neck rajjus. The vertices of +the triangles are the head rajjus. The asterisms of the pair should +not be on the same rajju, and it is considered to be specially bad +if they are both on the neck. + +9. Vriksham (tree).--The asterisms belong to a number of trees, e.g.:-- + + + Aswini, Strychnos Nux-vomica. + Bharani, Phyllanthus Emblica. + Krithikai, Ficus glomerata. + Puram, Butea frondosa. + Hastham, Sesbania grandiflora. + Thiruvonam, Calotropis gigantea. + Uththirattadhi, Melia Azadirachta. + + +Some of the trees are classed as milky, and others as dry. The young +man's tree should be dry, and that of the girl milky, or both milky. + +10. Pakshi (birds).--Certain asterisms also belong to birds, and the +birds of the pair should be on friendly terms, e.g., peacock and fowl. + +11. Jadi (caste).--The zodiacal signs are grouped into castes as +follows:-- + + + Brahman, Karkatakam, Minam, and Dhanus. + Kshatriya, Mesham, Vrischikam. + Vaisya, Kumbam, Thulam. + Sudra, Rishabam, Makaram. + Lower castes, Midhunam, Singam, and Kanni. + + +The young man should be of a higher caste, according to the zodiacal +signs, than the girl. + +After ascertaining the agreement of the pair, some close relations +of the young man proceed to some distance northward, and wait +for omens. If the omens are auspicious, they are satisfied. Some, +instead of so going, go to a temple, and seek the omens either by +placing flowers on the idol, and watching the direction in which +they fall, or by picking up a flower from a large number strewn in +front of the idol. If the flower picked up, and the one thought of, +are of the same colour, it is regarded as a good omen. The betrothal +ceremony is an important event. As soon as the people have assembled, +the bridegroom's party place in their midst the pariyam cloth and +jewels. Some responsible person inspects them, and, on his pronouncing +that they are correct, permission is given to draw up the lagna +patrika (letter of invitation, containing the date of marriage, +etc.). Vigneswara (the elephant god Ganesa) is then worshipped, +with the lagna patrika in front of him. This is followed by the +announcement of the forthcoming marriage by the purohit (priest), +and the settlement of the amount of the pariyam (bride's money). For +the marriage celebration, a pandal (booth) is erected, and a dais, +constructed of clay and laterite earth, is set up inside it. From +the day on which the pandal is erected until the wedding day, the +contracting couple have to go through the nalagu ceremony separately or +together. This consists in having their bodies smeared with turmeric +paste (Phaseolus Mungo paste), and gingelly (Sesamum) oil. On the +wedding day, the bridegroom, after a clean shave, proceeds to the house +of the bride. The finger and toe-nails of the bride are cut. The pair +offer pongal (boiled rice) to the family deity and their ancestors. A +square space is cleared in the centre of the dais for the sacred fire +(homam). A many-branched lamp, representing the thousand-eyed Indra, +is placed to the east of the square. The purohit, who is regarded +as equivalent to Yama (the god of death), and a pot with a lamp on +it representing Agni devata, occupy the south-east corner. Women +representing Niruti (a devata) are posted in the south-west corner. + +The direction of Varuna (the god of water) being west, the bridegroom +occupies this position. The best man, who represents Vayu (the god of +wind) is placed in the north-west corner. As the position of Kubera +(the god of wealth) is the north, a person, with a bag full of money, +is seated on that side. A grinding-stone and roller, representing +Siva and Sakthi, are placed in the north-east corner, and, at their +side, pans containing nine kinds of seedlings, are set. Seven pots +are arranged in a row between the grinding-stone and the branched +lamp. Some married women bring water from seven streams or seven +different places, and pour it into a pot in front of the lamp. The +milk-post (pal kambam) is set up between the lamp and the row of +pots. This post is usually made of twigs of Ficus religiosa, Ficus +bengalensis, and Erythrina indica, tied together and representing +Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. Sometimes, however, twigs of Odina Wodier, +and green bamboo sticks, are substituted. At the close of the marriage +ceremonies, the Erythrina or Odina twig is planted, and it is regarded +as a good sign if it takes root and grows. The sacred fire is kindled, +and the bridegroom goes through the upanayana (thread investiture) +and other ceremonies. He then goes away from the house in procession +(paradesa pravesam), and is met by the bride's father, who brings him +back to the pandal. The bride's father and mother then wash his feet, +and rings are put on his toes (kalkattu, or tying the leg). The purohit +gives the bridegroom a thread (kankanam), and, after washing the feet +of the bride's father and mother, ties it on his wrist. A thread is +also tied on the left wrist of the bride. The pair being seated in +front of the sacred fire, a ceremony called Nandisradham (memorial +service to ancestors) is performed, and new clothes are given to the +pair. The next item is the tying of the tali (marriage badge). The +tali is usually tied on a turmeric-dyed thread, placed on a cocoanut, +and taken round to be blessed by all present. Then the purohit gives +the tali to the bridegroom, and he ties it on the bride's neck amidst +silence, except for the music played by the barber or Melakkaran +musicians. While the tali is being tied, the bridegroom's sister +stands behind the bride, holding a lamp in her hand. The bridegroom +ties one knot, and his sister ties two knots. After the tali-tying, +small plates of gold or silver, called pattam, are tied on the +foreheads of the pair, and presents of money and cloths are made to +them by their relations and friends. They then go seven times round +the pandal, and, at the end of the seventh round, they stand close to +the grinding-stone, on which the bridegroom places the bride's left +foot. They take their seats on the dais, and the bridegroom, taking +some parched rice (pori) from the bride's brother, puts it in the +sacred fire. Garlands of flowers are given to the bride and bridegroom, +who put them on, and exchange them three or five times. They then +roll flowers made into a ball. This is followed by the waving of +arathi (coloured water), and circumambulation of the pandal by the +pair, along with the ashtamangalam or eight auspicious things, viz., +the bridesmaid, best man, lamp, vessel filled with water, mirror, +ankusam (elephant goad), white chamara (yak's tail fly-flapper), flag +and drum. Generally the pair go three times round the pandal, and, +during the first turn, a cocoanut is broken near the grinding-stone, +and the bride is told that it is Siva, and the roller Sakthi, the two +combined being emblematical of Ardanarisvara, a bisexual representation +of Siva and Parvathi. During the second round, the story of Arundati +is repeated to the bride. Arundati was the wife of the Rishi Vasishta, +and is looked up to as a model of conjugal fidelity. The morning star +is supposed to be Arundati, and the purohit generally points it out +to the bridal pair at the close of the ceremonial, which terminates +with three homams. The wedding may be concluded in a single day, +or last for two or three days. + +The dead are either buried or cremated. The corpse is carried to the +burning or burial-ground on a bier or palanquin. As the Agamudaiyans +are Saivites, Pandarams assist at the funeral ceremonies. On the second +or third day after death, the son and others go to the spot where the +corpse was buried or burnt, and offer food, etc., to the deceased. A +pot of water is left at the spot. Those who are particular about +performing the death ceremonies on an elaborate scale offer cooked food +to the soul of dead person until the fifteenth day, and carry out the +final death ceremonies (karmandhiram) on the sixteenth day. Presents +are then given to Brahmans, and, after the death pollution has been +removed by sprinkling with holy water (punyaham), a feast is given +to the relatives. + +The Agamudaiyans worship various minor deities, such as Aiyanar, +Pidari, and Karupannaswami. + +Agaru.--Agaru, or Avaru, is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as a small caste of Telugu cultivators in Vizagapatam and +Ganjam, who are also sellers of vegetables and betel leaves. Agaru +is said to mean betel in their language, which they call Bhasha, +and contains a good deal of Oriya. An extensive colony of Agarus is +settled at Nellimerla near Vizianagram. Both males and females engage +in the cultivation of the betel vine, and different kinds of greens, +which find a ready sale in the Vizianagram market. Marriage is usually +after puberty, and an Oriya Brahman officiates. The dead are burnt. + +Agarwal.--A few members of this Upper India trading caste, who deal +in grain and jewellery, and are also bankers and usurers, have been +returned at times of census. + +Agasa.--In the South Canara district, there are three distinct classes +of washermen, viz., (1) Konkani Christians; (2) Canarese-speaking +washermen, who seem to be allied to the Agasas of Mysore; (3) +Tulu-speaking washermen. The Tulu-speaking Agasas follow the aliya +santana law of inheritance (in the female line). Madivala (madi, a +clean cloth) is a synonym for Agasa. The word Agasa is derived from +agasi, a turban. + +The Agasas of Mysore have been described as follows. [53] "The Agasa +is a member of the village hierarchy, his office being hereditary, +and his remuneration being grain fees from the ryots. Besides washing, +he occasionally ekes out his substance by carrying on his donkeys +grain from place to place. He is also employed in bearing the torch +in marriage and other public ceremonies. The principal object of +worship is the pot of boiling water (ubbe), in which dirty clothes +are steeped. Animals are sacrificed to the god with the view of +preventing the clothes being burnt in the ubbe pot. Under the name +of Bhuma Deva, there are temples dedicated to this god in some large +towns, the service being conducted by pujaris (priests) of the Agasa +caste. The Agasas are Vishnuvaits, and pray to Vishnu, Pattalamma, +and the Saktis. Their gurus (religious preceptors) are Satanis. A +unique custom is attached to the washerman's office. When a girl-wife +attains puberty, it is the duty and privilege of the washerman to carry +the news, accompanied by certain presents, to her husband's parents, +for which the messenger is duly rewarded." + +The Tulu Madivalas of the South Canara district, like other Tulu +castes, have exogamous septs or balis. They will wash clothes for +all castes above the Billavas. They also supply cloths for decorating +the marriage booth and funeral cars, and carry torches. They worship +bhuthas (devils), of whom the principal one seems to be Jumadi. At +the time of kolas (bhutha festivals), the Madivalas have the right +to cut off the heads of the fowls or goats, which are sacrificed. The +animals are held by Pombadas or Paravas, and the Madivala decapitates +them. On the seventh day after the birth of a child, the washerwoman +ties a thread round its waist. For purificatory ceremonies, the +Madivali should give washed clothes to those under pollution. + +In their ceremonial observances, the Madivalas closely follow the +Bants. In some places, they have a headman called, as among the Bants, +Gurikara or Guttinaya. At marriages, the pouring of the dhare water +over the united hands of the bride and bridegroom is the duty of the +father or maternal uncle of the bride, not of the headman. + +Some Maratha washermen call themselves Dandu (army) Agasa. + +The insigne of the washermen at Conjeeveram is a pot, such as that +in which clothes are boiled. + +Agastya (the name of a sage).--An exogamous sept of Kondaiyamkottai +Maravans. + +Agni (fire).--An exogamous sept of the Kurubas and Gollas, and +sub-division of the Pallis or Vanniyans. The equivalent Aggi occurs as +an exogamous sept of Boya. The Pallis claim to be Agnikula Kshatriyas, +i.e., to belong to the fire race of Kshatriyas. + +Agraharekala.--A sub-division of Bhatrazu, meaning those who belong +to the agraharam, or Brahman quarter of a village. + +Ahir.--A few members of this Upper India caste of cowherds have been +returned at times of census. + +Ahmedi.--Returned, at times of census, as a general name for +Muhammadans. + +Aivattukuladavaru (people of fifty families).--A synonym for Bakuda. + +Aiya.--Aiya or Ayya, meaning father, is the title of many classes, +which include Dasari, Devanga, Golla, Idiga, Jangam, Konda Dora, +Komati, Koppala Velama, Linga Balija, Mangala, Muka Dora, Paidi, +Satani, Servegara, and Tambala. It is further a title of the +Patnulkarans, who claim to be Brahmans, and a sub-division of the +Tamil Pallans. + +Aiyar occurs very widely as a title among Tamil Brahmans, and is +replaced in the Telugu and Canarese countries by Bhatlu, Pantulu, and +Sastrulu. It is noted by the Rev. A. Margöschis that "the honorific +title Aiyar was formerly used exclusively by Brahmans, but has now +come to be used by every native clergyman. The name which precedes +the title will enable us to discover whether the man is Christian +or Hindu. Thus Yesudian Aiyar means the Aiyar who is the servant of +Jesus." The Rev. G. U. Pope, the well-known Tamil scholar, was known +as Pope Aiyar. + +Aiyanar.--A sub-division of Kallan, named after Aiyanar, the only +male deity among the Grama Devata or village deities. + +Aiyarakulu.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Aiyarakam is summed +up as being a caste of Telugu cultivators, who, in their social +and religious observances, closely follow the Kapus and Balijas, may +intermarry with Telagas, and will accept drinking water from the hands +of Gollas. According to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, to whom I am indebted +for the following note, the Aiyarakulu are a section of Kapus, who +rose in the social scale by Royal favour. The name is derived from +aiya and rikam, denoting the act of being an aiya or distinguished +person. The Aiyarakulu state that their forefathers were soldiers in +the Vizianagram army, and rendered great services to the Rajas. They +have a story to the effect that, on one occasion, they proceeded on an +expedition against a Golconda force, and gave so much trouble to the +Muhammadan commander thereof that, after putting them to the sword, +he proceeded to their own country, to destroy their homes. On hearing +of this, the women, dressing themselves in male attire, advanced with +bayonets and battle-axes against the Muhammadans, and drove them off +in great disorder. The Raja, in return for their gallant conduct, +adorned their legs with silver bangles, such as the women still wear +at the present day. + +The Aiyarakulu are divided into gotras, such as naga (cobra), tabelu +(tortoise), etc., which are strictly totemistic, and are further +divided into exogamous septs or intiperulu. The custom of menarikam, +according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, +is in force. Girls are married before puberty, and a Brahman officiates +at the wedding rites, during which the bride and bridegroom wear silver +sacred threads, which are subsequently converted into rings. Some +Aiyarakulu call themselves Razus, and wear the sacred thread, but +interdine and intermarry with other members of the community. The +remarriage of widows, and divorce are forbidden. + +The principal occupation of the Aiyarakulus is cultivating, but, in +some parts, many of them are cart-drivers plying between the plains +of Vizagapatam and the Agency tracts. The usual title of members of +the caste is Patrudu. + +Akasam (sky).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Akattu Charna.--A sub-division of Nayar. + +Akattulavar.--A name, indicating those inside (in seclusion or gosha), +by which Nambutiri and Elayad and other females are called. + +Akshantala (rice grain).--A gotra of Odde. Akshathayya is the name +of a gotra of Gollas, who avoid rice coloured with turmeric and +other materials. + +Akula (betel leaf: Piper Betle).--An exogamous sept of Kamma and +Bonthuk Savara, and a sub-division of Kapu. The presentation of betel +leaves and areca nuts, called pan-supari, as a complimentary offering +is a wide-spread Indian custom. + +Ala.--A sub-division of Golla. + +Alagi (pot).--An exogamous sept of Vakkaliga. + +Alavan.--The Alavans are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as "workers in salt-pans, who are found only in Madura and +Tinnevelly. Their titles are Pannaiyan and Muppan. They are not allowed +to enter Hindu temples." In the Travancore Census Report, 1901, it is +recorded that "the Alavans or Uppalavans (salt Alavans) are so called +because they work in alams or salt-pans. Three or four centuries ago, +seven families of them are said to have been brought over from the +Pandyan territory to Travancore, to work in the salt-pans. It is said +that there are at Tamarakkulam, Puttalam, and other places in South +Travancore, inscriptions recording their immigration, but these have +not been deciphered. They speak Tamil. They are flesh-eaters. Drinking +is rare among them. Burial was the rule in ancient days, but now the +dead are sometimes burned. Tattooing is a general custom. The tutelary +deities are Sasta and Bhadrakali. As a class the Alavans are very +industrious. There are no better salt labourers in all Southern India." + +Albino.--The picture drawn by the Abbé Dubois [54] of albino Natives is +not a pleasant one. "This extreme fairness," he says, "is unnatural, +and makes them very repulsive to look at. In fact, these unfortunate +beings are objects of horror to every one, and even their parents +desert them. They are looked upon as lepers. They are called Kakrelaks +as a term of reproach. Kakrelaks are horrible insects, disgustingly +dirty, which give forth a loathsome odour, and shun the day and its +light. The question has been raised as to whether these degenerate +individuals can produce children like themselves, and afflicted with +nyctalopia. Such a child has never come under my observation; but I +once baptised the child of a female Kakrelak, who owed its birth to +a rash European soldier. These unfortunate wretches are denied decent +burial after death, and are cast into ditches." + +This reference to albinos by the observant Abbé may be amplified +by the notes taken on several albino Natives in Madras and Mysore, +which show, inter alia, that the lot of the present day albino is +not an unhappy one. + +Chinna Abboye, æt. 35. Shepherd caste. Rope (insigne of office) round +waist for driving cattle, and tying the legs of cows when milking +them. Yellowish-white hair where long, as in the kudumi. Bristles +on top of shaved head pure white. Greenish-brown iris. Father dark; +mother, like himself, has white hair and pink skin. One brother an +albino, married. One child of the usual Native type. Cannot see well +in glare of sunlight, but sees better towards sunset. Screws his +eyelids into transverse slits. Mother kind to him. + +Vembu Achari, æt. 20. Artist. Kudumi (top-knot) yellowish-white. White +eyebrows and moustache. Bright pink lips, and pink complexion. Iris +light blue with pink radiating striæ and pink peripheral zone. Sees +best in the evening when the sun is low on the horizon. Screws up his +eyelids to act as a diaphragm. Mother, father, brothers and sisters, +all of the ordinary Native type. No relations albino, as far as he +knows. Engaged to be married. People like himself are called chevapu +(red-coloured), or, in derision, vellakaran (European or white +man). Children sometimes make game of him, but people generally are +kind to him. + +Moonoosawmy, æt. 45. Belongs to the weaver class, and is a well-to-do +man. Albino. Had an albino sister, and a brother of the ordinary +type. Is the father of ten children, of whom five are albinos. They +are on terms of equality with the other members of their community, and +one daughter is likely to be married to the son of a prosperous man. + +----, æt. 22. Fisherman caste. Albino. His maternal uncle had an +albino daughter. Has four brothers, of whom two are albinos. Cannot +stand the glare of the sun, and is consequently unable to do outdoor +work. Moves freely among the members of his community, and could +easily secure a wife, if he was in a position to support one. + +----, æt. 36. Rajput. Hardware merchant. His father, of ordinary Native +type, had twelve children, five of whom were albino, by an albino wife, +whose brother was also albino. Married to a woman of Native type, +and had one non-albino child. His sister, of ordinary Native type, +has two albino children. Iris light blue. Hair yellowish. Complexion +pink. Keeps left eye closed, and looks through a slit between eyelids +of right eye. People call him in Canarese kempuava (red man). They +are kind to him. + +Alia.--The Alias are an Oriya cultivating caste, found mainly in +the Gumsur taluk of Ganjam. In the Madras Census Report, 1891, it is +suggested that the name is derived from the Sanskrit holo, meaning a +plough. The further suggestions have been made that it is derived from +alo, meaning crop, or from Ali, a killa or taluk of Orissa, whence +the Aliyas have migrated. In social position the Alias rank below +the Bhondaris and Odiyas, who will not accept water touched by them. + +Various titles occur within the caste, e.g., Biswalo, Bonjo, Bariko, +Jenna, Kampo, Kondwalo, Lenka, Mahanti, Molla Nahako, Patro, Podhano, +Podiyali, Ravuto, Siyo, and Swayi. Like other Oriya castes, the Alias +have gotras, and the marriage rules based on titles and gotras are +peculiar. A Podhano man may, for example, marry a Podhano girl, +if their gotras are different. Further, two people, whose gotras +are the same, may marry if they have a different title. Thus, a man, +whose gotra is Goru and title Podhano, may marry a girl of a family +of which the gotra is Goru, but title other than Podhano. + +Infant marriage is the rule, and, if a girl does not secure a +husband before she reaches maturity, she goes through a mock marriage +ceremony, in which the bridegroom is represented by a brass vessel +or an arrow. Like many other Oriya castes, the Aliyas follow the +Chaitanya form of Vaishnavism, and also worship various Takuranis +(village deities). + +Alige (drum).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Aliya Santanam.--Inheritance in the female line. The equivalent, +in the Canara country, of the Malayali marumakkathayam. + +Allam (ginger).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Allikulam (lily clan).--Returned, at times of census, as a sub-division +of Anappan. + +Alvar.--An exogamous sept of Toreya. Alvar is a synonym of Garuda, +the winged vehicle of Vishnu. Alvar Dasari occurs as a sub-division +of Valluvans, which claims descent from Tiruppan Alvar, one of the +Vaishnava saints. + +Amaravatiyavaru.--A name, denoting people of Amaravati on the Kistna +river, recorded [55] as a sub-division of Desabhaga Madigas. Amaravati +also occurs as a sub-division, or nadu, of Vallamban. + +Ambalakkaran.--In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Mr. H. A. Stuart +writes that "Ambalakkaran (ambalam, an open place [56]) is the usual +designation of a head of a village in the Maravan and Kallan districts, +and it is, or was the common agnomen of Kallans. I am not able to +state what is the precise connection between the Ambalakkaran and +Kallan castes, but, from some accounts which I have obtained, the +Ambalakkarans seem to be very closely connected, if not identical +with Muttiriyans (Telugu Mutracha), who have been classed as village +watchmen; and this is borne out by the sub-divisions returned, for, +though no less than 109,263 individuals have given Ambalakkaran as the +sub-division also, yet, of the sub-divisions returned, Muttiriyan and +Mutracha are the strongest. Marriage is usually deferred until after +puberty, and widow re-marriage is permitted, but there does not seem +to be the same freedom of divorce at will as is found among Kallans, +Maravans, etc. The dead are either burnt or buried. The consumption +of flesh and liquor is allowed. Their usual agnomen is said to be +Servaikkaran, but the titles Muttiriyan, Ambalakkaran, Malavarayan, +Mutarasan, and Vannian are also used. The usual agnomen of Muttiriyans, +on the other hand, is said to be Nayakkan (Naik)." + +In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Ambalakkarans are summed up +as follows. "A Tamil caste of cultivators and village watchmen. Till +recently the term Ambalakkaran was considered to be a title of the +Kallans, but further enquiries have shown that it is the name of +a distinct caste, found chiefly in the Trichinopoly district. The +Ambalakkarans and Muttiriyans of a village in Musiri taluk wrote a +joint petition, protesting against their being classified as Kallans, +but nevertheless it is said that the Kallans of Madura will not eat in +Ambalakkaran's houses. There is some connection between Ambalakkarans, +Muttiriyans, Mutrachas, Uralis, Vedans, Valaiyans, and Vettuvans. It +seems likely that all of them are descended from one common parent +stock. Ambalakkarans claim to be descended from Kannappa Nayanar, +one of the sixty-three Saivite saints, who was a Vedan or hunter by +caste. In Tanjore the Valaiyans declare themselves to have a similar +origin, and in that district Ambalakkaran and Muttiriyan seem to +be synonymous with Valaiyan. [Some Valaiyans have Ambalakkaran as a +title.] Moreover, the statistics of the distribution of the Valaiyans +show that they are numerous in the districts where Ambalakkarans are +few, and vice versâ, which looks as though certain sections of them +had taken to calling themselves Ambalakkarans. The upper section +of the Ambalakkarans style themselves Pillai, which is a title +properly belonging to Vellalas, but the others are usually called +Muppan in Tanjore, and Ambalakkaran, Muttiriyan, and Servaigaran +in Trichinopoly. The headman of the caste panchayat (council) is +called the Kariyakkaran, and his office is hereditary in particular +families. Each headman has a peon called the Kudi-pillai, whose duty it +is to summon the panchayat when necessary, and to carry messages. For +this he gets an annual fee of four annas from each family of the caste +in his village. The caste has certain endogamous sections. Four of +them are said to be Muttiriyan or Mutracha, Kavalgar, Vanniyan, and +Valaiyan. A member of any one of these is usually prohibited by the +panchayats from marrying outside it on pain of excommunication. Their +customs are a mixture of those peculiar to the higher castes and those +followed by the lower ones. Some of them employ Brahmans as purohits +(priests), and wear the sacred thread at funerals and sraddhas +(memorial services for the dead). Yet they eat mutton, pork, and +fowls, drink alcohol, and allow the marriage of widows and divorced +women." Muttiriyan and Kavalgar both mean watchman. Vanniyan is +certainly a separate caste, some members of which take Ambalakkaran as +a title. The Ambalakkarans are apparently Valaiyans, who have separated +themselves from the main stock on account of their prosperity. + +For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. F. R. Hemingway. The +Ambalakkarans or Muttiriyans are more numerous in the +Trichinopoly district and Pudukkottai than in any other part of the +Presidency. Though they have been treated as separate castes, they +appear to be one and the same in this district, generally calling +themselves Muttiriyan in the Trichinopoly taluk, and Ambalakkaran +elsewhere, and having no objection to either name. They admit they are +called Valaiyans, but repudiate any connection with the caste of that +name, and explain the appellation by a story that, when Siva's ring +was swallowed by a fish in the Ganges, one of their ancestors invented +the first net (valai) made in the world. As relics of their former +greatness they point to the thousand-pillared mantapam at Srirangam, +which is called muttarasan koradu, and a big matam at Palni, both +of which, they say, were built by their kings. To the latter every +household of the caste subscribes four annas annually. They say that +they were born of the sweat (muttu, a pearl or bead of perspiration) +of Parama-siva. The caste is divided into a number of nadus, the +names and number of which are variously given. Some of these are +Ettarai, Koppu, Adavattur, Tirampalaiyam, Vimanayakkanpalaiyam in +the Trichinopoly taluk, and Amur, Savindippatti, and Karungali in +Musiri taluk. Widow remarriage is allowed in some of these nadus, +and not in others. They use the titles Muttiriyan, Ambalakkaran, +Servaikaran, and Kavalkaran. They admit their social inferiority to +the Vellalans, Kallans, Nattamans, and Reddis, from all of whom they +will accept meals, but consider themselves superior to Pallis, Uralis, +Uppiliyans, and Valaiyans. Their usual occupation is cultivation, +but they have also taken to petty trade, and some earn a living as +masons and kavalgars (watchmen). They wear the sacred thread during +their marriages and funerals. They have panchayats for each village +and for the nadu, and have also a number of the Patnattu Chettis, +who are recognized as elders of the caste, and sit with the head of +the nadu to decide cases of adultery, etc. + +Ambalavasi.--This is summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, +as "a generic name applied to all classes of temple servants in +Malabar. There are many sub-divisions of the caste, such as Poduval, +Chakkiyar, Nambiyassan, Pidaran, Pisharodi, Variyan, Nambi, Teyyambadi, +etc., which are assigned different services in the Hindu temples, +such as the preparation of garlands, the sweeping of the floor, +the fetching of fire-wood, the carrying of the idols in procession, +singing, dancing, and so on. Like most of the temple servant classes, +they are inferior to the lower Brahmans, such as the Mussads, and +food will not be taken from the hands of most of them even by Nayars." + +In the Travancore Census Report, 1901, it is noted that "the +term Ambalavasi (one who lives in a temple) is a group-name, +and is applied to castes, whose occupation is temple service. The +Keralamahatmya speaks of them as Kshetravasinah, which means those +who live in temples. They are also known as Antaralas, from their +occupying an intermediate position between the Brahmans and the +Brahmanical Kshatriyas of Malabar on the one hand, and the Sudras +on the other. While according to one view they are fallen Brahmans, +others, such as the writer of the Keralolpatti, would put them down +as an advance from the Sudras. The castes recognised as included in +the generic name of Ambalavasi are:-- + + + Nambiyassan. Nambiyar. + Pushpakan. Pisharati. + Puppalli. Variyar. + Chakkiyar. Nattupattan. + Brahmani or Daivampati. Tiyattunni. + Adikal. Kurukkal. + Nambidi. Poduval. + Pilappalli. + + +"All these castes are not connected with pagodas, nor do the Muttatus, +who are mainly engaged in temple service, come under this group, +strictly speaking. The rationale of their occupation seems to be that, +in accepting duty in temples and consecrating their lives to the +service of God, they hope to be absolved from the sins inherited from +their fathers. In the case of ascent from lower castes, the object +presumably is the acquisition of additional religious merit.... The +delinquent Brahman cannot be retained in the Brahmanic function +without lowering the standard of his caste. He had, therefore, to be +allotted other functions. Temple service of various kinds, such as +garland-making for the Pushpakan, Variyar and others, and popular +recitation of God's works for the Chakkiyar, were found to hold an +intermediate place between the internal functions of the Brahmans and +the external functions of the other castes, in the same sense in which +the temples themselves are the exoteric counterparts of an esoteric +faith, and represent a position between the inner and the outer +economy of nature. Hence arose probably an intermediate status with +intermediate functions for the Antaralas, the intermediates of Hindu +Society. The Kshatriyas, having commensal privileges with the Brahmans, +come next to them in the order of social precedence. In the matter of +pollution periods, which seem to be in inverse ratio to the position +of the caste, the Brahmans observe 10 days, the Kshatriyas 11 days, +and the Sudras of Malabar (Nayars) 16 days. The Ambalavasis generally +observe pollution for 12 days. In some cases, however, it is as short +as 10, and in others as long as 13 and even 14, but never 16 days." + +It is further recorded, in the Cochin Census Report, 1901, that +"Ambalavasis (literally temple residents) are persons who have the +privilege of doing service in temples. Most of the castes have +grown out of sexual relations between members of the higher and +lower classes, and are therefore Anulomajas and Pratilomajas. [57] +They may be broadly divided into two classes, (1) those that wear +the sacred thread, and (2) those that do not wear the same. Adikal, +Chakkiyar, Nambiyar or Pushpakan, and Tiyyattu Nambiyar belong to +the threaded class, while Chakkiyar, Nambiyar, Pisharoti, Variyar, +Puthuval, and Marar are non-threaded. Though all Ambalavasis have to +do service in temples, they have many of them sufficiently distinct +functions to perform. They are all governed by the marumakkathayam +law of inheritance (through the female line); some castes among +them, however, follow the makkathayam system (from father to son). A +Nambiyar, Pisharoti, or Variyar marries under special circumstances +a woman of his own caste, and brings home his wife into the family, +and their issue thus become members of the father's family, with the +right of inheriting the family property, and form themselves into a +fresh marumakkathayam stock. In the matter of tali-kettu (tali-tying) +marriage, and marriage by union in sambandham (alliance), they follow +customs similar to those of Nayars. So far as the employment of Brahman +as priests, and the period of birth and death pollution are concerned, +there are slight differences. The threaded classes have Gayatri +(hymn). The purificatory ceremony after birth or death pollution +is performed by Nambudris, but at all funeral ceremonies, such as +pinda, sradha, etc., their own caste men officiate as priests. The +Nambudris can take meals cooked by a Brahman in the house of any of the +Ambalavasis except Marars. In fact, if the Nambudris have the right +of purification, they do not then impose any restrictions in regard +to this. All Ambalavasis are strict vegetarians at public feasts. The +Ambalavasis sit together at short distances from one another, and take +their meals. Their females unite themselves in sambandham with their +own caste males, or with Brahmans or Kshatriyas. Brahmans, Kshatriyas, +or Nambidis cannot take water from them. Though a great majority of the +Ambalavasis still follow their traditional occupations, many of them +have entered the public service, and taken to more lucrative pursuits." + +The more important sections of the Ambalavasis are dealt with in +special articles. + +Ambattan.--For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana +Rao. The Ambattans are the Tamil barbers, or barber-surgeons. The +word is usually derived from the Sanskrit amba (near) and s'tha (to +stand), i.e., he who stands near to shave his clients, or treat his +patients. In like manner, the Kavutiyan caste of Malayalam barbers +is called Adutton, signifying bystander. The Ambattan corresponds to +the Mangala of the Telugu country, the Vilakkatalavan of Malabar, the +Kshauraka of the Canarese Brahmans, and the Hajam of Muhammadans. Not +improbably the name refers to the original occupation of medicine-man, +to which were added later the professions of village barber and +musician. This view seems to receive some support from the current +tradition that the Ambattans are the descendants of the offspring +of a Vaisya woman by a Brahman, to whom the medical profession was +allotted as a means of livelihood. In this connection, it may be +noted that the Ambattan women are the recognised midwives of the Hindu +community in the Tamil country. It is impossible to say how far the +above tradition is based on the verse of Manu, the ancient law-giver, +who says that "from a Brahmana with the daughter of a Vaisya is born +a son called an Ambashtha." In a succeeding verse, he states that as +children of a Brahmana by a woman of one of the three lower castes, +the Ambashthas are one of the six base-born castes or apasada. He +says further that Brahmans may eat of a barber's food--a permission +which, it is hardly necessary to say, they do not avail themselves +of. A single exception is, however, noteworthy. At the temple of +Jugganath, within the temple precincts, neither the barber, nor the +food which he prepares, and is partaken of by the higher classes, +including Brahmans, conveys pollution. The pujari, or officiating +priest, at this famous temple is a barber, and Brahmans, except +those of the extreme orthodox section, partake of his preparations +of rice, after they have been offered to the presiding deity. This +is, apparently, the only case in which the rule laid down by Manu +is followed in practice. It is not known how far the text of Manu is +answerable for the popular Sanskrit saying, which calls the barber a +"good Sudra." There is an opinion entertained in certain quarters that +originally the barber's touch did not pollute, but that his shaving +did. It is an interesting fact that, though the Ambattans are one of +Manu's base-born castes, whose touch causes pollution which requires +the pouring of water over the head to remove it, they are one of +the most Brahmanised of the lower castes. Nothing, perhaps, shows +this so well as their marriage ceremonies, throughout which a Brahman +officiates. On the first two days, homam or sacred fire, fed with ghi +(clarified butter) is kindled. On the third day, the tali (marriage +badge) is placed in a circular silver or brass thattu (dish), and +touched with the forefinger of the right hand first by the presiding +Brahman, followed by other Brahmans, men of superior castes, and the +caste-men headed by the Perithanakkaran or head-man. It is then, amid +weird music, tied to the bride's neck before the sacred fire. During +this ceremony no widows may be present. The relations of the bride and +bridegroom scatter rice on the floor in front of the bridal pair, after +the Brahman priest and head-man. This rice, which is called sesham +(remainder), is strictly the perquisite of the local washerman. But +it is generally purchased by the headman of the family, in which the +marriage is taking place, and handed over, not to the washerman, but +to the Perithanakkaran. The Brahman receives as his fee money and a +pair of silk-bordered cloths; and, till the latter are given to him, +he usually refuses to pronounce the necessary mantras (prayers). He +also receives the first pan-supari (betel leaves and areca nuts), +plantains, and cocoanuts. Each day he has to get rid of the pollution +caused by entering a barber's house by bathing. During the fourth and +fifth days, homam is burnt, and shadangu, or merry-making between the +bride and bridegroom before the assembled spectators, takes place, +during which the bride sings songs, in which she has been coached from +infancy. On the fifth day the removal of the kankanam, or threads +which have been tied round the wrists of the bride and bridegroom, +is performed, after the priest's account has been settled. + +Among the Konga Vellalas of the Salem district, it is the Ambattan who +officiates at the marriage rites, and ties the tali, after formally +proclaiming to those present that he is about to do so. Brahmans are +invited to the wedding, and are treated with due respect, and presented +with money, rice, and betel. It would appear that, in this case, the +Brahman has been ousted, in recent times, from his priestly functions +by the Ambattan. The barber, when he ties the tali, mutters something +about Brahman and Vedas in a respectful manner. The story goes that, +during the days of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya Kings, a Brahman and +an Ambattan were both invited to a marriage feast. But the Brahman, +on his arrival, died, and the folk, believing his death to be an +evil omen, ruled that, as the Brahman was missing, they would have +an Ambattan; and it has ever since been the custom for the Ambattan +to officiate at weddings. + +A girl, when she reaches puberty, has to observe pollution for eleven +days, during which she bathes daily, and is presented with a new cloth, +and adorned by a girl who is said to have "touched" her. This girl has +to bathe before she can take her meals, or touch others. Every morning, +a dose of pure gingelly (Sesamum indicum) oil, mixed with white of +egg, is administered. The dietary must be strictly vegetarian. On the +twelfth day, the girl who has been through the ceremonial has a final +bath, and enters the house after it has been purified (punyavachanam). + +The rule, once a widow always a widow, is as true of Ambattans as of +high-class Brahmans. And, if asked whether the remarriage of widows +is permitted, they promptly reply that they are not washermen. + +The dead are cremated, with the exception of young children, who +are buried. The death ceremonies are conducted by a Brahman priest, +who is remunerated for his services with money and a cloth. Gifts of +money and cloths are also made to other Brahmans, when the days of +pollution are over. Annual memorial ceremonies (sradh) are performed, +as by Brahmans. It is a privilege (they consider it as such) of +the Ambattans to cremate the bodies of village paupers other than +Brahmans. And, on ordinary occasions of death, they lead the son or +person who is entitled to light the funeral pyre, with a brass pot +in their hands, round the corpse, and indicate with a burning cinder +the place to which the light must be applied. + +As a community the Ambattans are divided into Saivites and +Vaishnavites. Members of the latter section, who have been branded +by their Brahman guru with the chank and chakram, abstain from animal +food, and intoxicating drinks. Intermarriage between the two sections +is allowed, and commonly practised. They belong to the right-hand +faction, and will not eat with Komatis, who belong to the left. They +have, however, no objection to shaving Komatis. The Ambattans of +the Chingleput district are divided into four sections, each of +which is controlled by a Perithanakkaran. One of these resides +in Madras, and the other three live respectively at Poonamallee, +Chingleput, and Karunguzhi in the Madurantakam taluk of the Chingleput +district. Ambattans are now-a-days found over the whole Tamil area of +the Madras Presidency. Originally, free movement into the various parts +of the Presidency was far from easy, and every Ambattan, wherever he +might migrate to, retained his subjection to the chief or headman of +his native village. Thus, perhaps, what was at first a tribal division +gradually developed into a territorial one. Each Perithanakkaran +has under him six hundred, or even a thousand Kudithalakkarans, +or heads of families. His office being hereditary, he is, if only +a minor, treated with respect and dignity. All the preliminaries of +marriage are arranged by him. On important occasions, such as settling +disputes, he is assisted by a panchayat, or council of elders. In +this way are settled quarrels, questions arising out of adultery, +or non-payment of fines, which it is his duty to collect. He is +further responsible for the marriage rice-money, which is added to a +communal tax of 2 1/2 annas per family, which is imposed annually for +charitable purposes. The charities take the form of the maintenance +of chattrams, or places where pilgrims are fed free of charge at +holy places. Two such institutions are maintained in the Chingleput +district, the centre of the Ambattan community, one at Tirupporur, +the other at Tirukalikundram. At these places Brahmans are given +free meals, and to other caste Hindus sadabath, or things necessary +for meals, are presented. Sometimes the money is spent in building +adjuncts to holy shrines. At Srirangam, for example, the Ambattans, +in days gone by, built a fine stone mantapam for the local temple. If +the Perithanakkaran cannot satisfactorily dispose of a case with the +assistance of the usual panchayat (council), it is referred to the +higher authority of the Kavarai or Desai Setti, or even to British +Courts as a last resource. + +The barber has been summed up by a district official [58] as "one +of the most useful of the village servants. He leads an industrious +life, his services being in demand on all occasions of marriages, +feasts, and funerals. He often combines in himself the three useful +vocations of hair-dresser, surgeon, and musician. In the early hours +of the morning, he may be seen going his rounds to his employers' +houses in his capacity of shaver and hair-cutter. Later on, he will +be leading the village band of musicians before a wedding procession, +or playing at a temple ceremony. Yet again he may be observed paying +his professional visits as Vythian or physician, with his knapsack +of surgical instruments and cutaneous drugs tucked under his arm. By +long practice the barber becomes a fairly skilful operator with the +knife, which he uses in a rough and ready manner. He lances ulcers +and carbuncles, and even essays his hand in affections of the eye, +often with the most disastrous results. It is the barber who takes +away cricks and sprains, procures leeches for those wishing to be +bled, and otherwise relieves the physical ills of his patients. The +barber woman, on the other hand, is the accoucheuse and midwife of +the village matrons. It may be said without exaggeration that many +of the uterine ailments which furnish patients to the maternity wards +of the various hospitals in this country are attributable to the rude +treatment of the village midwife." + +The Ambattan will cut the nails, and shave not only the head and +face, but other parts of the body, whereas the Telugu barber will +shave only down to the waist. The depilatory operations on women +are performed by female hair-dressers. Barbers' sons are taught to +shave by taking the bottom of an old well-burnt clay cooking-pot, +and, with a blunt knife, scraping off the collected carbon. They +then commence to operate on pubescent youths. The barber who shaves +Europeans must not be a caste barber, but is either a Muhammadan +or a non-caste man. Quite recently, a youthful Ambattan had to +undergo ceremonial purification for having unconsciously shaved a +Paraiyan. Paraiyans, Malas, and other classes of the lower orders, +have their own barbers and washermen. Razors are, however, sometime +lent to them by the Ambattans for a small consideration, and cleansed +in water when they are returned. Parasitic skin diseases are said to +originate from the application of a razor, which has been used on a +number of miscellaneous individuals. And well-to-do Hindus now keep +their own razor, which the barber uses when he comes to shave them. In +the southern districts, it is not usual for the Ambattans to go to +the houses of their customers, but they have sheds at the backs of +their own houses, where they attend to them from daybreak till about +mid-day. Occasionally, when sent for, they will wait on Brahmans and +high-class non-Brahmans at their houses. Numbers of them, besides, +wait for customers near the riverside. Like the English hair-cutter, +the Ambattan is a chatter-box, retails the petty gossip of the station, +and is always posted in the latest local news and scandal. The barbers +attached to British regiments are migratory, and, it is said, have +friends and connections in all military cantonments, with whom they +exchange news, and hold social intercourse. The Ambattan fills the rôle +of negotiator and go-between in the arrangement of marriages, feasts, +and funeral. He is, moreover, the village physician and surgeon, and, +in the days when blood-letting was still in vogue, the operation +of phlebotomy was part of his business. In modern times, his nose +has, like that of the village potter, been put out of joint by civil +hospitals and dispensaries. His medicines consist of pills made from +indigenous drugs, the nature of which he does not reveal. His surgical +instrument is the razor which he uses for shaving, and he does not +resort to it until local applications, e.g., in a case of carbuncle, +have failed. + +In return for his multifarious services to the villagers, the Ambattan +was given a free grant of land, for which he has even now to pay only +a nominal tax. But, in the days when there was no survey or settlement, +if the barber neglected his duties, he was threatened with confiscation +of his lands. At the present day, however, he can sell, mortgage, +or make a gift thereof. As the Ambattans became divided up into a +number of families, their duties in the village were parcelled out +among them, so that each barber family became attached to certain +families of other castes, and was entitled to certain rights from +them. Among other claims, each barber family became entitled to three +or four marakkals of paddy (unhusked rice), which is the perquisite +of the married members thereof. It may be noted that, in village +communities, lands were granted not only to the barber, but also +to village officials such as the blacksmith, carpenter, washerman, +astrologer, priest, dancing-girl, etc. + +In his capacity of barber, the Ambattan is called Nasivan (unholy man), +or, according to the Census Reports, Nasuvan (sprung from the nose), +or Navidan. He is also known as Panditan or Pariyari (doctor), and +Kudimaghan (son of the ryot). The last of these names is applied to him +especially on occasions of marriage, when to call him Nasivan would +be inauspicious. The recognised insigne of his calling is the small +looking-glass, which he carries with him, together with the razor, +and sometimes tweezers and ear-pick. He must salute his superiors by +prostrating himself on his stomach, folding his arms, and standing at +a respectful distance. He may not attend at Brahman houses on new or +full-moon days, Tuesday, Saturday, and special days such as Ekadasi +and Dwadasi. The most proper days are Sunday and Monday. The quality +of the shave varies with the skill of the individual, and there is +a Tamil proverb "Go to an old barber and a new washerman." Stories +are extant of barbers shaving kings while they were asleep without +waking them, and it is said that the last Raja of Tanjore used to be +thus entertained with exhibitions of their skill. The old legend of +the barber who, in return for shaving a Raja without awakening him, +requested that he might be made a Brahman, and how the Court jester +Tennali Raman got the Raja to cancel his agreement, has recently been +re-told in rhyme. [59] It is there described how the barber lathered +the head "with water alone, for soap he had none." The modern barber, +however, uses soap, either a cheap quality purchased in the bazar, +or a more expensive brand supplied by his client. + +By a curious corruption, Hamilton's bridge, which connects the +Triplicane and Mylapore divisions of the city of Madras, has become +converted into Ambattan, or barber's bridge. And the barber, as +he shaves you, will tell how, in days before the bridge was built, +the channel became unfordable during a north-east monsoon flood. A +barber, who lived on the Triplicane side, had to shave an engineer, +whose house was on the Mylapore side. With difficulty he swam across, +and shaved the sahib while he was asleep without waking him, and, +in return, asked that, in the public interests, a bridge should be +built over the channel. + +Ambattans of Travancore.--For the following note I am indebted to +Mr. N. Subramani Aiyer. The barbers of Travancore are called by various +designations, those in Central and South Travancore preferring to +be known by the name of Kshaurakan or Kshaurakkaran, a corruption +of the Sanskrit kshuraka, while Ambattan seems to find general +favour in the south. A curious name given to the caste throughout +Travancore is Pranopakari, or one who helps the souls, indicating +their priestly functions in the ceremonials of various castes. A +contraction of this name found in the early settlement records is +Pranu. The members of those families from which kings and noblemen +have at any time selected their barbers are called Vilakkittalavan, +or more properly Vilakkuttalayan, meaning literally those who shave +heads. In North Travancore many families are in possession of royal +edicts conferring upon them the title of Panikkar, and along with +it the headmanship of the barber families of the village in which +they reside. Others have the title of Vaidyan or doctor, from the +secondary occupation of the caste. + +Endless endogamous septs occur among the barbers, and, at Trivandrum, +there are said to be four varieties called Chala Vazhi, Pandi +Vazhi, Attungal Vazhi, and Peruntanni Vazhi. But it is possible +to divide all the Kshaurakans of Travancore into three classes, +viz., Malayalam-speaking Ambattans, who follow the makkathayam law +of inheritance; (2) Malayalam-speaking Ambattans who follow the +marumakkathayam law of inheritance; (3) Tamil-speaking barbers, who +have in many localities adopted Malayalam as their mother-tongue, +and indicate their recent conversion in this direction by preserving +unchanged the dress and ornaments of their womenkind. In Pattanapuram, +for example, there is a class of Malayalam-speaking barbers known as +Pulans who immigrated into that taluk from the Tamil country about two +hundred years ago, and reveal their kinship with the Tamil-speaking +barbers in various ways. In Kottayam and some other North Travancore +taluks, a large number of barbers may be described as recent +converts of this character. In theory at least, the makkathayam and +marumakkathayam Ambattans may be said to form two distinct endogamous +groups, of which the former regard themselves as far superior to the +latter in social position. Sometimes the makkathayam Ambattans give +their girls in marriage to the marumakkathayam Ambattans, though +the converse can never hold good. But, in these cases, the girl is +not permitted to re-enter the paternal home, and associate with the +people therein. + +A local tradition describes the Travancore Kshaurakans as pursuing +their present occupation owing to the curse of Surabhi, the divine +calf. Whatever their origin, they have faithfully followed their +traditional occupation, and, in addition, many study medicine in their +youth, and attend to the ailments of the villagers, while the women +act as midwives. When a high-caste Hindu dies, the duty of supplying +the fuel for the funeral pyre, and watching the burning ground, +devolves on the barber. + +In their dress and ornaments the Travancore barbers closely resemble +the Nayars, but some wear round gold beads and a conch-shaped marriage +jewel round the neck, to distinguish their women from those of the +Nayars. This, however, does not hold good in South Travancore, where +the women have entirely adopted the Nayar type of jewelry. Tattooing +prevails to a greater extent among the barbers than among other +classes, but has begun to lose its popularity. + +The barbers not only worship the ordinary Hindu deities, but also +adore such divinities as Murti, Maden, and Yakshi. The corpses of those +who die as the result of accident or contagious disease, are buried, +not burnt. A sorcerer is called on to raise the dead from the grave, +and, at his instance, a kuryala or small thatched shed is erected, +to provide a sanctum for the resurrected spirit. Every year, in the +month of Makaram (January-February), the day on which the Utradam star +falls is taken as the occasion for making offerings to these spirits. + +In every village certain families had bestowed on them by the +chieftains of Kerala the right of deciding all questions affecting +the caste. All social offences are tried by them, and the decision +takes the form of an order to celebrate iananguttu or feast of the +equals, at which the first article served on the leaf placed before +the assembled guests is not food, but a sum of money. + +The tali-kettu and sambandham ceremonies are celebrated, the former +before, and the latter after the girl has reached puberty. The +preliminary rites of betrothal and kapu-kettu (tying the string +round the wrist) over, the bridegroom enters the marriage hall in +procession. There are no Vedic rites; nor is there any definite priest +for the marriage ceremony. The conch-shell is blown at odd intervals, +this being considered indispensable. The festivities last for four +days. A niece and nephew are regarded as the most legitimate spouses +of a son and daughter respectively. + +After the cremation or burial of a corpse, a rope is held by two of +the relations between the dead person's remains and the karta (chief +mourner), and cut in two, as if to indicate that all connection between +the karta and the deceased has ceased. This is called bandham aruppu, +or severing of connection. Pollution lasts for sixteen days among all +sections of the barbers, except the Tamils, who regain their purity +after a death in the family on the eleventh day. + +Ambiga.--A synonym of Kabbera. + +Ambojala (lotus: Nelumbium).--A house-name of Korava. + +Amma (mother).--A sub-division of Pallan and Paraiyan. It is also the +title of the various goddesses, or mothers, such as Ellamma, Mariamma, +etc., which are worshipped as Grama Devatas (village deities) at the +temples known as Amman-koil. + +Ammukkuvan.--A sub-division of Katalarayan. [60] (See Valan.) + +Anapa (Dolichos Lablab).--A gotra of Komati. + +Anasa (ferrule).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Anchu (edge or border).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Andara (pandal or booth).--A sept of Kuruba. + +Ande.--Ande (a pot) as a division of the Kurubas refers to the small +bamboo or wooden vessel used when milking goats. It further denotes a +division of the Koragas, who used to wear a pot suspended from their +necks, into which they were compelled to spit, so as not to defile +the highway. + +Anderaut.--Recorded, in the Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of +Kurumba. Probably a form of Ande Kuruba. Raut is frequently a title +of headmen among Lingayats. + +Andi.--In a note on Andis in the Madras Census Report, 1901, +Mr. W. Francis writes that "for a Brahman or an ascetic, mendicancy +was always considered an honourable profession, to which no sort of +shame attached. Manu says 'a Brahman should constantly shun worldly +honour, as he would shun poison, and rather constantly seek disrespect +as he would seek nectar'; and every Brahman youth was required to +spend part of his life as a beggar. The Jains and Buddhists held the +same views. The Hindu Chattrams [61] and Uttupuras, the Jain Pallis, +and the Buddhist Viharas owe their origin to this attitude, they +being originally intended for the support of the mendicant members of +these religions. But persons of other than the priestly and religious +classes were expected to work for their living, and were not entitled +to relief in these institutions. Begging among such people--unless, +as in the case of the Pandarams and Andis, a religious flavour attaches +to it--is still considered disreputable. The percentage of beggars in +the Tamil districts to the total population is .97, or more than twice +what it is in the Telugu country, while in Malabar it is as low as +.09. The Telugus are certainly not richer as a class than the Tamils, +and the explanation of these differences is perhaps to be found in the +fact that the south is more religiously inclined than the north, and +has more temples and their connected charities (religion and charity go +hand in hand in India), and so offers more temptation to follow begging +as a profession. Andis are Tamil beggars. They are really inferior to +Pandarams, but the two terms are in practice often indiscriminately +applied to the same class of people. Pandarams are usually Vellalas +by caste, but Andis are recruited from all classes of Sudras, and +they consequently have various sub-divisions, which are named after +the caste to which the members of each originally belonged, such as +the Jangam Andis, meaning beggars of the Jangam caste, and the Jogi +Andis, that is, Andis of the Jogi caste. They also have occupational +and other divisions, such as the Kovil Andis, meaning those who do +service in temples, and the Mudavandis or the lame beggars. Andi is +in fact almost a generic term. All Andis are not beggars however; +some are bricklayers, others are cultivators, and others are occupied +in the temples. They employed Brahman priests at their ceremonies, but +all of them eat meat and drink alcohol. Widows and divorcées may marry +again. Among the Tinnevelly Andis, the sister of the bridegroom ties +the tali (marriage badge) round the bride's neck, which is not usual." + +In the Madras Census Report, 1891, the Andis are summed up as +"beggars who profess the Saiva faith. They may be found in all the +Tamil districts, begging from door to door, beating a small gong with a +stick. The Andis differ from most other castes, in that a person of any +caste may join their community. Some of them officiate as priests in +village temples, especially when large sacrifices of goats, buffaloes, +and pigs are made. They usually bury the dead. They have returned 105 +sub-divisions, of which the most important are the following:--Jangam, +Komanandi, Lingadari, Mudavandi, and Uppandi. Komanam is the small loin +cloth, and a Komanandi goes naked, except for this slight concession +to decency. Mudam means lame, and the Mudavandis (q.v.) are allowed +to claim any deformed child belonging to the Konga Vellala caste. The +etymology of Uppandi is difficult, but it is improbable that it has +any connection with uppu, salt. + +In the Tanjore Manual, it is noted that "in its ordinary acceptation +the word Andi means houseless beggars, and is applied to those who +profess the Saiva faith. They go out every morning, begging for alms +of uncooked rice, singing ballads or hymns. They play on a small +gong called semakkalam with a stick, and often carry a conch shell, +which they blow. They are given to drinking." + +It is recorded [62] that "South Indian beggars are divided into two +classes, Panjathandi and Paramparaiandi. The former are famine-made +beggars, and the latter are beggars from generation to generation. The +former, a common saying goes, would rob from the person of a child +at a convenient opportunity, while the latter would jump into a well, +and pick up a child which had fallen into it by an accident, and make +it over to its parents." + +Andi (a god) occurs as an exogamous section of Sirukudi Kallans. + +Andinia.--Recorded by Mr. F. Fawcett as an inferior sub-division of +Dombs, who eat frogs. + +Anduran.--A sub-division of Nayar potters, who manufacture earthenware +articles for use in temples. The name is derived from Andur, a place +which was once a fief under the Zamorin of Calicut. + +Ane (elephant).--An exogamous sept of Holeya, Kappiliyan, Kuruba, +Kadu Kurumba, Moger, and Gangadikara Vakkaliga. Yenigala or Yenuga +(elephant) is further an exogamous sept of Kapus, who will not touch +ivory. Anai-kombu (elephant tusk) occurs as a sub-division of Idaiyan. + +Angarakudu (the planet Mars).--A synonym of Mangala. + +Anja.--In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Ajna is returned as a +sub-division of Pallan. This, however, seems to be a mistake for Anja +(father), by which name these Pallans address their fathers. + +Anju Nal (five days).--Recorded in the Salem Manual, as a name given +to Pallis who perform the death ceremony on the fifth day after death. + +Anjuttan (men of the five hundred).--Recorded at times of census, +as a sub-division of Panan, and a synonym of Velan. In the Gazetteer +of Malabar, it appears as a sub-division of Mannans, who are closely +akin to the Velans. The equivalent Anjuttilkar occurs as a synonym +for Tenkanchi Vellalas in Travancore. + +Anna (brother).--The title of numerous classes, e.g., Dasari, Gavara, +Golla, Konda Dora, Koppala Velama, Mangala, Mila, Paidi, and Segidi. + +Annam (cooked rice).--An exogamous sept of Gamalla and Togata. + +Annavi.--A title of Savalakkarans, who play on the nagasaram (reed +instrument) in temples. + +Antalavar.--Recorded in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Antarala.--A synonym of Ambalavasi, denoting those who occupy an +intermediate position between Brahmans and Sudras. + +Antarjanam (inside person).--A term applied to Nambutiri Brahman +females, who live in seclusion. [63] + +Anuloma.--One of the two classes of Sudras, viz., Anuloma and +Veloma. The term Anuloma is applied to those born of a higher-caste +male and a lower-caste female, e.g., barbers are said to be the +offspring of a Brahman and a Vaisya woman. + +Anumala (seeds of Dolichos Lablab).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. The +equivalent Anumolla occurs as an exogamous sept of Kamma. + +Anuppan.--The Anuppans are described, in the Madras Census Report, +1891, as "a small caste of Canarese farmers, found chiefly in the +districts of Madura, Tinnevelly, and Coimbatore. Their original home +appears to have been Mysore or South Canara, probably the former. Their +language is a corrupt form of Canarese. The most important sub-division +is Allikulam (lily clan). Some of them are Saivites, and others +Vaishnavites. Brahmans are employed as priests by the Vaishnavites, +but not by the Saivites. Remarriage of widows is practised, but a +woman divorced for adultery cannot remarry during the life-time of +her husband." + +In the Gazetteer of the Madura district, it is stated that "the +Anuppans are commonest in the Kambam valley. They have a tradition +regarding their migration thither, which closely resembles that current +among the Kappiliyans and Tottiyans (q.v.). Local tradition at Kambam +says that the Anuppans were in great strength here in olden days, +and that quarrels arose, in the course of which the chief of the +Kappiliyans, Ramachcha Kavandan, was killed. With his dying breath +he cursed the Anuppans, and thenceforth they never prospered, and now +not one of them is left in the town. Their title is Kavandan. They are +divided into six territorial groups called Medus, which are named after +three villages in this district, and three in Tinnevelly. Over each of +these is a headman called the Periyadanakkaran, and the three former +are also subject to a Guru who lives at Sirupalai near Madura. These +three are divided again into eighteen kilais or branches, each of +which intermarries only with certain of the others. Caste panchayats +(councils) are held on a blanket, on which (compare the Tottiyan +custom) is placed a pot of water containing margosa (Melia Azadirachta) +leaves, to symbolise the sacred nature of the meeting. Women who go +astray with men of other castes are expelled, and various ceremonies, +including (it is said) the burying alive of a goat, are enacted to show +that they are dead to the community. The right of a man to his paternal +aunt's daughter is as vigorously maintained as among the Kappiliyans +and Tottiyans, and leads to the same curious state of affairs (i.e., a +woman, whose husband is too young to fulfil the duties of his position, +is allowed to consort with his near relations, and the children so +begotten are treated as his). No tali (marriage badge) is tied at +weddings, and the binding part of the ceremonies is the linking, on +seven separate occasions, of the little fingers of the couple. Like +the Kappiliyans, the Anuppans have many caste and family deities, +a number of whom are women who committed sati." (See Kappiliyan). + +Apoto.--Apoto, or Oppoto, is a sub-division of Gaudos, the occupation +of which is palanquin-bearing. + +Appa (father).--A title of members of various Telugu and Canarese +castes, e.g., Idiga, Kannadiyan, Linga Balija, and Tambala. + +Arab.--A Muhammadan territorial name, returned at times of census. In +the Mysore Census Report, 1901, the Arabs are described as itinerant +tradesmen, whose chief business is horse-dealing, though some deal +in cloths. + +Aradhya.--For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana +Rao. The Aradhyas are a sect of Brahmans found mainly in the four +northern districts of the Madras Presidency, and to a smaller extent +in the Cuddapah and Kurnool districts. A few are also found in the +Mysore State. They differ in almost every important respect from other +Brahmans. Basava, the founder of the Lingayat religion, was born in a +family of Brahmans, who, with others round about them, were apparently +the first converts to his religion. According to Mr. C. P. Brown, [64] +they were "in all probability his personal friends; he persuaded them +to lay aside their name, and call themselves Aradhya or Reverend.' They +revere the four Aradhyas, visionary personages of the Lingayat creed, +of whom very little is known. At all social and religious functions, +birth, marriage, initiation and funerals, four vases of water are +solemnly placed in their name, and then invoked to preside over +them. Their names are Revanaradhya, Marularadhya, Ekoramaradhya, +and Panditaradhya. In four ages, it is said, these four successively +appeared as precursors of the divine Basava, and were, like Basava, +Brahmans. A Purana, known as the Panditaradhya Charitra, is named +after the last of these. Versions thereof are found both in Canarese +and Telugu. A Sanskrit poem, called Siddhanta Sikhamani, represents +Revanaradhya as a human manifestation of one of the ministers of Siva. + +As might be expected, the members of this sect are staunch +Saivites. They wear both the Brahminical sacred thread, and the linga +suspended from another thread. They revere in particular Ganapathi. The +lingam which they wear they usually call the prana lingam, or life +lingam. The moment a child, male or female, is born, it is invested +with the lingam; otherwise it is not considered to have pranam or +life. The popular belief is that, if by some accident the lingam is +lost, a man must either fast until he recovers it, or not survive +so dire a calamity. This is a fixed dogma with them. A man who loses +his prana linga stands up to his neck in water, and repeats mantrams +(sacred formulæ) for days together; and, on the last day, the lost +lingam comes back to him miraculously, if he has been really orthodox +in his life. If he does not succeed in recovering it, he must starve +and die. The theory is that the lingam is the life of the man who +wears it, and, when it is lost beyond recovery, he loses his own +life. Incredible stories of miraculous recoveries of the lingam are +told. In one case, it is said to have returned to its owner, making +a loud noise in water; and in another it was found in a box under +lock and key. In this connection, the following story is narrated +by Colonel Wilks. [65] "Poornia, the present minister of Mysore, +relates an incident of a Lingayat friend of his, who had unhappily +lost his portable God, and came to take a last farewell. The Indians, +like more enlightened nations, readily laugh at the absurdities of +every sect but their own, and Poornia gave him better counsel. It is a +part of the ceremonial preceding the sacrifice of the individual that +the principal persons of the sect should assemble on the bank of some +holy stream, and, placing in a basket the lingam images of the whole +assembly, purify them in the sacred waters. The destined victim in +conformity to the advice of his friend, suddenly seized the basket, +and overturned its contents into the rapid Caveri. Now, my friends, +said he, we are on equal terms; let us prepare to die together. The +discussion terminated according to expectation. The whole party took +an oath of inviolable secrecy, and each privately provided himself +with a new image of the lingam." + +Aradhyas, as has been indicated, differ from other Brahmans in general +in some of their customs. Before they partake of food, they make an +offering of it to the lingam which they are wearing. As they cannot +eat without making this offering, they have the entire meal served +up at the commencement thereof. They offer the whole to the lingam, +and then begin to eat. They do not accept offerings distributed in +temples as other Brahmans do, because they have already been offered to +the God, and cannot therefore be offered again to the lingam. Unlike +other Lingayats, Aradhyas believe in the Vedas, to which they give +allegorical interpretations. They are fond of reading Sanskrit, and +a few have been well-known Telugu poets. Thus, Palapuri Somanatha, +who lived in the fourteenth century A.D., composed the Basava Purana +and the Panditaradhya Charitra, and the brothers Piduparthi Somanatha +and the Basavakavi, who lived in the sixteenth century, composed +other religious works. + +Aradhyas marry among themselves, and occasionally take girls in +marriage from certain of the Niyogi sub-divisions of the Northern +Circars. This would seem to show that they were themselves Niyogis, +prior to their conversion. They do not intermarry with Aruvelu +Niyogis. Unlike other Brahmans, they bury their dead in a sitting +posture. They observe death pollution for ten days, and perform the +ekodishta and other Brahminical ceremonies for their progenitors. They +perform annually, not the Brahminical sradha, but the aradhana. In +the latter, there is no apasavyam (wearing the sacred thread from +right to left), and no use of gingelly seeds and dharba grass. Nor +is there homam (raising the sacrificial fire), parvanam (offering +of rice-balls), or oblation of water. Widows do not have their +heads shaved. + +The title of the Aradhyas is always Aradhya. + +Arakala.--A small class of cultivators, recorded mainly from the +Kurnool district. The name is possibly derived from araka, meaning +a plough with bullocks, or from arakadu, a cultivator. + +Arampukatti.--The name, denoting those who tie flower-buds or prepare +garlands, of a sub-division of Vellalas. + +Aranadan, See Ernadan. + +Arane (lizard).--An exogamous sub-sept of Kappiliyan. + +Arashina (turmeric).--A gotra or exogamous sept of Agasa, Kurni, +Kuruba, and Odde. The equivalent Pasupula occurs as an exogamous sept +of Devanga. In Southern India, turmeric (Curcuma) is commonly called +saffron (Crocus). Turmeric enters largely into Hindu ceremonial. For +example, the practice of smearing the face with it is very widespread +among females, and, thinking that it will give their husbands increase +of years, women freely bathe themselves with turmeric water. The +use of water, in which turmeric has been infused, and by which they +give the whole body a bright yellow colour, is prescribed to wives +as a mark of the conjugal state, and forbidden to widows. [66] To +ward off the evil eye, a vessel containing turmeric water and other +things is waved in front of the bridal couple at weddings. Or they +are bathed in turmeric water, which they pour over each other. The +tali or bottu (gold marriage badge) is attached to a cotton thread +dyed with turmeric, and, among some castes, the tying together of the +hands of the bride and bridegroom with such a thread is the binding +portion of the ceremony. + +Arasu or Rajpinde.--"This caste," Mr. Lewis Rice writes (1877):-- [67] +"are relatives of or connected with the Rajahs of Mysore. During +the life-time of the late Maharaja, they were divided into two +factions in consequence of the refusal of thirteen families headed +by the Dalavayi (the chief of the female branch) to pay respect to +an illegitimate son of His Highness. The other eighteen families +consented to the Rajah's wishes, and treat the illegitimate branch, +called Komarapatta, as equals. The two divisions intermarry and eat +together, and the family quarrel, though serious at the time, is not +likely to be permanent. They are employed chiefly under Government +and in agriculture, most of the former being engaged in the palace at +Mysore. Rajpindes are both Vishnavites and Sivites, and their priests +are both Brahmans and Lingayat Waders." + +In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Arasu (= Raja or king) is given +as a sub-division of the Tamil Pallis and Paraiyans. Urs appears as +a contracted form of Arasu in the names of the Mysore royal family, +e.g., Kantaraj Urs. + +Arathi.--The name, indicating a wave offering to avert the evil eye, +of an exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Arati (plantain tree).--An exogamous sept of Chenchu. + +Arava.--Arava, signifying Tamil, has been recorded as a sub-division +of some Telugu classes, e.g., Golla and Velama. The name, however, +refers to Tamil Idaiyans and Vellalas, who have settled in the +Telugu country, and are known respectively as Arava Golla and Arava +Velama. In some places in the Telugu country, Tamil Paraiyans, +employed as servants under Europeans, horse-keepers, etc., are known +as Arava Malalu (Malas). The Irulas of the North Arcot district are, +in like manner, sometimes called Arava Yanadis. Arava also occurs +as a division of Tigalas, said to be a section of the Tamil Pallis, +who have settled in Mysore. An ingenious suggestion has been made +that Arava is derived from ara, half, vayi, mouthed, in reference +to the defective Tamil alphabet, or to the termination of the words +being mostly in consonants. + +Aravan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Arayan.--See Valan. + +Archaka.--Archaka, or Umai Archaka, is a title of Occhans, who are +priests at temples of Grama Devatas (village deities). + +Are.--A synonym for Marathi. The name occurs as a sub-division +of Kunchigar and Kudubi. In South Canara Arya Kshatri occurs as +the equivalent of Are, and, in the Telugu country, Are Kapu refers +to Marathi cultivators. Arya Kuttadi is a Tamil synonym of Marathi +Dommaras. Concerning the Ares, Mr. H. G. Stuart writes as follows. [68] +"Of the total number of 6,809 Ares, 4,373 are found in South Canara, +Bellary and Anantapur, and these are true Ares. Of the rest I am not +able to speak with certainty, as the term Arya, which is a synonym +of Are, is also used as an equivalent of Marathi, and sometimes +in a still wider sense. The true Ares are husbandmen of Maratha +origin. They wear the sacred thread, have Brahmans as their priests, +and give allegiance to the head of the Sringeri Mutt. Marriage of +girls takes place either before or after puberty, and the remarriage +of widows is not allowed. A husband may divorce his wife for adultery, +but a wife cannot divorce her husband. When the guilt of a woman is +proved, and the sanction of the Guru obtained, the husband performs +the act of divorce by cutting a pumpkin in two at a place where three +ways meet. The use of animal food is allowed, but intoxicating liquors +are forbidden." The Ares of South Canara, Mr. Stuart writes further, +[69] "usually speak Marathi or Konkani, but in the Kasaragod taluk, +and possibly in other parts too, they speak Canarese. Their exogamous +septs are called manathanas. They use the dhare form of marriage +(see Bant), but the pot contains a mixture of water, milk, ghee +(clarified butter), honey and curds instead of the usual plain water." + +The Marathi-speaking Areyavaru or Aryavaru of the South Canara +district follow the makkala santana law of inheritance (from father +to son). For ceremonial purposes, they engage Shivalli Brahmans. An +interesting feature of the marriage rites is that the bridegroom makes +a pretence of going to a battle-field to fight, presumably to show that +he is of Kshatriya descent. The ceremony is called dandal jatai. The +bridegroom ties a bead on the neck of the bride if of the Powar sept, +and a disc if of the Edar sept. The Areyavaru eat fowls and fish. The +former are killed after certain mantrams (prayers) have been uttered, +and, if a priest is available, it is his duty to despatch the bird. The +caste deity is Ammanoru (Durga), in the worship of whom the Areyavaru, +like other Maratha castes, employ Gondala mendicants. + +Are (Bauhinia racemosa).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Ari.--The Aris or Dutans are described, in the Travancore Census +Report, 1901, as a "small but interesting community confined to a +village in the Tovala taluk. By traditional occupation they are the +Ambalavasis of the Saivaite temple of Darsanamkoppa. They are strict +vegetarians, wear the Brahminical thread, perform all the Brahminical +ceremonies under the guidance of Brahman priests, and claim a position +equal to that of the Aryappattars. But they are not allowed to dine +with the Brahmans, or to enter the mandapa in front of the garbhagriha, +the inner sanctuary of a Hindu shrine. Their dress and ornaments are +like those of the Tamil Brahmans, and their language is Tamil. Their +period of pollution, however, is as long as fifteen days." + +Ari (ebony).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Arigala.--Arigala, denoting a dish carried in procession, occurs +as an exogamous sept of Mutracha. Arigala and Arika, both meaning +the millet Paspalum scrobiculatum, are septs of Jatapu and Panta +Reddi. The latter may not use the grain as food. + +Arikuravan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Arisi.--A sub-division of Savara. + +Ariyar.--Ariyar or Ariyanattu Chetti is given as a caste title by +Pattanavans. + +Ariyur.--Ariyur or Ariviyur is the name of a sub-division of +Nattukottai Chettis. + +Arli (Ficus religiosa).--An exogamous sept of Stanika. + +Arudra (lady-bird).--An exogamous sept of Kalingi. + +Arupathukatchi (sixty house section).--A sub-division of Valluvan. + +Arupattanalu Taleikattu (sixty-four, who covered their heads).--A +sub-division of Chetti. + +Aruththukattatha.--The name, meaning those who do not tie the tali a +second time, of a section of Paraiyans who do not allow the remarriage +of widows. + +Aruva.--The Aruvas are an interesting caste of cultivators along the +sea-coast in the Berhampur taluk of Ganjam. They say that they are +descended from the offspring of alliances between Patanis (Muhammadans) +and Oriya women. Like other Oriya castes, they have a number of titles, +e.g., Nayako, Patro, Podhano, Ponda, Mondolo, and Mollana, some of +which seem to be exogamous, and there are also numerous exogamous +septs or bamsams. The headman is styled Nayako, and he is assisted +by a Bhollobhaya. Both these offices are hereditary. The Aruvas +say that they belong to two Vedas, viz., the males to Atharva Veda, +and the females to Yajur Veda. Muhammadans are believed by them to +be Atharvavedis. + +A member of the caste, called Mollana, officiates on ceremonial +occasions. A pure Oriya casteman will not allow his son to marry +his sister's daughter, but this is permitted in most places by the +Aruvas. The marriage ceremonial, except in a few points of detail, +conforms to the general Oriya type. On the day before the wedding, +a milk-post of bamboo is erected, and in front of it a new cloth, +and various articles for worship are placed. When the fingers of the +contracting couple are linked together, and at other stages of the +marriage rites, the Mollana recites certain formulæ, in which the +words Bismillahi and Allah occur. + +The dead are always buried. In former days, stone slabs, with Arabic or +Hindustani legends in Oriya characters inscribed on them, used to be +set up over the grave. For these, two sticks are now substituted. The +corpse of a dead person is sewn up in a kind of sack. As it is +being lowered into the grave, the Mollana recites formulæ, and those +present throw earth over it before the grave is filled in. They then +take their departure, and the Mollana, standing on one leg, recites +further formulæ. On the following day, bitter food, consisting of rice +and margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves, is prepared, and given to the +agnates. On the third day after death, the burial-ground is visited, +and, after water has been poured over the grave, a cloth is spread +thereon. On this relations of the deceased throw earth and food. A +purificatory ceremony, in which ghi (clarified butter) is touched, +is performed on the fifteenth day. On the fortieth day, the Mollana +officiates at a ceremony in which food is offered to the dead person. + +The Aruvas do not take part in any Muhammadan ceremonial, and do not +worship in mosques. Most of them are Paramarthos, and all worship +various Hindu deities and Takuranis (village gods). At their houses, +the god is represented by a mass of mud of conical shape, with +an areca nut on the top of it. In recent times, a number of Aruva +families, owing to a dispute with the Mollana, do not employ him for +their ceremonials, in which they follow the standard Oriya type. They +neither interdine nor intermarry with other sections of the community, +and have become an independent section thereof. + +Arya.--Arya or Ariya (noble) occurs as a class of Pattar Brahmans, +a division of Samagaras, and an exogamous sept of Kurubas. Some +Pattanavans call themselves Ariya Nattu Chetti (Chettis of the country +of chiefs), Ariyar, or Ayyayirath Thalaivar (the five thousand chiefs). + +Asadi.--The Asadis of the Bellary district are summed up, in the +Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a sub-caste of Mala or Holeya, which, +in Bellary, are almost interchangeable terms. They are prostitutes and +dancers." Among the Madigas, men called Asadi, who have undergone an +initiation ceremony, go about, in company with the Matangis (dedicated +prostitutes), playing on an instrument called the chaudike, and +singing the praises and reciting the story of Ellamma. (See Madiga.) + +Asan (teacher).--The title of Variyans, who have held the hereditary +position of tutors in noblemen's families. Also a title of Pisharati +and Kanisan. + +Asari.--In most parts of the Madras Presidency, Mr. H. A. Sturat +writes, "Asari (or Achari) is synonymous with Kammalan, and may denote +any of the five artizan castes, but in Malabar it is practically +confined to the carpenter caste. The Asari of Malabar is the Brahman +of the Kammala castes. The Kammala castes generally pollute Nayars +by approaching within twelve feet, and Brahmans by coming within +thirty-six feet; but an Asari with his measuring rod in his hand +has the privilege of approaching very near, and even entering the +houses of higher castes without polluting them. This exception may +have arisen out of necessity." At the census, 1901, some Sayakkarans +(Tamil dyers) returned Asari as a title. + +In a Government office, a short time ago, the head clerk, a Brahman +named Rangachari, altered the spelling of the name of a Kammalan from +Velayudachari to Velayudasari in the office books, on the ground that +the former looked Brahmanical. + +Ashtakshari (eight syllables).--A sub-division of Satanis, who believe +in the efficacy of the eight syllables om-na-mo-na-ra-ya-na-ya in +ensuring eternal bliss. The name ashtabhukkulu, or those who eat the +eight greedily, also occurs as a sub-division of the same people. + +Ashtalohi.--The name, meaning workers in eight metals, of a small class +of Oriya artizans. According to one version the eight metals are gold, +silver, bell-metal, copper, lead, tin, iron, and brass; according to +another, gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, load-stone, iron, and steel. + +Ashtikurissi.--Ashtikurissi (ashti, a bone) or Attikurissi is an +occupational sub-division of Nayars and Marans, who officiate at the +funerals of Nambutiri Brahmans and Nayars, and help in collecting +the remains of the bones after cremation. + +Asili.--The name for Telugu toddy-drawers in the Cuddapah +district. (See Idiga.) + +Asupani.--An occupational name for Marans who play on the temple +musical instruments asu and pani. + +Asvo (horse).--An exogamous sept of Ghasi. + +Atagara or Hatagara.--A sub-division of Devanga. + +Aththi (Ficus glomerata).--An exogamous sept of Stanika. + +Atikunnan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a +sub-division of Nayar. + +Atreya.--A Brahmanical gotra of Bhatrazus. Atreyas are descendants +of Atri, a rishi who is regarded by some as one of the ten Prajapatis +of Manu. + +Atta (mother).--A sub-division of Pallan. + +Attangarai (river-bank).--A sub-division of Konga Vellala. + +Attikankana (cotton marriage thread).--A sub-division of Kurubas, +who tie a cotton thread round the wrist at weddings. + +Atumpatram.--A name, meaning an object which dances, for Deva-dasis +in Travancore. + +Aunvallur (possessors of cattle).--A fanciful name for Idaiyans. + +Avaru.--A synonym of Agaru. + +Aviri (Indigofera tinctoria).--An exogamous sept of Padma Sales, +who use indigo in the manufacture of coloured cloth fabrics. + +Avisa (Sesbania grandiflora).--A gotra of Medara. + +Avu (snake).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Avula (cow).--An exogamous sept of Balija, Boya, Golla, Kapu, Korava, +Mutracha, and Yerukala. + +Ayar (cow-herd).--A synonym or sub-division of Idaiyan and Kolayan. + +Ayodhya (Oudh).--A sub-division of Kapus, who say that they originally +lived in Oudh. + +Azhati.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a synonym +of Pisharati. + + +Badaga.--As the Todas are the pastoral, and the Kotas the artisan +tribe of the Nilgiris, so the agricultural element on these hills +is represented by the Badagas (or, as they are sometimes called, +Burghers). Their number was returned, at the census, 1901, as 34,178 +against 1,267 Kotas, and 807 Todas. Though the primary occupation +of the Badagas is agriculture, there are among their community +schoolmasters, clerks, public works contractors, bricklayers, painters, +carpenters, sawyers, tailors, gardeners, forest guards, barbers, +washermen, and scavengers. Many work on tea and coffee estates, and +gangs of Badagas can always be seen breaking stones on, and repairing +the hill roads. Others are, at the present day, earning good wages +in the Cordite Factory near Wellington. Some of the more prosperous +possess tea and coffee estates of their own. The rising generation +are, to some extent, learning Tamil and English, in addition to their +own language, which is said to resemble old Canarese. And I have +heard a youthful Badaga, tending a flock of sheep, address an errant +member thereof in very fluent Billingsgate. There were, in 1904-1905, +thirty-nine Badaga schools, which were attended by 1,222 pupils. In +1907, one Badaga had passed the Matriculation of the Madras University, +and was a clerk in the Sub-judge's Court at Ootacamund. + +A newspaper discussion was carried on a few years ago as to the +condition of the Badagas, and whether they are a down-trodden tribe, +bankrupt and impoverished to such a degree that it is only a short +time before something must be done to ameliorate their condition, +and save them from extermination by inducing them to emigrate to the +Wynad and Vizagapatam. A few have, in recent years, migrated to the +Anaimalai hills, to work on the planters' estates, which have been +opened up there. One writer stated that "the tiled houses, costing +from Rs. 250 to Rs. 500, certainly point to their prosperity. They +may frequently borrow from the Labbai to enable them to build, but, +as I do not know of a single case in which the Labbai has ever seized +the house and sold it, I believe this debt is soon discharged. The +walled-in, terraced fields immediately around their villages, +on which they grow their barley and other grains requiring rich +cultivation, are well worked, and regularly manured. The coats, +good thick blankets, and gold ear-rings, which most Badagas now +possess, can only, I think, point to their prosperity, while their +constant feasts, and disinclination to work on Sundays, show that +the loss of a few days' pay does not affect them. On the other hand, +a former Native official on the Nilgiris writes to me that "though the +average Badaga is thrifty and hard-working, there is a tendency for +him to be lazy when he is sure of his meal. When a person is sick in +another village, his relatives make it an excuse to go and see him, +and they have to be fed. When the first crop is raised, the idler +pretends that 'worms' have crept into the crop, and the gods have to be +propitiated, and there is a feast. Marriage or death, of course, draws +a crowd to be fed or feasted. All this means extra expenditure, and +a considerable drain on the slender income of the family. The Rowthan +(Muhammadan merchant) from the Tamil country is near at hand to lend +money, as he has carried his bazar to the very heart of the Badaga +villages. First it is a bag of ragi (food grain), a piece of cloth to +throw on the coffin, or a few rupees worth of rice and curry-stuff +doled out by the all-accommodating Rowthan at a price out of all +proportion to the market rate, and at a rate ranging from six pies +to two annas for the rupee. The ever impecunious Badaga has no means +of extricating himself, with a slender income, which leaves no margin +for redeeming debts. The bond is renewed every quarter or half year, +and the debt grows by leaps and bounds, and consumes all his earthly +goods, including lands. The advent of lawyers on the hills has made +the Badagas a most litigious people, and they resort to the courts, +which means expenditure of money, and neglect of agriculture." In the +funeral song of the Badagas, which has been translated by Mr. Gover, +[70] one of the crimes enumerated, for which atonement must be made, +is that of preferring a complaint to the Sirkar (Government), and one +of their numerous proverbs embodies the same idea. "If you prefer a +complaint to a Magistrate, it is as if you had put poison into your +adversary's food." But Mr. Grigg writes, [71] "either the terrors of +the Sirkar are not what they were, or this precept is much disregarded, +for the Court-house at Ootacamund is constantly thronged with Badagas, +and they are now very much given to litigation." + +I gather from the notes, which Bishop Whitehead has kindly placed at +my disposal, that "when the Badagas wish to take a very solemn oath, +they go to the temple of Mariamma at Sigur, and, after bathing in +the stream and putting on only one cloth, offer fruits, cocoanuts, +etc., and kill a sheep or fowl. They put the head of the animal on +the step of the shrine, and make a line on the ground just in front of +it. The person who is taking the oath then walks from seven feet off +in seven steps, putting one foot immediately in front of the other, +up to the line, crosses it, goes inside the shrine, and puts out +a lamp that is burning in front of the image. If the oath is true, +the man will walk without any difficulty straight to the shrine. But, +if the oath is not true, his eyes will be blinded, and he will not be +able to walk straight to the shrine, or see the lamp. It is a common +saying among Badagas, when a man tells lies, 'Will you go to Sigur, +and take an oath?' Oaths are taken in much the same way at the temple +of Mariamma at Ootacamund. When a Hindu gives evidence in the Court +at Ootacamund, he is often asked by the Judge whether he will take +an oath at the Mariamma temple. If he agrees, he is sent off to the +temple with a Court official. The party for whom he gives evidence +supplies a goat or sheep, which is killed at the temple, the head +and carcase being placed in front of the image. The witness steps +over the carcase, and this forms the oath. If the evidence is false, +it is believed that some evil will happen to him." + +The name Badaga or Vadugan means northerner, and the Badagas are +believed to be descended from Canarese colonists from the Mysore +country, who migrated to the Nilgiris three centuries ago owing to +famine, political turmoil, or local oppression in their own country. It +is worthy of notice, in this connection, that the head of the Badagas, +like that of the Todas and Kotas, is dolichocephalic, and not of the +mesaticephalic or sub-brachycephalic type, which prevails throughout +Mysore, as in other Canarese areas. + + + Average. + + Cephalic Cephalic Cephalic + length. breadth. index. + cm. cm. + + Badaga 18.9 13.6 71.7 + Toda 19.4 14.2 73.3 + Kota 19.2 14.2 74.1 + + +Of the Mysorean heads, the following are a few typical examples:-- + + Average. + + Cephalic Cephalic Cephalic + length. breadth. index. + cm. cm. + + Ganiga 18.5 14.3 77.6 + Bedar 18.3 14.3 77.7 + Holeya 17.9 14.1 79.1 + Mandya Brahman 18.5 14.8 80.2 + Vakkaliga 17.7 14.5 81.7 + + +Concerning the origin of the Badagas, the following legend is +current. Seven brothers and their sisters were living on the +Talamalai hills. A Muhammadan ruler attempted to ravish the girl, +whom the brother saved from him by flight. They settled down near +the present village of Bethalhada. After a short stay there, the +brothers separated, and settled in different parts of the Nilgiris, +which they peopled. Concerning the second brother, Hethappa, who +had two daughters, the story goes that, during his absence on one +occasion, two Todas forced their way into his house, ravished his +wife, and possessed themselves of his worldly effects. Hearing of +what had occurred, Hethappa sought the assistance of two Balayaru in +revenging himself on the Todas. They readily consented to help him, +in return for a promise that they should marry his daughters. The Todas +were killed, and the present inhabitants of the village Hulikallu are +supposed to be the descendants of the Balayaru and Badaga girls. The +seven brothers are now worshipped under the name Hethappa or Hetha. + +In connection with the migration of the Badagas to the Nilgiris, the +following note is given in the Gazetteer of the Nilgiris. "When this +flitting took place there is little to show. It must have occurred +after the foundation of the Lingayat creed in the latter half of +the twelfth century, as many of the Badagas are Lingayats by faith, +and sometime before the end of the sixteenth century, since in 1602 +the Catholic priests from the west coast found them settled on the +south of the plateau, and observing much the same relations with the +Todas as subsist to this day. The present state of our knowledge does +not enable us to fix more nearly the date of the migration. That the +language of the Badagas, which is a form of Canarese, should by now +have so widely altered from its original as to be classed as a separate +dialect argues that the movement took place nearer the twelfth than +the sixteenth century. On the other hand, the fact (pointed out by +Dr. Rivers [72]) that the Badagas are not mentioned in a single one +of the Todas' legends about their gods, whereas the Kotas, Kurumbas, +and Irulas, each play a part in one or more of these stories, raises +the inference that the relations between the Badagas and the Todas +are recent as compared with those between the other tribes. A critical +study of the Badaga dialect might perhaps serve to fix within closer +limits the date of the migration. As now spoken, this tongue contains +letters (two forms of r for instance) and numerous words, which +are otherwise met with only in ancient books, and which strike most +strangely upon the ear of the present generation of Canarese. The date +when some of these letters and words became obsolete might possibly +be traced, and thus aid in fixing the period when the Badagas left +the low country. It is known that the two forms of r, for example, +had dropped out of use prior to the time of the grammarian Kesiraja, +who lived in the thirteenth century, and that the word betta (a hill), +which the Badagas use in place of the modern bettu, is found in the +thirteenth century work Sabdamanidarpana." + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Nilgiris, that "Nellialam, +about eight miles north-west of Devala as the crow flies, is the +residence of the Nellialam Arasu (Urs), who has been recognised as the +janmi (landlord) of a considerable area in the Munanad amsam, but is +in reality a Canarese-speaking Lingayat of Canarese extraction, who +follows the ordinary Hindu law of inheritance, and is not a native of +the Wynad or of Malabar. Family tradition, though now somewhat misty, +says that in the beginning two brothers named Sadasiva Raja Urs and +Bhujanga Raja Urs moved (at some date and for some reason not stated) +from Ummattur (in the present Chamarajnagar taluk of Mysore), and +settled at Malaikota, the old fort near Kalhatti. Their family deities +were Bhujangesvara and Ummattur Urakatti, which are still worshipped +as such. They brought with them a following of Bedars and Badagas, +and thereafter always encouraged the immigration to the hills of more +Canarese people. The village of Bannimara, a mile west of Kalhatti, +is still peopled by Bedars who are said to be descendants of people of +that caste who came with the two brothers; and to this day, when the +Badagas of the plateau have disputes of difficulty, they are said to +go down to Nellialam with presents (kanikai) in their hands, and ask +the Arasu to settle their differences, while, at the time of their +periodical ceremonies (manavalai) to the memory of their ancestors, +they send a deputation to Nellialam to invite representatives of the +Arasu to be present." + +Close to the village of Bethalhada is a row of cromlechs carved with +figures of the sun and moon, human beings, animals, etc., and enclosed +within a stone kraal, which the Badagas claim to be the work of their +ancestors, to whom periodical offerings are made. At the time of my +visit, there were within one of the cromlechs a conch shell, lingam, +bell, and flowers. A number of these sculptured cromlechs at Sholur, +Melur, and other spots on the Nilgiris, are described and figured +by Breeks, [73] who records that the cromlech at Jakata Kambe is +interesting as being the place of the yearly sacrifice performed by +the Badagas of the Jakaneri grama (village) by their Kani Kurumba. And +he adds that the Badagas would seem to have usually selected the +neighbourhood of these cromlechs for their temples, as for example, +at Melur, Kakusi, H'laiuru, Tudur, and Jakatada. + +It is recorded [74], in connection with the legends of the Badagas, +that "in the heart of the Banagudi shola, not far from the Dodduru +group of cromlechs, is an odd little shrine to Karairaya, consisting of +a ruined stone hut surrounded by a low wall, within which are a tiny +cromlech, some sacred water-worn stones, and sundry little pottery +images representing a tiger, a mounted man, and some dogs. These +keep in memory, it is said, a Badaga who was slain in combat with a +tiger; and annually a festival is held, at which new images are placed +there, and vows are paid. A Kurumba makes fire by friction and burns +incense, throws sanctified water over the numerous goats brought +to be sacrificed, to see if they will shiver in the manner always +held necessary in sacrificial victims, and then slays, one after the +other, those which have shown themselves duly qualified. Hulikal Drug, +usually known as the Drug, is a precipitous bluff at the very end of +the range which borders on the south the great ravine which runs up +to Coonoor. It is named from the neighbouring village of Hulikal, +or tiger's stone, and the story goes that this latter is so called +because in it a Badaga killed a notorious man-eater which had long been +the terror of the country side. The spot where the beast was buried +is shown near the Pillaiyar temple to the south of Hulikal village, +and is marked by three stones. Burton says there used formerly to be a +stone image of the slain tiger thereabouts. Some two miles south-east +of Konakarai in a place known as Kottai-hada, or the fort flat, lie +the remains of the old fort Udaiya Raya Kota. Badaga tradition gives +a fairly detailed account of Udaiya Raya. It says he was a chief who +collected the taxes for the Ummattur Rajas, and that he had also a fort +at Kullanthorai, near Sirumugai, the remains of which are still to be +seen. He married a woman of Netlingi hamlet of Nedugula, named Muddu +Gavari, but she died by the wrath of the gods because she persuaded +him to celebrate the annual fire-walking festival in front of the +fort, instead of at the customary spot by the Mahalingasvami temple +about half a mile off. Anaikatti is a hamlet situated in the jungle +of the Moyar valley. The stream which flows past it tumbles over a +pretty fall on the slopes of Birmukku (Bimaka) hill. The Badagas call +the spot Kuduraihallo, or the ravine of the horse, and say the name +was given it because a Badaga, covered with shame at finding that his +wife gave him first sort rice but his brother who lived with them only +second sort, committed suicide by jumping his horse down the fall." + +According to Mr. Grigg, the Badagas recognise eighteen different +"castes or sects." These are, however, simplified by Mr. S. M. Natesa +Sastri [75] into six, "five high castes and one low caste." They are-- + + + 1. Udaya. | + 2. Haruva. | + 3. Adhikari. | High caste. + 4. Kanaka. | + 5. Badaga. | + 6. Toreya Low caste. + + +"Udayas are Lingayats in religion, and carry the Sivalinga--the Siva +image--tied round their necks. They claim to be superior to all the +other Badagas, and are regarded as such. They are priests to all the +Badagas of the Lingayat class, and are strict vegetarians. They do +not intermarry with any of the other high caste Badaga sects. Udaya +was, and is the title assumed by the Maisur Rajas, and those Badagas, +by being thus designated as a caste, claim superior blood in their +veins." The Lingayat Badagas are commonly called Lingakutti. "Next +in rank come the Haruvas. From their name being so closely connected +with the Aryas--the respectable--and from their habit of wearing +the Brahmanical thread, we are warranted in believing that they +must originally have been the poor Brahman priests of the Badagas +that migrated to this country (the Nilgiris), though they have now +got themselves closely mingled with the Badagas. These Haruvas are +also strict vegetarians, and act as priests." It has been suggested +that the Haruvas (jumper) derive their name from the fire-walking +ceremony, which they perform periodically. A further, and more +probable suggestion has been made to me that Haruva comes from a +Canarese word meaning to beg or pray; hence one who begs or prays, +and so a Brahman. The Canarese Basava Purana frequently uses the word +in sense. "The Adhikaris are to a certain extent vegetarians. The +other two high castes, and of course the low caste Toreyas also, have +no objection of any kind to eating flesh. It is also said that the +vegetarian Adhikari, if he marries into a flesh-eating caste of the +Badagas, betakes himself to this latter very readily." The Kanakas are +stated by Mr. Grigg to be the accountants, who were probably introduced +when the hills were under the sway of the Tamil chiefs. This would, +however, seem to be very improbable. "The Toreyas are regarded +as sons and servants to the five high caste Badaga sects--to the +Haruvas especially. They are the lowest in the scale, and they are +prohibited from intermarrying with the other or high caste Badagas, +as long as they are sons to them." The Toreya does the menial duties +for the tribe. He is the village servant, carries the corpses to the +burning-ground, conveys the news of a death from village to village, +is the first to get shaved when a death occurs, and is sent along with +a woman when she is going to visit her mother or mother-in-law at a +distance from her own home. "The Udayas, Adhikaris and Kanakas are +Lingayats in religion, and the other three, the Haruvas, Badagas, +and Toreyas are Saivites." Of the six divisions referred to, the +Udayas and Toreyas are endogamous, but intermarriage is permissible +between the other four. At the census, 1891, a large number of Badagas +returned as their sub-division Vakkaliga, which means cultivator, +and is the name of the great cultivating caste of Mysore. + +Seven miles west of Coonoor is a village named Athikarihatti, or +village of the Athikari or Adhikari section of the Badagas. "The story +goes that these people, under a leader named Karibetta Raya, came +from Sarigur in Mysore territory, and settled first at Nelliturai +(a short distance south-west of Mettupalaiyam) and afterwards at +Tudur (on the plateau west of Kulakambi) and Tadasimarahatti (to the +north-west of Melur), and that it was they who erected the sculptured +cromlechs of Tudur and Melur. Tudur and Tadasimarahatti are now both +deserted; but in the former a cattle kraal, an old shrine, and a +pit for fire-walking may still be seen, and in the latter another +kraal, and one of the raised stone platforms called mandaikallu by +the Badagas. Tradition says that the Badagas left these places and +founded Athikarihatti and its hamlets instead, because the Kurumbas +round about continually troubled them with their magic arts, and indeed +killed by sorcery several of their most prominent citizens." [76] + +Like other Canarese people, the Badagas have exogamous septs or kulas, +of which Mari, Madhave (marriage), Kasturi (musk), and Belli (silver) +are examples. A very large number of families belong to the Mari and +Madhave septs, which were time after time given as the sept name +in reply to my enquiries. It may be noted that Belli occurs as an +exogamous sept of the Canarese classes Vakkaliga, Toreya, and Kuruba, +and Kasturi is recorded in my notes as a sept of the Vakkaligas and +Telugu Kammas. + +The Badagas dwell in extensive villages, generally situated on the +summit of a low hillock, composed of rows of comfortable thatched or +tiled houses, and surrounded by the fields, which yield the crops. The +houses are not separate tenements, but a line of dwellings under +one continuous roof, and divided by party walls. Sometimes there +are two or three, or more lines, forming streets. Each house is +partitioned off into an outer (edumane) and inner apartment (ozhaga +or ogamane). If the family has cows or buffaloes yielding milk, a +portion of the latter is converted into a milk-house (hagottu), in +which the milk is stored, and which no woman may enter. Even males +who are under pollution, from having touched or passed near a Kota +or Paraiyan, or other cause, may not enter it until they have had a +ceremonial bath. To some houses a loft, made of bamboo posts, is added, +to serve as a store-house. In every Badaga village there is a raised +platform composed of a single boulder or several stones with an erect +stone slab set up thereon, called suththu kallu. There is, further, +a platform, made of bricks and mud, called mandhe kallu, whereon +the Badagas, when not working, sit at ease. In their folk-tales men +seated thereon are made to give information concerning the approach of +strangers to the village. Strangers, who are not Badagas, are called +Holeya. The Rev. G. Richter gives [77] Badaga Holeya as a division +of the lowly Holeyas, who came to Coorg from the Mysore country. In +front of the houses, the operations of drying and threshing grain are +carried out. The cattle are kept in stone kraals, or covered sheds +close to the habitations, and the litter is kept till it is knee or +waist deep, and then carried away as manure for the Badaga's land, +or planters' estates. + +"Nobody," it has been said, [78] "can beat the Badaga at making +mother earth produce to her utmost capacity, unless it be a Chinese +gardener. To-day we see a portion of the hill side covered with rocks +and boulders. The Badagas become possessed of this scene of chaos, +and turn out into the place in hundreds, reducing it, in a few weeks, +to neat order. The unwieldy boulders, having been rolled aside, serve +their purpose by being turned into a wall to keep out cattle, etc. The +soil is pounded and worried until it becomes amenable to reason, +and next we see a green crop running in waves over the surface. The +Badagas are the most progressive of all the hill tribes, and always +willing to test any new method of cultivation, or new crops brought +to their notice by the Nilgiri Horticultural Society." + +Writing in 1832, Harkness states [79] that "on leaving his house in +the morning the Burgher pays his adoration to the god of day, proceeds +to the tu-el or yard, in which the cattle have been confined, and, +again addressing the sun as the emblem of Siva, asks his blessing, +and liberates the herd. He allows the cattle to stray about in the +neighbourhood of the village, on a piece of ground which is always +kept for this purpose, and, having performed his morning ablutions, +commences the milking. This is also preceded by further salutations and +praises to the sun. On entering the house in the evening, the Burgher +addresses the lamp, now the only light, or visible emblem of the +deity. 'Thou, creator of this and of all worlds, the greatest of the +great, who art with us, as well in the mountain as in the wilderness, +who keepeth the wreaths that adorn the head from fading, who guardeth +the foot from the thorn, God, among a hundred, may we be prosperous.'" + +The Badaga understands the rotation of crops well. On his land +he cultivates bearded wheat (beer ganji), barley, onions, garlic, +potatoes, kire (Amarantus), samai (Panicum miliare), tenai (Setaria +italica), etc. + +"Among the Badagas," Mr. Natesa Sastri writes, "the position of the +women is somewhat different from what it is among most peoples. Every +Badaga has a few acres to cultivate, but he does not mainly occupy +himself with them, for his wife does all the out-door farm work, +while he is engaged otherwise in earning something in hard cash. To a +Badaga, therefore, his wife is his capital. Her labour in the field +is considered to be worth one rupee per day, while an average male +Badaga earns merely three annas. A Badaga woman, who has not her +own acres to cultivate, finds work on some other lands. She thus +works hard for her husband and family, and is quite content with the +coarsest food--the korali (Setaria italica) flour--leaving the better +food to the male members of the family. This fact, and the hard work +the Badaga women have to perform, may perhaps account to some extent +for the slight build of the Badagas as a race. The male Badaga, too, +works in the field, or at his own craft if he is not a cultivator, +but his love for ready cash is always so great that, even if he had +a harvest to gather the next morning, he would run away as a cooly +for two annas wages." Further, Mr. Grigg states that "as the men +constantly leave their villages to work on coffee plantations, much +of the labour in their own fields, as well as ordinary household work, +is performed by the women. They are so industrious, and their services +of such value to their husbands, that a Badaga sometimes pays 150 or +200 rupees as dowry for his wife." In the off season for cultivation, +I am informed, the Badaga woman collects faggots for home consumption, +and stores them near her house, and the women prepare the fields for +cultivation by weeding, breaking the earth, and collecting manure. + +In his report on the revenue settlement of the Nilgiris (1885), +Mr. (now Sir) R. S. Benson notes that "concurrently with the +so-called abolition of the bhurty (or shifting) system of cultivation, +Mr. Grant abolished the peculiar system in vogue up to that time in +Kundahnad, which had been transferred from Malabar to the Nilgiris +in 1860. This system was known as erkadu kothukadu. Under it, a tax +of Re. 1 to Re. 1-8-0 was levied for the right to use a plough or +er, and a tax of from 4 to 8 annas was levied for the right to use +a hoe or kothu. The so-called patta issued to the ryot under this +system was really no more than a license to use one or more hoes, +as the case might be. It merely specified the amount payable for each +instrument, but in no cases was the extent or position of the lands +to be cultivated specified. The ryot used his implements whenever and +wherever he pleased. No restrictions, even on the felling of forests, +were imposed, so that the hill-sides and valleys were cleared at +will. The system was abolished in 1862. But, during the settlement, +I found this erkadu kothukadu system still in force in the flourishing +Badaga village of Kinnakorai, with some fifty houses." + +In connection with the local self-government of the Badagas, +Mr. A. Rajah Bahadur Mudaliar writes to me as follows. "In former +days, the monegar was a great personage, as he formed the unit of the +administration. The appointment was more or less hereditary, and it +generally fell to the lot of the richest and most well-to-do. All +disputes within his jurisdiction were placed before him, and his +decision was accepted as final. In simple matters, such as partition +of property, disputes between husband and wife, etc., the monegars +themselves disposed of them. But, when questions of a complicated +nature presented themselves, they took as their colleagues other +people of the villages, and the disputes were settled by the collective +wisdom of the village elders. They assembled at a place set apart for +the purpose beneath a nim (Melia Azadirachta) or pipal tree (Ficus +religiosa) on a raised platform (ratchai), generally situated at +the entrance to the village. The monegar was ex-officio president of +such councils. He and the committee had power to fine the parties, +to excommunicate them, and to readmit them to the caste. Parents +resorted to the monegar for counsel in the disposal of their daughters +in marriage, and in finding brides for their sons. If any one had +the audacity to run counter to the wishes of the monegar in matters +matrimonial, he had the power to throw obstacles in the way of such +marriages taking place. The monegar, in virtue of his position, wielded +much power, and ruled the village as he pleased." In the old days, +it is said, when he visited any village within his jurisdiction, +the monegar had the privilege of having the best women or maids of +the place to share his cot according to his choice. In former times, +the monegar used to wear a silver ring as the badge of office, and some +Badagas still have in their possession such rings, which are preserved +as heirlooms, and worshipped during festivals. The term monegar is, +at the present day, used for the village revenue official and munsiff. + +I gather that each exogamous sept has its headman, called Gouda, +who is assisted by a Parpattikaran, and decides tribal matters, +such as disputes, divorce, etc. Fines, when inflicted, go towards +feasting the tribe, and doing puja (worship) to the gods. In the +case of a dispute between two parties, one challenges the other to +take an oath in a temple before the village council. A declaration on +oath settles the matter at issue, and the parties agree to abide by +it. It is the duty of the Parpattikaran to make arrangements for such +events as the Heththeswami, Devve and Bairaganni festivals, and the +buffalo sacrificing festival at Konakkore. The Parpattikaran takes +part in the purification of excommunicated members of the tribe, +when they are received back into it, for example, on release from +prison. The tongue of the delinquent is burnt with a hot sandal +stick, and a new waist thread put on. He is taken to the temple, +where he stands amidst the assembled Badagas, who touch his head with +a cane. He then prostrates himself at the feet of the Parpattikaran, +who smears his forehead with sacred ashes. It is, further, the duty +of the Parpattikaran to be present on the occasion of the Kannikattu +(pregnancy) ceremony. + +A quarter of a century ago, a Badaga could be at once picked out +from the other tribes of the Nilgiris by his wearing a turban. But, +in the present advanced age, not only does the Toda sometimes appear +in the national head-dress, but even Irulas and Kurumbas, who only a +short time ago were buried in the jungles, living like pigs and bears +on roots, honey and other forest produce, turn up on Sundays in the +Kotagiri bazar, clad in turban and coat of English cut. And, as the +less civilised tribes don the turban, so the college student abandons +this picturesque form of head-gear in favour of the less becoming +and less washable porkpie cap, while the Badaga men and youths glory +in a knitted night-cap of flaring red or orange hue. The body of the +Badaga man is covered by a long body-cloth, sometimes with red and +blue stripes, wrapped "so loosely that, as a man works in the fields, +he is obliged to stop between every few strokes of his hoe, to gather +up his cloth, and throw one end over his shoulder." Male adornment +is limited to gold ear-rings of a special pattern made by Kotas or +goldsmiths, a silver waist-thread, silver bangle on the wrist, and +silver, copper, or brass rings. The women wear a white body-cloth, +a white under-cloth tied round the chest, tightly wrapped square +across the breasts, and reaching to the knees, and a white cloth worn +like a cap on the head. As types of female jewelry and tattooing, +the following examples may be cited:-- + +1. Tattooed on forehead with dashes, circles and crescent; spot +on chin; double row of dots on each upper arm over deltoid; and +devices and double row of dots on right forearm. Gold ornament in +left nostril. Necklets of glass beads and silver links with four-anna +piece pendent. Silver armlet above right elbow. Four copper armlets +above left elbow. Four silver and seven composition bangles on left +forearm. Two silver rings on right ring-finger; two steel rings on +left ring-finger. + +2. Tattooed on forehead; quadruple row of dots over right deltoid; +star on right forearm. + +3. Tattooed like the preceding on forehead and upper arm. Spot on chin; +elaborate device on right forearm; rayed star or sun on back of hand. + +4. Tattooed like the preceding on forehead and arm. Triple row of +dots on back and front of left wrist, and double row of dots, with +circle surrounded by dots, across chest. + +Toreya women are only allowed to wear bangles on the wrist. + +The tattoo marks on the foreheads of Udayar women consist of a +crescent and dot, and they have a straight line tattooed at the +outer corners of the eyes. Women of the other sub-divisions have +on the forehead two circles with two vertical dashes between them, +and a horizontal or crescentic dash below. The circles are made by +pricking in the pigment over an impression made with a finger ring, +or over a black mark made by means of such a ring. The operation +is performed either by a Badaga or Korava woman. The former uses +as needles the spines of Carissa spinarum, and a mixture of finely +powdered charcoal or lamp-black mixed with rice gruel. The marks on +the forehead are made when a girl is about eight or nine years old, +and do not, as stated by Mr. Natesa Sastri, proclaim to the whole +Badaga world that a girl is of marriageable age. + +In colour the Badagas are lighter than the other hill tribes, and +the comparative pallor of the skin is specially noticeable in the +females, whom, with very few exceptions, I was only able to study by +surreptitious examination, when we met on the roads. In physique, +the typical Badaga man is below middle height, smooth-skinned, of +slender build, with narrow chest and shoulders. + +Badaga men have cicatrices on the shoulder and forearm as the result +of branding with a fire-stick when they are lads, with the object, +it is said, of giving strength, and preventing pain when milking or +churning. In like manner, the Todas have raised cicatrices (keloids) +on the shoulder produced by branding with a fire-stick. They believe +that the branding enables them to milk the buffaloes with perfect ease. + +The Badagas have a very extensive repertoire of hora hesaru, or +nicknames, of which the following are examples:-- + + + One who eats in bed during the night. + Snorer. + Stupid. + Bald head. + Brown-eyed. + Thin and bony. + Big head. + Bandy-legged. + One who returned alive from the burning ground. + Ripe fruit. + Big-thighed. + Blind. + Lame. + Big calves. + Piles. + Liar. + Cat-eyed. + Fond of pot-herbs. + Rheumatic. + Bad-tempered. + Left-handed. + Buffalo grazer. + Saliva dribbling. + Honey-eater. + Black. + Spleen. + Teeth. + Potato-eater. + Glutton. + Belly. + Itch legged. + One who was slow in learning to walk. + Tall. + Thief-eyed. + Pustule-bodied. + Scarred. + Hairy. + Weak, like partially baked pots. + Strong, like portland cement. + + +Among the Badagas, Konga is used as a term of abuse. Those who made +mistakes in matching Holmgren's wools, with which I tested them, +were, always called Konga by the onlookers. + +When two Badagas meet each other, the elder touches the head of +the younger with his right hand. This form of salutation is known +as giving the head. A person of the Badaga section gives the head, +as it is called, to an Udaiyar, in token of the superiority of the +latter. When people belong to the same sept, they say "Ba, anna, +appa, thamma, amma, akka" (come, father, brother, mother, sister, +etc.). But, if they are of different septs, they will say "Ba, mama, +mami, bava" (come, uncle, aunt, brother-in-law, etc.). "Whenever," +Dr. Rivers writes, [80] "a Toda meets a Badaga monegar (headman), or +an old Badaga with whom he is acquainted, a salutation passes between +the two. The Toda stands before the Badaga, inclines his head slightly, +and says 'Madtin pudia.' (Madtin, you have come). The Badaga replies +'Buthuk! buthuk!' (blessing, blessing), and rests his hand on the +top of the Toda's head. This greeting only takes place between Todas +and the more important of the Badaga community. It would seem that +every Badaga headman may be greeted in this way, but a Toda will only +greet other Badaga elders, if he is already acquainted with them. The +salutation is made to members of all the various castes of the Badagas, +except the Toreyas. It has been held to imply that the Todas regard +the Badagas as their superiors, but it is doubtful how far this is +the case. The Todas themselves say they follow the custom because +the Badagas help to support them. It seems to be a mark of respect +paid by the Todas to the elders of a tribe with which they have very +close relations, and it is perhaps significant that no similar sign +of respect is shown to Toda elders by the Badagas." + +Every Badaga family has its Muttu Kota, from whom it gets the +agricultural implements, pots, hoes, etc. In return, the Kotas +receive an annual present of food-grains, mustard and potatoes. For a +Kota funeral, the Badagas have to give five rupees or a quantity of +rice, and a buffalo. The pots obtained from the Kotas are not used +immediately, but kept for three days in the jungle, or in a bush in +some open spot. They are then taken to the outer apartment of the +house, and kept there for three days, when they are smeared with the +bark of Meliosma pungens (the tud tree of the Todas) and culms of +Andropogon Schoenanthus (bzambe hullu). Thus purified, the pots are +used for boiling water in for three days, and may then be used for +any purpose. The Badagas are said to give a present of grain annually +to the Todas. Every Toda mand (or mad) seems to have its own group +of Badaga families, who pay them this gudu, as it is called. "There +are," Dr. Rivers writes, "several regulations concerning the food of +the palol (dairy man of a Toda sacred dairy). Any grain he eats must +be that provided by the Badagas. At the present time more rice is +eaten than was formerly the case. This is not grown by the Badagas, +but nevertheless the rice for the palol must be obtained through +them. The palol wears garments of a dark grey material made in the +Coimbatore district. They are brought to the palol by the Badaga +called tikelfmav. The earthenware vessels of the inner room (of the +ti dairy) are not obtained from the Kotas, like the ordinary vessels, +but are made by Hindus, and are procured through the Badagas." + +The Badagas live in dread of the Kurumbas, and the Kurumba constantly +comes under reference in their folk-stories. The Kurumba is the +necromancer of the hills, and believed to be possessed of the power of +outraging women, removing their livers, and so causing their death, +while the wound heals by magic, so that no trace of the operation is +left. He is supposed, too, to have the power of opening the bolts of +doors by magic and effecting an entrance into a house at night for some +nefarious purpose. The Toda or Badaga requires the services of the +Kurumba, when he fancies that any member of his family is possessed +of the devil, or when he wants to remove the evil eye, to which he +imagines that his children have been subjected. The Kurumba does +his best to remove the malady by repeating various mantrams (magical +formulæ). If he fails, and if any suspicion is aroused in the mind of +the Toda or Badaga that he is allowing the devil to play his pranks +instead of loosing his hold on the supposed victim, woe betide him. The +wrath of the entire village, or even the whole tribe, is raised against +the unhappy Kurumba. His hut is surrounded at night, and the entire +household massacred in cold blood, and their huts set on fire. This is +very cleverly carried out, and the isolated position of the Kurumba +settlements allows of very little clue for identification. In 1835 +no less than fifty-eight Kurumbas were thus murdered, and a smaller +number in 1875 and 1882. In 1891 the live inmates of a single hut +were murdered, and their hut burnt to ashes, because, it was said, +one of them who had been treating a sick Badaga child failed to cure +it. The crime was traced to some Kotas in conjunction with Badagas, +but the District Judge disbelieved the evidence, and all who were +charged were acquitted. Every Badaga family pays an annual tax of +four annas to the Kurumbas, and, if a Kurumba comes to a Badaga hatti +(village), a subscription is raised as an inducement to him to take +his departure. The Kurumba receives a fee for every Badaga funeral, +and for the pregnancy ceremony (kannikattu). + +It is noted by Dr. Rivers that "the Toda sorcerers are not only feared +by their fellow Todas, but also by the Badagas, and it is probably +largely owing to fear of Toda sorcery that the Badagas continue to pay +their tribute of grain. The Badagas may also consult the Toda diviners, +and it is probable that the belief of the Badagas in the magical powers +of the Todas is turned to good account by the latter. In some cases, +Todas, have been killed by Badagas owing to this belief." + +Among the Todas, the duties of milking the buffaloes and dairy-work +are entrusted to special individuals, whereas any Badaga male may, +after initiation, milk the cows and buffaloes, provided that he is +free from pollution. Every Badaga boy, when he is about seven or nine +years old, is made to milk a cow on an auspicious day, or on new year's +day. The ceremony is thus described by Mr. Natesa Sastri. "Early in +the morning of the day appointed for this ceremony, the boy is bathed, +and appears in his holiday dress. A she-buffalo, with her calf, stands +before his house, waiting to be milked. The parents, or other elder +relations of the boy, and those who have been invited to be present +on the occasion, or whose duty it is to be present, then conduct +the boy to the spot. The father, or some one of the agnatic kindred, +gives into the hands of the boy a bamboo vessel called hone, which +is already very nearly full of fresh-drawn milk. The boy receives +the vessel with both his hands, and is conducted to the buffalo. The +elder relations show him the process, and the boy, sitting down, milks +a small quantity into the hone. This is his first initiation into the +duty of milking, and it is that he may not commit mistakes on the very +first day of his milking that the hone is previously filled almost to +the brim. The boy takes the vessel filled with milk into his house, +and pours some of the sacred fluid into all his household eating +vessels--a sign that from that day he has taken up on himself the +responsibility of supplying the family with milk. He also throws some +milk in the faces of his parents and relatives. They receive it very +kindly, and bless him, and request him to continue thus to milk the +buffaloes, and bring plenty and prosperity to the house. After this, +the boy enters the milk-house (hagottu), and places milk in his hone +there. From this moment, and all through his life, he may enter into +that room, and this is therefore considered a very important ceremony." + +A cow or buffalo, which has calved for the first time, has to +be treated in a special manner. For three or five days it is not +milked. A boy is then selected to milk it. He must not sleep on a mat, +or wear a turban, and, instead of tying his cloth round his waist, +must wear it loosely over his body. Meat is forbidden, and he must +avoid, and not speak to polluting classes, such as Irulas and Kotas, +and menstruating women. On the day appointed for milking the animal, +the boy bathes, and proceeds to milk it into a new hone purified by +smearing a paste of Meliosma (tud) leaves and bark over it, and heating +it over a fire. The milk is taken to a stream, where three cups are +made of Argyreia (minige) leaves, into which a small quantity of the +milk is placed. The cups are then put in the water. The remainder of +the milk in the hone is also poured into the stream. In some places, +especially where a Madeswara temple is close at hand, the milk is +taken to the temple, and given to the pujari. With a portion of the +milk some plantain fruits are made into a pulp, and given to an Udaya, +who throws them into a stream. The boy is treated with some respect +by his family during the period when he milks the animal, and is +given food first. This he must eat off a plate made of Argvreia, +or plantain leaves. + +Besides the hagottu within the house, the Badagas have, at certain +places, separate dairy-houses near a temple dedicated to Heththeswami, +of which the one at Bairaganni (or Berganni) appears to be the +most important. The dairy pujari is here, like the Toda palol, a +celibate. In 1905, he was a young lad, whom my Brahman assistant +set forth to photograph. He was, however, met at a distance from +the village by a headman, who assured him that he could not take the +photograph without the sanction of fifteen villages. The pujari is +not allowed to wander freely about the village, or talk to grown-up +women. He cooks his own food within the temple grounds, and wears +his cloth thrown loosely over his body. Once a year, on the occasion +of a festival, he is presented with new cloths and turban, which +alone he may wear. He must be a strict vegetarian. A desire to marry +and abandon the priesthood is believed to be conveyed in dreams, +or through one inspired. Before leaving the temple service, he must +train his successor in the duties, and retires with the gains acquired +by the sale of the products of the herd and temple offerings. The +village of Bairaganni is regarded as sacred, and possesses no holagudi +(menstrual hut). + +Bishop Whitehead adds that "buffaloes are given as offerings to the +temple at Bairaganni, and become the property of the pujari, who milks +them, and uses the milk for his food. All the villagers give him rice +every day. He may only eat once a day, at about 3 P.M. He cooks the +meal himself, and empties the rice from the cooking-pot by turning +it over once. If the rice does not come out the first time, he cannot +take it at all. When he wants to get married, another boy is appointed +in his place. The buffaloes are handed over to his successor." The +following legend in connection with Bairaganni is also recorded by +Bishop Whitehead. "There is a village in the Mekanad division of the +Nilgiris called Nundala. A man had a daughter. He wanted to marry her +to a man in the Paranganad division about a hundred years ago. She did +not wish to marry him. The father insisted, but she refused again and +again. At last she wished to die, and came near a tank, on the bank +of which was a tree. She sat under the tree and washed, and then threw +herself into the tank. One of the men of Bairaganni in the Paranganad +division saw the woman in a dream. She told him that she was not a +human being but a goddess, an incarnation of Parvati. The people of +Nundala built a strong bund (embankment) round the tank, and allow +no woman to go on it. Only the pujari, and Badagas who have prepared +themselves by fasting and ablution, are allowed to go on the bund to +offer puja, which is done by breaking cocoanuts, and offering rice, +flowers, and fruits. The woman told the man in his dream to build a +temple at Bairaganni, which is now the chief temple of Heththeswami." + +Concerning the initiation of a Lingayat Badaga into his religion, +which takes place at about his thirteenth birthday, Mr. Natesa Sastri +writes as follows. "The priest conducts this ceremony, and the elder +relations of the family have only to arrange for the performance +of it. The priests belong to the Udaya sect. They live in their own +villages, and are specially sent for, and come to the boy's village +for the occasion. The ceremony is generally done to several boys of +about the same age on the same day. On the day appointed, all the +people in the Badaga village, where this ceremony is to take place, +observe a strict fast. The cows and buffaloes are all milked very +early in the morning, and not a drop of the milk thus collected is +given out, or taken by even the tenderest children of the village, who +may require it very badly. The Udaya priest arrives near the village +between 10 A.M. and noon on the day appointed. He never goes into the +village, but stops near some rivulet adjacent to it. The relations of +the boy approach him with a new basket, containing five measures of +uncooked rice, pulse, ghi, etc., and a quarter of a rupee--one fanam, +as it is generally designated. The priest sits near the water-course, +and lights a fire on the bank. Perfumes are thrown profusely into +it, and this is almost the only ceremony before the fire. The boys, +whose turn it is to receive the linga that day, are all directed +to bathe in the river. A plantain leaf, cut into one foot square, +is placed in front of the fire towards the east of it. The lingas, +kept in readiness by the parents of the boys, are now received by +the priest, and placed on the leaves. The boys are asked to wash +them--each one the linga meant for his wearing--in water and milk. Then +comes the time for the expenditure of all the collected milk of the +morning. Profusely the white fluid is poured, till the whole rivulet +is nothing but a stream of milk. After the lingas are thus washed, +the boys give them to the priest, who places them in his left palm, +and, covering them with his right, utters, with all the solemnity +due to the occasion, the following incantation, while the boys and +the whole village assembled there listen to it with the most profound +respect and veneration 'Oh! Siva, Hara, Basava, the Lord of all the +six thousand and three thousand names and glories, the Lord of one +lakh and ninety-six thousand ganas (body-guards of Siva), the donor of +water, the daily-to-be worshipped, the husband of Parvati. Oh! Lord, +O! Siva Linga, thy feet alone are our resort. Oh! Siva, Siva, Siva, +Siva.' While pronouncing this prayer, the priest now and then removes +his right palm, and pours water and milk round the sacred fire, +and over the lingas resting in his left palm. He then places each of +the lingas in a cloth of one cubit square, rolls it up, and requests +the boys to hold out their right palms. The young Badaga receives it, +repeats the prayer given about five times, and, during each repetition, +the palm holding the linga tied up in the cloth is carried nearer +and nearer to his neck. When that is reached (on the fifth utterance +of the incantation), the priest ties the ends of the rolled up cloth +containing the Siva emblem loosely round the boy's neck, while the +latter is all the while kneeling down, holding with both his hands +the feet of the priest. After the linga has been tied, the priest +blesses him thus: 'May one become one thousand to you. May you ever +preserve in you the Siva Linga. If you do so, you will have plenty +of milk and food, and you will prosper for one thousand years in name +and fame, kine and coin.' If more than one have to receive the linga +on the same day, each of them has to undergo this ceremony. After the +ceremony is over, the priest returns to his village with the rice, +etc., and fees. Every house, in which a boy has received the linga, +has to give a grand feast on that day. Even the poorest Badaga must +feed at least five other Badagas." + +The foregoing account of the investiture with the lingam apparently +applies to the Mekanad Udayas. The following note is based on +information supplied by the Udayas of Paranginad. The ceremony of +investiture is performed either on new year's day or Sivarathri by +an Udaya priest in the house of a respected member of the community +(doddamane), which is vacated for the occasion. The houses of the boys +and girls who are to receive lingams are cleaned, and festoons of tud +and mango leaves, lime fruits, and flowers of Leucas aspera (thumbe) +are tied across the doorways, and in front of the house where the +ceremony is to be performed. Until the conclusion thereof, all the +people of the village fast. The candidates, with their parents, and +the officiating priest repair to the doddamane. The lingams are handed +over to the priest, who, taking them up one by one, does puja to them, +and gives them to the children. They in turn do puja, and the lingams, +wrapped in pink silk or cotton cloths, are tied round their necks. The +puja consists of washing the lingams in cow's urine and milk, smearing +them with sandal and turmeric paste, throwing flowers on them, and +waving incense and burning camphor before them. After the investiture, +the novices are taught a prayer, which is not a stereotyped formula, +but varies with the priest and village. + +Like other Lingayats, the Udayas respect the Jangam, but do not employ +the Jangama thirtham (water used for washing the Jangam's feet) +for bathing their lingams. In Udaya villages there is no special +menstrual hut (holagudi). Milk is not regarded by them as a sacred +product, so there is no hagottu in their houses. Nor do they observe +the Manavalai festival in honour of ancestors. Other ceremonies are +celebrated by them, as by other Badagas, but they do not employ the +services of a Kurumba. + +Important agricultural ceremonies are performed by the Badagas at +the time of sowing and harvest. The seed-sowing ceremony takes place +in March, and, in some places, e.g., the Mekanad and Paranginad, a +Kurumba plays an important part in it. On an auspicious day--a Tuesday +before the crescent moon--a pujari of the Devve temple sets out several +hours before dawn with five or seven kinds of grain in a basket and +sickle, accompanied by a Kurumba, and leading a pair of bullocks with a +plough. On reaching the field selected, the pujari pours the grain into +the cloth of the Kurumba, and, yoking the animals to the plough, makes +three furrows in the soil. The Kurumba, stopping the bullocks, kneels +on the ground between the furrows facing east. Removing his turban, +he places it on the ground, and, closing his ears with his palms, +bawls out "Dho, Dho," thrice. He then rises, and scatters the grain +thrice on the soil. The pujari and Kurumba then return to the village, +and the former deposits what remains of the grain in the store-room +(attu). A new pot, full of water, is placed in the milk-house, +and the pujari dips his right hand therein, saying "Nerathubitta" +(it is full). This ceremony is an important one for the Badagas, as, +until it has been performed, sowing may not commence. It is a day of +feasting, and, in addition to rice, Dolichos Lablab is cooked. + +The other agricultural ceremony is called Devve habba or tenai +(Setaria italica), and is usually celebrated in June or July, always +on a Monday. It is apparently performed in honour of the two gods +Mahalingaswami and Hiriya Udaya, to whom a group of villages will have +temples dedicated. For example, the Badagas in the neighbourhood of +Kotagiri have their Hiriya Udaya temple at Tandanad, and Mahalingaswami +temple at Kannermukku. This Devve festival, which should on no account +be pronounced duvve, which means burning-ground, is celebrated at one +place, whither the Badagas from other villages proceed, to take part +in it. About midday, some Badagas and the temple pujari go from the +temple of Hiriya Udaya to that of Mahalingaswami. The procession is +usually headed by a Kurumba, who scatters fragments of tud bark and +wood as he goes on his way. The pujari takes with him the materials +necessary for doing puja, and, after worshipping Mahalingaswami, +the party return to the Hiriya Udaya temple, where milk and cooked +rice are offered to the various gods within the temple precincts. On +the following day, all assemble at the temple, and a Kurumba brings +a few sheaves of Setaria italica, and ties them to a stone set up at +the main entrance. After this, puja is done, and the people offer +cocoanuts to the god. Later on, all the women of the Madhave sept, +who have given birth to a first-born child, come, dressed up in +holiday attire, with their babies, to the temple. On this day they +wear a special nose ornament, called elemukkuththi, which is only +worn on one other occasion, at the funeral of a husband. The women do +puja to Hiriya Udaya, and the pujari gives them a small quantity of +rice on minige (Argyreia) leaves. After eating this, they leave the +temple in a line, and wash their hands with water given to them by +the pujari. This ceremonial, performed by women of the Madhave sept, +is called Mandedhanda. As soon as the Devve festival is concluded, +the reaping of the crop commences, and a measure or two of grain from +the crop gathered on the first day, called nisal, is set apart for +the Mahalingaswami temple. + +The most important gods of the Badagas are Heththeswami, +Mahalingaswami, Hiriya Udaya, Madeswara, Mankali, Jadeswami, and +Nilgiri Rangaswami. And at the present day, some Badagas proceed to the +plains, to worship at the Saivite temple at Karamadai in Coimbatore, +or at Nanjangod in Mysore. + +The festival in honour of Heththeswami is celebrated in the month +of January at Baireganni. It is sometimes called ermathohabba, as, +with it, ploughing operations cease. It always commences on a Monday, +and usually lasts eight days. A Sedan or Devanga weaver comes with his +portable hand-loom, and sufficient thread for weaving a dhubati (coarse +cloth) and turban. At Baireganni there is a special house, in which +these articles are woven. But, at other places where the festival is +observed, the Badagas go to the weaver's village to fetch the required +cloths. Early on the second morning of the festival, some of the more +respected Badagas and the weaver proceed to the weaving house after +bathing. The weaver sets up his loom, and worships it by offering +incense, and other things. The Badagas give him a new cloth, and a +small sum of money, and ask him to weave a dhubati and two kachches +(narrow strips of cloth). Daily, throughout the festival, the Badagas +collect near the temple, and indulge in music and songs. Until the last +day, they are not permitted to set eyes on the god Heththeswami. On +the morning of the last day, the pujari, accompanied by all the +Badagas, takes the newly woven cloths to a stream, in which they are +washed. When they are dry, all proceed to the temple, where the idol +is dressed up in them, and all, on this occasion only, are allowed to +look at it. Devotees pay a small offering of money, which is placed on +a tray near the idol. The crowd begins to disperse in the afternoon, +and, on their way back to their villages, the wants of the travellers +are attended to by people posted at intervals with coffee, fruit, +and other articles of food. If the Badagas have to go to a weaver's +village for the cloths, the weaver is, when the order is given for +them, presented with four annas, after he has bathed. When handing +the money to him, the Badagas bawl out "This is the fee for making +the cloths to be worn by Heththe Iramasthi and Parasakti Parvati." On +the last day of the festival, the cloths are washed, and one of them +is made to represent an idol, which is decorated with waist and neck +ornaments, and an umbrella. All prostrate themselves before it, and +make offerings of money. Fruits and other things are then offered +to Heththeswami and some recite the following prayer. "May all good +acts be remembered, and all bad ones be forgotten. Though there may +be a thousand and one sins, may I reach the feet of God." + +The following further information in connection with the Baireganni +festival is given by Bishop Whitehead. "The people from other villages +offer money, rice, fruits, umbrellas of gold or silver for the goddess, +cloths, and buffaloes. The buffaloes are never killed, but remain +as the property of the temple. The pujari calls the representatives +of one village, and tells them what Hetheswami says to him, e.g., +'This year you will have good [or bad] crops; cholera or small-pox, +good [or bad] rain, etc.' As the people present their offerings, they +prostrate themselves, kneeling down and touching the ground with their +foreheads, and the pujari gives them some flowers, which they wear +in their hair. The people and the pujari play on the kombu [horn], +and ring bells while the offerings are being made. After the offerings +have finished, all the men dance, in two companies, in front of the +temple, one shouting 'How-ko, How-ko,' and the other 'Is-holi.' The +dance was taught them by the Todas, and the words are Toda." + +In connection with the Jadeswami festival the ceremony of walking +through fire [burning embers] is carried out at Melur, Tangalu, +Mainele, Jakkanare, Tenad, and Nidugala. At Melur and Tangalu, +the temples belong to the Haruvas, who carry out all the details +of ceremony. The temple at Tenad is owned by the Udayas, by whom +the ceremonial is performed. In other places, the celebrants are +Badagas. The festival is observed, on an elaborate scale, at Nidugala +during the month of January. All those who are going to walk over the +burning embers fast for eight days, and go through the rite on the +ninth day. For its performance, Monday is considered an auspicious +day. The omens are taken by boiling two pots of milk side by side on +two hearths. If the milk overflows uniformly on all sides, the crops +will be abundant for all the villages. But, if it flows over on one +side only, there will be plentiful crops for villages on that side +only. The space over which the embers are spread is said to be about +five yards long, and three yards broad. But, in some places, e.g., +Jakkanare and Melur, it is circular as at the Muhammadan fire-walking +ceremony. For making the embers, the wood of Eugenia Jambolana and +Phyllanthus Emblica are used. For boiling the milk, and setting fire +to the wood, a light obtained by friction must be used. The process +is known as niligolu, or upright stick. The vertical stick is made of +a twig of Rhodomyrtus tomentosus, which is rotated in a socket in a +long thick piece of a bough of Debregeasia velutina, in which a row +of sockets has been made. The rotation is produced by a cord passed +several times round the vertical stick, of which each end is pulled +alternately. The horizontal block is pressed firmly on the ground by +the toes of a man, who presses a half cocoanut shell down on the top of +the vertical stick, so as to force it down into the socket. A Badaga, +who failed in an attempt to demonstrate the making of fire by this +method, gave as an excuse that he was under worldly pollution, from +which he would be free at the time of the fire-walking ceremony. Though +the Badagas make fire by friction, reference is made in their folk +legends, not to this mode of obtaining fire, but to chakkamukki +(flint and steel), which is repeatedly referred to in connection +with cremation. After the milk boiling ceremonial, the pujari, tying +bells on his legs, approaches the fire pit, carrying milk freshly +drawn from a cow, which has calved for the first time, and flowers of +Rhododendron arboreum, Leucas aspera, or jasmine. After doing puja, +he throws the flowers on the embers, and they should remain unscorched +for a few seconds. He then pours some of the milk over the embers, +and no hissing sound should be produced. The omens being propitious, +he walks over the glowing embers, followed by an Udaya, and the crowd +of celebrants, who, before going through the ordeal, count the hairs on +their feet. If any are singed, it is a sign of approaching ill fortune, +or even death. In an account of the fire-walking ceremony, in 1902, +it is noted that "the Badagas strongly repudiate the insinuation +of preparing their feet to face the fire ordeal. It is done to +propitiate Jeddayswami, to whom vows are invoked, in token of which +they grow one twist or plait of hair, which is treasured for years, +and finally cut off as an offering to Jeddayswami. Numbers of Chettis +were catering to the crowd, offering their wares, bangles, gay-coloured +handkerchiefs, as well as edibles. The Kotas supplied the music, and +an ancient patriarch worked himself up to a high pitch of inspiration, +and predicted all sorts of good things for the Badagas with regard +to the ensuing season and crops." + +The following legend, relating to the fire-walking ceremony, is +recorded by Bishop Whitehead. "When they first began to perform the +ceremony fifty or sixty years ago, they were afraid to walk over the +fire. Then the stone image of Mahalinga Swami turned into a snake, +and made a hole through the temple wall. It came out, and crawled +over the fire, and then went back to the temple. Then their fear +vanished, and they walked over the embers. The hole is still to be +seen in the temple." + +Of the fire-walking ceremony at Melur, the following account is +given in the Gazetteer of the Nilgiris. "It takes place on the Monday +after the March new moon, just before the cultivation season begins, +and is attended by Badagas from all over Merkunad. The inhabitants +of certain villages (six in number), who are supposed to be the +descendants of an early Badaga named Guruvajja, have first, however, +to signify through their Gottukars, or headmen, that the festival may +take place; and the Gottukars choose three, five, or seven men to walk +through the fire. On the day appointed, the fire is lit by certain +Badaga priests and a Kurumba. The men chosen by the Gottukars then +bathe, adorn themselves with sandal, do obeisance to the Udayas of +Udayarhatti near Keti, who are specially invited and feasted; pour +into the adjacent stream milk from cows which have calved for the +first time during the year; and, in the afternoon, throw more milk +and some flowers from the Mahalingasvami temple into the fire pit, +and then walk across it. Earth is next thrown on the embers, and they +walk across twice more. A general feast closes the ceremony, and next +day the first ploughings are done, the Kurumba sowing the first seeds, +and the priests the next lot. Finally, a net is brought. The priest +of the temple, standing over it, puts up prayers for a favourable +agricultural season; two fowls are thrown into it, and a pretence is +made of spearing them; and then it is taken and put across some game +path, and some wild animal (a sambhar deer if possible) is driven +into it, slain, and divided among the villagers. This same custom of +annually killing a sambhar is also observed at other villages on the +plateau, and in 1883 and 1894 special orders were passed to permit +of its being done during the close season. Latterly, disputes about +precedence in the matter of walking through the fire at Melur have been +carried as far as the civil courts, and the two factions celebrate the +festival separately in alternate years. A fire-walking ceremony also +takes place annually at the Jadayasvami temple in Jakkaneri under the +auspices of a Sivachari Badaga. It seems to have originally had some +connection with agricultural prospects, as a young bull is made to go +partly across the fire-pit before the other devotees, and the owners +of young cows which have had their first calves during the year take +precedence of others in the ceremony, and bring offerings of milk, +which are sprinkled over the burning embers." + +At the Sakalathi festival, in the month of October, Badagas, towards +evening, throw on the roofs of their houses flowers of Plectranthus +Wightii, Crotalaria obtecta, Lobelia nicotianoefolia, Achyranthes +aspera, and Leucas aspera. On the following day, they clean their +houses, and have a feast. In the afternoon, numbers of them may be +seen in the streets drawing in front of their houses pictures in +wood-ashes of buffaloes, bulls, cows, ploughs, stars, sun and moon, +snakes, lizards, etc. They then go into their houses, and wash their +hands. Taking up in his clean hands a big cake, on which are placed a +little rice and butter, the Badaga puts on it three wicks steeped in +castor oil, and lights them. The cake is then waved round the heads +of all the children of the house taken to a field, and thrown therein +with the words "Sakalathi has come." The cake-thrower returns home, +and prostrates himself before a lamp placed in the inner room, and +repeats a long formula, composed of the various synonyms of Siva. + +In the month of November, a festival called Dodda Habba (big feast) +is celebrated. In the afternoon, rice is cooked in whey within the +hagottu, and eaten on minige leaves. Throughout the day the villagers +play at various ball games. + +A festival, which is purely local, is celebrated near Konakore in +honour of Mahangkali. A buffalo is led to the side of a precipice, +killed by a Kurumba with a spear, and thrown over the edge +thereof. There is a legend that, in olden days, a pujari used to put +a stick in the crevice of a rock, and, on removing it, get the value +of a buffalo in fanams (gold coins). But, on one occasion, he put +the stick in a second time, in the hopes of gaining more money. No +money, however, was forthcoming and, as a punishment for his greed, +he died on the spot. + +All Badaga villages, except those of the Udayas, have a hut, called +holagudi, for the exclusive use of women during their monthly +periods. A few months before a girl is expected to reach puberty, +she is sent to the holagudi, on a Friday, four or five days before +the new moon day. This is done lest, in the ordinary course of events, +the first menstruation should commence on an inauspicious day. The girl +remains in the holagudi one night, and returns home on the following +day clad in new cloths, leaving the old ones in the hut. When she +arrives at her house, she salutes all the people who are there, and +receives their blessing. On Sunday she goes to the houses of her +relations, where she is given kadalai (Cicer arietinum) and other +food. She may not enter the inner apartment of her house until she +has seen the crescent moon. Badaga women observe five days menstrual +pollution. If a woman discovers her condition before washing her +face in the early morning, that day is included in the pollution +period. Otherwise, the period must be prolonged over six days. On +the third day she bathes in cold water, using the bark of Pouzolzia +(thorekolu), and on the fourth day is allowed a change of clothing +after a bath. On this day she leaves the hut, and passes a portion +of the night in the verandah of her house. After cooking and eating +her evening meal, she bathes, and enters the outer room. Early on +the following morning, the spot which she has occupied is cleaned, +and she bathes in a stream. Returning home, she eats her food in the +outer room, where she remains till next morning. Even children may +not be touched by a menstruating woman. If, by chance, this happens, +the child must be washed to remove the pollution, before it can be +handled by others. This restriction is apparently not observed by +any other tribe or caste. + +Writing concerning marriage among the Badagas, Harkness states [81] +that "it is said to be common for one who is in want of labourers to +promise his daughter in marriage to the son or other relative of a +neighbour not in circumstances so flourishing as himself. And, these +engagements being entered into, the intended bridegroom serves the +father of his betrothed as one of his own family till the girl comes +of age, when the marriage is consummated, and he becomes a partner +in the general property of the family of his father-in-law." + +A man may marry a girl belonging to the same village as himself, if +he and she are not members of the same exogamous sept. In most cases, +however, all the inhabitants of a village are of the same sept, and +a man has to take as his wife a girl from a village other than his own. + +Among all sections of the Badagas, adult marriage is the general rule, +though infant marriage is also practised. Marriage is preceded by a +simple form of courtship, but the consent of the parents to the union +is necessary. A girl does not suffer in reputation if she is rejected +by a number of suitors, before she finally settles down. Except among +the Udayas, the marriage ceremony is of a very simple nature. A +day or two before that fixed for taking the girl to the house of +her husband-elect, the latter proceeds to her village, accompanied +by his brothers, who, as a token of respect, touch the feet of all +the Badagas who are assembled. The bride is taken to the house of the +bridegroom, accompanied by the Kota band. Arrived there, she stands at +the entrance, and her mother-in-law or sister-in-law brings water in +a vessel, and pours it into her hands thrice. Each time she lets the +water fall over her feet. The mother-in-law then ties round her neck a +string of beads (male mani), and leads her to the outer room (edumane), +where cooked samai (Panicum miliare) and milk is given to her. This she +pretends to eat, and the bridegroom's sister gives her water to wash +her hands with. The bride and two married women or virgins (preferably +the bridegroom's sisters) go to a stream in procession, accompanied +by the Kota musicians, and bring therefrom water for cooking purposes +in decorated new pots. The bride then salutes all her new relations, +and they in turn give her their blessing. The ceremonial concludes +with a feast, at the conclusion of which, in some cases, the bride +and bridegroom sit on the raised verandah (pial), and receive presents. + +"Though," a correspondent writes, "the Badaga is simple, and his wants +are few, he cannot resist the temptation of wine and women. The Badaga +woman can change husbands as often as she pleases by a simple system +of divorce, and can also carry on with impunity intimacy within +the pale of her own community. It is not uncommon to find Badaga +women changing husbands, so long as youth and vigour tempt them to +do so, and confining themselves eventually to the last individual, +after age and infirmity have made their mark, and render such frolics +inexpedient." A former Magistrate of the Nilgiris informs me that he +tried more than one case, in which a married man filed a complaint +against another man for kidnapping or enticing away his wife for +immoral purposes. The father of the woman was always charged as an +abetter, and pleaded that, as no pariyam (bride price) had been paid +by the husband, though he and the woman lived together as man and +wife, no criminal offence could be proved against either the father +or the abductor. Polygamy is permitted, and the plurality of wives +is a gain to the husband, as each wife becomes a bread-winner, and +supports her children, and the man makes each wife superintend one +department of the day's work. Remarriage of widows is very common, +and a widow may marry the brother of her deceased husband. It is +said to be etiquette among the Badagas that, when a woman's husband +is away, she should be accessible to her brothers-in-law. Instances +occur, in which the husband is much younger than his wife, who, +until he has reached maturity, cohabits with her paternal aunt's son, +or some one whom she may have a fancy for. The marriage ceremony of +the Udayas is carried out on an elaborate scale, and is based on +the type of ceremonial which is carried out by some castes in the +plains. Before dawn on the marriage day, the brothers and cousins +of the bridegroom go, accompanied by some Udayas and the Kota band, +to the forest, whence they bring two sticks of Mimusops hexandra, +to do duty as the milk-posts. The early hour is selected, to avoid +the chance of coming across inauspicious objects. The sticks should +be cut off the tree at a single stroke of the bill-hook, and they +may not be laid flat on the ground, but placed on a blanket spread +thereon. The Udayas, who joined in the procession, collect twelve +posts of Mimusops as supports for the marriage booth (pandal). In +front of the house, which is to be the scene of the wedding, two pits +are dug, into which cow-dung water is poured. The pujari does puja +to the milk-posts by offering sugar-cane, jaggery (crude sugar), +etc., and ties two threads thereto. The posts are then placed in +the pits by five people--the parents of the bridal couple and the +priest. The booth, and dais or enclosure, are then erected close to +the milk-posts. On the second day, the bridegroom's party, attended +by Kota musicians, dressed up in dancing costume, go to the house of +the bride, where a feast is held. The bride then salutes a lamp, and +prostrates herself at the feet of her parents, who bless her, saying +"May your body and hands soon be filled (i.e., may you have a child), +and may your life be prosperous." The bride is taken in procession +to the house of the bridegroom, accompanied by some Udayas, and a +Toreya carrying a bag of rice. At the entrance to the house she is +blindfolded, and her mother-in-law pours water over her feet, and +waves coloured water (arathi) in front of her. She then enters the +house, right foot foremost, and sits on a mat. Three married women, +nearly related to the bridegroom, proceed, with the Kota musicians, +to a stream, carrying three pots decorated with leaves of Leucas +aspera. The priest does puja, and the pots are filled with water, and +brought back in procession to the marriage dais. The water is poured +into three vessels placed thereon three times by each of the three +women. Within the marriage enclosure, two raised platforms are set up +by a Toreya. The bridegroom, after going round the enclosure three +times with his brothers and sisters, enters it, and bathes with the +water contained in the vessels. He then dresses himself in new clothes, +and is carried to the outer room by his maternal uncle. The bride is +then treated in like manner, but is taken to the inner room. At a fixed +auspicious hour, the bridal couple repair to the enclosure, where the +bridegroom stands on a mat. A screen is held up by four or five men +between him and the bride, who stands facing him, while the priest +ties the ends of their clothes together. They then link their little +fingers together, the screen is removed, and they seat themselves on +the mat. The bridegroom's sister brings a tray with a mass of rice +scooped out into a cavity to hold ghi for feeding a lighted wick +(annadha arathi) on it, and, placing it before the bridal pair, sits +down. The tali, consisting of a golden disc, is worshipped by the +priest, and given to the bridegroom, who ties it on to the bride's +neck. In some places it is tied by four or five elders, belonging +to different villages, who are not widowers. The contracting couple +then put on wreaths called sammandha malai, or wreaths establishing +relationship, and the wrist threads are tied on. The bride's sister +brings some rice and milk in a cup, into which the linked fingers of +the bride and bridegroom are thrust. Taking up some of the rice, they +put it into each other's mouths three times. After they have washed +their hands, the maternal uncle or priest asks them if they have seen +Aranjoti (the pole-star), and they reply in the affirmative. On the +third day, presents are given to the newly-married couple, and the +wrist threads are removed. Going to a stream, they perform a mimic +ceremony of sowing, and scatter cotton and rice seed in two small +pans made by a Toreya with cow-dung. Widow remarriage is permitted +among the Udayas, and a widow may marry a cousin, but not her dead +husband's brother. At the marriage ceremony, a priest makes a mark +with sacred ashes on the foreheads of the contracting couple, and +announces the fact of their union. + +It is noted by Dr. Rivers that "Breeks has stated that the Toda +custom is that the house shall pass to the youngest son. It seems +quite clear that this is wrong, and that this custom is absolutely +unknown among the Todas. It is, however, a Badaga custom, and among +them I was told that it is due to the fact that, as the sons of a +family grow up and marry, they leave the house of the parents and build +houses elsewhere. It is the duty of the youngest son to dwell with his +parents, and support them as long as they live, and, when they die, he +continues to live in the paternal home, of which he becomes the owner." + +A ceremony is performed in the seventh month of a woman's first +pregnancy, which is important, inasmuch as it seals the marriage +contract, and, after its performance, divorce can only be obtained +through the decree of the panchayat (tribal council). Moreover, if +it has not been performed, a man cannot claim the paternity of the +child. The ceremony is called kanni kattodu or kanni hakodu (thread +tying or throwing). The husband and wife are seated in the midst of +those who have assembled for the occasion, and the former asks his +father-in-law whether he may throw the thread round his wife's neck, +and, having received permission, proceeds to do so. If he gets the +thread, which must have no knots in it, entangled in the woman's +bunch of hair (kondai), which is made large for the occasion by the +addition of false hair, he is fined three rupees. On the day of the +ceremony, the man and his wife are supposed to be under pollution, +and sit in the verandah to receive presents. The mats used by them +for sleeping on are cleaned on the following morning, and they get +rid of the pollution by bathing. + +A first confinement must not take place within the house, and +the verandah is converted into a lying-in chamber, from which the +woman is, after delivery, removed to the outer apartment, where she +remains till she is free from pollution by catching sight of the +crescent moon. If a woman has been delivered at her father's house, +she returns to the home of her husband within a month of the birth +of the child on an auspicious day. On arrival there, the infant is +placed near the feet of an old man standing by a lamp within the +milk-house. Placing his right hand over the head of the infant, the +old man blesses it, and a feast is held, before the commencement of +which two cups, one containing milk, and the other cooked rice, are +produced. All the relations take up a little of the milk and rice, +and touch the tongue of the baby with them. + +A child receives its name on the seventh, ninth, or eleventh day. A +sumptuous meal is given to the community, and the grandfather +(paternal, if possible) milks a cow, and pours the milk into a brass +cup placed in the milk-house. With it a little cooked samai grain is +mixed. The babe is washed with water brought from a stream; marked on +the forehead with sacred ashes; a turmeric-dyed thread is tied round +its waist; a silver or iron bangle placed on its wrists; and a silver +bead tied by a thread round its neck. Thus decorated, the infant is +taken up by the oldest man of the village who is not a widower, who +gives it a name, which has already been chosen. The elder, and the +child's parents and grandparents then place a little milk in its mouth. + +Children, both male and female, go through a shaving ceremony, usually +when they are seven months old. The infant is seated in the lap of a +Badaga, and, after water has been applied to its head by a Badaga or +a barber, the maternal uncle removes some of the hair with a razor, +and then hands it over to another Badaga or a barber to complete +the operation. + +Of the death rites as carried out by the Badaga sub-division, +the following note was recorded during a visit to Kotagiri. When +death is drawing near, a gold coin, called Viraraya hana or fanam, +dipped in butter or ghi, is given to the dying man to swallow. If he +is too far gone to be capable of swallowing, the coin is, according +to Mr. Natesa Sastri, tied round the arm. But our informants told us +that this is not done at the present day. "If," Mr. Gover writes, [82] +"the tiny coin slips down, well. He will need both gold and ghi, the +one to sustain his strength in the dark journey to the river of death, +the other to fee the guardian of the fairy-like bridge that spans the +dreaded tide. If sense remains to the wretched man, he knows that now +his death is nigh. Despair and the gold make recovery impossible, +and there are none who have swallowed the Birianhana, and yet have +lived. If insensibility or deathly weakness make it impossible for the +coin to pass the thorax, it is carefully bound in cloth, and tied to +the right arm, so that there may be nought to hinder the passage of a +worthy soul into the regions of the blessed." The giving of the coin +to the dying man is apparently an important item, and, in the Badaga +folk-tales, a man on the point of death is made to ask for a Viraraya +fanam. When life is extinct, the corpse is kept within the house +until the erection of the funeral car (gudikattu) is completed. Though +Gover states that the burning must not be delayed more than twenty-four +hours, at the present day the Badagas postpone the funeral till all the +near relations have assembled, even if this necessitates the keeping of +the corpse for two or three days. Cremation may take place on any day, +except Tuesday. News of a death is conveyed to distant hamlets (hattis) +by a Toreya, who is paid a rupee for his services. On approaching a +hamlet, he removes his turban, to signify the nature of his errand, +and, standing on the side of a hill, yells out "Dho! Dho! who is in +the hamlet?" Having imparted his news, he proceeds on his journey +to the next hamlet. On the morning of the day fixed for the funeral, +the corpse is taken on a charpoy or native cot to an open space, and +a buffalo led thrice round it. The right hand of the corpse is then +lifted up, and passed over the horns of the buffalo. A little milk is +drawn, and poured into the mouth of the corpse. Prior to this ceremony, +two or three buffaloes may be let loose, and one of them captured, +after the manner of the Todas, brought near the corpse, and conducted +round the cot. The funeral car is built up in five to eleven tiers, +decorated with cloths and streamers, and one tier must be covered with +black chintz. At the funeral of a young man, the Rev. A. C. Clayton +noticed that the car was surmounted by a flag, and hung about with +bread, oranges, plantains, and the bag containing the books which +the youth had used in the Basel Mission School. [83] By the poorer +members of the community the car is replaced by a cot covered with +cloth, and surmounted by five umbrellas. Immediately after the buffalo +ceremony, the corpse is carried to the car, and placed in the lowest +storey thereof, washed, and dressed in coat and turban. A new dhupati +(coarse cloth) is wrapped round it. Two silver coins (Japanese yens +or rupees) are stuck on the forehead. Beneath the cot are placed a +crowbar, and baskets containing cakes, parched paddy, tobacco, chick +pea (Cicer arietinum), jaggery and samai flour. A number of women, +relations and friends of the dead man, then make a rush to the cot, +and, sitting on it round the corpse, keep on waiting, while a woman +near its head rings a bell. When one batch is tired, it is replaced +by another. Badaga men then pour in in large numbers, and salute the +corpse by touching the head, Toreyas and female relations touching +the feet. Of those who salute, a few place inside the dhupati a piece +of white cloth with red and yellow stripes, which has been specially +prepared for the purpose. All then proceed to dance round the car +to the music of the Kota band, near male relations removing their +turban or woollen night cap, as a mark of respect, during the first +three revolutions. Most of the male dancers are dressed up in gaudy +petticoats and smart turbans. "No woman," Mr. Natesa Sastri writes, +"mingles in the funeral dance if the dead person is a man, but, +if the deceased is a woman, one old woman, the nearest relative of +the dead, takes part in it." But, at the funerals of two men which +we witnessed, a few women danced together with the men. Usually the +tribesmen continue to arrive until 2 or 3 P.M. Relations collect +outside the village, and advance in a body towards the car, some, +especially the sons-in-law of the dead man, riding on ponies, some +of them carrying samai grain. As they approach the car, they shout +"Ja! hoch; Ja! hoch." The Muttu Kotas bring a double iron sickle with +imitation buffalo horns on the tip, which is placed, with a hatchet, +buguri (flute), and walking stick, on the car or on the ground beside +it. When all are assembled, the cot is carried to an open space +between the house and the burning-ground, followed by the car and a +party of women carrying the baskets containing grain, etc. The car +is then stripped of its trappings, and hacked to pieces. The widow is +brought close to the cot, and removes her nose ornament (elemukkuthi), +and other jewels. At both the funerals which we witnessed, the widow +had a narrow strip of coloured chintz over her shoulders. Standing +near the corpse, she removed a bit of wire from her ear-rings, a lock +of hair, and a palm leaf roll from the lobe of the ear, and tied them +up in the cloth of her dead husband. After her, the sisters of the +dead man cut off a lock of hair, and, in like manner, tied it in the +cloth. Women attached to a man by illegitimate ties sometimes also cut +off a lock of hair, and, tying it to a twig of Dodonæa viscosa, place +it inside the cloth. Very impressive is the recitation, or after-death +confession of a dead man's sins by an elder of the tribe standing at +the head of the corpse, and rapidly chanting the following lines, or +a variation thereof, while he waves his right hand during each line +towards the feet. The reproduction of the recitation in my phonograph +never failed to impress the daily audience of Badagas, Kotas and Todas. + + + This is the death of Andi. + In his memory the calf of the cow Belle has been set free. + From this world to the other. + He goes in a car. + Everything the man did in this world. + All the sins committed by his ancestors. + All the sins committed by his forefathers. + All the sins committed by his parents. + All the sins committed by himself. + The estranging of brothers. + Shifting the boundary line. + Encroaching on a neighbour's land by removing the hedge. + Driving away brothers and sisters. + Cutting the kalli tree stealthily. + Cutting the mulli tree outside his boundary. + Dragging the thorny branches of the kotte tree. + Sweeping with a broom. + Splitting green branches. + Telling lies. + Uprooting seedlings. + Plucking growing plants, and throwing them in the sun. + Giving young birds to cats. + Troubling the poor and cripples. + Throwing refuse water in front of the sun. + Going to sleep after seeing an eclipse of the moon. + Looking enviously at a buffalo yielding an abundance of milk. + Being jealous of the good crops of others. + Removing boundary stones. + Using a calf set free at the funeral. + Polluting water with dirt. + Urinating on burning embers. + Ingratitude to the priest. + Carrying tales to the higher authorities. + Poisoning food. + Not feeding a hungry person. + Not giving fire to one half frozen. + Killing snakes and cows. + Killing lizards and blood-suckers. + Showing a wrong path. + Getting on the cot, and allowing his father-in-law to sleep on + the ground. + Sitting on a raised verandah, and driving thence his mother-in-law. + Going against natural instincts. + Troubling daughters-in-law. + Breaking open lakes. + Breaking open reservoirs of water. + Being envious of the prosperity of other villages. + Getting angry with people. + Misleading travellers in the forest. + Though there be three hundred such sins, + Let them all go with the calf set free to-day. + May the sins be completely removed! + May the sins be forgiven! + May the door of heaven be open! + May the door of hell be closed! + May the hand of charity be extended! + May the wicked hand be shrivelled! + May the door open suddenly! + May beauty or splendour prevail everywhere! + May the hot pillar be cooled! + May the thread bridge [84] become light! + May the pit of perdition be closed! + May he reach the golden pillar! + Holding the feet of the six thousand Athis, + Holding the feet of the twelve thousand Pathis, + Holding the feet of Brahma, + Holding the feet of the calf set free to-day, + May he reach the abode of Siva! + So mote it be. + + +The recitation is repeated thrice, and a few Badagas repeat the +last words of each line after the elder. It was noticed by the +Rev. A. C. Clayton that, during the recitation, the people surrounded +the bier on three sides, leaving a lane open to the west. The sins +of the dead man were transferred to another as sin-bearer, and +finally passed away down the lane. As the ceremony witnessed by us +differs materially from the account thereof given by Gover nearly +forty years ago, I may quote his description. "By a conventional +mode of expression, the sum total of sins a man may do is said to +be thirteen hundred. Admitting that the deceased has committed them +all, the performer cries aloud 'Stay not their flight to God's pure +feet.' As he closes, the whole assembly chants aloud 'Stay not their +flight.' Again the performer enters into details, and cries 'He killed +the crawling snake. It is a sin.' In a moment the last word is caught +up, and all the people cry 'It is a sin.' As they shout, the performer +lays his hand upon the calf. The sin is transferred to the calf. Thus +the whole catalogue is gone through in this impressive way. But this +is not enough. As the last shout 'Let all be well' dies away, the +performer gives place to another, and again confession is made, and +all the people shout 'It is a sin.' A third time it is done. Then, +still in solemn silence, the calf is let loose. Like the Jewish +scapegoat, it may never be used for secular work." Dr. Rivers writes +that "the Badagas let loose a calf at a funeral, to bear the sins of +the deceased. It is possible that the calf in the Toda ceremony may +have the same significance. If so, the practice has not improbably +been borrowed, and the fact that the bell which is hung on the neck +of the calf is kept by Kotas or Badagas suggests that the whole +incident may have been borrowed by the Todas from one or other of +these races." At the funerals, of which we were spectators, no calf +was brought near the corpse, and the celebrants of the rites were +satisfied with the mere mention by name of a calf, which is male or +female according to the sex of the deceased. At the funeral witnessed +by the Rev. A. C. Clayton, a cow-buffalo was led three times round the +bier, and a little of its milk, drawn at the time, put into the mouth +of the corpse. Then a buffalo calf was led thrice round the bier, +and the dead man's hand laid on its head. By this act, the calf was +supposed to receive all the sins of the deceased. It was then driven +away to a great distance, that it might contaminate no one, and it +was said that it would never be sold, but looked on as a dedicated +sacred animal. If a dead man leaves a widow in a state of pregnancy, +who has not performed the kanni kattodu or marriage thread ceremony, +this must be gone through before the corpse is taken to the pyre, in +order to render the child legitimate. The pregnant woman is, at the +time of the funeral, brought close to the cot, and a near relation +of the deceased, taking up a cotton thread, twisted in the form of a +necklace without any knots, throws it round her neck. Sometimes the +hand of the corpse is lifted up with the thread, and made to place it +round the neck. At the funeral of the young man, Mr. Clayton saw this +ceremony performed on his pregnant wife. After a turmeric-dyed cord +had been taken from the hands of the corpse and tied round her neck, +she was again brought to the side of the bier, and her ear-rings, +nose ornaments, and other articles of jewellery, were removed in token +that she had become a widow. Soon after the recitation of sins, all +the agnates go to the house of the dead man, at the entrance to which +a gunny-bag is spread, whereon a small quantity of paddy is poured, +and a few culms of Cynodon Dactylon and a little cow-dung are placed +on it. The eldest of the agnates, sickle in hand, takes some of the +paddy, and moves on, raising both hands to his forehead. The other +agnates then do the same, and proceed in Indian file, males in front +and females in the rear, to the corpse. Round it they walk, men from +left to right, and women in the reverse direction, and at the end +of each circuit put some of the paddy on its face. The cot is then +carried to the burning-ground, a woman heading the procession, and +shaking the end of her cloth all the way. The corpse is laid on the +pyre with its feet to the south, and the pyre lighted by the eldest son +standing at the head. The sticks of which the car was constructed are +added to the fuel, of which the pyre is built up. In some places the +son, when lighting the pyre, repeats the words "Being begotten by my +father and mother, I, in the presence of all and the Deva, set fire +at the head after the manner of my ancestors and forefathers." The +Rev. A. C. Clayton records that, before the procession started for +the burning-ground, some female relatives of the dead man tied locks +of their hair round the toes of the corpse, and others went three +times round the bier. On the day following the funeral, the bereaved +family distribute rice to all the Badagas of the hamlet, and all the +near relations of the deceased go to the burning-ground, taking with +them two new pots. The fire is extinguished, and the fragments of the +bones are collected. A tray is made of the fronds of the bracken fern +(Pteris aquilina) covered with a cloth, on which the bones are placed +together with culms of Cynodon grass and ghi. The Badagas of the hamlet +who are younger than the deceased salute the bones by touching them, +and a few men, including the chief mourner, hold the tray, and convey +it to the bone pit, which every hamlet possesses. Into it the bones +are thrown, while an elder repeats the words "Become united with the +line of your relations, with your class, and with the big people," or +"May the young and old who have died, may all those who have died from +time immemorial up to the present time, mingle in one." When the pit +has been closed up, all return to the spot where the body was burnt, +and, clearing a space, make a puddle, round which they stand, and +throw into it a handful of korali (Setaria italica), uttering the words +"May deaths cease; may evils cease; may good prevail in the village; in +virtue of the good deeds of the ancestors and forefathers, may this one +mingle with them." This ceremony concluded, they repair to a stream, +where a member of the bereaved family shaves a Toreya partially or +completely. Some take a razor, and, after removing a patch of hair, +pass the Toreya on to a barber. All the agnates are then shaved by +a Badaga or a barber. The chief mourner then prostrates himself on +the ground, and is blessed by all. He and the Toreya proceed to the +house of the deceased. Taking a three-pronged twig of Rhodomyrtus +tomentosus, and placing a minige (Argyreia) leaf on the prongs, +he thrusts it into a rubbish heap near the house. He then places a +small quantity of samai grain, called street food, on the leaf, and, +after sprinkling it thrice with water, goes away. + +It was noted by Harkness that, at the burning-ground, the son or +representative of the deceased dropped a little grain into the mouth +of the corpse, carrying in his left hand a small bar of iron, which +is supposed to have a repulsive power over the spirits that hover +about the dead. + +The final death ceremonies, or korambu, are celebrated on a +Sunday. Towards evening the house of the deceased is cleansed +with cow-dung, and Badaga men assemble therein, sending away all +women. The chief mourner, accompanied by two Badagas carrying new +pots, proceeds to a stream, where the pots are cleaned with cow-dung, +and rubbed over with culms of Andropogon Schoenanthus. They are +then filled with water, carried to the house, and deposited in the +milk-room. At the entrance to the inner apartment, five agnates stand, +holding a circular bamboo tray (kerachi) made of plaited bamboo, on +which the chief mourner pours a small quantity of paddy, and spreads +it with a sickle. The widow and other female relations come near, +and cry. A few sickles or knives (preferably those which were used +at the funeral) are placed on the tray, which is saluted by all the +Badagas present. The paddy is husked in a mortar, and the rice cooked +with Dolichos Lablab, Cicer arietinum, and other pulses, without +the addition of salt. Early on the following morning, the eldest +son, taking a small quantity of the rice to the roof of the house, +places seven balls made therefrom on plantain or minige leaves, and +recites the names of the male and female ancestors and forefathers, +his mother, father, and brothers. The remainder of the rice is eaten +by relations. In some places, the whole of the rice is divided into +seven balls, and taken outside the house. Water is sprinkled over the +roof, and a portion of the rice thrown thereon. Standing up before +the assembled Badagas, an elder says "To-day we have acted up to the +observances of our ancestors and forefathers. New ones should not be +considered as old, or old as new. There is not a man carrying a head +(wise man), or a woman carrying breasts (wise woman). May he become +united with the men of his clan and caste." + +The funeral rites of the Udayas differ in some important details from +those of the Badaga sub-division. The buffalo catching, and leading +the animal round the corpse, are omitted. But a steer and heifer are +selected, and branded on the thigh, by means of a hot iron, with the +lingam and other emblems. Bedecked with cloths and jewels, they are +led to the side of the corpse, and made to stand on a blanket spread +on the ground. They are treated as if they were lingams, and puja is +done to them by offering cocoanuts and betel leaves, and throwing +flowers over them. Round their necks kankanams (marriage threads) +are tied. They are made to turn so as to face away from the corpse, +and their tails are placed in the hands thereof. An elder then proceeds +with the recitation of the dead person's sins. The Udayas bury their +dead in a sitting posture in a cell dug out of the side of the grave, +and, like the Irulas, prefer to use a grave in which a previous burial +has taken place. At the four corners of the grave they place in the +ground a plant of Leucas aspera, and pass a cotton thread laterally +and diagonally across the grave, leaving out the side opposite the +cell. Two men descend into the grave, and deposit the corpse in its +resting place with two lighted lamps. + +In 1905, an elaborate Badaga memorial ceremony for ancestors called +manavalai, which takes place at long intervals, was celebrated on +the Nilgiris. I gather from the notes of a Native official that an +enormous car, called elu kudi teru (seven-storeyed car) was built of +wood and bamboo, and decorated with silk and woollen fabrics, flags, +and umbrellas. Inside the ground floor were a cot with a mattress and +pillow, and the stem of a plantain tree. The souls of the ancestors +are supposed to be reclining on the cot, resting their heads on the +pillow, and chewing the plantain, while the umbrellas protect them from +the sun and rain. The ear ornaments of all those who have died since +the previous ceremony should be placed on the cot. "A Badaga fell +and hurt himself during the erection of the car. Whereupon, another +Badaga became possessed, and announced that the god was angry because +a Kurumba had something to do with the building of the structure. A +council meeting was held, and the Kurumba fined twenty-five rupees, +which were credited to the god. Sixty-nine petty bazars and three beer +taverns had been opened for the convenience of all classes of people +that had assembled. One very old Badaga woman said that she was twelve +years old when the first European was carried in a chair by the Todas, +and brought up the ghat to the Nilgiris from Coimbatore. On Wednesday +at 10 A.M. people from the adjoining villages were announced, and +the Kota band, with the village people, went forward, greeted them, +and brought them to the car. As each man approached it, he removed +his turban, stooped over the pillow and laid his head on it, and then +went to join the ring for the dance. The dancers wore skirts made of +white long-cloth, white and cream silks and satins with border of red +and blue trimming, frock dresses, and dressing-gowns, while the coats, +blouses, and jackets were of the most gaudy colours of silk, velvet, +velveteen, tweed, and home-spun. As each group of people arrived, +they went first to the temple door, saluted the god, and went to the +basement of the car to venerate the deceased, and then proceeded to +dance for an hour, received their supplies of rice, etc., and cleared +off. Thursday and Friday were the grandest days. Nearly three thousand +females, and six thousand males, assembled on Thursday. To crown all +the confusion, there appeared nearly a thousand Badagas armed with +new mamotis (spades). They came on dancing for some distance, rushed +into the crowd, and danced round the car. These Badagas belonged +to a gang of public works, local fund, and municipal maistries. On +the last day a sheep was slaughtered in honour of the deity. The +musicians throughout the festivities were Kotas and Kurumbas. The +dancing of the men of three score showed that they danced to music, +and the stepping was admirable, while the dancing of young men did not +show that they had any idea of dancing, or either taste or knowledge +of music. They were merely skipping and jumping. This shows that the +old art of the Badaga dance is fast decaying." The cot is eventually +burnt at the burning-ground, as if it contained a corpse. + +A kind of edible truffle (Mylitta lapidescens) is known as little +man's bread on the Nilgiris. The Badaga legendary name for it is +Pandva-unna-buthi, or dwarf bundle of food, [85] i.e., food of the +dwarfs, who are supposed once to have inhabited the Nilgiris and +built the pandu kulis or kistvaens. + +The story goes that Lord Elphinstone, a former Governor of Madras, +was anxious to build a residence at Kaiti. But the Badagas, who had +on the desired site a sacred tree, would not part with the land. The +Governor's steward succeeded in making the Badaga headman drunk, +and secured, for a rental of thirty-five rupees annually, the site, +whereon a villa was built, which now belongs to the Basel Mission. [86] + +In a recent work, [87] Mr. A. H. Keane, in a note on the "Dravidian +Aborigines," writes as follows. "All stand on the very lowest +rung of the social ladder, being rude hillmen without any culture +strictly so called, and often betraying marked negroid characters, +as if they were originally Negroes or Negritos, later assimilated +in some respects to their Dravidian conquerors. As they never had +a collective racial name, they should now be called, not Dravidians +or proto-Dravidians, but rather pre-Dravidians, as more collectively +indicating their true ethnical relations. Such are the Kotas, Irulas, +Badagas, and Kurumbas." It may be pointed out that the Badagas and +Kotas of the Nilgiri plateau are not "wild tribes," have no trace of +negroid characters, and no affinities with the Kurumbas and Irulas +of the Nilgiri slopes. The figures in the following table speak for +themselves:-- + + + =========+=======================+====================== + | Stature. | Nasal Index. + +=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+====== + | A | B | C | D | E | F + =========+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+====== + Badaga | 164.1 | 180.2 | 159.9 | 75.6 | 88.4 | 62.7 + Kota | 162.9 | 174.2 | 155. | 77.2 | 92.9 | 64. + Irula | 159.8 | 168. | 152. | 84.9 | 100. | 72.3 + Kurumba | 157.5 | 163.6 | 149.6 | 88.8 | 111. | 79.1 + =========+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+====== + + Column Headers: A = Average cm. B = Maximum cm. + C = Minimum cm. D = Average. E = Maximum. F = Minimum. + + +Badagi.--The carpenter sub-division of Panchalas. + +Badhoyi.--The Badhoyis are Oriya carpenters and blacksmiths, of whom +the former are known as Badhoyi, and the latter as Komaro. These +are not separate castes, and the two sections both interdine and +intermarry. The name Badhoyi is said to be derived from the Sanskrit +vardhaki, which, in Oriya, becomes bardhaki, and indicates one who +changes the form, i.e., of timber. Korti, derived from korto, a saw, +occurs as the name of a section of the caste, the members of which +are wood-sawyers. Socially, the Badhoyis occupy the same position as +Doluvas, Kalinjis, and various other agricultural classes, and they +do not, like the Tamil Kammalans, claim to be Viswakarma Brahmans, +descended from Viswakarma, the architect of the gods. + +The hereditary headman is called Maharana, and, in some places, +there seem to be three grades of Maharana, viz., Maharana, Dondopato +Maharana, and Swangso Maharana. These headmen are assisted by a +Bhollobhaya or Dolobehara, and there is a further official called +Agopothiria, whose duty it is to eat with an individual who is +re-admitted into the caste after a council meeting. This duty is +sometimes performed by the Maharana. Ordinary meetings of council +are convened by the Maharana and Bhollobhaya. But, if a case of a +serious nature is to be tried, a special council meeting, called kulo +panchayat, is held in a grove or open space outside the village. All +the Maharanas and other officers, and representatives of five castes +(panchapatako) equal or superior to the Badhoyis in the social scale, +attend such a council. The complainant goes to the Swangso Maharana, +and, giving him fifty areca nuts, asks him to convene the council +meeting. Punishment inflicted by the caste council usually assumes the +form of a fine, the amount of which depends on the worldly prosperity +of the delinquent, who, if very indigent, may be let off with a +reprimand and warning. Sometimes offences are condoned by feeding +Brahmans or the Badhoyi community. Small sums, collected as fines, +are appropriated by the headman, and large sums are set apart towards +a fund for meeting the marriage expenses of the poorer members of +the caste, and the expenditure in connection with kulo panchayats. + +Concerning the marriage ceremonies, Mr. D. Mahanty writes as +follows. "At a marriage among the Badhoyis, and various other castes in +Ganjam, two pith crowns are placed on the head of the bridegroom. On +his way to the bride's house, he is met by her purohit (priest) and +relations, and her barber washes his feet, and presents him with a new +yellow cloth, flowers, and kusa grass (also called dharbha grass). When +he arrives at the house, amid the recitations of stanzas by the priest, +the blowing of conch shells and other music, the women of the bride's +party make a noise called hulu-huli, and shower kusa grass over him. At +the marriage booth, the bridegroom sits upon a raised 'altar,' and +the bride, who arrives accompanied by his maternal uncle, pours salt, +yellow-coloured rice, and parched paddy (rice) over the head of the +bridegroom, by whose side she seats herself. One of the pith crowns +is removed from the bridegroom's forehead, and placed on that of the +bride. Various Brahmanical rites are then performed, and the bride's +father places her hand in that of the bridegroom. A bundle of straw +is now placed on the altar, on which the contracting parties sit, the +bridegroom facing east, and the bride west. The purohit rubs a little +jaggery over the bridegroom's right palm, joins it to the palm of the +bride, and ties their two hands together with a rope made of kusa grass +(hasthagonti). A yellow cloth is tied to the cloths which the bridal +pair are wearing, and stretched over their shoulders (gontiyala). The +hands are then untied by a married woman. Sradha is performed for the +propitiation of ancestors, and the purohit, repeating some mantrams +(prayers), blesses the pair by throwing yellow rice over them. On the +sixth day of the ceremony, the bridegroom runs away from the house of +his father-in-law, as if he was displeased, and goes to the house of +a relation in the same or an adjacent village. His brother-in-law, +or other male relation of the bride, goes in search of him, and, +when he has found him, rubs some jaggery over his face, and brings +him back." As an example of the stanzas recited by the purohit, +the following may be cited:-- + + + I have presented with my mind and word, and also with kusa grass + and water. + + The witnesses of this are fire, Brahmans, women, relations, + and all the devatas. + + Forgive this presentable faithful maid. + + I am performing the marriage according to the Vedic rites. + + Women are full of all kinds of faults. Forgive these faults. + + Brahma is the god of this maid. + + By the grace of the god Vasudeva, I give to thee the bridegroom. + + +The Badhoyis are Paramarthos, and follow the Chaitanya form of +Vaishnavism. They further worship various village deities. The dead +are cremated. The corpse of a dead person is washed, not at the house, +but at the burning-ground. + +The most common caste title is Maharana. But, in some zemindaris, such +titles as Bindhani Rathno, and Bindhani Bushano, have been conferred +by the zemindars on carpenters for the excellence of their work. + +The carpenters and blacksmiths hold inams or rent-free lands both +under zemindars and under Government. In return, they are expected +to construct a car for the annual festival of the village deity, +at which, in most places, the car is burnt at the conclusion of +the festival. They have further to make agricultural implements +for the villagers, and, when officials arrive on circuit, to supply +tent-pegs, etc. + +Bagata.--The Bagatas, Bhaktas, or Baktas are a class of Telugu +fresh-water fishermen, who are said to be very expert at catching fish +with a long spear. It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that +"on the Dasara day they worship the fishing baskets, and also (for +some obscure reason) a kind of trident." The trident is probably the +fishing spear. Some of the Bagatas are hill cultivators in the Agency +tracts of Vizagapatam. They account for their name by the tradition +that they served with great devotion (bhakti) the former rulers of +Golgonda and Madugula, who made grants of land to them in mokhasa +tenure. Some of them are heads of hill villages. The head of a single +village is called a Padal, and it may be noted that Padala occurs as an +exogamous sept of the Kapus, of which caste it has been suggested that +the Bagatas are an offshoot. The overlord of a number of Padals styles +himself Nayak or Raju, and a Mokhasadar has the title of Dora. It is +recorded, in the Census Report, 1871, that "in the low country the +Bhaktas consider themselves to take the rank of soldiery, and rather +disdain the occupation of ryots (cultivators). Here, however (in hill +Madugulu in the Vizagapatam district), necessity has divested them +of such prejudices, and they are compelled to delve for their daily +bread. They generally, nevertheless, manage to get the Kapus to work +for them, for they make poor farmers, and are unskilled in husbandry." + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district, +that "Matsya gundam (fish pool) is a curious pool on the Macheru +(fish river) near the village of Matam, close under the great +Yendrika hill, 5,188 feet above the sea. A barrier of rocks runs +right across the river there, and the stream plunges into a great +hole and vanishes beneath this, reappearing again about a hundred +yards lower down. Just where it emerges from under the barrier, it +forms a pool, which is crowded with mahseer of all sizes. These are +wonderfully tame, the bigger ones feeding fearlessly from one's hand, +and even allowing their backs to be stroked. They are protected by the +Madgole zamindars--who on several grounds venerate all fish--and by +superstitious fears. Once, goes the story, a Brinjari caught one and +turned it into curry, whereon the king of the fish solemnly cursed +him, and he and all his pack-bullocks were turned into rocks, which +may be seen there till this day. At Sivaratri, a festival occurs at +the little thatched shrine near by, the priest at which is a Bagata, +and part of the ritual consists in feeding the sacred fish. + +"In 1901, certain envious Bagatas looted one of the villages of the +Konda Malas or hill Paraiyans, a pushing set of traders, who are +rapidly acquiring wealth and exalted notions, on the ground that they +were becoming unduly arrogant. The immediate cause of the trouble +was the fact that at a cockfight the Malas' birds had defeated the +Bagatas'." + +In a note on the Bagatas, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao writes that the caste +is divided into exogamous septs or intiperulu, some of which occur also +among the Kapus, Telagas, and Vantaris. Girls are married either before +or after puberty, and the custom, called menarikam, which renders it +a man's duty to marry his maternal uncle's daughter, is the general +rule. An Oriya or Telugu Brahman officiates at marriages, and the +bride is presented with jewelry as a substitute for the bride-price +(voli) in money. It is noted, in the Census Report, 1901, that, +at a wedding, the bridegroom is struck by his brother-in-law, who +is then presented with a pair of new cloths. The Bagatas are both +Vaishnavites and Saivites, and the former get themselves branded on +the arm by a Vaishnava guru, who lives in the Godavari district. The +Vaishnavites burn their dead, and the Saivites bury them in the +customary sitting attitude. Satanis officiate for the former, and +Jangams for the latter. Both sections perform the chinna and pedda +rozu (big and little day) death ceremonies. The hill Bagatas observe +the Itiga Ponduga festival, which is celebrated by the hill classes +in Vizagapatam. + +Bahusagara (many seas).--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as a synonym of Rangari. The Rangaris are tailors and dyers, +and the signification of the name is not clear. + +Baidya.--See Vaidyan. + +Bainedu.--The Bainedu, or Bainedi, as they are called in the +Census Report, 1901, are the musicians and barbers of the Malas and +Madigas. At the peddadinamu death ceremony of the Gamallas, a Mala +Bainedu takes part in the recitation of the story of Ankamma, and in +making the designs (muggu) on the ground. + +Bairagi.--The Bairagis are a class of religious mendicants, who +roam about all over India, and are for the most part recruited from +North Indian castes. They are followers of Ramanand, who founded the +order at the end of the fourteenth, or beginning of the fifteenth +century. According to common tradition, the schism of Ramanand +originated in resentment of an affront offered him by his fellow +disciples, and sanctioned by his teacher. It is said that he had +spent some time in travelling through various parts of India, after +which he returned to the math, or residence of his superior. His +brethren objected to him that in the course of his peregrinations +it was impossible he could have observed that privacy in his meals, +which is a vital observance of the Ramanuja sect; and, as Raghavanand +admitted the validity of the objection, Ramanand was condemned to +feed in a place apart from the rest of the disciples. He was highly +incensed at the order, and retired from the society altogether, +establishing a schism of his own. [88] + +The name Bairagi is derived from the Sanskrit vairagya (vi + rag), +denoting without desire or passion, and indicates an ascetic, who has +subdued his passions, and liberated himself from worldly desires. The +Bairagis are sometimes called Bavaji or Sadhu. + +The Bairagis are Vaishnavites, and bear the Tengalai Vaishnava mark +(namam), made with sandal-paste or gopi, on the forehead. Bairagis with +a Vadagalai mark are very rare. The Bairagis wear necklaces of tulsi +(Ocimum sanctum) beads or lotus (Nelumbium speciosum) seeds. Every +Bairagi cooks his food within a space cleansed with cow-dung water +by himself or his disciple, and will not leave the space until he has +finished his meal. The Bairagis are not particular about screening the +space from the public gaze. They partake of one meal daily, in the +afternoon, and are abstainers from flesh dietary. They live mainly +on alms obtained in the bazars, or in choultries (rest-houses for +travellers). They generally carry with them one or two brass vessels +for cooking purposes, a salagrama stone and a conch-shell for worship, +and a chillum (pipe) for smoking ganja (Indian hemp) or opium. They +are, as a rule, naked except for a small piece of cloth tied round +the waist and passed between the thighs. Some wear more elaborate +body-clothing, and a turban. They generally allow the beard to grow, +and the hair of the head is long and matted, with sometimes a long tail +of yak or human hair tied in a knot on the top of the head. Those who +go about nearly naked smear ashes all over their bodies. When engaged +in begging, some go through the streets, uttering aloud the name of +some God. Others go from house to house, or remain at a particular +spot, where people are expected to give them alms. + +Some Bairagis are celibates, and others married. They are supposed +to be celibates, but, as Dr. T. N. Bhattacharjee observes, [89] the +"monks of this order have generally a large number of nuns attached +to their convents, with whom they openly live as man and wife." The +Bairagis are very particular about the worship of the salagrama stone, +and will not partake of food without worshipping it. When so doing, +they cover their head with a piece of cloth (Ram nam ka safa), on +which the name Rama is printed in Devanagiri characters. Their face +and shoulders are stamped, by means of brass stamps, with the word +Rama in similar characters. For the purpose of meditation, the Bairagi +squats on the ground, sometimes with a deer or tiger skin beneath him, +and rests his hands on the cross-piece of his yoga-dandam, or bent +stick. A pair of tongs is stuck in the ground on his right side, and +sometimes fire is kept near it. It is noted by Mr. J. C. Oman [90] +that "a most elaborate ritual has been laid down for the guidance +of Bairagis in the daily routine of the indispensable business and +duties of life, prescribing in minute detail how, for example, the +ascetic should wash, bathe, sit down, perform pranayam (stoppage +or regulation of respiration), purify his body, purge his mind, +meditate on Vishnu, repeat the Gayatri (hymn) as composed for the +special use of members of the sect, worship Rama, Sita, Lakshman, +Bharata, and Satringah, together with Rama's bows and arrows, and, +lastly, the monkey god Hanuman." + +The Bairagis have a guru or priest, whom they call Mahant. Some visit +the celebrated temple near Tirupati and pay their respects to the +Mahant thereof. + +Baisya.--A sub-division of Koronos of Ganjam. + +Baita Kammara.--The name, meaning outside blacksmiths, applied to +Kamsala blacksmiths, who occupy a lowly position, and work in the +open air or outside a village. [91] + +Bajantri.--A synonym of Mangala, indicating their occupation as +professional musicians. + +Bakta.--See Bagata. + +Bakuda.--A sub-division of Holeya. + +Balanollu.--Balanollu and Badranollu are names of gotras of Ganigas, +the members of which may not cut Erythroxylon monogynum. + +Balasantosha.--The Balasantosha or Balasanta vandlu (those who please +children) are described in the Kurnool Manual as "ballad reciters, +whose chief stories are the Bobbili katha, or the story of the siege +of the fort of Bobbili in Vizagapatam by Bussy; the Kurnool Nabob's +katha or the story of the resumption of Kurnool by the English; and the +tale of the quarrels between Ganga and Parvati, the two wives of Siva." + +Balegara (bangle man).--An occupational sub-division of Banajiga. + +Balija.--The Balijas are described by Mr. Francis [92] as being +"the chief Telugu trading caste, scattered throughout all parts of +the Presidency. It is said to have two main sub-divisions, Desa +(or Kota, a fort) and Peta (street). The first of these includes +those, whose ancestors are supposed to have been the Balija (Nayak) +kings of Madura, Tanjore and Vijayanagar, or provincial governors +in those kingdoms; and to the second belong those, like the Gazulu +(bangle sellers) and Perike (salt-sellers), who live by trade. In +the Tamil districts Balijas are known as Vadugans (Telugu people) and +Kavarais. The descendants of the Nayak or Balija Kings of Madura and +Tanjore claim to be Kshatriyas and of the Kasyapa (a rishi) gotra, +while the Vijayanagar Rais say they are lineal descendants of the +sage Bharadwaja. Others trace their ancestry to the Kauravas of the +Mahabharata. This Kshatriya descent is, however, not admitted by +other castes, who say that Balijas are an offshoot of the Kammas or +Kapus, or that they are a mixed community recruited from these and +other Telugu castes. The members of the caste none of them now wear +the sacred thread, or follow the Vedic ritual. The name Kartakkal +(governors) was returned by those who claim to be descendants of the +Nayak Kings of Madura and Tanjore." + +In a letter submitted, from Coimbatore, to Mr. Francis in connection +with the census, 1901, it was stated that "the Balija people are +Kshatriyas of the Lunar Race, as can be proved by a reference to +the Bahgavatham, Vishnupuranam, and Brahmmandapuranam, etc.... In +this connection, it will be interesting to note that one Sevappa +Naidu married Murthiammal, sister-in-law to Achuta Deva Rayulu of +Narapathi Samasthanam of Vijayanagar, and as a marriage portion or +dowry received the territory of Tanjore, over which he ruled as king +for a long period. It was at this time that the celebrated Tirumalay +Naidu of Madura took as wife one of the daughters of Sevappa Naidu's +family. Tirumalay's grandson, one Chockalinga Naidu, married Mangammal, +daughter of Vijiaragavulu Naidu, a grandson of the said Tanjore +Sevappa Naidu. It will thus be seen that the Naidu rulers of Tanjore, +Trichinopoly, and Madura, were all relations of Narapathi Samasthanam +of Vijianagar. That these Narapathies of Vijianagaram were Kshatriyas +of the Lunar Race can be clearly seen by a reference to Manucharithra, +Parijathapaharanam, Prouda Prabanda Kavi Charitra, etc., and that they +were direct descendants of the great Andra Kings can be proved with +equal satisfaction by referring to Colonel Mackenzie's MSS., in the +introduction of A. D. Campbell's Telugu Grammar, and James Prinsep's +Useful Tables of Andra Kings will show that the Andras were immediate +descendants of the well-known Yayathi Raja of the Lunar Race." + +"The Balijas," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [93] "are the trading caste +of the Telugu country, but they are now found in every part of the +Presidency. Concerning the origin of this caste several traditions +exist, but the most probable is that which represents them as a +recent offshoot of the Kapu or Reddi caste. The caste is rather a +mixed one, for they will admit, without much scruple, persons who +have been expelled from their proper caste, or who are the result +of irregular unions. The bulk of the Balijas are now engaged in +cultivation, and this accounts for so many having returned Kapu as +their main caste, for Kapu is also a common Telugu word used for +a ryot (farmer). It is not improbable that there was once a closer +connection than now between the Kapus and the Balijas, and the claim +of the Balijas to belong to the Kapu caste may have a foundation in +fact. In their customs there is very little difference between the +Kapus and Balijas. Their girls are married both before and after +puberty. The re-marriage of widows is forbidden. They eat flesh, +and alcohol is said to be freely indulged in [There is a proverb +'If a man be born a Balija, he must crack the arrack bottle']. Like +the Bogams and Sanis, the Balija females usually wear a petticoat +instead of the long robe of ordinary Hindus. The general name of the +caste is Naidu." "The Balija Naidu," it has been said, [94] "is to +be met with in almost every walk of life--railway station-masters, +head coolies, bakers, butlers, municipal inspectors, tappal (post) +runners, hawkers, and hotel-keepers. The title Chetti is by some used +in preference to Naidu." It is noted in the Bellary Manual that the +Balijas "have by common consent obtained a high place in the social +system of South India. Some are land-owners, residing on and working +their own property with the help of members of inferior castes; but +the majority live by trade." At Tirupati, a number of Balija families +are engaged in the red sanders wood (Pterocarpus santalinus), carving +industry. Figures of swamis (deities), mythological figures, elephants, +and miniature temple cars with flying cherubs and winged horses, are +most abundantly carved: but domestic utensils in the shape of chembus, +kinnis, cups, plates, etc., are turned on the lathe. Large vessels are +sometimes made of the wood of vepi or achamaram (Hardwickia binata), +which resembles red sanders wood, but is more liable to crack. The +carved figures are sold to pilgrims and others who visit Tirupati, +and are also taken to Conjeeveram, Madura, and other places, at times +when important temple festivals are celebrated. Vessels made of red +sanders wood carry no pollution, and can be used by women during the +menstrual period, and taken back to the house without any purification +ceremony. For the same reason, Sanyasis (ascetics) use such vessels +for doing puja. + +The name Balija is said to be derived from the Sanskrit bali (a +sacrifice) and ja (born), signifying that the Balijas owe their origin +to the performance of a yagam. The legend is current that on one +occasion Siva wanted his consort Parvati to appear before him in all +her glory. But, when she stood before him, fully decorated, he laughed, +and said that she was not as charming as she might be. On this, she +prayed that Siva would help her to become so. From his braid of hair +Siva created a being who descended on the earth, bearing a number of +bangles and turmeric paste, with which Parvati adorned herself. Siva, +being greatly pleased with her appearance, told her to look at herself +in a looking-glass. The being, who brought the bangles, is believed +to have been the ancestor of the Gazula Balijas. According to another +version of the legend, Parvati was not satisfied with her appearance +when she saw herself in the looking-glass, and asked her father to tell +her how she was to make herself more attractive. He accordingly prayed +to Brahma, who ordered him to perform a severe penance (thapas). From +the sacrificial fire, kindled in connection therewith, arose a being +leading a donkey laden with heaps of bangles, turmeric, palm leaf +rolls for the ears, black beads, sandal powder, a comb, perfumes, +etc. From this Maha Purusha who thus sprang from a sacrifice (bali), +the Balijas derived their origin and name. To him, in token of respect, +were given flags, torches, and certain musical instruments. + +The Desayis, or leaders of the right-hand faction, are said to be +Balijas by caste. In former days they had very great influences, and +all castes belonging to the right-hand faction would obey the Desayi +Chetti. Even at the present day, the Oddes and others refer their +disputes to the Desayi, and not to their own caste headman. In former +times there were three principal Desayis, who had their head-quarters +at Conjeeveram, Cuddalore, and Walajapet. The head Desayi possesses a +biruthu (insigne of office) in the form of a large brass ladle with a +bell attached to it. On the occasion of Balija marriages and funerals, +this is sent through the Chalavathi (a pariah), who is the servant +of the Desayi, and has the right of allu eduththal (taking a handful) +when he goes to the bazaar, where he receives meat from the butcher, +vegetables, etc., as his perquisite. The Desayi's ladle is kept in +the custody of the Chalavathi (See Desayi). + +The Balijas, Mr. Stuart writes, [95] "employ Brahmans and Satanis +as their priests. The chief object of their worship is Gauri, their +caste deity. It is said that the Malas are the hereditary custodians +of the idol of Gauri and her jewels, which the Balijas get from them +whenever they want to worship her. The following story is told to +account for this. The Kapus and Balijas, molested by the Muhammadan +invaders on the north of the northern Pennar, migrated to the south +when the Pennar was in full flood. Being unable to cross the river, +they invoked their deity to make a passage for them, for which it +demanded the sacrifice of a first-born child. While they stood at a +loss what to do, the Malas who followed them boldly offered one of +their children to the goddess. Immediately the river divided before +them, and the Kapus and the Balijas crossed it, and were saved from +the tyranny of the Muhammadans. Ever since that time, the Malas have +been respected by the Kapus and Balijas, and the latter even deposited +the images of Gauri, the bull and Ganesa, which they worshipped, +in the house of a Mala. I am credibly informed that the practice of +leaving these images in the custody of Malas is even now observed in +some parts of the Cuddapah district and elsewhere." + +Of the numerous sub-divisions of the Balijas, the following may +be noticed:-- + + + Gazula, glass bangles. Valaiyal or vala (bangle) Chetti is the + Tamil equivalent. By some the sight of a Gazula Balija with his + pile of bangles on his back is considered a good omen. In recent + years, a scare has arisen in connection with an insect, which + is said to take up its abode in imported German glass bangles, + which compete with the indigenous industry of the Gazulas. The + insect is believed to lie low in the bangle till it is purchased, + when it comes out and nips the wearer, after warning her to get + her affairs in order before succumbing. A specimen of a broken + bangle, from which the insect is stated to have burst forth and + stung a girl in the wrist, was sent to me. But the insect was + not forthcoming. + + Gandavallu, or Gundapodi vandlu. Go about the villages, + hawking turmeric, kunkumam (colour powder), kamela (Mallotus + philippinensis) dye powder, beads, combs, cosmetics and other + articles. Supposed to have been originally Komatis. + + Kavarai, Tamil synonym for Balija. + + Linga. + + Panchama. + + Telugu or Telaga. A synonym for Balija in the Northern Circars. + + Rajamahendram or Musu Kamma. The former denotes the town of + Rajahmundry, and the latter a special ear-ornament worn by women. + + Tota, garden. + + Ralla, precious stones. + + Pagadala, coral. + + Pusa, beads. + + Racha, royal. + + Vyasa. A sage (rishi) or hunter, whom the hunting classes claim + as their ancestor. + + +Other sub-divisions, classified as Balijas at the census, 1901, were:-- + + + Jakkulas, among whom it was, at Tenali in the Kistna district, + formerly customary for each family to give up one girl for + prostitution. Under the influence of social reform, a written + agreement was a few years ago entered into to give up the practice. + + Adapapa. Female attendants on the ladies of the families of + Zamindars, who, as they are not allowed to marry, lead a life of + prostitution. Their sons call themselves Balijas. In some places, + e.g., the Kistna and Godavari districts, this class is known as + Khasa or Khasavandlu. + + Santa Kavarai. Returned as Balijas in the Chingleput district. + + Ravut. Returned in the Salem district. Said to have been formerly + soldiers under the Poligars. + + +Like other Telugu castes, the Balijas have exogamous septs (intiperu) +and gotras. Of the former, the following are examples:-- + + + Tupakala, musket. + Samudram, ocean. + Pappu, split pulse. + Gantla, bell. + Puli, tiger. + Balli, lizard. + Avula, cow. + Gandham, sandal paste or powder. + Jilakara, cummin seeds. + Miriyala, pepper. + Mutyala, pearls. + Narikella, cocoanut. + Nemili, peacock. + Pagadala, coral. + Pattindla, silk house. + Ratnala, precious stones. + Ungarala, rings. + Yenumala, buffalo. + + +There is a saying that a Balija who has no gotra must take the name of +the Pasuleti, or Pasupuleti gotra. In like manner, a Brahman orphan, +whose gotra cannot be traced, is made to adopt the Vathsa gotra. + +Among the Musu Kammas, the consent of both the maternal uncle and +elder sister's husband must be obtained before a girl is given in +marriage. At the betrothal ceremony, the future bridegroom's relations +proceed to the house of the girl, carrying the following articles +on an odd number of trays beneath a cloth canopy (ulladam): mustard, +fenugreek (Trigonella Foenumgræcum), cummin seeds, curds, jaggery, dhal +(Cajanus indicus), balls of condiments, tamarinds, pepper, twenty-one +cakes, eleven cocoanuts, salt, plantains, flowers, a new cloth, +black beads, a palm-leaf roll for the ear lobe, turmeric, a comb, +and kunkumam (colour powder). A few rupees, called kongu mudi, to be +given to the future mother-in-law, are also placed on the tray. The +contracting parties exchange betel and a cocoanut, of which the latter +is taken away by a member of the bridegroom's party, tied up in his +body-cloth. The girl is seated on a plank, goes through the ceremony +(nalagu) of being anointed with oil and paste, and is presented with +a new cloth. Wearing this, she sits on the plank, and betel, flowers, +jewels, etc., are placed in her lap. A near female relation then +ties a string of black beads round her neck. Among the Musu Kammas, +the milk-post, consisting of a green bamboo, with sometimes a branch +of Odina Wodier, must be set up two days before the commencement of +the marriage ceremonies. It is worshipped, and to it are tied an iron +ring, and a string of cotton and wool twisted together (kankanam). A +small framework, called dhornam, made of two sticks, across which +cotton threads or pieces of cloth are stretched, is brought by a +washerwoman, and given to the maternal uncle of the bridegroom, +who ties it to the marriage booth. The marriage pots are brought +from a potter's house beneath a cloth canopy (ulladam), and given to +married couples, closely related to the bridegroom, who fetch water, +and place the pots on the dais. Some married women pour rice on a +clean white cloth spread on the floor, and rub off the bran with their +hands, while they sing songs. The cloth to be worn by the bridegroom +is dipped in turmeric water by these women and dried. The Balijas are +very particular about the worship of their female ancestors (perantalu) +and no auspicious ceremony can be commenced until perantalu puja has +been performed. Among the Musu Kammas, five women, who are closely +related to the bridal couple, take only one meal a day, and try to +keep free from pollution of all sorts. They go through the nalagu +ceremony, and are presented with new cloths. Among other sections, +the wall is simply painted with turmeric dots to represent the +ancestors. The ancestor worship concluded, the finger and toe-nails +of the bridegroom are cut, and a Musu Kamma bridegroom is conducted +to a temple of Vigneswara (Ganesa), if there is one near at hand. By +other sections it is considered sufficient, if Vigneswara worship is +performed at the marriage booth. The Musu Kamma bridegroom is dressed +up at the temple, and a bashingam (chaplet) tied on his forehead. An +old-fashioned turban (paghai) is placed on his head, and a dagger +(jimthadu) stuck into his waist-cloth. It is said that, in olden times, +the Balijas used to worship the dagger, and sacrifice sheep or goats +at marriages. The bridegroom is next brought to the house where the +wedding is being celebrated, and his brother-in-law washes his feet, +and, after throwing flowers and rice over them, puts toe-rings and +shoes thereon. The Brahman purohit lights the sacred fire (homam), +and pours ghi (clarified butter) therein, while he utters some +verses, Vedic or other. He then ties the kankanam (thread) on the +bridegroom's wrist. The parents of the bride next proceed with the +dharadhattam (gift of the girl) by pouring water and grains of rice +into the hands of the bridegroom. Vigneswara is then worshipped, +and the bottu (marriage badge) is blessed by those assembled, and +handed to the bridegroom. He, placing his right foot on that of +the bride, who is separated from him by a screen, ties it round her +neck. The couple then exchange seats, and rice is thrown in front of +them. They next go thrice round the dais and milk-post, and, at the +end of the first and second rounds, the foot of the bride is placed +on a grinding stone. After the third round they gaze at the pole-star +(Arundati). Into one of the marriage pots are put a pap-bowl, ring, and +bracelet, which are picked out by the couple. If the pap-bowl is first +got hold of by the bridegroom, the first-born child will be a boy; if +the ring, it will be a girl. This rite concluded, the bridegroom makes +a mark on the bride's forehead with collyrium. On the second day, the +bridegroom makes a pretence of being angry, and stays in a garden or +house near that in which the marriage ceremonies are conducted. The +bride, and some of her relations, go to him in procession, and, +treating him with great respect, bring him back. The sacred fire is +lighted, and the bride enters the room in which the marriage pots +(araveni) are kept. The bridegroom is stopped at the entrance thereto +by a number of married women, and has to call his wife by her name, +and pay a small sum of money for the arathi (coloured water), which +is waved by the women, to ward off the evil eye. In some places, +the sister of the bridegroom extracts a promise that his coral +(daughter) shall be given in marriage to her pearl (son). He is then +permitted to enter the room. On the third day, after homam has been +performed by the Brahman priest, the newly married couple go through +a burlesque imitation of domestic life, after they have worshipped +the posts of the booth, and perform a mimic ploughing ceremony, +the bridegroom stirring up some earth in a basket with a stick or +miniature plough. This, in some places, his sister tries to prevent +him from doing by covering the basket with a cloth, and he has to say +"I will give my coral to your pearl." His brother-in-law tries to +squeeze his fingers between a pair of sticks called kitti, which +was, in former times, a very popular form of torture as a means +of extracting confession. The bride gives her husband some conji +(rice-gruel) to refresh him after his pretended labour. + +At a marriage among the Perikes (q.v.), a gunny-bag is said to be +worshipped before the bottu is tied. A quantity of rice is measured +on the first day of the ceremonies and tied up in a cloth. On the +third day, the cloth is opened, and it is considered an auspicious +sign if the quantity of rice exceeds that which was originally put +into it. Among the Rajamahendram Balijas, just before the nalagu +ceremony, the knees, shoulders, and cheeks of the bride and bridegroom +are touched with a pestle, while the names of their septs are called +out. On the third day, the same process is repeated, but in the reverse +order. A Gazula Balija bride must, when the bottu is tied, be dressed +in a white cloth with red stripes, called sanna pappuli. With other +sections, a white cloth dyed with turmeric is de rigeur. + +Balija, it may be noted, is, in the North Arcot Manual, returned +as a division of Dasaris and Idigas. The better classes of Medaras +(cane-splitters and mat-makers) are also taking to calling themselves +Balijas, and assume the title Chetti. Oddes and Upparas sometimes +style themselves Odde Balija and Uppara Balija. They belong to the +right-hand section, which is headed by the Desayi, who is a Balija, +and so describe themselves as belonging to the Setti or Chetti samayam +(section). Some members of the Mila and Vada fishing castes have +adopted Oda or Vada (boat) Balija as their caste name. + +Ballala.--Ballala, or Bellala, was returned, at the census, 1901, +as the caste name of a number of individuals, indicating their claim +to descent from the Hoysal Ballal kings of Mysore. Ballal is a title +assumed by Bant families of position. There is a proverb that, when +a Bant becomes powerful, he becomes a Ballal. [96] + +Ballem (spear).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Balli (lizard).--An exogamous sept of Balija. + +Balolika.--A synonym of Rajapuri. + +Balu (bear).--A sept of Domb. + +Bana (big pot).--An exogamous sept of Togatas, and a name for Telugu +washermen, who are sometimes called Bana Tsakala. Bana is the Telugu +name for the pot which they use for boiling the clothes in. + +Banajiga (vanik, tradesman).--Canarese traders, many of whom are +Lingayats. See Linga Balija. + +Banda.--Banda, as applied to the Mondi mendicant class, seems to be +used in the sense of an obstinate fellow. Some, however, maintain +that it refers to a beggar who carries about a stone, and threatens +to beat his brains out, if alms are not forthcoming. Banda, meaning +a rock, also occurs as an exogamous sept of Odde. + +Bandari.--Bandari, denoting apparently the shrub Dodondæa viscosa, +is an exogamous sept of Odde. It further occurs, in the sense of a +temple treasurer, as an exogamous sept of Devangas and Padma Sales, +for whom the Bandari acts as caste messenger. It is also the name +of the assistant to the headman, or Pattakar, of the Okkiliyans, +a title of Konkani Brahmans, and a synonym of Kelasis. + +Bandekara.--A synonym for Konkani Vanis (traders), who are said, in the +Madras Census Report, 1901, to ape the Brahmanical customs, and call +themselves by the curious hybrid name of Vasiya (or Vaisya) Brahman. + +Bandi (cart).--An exogamous sept of Kapu, Kavarai, Korava, Kumbara, +Kurni, Kuruba, Mala, Odde, Stanika, and Yanadi. It further occurs +as a name for Koravas, who drag the temple car at times of religious +festival. Vandikkaran (cartmen) is an occupational name for Nayars, +who work as cartmen for carrying fuel. + +Bangaru Mukkara (gold nose ornament).--A sub-division of Kamma. + +Baniya.--The Baniyas or Bunyas are immigrant traders and money-lenders +(sowcars) from Northern India, who have settled down in the southern +bazars, where they carry on a lucrative business, and wax sleek and +wealthy. Bania also occurs as a synonym for the South Indian trading +caste, the Komatis. + +It may be noted, as a little matter of history, that, in 1677, the +Court of Directors, in a letter to Fort St. George, offered "twenty +pounds reward to any of our servants or soldiers as shall be able to +speak, write, and translate the Banian language, and to learn their +arithmetic." [97] + +Banjari.--A synonym of Lambadi. + +Banka (gum).--An exogamous sept of Motati Kapu. + +Bannagara (a painter).--A synonym of Chitrakara. + +Bannan.--A synonym of Vannan or Mannan, recorded at times of +census. In like manner Bannata occurs as a Canarese form of the +Malayalam Veluttedan or Vannattan. + +Banni or Vanni (Prosopis spicigera).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba and +Kurni. The tree is worshipped because on it "the five Pandava princes +hung up their arms when they entered Virat Nagra in disguise. On the +tree the arms turned to snakes, and remained untouched till the owners +returned." (Lisboa.) + +Bant.--For the following account of the Bants I am mainly indebted +to Mr. H. A. Stuart's description of them in the Manual of South +Canara. The name Bant, pronounced Bunt, means in Tulu a powerful man +or soldier, and indicates that the Bants were originally a military +class corresponding to the Nayars of Malabar. The term Nadava instead +of Bant in the northern portions of South Canara points, among other +indications, to a territorial organisation by nads similar to that +described by Mr. Logan as prevailing in Malabar. "The Nayars," he +writes, "were, until the British occupied the country, the militia +of the district. Originally they seem to have been organised into +'Six Hundreds,' and each six hundred seems to have had assigned to +it the protection of all the people in a nad or country. The nad was +in turn split up into taras, a Dravidian word signifying originally +a foundation, the foundation of a house, hence applied collectively +to a street, as in Tamil teru, in Telugu teruvu, and in Canarese +and Tulu teravu. The tara was the Nayar territorial unit for civil +purposes." It has been stated that "the Malabar Nair chieftain of old +had his nad or barony, and his own military class; and the relics +of this powerful feudal system still survive in the names of some +of the taluks (divisions) of modern Malabar, and in the official +designations of certain Nair families, whose men still come out with +quaint-looking swords and shields to guard the person of the Zamorin on +the occasion of the rice-throwing ceremony, which formally constitutes +him the ruler of the land. Correspondingly, the Bants of the northern +parts of Canara still answer to the territorial name of Nad Bants, +or warriors of the nad or territory. It is necessary to explain that, +in both ancient Keralam and Tulu, the functions of the great military +and dominant classes were so distributed that only certain classes +were bound to render military service to the ruling prince. The rest +were lairds or squires, or gentleman farmers, or the labourers and +artisans of their particular community, though all of them cultivated +a love of manly sports." [98] + +Few traces of any such organisation as has been indicated now +prevail, great changes having been made when the Vijayanagar +Government introduced, more than five hundred years ago, a system +of administration under which the local Jain chiefs, though owing +allegiance to an overlord, became more independent in their relations +with the people of the country. Under the Bednur kings, and still more +under the Mysore rule, the power of the chiefs was also swept away, +but the old organisation was not reverted to. + +The Bants are now the chief land-owning and cultivating class in South +Canara, and are, with the exception of the Billavas or toddy-drawers, +the most numerous caste in the district. "At the present day, the Bants +of Canara are largely the independent and influential landed gentry, +some would say, perhaps, the substantial yeomanry. They still retain +their manly independence of character, their strong and well developed +physique, and they still carry their heads with the same haughty toss +as their forefathers did in the stirring fighting days when, as an +old proverb had it, 'The slain rested in the yard of the slayer,' +and when every warrior constantly carried his sword and shield. Both +men and women of the Bant community are among the comeliest of Asiatic +races, the men having high foreheads and well-turned aquiline noses." + +In a note on the agricultural economy of South Canara, Rao Sahib +T. Raghaviah writes [99] that "the ryot (cultivator) of South Canara +loves to make his land look attractive, and every field is lined with +the lovely areca, and the stately palm. The slopes adjoining the rich +fields are studded with plantations of jack, mango, cashew, plantain +and other fruit and shade trees, and the ryot would not even omit to +daub his trees with the alternate white and red bands, with which the +east coast women love to adorn a marriage house or temple wall. These, +with the regularly laid out and carefully embanked water-courses and +streams, lend an air of enchantment to the whole scene. The ignorance +prevailing among the women of the richer section of the landed classes +(on the east coast) is so great that it is not uncommon to ridicule +a woman by saying that what she knows about paddy (rice) is that it +grows on a tree. But, in a district like South Canara, the woman that +does not know agriculture is the exception. I have often come across +respectable women of the landed classes like the Bants, Shivallis, +and Nairs, managing large landed estates as efficiently as men. The +South Canara woman is born on the land, and lives on it. She knows +when to sow, and when to reap; how much seed to sow, and how much +labour to employ to plough, to weed, or to reap. She knows how to +prepare her seed, and to cure her tobacco, to garner her grain, +and to preserve her cucumbers through the coming monsoon. She knows +further how to feed her cow, and to milk it, to treat it when sick, +and to graze it when hale. She also knows how to make her manure, and +how to use it without wasting a bit of it. She knows how to collect +green leaves for her manure, and to help the fuel reserve on the hill +slope above her house grow by a system of lopping the branches and +leaving the standards. She knows also how to collect her areca nuts, +and to prepare them for the market, and to collect her cocoanuts, and +haggle for a high price for them with her customers. There is, in fact, +not a single thing about agriculture which the South Canara man knows, +and which the South Canara woman does not know. It is a common sight, +as one passes through a paddy flat or along the adjoining slope, to +see housewives bringing out handfuls of ashes collected in the oven +over night, and depositing them at the root of the nearest fruit tree +on their land." + +Most of the Bants are Hindus by religion, and rank as Sudras, but +about ten thousand of them are Jains. Probably they originally assumed +Jainism as a fashionable addition to the ancestral demon worship, to +which they all still adhere, whether they profess to be Vaishnavites, +Saivites, or Jains. It is probable that, during the political supremacy +of the Jains, a much larger proportion of the Bants professed adherence +to that religion than now-a-days. + +There are four principal sub-divisions of the caste, viz., Masadika, +who are the ordinary Bants of Tuluva; Nadava or Nad, who speak +Canarese, and are found in the northern part of South Canara; the +Parivara, who do not follow the aliya santana system of inheritance; +and the Jains. Members of these sub-divisions may not intermarry, but +instances have occurred of marriage between members of the Masadika +and Nad sub-divisions. + +Nothing very definite is known of the origin of the Bants, but +Tuluva seems, in the early centuries of the Christian era, to have +had kings who apparently were sometimes independent and sometimes +feudatories of overlords, such as the Pallavas, the early Kadambas, +the early Chalukyans, the later Kadambas, the western Chalukyans, +the Kalachurians, and the Hoysal Ballals. This indicates a constant +state of fighting, which would account for an important class of the +population being known as Bantaru or warriors; and, as a matter of +course, they succeeded in becoming the owners of all the land which +did not fall to the share of the priestly class, the Brahmans. Ancient +inscriptions speak of kings of Tuluva, and the Bairasu Wodears of +Karakal, whose inscriptions have been found at Kalasa as early as +the twelfth century, may have exercised power throughout Tuluva or +the greater part of it. But, when the Vijayanagar dynasty became +the overlords of Canara in 1336, there were then existing a number +of minor chiefs who had probably been in power long before, and the +numerous titles still remaining among the Bants and Jains, and the +local dignities known as Pattam and Gadi, point to the existence +from very early times of a number of more or less powerful local +chieftains. The system peculiar to the west coast under which all +property vests in females, and is managed by the seniors of the family, +was also favourable to the continuance of large landed properties, +and it is probable that it is only within comparatively recent times +that sub-division of landed property became anything like as common +as it is now. All the Bants, except the Parivara and a few Jains +follow this aliya santana system of inheritance, [100] a survival of +a time when the military followers of conquering invaders or local +chiefs married women of the local land-owning classes, and the most +important male members of the family were usually absent in camp or +at court, while the women remained at the family house on the estate, +and managed the farms. The titles and the pattams or dignities have +always been held by the male members, but, as they also go with the +landed property, they necessarily devolve on the sister's son of +a deceased holder, whence has arisen the name aliya santana, which +means sister's son lineage. A story is embodied in local traditions, +attributing the origin of the system to the fiat of a king named Bhutal +Pandya, until whose time makkala santana, or inheritance from father to +son, generally obtained. "It is said that the maternal uncle of this +prince, called Deva Pandya, wanted to launch his newly constructed +ships with valuable cargo in them, when Kundodara, king of demons +demanded a human sacrifice. Deva Pandya asked his wife's permission +to offer one of his sons, but she refused, while his sister Satyavati +offered her son Jaya Pandya for the purpose. Kundodara, discovering +in the child signs of future greatness, waived the sacrifice, and +permitted the ships to sail. He then took the child, restored to him +his father's kingdom of Jayantika, and gave him the name of Bhutal +Pandya. Subsequently, when some of the ships brought immense wealth, +the demon again appeared, and demanded of Deva Pandya another human +sacrifice. On the latter again consulting his wife, she refused to +comply with the request, and publicly renounced her title and that of +her children to the valuable property brought in the ships. Kundodara +then demanded the Deva Pandya to disinherit his sons of the wealth +which had been brought in the ships, as also of the kingdom, and +to bestow all on his sister's son, Jaya or Bhutal Pandya. This was +accordingly done. And, as this prince inherited his kingdom from his +maternal uncle and not from his father, he ruled that his own example +should be followed by his subjects, and it was thus that the aliya +santana law was established about A.D. 77." [101] + +It is noted by Mr. L. Moore [102] that various judicial decisions +relating to the aliya santana system are based to a great extent on +a book termed Aliya Santanada Kattu Kattale, which was alleged to be +the work of Bhutala Pandiya, who, according to Dr. Whitley Stokes, the +learned scholar who edited the first volume of the Madras High Court +Reports, lived about A.D. 78, but which is in reality a very recent +forgery compiled about 1840. As to this, Dr. A. C. Burnell observes +as follows in a note in his law of partition and succession. "One +patent imposture yet accepted by the Courts as evidence is the Aliya +Santanada Kattu Kattale, a falsified account of the customs of South +Canara. Silly as many Indian books are, a more childish or foolish +tract it would be impossible to discover; it is about as much worthy of +notice in a law court as 'Jack the Giant Killer.' That it is a recent +forgery is certain.... The origin of the book in its present state is +well-known; it is satisfactorily traced to two notorious forgers and +scoundrels about thirty years ago, and all copies have been made from +the one they produced. I have enquired in vain for an old manuscript, +and am informed, on the best authority, that not one exists. A number +of recent manuscripts are to be found, but they all differ essentially +one from another. A more clumsy imposture it would be hard to find, +but it has proved a mischievous one in South Canara, and threatens to +render a large amount of property quite valueless. The forgers knew the +people they had to deal with, the Bants, and, by inserting a course +that families which did not follow the Aliya Santana shall become +extinct, have effectually prevented an application for legislative +interference, though the poor superstitious folk would willingly +(it is said) have the custom abolished." [103] + +As a custom similar to aliya santana prevails in Malabar, it no doubt +originated before Tuluva and Kerala were separated. The small body +of Parivara Bants, and the few Jain Bants that do not follow the +aliya santana system, are probably the descendants of a few families +who allowed their religious conversion to Hinduism or Jainism to +have more effect on their social relations than was commonly the +case. Now that the ideas regarding marriage among the Bants are in +practice assimilated to a great extent to those of most other people, +the national rule of inheritance is a cause of much heart-burning and +quarrelling, fathers always endeavouring to benefit their own offspring +at the cost of the estate. A change would be gladly welcomed by many, +but vested interests in property constitute an almost insuperable +obstacle. + +The Bants do not usually object to the use of animal food, except, of +course, the flesh of the cow, and they do not as a rule wear the sacred +thread. But there are some families of position called Ballals, amongst +whom heads of families abstain from animal food, and wear the sacred +thread. These neither eat nor intermarry with the ordinary Bants. The +origin of the Ballals is explained by a proverb, which says that when a +Bant becomes powerful, he becomes a Ballal. Those who have the dignity +called Pattam, and the heads of certain families, known as Shettivalas +or Heggades, also wear the sacred thread, and are usually managers +or mukhtesars of the temples and bhutasthans or demon shrines within +the area over which, in former days, they are said to have exercised +a more extended jurisdiction, dealing not only with caste disputes, +but settling numerous civil and criminal matters. The Jain Bants are +strict vegetarians, and they abstain from the use of alcoholic liquors, +the consumption of which is permitted among other Bants, though the +practice is not common. The Jain Bants avoid taking food after sunset. + +The more well-to-do Bants usually occupy substantial houses on their +estates, in many of which there is much fine wood-work, and, in some +cases, the pillars of the porches and verandahs, and the doorways are +artistically and elaborately carved. These houses have been described +as being well built, thatched with palm, and generally prettily +situated with beautiful scenic prospects stretching away on all sides. + +The Bants have not as a rule largely availed themselves of European +education, and consequently there are but few of them in the Government +service, but among these few some have attained to high office, and +been much respected. As is often the case among high spirited people +of primitive modes of thought, party and faction feeling run high, +and jealousy and disputes about landed property often lead to hasty +acts of violence. Now-a-days, however, the last class of disputes +more frequently lead to protracted litigation in the Courts. + +The Bants are fond of out-door sports, football and buffalo-racing +being amongst their favourite amusements. But the most popular +of all is cock-fighting. Every Bant, who is not a Jain, takes an +interest in this sport, and large assemblages of cocks are found +at every fair and festival throughout South Canara. "The outsider," +it has been said, [104] "cannot fail to be struck with the tremendous +excitement that attends a village fair in South Canara. Large numbers +of cocks are displayed for sale, and groups of excited people may +be seen huddled together, bending down with intense eagerness to +watch every detail in the progress of a combat between two celebrated +village game-cocks." Cock fights on an elaborate scale take place on +the day after the Dipavali, Sankaranthi or Vinayakachathurthi, and +Gokalashtami festivals, outside the village boundary. At Hiriadaka, +in October, 1907, more than a hundred birds were tethered by the leg +to the scrub jungle composed of the evergreen shrub Ixora coccinea, +or carried in the arms of their owners or youngsters. Only males, from +the town and surrounding villages, were witnesses of the spectacle. The +tethered birds, if within range of each other, excited by the constant +crowing and turmoil, indulged in an impromptu fight. Grains of rice +and water were poured into the mouths and over the heads of the birds +before the fight, and after each round. The birds were armed with +cunningly devised steel spurs, constituting a battery of variously +curved and sinuous weapons. It is believed that the Bhuta (demon) +is appeased, if the blood from the wounds drops on the ground. The +men, whose duty it is to separate the birds at the end of a round, +sometimes receive nasty wounds from the spurs. The tail feathers of +a wounded bird are lifted up, and a palm leaf fan or towel is waved +to and fro over the cloacal orifice to revive it. The owner of a +victorious bird becomes the possessor of the vanquished bird, dead +or alive. At an exhibition of the products of South Canara, during +a recent visit of the Governor of Madras to Mangalore, a collection +of spurs was exhibited in the class "household implements." + +For the following note on buffalo races, I am indebted to +Mr. H. O. D. Harding. "This is a sport that has grown up among a race +of cultivators of wet land. It is, I believe, peculiar to South Canara, +where all the cultivation worth mentioning is wet. The Bants and Jains, +and other landowners of position, own and run buffaloes, and the +Billava, or toddy drawer, has also entered the racing world. Every +rich Bant keeps his kambla field consecrated to buffalo-racing, +and his pair of racing buffaloes, costing from Rs. 150 to Rs. 500, +are splendid animals; and, except for an occasional plough-drawing +at the beginning of the cultivation season, are used for no purpose +all the year, except racing. The racing is for no prize or stakes, +and there is no betting, starter, judge, or winning post. Each pair +of buffaloes runs the course alone, and is judged by the assembled +crowd for pace and style, and, most important of all, the height and +breadth of the splash which they make. Most people know the common +levelling plank used by the ryots (cultivators) all over India +to level the wet field after ploughing. It is a plank some 4 or 5 +feet long by 1 or 1 1/2 feet broad, and on it the driver stands to +give it weight, and the buffaloes pull it over the mud of a flooded +rice-field. This is the prototype of the buffalo-racing car, and any +day during the cultivating season in the Tulu country one may see two +boys racing for the love of the sport, as they drive their levelling +boards. From this the racing car has been specialised, and, if a work +of art for its own purpose, is not a car on which any one could or +would wish to travel far. The leveller of utility is cut down to a +plank about 1 1/2 by 1 foot, sometimes handsomely carved, on which +is fixed a gaily decorated wooden stool about 6 inches high and 10 +inches across each way, hollowed out on the top, and just big enough +to afford good standing for one foot. In the plank, on each side, +are holes to let the mud and water through. The plank is fixed to a +pole, which is tied to the buffalo's yoke. The buffaloes are decorated +with coloured jhuls and marvellous head-pieces of brass and silver +(sometimes bearing the emblems of the sun and moon), and ropes which +make a sort of bridle. The driver, stripping himself to the necessary +minimum of garments, mounts, while some of his friends cling, like ants +struggling round a dead beetle, to the buffaloes. When he is fairly up, +they let go, and the animals start. The course is a wet rice-field, +about 150 yards long, full of mud and water. All round are hundreds, +or perhaps thousands of people, including Pariahs who dance in groups +in the mud, play stick-game, and beat drums. In front of the galloping +buffaloes the water is clear and still, throwing a powerful reflection +of them as they gallop down the course, raising a perfect tornado of +mud and water. The driver stands with one foot on the stool, and one +on the pole of the car. He holds a whip aloft in one hand, and one +of the buffaloes' tails in the other. He drives without reins, with +nothing but a waggling tail to hold on to and steer by. Opening his +mouth wide, he shouts for all he is worth, while, to all appearances, +a deluge of mud and water goes down his throat. So he comes down the +course, the plank on which he stands throwing up a sort of Prince of +Wales' feathers of mud and water round him. The stance on the plank +is no easy matter, and not a few men come to grief, but it is soft +falling in the slush. Marks are given for pace, style, sticking to +the plank, and throwing up the biggest and widest splash. Sometimes a +kind of gallows, perhaps twenty feet high, is erected on the course, +and there is a round of applause if the splash reaches up to or +above it. Sometimes the buffaloes bolt, scatter the crowd, and +get away into the young rice. At the end of the course, the driver +jumps off with a parting smack at his buffaloes, which run up the +slope of the field, and stop of themselves in what may be called the +paddock. At a big meeting perhaps a hundred pairs, brought from all +over the Tulu country, will compete, and the big men always send their +buffaloes to the races headed by the local band. The roads are alive +with horns and tom-toms for several days. The proceedings commence +with a procession, which is not infrequently headed by a couple of +painted dolls in an attitude suggestive of that reproductiveness, +which the races really give thanks for. They are a sort of harvest +festival, before the second or sugge crop is sown, and are usually +held in October and November. Devils must be propitiated, and the +meeting opens with a devil dance. A painted, grass-crowned devil +dancer, riding a hobby-horse, proceeds with music round the kambla +field. Then comes the buffalo procession, and the races commence. At +a big meeting near Mangalore, the two leading devil dancers were +dressed up in masks, and coat and trousers of blue mission cloth, +and one had the genitalia represented by a long piece of blue cloth +tipped with red, and enormous testes. Buffaloes, young and old, trained +and untrained, compete, some without the plank attached to them, and +others with planks but without drivers. Accidents sometimes happen, +owing to the animals breaking away among the crowd. On one occasion, +a man who was in front of a pair of buffaloes which were just about +to start failed to jump clear of them. Catching hold of the yoke, +he hung on to it by his hands, and was carried right down the course, +and was landed safely at the other end. If he had dropped, he would +have fallen among four pairs of hoofs, not to mention the planks, +and would probably have been brained. It is often a case of owners up, +and the sons and nephews of big Bants, worth perhaps Rs. 10,000 a year, +drive the teams." + +To the above account, I may add a few notes made at a buffalo +race-meeting near Udipi, at which I was present. Each group of +buffaloes, as they went up the track to the starting-point, was +preceded by the Koraga band playing on drum, fife and cymbals, +Holeyas armed with staves and dancing, and a man holding a flag +(nishani). Sometimes, in addition to the flag, there is a pakke +or spear on the end of a bamboo covered with strips of cloth, or a +makara torana, i.e., festooned cloths between two bamboos. The two +last are permitted only if the buffaloes belong to a Bant or Brahman, +not if they are the property of a Billava. At the end of the races, +the Ballala chief, in whose field they had taken place, retired in +procession, headed by a man carrying his banner, which, during the +races, had been floating on the top of a long bamboo pole at the far +end of the track. He was followed by the Koraga band, and the Holeyas +attached to him, armed with clubs, and dancing a step dance amid +discordant noises. Two Nalkes (devil-dancers), dressed up in their +professional garb, and a torch-bearer also joined in the procession, +in the rear of which came the Ballala beneath a decorated umbrella. In +every village there are rakshasas (demons), called Kambla-asura, who +preside over the fields. The races are held to propitiate them, and, +if they are omitted, it is believed that there will be a failure of the +crop. According to some, Kambla-asura is the brother of Maheshasura, +the buffalo-headed giant, from whom Mysore receives its name. The +Koragas sit up through the night before the Kambla day, performing +a ceremony called panikkuluni, or sitting under the dew. They sing +songs to the accompaniment of the band, about their devil Nicha, +and offer toddy and a rice-pudding boiled in a large earthen pot, +which is broken so that the pudding remains as a solid mass. This +pudding is called kandel adde, or pot pudding. On the morning of the +races, the Holeyas scatter manure over the field, and plough it. On +the following day, the seedlings are planted, without, as in ordinary +cases, any ploughing. To propitiate various devils, the days following +the races are devoted to cock-fighting. The Kamblas, in different +places, have various names derived from the village deity, the chief +village devil, or the village itself, e.g., Janardhana Devara, Daivala, +or Udiyavar. The young men, who have the management of the buffaloes, +are called Bannangayi Gurikara (half-ripe cocoanut masters) as they +have the right of taking tender cocoanuts, as well as beaten rice +to give them physical strength, without the special permission of +their landlord. At the village of Vandar, the races take place in a +dry field, which has been ploughed, and beaten to break up the clods +of earth. For this reason they are called podi (powder) Kambla. + +A pair of buffaloes, belonging to the field in which the races take +place, should enter the field first, and a breach of this observance +leads to discussion and quarrels. On one occasion, a dispute arose +between two Bants in connection with the question of precedence. One +of them brought his own pair of buffaloes, and the other a borrowed +pair. If the latter had brought his own animals, he would have +had precedence over the former. But, as his animals were borrowed, +precedence was given to the man who brought his own buffaloes. This +led to a dispute, and the races were not commenced until the delicate +point at issue was decided. In some places, a long pole, called pukare, +decorated with flags, flowers, and festoons of leaves, is set up in +the Kambla field, sometimes on a platform. Billavas are in charge of +this pole, which is worshipped, throughout the races, and others may +not touch it. + +Fines inflicted by the Bant caste council are, I am informed, spent +in the celebration of a temple festival. In former days, those found +guilty by the council were beaten with tamarind switches, made to +stand exposed to the sun, or big red ants were thrown over their +bodies. Sometimes, to establish the innocence of an accused person, +he had to take a piece of red-hot iron (axe, etc.) in his hand, +and give it to his accuser. + +At a puberty ceremony among some Bants the girl sits in the courtyard +of her house on five unhusked cocoanuts covered with the bamboo +cylinder which is used for storing paddy. Women place four pots filled +with water, and containing betel leaves and nuts, round the girl, +and empty the contents over her head. She is then secluded in an +outhouse. The women are entertained with a feast, which must include +fowl and fish curry. The cocoanuts are given to a washerwoman. On the +fourth day, the girl is bathed, and received back at the house. Beaten +rice, and rice flour mixed with jaggery (crude sugar) are served out +to those assembled. The girl is kept gosha (secluded) for a time, +and fed up with generous diet. + +Under the aliya santana system of inheritance, the High Court has ruled +that there is no marriage within the meaning of the Penal Code. But, +though divorce and remarriage are permitted to women, there are formal +rules and ceremonies observed in connection with them, and amongst +the well-to-do classes divorce is not looked upon as respectable, +and is not frequent. The fictitious marriage prevailing amongst the +Nayars is unknown among the Bants, and a wife also usually leaves +the family house, and resides at her husband's, unless she occupies +so senior a position in her own family as to make it desirable that +she should live on the family estate. + +The Bants are divided into a number of balis (exogamous septs), which +are traced in the female line, i.e., a boy belongs to his mother's, not +to his father's bali. Children belonging to the same bali cannot marry, +and the prohibition extends to certain allied (koodu) balis. Moreover, +a man cannot marry his father's brother's daughter, though she belongs +to a different bali. In a memorandum by Mr. M. Mundappa Bangera, +[105] it is stated that "bali in aliya santana families corresponds to +gotra of the Brahmins governed by Hindu law, but differs in that it is +derived from the mother's side, whereas gotra is always derived from +the father's side. A marriage between a boy and girl belonging to the +same bali is considered incestuous, as falling within the prohibited +degrees of consanguinity. It is not at all difficult to find out the +bali to which a man or woman belongs, as one can scarcely be found +who does not know one's own bali by rote. And the heads of caste, +who preside at every wedding party, and who are also consulted by +the elders of the boy or girl before an alliance is formed, are such +experts in these matters that they decide at once without reference +to any books or rules whether intermarriages between persons brought +before them can be lawfully performed or not." As examples of balis +among the Bants, the following may be cited:-- + + + Bellathannaya, jaggery. + Bhuthiannaya, ashes. + Chaliannaya, weaver. + Edinnaya, hornet's nest. + Karkadabennai, scorpion. + Kayerthannaya (Strychnos Nux-vomica). + Kochattabannayya, or Kajjarannayya, jack tree (Artocarpus + integrifolia). + Koriannaya, fowl. + Pathanchithannaya, green peas. + Perugadannaya, bandicoot rat. + Poyilethannaya, one who removes the evil eye. + Puliattannaya, tiger. + Ragithannaya, ragi (Eleusine Coracana). + + +Infant marriage is not prohibited, but is not common, and both men +and girls are usually married after they have reached maturity. There +are two forms of marriage, one called kai dhare for marriages between +virgins and bachelors, the other called budu dhare for the marriage +of widows. After a match has been arranged, the formal betrothal, +called ponnapathera or nischaya tambula, takes place. The bridegroom's +relatives and friends proceed in a body on the appointed day to the +bride's house, and are there entertained at a grand dinner, to which +the bride's relatives and friends are also bidden. Subsequently the +karnavans (heads) of the two families formally engage to perform the +marriage, and plates of betel leaves and areca nuts are exchanged, +and the betel and nuts partaken of by the two parties. The actual +marriage ceremony is performed at the house of the bride or bridegroom, +as may be most convenient. The proceedings commence with the bridegroom +seating himself in the marriage pandal, a booth or canopy specially +erected for the occasion. He is there shaved by the village barber, +and then retires and bathes. This done, both he and the bride are +conducted to the pandal by their relations, or sometimes by the +village headman. They walk thrice round the seat, and then sit down +side by side. The essential and binding part of the ceremony, called +dhare, then takes place. The right hand of the bride being placed +over the right hand of the bridegroom, a silver vessel (dhare gindi) +filled with water, with a cocoanut over the mouth and the flower of +the areca palm on the cocoanut, is placed on the joined hands. The +parents, the managers of the two families, and the village headmen +all touch the vessel, which, with the hands of the bridal pair, +is moved up and down three times. In certain families the water is +poured from the vessel into the united hands of the couple, and this +betokens the gift of the bride. This form of gift by pouring water +was formerly common, and was not confined to the gift of a bride. It +still survives in the marriage ceremonies of various castes, and the +name of the Bant ceremony shows that it must once have been universal +among them. The bride and bridegroom then receive the congratulations +of the guests, who express a hope that the happy couple may become +the parents of twelve sons and twelve daughters. An empty plate, and +another containing rice, are next placed before the pair, and their +friends sprinkle them with rice from the one, and place a small gift, +generally four annas, in the other. The bridegroom then makes a gift +to the bride. This is called sirdachi, and varies in amount according +to the position of the parties. This must be returned to the husband, +if his wife leaves him, or if she is divorced for misconduct. The +bride is then taken back in procession to her home. A few days later +she is again taken to the bridegroom's house, and must serve her +husband with food. He makes another money present to her, and after +that the marriage is consummated. + +According to another account of the marriage ceremony among some +Bants, the barber shaves the bridegroom's face, using cow's milk +instead of water, and touches the bride's forehead with razor. The +bride and bridegroom bathe, and dress up in new clothes. A plank +covered with a newly-washed cloth supplied by a washerman, a tray +containing raw rice, a lighted lamp, betel leaves and areca nuts, +etc., are placed in the pandal. A girl carries a tray on which are +placed a lighted lamp, a measure full of raw rice, and betel. She is +followed by the bridegroom conducted by her brother, and the bride, +led by the bridegroom's sister. They enter the pandal and, after +going round the articles contained therein five times, sit down on the +plank. An elderly woman, belonging to the family of the caste headman, +brings a tray containing rice, and places it in front of the couple, +over whom she sprinkles a little of the rice. The assembled men and +women then place presents of money on the tray, and sprinkle rice over +the couple. The right hand of the bride is held by the headman, and +her uncle, and laid in that of the bridegroom. A cocoanut is placed +over the mouth of a vessel, which is decorated with mango leaves and +flowers of the areca palm. The headman and male relations of the bride +place this vessel thrice in the hands of the bridal couple. The vessel +is subsequently emptied at the foot of a cocoanut tree. + +The foregoing account shows that the Bant marriage is a good deal +more than concubinage. It is indeed as formal a marriage as is to be +found among any people in the world, and the freedom of divorce which +is allowed cannot deprive it of its essential character. Widows are +married with much less formality. The ceremony consists simply of +joining the hands of the couple, but, strange to say, a screen is +placed between them. All widows are allowed to marry again, but it +is, as a rule, only the young women who actually do so. If a widow +becomes pregnant, she must marry or suffer loss of caste. + +The Bants all burn their dead, except in the case of children under +seven, and those who have died of leprosy or of epidemic disease +such as cholera or small-pox. The funeral pile must consist at +least partly of mango wood. On the ninth, eleventh or thirteenth +day, people are fed in large numbers, but the Jains now substitute +for this a distribution of cocoanuts on the third, fifth, seventh, +or ninth day. Once a year--generally in October--a ceremony called +agelu is performed for the propitiation of ancestors. + +From a detailed account of the Bant death ceremonies, I gather that +the news of a death is conveyed to the caste people by a Holeya. A +carpenter, accompanied by musicians, proceeds to cut down a mango tree +for the funeral pyre. The body is bathed, and laid out on a plank. Clad +in new clothes, it is conveyed with music to the burning-ground. A +barber carries thither a pot containing fire. The corpse is set down +near the pyre and divested of the new clothes, which are distributed +between a barber, washerman, carpenter, a Billava and Holeya. The +pyre is kindled by a Billava, and the mat on which the corpse has +been lying is thrown thereon by a son or nephew of the deceased. On +the third day the relations go to the burning-ground, and a barber +and washerman sprinkle water over the ashes. Some days later, the +caste people are invited to attend, and a barber, washerman, and +carpenter build up on the spot where the corpse was burnt a lofty +structure, made of bamboo and areca palm, in an odd number of tiers, +and supported on an odd number of posts. It is decorated with cloths, +fruits, tender cocoanuts, sugarcane, flowers, mango leaves, areca +palm flowers, etc., and a fence is set up round it. The sons and +other relations of the deceased carry to the burning-ground three +balls of cooked rice (pinda) dyed with turmeric and tied up in a +cloth, some raw rice dyed with turmeric, pieces of green plantain +fruit, and pumpkin and a cocoanut. They go thrice round the structure, +carrying the various articles in trays on their heads, and deposit them +therein. The relations then throw a little of the coloured rice into +the structure, and one of the caste men sprinkles water contained in +a mango leaf over their hands. After bathing, they return home. The +clothes, jewels, etc., of the deceased are laid on a cloth spread +inside the house. A piece of turmeric is suspended from the ceiling by +a string, and a tray containing water coloured yellow placed beneath +it. Round this the females seat themselves. A cocoanut is broken, and a +barber sprinkles the water thereof contained in a mango leaf over those +assembled. On the following day, various kinds of food are prepared, +and placed on leaves, with a piece of new cloth, within a room of the +house. The cloth remains there for a year, when it is renewed. The +renewal continues until another death occurs in the family. + +In the following table, the cephalic index of the Bants is compared +with that of the Billavas and Shivalli Brahmans:-- + + + =========================================== + -- | Average. | Maximum. | Minimum. + ===========+==========+==========+========= + Brahman | 80.4 | 96.4 | 72 + Billava | 80.1 | 91.5 | 71 + Bant | 78 | 91.2 | 70.8 + ===========+==========+==========+========= + + +The headman among the Bants is generally called Guttinayya, meaning +person of the guttu or site. Every village, or group of villages, +possesses a guttu, and the Bant who occupies, or holds in possession +the house or site set apart as the guttu is the Guttinayya. When +this passes to another by sale or inheritance, the office of headman +passes with it. It is said that, in some instances, the headmanship +has in this way passed to classes other than Bants, e.g., Brahmans and +Jains. In some villages, the headman is, as among some other castes, +called Gurikara, whose appointment is hereditary. + +A few supplementary notes may be added on the Parivara, Nad, and +Masadika Bants. The Parivaras are confined to the southern taluks of +the South Canara district. They may interdine, but may not intermarry +with the other section. The rule of inheritance is makkalakattu +(in the male line). Brahman priests are engaged for the various +ceremonials, so the Parivaras are more Brahmanised than the Nad or +Masadika Bants. The Parivaras may resort to the wells used by Brahmans, +and they consequently claim superiority over the other sections. Among +the Nad Bants, no marriage badge is tied on the neck of the bride. At +a Parivara marriage, after the dhare ceremony, the bridegroom ties a +gold bead, called dhare mani, on the neck of the bride. The remarriage +of widows is not in vogue. In connection with the death ceremonies, +a car is not, as among the Nad and Masadika sections, set up over +the mound (dhupe). On the eleventh day, the spreading of a cloth on +the mound for offerings of food must be done by Nekkaras, who wash +clothes for Billavas. + +The Nad or Nadava and Masadika Bants follow the aliya santana +law of succession, and intermarriage is permitted between the +two sections. The names of the balis, which have already been +given, are common among the Masadikas, and do not apply to the +Nads, among whom different sept names occur, e.g., Honne, Shetti, +Koudichi, etc. Elaborate death ceremonies are only performed if the +deceased was old, or a respected member of the community. The corpse +is generally cremated in one of the rice-fields belonging to the +family. After the funeral, the male members of the family return home, +and place a vessel containing water and light in a room. One or two +women must remain in this room, and the light must be kept burning +until the bojja, or final death ceremonies, are over. The water in +the vessel must be renewed twice daily. At the final ceremonies, +a feast is given to the castemen, and in some places, the headman +insists on the people of the house of mourning giving him a jewel as +a pledge that the bojja will be performed on the ninth, eleventh, or +thirteenth day. The headman visits the house on the previous day, and, +after examination of the provisions, helps in cutting up vegetables, +etc. On the bojja day, copper and silver coins, and small pieces +of gold, are buried or sown in the field in which the ceremony +is performed. This is called hanabiththodu. The lofty structure, +called gurigi or upparige, is set up over the dhupe or ashes heaped +up into a mound, or in the field in which the body was cremated, +only in the event of the deceased being a person of importance. In +some places, two kinds of structure are used, one called gurigi, +composed of several tiers, for males, and the other called delagudu, +consisting of a single tier, for females. Devil-dancers are engaged, +and the commonest kola performed by them is the eru kola, or man and +hobby-horse. In the room containing the vessel of water, four sticks +are planted in the ground, and tied together. Over the sticks a cloth +is placed, and the vessel of water placed beneath it. A bit of string +is tied to the ceiling, and a piece of turmeric or a gold ring is +attached to the end of it, and suspended so as to touch the water in +the vessel. This is called nir neralu (shadow in water), and seems +to be a custom among various Tulu castes. After the bojja ceremony, +all those who are under death pollution stand in two rows. A Madavali +(washerman) touches them with a cloth, and a Kelasi (barber) sprinkles +water over them. In this manner, they are freed from pollution. + +The most common title among the Bants is Chetti or Setti, but many +others occur, e.g., Heggade, Nayaka, Bangera, Rai, Ballalaru, etc. + +Barang Jhodia.--A sub-division of Poroja. + +Bardeshkar (people of twelve countries).--Some families among Konkani +Brahmans go by this name. + +Bariki.--Bariki is the name for village watchmen in Southern Ganjam, +whose duty it further is to guide the traveller on the march from +place to place. In the Bellary Manual, Barika is given as the name +for Canarese Kabberas, who are village servants, who keep the village +chavadi (caste meeting-house) clean, look after the wants of officials +halting in the village, and perform various other duties. In the +Census Report, 1901, the Barikas are said to be usually Boyas. The +Barika of Mysore is defined by Mr. L. Rice as [106] "a menial among +the village servants; a deputy talari, who is employed to watch the +crops from the growing crop to the granary." + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Bellary district, that "in +the middle of the threshold of nearly all the gateways of the ruined +fortifications round the Bellary villages will be noticed a roughly +cylindrical or conical stone, something like a lingam. This is the +boddu-rayi, literally the navel stone, and so the middle stone. It +was planted there when the fort was built, and is affectionately +regarded as being the boundary of the village site. Once a year, in +May, just before the sowing season begins, a ceremony takes place in +connection with it. Reverence is first made to the bullocks of the +village, and in the evening they are driven through the gateway past +the boddu-rayi with tom-toms, flutes, and all kinds of music. The +Barike next does puja (worship) to the stone, and then a string +of mango leaves is tied across the gateway above it. The villagers +now form sides, one party trying to drive the bullocks through the +gate, and the other trying to keep them out. The greatest uproar and +confusion naturally follow, and, in the midst of the turmoil, some +bullock or other eventually breaks through the guardians of the gate, +and gains the village. If that first bullock is a red one, the red +grains on the red soils will flourish in the coming season. If he +is white, white crops like cotton and white cholam will prosper. If +he is red-and-white, both kinds will do well. When the rains fail, +and, in any case, on the first full moon in September, rude human +figures drawn on the ground with powdered charcoal may be seen at +cross-roads and along big thoroughfares. They represent Jokumara the +rain-god, and are made by the Barikes--a class of village servants, +who are usually of the Gaurimakkalu sub-division of the Kabberas. The +villagers give the artists some small remuneration, and believe that +luck comes to those who pass over the figures." + +Barike.--A title of Gaudos and other Oriya castes. + +Barrellu (buffaloes).--An exogamous sept of Kapu. + +Basala.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as Telugu beggars +and soothsayers in Vizagapatam. The word is apparently a corruption +of Basa-valu, a sage. The Basa-valu pretend to be messengers of Indra, +the chief of the Devatas, and prognosticate coming events. + +Basari (fig tree).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Basava Golla.--A name for certain Koyis of the Godavari district, +whose grandfathers had a quarrel with some of their neighbours, +and separated from them. The name Basava is said to be derived from +bhasha, a language, as these Koyis speak a different language from +the true Gollas. [107] In like manner, Basa Kondhs are those who speak +their proper language, in contradistinction to those who speak Oriya, +or Oriya mixed with Kui. + +Basavi.--See Deva-dasi. + +Basiya Korono.--A sub-division of Korono. + +Basruvogaru (basru, belly).--An exogamous sept of Gauda. + +Baththala (rice).--An exogamous sept of Kamma. + +Batlu (cup).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Bauri.--There are found in the Madras Presidency nomad gangs of Bauris +or Bawariyas, who are described [108] as "one of the worst criminal +tribes of India. The sphere of their operations extends throughout the +length and breadth of the country. They not only commit robberies, +burglaries and thefts, but also practice the art of manufacturing +and passing counterfeit coin. They keep with them a small quantity +of wheat and sandal seeds in a small tin or brass case, which they +call Devakadana or God's grain, and a tuft of peacock's feathers, +all in a bundle. They are very superstitious, and do not embark on +any enterprise without first ascertaining by omens whether it will be +attended with success or not. This they do by taking at random a small +quantity of grains out of their Devakadana and counting the number +of grains, the omen being considered good or bad according as the +number of seeds is odd or even. For a detailed record of the history +of this criminal class, and the methods employed in the performance +of criminal acts, I would refer the reader to the accounts given by +Mr. Paupa Rao [109] and Mr. W. Crooke. [110] + +Bavaji.--The Bavajis are Bairagi or Gosayi beggars, who travel about +the country. They are known by various names, e.g., Bairagi, Sadu, etc. + +Bavuri.--The Bavuris, or Bauris, are a low class of Oriya +basket-makers, living in Ganjam, and are more familiarly known as +Khodalo. They are a polluting class, living in separate quarters, +and occupy a position lower than the Samantiyas, but higher than +the Kondras, Dandasis, and Haddis. They claim that palanquin (dhooly +or duli) bearing is their traditional occupation, and consequently +call themselves Boyi. "According to one story," Risley writes, [111] +"they were degraded for attempting to steal food from the banquet +of the gods; another professes to trace them back to a mythical +ancestor named Bahak Rishi (the bearer of burdens), and tells how, +while returning from a marriage procession, they sold the palanquin +they had been hired to carry, got drunk on the proceeds, and assaulted +their guru (religious preceptor), who cursed them for the sacrilege, +and condemned them to rank thenceforward among the lowest castes of +the community." The Bavuris are apparently divided into two endogamous +sections, viz., Dulia and Khandi. The former regard themselves as +superior to the latter, and prefer to be called Khodalo. Some of these +have given up eating beef, call themselves Dasa Khodalos, and claim +descent from one Balliga Doss, a famous Bavuri devotee, who is said +to have worked wonders, analogous to those of Nandan of the Paraiyan +community. To this section the caste priests belong. At Russelkonda, +a woman, when asked if she was a Bavuri, replied that the caste is so +called by others, but that its real name is Khodalo. Others, in reply +to a question whether they belonged to the Khandi section, became +angry, and said that the Khandis are inferior, because they eat frogs. + +The Bavuris gave the name of two gotras, saptha bhavunia and naga, +which are said to be exogamous. The former offer food to the gods on +seven leaves of the white gourd melon, Benincasa cerifera (kokkara), +and the latter on jak (Artocarpus integrifolia: panasa) leaves. All +over the Oriya country there is a general belief that house-names or +bamsams are foreign to the Oriya castes, and only possessed by the +Telugus. But some genuine Oriya castes, e.g., Haddis, Dandasis and +Bhondaris, have exogamous bamsams. + +For every group of villages (muttah), the Bavuris apparently have a +headman called Behara, who is assisted by Naikos or Dolo Beharas, +or, in some places, Dondias or Porichas, who hold sway over a +smaller number of villages. Each village has its own headman, called +Bhollobhaya (good brother), to whose notice all irregularities are +brought. These are either settled by himself, or referred to the Behara +and Naiko. In some villages, in addition to the Bhollobhaya, there +is a caste servant called Dangua or Dogara. For serious offences, +a council-meeting is convened by the Behara, and attended by the +Bhollobhayas, Naikos, and a few leading members of the community. The +meeting is held in an open plain outside the village. Once in two +or three years, a council-meeting, called mondolo, is held, at which +various matters are discussed, and decided. The expenses of meetings +are defrayed by the inhabitants of the villages in which they take +place. Among the most important matters to be decided by tribunals +are adultery, eating with lower castes, the re-admission of convicts +into the caste, etc. Punishment takes the form of a fine, and trial +by ordeal is apparently not resorted to. A man, who is convicted +of committing adultery, or eating with a member of a lower caste, +is received back into the caste on payment of the fine. A woman, +who has been proved guilty of such offences, is not so taken back. It +is said that, when a member of a higher caste commits adultery with +a Bavuri woman, he is sometimes received into the Bavuri caste. The +Behara receives a small fee annually from each village or family, +and also a small present of money for each marriage. + +Girls are married either before or after puberty. A man may marry +his maternal uncle's, but not his paternal aunt's daughter. At an +adult marriage, the festivities last for four days, whereas, at an +infant marriage, they are extended over seven days. When a young man's +parents have selected a girl for him, they consult a Brahman, and, +if he decides that the marriage will be auspicious, they proceed to +the girl's home, and ask that a day be fixed for the betrothal. On +the appointed day the amount of money, which is to be paid by the +bridegroom-elect for jewels, etc., is fixed. One or two new cloths +must be given to the girl's grandmother, and the man's party must +announce the number of feasts they intend to give to the castemen. If +the family is poor, the feasts are mentioned, but do not actually take +place. The marriage ceremony is always celebrated at night. On the +evening of the day prior thereto, the bride and bridegroom's people +proceed to the temple of the village goddess (Takurani), and, on their +way home, go to seven houses of members of their own or some higher +caste, and ask them to give them water, which is poured into a small +vessel. This vessel is taken home, and hung over the bedi (marriage +dais). The water is used by the bride and bridegroom on the following +morning for bathing. On the marriage day, the bridegroom proceeds to +the bride's village, and is met on the way by her party, and escorted +by his brother-in-law to the dais. The Bhollobhaya enquires whether +the bride's party have received everything as arranged, and, when +he has been assured on this point, the bride is brought to the dais +by her maternal uncle. She carries with her in her hands a little +salt and rice; and, after throwing these over the bridegroom, she +sits by his side. The grandfathers of the contracting couple, or a +priest called Dhiyani, officiate. Their palms are placed together, +and the hands united by a string dyed with turmeric. The union of +the hands is called hasthagonti, and is the binding portion of the +ceremony. Turmeric water is poured over the hands seven times from a +chank or sankha shell. Seven married women then throw over the heads +of the couple a mixture of Zizyphus Jujuba (borkolipathro) leaves, rice +smeared with turmeric, and Cynodon Dactylon (dhuba) culms. This rite is +called bhondaivaro, and is performed at all auspicious ceremonies. The +fingers of the bride and bridegroom are then linked together, and +they are led by the wife of the bride's brother seven times round +the bedi. The priest then proclaims that the soot can soon be wiped +off the cooking-pot, but the connection brought about by the marriage +is enduring, and relationship is secured for seven generations. The +pair are taken indoors, and fed. The remaining days of the marriage +ceremonies are given up to feasting. The remarriage of widows is +permitted. A widow is expected to marry the younger brother of her +deceased husband, or, with his permission, may marry whom she likes. + +When a girl attains maturity, she is seated on a new mat, and Zizyphus +Jujuba leaves are thrown over her. This ceremony is sometimes repeated +daily for six days, during which sweets, etc., are given to the girl, +and women who bring presents are fed. On the seventh day, the girl +is taken to a tank (pond), and bathed. + +The dead are either buried or burnt. The corpse is, at the funeral, +borne in the hands, or on a bier, by four men. Soon after the village +boundary has been crossed, the widow of the deceased throws rice over +the eyes of the corpse, and also a little fire, after taking it three +times round. She usually carries with her a pot and ladle, which she +throws away. If an elderly woman dies, these rites are performed +by her daughter-in-law. At the burial-ground, the corpse is taken +seven times round the grave, and, as it is lowered into it, those +present say "Oh! trees, Oh! sky, Oh! earth, we are laying him in. It +is not our fault." When the grave has been filled in, the figures of +a man and woman are drawn on it, and all throw earth over it, saying +"You were living with us; now you have left us. Do not trouble the +people." On their return home, the mourners sprinkle cowdung water +about the house and over their feet, and toddy is partaken of. On the +following day, all the old pots are thrown away, and the agnates eat +rice cooked with margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves. Food is offered +to the dead person, either at the burial-ground or in the backyard of +the house. On the tenth day, the Dhiyani, as the priest is called, is +sent for, and arrives with his drum (dhiyani). A small hut is erected +on a tank bund (embankment), and food cooked seven times, and offered +seven times on seven fragments of pots. A new cloth is spread, and on +it food, fruits, a chank shell, etc., are placed, and offered to the +deceased. The various articles are put into a new pot, and the son, +going into the water up to his neck, throws the pot into the air, +and breaks it. The celebrants of the rite then return to the house, +and stand in a row in front thereof. They are there purified by means +of milk smeared over their hands by the Dhiyani. On the twelfth day, +food is offered on twelve leaves. + +The Bavuris do not worship Jagannathaswami, or other of the higher +deities, but reverence their ancestors and the village goddesses or +Takuranis. Like other Oriya classes, the Bavuris name their children +on the twenty-first day. Opprobrious names are common among them, +e.g., Ogadu (dirty fellow), Kangali (wretched fellow), Haddia (Haddi, +or sweeper caste). + +Bedar or Boya.--"Throughout the hills," Buchanan writes, [112] +"northward from Capaladurga, are many cultivated spots, in which, +during Tippoo's government, were settled many Baydaru or hunters, +who received twelve pagodas (£4 5s.) a year, and served as irregular +troops whenever required. Being accustomed to pursue tigers and deer +in the woods, they were excellent marksmen with their match-locks, +and indefatigable in following their prey; which, in the time of war, +was the life and property of every helpless creature that came in +their way. During the wars of Hyder and his son, these men were +chief instruments in the terrible depredations committed in the +lower Carnatic. They were also frequently employed with success +against the Poligars (feudal chiefs), whose followers were of a +similar description." In the Gazetteer of the Anantapur district it +is noted that "the Boyas are the old fighting caste of this part of +the country, whose exploits are so often recounted in the history +books. The Poligars' forces, and Haidar Ali's famous troops were +largely recruited from these people, and they still retain a keen +interest in sport and manly exercises." + +In his notes on the Boyas, which Mr. N. E. Q. Mainwaring has kindly +placed at my disposal, he writes as follows. "Although, until +quite recently, many a Boya served in the ranks of our Native army, +being entered in the records thereof either under his caste title of +Naidu, or under the heading of Gentu, [113] which was largely used +in old day military records, yet this congenial method of earning +a livelihood has now been swept away by a Government order, which +directs that in future no Telegas shall be enlisted into the Indian +army. That the Boyas were much prized as fighting men in the stirring +times of the eighteenth century is spoken to in the contemporaneous +history of Colonel Wilks. [114] He speaks of the brave armies of the +Poligars of Chitteldroog, who belonged to the Beder or Boya race in +the year 1755. Earlier, in 1750, Hyder Ali, who was then only a Naik +in the service of the Mysore Raja, used with great effect his select +corps of Beder peons at the battle of Ginjee. Five years after this +battle, when Hyder was rising to great eminence, he augmented his +Beder peons, and used them as scouts for the purpose of ascertaining +the whereabouts of his enemies, and for poisoning with the juice +of the milk-hedge (Euphorbia Tirucalli) all wells in use by them, +or in their line of march. The historian characterises them as being +'brave and faithful thieves.' In 1751, the most select army of Morari +Row of Gooty consisted chiefly of Beder peons, and the accounts of +their deeds in the field, as well as their defence of Gooty fort, +which only fell after the meanness of device had been resorted to, +prove their bravery in times gone by beyond doubt. There are still a +number of old weapons to be found amongst the Boyas, consisting of +swords, daggers, spears, and matchlocks. None appear to be purely +Boya weapons, but they seem to have assumed the weapons of either +Muhammadans or Hindus, according to which race held sway at the +time. In some districts, there are still Boya Poligars, but, as a +rule, they are poor, and unable to maintain any position. Generally, +the Boyas live at peace with their neighbours, occasionally only +committing a grave dacoity (robbery). [115] + +"In the Kurnool district, they have a bad name, and many are on the +police records as habitual thieves and housebreakers. They seldom +stoop to lesser offences. Some are carpenters, others blacksmiths +who manufacture all sorts of agricultural implements. Some, again, +are engaged as watchmen, and others make excellent snares for fish +out of bamboo. But the majority of them are agriculturists, and most +of them work on their own putta lands. They are now a hard-working, +industrious people, who have become thrifty by dint of their industry, +and whose former predatory habits are being forgotten. Each village, +or group of villages, submits to the authority of a headman, who is +generally termed the Naidu, less commonly Dora as chieftain. In some +parts of Kurnool, the headmen are called Simhasana Boyas. The headman +presides at all functions, and settles, with the assistance of the +elders, any disputes that may arise in the community regarding division +of property, adultery, and other matters. The headman has the power +to inflict fines, the amount of which is regulated by the status and +wealth of the defaulter. But it is always arranged that the penalty +shall be sufficient to cover the expense of feeding the panchayatdars +(members of council), and leave a little over to be divided between +the injured party and the headman. In this way, the headman gets paid +for his services, and practically fixes his own remuneration." + +It is stated in the Manual of the Bellary district that "of the +various Hindu castes in Bellary, the Boyas (called in Canarese +Bedars, Byedas, or Byadas) are far the strongest numerically. Many +of the Poligars whom Sir Thomas Munro found in virtual possession +of the country when it was added to the Company belonged to this +caste, and their irregular levies, and also a large proportion of +Haidar's formidable force, were of the same breed. Harpanahalli was +the seat of one of the most powerful Poligars in the district in the +eighteenth century. The founder of the family was a Boya taliari, who, +on the subversion of the Vijayanagar dynasty, seized on two small +districts near Harpanahalli. The Boyas are perhaps the only people +in the district who still retain any aptitude for manly sports. They +are now for the most part cultivators and herdsmen or are engaged +under Government as constables, peons, village watchmen (taliaris), +and so forth. Their community provides an instructive example of the +growth of caste sub-divisions. Both the Telugu-speaking Boyas and +the Canarese-speaking Bedars are split into the two main divisions +of Uru or village men, and Myasa or grass-land men, and each of +these divisions is again sub-divided into a number of exogamous +Bedagas. Four of the best known of these sub-divisions are Yemmalavaru +or buffalo-men; Mandalavaru or men of the herd; Pulavaru or flower-men, +and Minalavaru or fish-men. They are in no way totemistic. Curiously +enough, each Bedagu has its own particular god, to which its members +pay special reverence. But these Bedagas bear the same names among +both the Boyas and the Bedars, and also among both the Uru and +Myasa divisions of both Boyas and Bedars. It thus seems clear that, +at some distant period, all the Boyas and all the Bedars must have +belonged to one homogeneous caste. At present, though Uru Boyas will +marry with Uru Bedars and Myasa Boyas with Myasa Bedars, there is +no intermarriage between Urus and Myasas, whether they be Boyas or +Bedars. Even if Urus and Myasas dine together, they sit in different +rows, each division by themselves. Again, the Urus (whether Boyas or +Bedars) will eat chicken and drink alcohol, but the Myasas will not +touch a fowl or any form of strong drink, and are so strict in this +last matter that they will not even sit on mats made of the leaf of the +date-palm, the tree which in Bellary provides all the toddy. The Urus, +moreover, celebrate their marriages with the ordinary ceremonial of the +halu-kamba or milk-post, and the surge, or bathing of the happy pair; +the bride sits on a flour-grinding stone, and the bridegroom stands +on a basket full of cholam (millet), and they call in Brahmans to +officiate. But the Myasas have a simpler ritual, which omits most of +these points, and dispenses with the Brahman. Other differences are +that the Uru women wear ravikkais or tight-fitting bodices, while the +Myasas tuck them under their waist-string. Both divisions eat beef, +and both have a hereditary headman called the ejaman, and hereditary +Dasaris who act as their priests." + +In the Madras Census Report, 1901, it is stated that the two main +divisions of Boyas are called also Pedda (big) and Chinna (small) +respectively, and, according to another account, the caste has +four endogamous sections, Pedda, Chinna, Sadaru, and Myasa. Sadaru +is the name of a sub-division of Lingayats, found mainly in the +Bellary and Anantapur districts, where they are largely engaged +in cultivation. Some Bedars who live amidst those Lingayats call +themselves Sadaru. According to the Manual of the North Arcot +district, the Boyas are a "Telugu hunting caste, chiefly found above +the ghats. Many of the Poligars of that part of the country used to +belong to the caste, and proved themselves so lawless that they were +dispossessed. Now they are usually cultivators. They have several +divisions, the chief of which are the Mulki Boyas and the Pala Boyas, +who cannot intermarry." According to the Mysore Census Reports, 1891 +and 1901, "the Bedas have two distinct divisions, the Kannada and +Telugu, and own some twenty sub-divisions, of which the following +are the chief:--Halu, Machi or Myasa, Nayaka, Pallegar, Barika, +Kannaiyyanajati, and Kirataka. The Machi or Myasa Bedas comprise a +distinct sub-division, also called the Chunchus. They live mostly +in hills, and outside inhabited places in temporary huts. Portions +of their community had, it is alleged, been coerced into living +in villages, with whose descendants the others have kept up social +intercourse. They do not, however, eat fowl or pork, but partake of +beef; and the Myasa Bedas are the only Hindu class among whom the +rite of circumcision is performed, [116] on boys of ten or twelve +years of age. These customs, so characteristic of the Mussalmans, +seem to have been imbibed when the members of this sub-caste were +included in the hordes of Haidar Ali. Simultaneously with the +circumcision, other rites, such as the panchagavyam, the burning +of the tongue with a nim (Melia Azadirachta) stick, etc. (customs +pre-eminently Brahmanical), are likewise practised prior to the youth +being received into communion. Among their other peculiar customs, +the exclusion from their ordinary dwellings of women in child-bed +and in periodical sickness, may be noted. The Myasa Bedas are said to +scrupulously avoid liquor of every kind, and eat the flesh of only two +kinds of birds, viz., gauja (grey partridge), and lavga (rock-bush +quail)." Of circumcision among the Myasa Bedars it is noted, in the +Gazetteer of the Bellary district, that they practise this rite round +about Rayadrug and Gudekota. "These Myasas seem quite proud of the +custom, and scout with scorn the idea of marrying into any family in +which it is not the rule. The rite is performed when a boy is seven +or eight. A very small piece of the skin is cut off by a man of the +caste, and the boy is then kept for eleven days in a separate hut, and +touched by no one. His food is given him on a piece of stone. On the +twelfth day he is bathed, given a new cloth, and brought back to the +house, and his old cloth, and the stone on which his food was served, +are thrown away. His relations in a body then take him to a tangedu +(Cassia auriculata) bush, to which are offered cocoanuts, flowers, +and so forth, and which is worshipped by them and him. Girls on first +attaining puberty are similarly kept for eleven days in a separate +hut, and afterwards made to do worship to a tangedu bush. This tree +also receives reverence at funerals." + +The titles of the Boyas are said to be Naidu or Nayudu, Naik, Dora, +Dorabidda (children of chieftains), and Valmiki. They claim direct +lineal descent from Valmiki, the author of the Ramayana. At times +of census in Mysore, some Bedars have set themselves up as Valmiki +Brahmans. The origin of the Myasa Bedas is accounted for in the +following story. A certain Bedar woman had two sons, of whom the elder, +after taking his food, went to work in the fields. The younger son, +coming home, asked his mother to give him food, and she gave him +only cholam (millet) and vegetables. While he was partaking thereof, +he recognised the smell of meat, and was angry because his mother had +given him none, and beat her to death. He then searched the house, and, +on opening a pot from which the smell of meat emanated, found that it +only contained the rotting fibre-yielding bark of some plant. Then, +cursing his luck, he fled to the forest, where he remained, and became +the forefather of the Myasa Bedars. + +For the following note on the legendary origin of the Bedars, I am +indebted to Mr. Mainwaring. "Many stories are told of how they came +into existence, each story bringing out the name which the particular +group may be known by. Some call themselves Nishadulu, and claim +to be the legitimate descendants of Nishadu. When the great Venudu, +who was directly descended from Brahma, ruled over the universe, he +was unable to procure a son and heir to the throne. When he died, his +death was regarded as an irreparable misfortune. In grief and doubt +as to what was to be done, his body was preserved. The seven ruling +planets, then sat in solemn conclave, and consulted together as to +what they should do. Finally they agreed to create a being from the +right thigh of the deceased Venudu, and they accordingly fashioned and +gave life to Nishudu. But their work was not successful, for Nishudu +turned out to be not only deformed in body, but repulsively ugly. It +was accordingly agreed, at another meeting of the planets, that he was +not a fit person to be placed on the throne. So they set to work again, +and created a being from the right shoulder of Venudu. Their second +effort was crowned with success. They called their second creation +Chakravati, and, as he gave general satisfaction, he was placed on the +throne. This supersession naturally caused Nishudu, the first born, +to be discontented, and he sought a lonely place. There he communed +with the gods, begging of them the reason why they had created him, +if he was not to rule. The gods explained to him that he could not now +be put on the throne, since Chakravati had already been installed, but +that he should be a ruler over the forests. In this capacity, Nishudu +begot the Koravas, Chenchus, Yanadis, and Boyas. The Boyas were his +legitimate children, while the others were all illegitimate. According +to the legend narrated in the Valmiki Ramayana, when king Vishwamitra +quarrelled with the Rishi Vashista, the cow Kamadenu belonging to the +latter, grew angry, and shook herself. From her body an army, which +included Nishadulu, Turka (Muhammadans), and Yevannudu (Yerukalas) +at once appeared. + +"A myth related by the Boyas in explanation of their name Valmikudu +runs as follows. In former days, a Brahman, who lived as a highwayman, +murdering and robbing all the travellers he came across, kept a +Boya female, and begot children by her. One day, when he went out to +carry on his usual avocation, he met the seven Rishis, who were the +incarnations of the seven planets. He ordered them to deliver their +property, or risk their lives. The Rishis consented to give him all +their property, which was little enough, but warned him that one day he +would be called to account for his sinful deeds. The Brahman, however, +haughtily replied that he had a large family to maintain, and, as they +lived on his plunder, they would have to share the punishment that +was inflicted upon himself. The Rishis doubted this, and advised him +to go and find out from his family if they were willing to suffer an +equal punishment with him for his sins. The Brahman went to his house, +and confessed his misdeeds to his wife, explaining that it was through +them that he had been able to keep the family in luxury. He then told +her of his meeting with the Rishis, and asked her if she would share +his responsibility. His wife and children emphatically refused to be +in any way responsible for his sins, which they declared were entirely +his business. Being at his wit's end, he returned to the Rishis, told +them how unfortunate he was in his family affairs, and begged advice +of them as to what he should do to be absolved from his sins. They +told him that he should call upon the god Rama for forgiveness. But, +owing to his bad bringing up and his misspent youth, he was unable +to utter the god's name. So the Rishis taught him to say it backwards +by syllables, thus:--ma ra, ma ra, ma ra, which, by rapid repetition +a number of times, gradually grew into Rama. When he was able to +call on his god without difficulty, the Brahman sat at the scene of +his graver sins, and did penance. White-ants came out of the ground, +and gradually enveloped him in a heap. After he had been thus buried +alive, he became himself a Rishi, and was known as Valmiki Rishi, +valmiki meaning an ant-hill. As he had left children by the Boya +woman who lived with him during his prodigal days, the Boyas claim +to be descended from these children and call themselves Valmikudu." + +The Bedars, whom I examined at Hospet in the Bellary district, used +to go out on hunting expeditions, equipped with guns, deer or hog +spears, nets like lawn-tennis nets used in drives for young deer or +hares. Several men had cicatrices, as the result of encounters with +wild boars during hunting expeditions, or when working in the sugar +plantations. It is noted in the Bellary Gazetteer that "the only caste +which goes in for manly sports seems to be the Boyas, or Bedars, as +they are called in Canarese. They organise drives for pig, hunt bears +in some parts in a fearless manner, and are regular attendants at the +village gymnasium (garidi mane), a building without any ventilation +often constructed partly underground, in which the ideal exercise +consists in using dumbbells and clubs until a profuse perspiration +follows. They get up wrestling matches, tie a band of straw round one +leg, and challenge all and sundry to remove it, or back themselves to +perform feats of strength, such as running up the steep Joladarasi hill +near Hospet with a bag of grain on their back." At Hospet wrestling +matches are held at a quiet spot outside the town, to witness which +a crowd of many hundreds collect. The wrestlers, who performed before +me, had the hair shaved clean behind so that the adversary could not +seize them by the back hair, and the moustache was trimmed short for +the same reason. Two young wrestlers, whose measurements I place on +record, were splendid specimens of youthful muscularity. + + + cm. cm. + + Height 163.2 163 + Shoulders 41.8 42.8 + Chest 84 82 + Upper arm, flexed 28 29 + Thigh 47 51 + + +In the Gazetteer of Anantapur it is stated that the Telugu New Year's +day is the great occasion for driving pig, and the Boyas are the chief +organisers of the beats. All except children, the aged and infirm, +join in them, and, since to have good sport is held to be the best +of auguries for the coming year, the excitement aroused is almost +ludicrous in its intensity. It runs so high that the parties from +rival villages have been known to use their weapons upon one another, +instead of upon the beasts of the chase. In an article entitled "Boyas +and bears" [117] a European sportsman gives the following graphic +description of a bear hunt. "We used to sleep out on the top of one +of the hills on a moonlight night. On the top of every hill round, +a Boya was watching for the bears to come home at dawn, and frantic +signals showed when one had been spotted. We hurried off to the place, +to try and cut the bear off from his residence among the boulders, +but the country was terribly rough, and the hills were covered with a +peculiarly persistent wait-a-bit-thorn. This, however, did not baulk +the Boyas. Telling me to wait outside the jumble of rocks, each man +took off his turban, wound it round his left forearm, to act as a +shield against attacks from the bear, lit a rude torch, grasped his +long iron-headed spear, and coolly walked into the inky blackness of +the enemy's stronghold, to turn him out for me to shoot at. I used to +feel ashamed of the minor part assigned to me in the entertainment, +and asked to be allowed to go inside with them. But this suggestion +was always respectfully, but very firmly put aside. One could not +see to shoot in such darkness, they explained, and, if one fired, +smoke hung so long in the still air of the caves that the bear +obtained an unpleasant advantage, and, finally, bullets fired at +close quarters into naked rock were apt to splash or re-bound in an +uncanny manner. So I had to wait outside until the bear appeared with +a crowd of cheering and yelling Boyas after him." Of a certain cunning +bear the same writer records that, unable to shake the Boyas off, +"he had at last taken refuge at the bottom of a sort of dark pit, +'four men deep' as the Boyas put it, under a ledge of rock, where +neither spears nor torches could reach him. Not to be beaten, three +of the Boyas at length clambered down after him, and unable otherwise +to get him to budge from under the mass of rock beneath which he had +squeezed himself, fired a cheap little nickel-plated revolver one of +them had brought twice into his face. The bear then concluded that +his refuge was after all an unhealthy spot, rushed out, knocking +one of the three men against the rocks as he did so, with a force +which badly barked one shoulder, clambered out of the pit, and was +thereafter kept straight by the Boyas until he got to the entrance +of his residence, where I was waiting for him." + +Mr. Mainwaring writes that "the Boyas are adepts at shikar +(hunting). They use a bullock to stalk antelope, which they shoot +with matchlocks. Some keep a tame buck, which they let loose in +the vicinity of a herd of antelope, having previously fastened a +net over his horns. As soon as the tame animal approaches the herd, +the leading buck will come forward to investigate the intruder. The +tame buck does not run away, as he probably would if he had been +brought up from infancy to respect the authority of the buck of the +herd. A fight naturally ensues, and the exchange of a few butts finds +them fastened together by the net. It is then only necessary for the +shikaris to rush up, and finish the strife with a knife." + +Among other occupations, the Boyas and Bedars collect honey-combs, +which, in some places, have to be gathered from crevices in overhanging +rocks, which have to be skilfully manipulated from above or below. + +The Bedar men, whom I saw during the rainy season, wore a black +woollen kambli (blanket) as a body-cloth, and it was also held over +the head as a protection against the driving showers of the south-west +monsoon. The same cloth further does duty as a basket for bringing +back to the town heavy loads of grass. Some of the men wore a garment +with the waist high up in the chest, something like an English rustic's +smock frock. Those who worked in the fields carried steel tweezers on +a string round the loins, with which to remove babul (Acacia arabica) +thorns, twigs of which tree are used as a protective hedge for fields +under cultivation. As examples of charms worn by men the following +may be cited:-- + + + String tied round right upper arm with metal talisman box attached + to it, to drive away devils. String round ankle for the same + purpose. + + Quarter-anna rolled up in cotton cloth, and worn on upper arm in + performance of a vow. + + A man, who had dislocated his shoulder when a lad, had been + tattooed with a figure of Hanuman (the monkey god) over the + deltoid muscle to remove the pain. + + Necklet of coral and ivory beads worn as a vow to the Goddess + Huligamma, whose shrine is in Hyderabad. + + Necklets of ivory beads and a gold disc with the Vishnupad (feet + of Vishnu) engraved on it. Purchased from a religious mendicant + to bring good luck. + + +Myasa Bedar women are said [118] to be debarred from wearing +toe-rings. Both Uru and Myasa women are tattooed on the face, and +on the upper extremities with elaborate designs of cars, scorpions, +centipedes, Sita's jade (plaited hair), Hanuman, parrots, etc. Men are +branded by the priest of a Hanuman shrine on the shoulders with the +emblem of the chank shell (Turbinella rapa) and chakram (wheel of the +law) in the belief that it enables them to go to Swarga (heaven). When +a Myasa man is branded, he has to purchase a cylindrical basket +called gopala made by a special Medara woman, a bamboo stick, fan, +and winnow. Female Bedars who are branded become Basavis (dedicated +prostitutes), and are dedicated to a male deity, and called Gandu +Basavioru (male Basavis). They are thus dedicated when there happens to +be no male child in a family; or, if a girl falls ill, a vow is made +to the effect that, if she recovers, she shall become a Basavi. If +a son is born to such a woman, he is affiliated with her father's +family. Some Bedar women, whose house deities are goddesses instead +of gods, are not branded, but a string with white bone beads strung +on it, and a gold disc with two feet (Vishnupad) impressed on it, +is tied round their neck by a Kuruba woman called Pattantha Ellamma +(priestess to Uligamma). Bedar girls, whose house deities are females, +when they are dedicated as Basavis, have in like manner a necklace, +but with black beads, tied round the neck, and are called Hennu Basavis +(female Basavis). For the ceremony of dedication to a female deity, +the presence of the Madiga goddess Matangi is necessary. The Madigas +bring a bent iron rod with a cup at one end, and twigs of Vitex Negundo +to represent the goddess, to whom goats are sacrificed. The iron rod is +set up in front of the doorway, a wick and oil are placed in the cup, +and the impromptu lamp is lighted. Various cooked articles of food are +offered, and partaken of by the assembled Bedars. Bedar women sometimes +live in concubinage with Muhammadans. And some Bedars, at the time of +the Mohurram festival, wear a thread across the chest like Muhammadans, +and may not enter their houses till they have washed themselves. + +According to the Mysore Census Report, 1901, the chief deity of the +Bedars is "Tirupati Venkataramanaswami worshipped locally under the +name of Tirumaladevaru, but offerings and sacrifices are also made +to Mariamma. Their guru is known as Tirumalatatacharya, who is also a +head of the Srivaishnava Brahmans. The Uru Boyas employ Brahmans and +Jangams as priests." In addition to the deities mentioned, the Bedars +worship a variety of minor gods, such as Kanimiraya, Kanakarayan, +Uligamma, Palaya, Poleramma, and others, to whom offerings of fruits +and vegetables, and sacrifices of sheep and goats are made. The Dewan +of Sandur informs me that, in recent times, some Myasa Bedars have +changed their faith, and are now Saivas, showing special reverence +to Mahadeva. They were apparently converted by Jangams, but not to +the fullest extent. The guru is the head of the Ujjani Lingayat matt +(religious institution) in the Kudligi taluk of Bellary. They do not +wear the lingam. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the patron deity +of the Boyas is said to be Kanya Devudu. + +Concerning the religion of the Boyas, Mr. Mainwaring writes as +follows. "They worship both Siva and Vishnu, and also different +gods in different localities. In the North Arcot district, they +worship Tirupatiswami. In Kurnool, it is Kanya Devudu. In Cuddapah +and Anantapur, it is Chendrugadu, and many, in Anantapur, worship +Akkamma, who is believed to be the spirit of the seven virgins. At +Uravakonda, in the Anantapur district, on the summit of an enormous +rock, is a temple dedicated to Akkamma, in which the seven virgins are +represented by seven small golden pots or vessels. Cocoanuts, rice, +and dal (Cajanus indicus) form the offerings of the Boyas. The women, +on the occasion of the Nagalasauthi or snake festival, worship the +Nagala swami by fasting, and pouring milk into the holes of 'white-ant' +hills. By this, a double object is fulfilled. The 'ant' heap is a +favourite dwelling of the naga or cobra, and it was the burial-place of +Valmiki, so homage is paid to the two at the same time. Once a year, +a festival is celebrated in honour of the deceased ancestors. This +generally takes place about the end of November. The Boyas make no use +of Brahmans for religious purposes. They are only consulted as regards +the auspicious hour at which to tie the tali at a wedding. Though +the Boya finds little use for the Brahman, there are times when the +latter needs the services of the Boya. The Boya cannot be dispensed +with, if a Brahman wishes to perform Vontigadu, a ceremony by which +he hopes to induce favourable auspices under which to celebrate a +marriage. The story has it that Vontigadu was a destitute Boya, who +died from starvation. It is possible that Brahmans and Sudras hope in +some way to ameliorate the sufferings of the race to which Vontigadu +belonged, by feeding sumptuously his modern representative on the +occasion of performing the Vontigadu ceremony. On the morning of the +day on which the ceremony, for which favourable auspices are required, +is performed, a Boya is invited to the house. He is given a present +of gingelly (Sesamum) oil, wherewith to anoint himself. This done, he +returns, carrying in his hand a dagger, on the point of which a lime +has been stuck. He is directed to the cowshed, and there given a good +meal. After finishing the meal, he steals from the shed, and dashes +out of the house, uttering a piercing yell, and waving his dagger. He +on no account looks behind him. The inmates of the house follow for +some distance, throwing water wherever he has trodden. By this means, +all possible evil omens for the coming ceremony are done away with." + +I gather [119] that some Boyas in the Bellary district "enjoy inam +(rent free) lands for propitiating the village goddesses by a certain +rite called bhuta bali. This takes place on the last day of the feast +of the village goddess, and is intended to secure the prosperity of +the village. The Boya priest gets himself shaved at about midnight, +sacrifices a sheep or a buffalo, mixes its blood with rice, and +distributes the rice thus prepared in small balls throughout the limits +of the village. When he starts out on this business, the whole village +bolts its doors, as it is not considered auspicious to see him then. He +returns early in the morning to the temple of the goddess from which +he started, bathes, and receives new cloths from the villagers." + +At Hospet the Bedars have two buildings called chavadis, built by +subscription among members of their community, which they use as a +meeting place, and whereat caste councils are held. At Sandur the Uru +Bedars submit their disputes to their guru, a Srivaishnava Brahman, +for settlement. If a case ends in a verdict of guilty against an +accused person, he is fined, and purified by the guru with thirtham +(holy water). In the absence of the guru, a caste headman, called +Kattaintivadu, sends a Dasari, who may or may not be a Bedar, who +holds office under the guru, to invite the castemen and the Samaya, +who represents the guru in his absence, to attend a caste meeting. The +Samayas are the pujaris at Hanuman and other shrines, and perform +the branding ceremony, called chakrankitam. The Myasa Bedars have +no guru, but, instead of him, pujaris belonging to their own caste, +who are in charge of the affairs of certain groups of families. Their +caste messenger is called Dalavai. + +The following are examples of exogamous septs among the Boyas, +recorded by Mr. Mainwaring:-- + + + Mukkara, nose or ear ornament. + Majjiga, butter-milk. + Kukkala, dog. + Pula, flowers. + Pandhi, pig. + Chilakala, paroquet. + Hastham, hand. + Yelkameti, good rat. + Misala, whiskers. + Nemili, peacock. + Pegula, intestines. + Mijam, seed. + Uttareni, Achyranthes aspera. + Puchakayala, Citrullus Colocynthis. + Gandhapodi, sandal powder. + Pasula, cattle. + Chinthakayala, Tamarindus indica. + Avula, cow. + Udumala, lizard (Varanus). + Pulagam, cooked rice and dhal. + Boggula, charcoal. + Midathala, locust. + Potta, abdomen. + Utla, swing for holding pots. + Rottala, bread. + Chimpiri, rags. + Panchalingala, five lingams. + Gudisa, hut. + Tota, garden. + Lanka, island. + Bilpathri, Ægle Marmelos. + Kodi-kandla, fowl's eyes. + Gadidhe-kandla, donkey's eyes. + Joti, light. + Namala, the Vaishnavite namam. + Nagellu, plough. + Ulligadda, onions. + Jinkala, gazelle. + Dandu, army. + Kattelu, sticks or faggots. + Mekala, goat. + Nakka, jackal. + Chevvula, ear. + Kotala, fort. + Chapa, mat. + Guntala, pond. + Thappata, drum. + Bellapu, jaggery. + Chimala, ants. + Genneru, Nerium odorum. + Pichiga, sparrows. + Uluvala, Dolichos biflorus. + Geddam, beard. + Eddula, bulls. + Cheruku, sugar-cane. + Pasupu, turmeric. + Aggi, fire. + Mirapakaya, Capsicum frutescens. + Janjapu, sacred thread. + Sankati, ragi or millet pudding. + Jerripothu, centipede. + Guvvala, pigeon. + + +Many of these septs are common to the Boyas and other classes, as +shown by the following list:-- + + + Avula, cow--Korava. + Boggula, charcoal--Devanga. + Cheruku, sugar-cane--Jogi, Odde. + Chevvula, ear--Golla. + Chilakala, paroquet--Kapu, Yanadi. + Chimala, ants--Tsakala. + Chinthakayala, tamarind fruit--Devanga. + Dandu, army--Kapu. + Eddula, bulls--Kapu. + Gandhapodi, sandal powder--a sub-division of Balija. + Geddam, beard--Padma Sale. + Gudisa, hut--Kapu. + Guvvala, pigeon--Mutracha. + Jinkala, gazelle--Padma Sale. + Kukkala, dog--Orugunta Kapu. + Lanka, island--Kamma. + Mekala, goat--Chenchu, Golla, Kamma, Kapu, Togata, Yanadi. + Midathala, locust--Madiga. + Nakkala, jackal--Dudala, Golla, Mutracha. + Nemili, peacock--Balija. + Pichiga, sparrow--Devanga. + Pandhi, pig--Asili, Gamalla. + Pasula, cattle--Madiga, Mala. + Puchakaya, colocynth--Komati, Viramushti. + Pula, flowers--Padma Sale, Yerukala. + Tota, garden--Chenchu, Mila, Mutracha, Bonthuk Savara. + Udumala, lizard--Kapu, Tottiyan, Yanadi. + Ulligadda, onions--Korava. + Uluvala, horse-gram--Jogi. + Utla, swing for holding pots--Padma Sale. + + +At Hospet, the preliminaries of a marriage among the Myasa Bedars are +arranged by the parents of the parties concerned and the chief men +of the keri (street). On the wedding day, the bride and bridegroom +sit on a raised platform, and five married men place rice stained +with turmeric on the feet, knees, shoulders, and head of the +bridegroom. This is done three times, and five married women then +perform a similar ceremony on the bride. The bridegroom takes up the +tali, and, with the sanction of the assembled Bedars, ties it on the +bride's neck. In some places it is handed to a Brahman priest, who +ties it instead of the bridegroom. The unanimous consent of those +present is necessary before the tali-tying is proceeded with. The +marriage ceremony among the Uru Bedars is generally performed at the +bride's house, whither the bridegroom and his party proceed on the eve +of the wedding. A feast, called thuppathuta or ghi (clarified butter) +feast, is held, towards which the bridegroom's parents contribute rice, +cocoanuts, betel leaves and nuts, and make a present of five bodices +(ravike). At the conclusion of the feast, all assemble beneath the +marriage pandal (booth), and betel is distributed in a recognised +order of precedence, commencing with the guru and the god. On the +following morning four big pots, smeared with turmeric and chunam +(lime) are placed in four corners, so as to have a square space +(irani square) between them. Nine turns of cotton thread are wound +round the pots. Within the square the bridegroom and two young girls +seat themselves. Rice is thrown over them, and they are anointed. They +and the bride are then washed by five women called bhumathoru. The +bridegroom and one of the girls are carried in procession to the +temple, followed by the five women, one of whom carries a brass +vessel with five betel leaves and a ball of sacred ashes (vibuthi) +over its mouth, and another a woman's cloth on a metal dish, +while the remaining three women and the bridegroom's parents throw +rice. Cocoanuts and betel are offered to Hanuman, and lines are drawn +on the face of the bridegroom with the sacred ashes. The party then +return to the house. The lower half of a grinding mill is placed +beneath the pandal, and a Brahman priest invites the contracting +couple to stand thereon. He then takes the tali, and ties it on the +bride's neck, after it has been touched by the bridegroom. Towards +evening the newly married couple sit inside the house, and close +to them is placed a big brass vessel containing a mixture of cooked +rice, jaggery (crude sugar) and curds, which is brought by the women +already referred to. They give a small quantity thereof to the couple, +and go away. Five Bedar men come near the vessel after removing +their head-dress, surround the vessel, and place their left hands +thereon. With their right hands they shovel the food into their mouths, +and bolt it with all possible despatch. This ceremony is called bhuma +idothu, or special eating, and is in some places performed by both +men and women. All those present watch them eating, and, if any one +chokes while devouring the food, or falls ill within a few months, +it is believed to indicate that the bride has been guilty of irregular +behaviour. On the following day the contracting couple go through the +streets, accompanied by Bedars, the brass vessel and female cloth, +and red powder is scattered broadcast. On the morning of the third +and two following days, the newly married couple sit on a pestle, +and are anointed after rice has been showered over them. The bride's +father presents his son-in-law with a turban, a silver ring, and a +cloth. It is said that a man may marry two sisters, provided that he +marries the elder before the younger. + +The following variant of the marriage ceremonies among the Boyas +is given by Mr. Mainwaring. "When a Boya has a son who should be +settled in life, he nominally goes in search of a bride for him, +though it has probably been known for a long time who the boy is to +marry. However, the formality is gone through. The father of the boy, +on arrival at the home of the future bride, explains to her father +the object of his visit. They discuss each other's families, and, +if satisfied that a union would be beneficial to both families, the +father of the girl asks his visitor to call again, on a day that is +agreed to, with some of the village elders. On the appointed day, the +father of the lad collects the elders of his village, and proceeds with +them to the house of the bride-elect. He carries with him four moottus +(sixteen seers) of rice, one seer of dhal (Cajanus indicus), two seers +of ghi (clarified butter), some betel leaves and areca nuts, a seer +of fried gram, two lumps of jaggery (molasses), five garlic bulbs, +five dried dates, five pieces of turmeric, and a female jacket. In +the evening, the elders of both sides discuss the marriage, and, +when it is agreed to, the purchase money has to be at once paid. The +cost of a bride is always 101 madas, or Rs. 202. Towards this sum, +sixteen rupees are counted out, and the total is arrived at by counting +areca nuts. The remaining nuts, and articles which were brought by +the party of the bridegroom, are then placed on a brass tray, and +presented to the bride-elect, who is requested to take three handfuls +of nuts and the same quantity of betel leaves. On some occasions, the +betel leaves are omitted. Betel is then distributed to the assembled +persons. The provisions which were brought are next handed over to +the parents of the girl, in addition to two rupees. These are to +enable her father to provide himself with a sheet, as well as to +give a feast to all those who are present at the betrothal. This is +done on the following morning, when both parties breakfast together, +and separate. The wedding is usually fixed for a day a fortnight +or a month after the betrothal ceremony. The ceremony differs but +slightly from that performed by various other castes. A purohit is +consulted as to the auspicious hour at which the tali or bottu should +be tied. This having been settled, the bridegroom goes, on the day +fixed, to the bride's village, or sometimes the bride goes to the +village of the bridegroom. Supposing the bridegroom to be the visitor, +the bride's party carries in procession the provisions which are to +form the meal for the bridegroom's party, and this will be served +on the first night. As the auspicious hour approaches, the bride's +party leave her in the house, and go and fetch the bridegroom, who is +brought in procession to the house of the bride. On arrival, he is made +to stand under the pandal which has been erected. A curtain is tied +therein from north to south. The bridegroom then stands on the east +of the curtain, and faces west. The bride is brought from the house, +and placed on the west of the curtain, facing her future husband. The +bridegroom then takes up the bottu, which is generally a black thread +with a small gold bead upon it. He shows it to the assembled people, +and asks permission to fasten it on the bride's neck. The permission +is accorded with acclamations. He then fastens the bottu on the bride's +neck, and she, in return, ties a thread from a black cumbly (blanket), +on which a piece of turmeric has been threaded, round the right wrist +of the bridegroom. After this, the bridegroom takes some seed, and +places it in the bride's hand. He then puts some pepper-corns with +the seed, and forms his hands into a cup over those of the bride. Her +father then pours milk into his hand, and the bridegroom, holding it, +swears to be faithful to his wife until death. After he has taken +the oath, he allows the milk to trickle through into the hands of the +bride. She receives it, and lets it drop into a vessel placed on the +ground between them. This is done three times, and the oath is repeated +with each performance. Then the bride goes through the same ceremony, +swearing on each occasion to be true to her husband until death. This +done, both wipe their hands on some rice, which is placed close at +hand on brass trays. In each of these trays there must be five seers +of rice, five pieces of turmeric, five bulbs of garlic, a lump of +jaggery, five areca nuts, and five dried dates. When their hands are +dry, the bridegroom takes as much of the rice as he can in his hands, +and pours it over the bride's head. He does this three times, before +submitting to a similar operation at the hands of the bride. Then each +takes a tray, and upsets the contents over the other. At this stage, +the curtain is removed, and, the pair standing side by side, their +cloths are knotted together. The knot is called the knot of Brahma, +and signifies that it is Brahma who has tied them together. They now +walk out of the pandal, and make obeisance to the sun by bowing, and +placing their hands together before their breasts in the reverential +position of prayer. Returning to the pandal, they go to one corner +of it, where five new and gaudily painted earthenware pots filled +with water have been previously arranged. Into one of these pots, +one of the females present drops a gold nose ornament, or a man drops +a ring. The bride and bridegroom put their right hands into the pot, +and search for the article. Whichever first finds it takes it out, +and, showing it, declares that he or she has found it. This farce is +repeated three times, and the couple then take their seats on a cumbly +in the centre of the pandal, and await the preparation of the great +feast which closes the ceremony. For this, two sheep are killed, +and the friends and relations who have attended are given as much +curry and rice as they can eat. Next morning, the couple go to the +bridegroom's village, or, if the wedding took place at his village, +to that of the bride, and stay there three days before returning +to the marriage pandal. Near the five water-pots already mentioned, +some white-ant earth has been spread at the time of the wedding, and +on this some paddy (unhusked rice) and dhal seeds have been scattered +on the evening of the day on which the wedding commenced. By the time +the couple return, these seeds have sprouted. A procession is formed, +and the seedlings, being gathered up by the newly married couple, are +carried to the village well, into which they are thrown. This ends +the marriage ceremony. At their weddings, the Boyas indulge in much +music. Their dresses are gaudy, and suitable to the occasion. The +bridegroom, if he belongs to either of the superior gotras, carries +a dagger or sword placed in his cummerbund (loin-band). A song which +is frequently sung at weddings is known as the song of the seven +virgins. The presence of a Basavi at a wedding is looked on as a good +omen for the bride, since a Basavi can never become a widow." + +In some places, a branch of Ficus religiosa or Ficus bengalensis +is planted in front of the house as the marriage milk-post. If it +withers, it is thrown away, but, if it takes root, it is reared. By +some Bedars a vessel is filled with milk, and into it a headman throws +the nose ornament of a married woman, which is searched for by the +bride and bridegroom three times. The milk is then poured into a pit, +which is closed up. In the North Arcot Manual it is stated that the +Boya bride, "besides having a golden tali tied to her neck, has an +iron ring fastened to her wrist with black string, and the bridegroom +has the same. Widows may not remarry or wear black bangles, but they +wear silver ones." + +"Divorce," Mr. Mainwaring writes, "is permitted. Grounds for divorce +would be adultery and ill-treatment. The case would be decided by +a panchayat (council). A divorced woman is treated as a widow. The +remarriage of widows is not permitted, but there is nothing to prevent +a widow keeping house for a man, and begetting children by him. The +couple would announce their intention of living together by giving +a feast to the caste. If this formality was omitted, they would be +regarded as outcastes till it was complied with. The offspring of such +unions are considered illegitimate, and they are not taken or given +in marriage to legitimate children. Here we come to further social +distinctions. Owing to promiscuous unions, the following classes +spring into existence:-- + + +1. Swajathee Pure Boyas, the offspring of parents who + Sumpradayam. have been properly married in the proper + divisions and sub-divisions. +2. Koodakonna The offspring of a Boya female, who is + Sumpradayam. separated or divorced from her husband who + is still alive, and who cohabits with + another Boya. +3. Vithunthu The offspring of a Boya widow by a Boya. + Sumpradayam. +4. Arsumpradayam. The offspring of a Boya man or woman, + resulting from cohabitation with a member + of some other caste. + + +The Swajathee Sumpradayam should only marry among +themselves. Koodakonna Sumpradayam and Vithunthu Sumpradayam may +marry among themselves, or with each other. Both being considered +illegitimate, they cannot marry Swajathee Sumpradayam, and would not +marry Arsumpradayam, as these are not true Boyas, and are nominally +outcastes, who must marry among themselves." + +On the occasion of a death among the Uru Bedars of Hospet, the corpse +is carried on a bier by Uru Bedars to the burial-ground, with a new +cloth thrown over, and flowers strewn thereon. The sons of the deceased +each place a quarter-anna in the mouth of the corpse, and pour water +near the grave. After it has been laid therein, all the agnates throw +earth into it, and it is filled in and covered over with a mound, on to +the head end of which five quarter-anna pieces are thrown. The eldest +son, or a near relation, takes up a pot filled with water, and stands +at the head of the grave, facing west. A hole is made in the pot, and, +after going thrice round the grave, he throws away the pot behind him, +and goes home without looking back. This ceremony is called thelagolu, +and, if a person dies without any heir, the individual who performs +it succeeds to such property as there may be. On the third day the +mound is smoothed down, and three stones are placed over the head, +abdomen, and legs of the corpse, and whitewashed. A woman brings some +luxuries in the way of food, which are mixed up in a winnowing tray +divided into three portions, and placed in the front of the stones +for crows to partake of. Kites and other animals are driven away, +if they attempt to steal the food. On the ninth day, the divasa +(the day) ceremony is performed. At the spot where the deceased +died is placed a decorated brass vessel representing the soul of the +departed, with five betel leaves and a ball of sacred ashes over its +mouth. Close to it a lamp is placed, and a sheep is killed. Two or +three days afterwards, rice and vegetables are cooked. Those who have +been branded carry their gods, represented by the cylindrical bamboo +basket and stick already referred to, to a stream, wash them therein, +and do worship. On their return home, the food is offered to their +gods, and served first to the Dasari, and then to the others, who +must not eat till they have received permission from the Dasari. When +a Myasa Bedar, who has been branded, dies his basket and stick are +thrown into the grave with the corpse. + +In the Mysore Census Report, 1891, the Mysore Bedars are said to +cremate the dead, and on the following day to scatter the ashes on +five tangedu (Cassia auriculata) trees. + +It is noted by Buchanan [120] that the spirits of Baydaru men who die +without having married become Virika (heroes), and to their memory +have small temples and images erected, where offerings of cloth, +rice, and the like, are made to their names. If this be neglected, +they appear in dreams, and threaten those who are forgetful of their +duty. These temples consist of a heap or cairn of stones, in which +the roof of a small cavity is supported by two or three flags; and +the image is a rude shapeless stone, which is occasionally oiled, +as in this country all other images are." + +Bedar.--See Vedan. + +Begara.--Begara or Byagara is said to be a synonym applied by Canarese +Lingayats to Holeyas. + +Behara.--Recorded, at times of census, as a title of various Oriya +castes, e.g., Alia, Aruva, Dhobi, Gaudo, Jaggali, Kevuto, Kurumo, +Ronguni, and Sondi. In some cases, e.g., among the Rongunis, the +title is practically an exogamous sept. The headman of many Oriya +castes is called Behara. + +Bejjo.--A sub-division of Bhondari, and title of Kevuto. + +Belata (Feronia elephantum: wood-apple).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Bellapu (jaggery: palm-sugar).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Bellara.--"The Bellaras, or Belleras," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, +[121] "are a somewhat higher caste of basket and mat-makers than +the Parava umbrella-makers and devil-dancers. They speak a dialect +of Canarese (see South Canara Manual, Vol. II). They follow the +aliya santana law (inheritance in the female line), but divorce is +not so easy as amongst most adherents of that rule of inheritance, +and divorced women, it is said, may not marry again. Widows, however, +may remarry. The dead are either burned or buried, and a feast called +Yede Besala is given annually in the name of deceased ancestors. The +use of alcohol and flesh, except beef, is permitted. They make both +grass and bamboo mats." + +Bellathannaya (jaggery: crude sugar).--An exogamous sept of Bant. + +Belle (white).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. The equivalent bile +occurs as a gotra of Kurni. + +Belli.--Belli or Velli, meaning silver, has been recorded as an +exogamous sept of Badaga, Korava, Kuruba, Madiga, Okkiliyan, Toreya, +and Vakkaliga. The Belli Toreyas may not wear silver toe-rings. + +Vellikkai, or silver-handed, has been returned as a sub-division of +the Konga Vellalas. + +Belu (Feronia elephantum).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Benayito.--A sub-division of Odiya. + +Bende (Hibiscus esculentus).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. The +mucilaginous fruit (bendekai or bandicoy) of this plant is a favourite +vegetable of both Natives and Europeans. The nick-name Bendekai is +sometimes given, in reference to the sticky nature of the fruit, +to those who try to smooth matters over between contending parties. + +Bengri (frog).--A sept of Domb. + +Benia.--A small caste of Oriya cultivators and palanquin-bearers +in Ganjam. It is on record [122] that in Ganjam honey and wax +are collected by the Konds and Benias, who are expert climbers of +precipitous rocks and lofty trees. The name is said to be derived +from bena, grass, as the occupation of the caste was formerly to +remove grass, and clear land for cultivation. + +Benise (flint stone).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Benne (butter).--A gotra of Kurni. + +Bepari.--Bepari is, in the Madras Census Report, described as "a +caste allied to the Lambadis. Its members worship a female deity +called Banjara, speak the Bepari or Lambadi language, and claim +to be Kshatriyas." Bhonjo, the title of the Rajah of Gumsur, was +returned as a sub-caste. The Rev. G. Gloyer [123] correctly makes +the name Boipari synonymous with Brinjari, and his illustration of +a Boipari family represents typical Lambadis or Brinjaris. Bepari +and Boipari are forms of Vyapari or Vepari, meaning a trader. The +Beparis are traders and carriers between the hills and plains in +the Vizagapatam Agency tracts. Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao informs me +that "they regard themselves as immune from the attacks of tigers, +if they take certain precautions. Most of them have to pass through +places infested with these beasts, and their favourite method of +keeping them off is as follows. As soon as they encamp at a place, +they level a square bit of ground, and light fires in the middle of +it, round which they pass the night. It is their firm belief that the +tiger will not enter the square, from fear lest it should become blind, +and eventually be shot. I was once travelling towards Malkangiri from +Jeypore, when I fell in with a party of these people encamped in the +manner described. At that time, several villages about Malkangiri +were being ravaged by a notorious man-eater (tiger)." + +Beralakoduva (finger-giving).--A section of the Vakkaligas, among whom +the custom of sacrificing some of the fingers used to prevail. (See +Morasu.) + +Beri Chetti.--The Beri Chettis, or principal merchants, like other +Chettis and Komatis, claim to be Vaisyas, "but they will not admit +that the Komatis are on a par with them, and declare that they +alone represent the true Vaisya stock." [124] With regard to their +origin, the Kanyakapurana states that a certain king wanted to marry +a beautiful maiden of the Komati caste. When the Komatis declined to +agree to the match, the king began to persecute them, and those Komatis +who left the country out of fear were called Beri or Bediri (fear) +Chettis. The story is, in fact, similar to that told by the Nattukottai +Chettis, and the legend, no doubt, refers to persecution of some king, +whose extortion went beyond the limits of custom. Another derivation +of the word Beri is from perumai, greatness or splendour. The name +Beri, as applied to a sub-division of the Komatis, is said to be +a corruption of bedari, and to denote those who fled through fear, +and did not enter the fire-pits with the caste goddess Kanyakamma. + +The legend of the Beri Chettis, as given by Mr. H. A. Stuart, [124] +states that "Kaveripuram near Kumbakonam was formerly the town in +which the caste principally resided. The king of the country attempted +to obtain a Beri Chetti maiden in marriage, but was refused, and +he therefore persecuted them, and drove them out of his dominions, +forbidding interchange of meals between them and any other caste +whatever--a prohibition which is still in force." + +The Beri Chettis have a number of endogamous divisions, named after +geographical areas, towns, etc., such as Tirutaniyar, Acharapakaththar, +Telungu, Pakkam, Musalpakam. Among these there is an order of social +precedence, some of the divisions interdining, others not. + +The Beri Chettis are, like the Kammalans (artisan class), a +leading caste of the left-hand section, and the following story is +narrated. While the Beris were living at Kaveripuram in a thousand +houses, each house bearing a distinct gotra (house name,) a king, +who took wives from among all castes, wanted the Beris to give him +one of their maidens. Though unwilling, they promised to do so, but +made up their minds to get over the difficulty by a ruse. On the day +fixed for the marriage, all the Beri families left the place, after a +male black dog had been tied to the milk-post of the marriage pandal +(booth). When he learnt what had occurred, the king was very angry, +and forbade all castes to take water from the Beris. And this led to +their joining the left-hand section. + +The Beri Chettis resort to the panchayat system of administration of +affairs affecting the caste, and the headman, called Peridanakkaran, +is assisted by a barber of the left-hand section. They are in favour +of infant marriages, though adult marriage is not prohibited. They are +not allowed to tie plantain trees to the posts of the wedding pandal, +with the trees touching the ground. If this is done, the Paraiyans, +who belong to the right-hand section, cut them down. This custom +is still observed in some out-of-the way villages. Upanayanam, or +investiture with the sacred thread, is either performed long before +marriage, or by some along with the marriage rite. A man or boy, +after investiture, always wears the thread. + +Most of the Beri Chettis are meat-eaters, but some profess to be +vegetarians. + +It is said that there is much dispute between the Beri Chettis and the +Komatis regarding their relative positions, and each caste delights +to tell stories to the detriment of the other. In general estimation, +however, the Beris are deemed a little inferior to the Komatis." [125] +The claim of the Beri Chettis to be Vaisyas is based on the following +legend, as given by Mr. Stuart. [126] "In the time of the Cholas, +they erected a water-pandal, and Komatis claimed the right to use it, +which was at once denied. The king attempted to solve the question by +reference to inscriptions in the Kamakshiamma temple at Conjeeveram, +but without success. He then proposed that the rivals should submit +to the ordeal of carrying water in an unbaked pot. This was agreed +to, and the Beri Chettis were alone successful. The penalty for +failure was a fine of Rs. 12,000, which the Komatis could not pay, +and they were therefore obliged to enslave themselves to a Beri Chetti +woman, who paid the fine. Their descendants are still marked men, +who depend upon Beri Chettis for their subsistence. The great body +of the Komatis in the country were not parties to the agreement, +and they do not now admit that their inferiority has ever been +proved." According to another version of the legend, during the +reign of the Cholas, a water-pandal was erected by the Beris, and +the Komatis claimed the right to use it. This was refused on the +ground that they were not Vaisyas. The question at issue was referred +to the king, who promised to enquire into it, but did not do so. A +Viramushti (caste beggar of the Beri Chettis and Komatis) killed the +king's horse and elephant. When questioned as to his reason for so +doing, he explained that it was to call the king's attention to the +dispute, and restored the animals to life. The king then referred +both parties to Conjeeveram, where a sasanam (copper-plate grant) +was believed to exist. To procure this document, the decapitation of +twelve human beings was necessary, and the Viramushti sacrificed his +twelve children. According to the document, the Beris were Vaisyas, +and the Komatis were ordered to be beheaded. But some Beris interceded +on their behalf, and they were pardoned on condition that they would +pay a sum of money. To secure the necessary money, they became slaves +to a rich Beri woman. Ever since this incident, the Komatis have +been the children of the Beris, and their descendants are called +Pillaipuntha Komati, or Komati who became a son. For the services +which he rendered, the Viramushti is said to have been presented +with a sasanam, and he is treated as a son by the caste men, among +whom he has some influence. For example, the Beri Chettis may not +plant in their back-yards Moringa pterygosperma, Dolichos Lablab, +or a red variety of Amarantus. If the Viramushti found the first +of these planted, he would destroy it, and demand a fine of three +fanams. For Dolichos the fine is six fanams, and for Amarantus one +fanam. The rearing of pigs, goats, and fowls by the Beri Chettis is +forbidden under penalty of a fine. If a Beri Chetti woman carries a +water-pot on her head, the Viramushti will throw it down, and demand +a fine of twelve fanams. The women are not allowed to carry on sales +at a public fair, under penalty of excommunication. The Beri Chettis +and Komatis should not do business together. + +The Kammalans and Chettis are regarded as friends, and there is a Tamil +proverb "Settiyum Kammalanum onnu," i.e., the Chetti and Kammalan +are one. In this connection the following legend is quoted. "In +the town of Kanda, anciently the Camalas (artificers of five sorts) +lived closely united together, and were employed by all ranks of men, +as there were no artificers besides them. They feared and respected +no king, which offended certain kings, who combined against them, +taking with them all kinds of arms. But, as the fort (Kanda Kottai, +or magnetic fort), in which the Camalar lived, was entirely constructed +of loadstone, this attracted, and drew the weapons away from the hands +of the assailants. The kings then promised a great reward to any one +who should burn down the fort. No one dared to do this. At length +the courtesans of a temple engaged to effect it, and took the pledge +of betel and areca, engaging thereby to do so. The kings, greatly +rejoicing, built a fort opposite, filled with such kind of courtesans, +who, by their singing, attracted the people from the fort, and led +to intercourse. One of these at length succeeded in extracting from +a young man the secret, that, if the fort was surrounded with varacu +straw, set on fire, it might be destroyed. The king accordingly had +this done, and, in the burning down of the fort, many of the Camalar +lost their lives. Some took to ships belonging to them, and escaped by +sea. In consequence, there were no artificers in that country. Those +taken in the act of endeavouring to escape were beheaded. One woman +of the tribe, being pregnant, took refuge in the house of a Chetti, +and escaped, passing for his daughter. From a want of artificers, who +made implements for weavers, husbandmen, and the like, manufactures +and agriculture ceased, and great discontent arose in the country. The +king, being of clever wit, resorted to a device to discover if any of +the tribe remained, to remedy the evil complained of. This was to send +a piece of coral, having a fine tortuous aperture running through it, +and a piece of thread, to all parts of the country, with promise of +great reward to any one who should succeed in passing the thread +through the coral. None could accomplish it. At length the child +that had been born in the Chetty's house undertook to do it; and, +to effect it, he placed the coral over the mouth of an ant-hole, +and having steeped the thread in sugar, placed it at some little +distance. The ants took the thread, and drew it through the coral. The +king, seeing the difficulty overcome, gave great presents, and sent +much work to be done, which that child, under the council and guidance +of its mother, performed. The king sent for the Chetty, and demanded an +account of this young man, which the Chetty detailed. The king had him +plentifully supplied with the means especially of making ploughshares, +and, having married him to the daughter of a Chetty, gave him grants +of land for his maintenance. He had five sons, who followed the five +different branches of work of the Camalar tribe. The king gave them +the title of Panchalar. Down to the present day there is an intimate +relation between these five branches, and they intermarry with each +other; while, as descendants of the Chetty tribe, they wear the punul, +or caste-thread of that tribe." [127] + +The Acharapakam Chettis are known as Malighe Chettis, and are connected +with the Chettis of this legend. Even now, in the city of Madras, +when the Beri Chettis assemble for the transaction of caste business, +the notice summoning the meeting excludes the Malighe Chettis, who +cannot, like other Beri Chettis, vote at elections, meetings, etc., +of the Kandasami temple. + +Some Beri Chettis, Mr. Stuart writes, "worship Siva, and some Vishnu, +and a few are Lingayats, who do not marry into families with a +different worship. They bury, while the others burn their dead. All +the divisions wear the sacred thread, and do not tolerate widow +remarriage. Unlike Komatis, their daughters are sometimes married +after puberty." + +Berike.--The children of a Boya widow by a man of her own caste, +with whom she lives, are said [128] to drift into a distinct section +called Berike. + +Bestha.--The Besthas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, +1891, as "a Telugu caste, the hereditary occupation of which is +hunting and fishing, but they have largely taken to agriculture, +and the professions of bearers and cooks." In the Census Report, +1901, it is stated that "the fisherman caste in the Deccan districts +are called Besthas and Kabberas, while those in some parts of the +Coimbatore and Salem districts style themselves Toreyar, Siviyar, +and Parivarattar. These three last speak Canarese like the Kabberas, +and seem to be the same as Besthas or Kabberas. Kabbera and Toreya +have, however, been treated as distinct castes. There are two +endogamous sub-divisions in the Bestha caste, namely the Telaga +and the Parigirti. Some say that the Kabbili or Kabberavandlu are +a third. The Parigirti section trace their descent from Sutudu, +the famous expounder of the Mahabharata. Besthas employ Brahmans +and Satanis (or Jangams, if Saivites) for their domestic ceremonies, +and imitate the Brahman customs, prohibiting widow remarriage, and +worshipping Siva and Vishnu as well as the village deities. The Maddi +sub-caste is said to be called so, because they dye cotton with the +bark of the maddi tree (Morinda citrifolia)." It is suggested, in +the Gazetteer of the Bellary district, that the Besthas are really +a sub-division of the Gangimakkalu Kabberas, who were originally +palanquin-bearers, but, now that these vehicles have gone out of +fashion, are employed in divers other ways. It may be noted that +the Siviyars of Coimbatore say that they are Besthas who emigrated +from Mysore in the troublous times of the Muhammadan usurpation. The +name Siviyar, they say, was given to them by the Tamils, as, being +strong and poor, they were palanquin-bearers to officers on circuit +and others in the pre-railway days. Their main occupations at the +present day are tank and river fishing. + +In the Manual of the North Arcot district, it is noted that many +Besthas "trade, and are in a flourishing condition, being most numerous +above the ghats. The name Bestha appears to have no meaning, but +they call themselves Sutakulam, and say they are descendants of the +rishi Suta Mahamuni. The term Suta also applies to the offspring of a +Kshatriya by a Brahman, but it seems more probable that the Besthas +gained the name from their superiority in the culinary art, suta +also meaning cook. They are divided into Telugu Besthas and Parigirti +Besthas, the difference between them being chiefly one of religious +observance, the former being in the habit of getting themselves branded +on the shoulders with the Vaishnavite emblems--chank and chakram--and +the latter never undergoing this ceremony. It is a rule with them to +employ Dasaris as the messengers of a death, and Tsakalas, as those +of a birth, or of the fact that a girl has reached womanhood. Their +chief object of worship is Hanuman, the monkey god, a picture or +figure of whom they always have in their houses for domestic worship." + +In connection with the names Parigirti or Pakirithi which have been +recorded as divisions of the Besthas, it may be observed that, +in some parts of the Telugu country, the term Pakirithi is used +as a substitute for Vaishnava. This word has become converted into +Parigirti or Parikithi, denoting that the Besthas are Vaishnavites, +as opposed to Saivites. Some Besthas, when questioned as to the origin +of their caste, said that they had no purandam to help them. The word +used by them is a corruption of puranam. + +The Besthas are summed up, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, as +"fishermen, boatmen, and palanquin-bearers, who are known by different +names according to the localities they live in. In the eastern +districts they are called Bestha, in the southern Toraya, Ambiga and +Parivara (boatmen), while in the western parts their names are Kabyara +and Gangemakkalu. The Telugu-speaking population call themselves +Boyis. Their chief occupations are fishing, palanquin-bearing, +and lime-burning. Some of them are employed by Government as peons +(orderlies), etc., while a large number are engaged in agricultural +pursuits. The Boyis obey a headman called the Pedda (big) Boyi. The +Toraya does not intermarry either with the Kabyara or the Boyi, whom he +resembles in every way. The Kabyara or Karnatic Besthas proper never +carry the palanquin, but live by either farming or lime-burning. They +have a headman known as the Yajaman." + +I have often seen Besthas in Mysore fishing on tanks from rafts, with +floats made of cane or cork-wood supporting their fish-baskets. The +Besthas use small cast-nets, and it is thought by them that the +employment of drag-nets worked by several men would bring bad luck +to them. When a new net is used for the first time, the first fish +which is caught is cut, and the net smeared with its blood. One of +the meshes of the net is burnt, after incense has been thrown into +the fire. If a snake becomes entangled in a net when it is first used, +it is rejected, and burnt or otherwise disposed of. + +The tribal deity of the Telugu Besthas is Kamamma, and, when this +goddess is worshipped, Mala Pambalas are engaged to recite the +legendary story relating to her. They never offer the flesh of animals +or liquor to the goddess. + +Like other Telugu castes, the Besthas have intiperulu or exogamous +septs and gotras. In connection with some of the latter, certain +prohibitions are observed. For example, the jasmine plant (malle) +may not be touched by members of the malle gotra, and the ippa tree +(Bassia latifolia) may not be touched or used by members of the Ippala +gotra. Writing at the beginning of the last century, Buchanan [129] +informs us that "everywhere in Karnata the palanquin-bearers are of +Telinga descent. In the language of Karnata they are called Teliga +Besthas, but in their own dialect they are called Bai. Their proper +occupations, beside that of carrying the palanquin, are fishing, and +distillation of rum. Wealthy men among them become farmers, but none +of the caste hire themselves out as farm servants. Their hereditary +chiefs are called Pedde Bui, which, among the Europeans of Madras, +is bestowed on the headman of every gentleman's set." In a note on +the Bestha Boyis, or fishermen bearers of Masulipatam in the days of +the East India Company, Mr. H. G. Prendergast writes [130] that they +were "found to be peculiarly trustworthy servants. When their English +masters went on promotion to Madras, they were accompanied by their +trusty Boyis, and, from that day to this, Bestha Boyis have been +employed as attendants in public and mercantile offices in Madras, +and have continued to maintain their good reputation." + +Of the use of the word Boy (a corruption of Boyi) for palanquin-bearer, +numerous examples are quoted by Yule and Burnell. [131] Thus +Carraccioli, in his life of Lord Clive, records that, in 1785, the +Boys with Colonel Lawrence's palankeen, having struggled a little +out of the time of march, were picked up by the Marattas. Writing in +1563, Barras states [132] that "there are men who carry the umbrella +so dexterously to ward off the sun that, although their master trots +on his horse, the sun does not touch any part of his body and such +men are called Boi." + +The insigne of the Besthas, as recorded at Conjeeveram, is a net. [133] + +Besya (a prostitute).--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, +as a sub-caste of Oriya Gunis. It is a form of the word Vesya. + +Betta (hill).--A sub-division of Kurumba. + +Bevina.--Bevina or Beva (nim or margosa: Melia Azadirachta) has been +recorded as an exogamous sept of Kuruba, and a sub-division of Kadu +Kurumba. The nim tree is held sacred by Hindus, and takes an important +part in many of the ceremonials connected with the small-pox goddess +and other village deities. + +Bhag (tiger).--A sept of numerous classes in Vizagapatam, e.g., +Bhumia, Bottada, Domb, Gadaba, Mattiya, Omanaito, Pentiya, and +Rona. The equivalent Bhago occurs among some classes in Ganjam. + +Bhagavatulu.--Recorded as play-actors in the Telugu country. Their +name is derived from the fact that they perform stories and episodes +from the Bhagavatam, one of the Puranas. + +Bhakta.--See Bagata. + +Bhandari.--See Kelasi. + +Bhande.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a class of +potters in the Ganjam Maliahs, a sub-division of Kumbharo. The name +is derived from the Sanskrit bhanda, a pot." + +Bharadwaja.--A Brahmanical gotra of Bhatrazus. Bharadwaja was a rishi, +the son of Brihaspati, and preceptor of the Pandavas. + +Bhatia.--Nearly four hundred members of this caste were returned +at the Madras Census, 1901. It is recorded in the Bombay Gazetteer, +that "the Bhatias claim to be Bhati Rajputs of the Yadav stock. As +a class they are keen, vigorous, enterprising, thrifty, subtle and +unscrupulous. Some of the richest men in Bombay started life without +a penny. A large number of Bhatias are merchant traders and brokers, +and within the last fifty years they have become a very wealthy and +important class." Like the Nattukottai Chettis of Southern India, +the Bhatias undertake sea voyages to distant countries, and they are +to be found eastward as far as China. + +Bhatta.--A sub-division of Gaudo. + +Bhatkali.--A class of Muhammadans on the west coast, who are said to +have originally settled at Bhatkal in North Canara. + +Bhatrazu.--The Bhats, Bhatrazus, or Bhatrajus are described, in the +Mysore Census Reports, 1891 and 1901, as musicians and ballad-reciters, +who "speak Telugu, and are supposed to have come from the Northern +Circars. They were originally attached to the courts of the Hindu +princes as bards or professional troubadours, reciting ballads in +poetry in glorification of the wondrous deeds of local princes and +heroes. Hyder Ali, although not a Hindu, delighted to be constantly +preceded by them, and they are still an appendage to the state of +Hindu and Mussalman Chiefs. They have a wonderful faculty in speaking +improvisatore, on any subject proposed to them, a declamation in +measures, which may be considered as a sort of medium between blank +verse and modulated verse. But their profession is that of chanting +the exploits of former days in front of the troops while marshalling +them for battle, and inciting them to emulate the glory of their +ancestors. Now many of them are mendicants." + +In the Madras Census Report, 1871, the Bhat Rajahs are said to +"wear the pavitra or sacred thread. They are the bards and minstrels, +who sing the praises of the Kshatriya race, or indeed of great men in +general, and especially of those who liberally reward the singers. They +are a wandering class, gaining a living by attaching themselves to +the establishments of great men, or in chanting the folklore of the +people. They are mostly Vishnu worshippers, and in only one district +is it reported that they worship village deities." In the Madras +Census Report, 1891, the Bhatrazus are summed up as being "a class of +professional bards, spread all over the Telugu districts. They are +the representatives of the Bhat caste of other parts of India. They +are called Razus, because they are supposed to be the offspring of a +Kshatriya female by a Vaisya male. They are well versed in folklore, +and in the family histories and legends of the ancient Rajahs. Under +the old Hindu Rajahs the Bhatrazus were employed as bards, eulogists, +and reciters of family genealogy and tradition. Most of them are now +cultivators, and only a few are ballad-reciters. They will eat with +the Kapus and Velamas. Their ceremonies of birth, death and marriage +are more or less the same as those of the Kapus. Razu is the general +name of the caste." + +The Bhatrazus, Mr. W. Francis writes, [134] "are also called Bhats or +Magadas. They have two endogamous sub-divisions, called Vandi, Raja or +Telaganya, and Magada, Kani or Agraharekala. [Some Bhatrazus maintain +that Vandi and Magada were individuals who officiated as heralds at +the marriage of Siva.] Each of these is again split up into several +exogamous septs or gotras, among which are Atreya, Bharadwaja, +Gautama, Kasyapa and Kaundinya. All of these are Brahmanical +gotras, which goes to confirm the story in Manu that the caste is +the offspring of a Vaisya father and a Kshatriya mother. Bhatrazus +nevertheless do not all wear the sacred thread now-a-days, or recite +the gayatri. [135] They employ Brahman priests for their marriages, +but Jangams and Satanis for funerals, and in all these ceremonies they +follow the lower or Puranic instead of the higher Vedic ritual. Widow +marriage is strictly forbidden, but yet they eat fish, mutton and +pork, though not beef. These contradictions are, however, common +among Oriya castes, and the tradition is that the Bhatrazus were a +northern caste which was first invited south by King Pratapa Rudra +of the Kshatriya dynasty of Warangal (1295-1323 A.D.). After the +downfall of that kingdom they seem to have become court bards and +panegyrists under the Reddi and Velama feudal chiefs, who had by that +time carved out for themselves small independent principalities in the +Telugu country. As a class they were fairly educated in the Telugu +literature, and even produced poets such as Ramaraja Bhushana, the +author of the well-known Vasu-Charitram. Their usual title is Bhat, +sometimes with the affix Razu or Murti." + +Of the Bhatrazus in the North Arcot district, Mr. H. A. Stuart states +[136] that "they now live by cultivation, and by singing the fabulous +traditions current regarding the different Sudra castes at their +marriages and other ceremonies, having probably invented most of +them. They profess to be Kshatriyas. But it is known that several are +Musalmans or members of other castes, who, possessing an aptitude for +extempore versification, were taken by Rajahs to sing their praises, +and so called themselves Bhatturazus. They resemble the Razus in +their customs, but are said to bury their dead." In the Gazetteer of +Anantapur, the Bhatrazus are described as touring round the villages, +making extempore verses in praise of the principal householders, +and being rewarded by gifts of old clothes, grain, and money. It is +stated in the Kurnool Manual that "the high-caste people (Kammas) are +bound to pay the Batrajulu certain fees on marriage occasions. Some +of the Batrajas have shotriems and inams." Shotriem is land given +as a gift for proficiency in the Vedas or learning, and inam is land +given free of rent. + +In connection with the special attachment of the Bhatrazus to the +Velama, Kamma, and Kapu castes, the following story is narrated. Once +upon a time there was a man named Pillala Marri Bethala Reddi, who had +three sons, of whom two took to cultivation. The third son adopted +a military life, and had seventy-four sons, all of whom became +commanders. On one occasion, during the reign of Pratapa Rudra, +when they were staying at the fort of Warangal, they quarrelled +among themselves, and became very rebellious. On learning this, +the king summoned them to his court. He issued orders that a sword +should be tied across the gate. The commanders were reluctant to go +under a sword, as it would be a sign of humiliation. Some of them ran +against the sword, and killed themselves. A Bhatrazu, who witnessed +this, promised to help the remaining commanders to gain entrance +without passing under the sword. He went to the king, and said that +a Brahman wished to pay him a visit. An order was accordingly issued +that the sword should be removed. The services of the Bhatrazu greatly +pleased the commanders, and they came to regard the Bhatrazus as their +dependants, and treated them with consideration. Even at the present +day, at a marriage among the Kapus, Kammas, and Velamas, a Bhatrazu +is engaged. His duties are to assist the bridegroom in his wedding +toilette, to paint sectarian marks on his forehead, and to remain +as his personal attendant throughout the marriage ceremonies. He +further sings stanzas from the Ramayana or Mahabharata, and songs +in praise of Brahmans and the caste to which the bridal couple +belong. The following was sung at a Kapu wedding. "Anna Vema Reddi +piled up money like a mountain, and, with his brother Pinna Brahma +Reddi, constructed agraharams. Gone Buddha Reddi spent large sums +of money for the reading of the Ramayana, and heard it with much +interest. Panta Malla Reddi caused several tanks to be dug. You, +their descendants, are all prosperous, and very charitable." In the +houses of Kammas, the following is recited. "Of the seventy-seven sons, +Bobbali Narasanna was a very brave man, and was told to go in search +of the kamma (an ornament) without using abusive language. Those who +ran away are Velamas, and those who secured it Kammas." + +In their ceremonial observances, the Bhatrazus closely follow the +standard Telugu type. At marriages, the bridal couple sit on the +dais on a plank of juvvi (Ficus Tsiela) wood. They have the Telugu +Janappans as their disciples, and are the only non-Brahman caste, +except Jangams and Pandarams, which performs the duties of guru or +religious instructor. The badge of the Bhatrazus at Conjeeveram is +a silver stick. [137] + +In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Bhato, Kani Razu, Kannaji Bhat +and Padiga Raju appear as synonyms, and Annaji Bhat as a sub-caste +of Bhatrazus. + +The following account of a criminal class, calling themselves +Batturajas or Battu Turakas, was published in the Police Weekly +Circular, Madras, in 1881. [138] "They are known to the Cuddapah +and North Arcot Police as criminals, and a note is made whenever an +adult leaves his village; but, as they commit their depredations +far from home, and convert their spoil into hard cash before they +return, it is difficult to get evidence against them. Ten or twelve +of these leave home at once; they usually work in parties of three +or four, and they are frequently absent for months together. They +have methods of communicating intelligence to their associates when +separated from them, but the only one of these methods that is known +is by means of their leaf plates, which they sew in a peculiar +manner, and leave after use in certain places previously agreed +upon. These leaf plates can be recognised by experts, but all that +these experts can learn from them is that Battu Turakas have been +in the neighbourhood recently. On their return to their village, an +account of their proceedings is rendered, and their spoil is divided +equally among the whole community, a double share being, however, +given to the actual thief or thieves. They usually disguise themselves +as Brahmans, and, in the search of some of their houses lately, +silk cloths worn only by Brahmans were found together with other +articles necessary for the purpose (rudraksha necklaces, salagrama +stones, etc.). They are also instructed in Sanskrit, and in all the +outward requisites of Brahmanism. A Telugu Brahman would soon find +out that they are not Brahmans, and it is on this account that they +confine their depredations to the Tamil country, where allowance is +made for them as rude uncivilized Telugus. They frequent choultries +(travellers' resting-places), where their very respectable appearance +disarms suspicion, and watch for opportunities of committing thefts, +substituting their own bags or bundles (filled with rubbish) for those +they carry off." To this account Mr. M. Paupa Rao Naidu adds [139] that +"it is during festivals and feasts that they very often commit thefts +of the jewels and cloths of persons bathing in the tanks. They are +thus known as Kolamchuthi Papar, meaning that they are Brahmins that +live by stealing around the tanks. Before the introduction of railways, +their depredations were mostly confined to the choultries and tanks." + +Concerning the Bhattu Turakas of the North Arcot district, +Mr. H. A. Stuart writes [140] that "a few of this very intelligent and +educated criminal class are found in the north-west of the Chendragiri +taluk, and in the north of Punganur. They are really Muhammadans, +but never worship according to the rules of that religion, and know +little about its tenets. They have no employment save cheating, and +in this they are incomparably clever. They speak several languages +with perfect fluency, have often studied Sanskrit, and are able to +personate any caste. Having marked down a well-to-do householder, +they take an opportunity of entering his service, and succeed at last +in gaining his confidence. They then abuse it by absconding with what +they can lay hands upon. They often take to false coining and forgery, +pretend to know medicine, to have the power of making gold or precious +stones, or of turning currency notes into others of higher value." + +Bhayipuo.--Bhayipuo is returned, in the Census Report, 1901, as an +Oriya caste, the members of which claim to be Kshatriyas. The word +means brother's son, in which sense it is applied to the issue of +the brothers of Rajahs by concubines. The illegitimate children of +Rajahs are also classed as Bhayipuo. + +Bhima.--A section of Savaras, named after Bhima, one of the Pandava +brothers. + +Bholia (wild dog).--An exogamous sept of Kondra. + +Bhondari.--The Bhondaris are the barbers of the Oriya country, +living in Ganjam. "The name Bhondari," Mr. S. P. Rice writes, [141] +is "derived from bhondaram, treasure. The zamindars delivered over +the guarding of the treasure to the professional barbers, who became +a more important person in this capacity than in his original office +of shaver in ordinary to His Highness." The Bhondaris occupy a higher +position than the Tamil and Telugu barbers. Though various Oriya +castes bathe after being shaved, the touch of a Bhondari at other +times is not regarded as polluting. All over the Ganjam district, +the Bhondaris are employed as domestic servants, and some are engaged +as coolies, cart-drivers, etc. Others officiate as pujaris (priests) +at Takurani (village deity) temples, grind sandalwood, or make flower +garlands. On the occasion of ceremonial processions, the washing of +the feet of the guests, carrying articles required for worship, and +the jewels and cloths to be worn by the bridal couple on the wedding +day, are performed by the Bhondari. I am informed that a woman of +this caste is employed by Karnams on the occasion of marriage and +other ceremonials, at which her services are indispensable. It is +said that in some places, where the Bhondaris do not shave castes +lower than the Gudiyas, Oriya Brahmans allow them to remove the leaf +plates off which they have taken their food, though this should not +be done by a non-Brahman. + +There are apparently three endogamous sub-divisions, named Godomalia, +Odisi, and Bejjo. The word Godomalia means a group of forts, and it is +said to be the duty of members of this section to serve Rajahs who live +in forts. The Godomalias are most numerous in Ganjam, where they claim +to be superior to the Odisi and Bejjo sections. Among exogamous septs, +Mohiro (peacock), Dhippo (light), Oppomarango (Achyranthes aspera), +and Nagasira (cobra) may be noted. Members of the Oppomarango sept +do not touch, or use the root of the plant as a tooth brush. Lights +may not be blown out with the breath, or otherwise extinguished by +members of the Dhippo sept; and they do not light their lamps unless +they are madi, i.e., wearing silk cloths, or cloths washed and dried +after bathing. Nagasira is a sept common to many Oriya castes, and +is said to owe its origin to the influence of Oriya Brahmans. + +The hereditary headman of the caste is called Behara, and he is +assisted by a Bhollobaya. Most of the Bhondaris follow the form +of Vaishnavism inculcated by Chaithyana, and known as Paramartho +matham. They wear as a necklace a string of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) +beads, without which they will not worship or take their food. Many +Hindu deities, especially Jagannatha, and various local Takuranis +are also worshipped by them. + +A man should not marry his maternal uncle's or paternal aunt's +daughter. Infant marriage is the rule, and, if a girl has not secured +a husband before she attains maturity, she has to go through a mock +marriage ceremony called dharma bibha. She is taken to a Streblus asper +(sahada or shadi) tree, and married to it. She may not, during the +rest of her life, touch the Streblus tree, or use its twigs as a tooth +brush. Sometimes she goes through the ceremony of marriage with some +elderly man, preferably her grandfather, or, failing him, her elder +sister's husband as bridegroom. A divorce agreement (tsado patro) +is drawn up, and the pseudo-marriage thereby dissolved. Sometimes +the bridegroom is represented by a bow and arrow, and the ceremony +is called khando bibha. + +The real marriage ceremonies last over seven days. On the day before +the bibha (wedding), a number of earthen pots are placed on a spot +which has been cleaned for their reception, and some married women +throw Zizyphus Jujuba leaves and rice, apparently as an evil-eye +removing and purificatory ceremony. While doing so, they cry "Ulu, ulu" +in a manner which recalls to mind the kulavi idal of the Maravans +and Kallans. A ceremony, called sokko bhondo, or wheel worship, +is performed to a potter's wheel. The bridegroom, who has to fast +until the night, is shaved, after which he stands on a grindstone and +bathes. While he is so doing, some women bring a grinding-mill stone, +and grind to powder Vigna Catiang, Cajanus indicus and Cicer arietinum +seeds, crying "Ulu, ulu," as they do so. The bridegroom then dresses +himself, and sits on the marriage dais, while a number of married +women crowd round him, each of whom touches an areca nut placed on his +head seven times with a grinding stone. They also perform the ceremony +called bhondaivaro, which consists in throwing Zizyphus Jujuba leaves, +and rice dyed with turmeric, over the bridegroom, again calling +out "Ulu, ulu." Towards evening, the bridegroom's party proceed in +procession to a temple, taking with them the various articles required +on the morrow, such as the sacred thread, jewels, cloths, and mokkuto +(forehead ornament). After worshipping the god, they return home, +and on the way thither collect water in a vessel from seven houses, +to be used by the bridegroom when he bathes next day. A ceremonial +very similar to that performed by the bridegroom on the eve of the +wedding is also performed by the bride and her party. On the wedding +day, the bridegroom, after worshipping Vigneswara (Ganesa) at the +marriage dais with the assistance of a Brahman purohit, proceeds, +dressed up in his marriage finery, mokkuto, sacred thread and wrist +thread, to a temple in a palanquin, and worships there. Later on, +he goes to the bride's house in a palanquin. Just as he is about to +start, his brother's wife catches hold of the palanquin, and will +not let him go till she has received a present of a new cloth. He +is met en route by the bride's father, and his feet are washed by +her brother. His future father-in-law, after waving seven balls of +coloured rice before him, escorts him to his house. At the entrance +thereto, a number of women, including the bride's mother, await his +arrival, and, on his approach, throw Zizyphus Jujuba leaves, and cry +"Ulu, ulu." His future mother-in-law, taking him by the hand, leads +him into the house. As soon as he has reached the marriage dais, +the bride is conducted thither by her maternal uncle, and throws +some salt over a screen on to the bridegroom. Later on, she takes her +seat by his side, and the Brahman purohit, after doing homam (making +sacred fire), ties the hands of the contracting couple together with +dharbha grass. This is called hastagonthi, and is the binding portion +of the marriage ceremony. The bride and bridegroom then exchange ten +areca nuts and ten myrabolams (Terminalia fruits). Two new cloths +are thrown over them, and the ends thereof are tied together in a +knot containing twenty-one cowry (Cypræa Arabica) shells, a coin, +and a few Zizyphus leaves. This ceremonial is called gontiyalo. The +bride's brother strikes the bridegroom with his fist, and receives a +present of a cloth. At this stage, the couple receive presents from +relations and friends. They then play seven times with cowry shells, +and the ceremonial closes with the throwing of Zizyphus leaves, and +the eating by the bride and bridegroom of rice mixed with jaggery +(crude sugar) and curds. On the two following days, they sit on +the dais, play with cowries, and have leaves and rice thrown over +them. They wear the cloths given to them on the wedding day, and may +not bathe in a tank (pond) or river. On the fourth day (chauti), the +bride is received into the gotra of the bridegroom. In token thereof, +she cooks some food given to her by the bridegroom, and the pair make a +show of partaking thereof. Towards the evening the bride is conducted +by her maternal uncle to near the dais, and she stands on a grinding +stone. Seven turns of thread dyed with turmeric are wound round the +posts of the dais. Leading his wife thither, the bridegroom cuts the +thread, and the couple stand on the dais, while four persons support +a cloth canopy over their heads, and rice is scattered over them. On +the fifth day, the newly-married couple and their relations indulge in +throwing turmeric water over each other. Early on the morning of the +sixth day, the bridegroom breaks a pot placed on the dais, and goes +away in feigned anger to the house of a relation. Towards evening, he +is brought back by his brother-in-law, and plays at cowries with the +bride. The Bhondaivaro ceremony is once more repeated. On the seventh +day, the sacred thread, wrist-threads and mokkuto are removed. Widows +and divorcées are permitted to remarry. As among various other castes, +a widow should marry her deceased husband's younger brother. + +The dead are cremated. When a person is on the point of death, +a little Jagannatha prasadam, i.e., rice from the temple at Puri, +is placed in his mouth. Members of many Oriya castes keep by them +partially cooked rice, called nirmalyam, brought from this temple, +and a little of this is eaten by the orthodox before meals and +after bathing. The corpse is washed, anointed, and wrapped in a new +cloth. After it has been secured on the bier, a new red cloth is +thrown over it. At the head, a sheaf of straw, from the roof of the +house, if it is thatched, is placed. The funeral pyre is generally +prepared by an Oriya washerman. At the burning-ground, the corpse +is placed close to the pyre, and the son puts into the mouth some +parched rice, and throws rice over the eyes. Then, lighting the straw, +he waves it thrice round the corpse, and throws it on the face. The +corpse is then carried thrice round the pyre, and laid thereon. In +the course of cremation, each mourner throws a log on the pyre. The +son goes home, wet and dripping, after bathing. On the following +day, the fire is extinguished, and two fragments of bone are placed +in a small pot, and carefully preserved. The ashes are heaped up, +and an image is drawn on the ground with a stick, to which food is +offered. A meal, called pithapona (bitter food), consisting of rice +and margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves, is partaken of by agnates +only. On the tenth day, the relatives and intimate friends of the +deceased are shaved, the son last of all. The son and the agnates go +to a tank bund (pond embankment), and cook food in a new pot within +a shed which has been specially constructed for the occasion. The +pot is then broken into ten fragments, on which food is placed, and +offered to the dead person. The son takes the fragments, one by one, +to the tank, bathing each time. The pot containing the two pieces +of bone is generally buried beneath a pipal (Ficus religiosa) tree +growing near a tank. On the tenth day, after the offering of food, +the son proceeds to this spot, and, after pouring water ten times +over the ground beneath which the pot is buried, takes the pot home, +and buries it near the house. As he approaches his home, he goes +ahead of those who accompany him, and, carrying a vessel filled with +water, pours some of this three times on the ground, waving his hand +in a circular manner. He then makes three marks with a piece of iron +on the ground. A piece of hollow bamboo open at both ends, or other +grain measure, is given to him, with which he measures rice or other +grain seven times. He then throws the measure behind him between his +legs, and, entering the house, puts a sect mark on his forehead with +the aid of a broken looking-glass, which must be thrown away. Ghi +(clarified butter) and meat may not be eaten by those under death +pollution till the eleventh day, when a feast is held. + +If an important elder of the community dies, a ceremony called +jola-jola handi (pot drilled with holes) is performed on the night of +the tenth day. Fine sand is spread over the floor of a room having +two doors, and the surface is smoothed with a tray or plank. On the +sand a lighted lamp is placed, with an areca nut by its side. The +lamp is covered with an earthen cooking-pot. Two men carry on their +shoulders a pot riddled with holes, suspended from a pole made of +Diospyros Embryopteris wood, from inside the room into the street, +as soon as the lamp is covered by the cooking-pot. Both doors of the +room are then closed, and not opened till the return of the men. The +pot which they carry is believed to increase in weight as they bear it +to a tank, into which it is thrown. On their return to the house, they +tap three times at the door, which then opens. All present then crowd +into the room, and examine the sand for the marks of the foot-prints +of a bull, cat or man, the trail of a centipede, cart-track, ladder, +etc., which are believed to be left by the dead person when he goes +to the other world. + +Opprobrious names are very common among the Bhondaris, especially +if a child is born after a succession of deaths among the offspring +of a family. Very common among such names are those of low castes, +e.g., Haddi, Bavuria, Dandasi, etc. + +Bhonjo.--The title of the Raja of Gumsur in Ganjam. + +Bhumanchi (good earth).--A sub-division of Kapu. + +Bhu (earth) Razu.--A name for Razus who live in the plains, in +contradistinction to the Konda Razus who live in the hills. + +Bhu Vaisya (earth Vaisya).--A name returned by some Nattukottai +Chettis and Vellalas. + +Bhumi Dhompthi.--The name, meaning earth marriage offering, of a +sub-division of Madigas, at whose marriages the offering of food is +placed on the ground. + +Bhumi Razulu (kings of the earth).--A name assumed by some Koyis. + +Bhumia.--The Bhumias are an Oriya caste of hill cultivators, found in +the Jeypore Zamindari. According to a tradition, they were the first +to cultivate the land on the hills. In the Central Provinces they are +said to be known as Baigas, concerning whom Captain Ward writes [142] +that "the decision of the Baiga in a boundary dispute is almost always +accepted as final, and, from this right as children of the soil and +arbiters of the land belonging to each village, they are said to have +derived their title of Bhumia, the Sanskrit bhumi meaning the earth." + +For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The +Bhumias have septs, e.g., bhag (tiger) and naga (cobra). A man +can claim his paternal aunt's daughter in marriage. The marriage +ceremonial is much the same as among the Bottadas. The jholla tonk +(presents) consist of liquor, rice, a sheep or fowl, and cloths +for the parents of the bride. A pandal (booth), made of poles of +the sorghi tree, is erected in front of the bridegroom's house, +and a Desari officiates. The remarriage of widows is permitted and +a younger brother usually marries his elder brother's widow. If a +man divorces his wife, it is customary for him to give her a rupee +and a new cloth in compensation. The dead are burned, and pollution +lasts for nine days. On the tenth day a ceremonial bath is taken, +and a feast, with copious supplies of liquor, is held. In parts of +the Central Provinces the dead are buried, and two or three flat +stones are set up over the grave. [143] + +Bhuri.--A sub-division of Gond. + +Bijam (seed).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Bilpathri (bael: Ægle Marmelos).--An exogamous sept of Boya. + +Bindhani (workman).--A title of Oriya Badhoyis, and sometimes used +as the name of the caste. + +Bingi.--The Bingivandlu are described, in the Kurnool Manual, as a +class of mendicants, who play dramas. Some of them have shrotiyam +villages, as Lingineni Doddi in Pattikonda. "Shrotiyam" has been +defined [144] as "lands, or a village, held at a favourable rate, +properly an assignment of land or revenue to a Brahman learned in +the Vedas, but latterly applied generally to similar assignments to +native servants of the government, civil or military, and both Hindus +and Muhammadans, as a reward for past services." + +Bhutiannaya (ashes).--An exogamous sept of Bant. + +Bidaru (wanderers).--A sub-division of Odde. + +Bilimagga.--The Bilimagga weavers of South Canara, who speak a very +corrupt form of Tamil, must not be confused with the Bilimaggas +of Mysore, whose mother-tongue is Canarese. In some places the +Bilimaggas of South Canara call themselves Padma Sales, but they have +no connection with the Padma Sale caste. There is a tradition that +they emigrated from Pandiya Maduradesa in the Tamil country. The caste +name Bilimagga (white loom) is derived from the fact that they weave +only white cloths. In some places, for the same reason, Devangas +call themselves Bilimaggas, but the Devangas also make coloured +cloths. White cloths are required for certain gods and bhuthas +(devils) on occasions of festivals, and these are usually obtained +from Bilimaggas. + +The Bilimaggas follow the makkala santana law of inheritance (from +father to son). They are said to have seven gotras, and those of +the Mangalore, Kundapur, and Udipi taluks, are stated to belong +respectively to the 800, 700, and 500 nagaras. The caste deities are +Virabhadra, Brahmalinga, and Ammanoru. + +For the whole community, there is a chief headman called Paththukku +Solra Settigar, or the Setti who advises the ten, and for every village +there is an ordinary headman styled Gurikara. The chief headman is +usually the manager of some temple of the caste, and the Gurikara has +to collect the dues from the members of the community. Every married +couple has to pay an annual tax of twelve annas, and every unmarried +male over twelve years of age of six annas towards the temple fund. + +Marriage of girls before puberty is the rule, and any girl who attains +maturity without being married runs the risk of losing her caste. The +remarriage of widows is permitted. The betrothal ceremony is important +as being binding as a contract. It consists in the father of the +girl giving betel leaves and areca nuts in a tray to the father of +her future husband, before a number of people. If the contract is +dissolved before the marriage is celebrated, betel and nuts must be +presented to the father of the girl, in the presence of an assembly, +as a sign that the engagement is broken off. On the day previous +to the marriage ceremonial, the fathers of the contracting couple +exchange betel leaves and areca nuts three times. On the following +morning, they proceed to the house of the bridegroom, the bride's +father carrying a brass vessel containing water. From this vessel, +water is poured into smaller vessels by an odd number of women +(five or more). These women are usually selected by the wife of the +headman. The pouring of the water must be carried out according to +a recognised code of precedence, which varies with the locality. At +Udipi, for example, the order is Mangalore, Barkur, Udipi. The women +all pour water over the head of the bridegroom. + +The rite is called mariyathe niru (water for respect). The bridegroom +is then decorated, and a bashingam (chaplet) is placed on his +forehead. He sits in front of a brass vessel, called Ganapathi (the +elephant god), which is placed on a small quantity of rice spread on +the floor, and worships it. He is then conducted to the marriage pandal +(booth) by his sister's husband, followed by his sister carrying the +brass vessel and a gindi (vessel with a spout), to which the bride's +bashingam and the tali (marriage badge) are tied. A red cloth, intended +for the bride, must also be carried by her. Within the pandal, the +bridegroom stands in front of a cot. The bride's party, and the men +in attendance on the bridegroom, stand opposite each other with the +bridegroom between them, and throw rice over each other. All are then +seated, except the bridegroom, his sister, and the bride's brother. The +bridegroom's father waves incense in front of the cot and brass vessel, +and hands over the gindi, and other articles, to the bridegroom's +sister, to be taken to the bride. Lights and arathi water are waved +before the bridegroom, and, while the bride's father holds his hands, +her brother washes his feet. He then goes seven times round the cot, +after he has worshipped it, and broken cocoanuts, varying in number +according to the nagara to which he belongs--seven if he is a member +of the seven hundred nagara, and so on. He next takes his seat on +the cot, and is joined by the bride, who has had the bashingam put +on her forehead, and the tali tied on her neck, by the bridegroom's +sister. Those assembled then call the maternal uncles of the bridal +couple, and they approach the cot. The bridegroom's uncle gives the +red cloth already referred to to the uncle of the bride. The bride +retires within the house, followed by her maternal uncle, and sits +cross-legged, holding her big toes with her hands. Her uncle throws +the red cloth over her head, and she covers her face with it. This is +called devagiri udugare. The uncle then carries her to the pandal, +and she sits on the left of the bridegroom. The Gurikara asks the +maternal uncle of the bridegroom to hand over the bride's money, +amounting to twelve rupees or more. He then requests permission of the +three nagara people, seven gotra people, and the relatives of the bride +and bridegroom to proceed with the dhare ceremony. This being accorded, +the maternal uncles unite the hands of the pair, and, after the cloth +has been removed from the bride's face, the dhare water is poured over +their hands, first by the bride's father, and then by the Gurikara, +who, while doing so, declares the union of the couple according to +the observances of the three nagaras. Those assembled throw rice +on, and give presents to the bride and bridegroom. The presents are +called moi, and the act of giving them moi baikradhu (Tamil). Some +women wave arathi, and the pair go inside the house, and sit on a +mat. Some milk is given to the bridegroom by the bride's sister, +and, after sipping a little of it, he gives it to the bride. They +then return to the pandal, and sit on the cot. Rice is thrown over +their heads, and arathi waved in front of them. The bridegroom drops +a ring into a tray, and turmeric-water is poured over it. The couple +search for the ring. The wedding ceremonies are brought to a close +by bathing in turmeric-water (vokli bath), after which the couple +sit on the cot, and those assembled permit the handing over of the +bride to the bridegroom's family (pennu oppuchchu kodukradhu). + +Any number of marriages, except three or seven, may be carried on +simultaneously beneath a single pandal. If there are more than a +single bridal couple, the bashingam is worn only by the pair who are +the elder, or held in most respect. Sometimes, one couple is allowed +to wear the bashingam, and another to have the dhare water first +poured over them. + +The dead are cremated. The corpse is carried to the burning-ground +on a bier, with a tender plantain leaf placed beneath it. Fire +is carried not by the son, but by some other near relative. The +ashes are collected on the third day, and a mound (dhupe) is made +therewith. Daily until the final death ceremony, a tender cocoanut, +and water in a vessel, are placed near it. In the final death ceremony +(bojja), the Bilimaggas closely follow the Bants, except as regards the +funeral car. To get rid of death pollution, a Tulu Madivali (washerman +caste) gives cloths to, and sprinkles water over those under pollution. + +The caste title is Setti or Chetti. + +Billai-kavu (cat-eaters).--Said to be Mala Paidis, who eat cats. + +Billava.--The Billavas are the Tulu-speaking toddy-drawers of the +South Canara district. It is noted, in the Manual, that they are +"the numerically largest caste in the district, and form close upon +one-fifth of the total population. The derivation of the word Billava, +as commonly accepted in the district, is that it is a contraction of +Billinavaru, bowmen, and that the name was given as the men of that +caste were formerly largely employed as bowmen by the ancient native +rulers of the district. There is, however, no evidence whatever, +direct or indirect, to show that the men of the toddy-drawing caste +were in fact so employed. It is well known that, both before and after +the Christian era, there were invasions and occupations of the northern +part of Ceylon by the races then inhabiting Southern India, and Malabar +tradition tells that some of these Dravidians migrated from Iram or +Ceylon northwards to Travancore and other parts of the West Coast of +India, bringing with them the cocoanut or southern tree (tenginamara), +and being known as Tivars (islanders) or Iravars, which names have +since been altered to Tiyars and Ilavars. This derivation would also +explain the name Divaru or Halepaik Divaru borne by the same class of +people in the northern part of the district, and in North Canara. In +Manjarabad above the ghauts, which, with Tuluva, was in olden days +under the rule of the Humcha family, known later as the Bairasu +Wodears of Karakal, they are called Devaru Makkalu, literally God's +children, but more likely a corruption of Tivaru Makkalu, children of +the islanders. In support of this tradition, Mr. Logan has pointed out +[145] that, in the list of exports from Malabar given in the Periplus, +in the first century A.D., no mention is made of the cocoanut. It was, +however, mentioned by Cosmos Indico Pleustes (522 to 547 A.D.), and +from the Syrian Christians' copper-plate grants, early in the ninth +century, it appears that the Tiyans were at that time an organised +guild of professional planters. Although the cocoanut tree may have +been introduced by descendants of immigrants from Ceylon moving up +the coast, the practice of planting and drawing toddy was no doubt +taken up by the ordinary Tulu cultivators, and, whatever the origin +of the name Billava may be, they are an essentially Tulu class of +people, following the prevailing rule that property vests in females, +and devolves in the female line." + +It is worthy of note that the Billavas differ from the Tiyans in one +very important physical character--the cranial type. For, as shown +by the following table, whereas the Tiyans are dolichocephalic the +Billavas are, like other Tulu classes, sub-brachycephalic:-- + + + =============================================================== + | Cephalic Index. + |================================================= + | Average. | Maximum. | Minimum. | Number of times + | | | | exceeding 80. + =============+==========+==========+==========+================ + 40 Tiyans | 73 | 78.7 | 68.5 | 1 + 50 Billavas | 80 | 91.5 | 71 | 28 + =============+==========+==========+==========+================ + + +Some Billavas about Udipi call themselves either Billavaru or +Halepaikaru. But the Halepaiks proper are toddy-drawers, who are found +in the Kundapur taluk, and speak Kanarese. There are said to be certain +differences between the two classes in the method of carrying out the +process of drawing toddy. For example, the Halepaiks generally grasp +the knife with the fingers directed upwards and the thumb to the +right, while the Billavas hold the knife with the fingers directed +downwards and the thumb to the left. A Billava at Udipi had a broad +iron knife with a round hole at the base, by which it was attached to +an iron hook fixed on to a rope worn round the loins. For crushing the +flower-buds within the spathe of the palm, Billavas generally use a +stone, and the Halepaiks a bone. There is a belief that, if the spathe +is beaten with the bone of a buffalo which has been killed by a tiger, +the yield of toddy will, if the bone has not touched the ground, be +greater than if an ordinary bone is used. The Billavas generally carry +a long gourd, and the Halepaiks a pot, for collecting the toddy in. + +Baidya and Pujari occur as caste names of the Billavas, and also as a +suffix to the name, e.g., Saiyina Baidya, Bomma Pujari. Baidya is said +to be a form of Vaidya, meaning a physician. Some Billavas officiate as +priests (pujaris) at bhutasthanas (devil shrines) and garidis. Many +of these pujaris are credited with the power of invoking the aid +of bhutas, and curing disease. The following legend is narrated, +to account for the use of the name Baidya. A poor woman once lived +at Ullal with two sons. A Sanyasi (religious ascetic), pitying their +condition, took the sons as his sishyas, with a view to training them +as magicians and doctors. After some time, the Sanyasi went away from +Ullal for a short time, leaving the lads there with instructions +that they should not be married until his return. In spite of his +instructions, however, they married, and, on his return, he was very +angry, and went away again, followed by his two disciples. On his +journey, the Sanyasi crossed the ferry near Ullal on foot. This the +disciples attempted to do, and were on the point of drowning when the +Sanyasi threw three handfuls of books on medicine and magic. Taking +these, the two disciples returned, and became learned in medicine +and magic. They are supposed to be the ancestors of the Billavas. + +The Billavas, like the Bants, have a number of exogamous septs (balis) +running in the female line. There is a popular belief that these are +sub-divisions of the twenty balis which ought to exist according to +the Aliya Santana system (inheritance in the female line). + +The caste has a headman called Gurikara, whose office is hereditary, +and passes to the aliya (sister's son). Affairs which affect the +community as a whole are discussed at a meeting held at the bhutasthana +or garidi. + +At the betrothal ceremony, the bride-price (sirdachi), varying from +ten to twenty rupees, is fixed. A few days before the wedding, the +maternal uncle of the bride, or the Gurikara, ties a jewel on her neck, +and a pandal (booth) is erected, and decorated by the caste barber +(parel maddiyali) with cloths of different colours. If the bridegroom +is an adult, the bride has to undergo a purificatory ceremony a day +or two before the marriage (dhare) day. A few women, usually near +relations of the girl, go to a tank (pond) or well near a Bhutasthana +or garidi, and bring water thence in earthenware pots. The water is +poured over the head of the girl, and she bathes. On the wedding +day, the bride and bridegroom are seated on two planks placed on +the dais. The barber arranges the various articles, such as lights, +rice, flowers, betel leaves and areca nuts, and a vessel filled with +water, which are required for the ceremonial. He joins the hands +of the contracting couple, and their parents, or the headman, place +the nose-screw of the bridesmaid on their hands, and pour the dhare +water over them. This is the binding part of the ceremony, which +is called kai (hand) dhare. Widow remarriage is called bidu dhare, +and the pouring of water is omitted. The bride and bridegroom stand +facing each other, and a cloth is stretched between them. The headman +unites their hands beneath the screen. + +If a man has intercourse with a woman, and she becomes pregnant, +he has to marry her according to the bidu dhare rite. Before the +marriage ceremony is performed, he has to grasp a plantain tree with +his right hand, and the tree is then cut down. + +At the first menstrual period, a girl is under pollution for ten or +twelve days. On the first day, she is seated within a square (muggu), +and five or seven cocoanuts are tied together so as to form a seat. A +new earthenware pot is placed at each corner of the square. Four +girls from the Gurikara's house sit at the corners close to the +pots. Betel leaves, areca nuts, and turmeric paste are distributed +among the assembled females, and the girls pour water from the pots +over the head of the girl. Again, on the eleventh or the thirteenth +day, the girl sits within the square, and water is poured over her +as before. She then bathes. + +The dead are usually cremated, though, in some cases, burial is +resorted to. The corpse is washed and laid on a plantain leaf, and a +new cloth is thrown over it. Some paddy (unhusked rice) is heaped up +near the head and feet, and cocoanut cups containing lighted wicks +are placed thereon. All the relations and friends assembled at the +house dip leafy twigs of the tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) in water, and +allow it to drop into the mouth of the corpse. The body is carried +on a plank to the burning-ground. The collection of wood for the +pyre, or the digging of the grave, is the duty of Holeyas. The wood +of Strychnos Nux-vomica should never be used for the pyre. This is +lighted by placing fire at the two ends thereof. When the flames meet +in the middle, the plantain leaf, paddy, etc., which have been brought +from the house, are thrown into them. On the fifth day, the ashes +are collected, and buried on the spot. If the body has been buried, +a straw figure is made, and burnt over the grave, and the ashes are +buried there. A small conical mound, called dhupe, is made there, +and a tulsi plant stuck in it. By the side of the plant a tender +cocoanut with its eyes opened, tobacco leaf, betel leaves and areca +nuts are placed. On the thirteenth day, the final death ceremonies, +or bojja, are performed. On the evening of the previous day, four +poles, for the construction of the upparige or gudikattu (car), +are planted round the dhupe. At the house, on or near the spot where +the deceased breathed his last, a small bamboo car, in three tiers, +is constructed, and decorated with coloured cloths. This car is +called Nirneralu. A lamp is suspended from the car, and a cot placed +on the ground beneath it, and the jewels and clothes of the dead +person are laid thereon. On the following morning, the upparige is +constructed, with the assistance of the caste barber. A small vessel, +filled with water, is placed within the Nirneralu. The sons-in-law +of the deceased receive a present of new cloths, and, after bathing, +they approach the Nirneralu. The chief mourner takes the vessel from +within it, and pours the water at the foot of a cocoanut tree. The +chief Gurikara pours some water into the empty vessel, and the chief +mourner places it within the Nirneralu. Then seven women measure out +some rice three times, and pour the rice into a tray held by three +women. The rice is taken to a well, and washed, and then brought +back to the car. Jaggery (crude sugar) and cocoanut scrapings are +mixed with the rice, which is placed in a cup by seven women. The cup +is deposited within the car on the cot. The wife or husband of the +deceased throws a small quantity of rice into the cup. She turns the +cup, and a ladle placed by its side, upside down, and covers them with +a plantain leaf. The various articles are collected, and tied up in +a bundle, which is placed in a palanquin, and carried in procession, +by two men to the upparige, which has been constructed over the +dhupe. Nalkes and Paravas (devil-dancers), dressed up as bhutas, may +follow the procession. Those present go thrice round the upparige, +and the chief mourner unties the bundle, and place its contents +on the car. The near relations put rice, and sometimes vegetables, +pumpkins, and plantains, on the plantain leaf. All present then leave +the spot, and the barber removes the cloths from the car, and pulls +it down. Sometimes, if the dead person has been an important member +of the community, a small car is constructed, and taken in procession +round the upparige. On the fourteenth day, food is offered to crows, +and the death ceremonies are at an end. + +If a death occurs on an inauspicious day, a ceremony called Kale +deppuni (driving away the ghost) is performed. Ashes are spread on the +floor of the house, and the door is closed. After some time, or on the +following day, the roof of the house is sprinkled with turmeric water, +and beaten with twigs of Zizyphus OEnoplia. The door is then opened, +and the ashes are examined, to see if the marks of the cloven feet of +the ghost are left thereon. If the marks are clear, it is a sign that +the ghost has departed; otherwise a magician is called in to drive +it out. A correspondent naively remarks that, when he has examined +the marks, they were those of the family cat. + +In some cases, girls who have died unmarried are supposed to haunt +the house, and bring trouble thereto, and they must be propitiated +by marriage. The girl's relations go in search of a dead boy, and +take from the house where he is a quarter of an anna, which is tied +up between two spoons. The spoons are tied to the roof of the girl's +house. This represents the betrothal ceremony. A day is fixed for +the marriage, and, on the appointed day, two figures, representing +the bride and bridegroom, are drawn on the floor, with the hands +lying one on the other. A quarter-anna, black beads, bangles, and a +nose-screw, are placed on the hands, and water is poured on them. This +is symbolical of the dhare ceremony, and completes the marriage. + +The pujaris of all the bhuthasthanas and garidis are Billavas. The +bhutha temples called garidis belong to the Billavas, and the +bhuthas are the Baiderukulu (Koti and Chennayya), Brimmeru (or +Brahmeru) Gunda, Okka Ballala, Kujumba Ganja, and Devanajiri. The +Baiderkulu are believed to be fellow castemen of the Billavas, and +Koti and Chennayya to be descended from an excommunicated Brahman +girl and a Billava. The legend of Koti and Chennayya is recorded +at length by Mr. A. C. Burnell in the Indian Antiquary. [146] The +bhuthas are represented by idols. Brimmeru is the most important, +and the others are subordinate to him. He is represented by a plate +of silver or other metal, bearing the figure of a human being, which +is kept within a car-like stone structure within the shrine. On its +left are two human figures made of clay or stone, which represent +the Baiderukulu. On the right are a man on horseback, and another +figure, representing Okka Ballala and Kujumba Ganja. Other idols +are also set up at the garidi, but outside the main room. They +seem to vary in different localities, and represent bhuthas such as +Jumadi, Pancha Jumadi, Hosabhutha, Kallurti, etc. Brimmeru has been +transformed, by Brahman ingenuity, into Brahma, and all the bhuthas +are converted into Gonas, or attendants on Siva. In the pardhanas +(devil songs) Brimmeru is represented as the principal bhutha, and the +other bhuthas are supposed to visit his sthana. A bhuthasthana never +contains idols, but cots are usually found therein. A sthana may be +dedicated to a single bhutha, or to several bhuthas, and the number +may be ascertained by counting the number of cots, of which each is +set apart for a single bhutha. If the sthana is dedicated to more than +one bhutha, the bhuthas are generally Kodamanithaya, Kukkinathaya, +and Daiva. All the arrangements for the periodical kola, or festival +of the bhuthasthana, are made by the pujari. During the festival, he +frequently becomes possessed. Only such Billavas as are liable to be +possessed are recognised as pujaris. As a sign of their office, they +wear a gold bangle on the right wrist. Further details in connection +with bhutha worship will be found in the articles on Bants, Nalkes, +and Paravas. + +Bilva (jackal).--An exogamous sept of Kondra. + +Bindhollu (brass water-pot).--An exogamous sept of Jogi. + +Binu (roll of woollen thread).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. + +Bissoyi.--The Parlakimedi Maliahs are, I am informed, divided up into +muttahs, and each muttah contains many villages, all ruled over by +a Bissoyi, a sort of feudal chief, who is responsible for keeping +them in order. Concerning the Bissoyis, Mr. S. P. Rice writes [147] +that in the Maliahs "are a number of forts, in which the Bissoyis, or +hill chieftains, reside. Each of them holds a small court of his own; +each has his armed retainers, and his executive staff. They were set to +rule over the hill tracts, to curb the lawlessness of the aboriginal +tribes of the mountains, the Khonds and the Savaras. They were, in +fact, lords of the marches, and were in a measure independent, but +they appear to have been under the suzerainty of the Raja of Kimedi, +and they were also generally responsible to Government. Such men +were valuable friends and dangerous enemies. Their influence among +their own men was complete; their knowledge of their own country +was perfect. It was they, and they only, who could thread their way +through the tangled and well-nigh impenetrable jungle by foot-paths +known only to themselves. Hence, when they became enemies, they could +entrench themselves in positions which were almost impenetrable. Now a +road leads to every fort; the jungles have disappeared; the Bissoyis +still have armed retainers, and still keep a measure of respect; +but their sting is gone, and the officer of Government goes round +every year on the peaceful, if prosaic occupation of examining schools +and inspecting vaccination." The story of the Parlakimedi rebellion, +"a forgotten rebellion" as he calls it, in the last century, and the +share which the Bissoyis took in it, is graphically told by Mr. Rice. + +At times of census, Bissoyi has been returned as a title of Doluva, +Kalingi, Kurumo, and Sondi. + +Biswalo.--A title of various Oriya castes. + +Bochchu (hairs).--An exogamous sept of Odde. + +Boda.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small +cultivating class in Ganjam. Boda is the name of a sub-division +of the Gadabas, who use the fibre of boda luvada (Ficus glomerata) +in the manufacture of their female garments. + +Boda Dasari (bald-headed mendicant).--An exogamous sept of Jogi. + +Boddu (navel).--An exogamous sept, or sub-division of Idigas and +Asilis. It is recorded in the Gazetteer of the Bellary district, that +"in the middle of the threshold of nearly all the gateways of the +ruined fortifications round the Bellary villages will be noticed a +roughly cylindrical or conical stone, something like a lingam. This +is the Boddu-rayi, literally the navel stone, and so the middle +stone. Once a year, in May, just before the sowing season begins, +a ceremony takes place in connection with it." (See Bariki.) + +Bodo (big).--A sub-division of Bottada, Mali, Omanaito, Pentia, and +other castes. Bodo Nayak is a title among the Gadabas, and Bodo Odiya +occurs as a sub-division of Sondi. + +Bogam.--See Deva-dasi and Sani. + +Bogara.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "Canarese +brass and copper-smiths: a sub-division of Panchala." From a note on +the Jains of the Bellary district [148] I gather that "there is a class +of people called Bogaras in the Harpanahalli taluk, and in the town of +Harpanahalli itself, side by side with the Jains. They are a thriving +class, and trade in brass and copper wares. The Bogaras practice the +Jaina religion, have the same gotras, freely worship in Jain temples, +and are accepted into Jaina society. Evidently they are a sub-division +of the Jains, though now excluded from inter-marriage." It is said that +"arrangements are now being made (through the Jaina Bhattacharya at +Kolhapur) to enable Bogaras to intermarry with the Jains." + +Bogarlu.--Occurs as the name of a class of agricultural labourers in +the Vizagapatam Agency, who are probably workers in metal who have +taken to agriculture. + +Boggula (charcoal).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Devanga. + +Bohora.--The Bohoras or Boras are "Musalman converts from the Bombay +side. They are traders. In Madras they have their own high priest +and their own mosque (in Georgetown). It is said that, when one of +them dies, the high priest writes a note to the archangels Michael, +Israel and Gabriel, asking them to take care of him in Paradise, +and that the note is placed in the coffin." [149] They consider +themselves as a superior class, and, if a member of another section +enters their mosque, they clean the spot occupied by him during his +prayers. They take part in certain Hindu festivals, e.g., Dipavali, +or feast of lights, at which crackers are let off. + +Boidyo.--Recorded under the name Boyidyo, in the Madras Census Report, +1901, as "literally a physician: a sub-caste of Pandito." There is +said to be no difference between Panditos and Boidyos. In Ganjam they +are known by the former, elsewhere by the latter name. + +Boipari.--A synonym of Lambadi. (See Bepari.) + +Boishnobo.--The Boishnobos have been defined as a class of Oriya +religious mendicants and priests to Sudras. The name means worshippers +of Bishnu or Vishnu. Most of them are followers of Chaitanya, the +great Bengali reformer. + +Boksha.--Boksha or Boksham (treasury) is the name of a sub-division of +Gollas, indicating their employment as treasury servants in guarding +and carrying treasure. In some places, those who are employed in +packing and lifting bags of money in district treasuries are still +called Gollas, though they may belong to some other caste. In the +Census Report, 1901, Bokkisha Vadugar (treasury northerner) was +returned as a Tamil synonym for Golla. + +Bolasi.--The Bolasis are a caste of Oriya cultivators, who are largely +found in the Gumsur taluk of Ganjam. Many of them serve as paiks or +peons. The original name of the caste is said to have been Thadia, +which has been changed in favour of Bolasi (Bayalisi, forty-two) in +reference to the caste being one of the recognized forty-two Oriya +Sudra castes. It is also suggested that the name is derived from bola +(anklets), as the women wear heavy brass anklets. + +Their ceremonial rites connected with marriage, death, etc., +are similar to those of the Doluvas, Gaudos, Badhoyis, and other +castes. Marriage is infant, and, if a girl does not secure a husband +before she reaches maturity, she goes through a form of marriage +with an arrow or a grinding stone. The Bolasis are Vaishnavites, and +observe the Paramartho or Chaitanya form thereof. The caste titles +are Podhano, Nayako, Daso, Mahanti, Patro, Sahu, Jenna, and Konhoro. + +Gudiyas who are engaged in agriculture are sometimes known as Bolasi +Gudiyas. + +Bolodia.--The name of a section of Tellis, who use pack-bullocks +(bolodo, an ox) for carrying grain about the country. Some Gaudos, +at times of census, have also returned Bolodia as their sub-division. + +Bombadai (a fish).--A gotra of Medara. The equivalent Bomidi occurs as +an exogamous sept of Mala. Members of the Vamma gotra of the Janappans +abstain from eating this fish, because, when some of their ancestors +went to fetch water in a marriage pot, they found a number of this +fish in the water collected in the pot. + +Bomma (a doll).--An exogamous sept of Padma Sale. The equivalent +Bommala occurs as an exogamous sept of Mala. The Bommalatavallu are +said [150] to exhibit shows in the Vizagapatam district. + +Bommali.--A sub-division of the Koronos of Ganjam. + +Bonda.--A sub-division of Poroja. + +Bondia.--A small class, inhabiting Ganjam. The name is said to be +derived from bondono, meaning praise, as the Bondias are those who +praise and flatter Rajas. + +Bondili.--In the Madras Census Report, 1891, the Bondilis are "said +to derive their name from Bundelkund. They claim to be Rajputs, +but appear to have degenerated. The Sivaites of this sect are said +to bury their dead, while the Vishnavaites burn. In the Kadri taluk +of Cuddapah all are said to bury. The custom in this respect appears +to differ in different localities. Besides Siva and Vishnu worship, +three of the eight authorities who give particulars of this section +agree that they worship village deities as well. All state that +remarriage of widows is not permitted. They are generally cultivators, +peons, or the body-guards of Zemindars." The Bondilis of the North +Arcot district are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [151] as being +"foreigners from Bundelkund, from which fact their name originates, +and of various Vaisya and Sudra castes; the former having the +termination Lala to their names, and the latter that of Ram. Many +of the Sudra Bondilis, however, improperly take the title Singh, +and say they are Kshatriyas, that is, Rajputs. The Vaisya Bondilis +are few in number, and only found in Vellore, Chittoor and Arni, +where they are usually money-lenders. The Sudras are mostly sepoys, +constables, or revenue peons. Some say that they are not even Sudras, +but the descendants of Rajputs by women of the country, and probably +many of them are such. All are very particular with respect to eating +with an other professed Bondili, and refuse to do so unless they are +quite certain that he is of their class. In their marriage customs +they resemble the Rajputs." + +I am informed that one section of the Bondilis is named Toli, in +reference to their being workers in leather. There is, at Venkatagiri, +a street called Toli mitta, or Toli quarters, and, in former days, +the inhabitants thereof were not allowed to enter the temples. + +In the Census Report, 1901, Guvalo, or traders from Sambalpur, is +returned as a sub-caste of Bondili. + +Boniya.--The Oriya name for Baniya (trader). Boniya Korono appears +[152] as the name for traders and shopkeepers in Ganjam. + +Bonka.--Recorded, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as cultivators in the +Jeypore hills, and, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small +Oriya caste of hill cultivators, which has three sub-divisions, Bonka, +Pata Bonka, and Goru Bonka. + +Bonthuk.--The Bonthuks or Bonthuk Savaras are scattered about the +Kistna and Guntur districts, and lead a nomad life, carrying their +small dwelling-huts with them as they shift from place to place. They +are called Bonthuk Savaras to distinguish them from the Pothra (stone) +Savaras, who dwell further north. By Telugu people they are called +Chenchu or Bontha Chenchu, though they have no connection with the +Chenchus who inhabit the hills in Kurnool, and other parts of the +Telugu country. The Bonthuks, however, like the Chenchus, claim Ahobila +Narasimha as their tribal deity. The Bonthuks speak the Oriya language, +and they have a Mongoloid type of features, such as are possessed +by the Savaras of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. Their house-names, or +intiperalu, however are Telugu. These constitute exogamous septs, and +seem to be as follows:--Pasupuretti, Simhadri (the god at Simhachalam +near Vizagapatam), Koneti, Dasapatri, Gedala (buffaloes), Kudumala +(cakes), Akula (leaves), Sunkara, and Tota (garden). At marriages, +individuals of the Pasupuretti sept officiate as priests, and members +of the Koneti sept as drummers and musicians. Men belonging to the +Gedalu sept are considered as equivalent to shepherds. + +The Bonthuks have a very interesting way of naming their children. If +a child is born when an official or person of some distinction +happens to be near their encampment, it is named after him. Thus +such names as Collector, Tahsildar, Kolnol (Colonel), Governor, +Innes, Superintendent, and Acharlu (after one Sukracharlu) are met +with. Sometimes children are named after a town or village, either +because they were born there, or in the performance of a vow to some +place of pilgrimage. In this way, such names as Hyderabad, Channapatam +(Madras), Bandar (Masulipatam), Nellore, and Tirupati arise. A boy +was named Tuyya (parrot), because a parrot was brought into the +settlement at the time of his birth. Another child was called Beni +because, at its birth, a bamboo flute (beni) was played. + +Every settlement is said to have a headman, called Bichadi, who, in +consultation with several elders of the tribe, settles disputes and +various affairs affecting the community. If an individual has been +fined, and does not accept the punishment, he may appeal to another +Bichadi, who may enhance the fine. Sometimes those who do not agree to +abide by the decision of the Bichadi have to undergo a trial by ordeal, +by taking out an areca nut from a pot of boiling cowdung water. The +dimensions of the pot, in height and breadth, should not exceed the +span of the hand, and the height of the cowdung water in the pot +should be that of the middle finger from the base to the tip. If, in +removing the nut from the pot, the hand is injured, the guilt of the +individual is proved. Before the trial by ordeal, a sum of ten rupees +is deposited by both complainant and accused with the Bichadi, and +the person under trial may not live in his dwelling-hut. He lives in a +grove or in the forest, watched by two members of the Pasupuretti sept. + +The Bonthuks are engaged in collecting bamboos, and selling them after +straightening them by heating them in the fire. Before the bamboos are +placed in carts, for conveyance to the settlement, a goat and fowls +are sacrificed to Satyamma, Dodlamma, Muthyalamma, and Pothuraju, +who are represented by stones. + +Girls are married before puberty, and, if a girl happens to be +mated only after she has reached maturity, there is no marriage +ceremonial. The marriage rites last over five days, on the first +of which a brass vessel, with a thread tied round its neck, and +containing turmeric water and the oyila tokka or tonko (bride's +money), is carried in procession to the bride's hut on the head of a +married girl belonging to a sept other than those of the contracting +couple. She has on her head a hood decorated with little bells, and +the vessel is supported on a cloth pad. When the hut is reached, +the bride's money is handed over to the Bichadi, and the turmeric +water is poured on the ground. The bride's money is divided between +her parents and maternal uncle, the Bichadi, and the caste men. A +pig is purchased, and carried by two men on a pole to the scene of +the marriage. The caste people, and the married girl carrying a brass +vessel, go round the animal, to the accompaniment of music. The girl, +as she goes round, pours water from the vessel on the ground. A thread +is tied round the neck of the pig, which is taken to the bridegroom's +hut, and cut up into two portions, for the parties of the bridegroom +and bride, of which the former is cooked and eaten on the same day. At +the homes of the bride and bridegroom, a pandal (booth) and dais are +erected. The materials for the former are brought by seven women, +and for the latter by nine men. The pandal is usually decorated with +mango and Eugenia Arnoltiana leaves. After supper, some relations of +the contracting couple go to an open space, where the Bichadi, who +has by him two pots and two bashingams (chaplets) of arka (Calotropis +gigantea) flowers, is seated with a few men. The fathers of the bride +and bridegroom ask the Bichadi to give them the bashingams, and this +he does after receiving an assurance that the wedding will not be +attended by quarrelling. The bride and bridegroom take their seats on +the dais at the home of the latter, and the officiating priest ties +the bashingams on their foreheads. Nine men and seven women stand near +the dais, and a thread is passed round them seven times. This thread +is cut up by the priest, and used for the kankanams (wrist threads) +of the bride and bridegroom. These are removed, at the close of the +marriage festivities, on the fifth day. + +When a girl attains maturity, she is under pollution for nine days, at +the conclusion of which the Bichadi receives a small present of money +from her parents. Her husband, and his agnates (people of his sept) +also have to observe pollution, and, on the ninth day, the cooking pots +which they have used are thrown away, and they proceed to the Bichadi, +to whom they make a present of money, as they have probably broken +the tribal rule that smoking is forbidden when under pollution. On +the ninth day, the girl and her husband throw water over each other, +and the marriage is consummated. + +The dead are usually buried, lying on the left side. On the second day, +food is offered to crows and Brahmani kites. On the eleventh day, +a mat is spread on the floor of the hut, and covered with a clean +sheet, on which balls of food are placed. The dead person is invoked +by name, as the various people deposit the food offering. The food is +finally put into a winnowing basket, and taken to the bank of a tank +(pond). A small hut is made there, and the food is placed therein on +two leaves, one of which represents the Yama Dutas (servants of the +god of death), the other the deceased. + +Boori (cake).--An exogamous sept of Mala. + +Bosantiya.--The Bosantiyas are summed up, in the Madras Census +Report, 1901, as "Oriya cultivators found in the northern +taluks of Ganjam. They are said by some to have been originally +dyers." I am informed that the caste name has reference to the +fact that the occupation thereof was the collection of the fruits +of Mallotus philippinensis, and trade in the dye (bosonto gundi) +obtained therefrom. The dye, commonly known as kamela, or kamala, +is the powdery substance obtained as a glandular pubescence from the +exterior of the fruits. The following note on the dye was published +in the Indian Forester, 1892. "Among the many rich natural products +of Ganjam, probably the most esteemed in commerce is the red kamela +dye, the valuable product of the Mallotus philippinensis. This tree, +with its lovely scarlet berries and vivid emerald green foliage, is +a marked feature of forest scenery in Ganjam. The berries are coated +with a beautiful red powder, which constitutes the dye. This powder is +collected by being brushed off into baskets made for the purpose, but +the method of collection is reckless and wasteful in the extreme, the +trees being often felled in order to reach the berries more easily. The +industry is a monopoly of the Hill Khonds, who, however, turn it to +little advantage. They are ignorant of the great commercial value of +the dye, and part with the powder to the low-country dealers settled +among them for a few measures of rice or a yard or two of cloth. The +industry is capable of great development, and a large fortune awaits +the firm or individual with sufficient enterprise to enter into +rivalry with the low-country native dealers settled among the Khonds, +who at present enjoy a monopoly of the trade. It is notorious that +these men are accumulating vast profits in respect of this dye. The +tree is cultivated largely by the Khonds in their forest villages." + +The Bosantiyas seem to have no sub-divisions, but exogamous +gotras, e.g., nagasira (cobra) and kochimo (tortoise) exist among +them. Socially they are on a par with the Bhondaris, and above +Pachchilia Gaudos and Samantiyas. They have a headman called Bissoyi, +who is assisted by a Bhollobaya, and they have further a caste +messenger called Jati Naiko. The caste titles are Bissoyi and Nahako. + +Most of the Bosantiyas are Saivites, but a few follow the Paramartho +form of Vaishnavism. They also worship various Takuranis (village +deities), such as Kotaru and Chondi. + +In the Vizagapatam Manual (1869), Bosuntea is described as a caste +of Paiks or fighting men in the Vizagapatam district (Jeypore). + +Bottada.--The Bottadas are, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [153] "a Class of +Uriya cultivators and labourers, speaking Muria or Lucia, otherwise +known as Basturia, a dialect of Uriya. Mr. Taylor says the caste is +the same as Muria, which is shown separately in the tables, and in +Mr. H. G. Turner's notes in the Census Report of 1871. But, whether +identical or distinct, it seems clear that both are sub-divisions of +the great Gond tribe." + +For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. There +is a current tradition that the caste originally dwelt at Barthagada, +and emigrated to Vizagapatam long ago. It is vaguely mentioned that +Barthagada was situated towards and beyond Bastar, near which place +there are still to be found people of this caste, with whom those +living in the Vizagapatam Agency intermarry. The caste is divided +into three endogamous divisions, viz.:-- + + + (1) Bodo, or genuine Bottadas; + (2) Madhya, descendants of Bottada men and non-Bottada women; + (3) Sanno, descendants of Madhya men and non-Madhya women. The + Bodos will not interdine with the other two sections, but + males of these will eat with Bodos. + + +The following notes refer to the Bodo section, in which various +exogamous septs, or bamsa, exist, of which the following are +examples:-- + + + Kochchimo, tortoise. Kukkuro, dog. + Bhag, tiger. Makado, monkey. + Goyi, lizard (Varanus). Cheli, goat. + Nag, cobra. + + +Girls are married either before or after puberty. A man can claim +his paternal aunt's daughter in marriage. When a marriage is under +contemplation, the prospective bridegroom's parents take maddho +(liquor) and chada (beaten rice) to the girl's house, where they are +accepted or refused, according as her parents agree to, or disapprove +of the match. After a stated period, further presents of liquor, +rice, black gram, dhal, salt, chillies, and jaggery (crude sugar) +are brought, and betel leaves and areca nuts given in exchange. Two +days later the girl's parents pay a return visit to those of the +young man. After another interval, the marriage takes place. Nine +days before its celebration, paddy (unhusked rice) and Rs. 2 are +taken to the bride's house as jholla tonka, and a feast is held. At +the bridegroom's house, a pandal, made of nine sorghi or sal (Shorca +robusta) posts, is erected, with a pot of turmeric water tied to the +central post. The bride is conducted thither. At the marriage rites the +Desari officiates. The ends of the cloths of the contracting couple +are tied together, and their little fingers are linked together, +while they go, with pieces of turmeric and rice in their hands, +seven times round the pandal. The sacred fire, or homam, is raised, +and into it seven or nine different kinds of wood, ghi (clarified +butter), milk, rice and jaggery are thrown. Turmeric-rice dots are put +on the foreheads of the bride and bridegroom by the Desari, parents, +and relations. They are anointed with castor-oil, and bathed with the +water contained in the pot tied to the post. New cloths are presented +to them, and a caste feast is held. + +Widow remarriage is permitted, and a younger brother often marries +the widow of his elder brother. If, however, she marries any one else, +her new husband has to pay rand tonka, consisting of liquor, a sheep or +goat, and rice, as a fine to the caste, or he may compound for payment +of five rupees. Divorce is permitted, and, if a man divorces his wife, +he usually gives her some paddy, a new cloth, and a rupee. If the +woman divorces herself from her husband, and contracts an alliance +with another man, the latter has to pay a fine of twenty rupees to +the first husband, a portion of which is spent on a feast, at which +the two husbands and the woman are present. + +The dead are burned, and death pollution is observed for ten days, +during which no agricultural work is done, and no food is cooked in +the bamsa of the deceased, which is fed by some related bamsa. On +the day following cremation, a new pot with water, and some sand +are carried to the spot where the corpse was burnt. A bed of sand is +made, in which a banyan (Ficus bengalensis) or pipal (Ficus religiosa) +is planted. A hole is made in the pot, and the plant watered. On the +tenth day, on which a bath is taken, some fried rice and a new pot +are carried to the burning-ground, and left there. + +The Bottadas have the reputation of being the best cultivators in the +Jeypore Agency, and they take a high position in social rank. Many of +them wear the sacred thread, at the time of marriage and subsequently, +and it is said that the right to wear it was acquired by purchase +from former Rajas of Jeypore. + +Bottu Kattoru (those who tie the bottu).--A sub-division of +Kappiliyans, who are Canarese cultivators settled in the Tamil +district of Madura. The bottu (marriage badge) is the equivalent of +the Tamil tali. + +Bovi.--The name of the palanquin-bearing section of the Mogers of South +Canara. Some Besthas from Mysore, who have settled in this district, +are also called Bovi, which is a form of Boyi (bearer). + +Boya (see Bedar).--Boya has also been recorded [154] as a sub-division +of Mala, a name for Ekari. + +Boyan.--A title of Odde. + +Boyi (see Bestha).--It is also the title of one of the chief men +among the Savaras. + +Brahman.--The Brahmans of Southern India are divided into a number +of sections, differing in language, manners and customs. As regards +their origin, the current belief is that they sprang from the mouth +of Brahma. In support thereof, the following verse from the Purusha +Suktha (hymn of the primæval male) of the Rig Veda is quoted:--From +the face of Prajapathi (Viratpurusha) came the Brahmans; from the +arms arose the Kshatriyas; from the thighs sprang the Vaisyas; and +from the feet the Sudras. Mention of the fourfold division of the +Hindu castes is also made in other Vedas, and in Ithihasas and Puranas. + +The Brahmans fall into three groups, following the three Vedas or +Sakas, Rig, Yajus, and Samam. This threefold division is, however, +recognised only for ceremonial purposes. For marriage and social +purposes, the divisions based on language and locality are practically +more operative. In the matter of the more important religious rites, +the Brahmans of Southern India, as elsewhere, closely follow their +own Vedas. Every Brahman belongs to one or other of the numerous +gotras mentioned in Pravara and Gotra Kandams. All the religious +rites are performed according to the Grihya Sutras (ritual books) +pertaining to their Saka or Veda. Of these, there are eight kinds +now in vogue, viz.:-- + + + 1. Asvalayana Sutra of the Rig Veda. + 2. Apasthamba | + 3. Bharadwaja | + 4. Bhodayana | Sutras of the black Yajus. + 5. Sathyashada | + 6. Vaikkanasa | + 7. Kathyayana Sutra of the white Yajus. + 8. Drahyayana Sutra of Sama Veda. + + +All Brahmans claim descent from one or more of the following +seven Rishis:--Atri, Bhrigu, Kutsa, Vashista, Gautama, Kasyapa, +Angiras. According to some, the Rishis are Agasthya, Angiras, Atri, +Bhrigu, Kasyapa, Vashista, and Gautama. Under these Rishis are +included eighteen ganams, and under each ganam there are a number +of gotras, amounting in all to about 230. Every Brahman is expected +to salute his superiors by repeating the Abhivadhanam (salutation) +which contains his lineage. As an example, the following may be +given:--"I, Krishna by name, of Srivathsa gotra, with the pravara +(lineage) of the five Rishis, Bhargava, Chyavana, Apnuvana, Aruva, +and Jamadagni, following the Apasthamba sutra of the Yajus Saka, +am now saluting you." Daily, at the close of the Sandhya prayers, +this Abhivadhanam formula should be repeated by every Brahman. + +Taking the Brahmans as a whole, it is customary to group them in two +main divisions, the Pancha Dravidas and Pancha Gaudas. The Pancha +Dravidas are pure vegetarians, whereas the Pancha Gaudas need not +abstain from meat and fish, though some, who live amidst the Pancha +Dravidas, do so. Other differences will be noted in connection with +Oriya Brahmans, who belong to the Pancha Gauda section. In South India, +all Brahmans, except those who speak the Oriya and Konkani languages, +are Pancha Dravidas, who are divided into five sections, viz.:-- + + + 1. Tamil, or Dravida proper. + 2. Telugu or Andhra. + 3. Canarese, or Carnataka. + 4. Marathi or Desastha. + 5. Guzarati. + + +The Tulu-speaking Shivalli Brahmans are included among the Carnatakas; +the Pattar and Nambutiri Brahmans (see Nambutiri) among the Dravidas +proper. + +From a religious point of view, the Brahmans are either Saivites or +Vaishnavites. The Saivites are either Saivites proper, or Smarthas. The +Smarthas believe that the soul of man is only a portion of the infinite +spirit (atman), and that it is capable of becoming absorbed into +the atman. They recognise the Trimurtis, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva as +separate gods, but only as equal manifestations of the supreme spirit, +and that, in the end, these are to be absorbed into the infinite +spirit, and so disappear. Saivas, on the other hand, do not recognise +the Trimurtis, and believe only in one god, Siva, who is self-existent, +and not liable to lose his personality. Of Vaishnavites there are three +kinds, viz., those who are the followers of Chaitanya, Ramanuja, and +Madhvacharya. Like the Smarthas, the Vaishnavites recognise Brahma, +Vishnu, and Siva, but Vishnu is supposed to be the chief god, to whom +the others are subordinate. + +"Vaishnavas," Monier Williams writes, [155] "are believers in the +one personal god Vishnu, not only as the preserver, but as above +every other god, including Siva. It should be noted, too, that both +Saivites and Vaishnavas agree in attributing an essential form of +qualities to the Supreme Being. Their one god, in fact, exists in +an eternal body, which is antecedent to his earthly incarnations, +and survives all such incarnations." He adds that "it cannot be +doubted that one great conservative element of Hinduism is the many +sidedness of Vaishnavism. For Vaishnavism is, like Buddhism, the most +tolerant of systems. It is always ready to accommodate itself to other +creeds, and delights in appropriating to itself the religious idea +of all the nations of the world. It admits of every form of internal +development. It has no organised hierarchy under one supreme head, +but it may have any number of separate associations under separate +leaders, who are ever banding themselves together for the extension +of spiritual supremacy over ever increasing masses of population." + +The Oriya Brahmans, who follow the creed of Chaitanya, are called +Paramarthos, and are confined to the Ganjam district. There is no +objection to intermarriage between Smartha and Paramartho Oriya +Brahmans. + +Sri Vaishnavas (who put on the namam as a sectarian mark) and Madhvas +are exclusive as regards intermarriage, but the Madhvas have no +objection to taking meals with, and at the houses of Smarthas, +whereas Sri Vaishnavas object to doing so. + +According to the Sutras, a Brahman has to go through the following +samskaras (rites):-- + + + 1. Garbhadana. 6. Annaprasanam + 2. Pumsavanam. 7. Chaulam. + 3. Simantam. 8. Upanayanam + 4. Jatakarmam. 9. Vivaham. + 5. Namakaranam. + + +These rites are supposed to purify the body and spirit from the taint +transmitted through the womb of the mother, but all of them are not +at the present day performed at the proper time, and in regular order. + +The Garbhadhana, or impregnation ceremony, should, according to +the Grihya Sutras, be performed on the fourth day of the marriage +ceremonies. But, as the bride is a young girl, it is omitted, or Vedic +texts are repeated. The Garbhadhana ceremony is performed, after +the girl has attained puberty. At the time of consummation or Ritu +Santhi, the following verse is repeated:--"Let all pervading Vishnu +prepare her womb; let the Creator shape its forms; let Prajapathi be +the impregnator; let the Creator give the embryo." + +Pumsavanam and Simantam are two ceremonies, which are performed +together during the seventh or ninth month of the first pregnancy, +though, according to the Grihya Sutras, the former should be performed +in the third month. At the Pumsavanam, or male producing ceremony, +the pregnant woman fasts, and her husband squeezes into her right +nostril a little juice from the fruit and twig of the alam tree +(Ficus bengalensis), saying "Thou art a male child." The twig selected +should be one pointing, east or north; with two fruits looking like +testicles. The twig is placed on a grinding-stone, and a girl, who has +not attained puberty, is asked to pound it. The pulp is wrapped in a +new silk cloth, and squeezed to express the juice. On the conclusion +of the Pumsavanam, the Simantam, or parting the pregnant woman's +hair, is gone through. After oblations in the sacred fire (homam), +the woman's husband takes a porcupine quill, to which three blades +of dharbha grass, and a twig with fruits of the aththi tree (Ficus +glomerata) are attached, and passes it over the woman's head from +before backwards, parting the hair. + +The Jatakarmam, Namakaranam, Annaprasanam, and Chaulam rites +are ordinarily celebrated, one after the other, on the Upanayanam +day. Jatakarmam consists in smearing some ghi (clarified butter) and +honey on the tongue of the baby, and repeating the following verses +from the Rig Veda:--"Oh! long lived one, mayst thou live a hundred +years in this world, protected by the gods. Become firm as a rock, +firm as an axe, pure as gold. Thou art the Veda called a son; live +thou a hundred years. May Indra bestow on thee his best treasures. May +Savitri, may Sarasvati, may the Asvins grant thee wisdom." + +At the Namakaranam, or naming ceremony, the parents of the child +pronounce its name close to its ear, and repeat the Vedic prayer to +Indra and Agni "May Indra give you lustre, and Indra semen, wisdom, +and children." + +The Annaprasanam, or food-giving ceremony, should be performed during +the sixth month after birth. A little solid food is put into the +child's mouth, and the following Vedic verses are repeated:--"Agni +who lives on plants, Soma who lives on soma juice, Brahmans who live +on the Vedas, and Devatas who live on amartam (ambrosia), may they +bless you. As the earth gives food to plants and water, so I give you +this food. May these waters and plants give you prosperity and health." + +At the Chaulam, or tonsure ceremony, the child is seated in his +mother's lap. The father, taking a few blades of dharbha grass in his +hand, sprinkles water over the child's head. Seven times he inserts +blades of dharbha in the hair of the head (three blades each time), +saying "Oh! divine grass, protect him." He then cuts off the tips of +the blades, and throws them away. The father is expected, according to +the Grihya Sutras, to shave or cut the child's hair. At the present +day, however, the barber is called in, and shaves the head, leaving +one lock or more according to local custom. + +The Upanayana, or leading a boy to his guru or spiritual teacher, is +essentially a ceremony of initiation. From an orthodox point of view, +this ceremony should be performed before the age of eight years, +but in practice it is deferred even up to the age of seventeen. It +usually commences with the arrangement of seed-pans containing +nine kinds of grain, and tying a thread or pratisaram on the boy's +wrist. After this, the Abyudayam, or invocation of ancestors, is gone +through. The boy sits in front of the sacred fire, and his father, +or some other person, sits by his side, to help him in the ceremonial +and act the part of guru. He places over the boy's head blades of +dharbha grass so that the tips are towards the east, south, west, +and north. The tips are cut off, and the following Vedic verses are +repeated:--"Please permit me to shave the head of this boy with the +knife used by the sun for shaving Soma. He is to be shaved, because +it will bring him long life and old age. May the boy become great, +and not die a premature death. May he outshine all in glory." The +boy is then shaved by a barber, and more Vedic verses are repeated, +which run as follows:--"You are shaving with a sharp razor, so that +this shaving may enable him to live long. Brihaspathi, Surya, and +Agni shaved the hair of the head of Varuna, and placed the hairs in +the middle regions of the sky, earth, and in swarga. I shall place +the hairs removed by me at the foot of the audambara tree (Ficus +glomerata), or in the clumps of dharbha grass." The boy then bathes, +and comes near the sacred fire. After ghi has been poured thereon, a +bundle of palasa (Butea frondosa) sticks is given to him, and he puts +it on the fire after repeating certain Vedic riks. A grinding-stone +is placed on one side of the fire, and the boy treads on it, while +the following verse is repeated:--"Tread on this stone, and may +you be as firm as it is. May you subdue thy enemies." A new cloth +is given to him, which he puts on. The following verses are then +repeated:--"Oh! cloth, Revathi and others have spun, woven, spread +out, and put skirts on both sides of you. May these goddesses clothe +the boy with long life. Blessed with life, put on this cloth. Dress +the boy with this cloth. By wearing it, let him attain a hundred +years of age. May his life be extended. Such a garment as this was +given to Soma by Brihaspathi to wear. Mayst thou reach old age. Put +on this cloth. Be a protector to all people. May you live a hundred +years with full vigour. May you have plenty of wealth." After the boy +has put on the cloth, the following is repeated:--"You have put on +this cloth for the sake of blessing. You have become the protector of +your friends. Live a hundred years. A noble man, blessed with life, +mayst thou obtain wealth." A girdle (minji) spun from grass is wound +thrice round the boy's body, and tied with a knot opposite the navel, +or to the left of it. The following verses are repeated:--"This blessed +girdle, the friend of the gods, has come to us to remove our sins, to +purify and protect us, bring strength to us by the power of exhalation +and inhalation. Protect, Oh! girdle, our wealth and meditation. Destroy +our enemies, and guard us on all the four sides." A small piece of +deer-skin is next tied on to the sacred thread, which has been put +on the boy soon after the shaving rite. The following verses are +repeated:--"Oh! skin which is full of lustre because Mitra sees you, +full of glory and one that is not fit for wicked people, I am now +putting you on. May Aditi tuck up thy garment. Thou mayst read Vedas, +and grow wise. Thou mayst not forget what you have read. Mayst thou +become holy and glorious." The boy seats himself next to the guru, +and close to the sacred fire, and repeats the following:--"I have come +near the spiritual teacher, my Acharya. May the teacher and myself +become prosperous. May I also complete my Vedic studies properly, +and let me be blessed with a married life after the study." The +guru sprinkles water over the boy three times, and, taking hold of +his hand, says:--"Agni, Soman, Savitha, Sarasvati, Pusha, Aryaman, +Amsuhu, Bagadevata, and Mitra have seized thy hand. They have taken +you over to them, and you have become friends." Then he hands over +the boy to the gods by repeating:--"We give you to Agni, Soman, +Savitha, Sarasvati, Mrityu, Yaman, Gadhan, Andhakan, Abhaya, Oshadhi, +Prithvi, and Vaisvanara. With the permission of Surya, I am allowing +you to approach me. Oh! boy, may you have children full of lustre, and +capable of becoming heroes." The boy then repeats the following:--"I +am come to be a student. You that have obtained permission from the +Surya, please take me." The teacher asks, "Who are you? What is your +name?" The boy gives out his name, and the teacher enquires of him what +kind of Brahmachari he is. The boy replies that he is a Brahmachari +for Atman, and repeats the following:--"Oh! sun, the lord of all ways, +through your grace I am about to begin my studies, which will do good +to me." The teacher and the boy take their seats on dharbha grass, +and say:--"Oh! dharbha, a giver of royal power, a teacher's seat, +may I not withdraw from thee." The boy then pours some ghi on to the +sacred fire. A cloth is thrown over both the teacher and the boy, +and the latter asks the former to recite the Savitri. The +following Gayatri is repeated into his ear:--"Let us meditate on +that excellent glory of the divine vivifier. May he illumine our +understandings." The boy touches his own upper lip with his right +hand, and says:--"Oh! Prana, I have become illumined, having heard +the Savitri. Protect and guard this wealth that has entered me, the +Gayatri or Savitri." He then takes the palasa staff, and the teacher +says:--"Up with life. Oh! sun, this is thy son. I give him in charge to +thee." The boy then worships the sun thus:--"That bright eye created by +the gods, which rises in the east, may we see it a hundred autumns; +may we live a hundred autumns; may we rejoice a hundred autumns; +may we live a hundred autumns; may we rejoice a hundred autumns; +may we be glad a hundred autumns; may we prosper a hundred autumns; +may we speak a hundred autumns; may we live undecaying a hundred +autumns; and may we long see the sun." The ceremonial is brought to +a close on the first day by the boy begging rice from his mother and +other female relations. A basket, filled with rice, is placed in a +pandal (booth), and the boy stands near it, repeating "Please give me +alms." Each woman pours some rice into a tray which he carries, and +presents him with some money and betel leaves. The rice is placed in +the basket. On the second and third days, the boy puts palasa sticks +into the sacred fire, and pours ghi thereon. On the fourth day, +the new cloth is given to the teacher. + +The wearing of the sacred thread is a sign that the boy has +gone through the upanayanam ceremony. It is noted [156] by the +Rev. A. Margöschis that "the son of Brahman parents is not reckoned +to be a Brahman (i.e., he may not take part in religious ceremonies) +until he has gone through the ceremony of assuming the sacred thread; +and I have heard Brahman boys wearing the thread taunting a boy of +Brahman birth, and calling him a Sudra, because he had not yet assumed +the holy thread." The thread is composed of three threads of cotton +secured together in one spot by a sacred knot of peculiar construction, +called Brahma Grandhi. The knot in the sacred thread worn by Vaishnava +Brahmans is called Vishnu Grandhi, and that in the thread of Smarthas +Rudra Grandhi. In the preparation of the thread, cotton sold in the +bazaar may not be used; the bolls ought to be secured direct from the +plant. Here and there Brahmans may be seen in villages, removing the +cotton from the bolls, and preparing it into pads for spinning into +thread. Those who teach students the Vedas may be seen spinning the +thread from these pads. The spinning rod is a thin piece of bamboo +stick weighted with a lead or soapstone disc about half an inch in +diameter. The thin thread is kept in stock, and twisted into the sacred +thread whenever it is required. Three or more people usually take part +in the twisting process, during which they chant Vedic verses. In the +Srutis and Sutras, it is enjoined that the Yagnopavita (sacred thread) +is to be put on only on occasions of sacrifice. It ought really to be +a vestment, and is a symbolical representation thereof. Ordinarily +the thread is worn over the left shoulder in the position called +Upavitham. In ceremonies connected with the dead, however, it is worn +over the right shoulder in the position called prachinavithi. At the +time of worshipping Rishis and Ganas, the thread should be over both +shoulders and round the neck in the position called nivithi. + +The grass girdle and deer-skin worn by a youth at the Upanayanam +ceremony are removed on the fifth day, or, among the orthodox, +kept on until the first Upakarmam day. They, and the palasa +stick, should be retained by the Brahmachari till the close of his +studentship. Nambutiri Brahman lads of eight or nine years old, who +have gone through the Upanayanam ceremony, always carry with them +the palasa stick, and wear the grass girdle, and, in addition to +the sacred thread, a thin strip of deer-skin in length equal to the +thread. Round the waist he wears a narrow strip of cloth (kaupinam) +passed between the legs. He may cover his breast and abdomen with +a cloth thrown over his body. He is thus clad until his marriage, +or at least until he has concluded the study of the Vedas. + +The marriage rites in vogue at the present day resemble those of +Vedic times in all essential particulars. All sections of Brahmans +closely follow the Grihya Sutras relating to their sakha. The marriage +ceremonies commence with the Nischyathartham or betrothal ceremony. The +bridegroom being seated on a plank amidst a number of Brahmans, +Vedic verses are repeated, and, after the bestowal of blessings, +the bride's father proclaims that he intends giving his daughter +in marriage to the bridegroom, and that he may come for the purpose +after the completion of the Vratam ceremony. For this ceremony, the +bridegroom, after being shaved, dresses up. Meanwhile, the Brahmans who +have been invited assemble. The bridegroom sits on the marriage dais, +and, after repeating certain Vedic verses, says:--"With the permission +of all assembled, let me begin the Vratams Prajapathyam, Soumyam, +Agneyam, and Vaiswadevam, and let me also close them." All the Vratams +should be performed long before the marriage. In practice, however, +this is not done, so the bridegroom performs an expiatory ceremony, +to make up for the omission. This consists in offering oblations of +ghi, and giving presents of money to a few Brahmans. The bridegroom is +helped throughout the Vratam ceremonies by a spiritual teacher or guru, +who is usually his father or a near relation. The guru sprinkles water +over the bridegroom's body, and tells him to go on with kandarishi +tharpanam (offerings of water, gingelly, and rice, as an oblation to +Rishis). A small copper or silver vessel is placed on a leaf to the +north-east of the sacred fire, and is made to represent Varuna. A new +cloth is placed round the vessel. The various Vratams mentioned are +gone through rapidly, and consist of offerings of ghi through fire to +the various Devatas and Pitris. The Nandhi Sradh, or memorial service +to ancestors, is then performed. The bridegroom next dresses up as a +married man, and proceeds on a mock pilgrimage to a distant place. This +is called Paradesa Pravesam (going to a foreign place), or Kasiyatra +(pilgrimage to Benares). It is a remnant of the Snathakarma rite, +whereat a Brahmachari, or student, leaves his spiritual teacher's +house at the close of his studies, performs a ceremony of ablution, +and becomes an initiated householder or Snathaka. The bridegroom +carries with him an umbrella, a fan, and a bundle containing some +rice, cocoanut, and areca-nut. He usually goes eastward. His future +father-in-law meets him, and brings him to the house at which the +marriage is to be celebrated. As soon as he has arrived there, the +bride is brought, dressed up and decorated in finery. The bridal pair +are taken up on the shoulders of their maternal uncles, who dance +about for a short time. Whenever they meet, the bride and bridegroom +exchange garlands (malaimaththal). The couple then sit on a swing +within the pandal (booth), and songs are sung. A few married women go +round them three times, carrying water, a light, fruits, and betel, +in a tray. The pair are conducted into the house, and are seated on +the marriage dais. The marriage, or Vivaham, is then commenced. A +purohit (priest) repeats certain Vedic texts as a blessing, and +says:--"Bless this couple of ... gotras, the son and daughter of +..., grandchildren of ..., now about to be married." At this stage, +the gotras of the contracting couple must be pronounced distinctly, +so as to ensure that they are not among the prohibited degrees. The +bridal couple must belong to different gotras. The bridegroom next +says that he is about to commence the worship of Visvaksena if he is +a Vaishnavite, or Ganapathi if he is a Saivite, for the successful +termination of the marriage ceremonies. The Ankurarpana (seed-pan) +ceremony is then proceeded with. Five earthenware pans are procured, +and, after being purified by the sprinkling of punyaham water over +them, are arranged in the form of a square. Four of the pans are +placed at the four cardinal points, east, west, north, and south, +and the remaining pot is set down in the centre of the square. The +pan to the east represents Indra, the one to the west Varuna, the +one to the south Yama, and the one to the north Soman. While water +is being sprinkled over the pans, the following synonyms for each of +these gods are repeated:-- + + + Indra--Sathakruthu, Vajranam, Sachipathi. + Yama--Vaivaswata, Pithrupathi, Dharmaraja. + Varuna--Prachethas, Apampathi, Swarupinam. + Soman--Indum, Nisakaram, Oshadisam. + + +Nine kinds of grains soaked in water are placed in the seed-pans. These +grains are Dolichos Lablab (two varieties), Phaseolus Mungo +(two varieties), Oryza sativa, Cicer Arietinum, Cajanus indicus, +Eleusine Coracana, and Vigna Catiang. The tying of the wrist-thread +(pratisaram) is next proceeded with. Two cotton threads are laid on +a vessel representing Varuna. After the recitation of Vedic verses, +the bridegroom takes one of the threads, and, dipping it in turmeric +paste, holds it with his left thumb, smears some of the paste on it +with his right thumb and forefinger, and ties it on the left wrist +of the bride. The purohit ties the other thread on the right wrist +of the bridegroom, who, facing the assembly, says "I am going to +take the bride." He then recites the following Vedic verse:--"Go to +my future father-in-law with due precautions, and mingle with the +members of his family. This marriage is sure to be pleasing to Indra, +because he gets oblations of food, etc., after the marriage. May your +path be smooth and free from thorns. May Surya and Bhaga promote our +dhampathyam (companionship)." + +The purohit again proclaims the marriage, and the gotras and names +of three generations are repeated. Those assembled then bless the +couple. The bride's father says that he is prepared to give his +daughter in marriage to the bridegroom, who states that he accepts +her. The father of the bride washes the feet of the bridegroom placed +on a tray with milk and water. The bridegroom then washes the feet of +the bride's father. The bride sits in her father's lap, and her mother +stands at her side. The father, repeating the names of the bridegroom's +ancestors for three generations, says that he is giving his daughter +to him. He places the hand of the bride on that of the bridegroom, +and both he and the bride's mother pour water over the united hands +of the contracting couple. The following sloka is repeated:--"I am +giving you a virgin decorated with jewels, to enable me to obtain +religious merit." The bridegroom takes the bride by the hand, and +both take their seats in front of the sacred fire. This part of the +ceremonial is called dhare (pouring of water). Much importance is +attached to it by Tulu Brahmans. Among Non-Brahman castes in South +Canara, it forms the binding portion of the marriage ceremony. After +the pouring of ghi as an oblation, the bridegroom throws down a few +twigs of dharbha grass, and repeats the formula:--"Oh! dharbha, thou +art capable of giving royal powers, and the teacher's seat. May I not +be separated from thee." Then the bride's father, giving a vessel of +water, says "Here is Arghya water." The bridegroom receives it with +the formula:--"May this water destroy my enemies. May brilliancy, +energy, strength, life, renown, glory, splendour, and power dwell in +me." Once again the bride's father washes the feet of the bridegroom, +who salutes his father-in-law, saying "Oh! water, unite me with fame, +splendour, and milk. Make me beloved by all creatures, the lord of +cattle. May fame, heroism, and energy dwell in me." The bride's father +pours some water from a vessel over the hand of the bridegroom, +who says "To the ocean I send you, the imperishable waters; go +back to your source. May I not suffer loss in my offspring. May my +sap not be shed." A mixture of honey, plantain fruit, and ghi, is +given to the bridegroom by the bride's father with the words "Ayam +Madhuparko" (honey mixture). Receiving it, the bridegroom mutters +the following:--"What is the honeyed, highest form of honey which +consists in the enjoyment of food; by that honeyed highest form of +honey, may I become highest, honeyed, an enjoyer of food." He partakes +three times of the mixture, and says:--"I eat thee for the sake of +brilliancy, luck, glory, power, and the enjoyment of food." Then the +bride's father gives a cocoanut to the bridegroom, saying "Gauhu" +(cow). The bridegroom receives it with the words "Oh! cow, destroy +my sin, and that of my father-in-law." According to the Grihya +Sutras, a cow should be presented to the bridegroom, to be cooked +or preserved. Next a plantain fruit is given to the bridegroom, who, +after eating a small portion of it, hands it to the bride. The bride +sits on a heap or bundle of paddy (unhusked rice), and the bridegroom +says "Oh! Varuna, bless her with wealth. May there be no ill-feeling +between herself, her brothers and sisters. Oh! Brihaspathi, bless +her that she may not lose her husband. Oh! Indra, bless her to +be fertile. Oh! Savitha, bless her that she may be happy in all +respects. Oh! girl, be gentle-eyed and friendly to me. Let your +look be of such a nature as not to kill your husband. Be kind to me, +and to my brothers. [157] May you shine with lustre, and be of good +repute. Live long, and bear living children." The pair are then seated, +and the bridegroom, taking a blade of dharbha grass, passes it between +the eyebrows of the bride, and throws it behind her, saying "With +this dharbha grass I remove the evil influence of any bad mark thou +mayst possess, which is likely to cause widowhood." [Certain marks or +curls (suli) forebode prosperity, and others misery to a family into +which a girl enters by marriage. And, when a wealthy Hindu meditates +purchasing a horse, he looks to the presence or absence of certain +marks on particular parts of the body, and thereby forms a judgment of +the temper and qualities of the animal.] The bridegroom then repeats +the following:--"Now they ought to rejoice, and not cry. They have +arranged our union to bring happiness to both of us. In view of the +happiness we are to enjoy hereafter, they should be glad. This is +a fitting occasion for rejoicing." Four Brahmans next bring water, +and the bridegroom receives it, saying:--"May the evil qualities of +this water disappear; may it increase. Let the Brahmans bring water +for the bath, and may it bring long life and children to her." A +bundle of paddy, or a basket filled therewith, is brought to the +pandal. The bride sits on the paddy, and a ring of dharbha grass is +placed on her head. The bridegroom repeats the formula "Blessed by +the Surya, sit round the sacred fire, and look at the dharbha ring, +my mother-in-law and brother-in-law." A yoke is then brought, one end +of which is placed on the head of the bride above the ring, and the +following formula is repeated:--"Oh! Indra, cleanse and purify this +girl, just as you did in the case of Abhala, by pouring water through +three holes before marrying her." Abhala was an ugly woman, who wished +to marry Indra. To attain this end, she did penance for a long time, +and, meeting Indra, requested him to fulfil her desire. Indra made her +his wife, after transforming her into a beautiful woman by sprinkling +water over her through the holes in the wheels of the car which +was his vehicle. Into the hole of the yoke a gold coin, or the tali +(marriage badge), is dropped, with the words "May this gold prove a +blessing to you. May the yoke, the hole of the yoke, bring happiness +to you. May we be blessed to unite your body with mine." Then the +bridegroom, sprinkling water over the yoke and coin, says:--"May you +become purified by the sun through this purificatory water. May this +water, which is the cause of thunder and lightning, bring happiness +to you. Oh! girl, may this water give you health and long life. A +new and costly silk cloth (kurai), purchased by the bridegroom, +is given to the bride, and the bridegroom says:--"Oh! Indra, listen +to my prayers; accept them, and fulfil my desires." The bride puts +on the cloth, with the assistance of the bridegroom's sister, and +sits on her father's lap. The bridegroom, taking up the tali, ties +it by the string on the bride's neck, saying:--"Oh! girl, I am tying +the tali to secure religious merit." This is not a Vedic verse, and +this part of the ceremony is not included in the Grihya Sutras. All +the Brahmans assembled bless the couple by throwing rice over their +heads. A dharbha waist-cord is passed round the waist of the bride, +and the following is repeated:--"This girl is gazing at Agni, wishing +for health, wealth, strength and children. I am binding her for her +good." The bridegroom then holds the hand of the bride, and both go +to the sacred fire, where the former says:--"Let Surya lead to Agni, +and may you obtain permission from the Aswins to do so. Go with me +to my house. Be my wife, and the mistress of my house. Instruct and +help me in the performance of sacrifices." After offerings of ghi +in the sacred fire, the bridegroom says:--"Soma was your husband; +Gandharva knew thee next; Agni was your third husband. I, son of man, +am your fourth husband. Soma gave you to Gandharva, and Gandharva gave +you to Agni, who gave to me with progeny and wealth." The bridegroom +takes hold of the bride's right wrist, and, pressing on the fingers, +passes his hand over the united fingers three times. This is called +Panigrahanam. To the Nambutiri Brahman this is a very important item, +being the binding part of the marriage ceremonial. Some years ago, +at a village near Chalakkudi in the Cochin State, a Nambutiri refused +to accept a girl as his bride, because the purohit inadvertently +grasped her fingers, to show how it ought to be done at the time of +the marriage ceremony. The purohit had to marry the girl himself. The +next item in the ceremonial is Sapthapathi, or the taking of the seven +steps. This is considered as the most binding portion thereof. The +bridegroom lifts the left foot of the bride seven times, repeating +the following:--"One step for sap, may Vishnu go after thee. Two +steps for juice, may Vishnu go after thee. Three steps for vows, +may Vishnu go after thee. Four steps for comfort, may Vishnu go after +thee. Five steps for cattle, may Vishnu go after thee. Six steps for +the prospering of wealth, may Vishnu go after thee. Seven steps for +the seven-fold hotriship, [158] may Vishnu go after thee. With seven +steps we have become companions. May I attain to friendship with +thee. May I not be separated from thy friendship. Mayst thou not be +separated from my friendship. Let us be united; let us always take +counsel together with good hearts and mutual love. May we grow in +strength and prosperity together. Now we are one in minds, deeds, +and desires. Thou art Rik, I am Samam; I am the sky, thou art the +earth; I am the semen, thou art the bearer; I am the mind, thou +art the tongue. Follow me faithfully, that we may have wealth and +children together. Come thou of sweet speech." The bridegroom then does +homam, repeating the following:--"We are offering oblations to Soma, +Gandharva, and Agni. This girl has just passed her virginity. Make her +leave her father's house. Bless her to remain fixed in her husband's +house. May she have a good son by your blessing. Cause her to beget +ten children, and I shall be the eleventh child. Oh! Agni, bless her +with children, and make them long-lived. Oh! Varuna, I pray to you +for the same thing. May this woman be freed from the sorrow arising +out of sterility, and be blessed by Garhapathyagni. May she have +a number of children in her, and become the mother of many living +children. Oh! girl, may your house never know lamentations during +nights caused by deaths. May you live long and happy with your husband +and children. May the sky protect thy back; may Vayu strengthen your +thighs; and the Aswins your breast. May Savitri look after thy suckling +sons. Until the garment is put on, may Brihaspathi guard them, and the +Viswedevas afterwards. Oh! Varuna, make me strong and healthy. Do not +steal away years from our ages. All those who offer oblations pray +for the same. Oh! you all-pervading Agni, pacify Varuna; you who +blaze forth into flames to receive oblations, be friendly towards +us. Be near us, and protect us. Receive, and be satisfied with our +oblations. Make us prosperous. We are always thinking of you. Take +our oblations to the several devatas, and give us medicine." The +bride next treads on a stone, and the bridegroom says:--"Oh! girl, +tread on this stone. Be firm like it. Destroy those who seek to do +thee harm. Overcome thy enemies." Some fried paddy is put in the +sacred fire, and the bridegroom repeats the following:--"Oh! Agni, +I am offering the fried grains, so that this girl may be blessed with +long life. Oh! Agni, give me my wife with children, just as in olden +days you were given Suryayi with wealth. Oh! Agni, bless my wife with +lustre and longevity. Also bless her husband with long life, that she +may live happily. Oh! Agni, help us to overcome our enemies." Again +the bride treads on the stone, and the bridegroom says:--"Oh! girl, +tread on this stone, and be firm like it. Destroy those who seek to +do thee harm. Overcome thy enemies." This is followed by the offering +of fried grain with the following formula:--"The virgins prayed to +Surya and Agni to secure husbands, and they were at once granted their +boons. Such an Agni is now being propitiated by offerings of fried +paddy. Let him make the bride leave her father's house." For the third +time, the bride treads on the stone, and fried paddy is offered with +the formula:--"Oh! Agni, thou art the giver of life, and receiver of +oblations. Oblations of ghi are now offered to you. Bless the pair to +be of one mind." The dharbha girdle is removed from the bride's waist, +with the verse: "I am loosening you from the bondage of Varuna. I am +now removing the thread with which Surya bound you." Those assembled +then disperse. Towards evening, Brahmans again assemble, and the +bride and bridegroom sit before the sacred fire, while the former +repeat several Vedic riks. They are supposed to start for their home, +driving in a carriage, and the verses repeated have reference to the +chariot, horses, boats, etc. After ghi has been poured into the fire, +a child, who should be a male who has not lost brothers or sisters, +is seated in the lap of the bride, and the bridegroom says:--"May cows, +horses, men, and wealth, increase in this house. Let this child occupy +your lap, just as the Soma creeper which gives strength to the Devatas +occupies the regions of the stars." Giving some plantain fruit to the +child, the bridegroom says:--"Oh! fruits, ye bear seeds. May my wife +bear seeds likewise by your blessing." Then the pair are shown Druva +and Arundathi (the pole star and Ursa major), which are worshipped +with the words:--"The seven Rishis who have led to firmness, she, +Arundathi, who stands first among the six Krithikas (Pleiads), may +she the eighth one, who leads the conjunction of the (moon with the) +six Krithikas, the first (among conjunctions) shine upon us. Firm +dwelling, firm origin; the firm one art thou, standing on the side of +firmness. Thou art the pillar of the stars. Thus protect me against +my adversaries." They then proceed to perform the Sthalipaka ceremony, +in which the bride should cook some rice, which the bridegroom offers +as an oblation in the sacred fire. In practice, however, a little +food is brought, and placed in the fire without being cooked. The +purohit decorates a Ficus stick with dharbha grass, and gives it to the +bridegroom. It is placed in the roof, or somewhere within the house, +near the seed-pans. [According to the Grihya Sutras, the couple ought +to occupy the same mat, with the stick between them. This is not in +vogue amongst several sections of Brahmans. The Mysore Carnatakas, +Mandya Aiyangars, and Shivallis, observe a kindred ceremony. Amongst +the Mandyas, for example, on the fourth night of the marriage rites, +the bridal couple occupy the same mat for a short time, and a stick +is placed between them. The Pajamadme, or mat marriage, amongst the +Shivalli Brahmans, evidently refers to this custom.] On the second and +third days of the marriage ceremonies, homams are performed in the +morning and evening, and the nalagu ceremony is performed. In this, +the couple are seated on two planks covered with mats and cloth, +amidst a large number of women assembled within the pandal. In front +of them, betel leaves, areca nuts, fruits, flowers, and turmeric +paste are placed in a tray. The women sing songs which they have +learnt from childhood, and the bride also sings the praises of the +bridegroom. Taking a little of the turmeric paste rendered red by the +addition of chunam (lime), she makes marks by drawing lines over the +feet (nalangu idal). The ceremony closes with the waving of arathi +(water coloured red with turmeric and chunam), and the distribution +of pan-supari (betel leaves and areca nuts). The waving is done by +two women, who sing appropriate songs. On the fourth day, Brahmans +assemble, and the pair are seated in their midst. After the recitation +of Vedic verses, the contracting couple are blessed. A small quantity +of turmeric paste, reddened by the addition of chunam, is mixed with +ghi, and smeared over the shoulders of the pair, and a mark is made on +their foreheads. This is called Pachchai Kalyanam, and is peculiar to +Tamil Brahmans, both Smarthas and Vaishnavas. Amongst Tamil Brahmans, +prominence is given to the maternal uncles on the fourth day. The +bride and bridegroom are carried astride on the shoulders of their +uncles, who dance to the strains of a band. When they meet, the couple +exchange garlands (malaimaththal). Towards evening, a procession is +got up at the expense of the maternal uncle of the bride, and is hence +called Amman Kolam. The bride is dressed up as a boy, and another girl +is dressed up to represent the bride. They are taken in procession +through the streets, and, on their return, the pseudo-bridegroom is +made to speak to the real bridegroom in somewhat insolent tones, and +some mock play is indulged in. The real bridegroom is addressed as if +he was the syce (groom) or gumastha (clerk) of the pseudo-bridegroom, +and is sometimes treated as a thief, and judgment passed on him by the +latter. Among Sri Vaishnavas, after the Pachchai smearing ceremony, +the bridal couple roll a cocoanut to and fro across the dais, and the +assembled Brahmans chant stanzas in Tamil composed by a Vaishnava +lady named Andal, an avatar of Lakshmi, who dedicated herself to +Vishnu. In these stanzas, she narrates to her attendants the dream, +in which she went through the marriage ceremony after her dedication +to the god. Pan-supari, of which a little, together with some money, +is set apart for Andal, is then distributed to all present. A large +crowd generally assembles, as it is believed that the chanting of +Andal's srisukthi (praise of Lakshmi) brings a general blessing. The +family priest calls out the names and gotras of those who have become +related to the bride and bridegroom through their marriage. As each +person's name is called out, he or she is supposed to make a present +of cloths, money, etc., to the bridegroom or bride. [The Telugu +and Carnataka Brahmans, instead of the Pachchai Kalyanam, perform +a ceremony called Nagavali on the fourth or fifth day. Thirty-two +lights and two vessels, representing Siva and Parvathi, are arranged +in the form of a square. Unbleached thread, soaked in turmeric paste, +is passed round the square, and tied to the pandal. The bridal couple +sit in front of the square, and, after doing puja (worship), cut the +thread, and take their seats within the square. The bridegroom ties +a tali of black glass beads on the bride's neck, in the presence of +33 crores (330 millions) of gods, represented by a number of small +pots arranged round the square. Close to the pots are the figures of +two elephants, designed in rice grains and salt respectively. After +going round the pots, the couple separate, and the bridegroom stands +by the salt elephant, and the bride by the other. They then talk about +the money value of the two animals, and an altercation takes place, +during which they again go round the pots, and stand, the bridegroom +near the rice elephant, and the bride near the salt one. The bargaining +as to the price of the animals is renewed, and the couple go round the +pots once more. This ceremony is followed by a burlesque of domestic +life. The bride is presented with two wooden dolls from Tirupati, and +told to make a cradle out of the bridegroom's turmeric-coloured cloth, +which he wore on the tali-tying day. The couple converse on domestic +matters, and the bridegroom asks the bride to attend to her household +affairs, so that he may go to his duties. She pleads her inability to +do so because of the children, and asks him to take charge of them. She +then shows the babies (dolls) to all present, and a good deal of fun is +made out of the incident. The bride, with her mother standing by her +side near two empty chairs, is then introduced to her new relations +by marriage, who sit in pairs on the chairs, and make presents of +pan-supari and turmeric.] On the fifth day of the marriage ceremonies, +before dawn, the bridal couple are seated on the dais, and the +Gandharva stick is removed, with the words:--"Oh! Visvawasu Gandharva, +I pray to you to make this girl my wife. Unite her with me. Leave +her, and seek another." The bridegroom then performs homams. A coin +is placed on the bride's head, and a little ghi put thereon. Gazing +at the bridegroom, she says:--"With a loving heart I regard thee +who knowest my heart. Thou art radiant with tapas (penance). Fill me +with a child, and this house of ours with wealth. Thou art desirous +of a son. Thus shalt thou reproduce thyself." Looking at the bride, +the bridegroom then says:--"I see thee radiant and eager to be filled +with child by me. Thou art in thy youth now. Enjoy me, therefore, +while I am over you, and so reproduce thyself, being desirous of +a son." Touching the bride's breasts with his ring-finger, and +then touching his heart, he repeats the following:--"May the Viswe +gods unite our hearts; may the water unite our hearts; may Vayu and +Brahma unite our hearts; and may Sarasvati teach us both conversation +appropriate to this occasion of our intercourse." More Vedic riks +are then recited, as follows:--"Thou Prajapathi, enter my body that +I may have vigour during this act; so thou Thvastri, who fashionest +forms with Vishnu and other gods; so thou Indra, who grantest boons +with thy friends the Viswedevas, by thy blessing may we have many +sons. May Vishnu make thy womb ready; may Thvashtri frame the shape +(of the child); may Prajapathi pour forth (the sperm); may Dhatri +give thee conception. Give conception, Sinivali; give conception, +Sarasvati. May the two Asvins, wreathed with lotus, give conception +to thee. The embryo which the two Asvins produce with their golden +kindling sticks, that embryo we call into thy womb, that thou mayst +give birth to it after ten months. As the earth is pregnant with +Agni, as the heaven is pregnant with Indra, as Vayu dwells in the +womb of the regions (of the earth), thus I place an embryo in thy +womb. Open thy womb; take in the sperm. May a male child, an embryo, +be begotten in the womb. The mother bears him ten months, may he be +born, the most valiant of his kin. May a male embryo enter the womb, +as an arrow the quiver; may a man be born here, thy son, after ten +months. I do with thee (the work) that is sacred to Prajapathi; may +an embryo enter the womb. May a child be born without deficiency, +with all its limbs, not blind, not lame, not sucked out by Pisachas" +(devils). The marriage is brought to a close, after this recitation, +with the presentation of fruits, etc., to all the Brahmans assembled, +and to all relations, children included. The bridegroom chews betel +for the first time on this day. The wrist-threads are removed, and the +seed-pans containing the seedlings, which have been worshipped daily, +are taken in procession to a tank (pond), into which the seedlings +are thrown. + +It will be noticed that prayers for male issue are of frequent +occurrence during the marriage ceremonial. In Sanskrit works, +Putra (son) is defined as one who delivers a parent from a hell +called put. It is generally believed that the welfare of a parent's +soul depends on the performance of sradh (memorial services) by his +son. It was laid down by Manu that a man is perfect, when he consists +of three--himself, his wife, and his son. In the Rig Veda it is +stated that "when a father sees the face of a living son, he pays +a debt in him, and gains immortality. The pleasure which a father +has in his son exceeds all other enjoyments. His wife is a friend, +his daughter an object of companion, his son shines as his light in +the highest world." The following story of a certain pious man of +ascetical temperament, who determined to shirk the religious duty of +taking a wife, is narrated by Monier Williams:--"Quietly skipping +over the second prescribed period of life, during which he ought +to have been a householder (grihastha), he entered at once upon the +third period--that is to say, he became an ascetic, abjured all female +society, and retired to the woods. Wandering about one day, absorbed +in meditation, he was startled by an extraordinary spectacle. He saw +before him a deep and apparently bottomless pit. Around its edge some +unhappy men were hanging suspended by ropes of grass, at which here +and there a rat was nibbling. On asking their history, he discovered +to his horror that they were his own ancestors compelled to hang in +this unpleasant manner, and doomed eventually to fall into the abyss, +unless he went back into the world, did his duty like a man, married +a suitable wife, and had a son, who would be able to release them +from their critical predicament." This legend is recorded in detail +in the Mahabharata. + +A curious mock marriage ceremony is celebrated amongst Brahmans +when an individual marries a third wife. It is believed that a +third marriage is very inauspicious, and that the bride will become +a widow. To prevent this mishap, the man is made to marry the arka +plant (Calotropis gigantea), and the real marriage thus becomes the +fourth. If this ceremony is carried on in orthodox fashion, it is +generally celebrated on some Sunday or Monday, when the constellation +Astham is visible. The bridegroom and a Brahman priest, accompanied +by a third Brahman, repair to a spot where the arka plant (a very +common weed) is growing. The plant is decorated with a cloth and a +piece of string, and symbolised into the sun. The bridegroom then +invokes it thus:--"Oh! master of three loks, Oh! the seven-horsed, +Oh! Ravi, avert the evils of the third marriage." Next the plant +is addressed with the words:--"You are the oldest of the plants of +this world. Brahma created you to save such of us as have to marry +a third time, so please become my wife." The Brahman who accompanies +the bridegroom becomes his father-in-law for the moment, and says to +him:--"I give you in marriage Aditya's great grand-daughter, Savi's +grand-daughter, and my daughter Arkakanya." All the ceremonies, such as +making homam, tali-tying, etc., are performed as at a regular marriage, +and, after the recitation of a few sentences from the Vedas, the plant +is cut down. "The plant," Mr. A. Srinivasan writes, [159] "is named +arka after the sun. When the car of the sun turns towards the north, +every Hindu applies the leaves of this plant to his head before he +bathes, in honour of the event. The plant is, besides, believed to be +a willing scapegoat to others' ills. Oil and ghi applied to the head +of the victim of persistent illness has only to be transferred to +this plant, when it withers and saves the man, even as Baber is said +to have saved his son. The poet Kalidasa describes sweet Sakuntala, +born of a shaggy dweller of the forest, as a garland of jasmine +thrown on an arka plant. 'May the arka grow luxuriant in your house' +is the commonest form of curse. 'Be thou belaboured with arka leaves' +is familiar in the mouths of reprimanding mothers. Adulterers were, +half a century ago, seated on an ass, face to the tail, and marched +through the village. The public disgrace was enhanced by placing a +garland of the despised arka leaves on their head. [Uppiliyan women +convicted of immorality are said to be garlanded with arka flowers, +and made to carry a basket of mud round the village.] A Telugu proverb +asks 'Does the bee ever seek the arka flower?' The reasons for the +ill-repute that this plant suffers from are not at all clear. The +fact that it has a partiality for wastes has evidently brought on +its devoted head the dismal associations of desolation, but there +would seem to be more deep-seated hatred to the plant than has been +explained." A Tamil proverb has it that he who crushes the bud of the +arka earns merit. Some Telugu and Canarese Brahmans, who follow the +Yajur Veda or Rig Veda, consider the arka plant as sacred, and use +the leaves thereof during the nandhi (ancestor invoking) ceremony, +which is performed as one of the marriage rites. Two or three arka +leaves, with betel leaves and areca nuts, are tied to the cloth, which +is attached to a stick as representing the ancestors (pithrus). With +some the arka leaves are replaced by leaves of Pongamia glabra. On +rathasapthami day (the seventh day after the new moon in the month +Avani), an orthodox Hindu should bathe his head and shoulders with arka +leaves in propitiation of Surya (the sun). Brahmans who follow the Sama +Veda, during the annual upakarmam ceremony, make use of arka leaves +and flowers in worshipping the Rishis and Pithrus. On the upakarmam +day, the Sama Vedis invoke their sixty-two Rishis and the last three +ancestors, who are represented by sixty-five clay balls placed on +arka leaves. To them are offered arka flowers, fruits of karai-chedi +(Canthium parviflorum), and naval (Eugenia Jambolana). In addition to +this worship, they perform the Rishi and Pithru tharpanam by offering +water, gingelly (Sesamum indicum) seeds, and rice. The celebrant, +prior to dipping his hand into the water, places in his hands two arka +leaves, gingelly, and rice. The juice of the arka plant is a favourite +agent in the hands of suicides. Among the Tangalan Paraiyans, if a +young man dies before he is married, a ceremony called kannikazhithal +(removing bachelorhood) is performed. Before the corpse is laid on +the bier, a garland of arka flowers is placed round its neck, and +balls of mud from a gutter are laid on the head, knees, and other +parts of the body. In some places a variant of the ceremony consists +in the erection of a mimic marriage booth, which is covered with +leaves of the arka plant, flowers of which are also placed round the +neck as a garland. At a form of marriage called rambha or kathali +(plantain) marriage, the arka plant is replaced by a plantain tree +(Musa). It is performed by those who happen to be eldest brothers, +and who are incapable of getting married, so as to give a chance +to younger brothers, who are not allowed to marry unless the elder +brother or brothers are already married. + +At the present day, many Hindus disregard certain ceremonies, in the +celebration of which their forefathers were most scrupulous. Even the +daily ceremonial ablutions, which are all important to a Brahman from +a shastraic point of view, are now neglected by a large majority, +and the prayers (mantrams), which should be chanted during their +performance, are forgotten. But no Brahman, orthodox or unorthodox, +dares to abandon the death ceremonial, and annual sradh (memorial +rites). A Brahman beggar, when soliciting alms, invariably pleads that +he has to perform his father or mother's sradh, or upanayanam (thread +ceremony) of his children, and he rarely goes away empty-handed. "The +constant periodical performance," Monier Williams writes, [160] +"of commemorative obsequies is regarded in the light of a positive +and peremptory obligation. It is the simple discharge of a solemn +debt to one's forefathers, a debt consisting not only in reverential +homage, but in the performance of acts necessary to their support, +happiness, and progress onwards in the spiritual world. A man's +deceased relatives, for at least three generations, are among his +cherished divinities, and must be honoured by daily offerings and +adoration, or a nemesis of some kind is certain to overtake his +living family. The object of a Hindu funeral is nothing less than +the investiture of the departed spirit with an intermediate gross +body--a peculiar frame interposed, as it were parenthetically, between +the terrestrial gross body, which has just been destroyed by fire, +and the new terrestrial body, which it is compelled to ultimately +assume. The creation of such an intervenient frame, composed of gross +elements, though less gross than those of earth, becomes necessary, +because the individualised spirit of man, after the cremation of the +terrestrial body, has nothing left to withhold it from re-absorption +into the universal soul, except its incombustible subtle body, which, +as composed of the subtle elements, is not only proof against the +fire of the funeral pile, but is incapable of any sensations in the +temporary heaven, or temporary hell, through one or other of which +every separate human spirit is forced to pass before returning to +earth, and becoming re-invested with a terrestrial gross body." + +When a Brahman is on the point of death, he is removed from his +bed, and laid on the floor. If there is any fear of the day being a +danishtapanchami (inauspicious), the dying man is taken out of the +house, and placed in the court-yard or pial (raised verandah). Some +prayers are uttered, and a cow is presented (godhanam). These are +intended to render the passage of life through the various parts of the +body as easy as possible. The spirit is supposed to escape through one +of the nine orifices of the body, according to the character of the +individual concerned. That of a good man leaves the body through the +brahmarandhra (top of the skull), and that of a bad man through the +anus. Immediately after death, the body is washed, religious marks +are made on the forehead, and parched paddy and betel are scattered +over and around it by the son. As a Brahman is supposed always to have +his fire with him, the sacred fire is lighted. At this stage, certain +purificatory ceremonies are performed, if death has taken place on a +day or hour of evil omen, or at midnight. Next, a little cooked rice +is cooked in a new earthen pot, and a new cloth is thrown over the +corpse, which is roused by the recitation of mantrams. Four bearers, +to each of whom dharbha grass is given in token of his office, are +selected to carry the corpse to the burning-ground. The eldest son, +who is the funeral celebrant, and his brothers are shaved. On ordinary +occasions, brothers should not be shaved on the same day, as this would +be inauspicious. They are only shaved on the same day on the occasion +of the death of their father or mother. The widow of the deceased, +and female relations, go three times round the corpse, before it is +placed on the bier. Very often, at this stage, all the women present +set up a loud lamentation, and repeat the death songs. [161] If the +dead person was a respected elder, special professional women, trained +as mourners, are engaged. I am informed that, in the Coimbatore +district, and amongst the Sathyamangalam Brahacharanams, there +are certain widows who are professional mourners. As soon as they +hear of the death of an elder, they repair to the house, and worry +the bereaved family into engaging them for a small fee. The space, +which intervenes between the dead man's house and the burning-ground, +is divided into four parts. When the end of the first of these is +reached, the corpse is placed on the ground, and the sons and nephews +go round it, repeating mantrams. They untie their kudumis (hair knot), +leaving part thereof loose, tie up the rest into a small bunch, and +keep on slapping their thighs. [When children at play have their +kudumi partially tied, and slap their thighs, they are invariably +scolded, owing to the association with funerals.] A little cooked +rice is offered to the path as a pathi bali (wayside offering), +to propitiate evil spirits, or bhuthas. The same ceremonial should, +strictly speaking, be performed at two other spots, but now-a-days it +is the custom to place the corpse on the ground near the funeral pyre, +moving its position three times, while the circumambulation and pathi +bali are gone through only once. As soon as the corpse has reached the +spot where the pyre is, the celebrant of the rites sprinkles water +thereon, and throws a quarter of an anna on it as the equivalent of +purchase of the ground for cremation. The sacred fire is lighted, +and the right palm of the corpse is touched with a gold coin. The nine +orifices of the body are then smeared with ghi, and rice is thrown over +the corpse, and placed in its mouth. The son takes a burning brand +from the sacred fire, lights the pyre, and looks at the sun. He then +carries a pot filled with water, having a hole at the bottom through +which the water trickles out, on his shoulders three times round the +corpse, and, at the end of the third round, throws it down. Then he, +and all the relations of the deceased, squat on the ground, facing +east, take up some dharbha grass, and, cutting it into small fragments +with their nails, scatter them in the air, while repeating some Vedic +verses, which are chanted very loudly and slowly, especially at the +funeral of a respected elder. The celebrant then pours a little water +on a stone, and sprinkles himself with it. This is also done by the +other relations, and they pass beneath a bundle of dharbha grass and +twigs of Ficus glomerata held by the purohit (officiating priest), +and gaze for a moment at the sun. Once more they sprinkle themselves +with water, and proceed to a tank, where they bathe. When they return +home, two rites, called nagna (naked) sradh, and pashana sthapanam +(stone-fixing), are celebrated. The disembodied spirit is supposed to +be naked after the body has been cremated. To clothe it, offerings +of water, with balls of cooked rice, are made, and a cloth, lamp, +and money are given to a Brahman. Then two stones are set up, one +in the house and the other on the bank of a tank, to represent the +spirit of the deceased. For ten days, libations of water mixed with +gingelly seeds, called tilothakam, and a ball of cooked rice, must be +offered to the stones. The ball of rice is left for crows to eat. The +number of libations must be seventy-five, commencing with three on +the first day, and increasing the number daily by one. In addition, +three further libations are made daily by dipping a piece of cloth +from the winding-sheet, and rinsing it over the stone (vasothakam). On +the day after cremation, the relations assemble at the burning-ground, +and the son, after extinguishing the burning embers, removes the +fragments of bones from the ashes. The ceremony is called sanchyanam +(gathering). Cooked food is offered. The bones are thrown into some +sacred river, or buried in the ground. On the tenth day after death, +a large quantity of cooked rice (prabhuthabali) is offered to the +spirit of the dead person, which is believed to grow very hungry +on that day. The food is heaped up on plantain leaves, and all the +near relations go round them, crying and beating their breasts. It +is mostly females who perform this rite, males standing aloof. The +food is taken to a tank, and the widow, decorated and dressed up, +is conducted thither. The food is thrown into the water, and, if +the widow is an elderly orthodox woman, her tali is removed. On the +same day, her head is clean shaved. A widow is not allowed to adorn +herself with jewels and finery except on this day, when all her close +relations come and see her. If this is not done, pregnant women may +not see her for a year. All the agnates should be present on the tenth +day, and perform tharpana (oblations of water). Until this day they +are under pollution, and, after prabhuthabali, they bathe, and homam +is performed. Some ashes from the sacred fire are mixed with ghi, +and a mark is made on the foreheads of those who are under pollution, +to remove it. During the period of pollution, a Sri Vaishnava will have +only a white mark without the red streak on his forehead; a Madhva will +not have the black dot; and Smarthas avoid having marks altogether. The +tenth day ceremony is called Dasaham. On the eleventh day, a ceremony +called Ekodishtam (eleventh day ceremony) is performed. A Brahman is +seated to represent the pretha or dead person, and fed after going +through sradh rites. As a rule, the man is a close relation of the +deceased. But, amongst certain classes of Brahmans, an outsider is +engaged, and well remunerated. On the twelfth day, the Sapindikaranam +(sapinda, kinsman) ceremony, which is just like the ordinary sradh, is +performed. At the close thereof, six balls of cooked rice are offered +to three ancestors, male and female (three balls for males, and three +for females). These balls are arranged in two rows, with a space +between them. An elongated mass of food is placed between the rows, +and divided with blades of dharbha grass into three portions, which +are arranged close to the balls of rice. This is regarded as uniting +the dead man with the pitris (ancestors). A cow is usually presented +just before the union takes place, and the gift is believed to render +the crossing of the river Vaitarani (river of death) easy for the +departed soul. The Sapindikaranam is a very important ceremony. When +there is a dispute concerning division of property on the death of an +individual, the ceremony is not performed until the parties come to an +agreement. For instance, if a married man dies without issue, and his +widow's brothers-in-law cannot come to terms as regards the partition +of the property, the widow may refuse to allow the performance of +the ceremony. The Sapindikaranam should, according to the shastras, +be performed a year after death, i.e., on the completion of all the +Masikas (monthly sradhs). But, at the present day, a ceremony called +Shodasam (the sixteen) is performed just before the Sapindikaranam on +the twelfth day. In the course of the year, twelve monthly and four +quarterly sradhs should be performed. The Shodasam ceremony, which +is carried out in lieu thereof, consists in giving presents of money +and vessels to sixteen Brahmans. On the twelfth day, a feast is held, +and domestic worship is carried out on a large scale. At the close +thereof, a sloka called Charma sloka, in praise of the deceased, is +composed and repeated by some one versed in Sanskrit. Every month, +for a year after a death in a family, sradh should, as indicated, +be performed. This corresponds in detail with the annual sradh, which +is regularly performed, unless a visit is paid to Gaya, which renders +further performance of the rite not obligatory. For the performance +of this ceremony by the nearest agnate of the deceased (eldest son or +other), three Brahmans should be called in, to represent respectively +Vishnu, the Devatas, and the ancestors. Sometimes two Brahmans are +made to suffice, and Vishnu is represented by a salagrama stone. In +extreme cases, only one Brahman assists at the ceremony, the two +others being represented by dharbha grass. The sacred fire is lighted, +and ghi, a small quantity of raw and cooked rice, and vegetables +are offered up in the fire. The Brahmans then wash their feet, and +are fed. Before they enter the space set apart for the meal, water, +gingelly, and rice are sprinkled about it, to keep off evil spirits. As +soon as the meal is finished, a ball of rice, called vayasa pindam +(crow's food), is offered to the pithru devatas (ancestors of three +generations), and thrown to the crows. If they do not eat the rice, +the omens are considered to be unfavourable. The Brahmans receive +betel and money in payment for their services. On one occasion my +assistant was in camp at Kodaikanal on the Palni hills, the higher +altitudes of which are uninhabited by crows, and he had perforce to +march down to the plains, in order to perform the annual ceremony +for his deceased father. The recurring annual sradh (Pratyabdhika) +need not of necessity be performed. It is, however, regarded as an +important ceremony, and, should an individual neglect it, he would +run the risk of being excommunicated. + +The rites connected with the dead are based on the Garuda Purana, +according to which the libations of the ten days are said to help the +growth of the body of the soul. In this connection, Monier Williams +writes as follows:-- [162]"On the first day, the ball (pinda) of +rice offered by the eldest son or other near relative nourishes the +spirit of the deceased in such a way as to furnish it with a head; +on the second day, the offered pinda gives a neck and shoulders; on +the third day a heart; on the fourth a back; on the fifth a navel; +on the sixth a groin and the parts usually concealed; on the seventh +thighs; on the eighth and ninth knees and feet. On the tenth day, +the intermediate body is sufficiently formed to produce the sensation +of hunger and thirst. Other pindas are therefore put before it, and, +on the eleventh and twelfth days, the embodied spirit feeds voraciously +on the offerings thus supplied, and so gains strength for its journey +to its future abode. Then, on the thirteenth day after death, it is +conducted either to heaven or hell. If to the latter, it has need of +the most nourishing food, to enable it to bear up against the terrible +ordeal which awaits it." + +To the Hindu mind, Yama (the god of death) is a hideous god, +whose servants are represented as being capable of tormenting the +soul of the dead. "No sooner," writes Monier Williams, "has death +occurred, and cremation of the terrestrial body taken place, than +Yama's two messengers (Yama Dutan), who are waiting near at hand, +make themselves visible to the released spirit, which retains its +subtle body composed of the subtle elements, and is said to be of +the size of a thumb (angustha-matra). Their aspect is terrific, +for they have glaring eyes, hair standing erect, gnashing teeth, +crow-black skin, and claw-like nails, and they hold in their hands +the awful rod and noose of Yama. Then, as if their appearance in +this form were not sufficiently alarming, they proceed to terrify +their victim by terrible visions of the torments (yatana) in store +for him. They then convey the bound spirit along the road to Yama's +abode. Being led before Yama's judgment seat, it is confronted with +his Registrar or Recorder named Chitra Gupta. This officer stands by +Yama's side, with an open book before him. It is his business to note +down all the good and evil deeds of every human being born into the +world, with the resulting merit (punya) and demerit (papa), and to +produce a debtor and creditor account properly made up and balanced +on the day when that being is brought before Yama. According to the +balance on the side of merit or demerit is judgment pronounced. The +road by which Yama's two officers force a wicked man to descend to +the regions of torment is described in the first two chapters of the +Garuda Purana. The length of the way is said to be 86,000 leagues +(yojanas). The condemned soul, invested with its sensitive body, and +made to travel at the rate of 200 leagues a day, finds no shady trees, +no resting place, no food, no water. At one time it is scorched by a +burning heat equal to that of twelve meridian suns, at another it is +pierced by icy cold winds; now its tender frame is rent by thorns; +now it is attacked by lions, tigers, savage dogs, venomous serpents, +and scorpions. In one place it has to traverse a dense forest, whose +leaves are swords; in another it falls into deep pits; in another it +is precipitated from precipices; in another it has to walk on the +edge of razors; in another on iron spikes. Here it stumbles about +helplessly in profound darkness; there it struggles through loathsome +mud swarming with leeches; here it toils through burning sand; there +its progress is arrested by heaps of red-hot charcoal and stifling +smoke. Compelled to pass through every obstacle, however formidable, +it next encounters a succession of terrific showers, not of rain, but +of live coals, stones, blood, boiling water and filth. Then it has +to descend into appalling fissures, or ascend to sickening heights, +or lose itself in vast caves, or wade through lakes seething with +foetid ordures. Then midway it has to pass the awful river Vaitarani, +one hundred leagues in breadth, of unfathomable depth; flowing with +irresistible impetuosity; filled with blood, matter, hair, and bones; +infested with huge sharks, crocodiles, and sea monsters; darkened +by clouds of hideous vultures and obscene birds of prey. Thousands +of condemned spirits stand trembling on the banks, horrified by the +prospect before them. Consumed by a raging thirst, they drink the blood +which flows at their feet; then, tumbling headlong into the torrent, +they are overwhelmed by the rushing waves. Finally, they are hurried +down to the lowest depths of hell, and yet not destroyed. Pursued +by Yama's officers, they are dragged away, and made to undergo +inconceivable tortures, the detail of which is given with the utmost +minuteness in the succeeding chapters of the Garuda Purana." + +The Ahannikams, or daily observances, of a religious Brahman are +very many. Nowadays, Brahmans who lead a purely religious life +are comparatively few, and are mostly found in villages. The +daily observances of such are the bath, the performance of the +Sandhya service, Brahma yagna, Deva puja or Devatarchana, Tarpana +(oblations of water), Vaisvadeva ceremony, and the reading of Puranas +or Ithihasas. Every orthodox Brahman is expected to rise at the time +called Brahma Muhurtam in the hour and a half before sunrise. He +should then clean his teeth, using as a brush mango leaf, or twigs +of Acacia arabica or nim (Melia Azadirachta). He next bathes in a +river or tank (pond), standing knee-deep in the water, and repeating +the following:--"I am about to perform the morning ablution in this +sacred stream (Ganges, Sarasvati, Yamuna, Godavari, etc.), in the +presence of the gods and Brahmans, with a view to the removal of +guilt resulting from act, speech, and thought, from what has been +touched and untouched, known and unknown, eaten and not eaten, +drunk and not drunk." After the bath, he wipes his body with a damp +cloth, and puts on his cotton madi cloth, which has been washed and +dried. The cloth, washed, wrung, and hung up to dry, should not be +touched by anybody. If this should happen prior to the bath, the +cloth is polluted, and ceases to be madi. A silk cloth, which cannot +be polluted, is substituted for it. The madi or silk cloth should be +worn until the close of the morning ceremonies and meal. The man next +puts the marks which are characteristic of his sect on the forehead +and body, and performs the Sandhya service. This is very important, +and is binding on all Brahmans after the Upanayanam ceremony, though +a large number are not particular in observing it. According to the +shastras, the Sandhya should be done in the morning and evening; but +in practice there is an additional service at midday. Sandhyavandhanam +means the thanksgiving to God when day and night meet in the morning +and evening. The rite commences with the sipping of water (achamanam) +from the hollow of the right palm. This is done three times, while +the words Achyuthayanamaha, Anantayanamaha, and Govindayana are +repeated. Immediately after sipping, twelve parts of the body are +touched with the fingers of the right hand in the following order:-- + + + The two cheeks with the thumb, repeating the names Kesava and + Narayana; + + The two eyes with the ring-finger, repeating Madhava and Govinda; + + The two sides of the nose with the forefinger, repeating Vishnu + and Madhusudhana; + + The two ears with the little finger, repeating Trivkrama and + Vamana; + + The shoulders with the middle finger, repeating Sridhara and + Rishikesa; + + The navel and head with all the fingers, repeating Padmanabha + and Damodar. + + +This Achamana is the usual preliminary to all Brahman religious +rites. The water sipped is believed to cleanse the internal parts of +the body, as bathing cleanses the external parts. + +After Achamana comes Pranayama, or holding in of vital breath, which +consists in repeating the Gayatri (hymn) and holding the breath by +three distinct operations, viz:-- + +Puraka, or pressing the right nostril with the fingers, and drawing +in the breath through the left nostril, and vice versâ. + +Kumbhaka, or pressing both nostrils with finger and thumb or with +all the fingers, and holding the breath as long as possible. + +Rechaka, or pressing the right nostril with the thumb, and expelling +the breath through the left nostril, and vice versâ. + +The suppression of the breath is said to be a preliminary yoga +practice, enabling a person to fix his mind on the Supreme Being who +is meditated on. + +The celebrant next repeats the Sankalpa (determination), with the +hands brought together, the right palm over the left, and placed on +the right thigh. Every kind of ceremony commences with the Sankalpa, +which, for the Sandhya service, is as follows:--"I am worshipping +for the removal of all my sins that have adhered to me, and for +the purpose of acquiring the favour of Narayana or the Supreme +Being." The performer of the rite then sprinkles himself with water, +repeating:--"Oh! ye waters, the sources of all comforts, grant us +food, so that our senses may grow strong and give us joy. Make +us the recipients of your essence, which is the most blissful, +just as affectionate mothers (feed their children with milk from +their breasts). May we obtain enough of that essence of yours, the +existence of which within you makes you feel glad. Oh! waters, grant +us offspring." He then takes up the water in his palm, and drinks it, +repeating the following:--"May the sun and anger, may the lords of +anger, preserve me from my sins of pride and passion. Whate'er the +nightly sins of thought, word, deed, wrought by my mind, my speech, +my hands, my feet; wrought through my appetite and sensual organs; +may the departing night remove them all. In thy immortal light, +Oh! radiant sun, I offer up myself and this my guilt." At the evening +service, the same is repeated, with the word Agni instead of Surya +(sun). At the midday service the following is recited:--"May the waters +purify the earth by pouring down rain. May the earth thus purified +make us pure. May the waters purify my spiritual preceptor, and may +the Veda (as taught by the purified preceptor) purify me. Whatever +leavings of another's food, and whatever impure things I may have +eaten, whatever I may have received as gift from the unworthy, may +the waters destroy all that sin and purify me. For this purpose, I +pour this sanctified water as a libation down my mouth." Once more +the celebrant sprinkles himself with water, and says:--"I sing the +praise of the god Dadikravan, who is victorious, all-pervading, and +who moves with great speed. May he make our mouths (and the senses) +fragrant, and may he prolong our lives. Oh! ye waters, the sources +of all comforts, grant us food," etc. + +The ceremonies performed so far are intended for both external and +internal purification. By their means, the individual is supposed to +have made himself worthy to salute the Lord who resides in the orb of +the rising luminary, and render him homage in true Brahman style by +what is called Arghya. This is an offering of water to any respected +guest. Repeating the Gayatri, the worshipper throws water in the air +from the palms of the hands joined together with the sacred thread +round the thumbs. The Gayatri is the hymn par excellence, and is said +to contain the sum and substance of all Vedic teaching. + +After these items, the worshipper sits down, and does Japam (recitation +of prayers in an undertone). The Gayatri, as repeated, consists of the +Gayatri proper Vyahritis, and Gayatri Siromantra. It runs as follows:-- + + + Om, Bhuh; Om, Bhuvah; + Om, Suvah; Om, Mahaha; + Om, Janaha; Om, Thapaha; + Om, Sathyam. + Om, Thatsaviturvarenyam; + Bhargodevasya dhimahi dhiyo-yonah prachodayat; + Om, Jyotiraso amrutam + Brahma, Bhur, Bhuvasvarum. + + +The Vyahritis are generally taken to refer to the seven worlds, +and the prefixing of the Pranava (Om) means that all these worlds +have sprung from the Supreme Being. The Pranava given above means +"All the seven worlds are (the visible manifestations of) Om, the +all-pervading Brahman. We think of the adorable light of the Lord, +who shines in our hearts, and guides us. May he guide our intellects +aright. Water, light, all things that have savour (such as trees, +herbs, and plants), the nectar of the gods, the three worlds, in fact +everything that is Brahman, the universal soul." + +The mystic syllable Om is the most sacred of all Hindu +utterances. Concerning it, Monier Williams writes that it is "made +up of the three letters A, U, M, and symbolical of the threefold +manifestation of the one Supreme Being in the gods Brahma, Vishnu, +and Siva, and is constantly repeated during the Sandhya service. This +prayer is, as we have seen, the most sacred of all Vedic utterances, +and, like the Lord's Prayer among Christians, or like the Fatihah or +opening chapter of the Kuran among Muhammadans, must always, among +Hindus, take precedence of all other forms of supplication." + +The celebrant next proceeds to invoke the Gayatri Devata thus:--"May +the goddess Gayatri Devata, who grants all our desires, come to us +to make known to us the eternal Lord, who is revealed to us only +through the scriptures. May the Gayatri, the mother of all the Vedas, +reveal to us the eternal truth. Oh! Gayatri, thou art the source of +all spiritual strength. Thou art the power that drivest away the evil +inclinations which are mine enemies. Thou, by conducing to a sound +mind, conducest to a sound body. Thou art the light of the gods, +that dispellest my intellectual darkness, and illuminest my heart +with divine wisdom. Thou art all. In the whole universe there is +naught but thee that is. Thou art the eternal truth that destroys all +sins. Thou art the Pranava that reveals to me the unknown. Come to +my succour, Oh! thou Gayatri, and make me wise." This invocation is +followed by the repetition of the Gayatri 108 or only 28 times. The +celebrant then says:--"The goddess Gayatri resides on a lofty peak +on the summit of mount Meru (whose base is deeply fixed) in the +earth. Oh! thou goddess, take leave from the Brahmans (who have +worshipped thee, and been blessed with thy grace), and go back to thy +abode as comfortably as possible." The Sandhya service is closed with +the following prayer to the rising sun:--"We sing the adorable glory +of the sun god, who sustains all men (by causing rain); which glory +is eternal, and most worthy of being adored with wonder. The sun, +well knowing the inclinations of men, directs them to their several +pursuits. The sun upholds both heaven and earth; the sun observes all +creatures (and their actions) without ever winking. To this eternal +being we offer the oblation mixed with ghi. Oh! sun, may that man +who through such sacrifice offers oblations to thee become endowed +with wealth and plenty. He who is under thy protection is not cut +off by untimely death; he is not vanquished by anybody, and sin has +no hold on this man either from near or from afar." In the evening, +the following prayer to Varuna is substituted:--"Hear, Oh! Varuna, +this prayer of mine. Be gracious unto me this day. Longing for thy +protection, I cry to thee. Adoring thee with prayer, I beg long life +of thee. The sacrificer does the same with the oblations he offers +thee. Therefore, Oh! Varuna, without indifference in this matter, +take my prayer into your kind consideration, and do not cut off our +life. Oh! Lord Varuna, whatever law of thine we, as men, violate day +after day, forgive us these trespasses. Oh! Lord Varuna, whatever +offence we, as men, have committed against divine beings, whatever +work of thine we have neglected through ignorance, do not destroy +us, Oh! Lord, for such sin. Whatever sin is attributed to us by our +enemies, as by gamblers at dice, whatever sins we may have really +committed, and what we may have done without knowing, do thou scatter +and destroy all these sins. Then, Oh! Lord, we shall become beloved of +thee." The Sandhya prayer closes with the Abhivadhana or salutation, +which has been given in the account of marriage. After the Sandhya +service in the morning, the Brahma yagna, or worship of the Supreme +Being as represented in the sacred books is gone through. The first +hymn of the Rig Veda is recited in detail, and then follow the first +words of the Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharvana Veda, the Nirukta, etc. + +The next item is the Tarpana ceremony, or offering of water to the +Devatas, Rishis, and Pitris. The sacred thread is placed over the +left shoulder and under the right arm (upavita), and water is taken +in the right hand, and poured as an offering to the Devatas. Then, +with the sacred thread round the neck like a necklace (niviti), the +worshipper pours water for the Rishis. Lastly, the sacred thread is +placed over the right shoulder (prachina vithi) and water is poured +for the Pitris (ancestors). + +The various ceremonies described so far should be performed by all the +male members of a family, whereas the daily Devatarchana or Devata puja +is generally done by any one member of a family. The gods worshipped +by pious Brahmans are Siva and Vishnu, and their consorts Parvati and +Lakshmi. Homage is paid thereto through images, salagrama stones, or +stone lingams. In the house of a Brahman, a corner or special room +is set apart for the worship of the god. Some families keep their +gods in a small almirah (chest). + +Smarthas use in their domestic worship five stones, viz.:-- + + + 1. Salagrama, representing Vishnu. + 2. Bana linga, a white stone representing the essence of Siva. + 3. A red stone (jasper), representing Ganesha. + 4. A bit of metallic ore, representing Parvathi, or a lingam + representing Siva and Parvathi. + 5. A piece of pebble or crystal, to represent the sun. + + +Smarthas commence their worship by invoking the aid of Vigneswara +(Ganesha). Then, placing a vessel (kalasa) filled with water, they +utter the following prayer. "In the mouth of the water-vessel abideth +Vishnu, in its lower part is Brahma, while the whole company of the +mothers (matris) are congregated in its middle part. Oh! Ganges, +Yamuna, Godavari, Sarasvati, Narmada, Sindhu, and Kaveri, be present +in this water." The conch or chank shell (Turbinella rapa) is then +worshipped as follows:--"Oh! conch shell, thou wast produced in +the sea, and art held by Vishnu in his hand. Thou art worshipped by +all the gods. Receive my homage." The bell is then worshipped with +the prayer:--"Oh! bell, make a sound for the approach of the gods, +and for the departure of the demons. Homage to the goddess Ghanta +(bell). I offer perfumes, grains of rice, and flowers, in token of +rendering all due homage to the bell." The worshipper claps his hands, +and rings the bell. All the tulsi (sacred basil, Ocimum sanctum) +leaves, flowers, sandal paste, etc., used for worship on the previous +day, are removed. "The tulsi is the most sacred plant in the Hindu +religion; it is consequently found in or near almost every Hindu house +throughout India. Hindu poets say that it protects from misfortune, +and sanctifies and guides to heaven all who cultivate it. The Brahmins +hold it sacred to the gods Krishna and Vishnu. The story goes that +this plant is the transformed nymph Tulasi, beloved of Krishna, +and for this reason near every Hindu house it is cultivated in pots, +or in brick or earthen pillars with hollows at the top (brindavanam +or brinda forest), in which earth is deposited. It is daily watered, +and worshipped by all the members of the family. Under favourable +circumstances, it grows to a considerable size, and furnishes a woody +stem large enough to make beads for the rosaries used by Hindus, +on which they count the number of recitations of their deity's +name." [163] Writing in the seventeenth century, Vincenzo Maria +[164] observes that "almost all the Hindus ... adore a plant like our +Basilico gentile, but of a more pungent odour.... Every one before +his house has a little altar, girt with a wall half an ell high, +in the middle of which they erect certain pedestals like little +towers, and in these the shrub is grown. They recite their prayers +daily before it, with repeated prostrations, sprinklings of water, +etc. There are also many of these maintained at the bathing-places, +and in the courts of the pagodas." The legend, accounting for the +sanctity of the tulsi, is told in the Padma Purana. [165] From the +union of the lightning that flashed from the third eye of Siva with +the ocean, a boy was born, whom Brahmadev caught up, and to whom he +gave the name of Jalandhar. And to him Brahmadev gave the boon that +by no hand but Siva's could he perish. Jalandhar grew up strong and +tall, and conquered the kings of the earth, and, in due time, married +Vrinda (or Brinda), the daughter of the demon Kalnemi. Naradmuni, +the son of Brahmadev, stirred up hatred against Siva in Jalandhar, +and they fought each other on the slopes of Kailas. But even Siva +could not prevail against Jalandhar, so long as his wife Vrinda +remained chaste. So Vishnu, who had lived with her and Jalandhar, +and had learnt their secret, plotted her downfall. One day, when she, +sad at Jalandhar's absence, had left her garden to walk in the waste +beyond, two demons met her and pursued her. She ran, with the demons +following, until she saw a Rishi, at whose feet she fell, and asked +for shelter. The Rishi, with his magic, burnt up the demons into thin +ash. Vrinda then asked for news of her husband. At once, two apes laid +before her Jalandhar's head, feet, and hands. Vrinda, thinking that +he was dead, begged the Rishi to restore him to her. The Rishi said +that he would try, and in a moment he and the corpse had disappeared, +and Jalandhar stood by her. She threw herself into his arms, and they +embraced each other. But, some days later, she learnt that he with +whom she was living was not her husband, but Vishnu, who had taken +his shape. She cursed Vishnu, and foretold that, in a later Avatar, +the two demons who had frightened her would rob him of his wife; and +that, to recover her, he would have to ask the aid of the apes who had +brought Jalandhar's head, feet, and hands. Vrinda then threw herself +into a burning pit, and Jalandhar, once Vrinda's chastity had gone, +fell a prey to Siva's thunderbolts. Then the gods came forth from their +hiding place, and garlanded Siva. The demons were driven back to hell, +and men once more passed under the tyranny of the gods. But Vishnu came +not back from Vrinda's palace, and those who sought him found him mad +from grief, rolling in her ashes. Then Parvati, to break the charm +of Vrinda's beauty, planted in her ashes three seeds. And they grew +into three plants, the tulsi, the avali, and the malti. By the growth +of these seeds, Vishnu was released from Vrinda's charm. Therefore +he loved them all, but chiefly the tulsi plant, which, as he said, +was Vrinda's very self. In the seventh incarnation, the two demons, +who had frightened Vrinda, became Ravan and his brother Kumbhakarna, +and they bore away Sita to Lanka. To recover her, Ramchandra had +to implore the help of the two apes who had brought her Jalandhar's +head and hands, and in this incarnation they became Hanuman and his +warriors. But, in the eighth incarnation, which was that of Krishna, +the tulsi plant took the form of a woman Radha, and wedded the gay +and warlike lord of Dwarka. + + +The Shodasopachara, or sixteen acts of homage, are next performed in +due order, viz.-- + + + 1. Avahana, or invocation of the gods. + 2. Asanam, or seat. + 3. Padhya, or water for washing the feet. + 4. Arghya, or oblation of rice or water. + 5. Achamanam, or water for sipping. + 6. Snanam, or the bath. + 7. Vastra, or clothing of tulsi leaves. + 8. Upavastra, or upper clothing of tulsi leaves. + 9. Gandha, or sandal paste. + 10. Pushpa, or flowers. + 11. 12. Dhupa and Dhipa, or incense and light. + 13. Naivedya, or offering of food. + 14. Pradakshina, or circumambulation. + 15. Mantrapushpa, or throwing flowers. + 16. Namaskara, or salutation by prostration. + + +While the five stones already referred to are bathed by pouring water +from a conch shell, the Purusha Suktha, or hymn of the Rig Veda, is +repeated. This runs as follows:--"Purusha has thousands of heads, +thousands of arms, thousands of eyes, and thousands of feet. On +every side enveloping the earth, he transcended this mere space of +ten fingers. Purusha himself is this whole (universe); whatever has +been, and whatever shall be. He is also the lord of immortality, +since through food he expands. Such is his greatness, and Purusha is +superior to this. All existing things are a quarter of him, and that +which is immortal in the sky is three quarters of him. With three +quarters Purusha mounted upwards. A quarter of him was again produced +below. He then became diffused everywhere among things, animate and +inanimate. From him Viraj was born, and from Viraj Purusha. As soon as +born, he extended beyond the earth, both behind and before. When the +gods offered up Purusha as a sacrifice, the spring was its clarified +butter (ghi), summer its fuel, and the autumn the oblation. This +victim, Purusha born in the beginning, they consecrated on the +sacrificial grass. With him as their offering, the Gods, Sadhyas, +and Rishis sacrificed. From that universal oblations were produced +curds and clarified butter. He, Purusha, formed the animals which are +subject to the power of the air (Vayavya), both wild and tame. From +that universal sacrifice sprang the hymns called Rik and Saman, the +Metres, and the Yajus. From it were produced horses, and all animals +with two rows of teeth, cows, goats, and sheep. When they divided +Purusha, into how many parts did they distribute him? What was his +mouth? What were his arms? What were called his thighs and feet? The +Brahman was his mouth; the Rajanya became his arms; the Vaisya was +his thighs; the Sudra sprang from his feet. The moon was produced +from his soul; the sun from his eye; Indra and Agni from his mouth; +Vayu from his breath. From his navel came the atmosphere; from his +head arose the sky; from his feet came the earth; from his ears the +four quarters; so they formed the worlds. When the gods, in performing +their sacrifice, bound Purusha as a victim, there were seven pieces +of wood laid for him round the fire, and thrice seven pieces of fuel +employed. With sacrifice the gods worshipped the sacrifice. These +were the primæval rites. These great beings attained to the heaven, +where the Gods, the ancient Sadhyas, reside." + +Some Smarthas, e.g., the Brahacharnams, are more Saivite than other +sections of Tamil-speaking Brahmans. During worship, they wear round +the neck rudraksha (Elæocarpus Ganitrus) beads, and place on their head +a lingam made thereof. In connection with the rudraksha, the legend +runs that Siva or Kalagni Rudra, while engaged in Tripura Samhara, +opened his third eye, which led to the destruction of the three cities, +of which Rakshasas or Asuras had taken the form. From this eye liquid +is said to have trickled on the ground, and from this arose the +rudraksha tree. The mere mention of the word rudraksha is believed +to secure religious merit, which may be said to be equivalent to the +merit obtained by the gift of ten cows to Brahmans. Rudraksha beads are +valued according to the number of lobes (or faces, as they are called), +which are ordinarily five in number. A bead with six lobes is said to +be very good, and one with two lobes, called Gauri Sankara rudraksha, +is specially valued. Dikshitar Brahmans, and Pandaram priests of the +higher order, wear a two-lobed bead mounted in gold. In a manuscript +entitled Rudrakshopanishad, it is stated that a good rudraksha bead, +when rubbed with water, should colour the water yellow. The Madhvas +worship in the same way as Smarthas, but the objects of worship are +the salagrama stone, and images of Hanuman and Adi Sesha. Food offered +to Adi Sesha, Lakshmi, and Hanuman, is not eaten, but thrown away. The +Madhvas attach great importance to their spiritual guru, who is first +worshipped by a worshipper. Some keep a brindavanam, representing the +grave of their guru, along with a salagrama stone, which is worshipped +at the close of the Devata puja. Sri Vaishnavas keep for domestic +worship only salagrama stones. Like the Madhvas, they are scrupulous +as to the worship of their gurus (acharyas), without whose intervention +they believe that they cannot obtain beatitude. Hence Sri Vaishnavites +insist upon the Samasrayanam ceremony. After the Sandhya service and +Brahma yagna, the guru is worshipped. All orthodox Vaishnavas keep with +them a silk cloth bearing the impressions of the feet of their Acharya, +an abhayastha or impression of the hand of Vishnu in sandal paste, +a few necklaces of silk thread (pavitram), and a bit of the bark of +the tamarind tree growing at the temple at Alvartirunagiri in the +Tinnevelly district. The worshipper puts on his head the silk cloth, +and round his neck the silk necklaces, and, if available, a necklace +of Nelumbium (sacred lotus) seeds. After saluting the abhayastha +by pressing it to his eyes, he repeats the prayer of his Acharya, +and proceeds to the Devatarchana, which consists in the performance +of the sixteen upacharas already described. The salagrama stone is +bathed, and the Purusha Suktha repeated. + +The daily observances are brought to a close by the performance of the +Vaisvadeva ceremony, or offering to Vaisvadevas (all the gods). This +consists in offering cooked rice, etc., to all the gods. Some regard +this as a sort of expiatory ceremony, to wipe out the sin which may +have accidentally been committed by killing small animals in the +process of cooking food. + +The male members of a family take their meals apart from the +females. The food is served on platters made of the leaves +of the banyan (Ficus bengalensis), Butea frondosa, Bauhinia, or +plantain. Amongst Smarthas and Madhvas, various vegetable preparations +are served first, and rice last, whereas, amongst the Sri Vaishnavas, +especially Vadagalais, rice is served first. Before commencing +to eat, a little water (tirtham), in which a salagrama stone has +been bathed, is poured into the palms of those who are about to +partake of the meal. They drink the water simultaneously, saying +"Amartopastaranamasi." They then put a few handfuls of rice into +their mouths, repeating some mantras--"Pranayasvaha, Udanayasvaha, +Somanayasvaha," etc. At the end of the meal, all are served with a +little water, which they sip, saying "Amartapithanamasi." They then +rise together. + +In connection with the salagrama stone, which has been referred +to several times, the following interesting account thereof [166] +may be quoted:--"Salagrams are fossil cephalopods (ammonites), and +are found chiefly in the bed of the Gandak river, a mountain torrent +which, rising in the lofty mountains of Nepal, flows into the Ganges +at Salagrami, a village from which they take their name, and which is +not far from the sacred city of Benares. In appearance they are small +black shiny pebbles of various shapes, usually round or oval, with a +peculiar natural hole in them. They have certain marks to be described +later, and are often flecked and inlaid with gold [or pyrites]. The +name salagram is of Sanskrit derivation, from sara chakra, the weapon +of Vishnu, and grava, a stone; the chakra or chakram being represented +on the stone by queer spiral lines, popularly believed to be engraved +thereon at the request of Vishnu by the creator Brahma, who, in +the form of a worm, bores the holes known as vadanas, and traces +the spiral coil that gives the stone its name. There is a curious +legend connected with their origin. In ancient times there lived a +certain dancing-girl, the most beautiful that had ever been created, +so beautiful indeed that it was impossible to find a suitable consort +for her. The girl, in despair at her loveliness, hid herself in the +mountains, in the far away Himalayas, and there spent several years in +prayer, till at last Vishnu appeared before her, and asked what she +wanted. She begged him to tell her how it was that the great creator +Brahma, who had made her so beautiful, had not created a male consort +for her of similar perfect form. Then she looked on Vishnu, and asked +the god to kiss her. Vishnu could not comply with her request as she +was a dancing-girl, and of low caste, but promised by his virtue that +she should be reincarnated in the Himalayas in the form of a river, +which should bear the name Gandaki, and that he would be in the river +as her eternal consort in the shape of a salagram. Thereupon the river +Gandaki rose from the Himalayas, and salagrams were found in it. How +the true virtue of the salagram was discovered is another strange +little fable. A poor boy of the Kshatriya or warrior class once found +one when playing by the river side. He soon discovered that when he +had it in his hand, or secreted in his mouth, or about his person, +his luck was so extraordinary at marbles or whatever game he played, +that he always won. At last he so excelled in all he undertook that +he rose to be a great king. Finally Vishnu himself came to fetch him, +and bore him away in a cloud. The mystic river Gandaki is within the +jurisdiction of the Maharaja of Nepal, and is zealously guarded on +both banks, while the four special places where the sacred stones are +mostly picked up are leased out under certain conditions, the most +important being that all true salagrams found are to be submitted to +the Maharaja. These are then tested, the selected ones retained, and +the others returned to the lessee. The first test of the salagrams +to prove if they are genuine is very simple, but later they are put +through other ordeals to try their supernatural powers. Each stone, +as it is discovered, is struck on all sides with a small hammer, +or, in some cases, is merely knocked with the finger. This causes +the soft powdery part, produced by the boring of the worm, to fall +in and disclose the vadana or hole, which may, in the more valuable +salagrams, contain gold or a precious gem. In addition to the real +stone with chakram and vadana formed by natural causes, there are +found in many mountain streams round black pebbles resembling the +true salagram in colour, shape, and size, but lacking the chakram and +vadana. These are collected by Bairagis, or holy mendicants, who bore +imitation vadanas in them, and, tracing false chakrams in balapa or +slate stone, paste them on the pebbles. So skilfully is this fraud +perpetrated that it is only after years of use and perpetual washing +at the daily puja that in time the tracery wears away, and detection +becomes possible. There are over eighteen known and different kinds +of true salagrams, the initial value of which varies according to +the shape and markings of the stone. The price of any one salagram +may be so enhanced after the further tests have been applied, that +even a lakh of rupees (Rs. 1,00,000) will fail to purchase it; and, +should experience prove the stone a lucky one, nothing will, as a +rule, induce the fortunate owner to part with it. The three shapes +of salagrams most highly prized are known as the Vishnu salagram, +the Lakshmi Narasimha salagram, and the Mutchya Murti salagram. The +first has a chakram on it the shape of a garland, and bears marks +known as the shenka (conch) gada padma, or the weapons of Vishnu, +and is peculiar to that god. The second has two chakrams on the left +of the vadana, and has dots or specks all over it. This stone, if +properly worshipped, is believed to ensure to its owner prosperity +and eternal life. The third, the Mutchya Murti, is a long-shaped +flat stone with a vadana that gives it a resemblance to the face of a +fish. It bears two chakrams, one inside and one outside the vadana, +and also has specks and dots on it in the shape of a shoe. There +are four or five varieties of this species, and it also, if duly +worshipped, will infallibly enrich its possessor. One salagram there +is which has no vadana, and is known as the ugra chakra salagram. It +is quite round with two chakrams, but it is not a particularly safe +one to possess, and is described as a 'furious salagrama,' for, if +not worshipped with sufficient ardour, it will resent the neglect, +and ruin the owner. The first thing to do on obtaining a salagram +is to find out whether or not it is a lucky stone, for a stone that +will bring luck to one owner may mean ruin for another. The tests +are various; a favourite one is to place the salagram with its exact +weight of rice together in one place for the night. If the rice has +increased in the morning (and, in some cases, my informant assures me, +it will be found to have doubled in quantity), then the stone is one +to be regarded by its lucky holder as priceless, and on no account to +be parted with. If, on the other hand, the rice measures the same, +or--dreadful omen--has even become less, then let the house be rid +of it as early as possible. If no purchaser can be found, make a +virtue of necessity, and send it as a present to the nearest temple +or mutt (religious institution), where the Gurus know how to appease +the wrath of the Deity with daily offerings of fruits and flowers. A +salagram will never bring any luck if its possession is acquired by +fraud or force. The story runs that once a Brahman, finding one with a +Mahomedan butcher, obtained it by theft. The luckless man speedily rued +the day of his time, for, from that time onwards, nothing prospered, +and he ended his days a destitute pauper. Again, possession of them +without worship is believed by all Hindus to be most unlucky, and, +as none but Brahmans can perform the worship, none but Brahmans will +retain the stones in their keeping. For an orthodox Brahman household, +the ownership of three or more stones is an absolute necessity. These +must be duly worshipped and washed with water, and the water drunk +as tirtha, and sacrifice of boiled rice and other food must be daily +performed. When this is done, speedy success in all the business of +life will fall to the lot of the inmates of the house, but otherwise +ruin and disgrace await them." + +In some temples, the Mula Vigraha, or idol fixed in the inner +sanctuary, is decorated with a necklace of salagrama stones. For +example, at Tirupati the god is thus decorated. + +The following incident in connection with a salagrama stone is +narrated by Yule and Burnell [167]:--"In May, 1883, a salagrama was +the ostensible cause of great popular excitement among the Hindus +of Calcutta. During the proceedings in a family suit before the +High Court, a question arose regarding the identity of a salagrama, +regarded as a household god. Counsel on both sides suggested that the +thing should be brought into court. Mr. Justice Morris hesitated to +give this order till he had taken advice. The attorneys on both sides, +Hindus, said there could be no objection; the Court interpreter, a +high-caste Brahman, said it could not be brought into Court because of +the coir matting, but it might with perfect propriety be brought into +the corridor for inspection; which was done. This took place during +the excitement about the 'Ilbert Bill,' giving natives magisterial +authority in the provinces over Europeans; and there followed most +violent and offensive articles in several native newspapers reviling +Mr. Justice Morris, who was believed to be hostile to the Bill. The +Editor of the Bengallee newspaper, an educated man, and formerly +a member of the Covenanted Civil Service, the author of one of the +most unscrupulous and violent articles, was summoned for contempt of +court. He made an apology and complete retraction, but was sentenced +to two months' imprisonment." + +The sacred chank, conch, or sankhu, which has been referred to in +connection with ceremonial observance, is the shell of the gastropod +mollusc Turbinella rapa. This is secured, in Southern India, by +divers from Tuticorin in the vicinity of the pearl banks. The chank +shell, which one sees suspended on the forehead and round the neck +of bullocks, is not only used by Hindus for offering libations, and +as a musical instrument in temples, but is also cut into armlets, +bracelets, and other ornaments. Writing in the sixteenth century, +Garcia says:--"This chanco is a ware for the Bengal trade, and formerly +produced more profit than now ... and there was formerly a custom +in Bengal that no virgin in honour and esteem could be corrupted +unless it were by placing bracelets of chanco on her arms; but, +since the Patans came in, this usage has more or less ceased." "The +conch shell," Captain C. R. Day writes, [168] "is not in secular use +as a musical instrument, but is found in every temple, and is sounded +during religious ceremonials, in processions, and before the shrines +of Hindu deities. In Southern India, the sankhu is employed in the +ministration of a class of temple servers called Dasari. No tune, +so to speak, can of course be played upon it, but still the tone is +capable of much modulation by the lips, and its clear mellow notes are +not without a certain charm. A rather striking effect is produced when +it is used in the temple ritual as a sort of rhythmical accompaniment, +when it plays the part of kannagolu or talavinyasa." In a petition +from two natives of the city of Madras in 1734, in connection with the +expenses for erecting a town called Chintadrepettah, the following +occurs [169]:--"Expended towards digging a foundation, where chanks +was buried with accustomary ceremonies." A right-handed chank (i.e., +one which has its spiral opening to the right), which was found off +the coast of Ceylon at Jaffna in 1887, was sold for Rs. 700. Such +a chank is said to have been sometimes priced at a lakh of rupees; +and, writing in 1813, Milburn says [169] that a chank opening to the +right hand is greatly valued, and always sells for its weight in +gold. Further, Baldæus narrates the legend that Garroude flew in +all haste to Brahma, and brought to Kistna the chianko or kinkhorn +twisted to the right. The chank appears as a symbol on coins of the +Chalukyan and Pandyan dynasties of Southern India, and on the modern +coins of the Maharajas of Travancore. + +Temple worship is entirely based on Agamas. As Brahmans take part +only in the worship of Siva and Vishnu, temples dedicated to these +gods are largely frequented by them. The duties connected with +the actual worship of the idol are carried out by Gurukkals in +Siva temples, and by Pancharatra or Vaikhanasa Archakas in Vishnu +temples. The cooking of the food for the daily offering is done by +Brahmans called Parcharakas. At the time of worship, some Brahmans, +called Adhyapakas, recite the Vedas. Some stanzas from Thiruvaimozhi or +Thevaram are also repeated, the former by Brahmans at Vishnu temples, +and the latter by Pandarams (Oduvar) at Siva temples. In a typical +temple there are usually two idols, one of stone (mula vigraha) and +the other of metal (utsava vigraha). The mula vigraha is permanently +fixed within the inner shrine or garbagraha, and the utsava vigraha +is intended to be carried in procession. The mula vigrahas of Vishnu +temples are generally in human form, either in a standing posture, or, +as in the case of Ranganatha, Padmanabha, and Govindarajaswami, in a +reclining posture, on Adisesha. Ordinarily, three idols constitute +the mula vigraha. These are Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi), and Bhudevi +(earth goddess). In temples dedicated to Sri Rama, Lakshmana is +found instead of Bhudevi. Sridevi and Bhudevi are also associated +with Vishnu in the utsava vigraha. In all the larger temples, there +is a separate building in the temple precincts dedicated to Lakshmi, +and within the garbagraha thereof, called thayar or nachiyar sannadhi, +is a mula vigraha of Lakshmi. There may also be one or more shrines +dedicated to the Alvars (Vaishnava saints) and the Acharyas--Desikar +and Manavala Mahamunigal. The sect mark is put on the faces of the +mula and utsava vigrahas. The mula vigraha in Siva temples is a lingam +(phallic emblem). In Siva temples, there is within the garbagraha +only one lamp burning, which emits a very feeble light. Hence arise +the common sayings "As dim as the light burning in Siva's temple," +or "Like the lamp in Siva's temple." The utsava vigraha is in the +human forms of Siva and Parvathi. In all important Saivite temples, +Parvathi is housed in a separate building, as Lakshmi is in Vishnu +temples. Vigneswara, Subramanya, and the important Nayanmars also +have separate shrines in the temple precincts. + +So far as ordinary daily worship is concerned, there is not much +difference in the mode of worship between temple and domestic +worship. Every item is done on a large scale, and certain special +Agamic or Tantric rites are added to the sixteen Upacharas already +mentioned. At the present time, there are, especially in the case +of Vishnu temples, two forms of temple worship, called Pancharatra +and Vaikhanasa. In the former, which is like domestic worship in all +essential points, any Brahman may officiate as temple priest. In the +latter, only Vaikhanasa Archakas may officiate. + +All big temples are generally well endowed, and some temples receive +from Government annual grants of money, called tasdik. The management +of the temple affairs rests with the Dharmakarthas (trustees), who +practically have absolute control over the temple funds. All the +temple servants, such as Archakas, Parcharakas, and Adhyapakas, and +the non-Brahman servants (sweepers, flower-gatherers, musicians and +dancing-girls) are subject to the authority of the Dharmakartha. For +their services in the temple, these people are paid partly in money, +and partly in kind. The cooked food, which is offered daily to the +god, is distributed among the temple servants. On ordinary days, the +offerings of cooked food made by the Archakas, and the fruits brought +by those who come to worship, are offered only to the mula vigraha, +whereas, on festival days, they are offered to the utsava vigrahas. + +For worship in Vishnu temples, flowers and tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) +are used. In Siva temples, bilva (bael: Ægle Marmelos) leaves are +substituted for tulsi. At the close of the worship, the Archaka +gives to those present thirtham (holy water), tulsi or bilva leaves, +and vibhuthi (sacred ashes) according to the nature of the temple. At +Vishnu temples, immediately after the giving of thirtham, an inverted +bowl, bearing on it the feet of Vishnu (satari or sadagopam), is placed +by the Archaka first on the head, and then on the right shoulder, +and again on the head, in the case of grown up and married males, +and only on the head in the case of females and young people. The +bowl is always kept near the mula vigraha, and, on festival days, +when the god is taken in procession through the streets, it is carried +along with the utsava vigraha. On festival days, such as Dhipavali, +Vaikunta Ekadasi, Dwadasi, etc., the god of the temple is taken in +procession through the main streets of the town or village. The idol, +thus borne in procession, is not the stone figure, but the portable +one made of metal (utsava vigraha), which is usually kept in the +temple in front of the Mula idol. At almost every important temple, +an annual festival called Brahmotsavam, which usually lasts ten days, +is celebrated. Every night during this festival, the god is seated on +the clay, wooden or metal figure of some animal as a vehicle, e.g., +Garuda, horse, elephant, bull, Hanuman, peacock, yali, etc., and taken +in procession, accompanied by a crowd of Brahmans chanting the Vedas +and Tamil Nalayara Prapandhams, if the temple is an important one. Of +the vehicles or vahanams, Hanuman and Garuda are special to Vishnu, +and the bull (Nandi) and tiger to Siva. The others are common to both +deities. During the month of May, the festival of the god Varadaraja +takes place annually. On one of the ten days of this festival, the +idol, which has gone through a regular marriage ceremony, is placed +on an elaborately decorated car (ratha), and dragged through the main +streets. The car frequently bears a number of carved images of a very +obscene nature, the object of which, it is said, is to avert the evil +eye. Various castes, besides Brahmans, take part in temple worship, +at which the saints of both Siva and Vishnu--Nayanmar and Alvars--are +worshipped. The Brahmans do not entirely ignore the worship of the +lower deities, such as Mariamma, Muneswara, Kodamanitaya, etc. At +Udipi in South Canara, the centre of the Madhva cult, where Madhva +preached his Dvaitic philosophy, and where there are several mutts +presided over by celibate priests, the Brahmans often make a vow +to the Bhuthas (devils) of the Paravas and Nalkes. Quite recently, +we saw an orthodox Shivalli Brahman, employed under the priest of one +of the Udipi mutts, celebrating the nema (festival) of a bhutha named +Panjurli, in fulfilment of a vow made when his son was ill. The Nalke +devil-dancers were sent for, and the dance took place in the courtyard +of the Brahman's house. During the leaf festival at Periyapalayam near +Madras, Brahman males and females may be seen wearing leafy twigs of +margosa (Melia Azadirachta), and going round the Mariamma shrine. + +I pass on to a detailed consideration of the various classes of +Brahmans met with in Southern India. Of these, the Tamil Brahmans, +or Dravidas proper, are most numerous in the southern districts. They +are divided into the following sections:-- + + +I. Smartha. + + (a) Vadama. + (b) Kesigal. + (c) Brahacharnam. + (d) Vathima or Madhema. + (e) Ashtasahasram. + (f) Dikshitar. + (g) Sholiar. + (h) Mukkani. + (i) Kaniyalar. + (j) Sankethi. + (k) Prathamasaki. + (l) Gurukkal. + + +II. Vaishnava. + + A. Vadagalai (northerners). + + (a) Sri Vaishnava. + (b) Vaikhanasa. + (c) Pancharatra. + (d) Hebbar. + + + B. Thengalai (southerners). + + (a) Sri Vaishnava. + (b) Vaikhanasa. + (c) Pancharatra. + (d) Hebbar. + (e) Mandya. + + +I. Smartha--(a) Vadama.--The Vadamas claim to be superior to +the other classes, but will dine with all the sections, except +Gurukkals and Prathamasakis, and, in some places, will even eat with +Prathamasakis. The sub-divisions among the Vadamas are:-- + + + 1. Choladesa (Chola country). + 2. Vadadesa (north country). + 3. Savayar or Sabhayar. + 4. Inji. + 5. Thummagunta Dravida. + + +All these are Smarthas, who use as their sect mark either the +urdhvapundram (straight mark made with sandal paste) or the circular +mark, and rarely the cross lines. They worship both Siva and Vishnu, +and generally read Puranas about Vishnu. Some Vadamas use the Vaishnava +namam as their sect mark, and are called Kiththunamakkarar. They follow +the Smartha customs in every way. There is a common saying "Vadamam +muththi Vaishnavam," i.e., a Vadama ripens into a Vaishnava. This is +literally true. Some Vadama families, who put on the urdhvapundram +mark, and follow the Smartha customs, observe pollution whenever a +death occurs in certain Sri Vaishnava families. This is because the +Sri Vaishnavas are Vadamas recently converted into Vaishnava families. + +(b) Kesigal.--The Kesigals, or Hiranyakesikal (men of the silvery +hair), as they are sometimes called, closely resemble the Vadamas, +but are an exclusive endogamous unit, and highly conservative and +orthodox. They are called Hiranyakesikal or Hiranyakesis because they +follow the Grihya Sutras of Hiranyakesi. It is noted, in the Gazetteer +of the Tanjore district, that they "are peculiar in all having one +common Sutram called the Sathyashada after a common ancestor." + +(c) Brahacharnam (the great sect).--The Brahacharnams are more +Saivite, and more orthodox than the Vadamas. They put on vibhuti +(sacred ashes) and sandal paste horizontal lines as their sect +mark. The sub division Sathyamangalam Brahacharnam seems, however, +to be an exception, as some members thereof put on the Vaishnavite +sect mark at all times, or at least during the month of Purattasi, +which is considered sacred to the god Venkataramana of Tirupati. The +more orthodox Brahacharnams wear a single rudraksha bead, or a necklace +of beads, and some make lingams out of these beads, which they put on +the head during worship. They generally worship five gods, viz., Siva +in the form of a lingam, spatika (crystal) lingam, Vishnu, Ganesa, +and Iswara. It is said that Brahacharnam women can be distinguished +by the mode of tying the cloth, which is not worn so as to reach to +the feet, but reaches only to just below the knees. The Brahacharnams +are sub-divided into the following sections:-- + + + 1. Kandramanicka. + 2. Milaganur. + 3. Mangudi. + 4. Palavaneri or Pazhamaneri. + 5. Musanadu. + 6. Kolaththur. + 7. Maruthancheri. + 8. Sathyamangalam. + 9. Puthur Dravida. + + +It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district, that "one +ceremony peculiar to the Milaganur Brahacharnams is that, before the +principal marriage ceremonies of the first day, a feast is given to +four married women, a widow, and a bachelor. This is called the adrisya +pendugal (invisible women) ceremony. It is intended to propitiate +four wives belonging to this sub-division, who are said to have been +cruelly treated by their mother-in-law, and cursed the class. They +are represented to have feasted a widow, and to have then disappeared." + +(d) Vathima.--The Vathimas, or Madhimas, are most numerous in the +Tanjore district, and are thus described in the Gazetteer:--"The +Vattimas are grouped into three smaller sub-sections, of which one +is called 'the eighteen village Vattimas,' from the fact that they +profess (apparently with truth) to have lived till recently in only +eighteen villages, all of them in this district. They have a marked +character of their own, which may be briefly described. They are +generally money-lenders, and consequently are unpopular with their +neighbours, who are often blind to their virtues and unkind to their +failings. [There is a proverb that the Vadamas are always economical, +and the Vathimas always unite together.] It is a common reproach +against them that they are severe to those who are in their debt, +and parsimonious in their household expenditure. To this latter +characteristic is attributed their general abstinence from dholl +(the usual accompaniment of a Brahman meal), and their preference for +a cold supper instead of a hot meal. The women work as hard as the +men, making mats, selling buttermilk, and lending money on their own +account, and are declared to be as keen in money-making and usury as +their brothers. They, however, possess many amiable traits. They are +well known for a generous hospitality on all great occasions, and no +poor guest or Brahman mendicant has ever had reason to complain in +their houses that he is being served worse than his richer or more +influential fellows. Indeed, if anything, he fares the better for his +poverty. Again, they are unusually lavish in their entertainments +at marriages; but their marriage feasts have the peculiarity that, +whatever the total amount expended, a fixed proportion is always paid +for the various items--so much per cent. for the pandal, so much per +cent. for food, and so on. Indeed it is asserted that a beggar who +sees the size of the marriage pandal will be able to guess to a nicety +the size of the present he will get. Nor, again, at their marriages, +do they haggle about the marriage settlement, since they have a scale, +more or less fixed and generally recognised, which determines these +matters. There is less keen competition for husbands among them, +since their young men marry at an earlier age more invariably than +among the other sub-divisions. The Vattimas are clannish. If a man +fails to pay his dues to one of them, the word is passed round, and no +other man of the sub-division will ever lend his money. They sometimes +unite to light their villages by private subscription, and to see to +its sanitation, and, in a number of ways, they exhibit a corporate +unity. Till quite recently they were little touched by English +education; but a notable exception to this general statement existed +in the late Sir A. Seshayya Sastri, who was of Vattima extraction." + +The sub-divisions of the Vattimas are:-- + + + 1. Pathinettu Gramaththu (eighteen villages). + 2. Udayalur. + 3. Nannilam. + 4. Rathamangalam. According to some, this is not a separate + section, but comes under the eighteen village section. + + +(e) Ashtasahasram (eight thousand).--This class is considered to be +inferior to the Brahacharnams and Vadamas. The members thereof are, +like the Brahacharnams, more Saivite than the Vadamas. The females are +said to wear their cloth very elegantly, and with the lower border +reaching so low as to cover the ankles. The sub-divisions of the +Ashtasahasrams are:-- + + + 1. Aththiyur. + 2. Arivarpade. + 3. Nandivadi. + 4. Shatkulam (six families). + + +As their numbers are few, though the sub-divisions are endogamous, +intermarriage is not entirely prohibited. + +(f) Dikshitar.--Another name for this section is Thillai Muvayiravar, +i.e., the three thousand of Thillai (now Chidambaram). There is a +tradition that three thousand people started from Benares, and, when +they reached Chidambaram, they were one short. This confused them, +but they were pacified when Siva explained that he was the missing +individual. The Dikshitars form a limited community of only several +hundred families. The men, like Nayars and Nambutiri Brahmans of +the west coast, wear the hair tuft on the front of the head. They +do not give their girls in marriage to other sections of Brahmans, +and they do not allow their women to leave Chidambaram. Hence arises +the proverb "A Thillai girl never crosses the boundary line." The +Dikshitars are priests of the temple of Nataraja at Chidambaram, +whereat they serve by turns. Males marry very early in life, and +it is very difficult to secure a girl for marriage above the age of +five. The tendency to marry when very young is due to the fact that +only married persons have a voice in the management of the affairs of +the temple, and an individual must be married before he can get a share +of the temple income. The chief sources of income are the pavadam and +kattalai (heaps of cooked rice piled up or spread on a board), which +are offered to the god. Every Dikshitar will do his best to secure +clients, of whom the best are Nattukottai Chettis. The clients are +housed and looked after by the Dikshitars. Concerning the Dikshitars, +Mr. W. Francis writes as follows [170]:--"An interesting feature about +the Chidambaram temple is its system of management. It has no landed +or other endowments, nor any tasdik allowance, and is the property +of a class of Brahmans peculiar to the town, who are held in far more +respect than the generality of the temple-priest Brahmans, are called +Dikshitars (those who make oblations), marry only among themselves, +and in appearance somewhat resemble the Nayars or Tiyans of Malabar, +bringing their topknot round to the front of their foreheads. Their +ritual in the temple more resembles that of a domestic worship than +the forms commonly followed in other large shrines. Theoretically, +all the married males of the Dikshitars have a voice in the management +of the temple, and a share in its perquisites; and at present there +are some 250 of such shares. They go round the southern districts +soliciting alms and offerings for themselves. Each one has his own +particular clientèle, and, in return for the alms received, he makes, +on his return, offerings at the shrine in the name of his benefactors, +and sends them now and again some holy ashes, or an invitation to a +festival. Twenty of the Dikshitars are always on duty in the temple, +all the males of the community (except boys and widowers) doing the +work by turns lasting twenty days each, until each one has been the +round of all the different shrines. The twenty divide themselves into +five parties of four each, each of which is on duty for four days at +one of the five shrines at which daily puja is made, sleeps there at +night, and becomes the owner of the routine offerings of food made at +it. Large presents of food made to the temple as a whole are divided +among all the Dikshitars. The right to the other oblations is sold by +auction every twenty days to one of the Dikshitars at a meeting of the +community. These periodical meetings take place in the Deva Sabha. A +lamp from Nataraja's shrine is brought, and placed there by a Pandaram, +and (to avoid even the appearance of any deviation from the principle +of the absolute equality of all Dikshitars in the management of the +temple) this man acts as president of the meeting, and proposals are +made impersonally through him." As a class the Dikshitars are haughty, +and refuse to acknowledge any of the Sankarachariars as their priests, +because they are almost equal to the god Siva, who is one of them. If +a Sankarachariar comes to the temple, he is not allowed to take sacred +ashes direct from the cup, as is done at other temples to show respect +to the Sanyasi. The Dikshitars are mostly Yejur Vedis, though a few +are followers of the Rig Veda. When a girl attains puberty, she goes +in procession, after the purificatory bath, to every Dikshitar's house, +and receives presents. + +(g) Sholiar.--The Sholiars are divided into the following sections:-- + + + (1) Thirukattiur. + (2) Madalur. + (3) Visalur. + (4) Puthalur. + (5) Senganur. + (6) Avadayar Kovil. + + +Concerning the Sholiars, Mr. C. Ramachendrier writes as follows +[171]:--"The Sholiars of Thiruvanakaval (in the Tanjore district) +belong to the first sub-division, and they form a separate community, +devoting their time to service in the temple. Those who make puja to +the idol are Pradhamasakis, and are called Archakas. Those who serve as +cooks, and attend to other inferior services, are called Arya Nambi, +and those who decorate the idols taken in procession on festive +occasions are termed Therunabuttan. Archakas alone are entitled to +decorate stone images in the chief shrines of the temple, and they +are also called Pandits. According to custom, Sholia Brahmans should +wear front locks, but some of them have adopted the custom of other +Brahmans, while the orthodox section of the community, and the Archakas +of Thiruvanakaval, speak a very low Tamil with a peculiar intonation, +and they do not send their children to English schools. Young boys are +trained by their parents in the temple service, which entitles them, +even when young, to some emoluments. There are amongst them none who +have received either Sanskrit or Tamil education. The Archakas perform +pujas by turn, and, as the Archakaship is to be conferred at a certain +age by anointment by a guru, infant marriage does not obtain among +them to such an extent as among the Dikshitars of Chidambaram. They +eat with the other Smartha Brahmans, but do not intermarry. They +count about 300 in number, including women and children. There is no +intermarriage between them and the other Sholia Brahmans. Those of +Avadayarcovil are also engaged in the service of the temple of that +name. Sholiars of other classes are to be found in Vasishtakudy in the +taluk of Vriddachallam, Vemmaniathur in the taluk of Villupuram, and +Visalur in the taluk of Kumbaconam." In an article on the Sholiars, +[172] it is recorded that "they are a very intelligent people, +and at the same time very vindictive if disturbed. Chanakya, the +Indian Machiavelli and the Minister of Chandragupta, is supposed +to have belonged to this caste. His hatred of the Nanda family, +and the way in which he uprooted each and every member of that race, +has been depicted in the famous Sanskrit drama Mudrarakshasa, which +belongs to the 7th century A.D. Whether on account of his character, +and under the belief that he originated from this caste, or for some +reason which is unaccountable, the Soliyas of modern days are held as +very vindictive people, as the following proverb will show:--'We do +not want to meet with a Soliya even in a picture.'" Another proverb is +to the effect that "the kudumi (hair tuft) on the head of a Sholiar +does not shake without sufficient reason," i.e., it is a sign that +he is bent upon doing some mischief. + +(h) Mukkani.--The Mukkanis are Smarthas confined to the Cochin and +Travancore States. + +(i) Kaniyalar.--Concerning the Kaniyalars, Mr. Ramachendrier writes +as follows:--"Kanialars form a separate class of Smartha Brahmins, +and they live in the district of Tinnevelly and some parts of +Trichinopoly. They do not intermarry with any other class of Smartha +Brahmins, but eat with them. A large number of them, though Smarthas by +birth, wear a mark on their forehead like Vyshnava Brahmins, and serve +as cooks and menial servants in the big temple at Srirangam. Their +women adopt the Vyshnava women's style of wearing cloths, and to all +appearance they would pass for Vyshnava women. The Vyshnava Brahmins +would not allow them to mess in their houses, though they treat rice +and cakes prepared by them in temples and offered to god as pure and +holy, and partake of them." + +(j) Sankethi.--The Sankethis are confined to the Mysore Province. They +speak a very corrupt form of Tamil, mixed with Canarese. The following +account of them is given in the Mysore Census Report, 1891. "They +are found chiefly in the Mysore and Hassan districts. Their colonies +are also found in Kadur and Shimoga. Their number seems to have been +somewhat understated; many of them have probably returned themselves as +Dravidas. So far as language is an indication of race, the Sanketis are +Tamilians, although their dialect is more diluted with Kanarese than +that of any other Kannada ridden Tamil body. Theirs seems to have been +among the earliest immigrations into Mysore from the neighbouring +Tamil country. It is said that some 700 years ago, about 1,000 +families of Smartha Brahmans emigrated from the vicinity of Kanchi +(Conjeeveram), induced doubtless by contemporary politics. They set +out in two batches towards Mysore. They were attacked by robbers on +the road, but the larger party of about 700 families persevered in +the march notwithstanding, and settled near the village of Kausika +near Hassan, whence they are distinguished as Kausika Sanketis. Some +twelve years afterwards, the other party of 300 families found a +resting place at Bettadapura in the Hunsur taluk. This branch has +been called Bettadapura Sanketi. Their religious and social customs +are the same. The Kausika Sanketis occasionally take wives from the +Bettadapura section, but, when the married girl joins her husband, +her connection with her parents and relatives ceases altogether +even in regard to meals. During the Coorg disturbances about the end +of the last (eighteenth) century, many young women of the Sanketis +were captured by the Kodagas (Coorgs), and some of the captives were +subsequently recovered. Their descendants are to this day known as +Sanketis of the West, or Hiriangalas. But they, and another sub-class +called Patnagere Sanketis, do not in all exceed twenty families. The +Sanketis are proverbially a hardy, intensely conservative and +industrious Brahman community. They are referred to as models for +simultaneously securing the twofold object of preserving the study +of the Vedas, while securing a worldly competence by cultivating +their gardens; and, short of actually ploughing the land, they are +pre-eminently the only fraction of the Brahman brotherhood who turn +their hands to the best advantage." + +(k) Prathamasaki.--These follow the white Yajur Veda, and are +hence called Sukla Yejur Vedis. The white Yajus forms the first +fifteen sakas of the Yejur Veda, and this is in consequence +sometimes called Prathamasaka. The Prathamasakis are sometimes +called Katyayana (followers of Katyayana Sutram), Vajusaneya, +and Madyandanas. The two last names occur among their Pravara and +Gotra Rishis. The Prathamasakis are found among all the linguistic +sections. Among Smarthas, Andhras, and Vaishnavas, they are regarded +as inferior. Carnataka Prathamasakis are, on the other hand, not +considered inferior by the other sections of Carnatakas. In the +Tanjore district, the Prathamasakis are said to be known as Madyana +Paraiyans. The following quaint legend is recorded in the Gazetteer +of that district:--"The god of the Tiruvalur temple was entreated by +a pujari of this place (Koiltirumulam) to be present in the village +at a sacrifice in his (the god's) honour. The deity consented at +length, but gave warning that he would come in a very unwelcome +shape. He appeared as a Paraiyan (Pariah) with beef on his back, and +followed by the four Vedas in the form of dogs, and took his part in +the sacrifice thus accoutred and attended. All the Brahmans who were +present ran away, and the god was so incensed that he condemned them +to be Paraiyans for one hour in the day, from noon till 1 P.M., ever +afterwards. There is a class of Brahmans called mid-day Paraiyans, +who are found in several districts, and a colony of whom reside at +Sedanipuram five miles from Nannilam. It is believed throughout the +Tanjore district that the mid-day Paraiyans are the descendants of the +Brahmans thus cursed by the god. They are supposed to expiate their +defilement by staying outside their houses for an hour and a half +every day at mid-day, and to bathe afterwards; and, if they do this, +they are much respected. Few of them, however, observe this rule, and +orthodox persons will not eat with them, because of their omission to +remove the defilement. They call themselves the Prathamasaka." Several +versions of stories accounting for their pollution are extant, and +the following is a version given by Mr. Ramachendrier. "Yagnavalkiar, +who was the chief disciple of Vysampayanar, having returned with his +students from pilgrimage, represented to his priest that Yajur Veda was +unrivalled, and that he and his students alone were qualified for its +propagation. Vysampayanar, feeling provoked by this assertion, which, +he remarked, implied insult to Brahmans, proposed certain penance for +the offence. Yagnavalkiar replied that he and his students had done +many good deeds and performed many religious rites, and that they +were still to do such, and that the insult imputed to them was worthy +of little notice. Vysampayanar required Yagnavalkiar to give back +the Vedas which he had taught him, which he threw out at once. The +matter thrown out having been like cinders, Vysampayanar's disciples +then present, assuming the shape of thithiri birds (fire-eating +birds), swallowed them, and hence the Veda is called Thithiriya Saka +and Ktishna Yajus. Soon after, Yagnavalkiar, without his priest's +knowledge, went to the Sun, and, offering prayers, entreated him to +teach him Vedas. The Sun, thereupon taking the shape of a horse, taught +him the Yajur Veda, which now forms the first fifteen sakas, and he +in turn taught it to his disciples Kanvar, Madhyandanar, Katyayanar, +and Vajasaneyar. It is to be gathered from Varaha Puranam that +Vysampayanar pronounced a curse that the Rig Veda taught by the Sun +should be considered degraded, and that the Brahmans reading it should +become Chandalas (outcastes)." Another version of the legend runs as +follows. Vaisampayanar used to visit the king almost every day, and +bless him by giving akshatha or sacred rice. One day, as Vaisampayanar +could not go, he gave the rice grains to his disciple Yagnavalkiar, +and told him to take them to the king. Accordingly, Yagnavalkiar went +to the king's palace, and found the throne empty. Being impatient by +nature, he left the rice grains on the throne, and returned to his +priest. The king, when he returned home, found his throne changed into +gold, and certain plants were growing round his seat. On enquiry, +he discovered that this marvellous effect was due to the sacred +akshatha. He sent word to Vaisampayanar to send the rice grains by +his disciple who had brought them. Yagnavalkiar refused, and was +told to vomit the Vedas. Readily he vomited, and, going to the Sun, +learnt the Veda from him. As the Sun is always in motion sitting in +his car, the Vedas could not be learnt without mistakes and peculiar +sounds. When he came to his Guru Vaisampayanar, Yagnavalkiar was +cursed to become a Chandala. The curse was subsequently modified, +as the Sun interceded on behalf of Yagnavalkiar. + +(l) Gurukkal.--The Gurukkals are all followers of the Bodhayana +Sutras. They are temple priests, and other Brahmans regard them as +inferior, and will not eat with them. Even in temples, the Gurukkals +sprinkle water over the food when it is offered to the god, but do +not touch the food. They may not live in the same quarters with other +Brahmans. No agraharam (Brahman quarter) will ever contain a Gurukkal's +house. There should, strictly speaking, be at least a lane separating +the houses of the Gurukkals from those of other Brahmans. This is, +however, not rigidly observed at the present day. For example, at +Shiyali, Gurukkals and other Brahmans live in the same street. There +are among the Gurukkals the following sub-divisions:-- + + + 1. Tiruvalangad. + 2. Conjeeveram. + 3. Tirukkazhukunram. + + +The Tiruvalangad Gurukkals mark their bodies with vibhuti (sacred +ashes) in sixteen places, viz., head, face, neck, chest, navel, +knees, two sides of the abdomen, back and hands (three places on each +hand). The other two sub-divisions mark themselves in eight places, +viz., head, face, neck, chest, knees and hands. Gurukkals who wish +to become priests have to go through several stages of initiation +called Dikshai (see Pandaram). Gurukkals are Saivites to a greater +extent than the Smarthas, and do not regard themselves as disciples of +Sankaracharya. Those who are orthodox, and are temple priests, should +not see the corpses of Pandarams and other non-Brahman castes. The +sight of such a corpse is supposed to heap sin on them, and pollute +them, so that they are unfit for temple worship. + +II. Vaishnava.--The Vaishnavas, or Sri Vaishnavas, as they are +sometimes called to distinguish them from the Madhvas, who are also +called Vaishnavas, are all converts from Smarthas, though they +profess to constitute a distinct section. Some are converts from +Telugu Smarthas, and are called Andhra Vaishnavas. These do not +mix with other Tamil-speaking Vaishnavas, and retain some of the +Telugu customs. There are two distinct groups of Sri Vaishnavas--the +Vadagalais (northerners) and Thengalais (southerners), who are easily +distinguished by the marks on their foreheads. The Vadagalais put +on a U-shaped mark, and the Thengalais a Y-shaped mark. The white +mark is made with a kind of kaolin called tiruman, and turmeric +rendered red by means of alkali is used for the central streak. The +turmeric, as applied by the more orthodox, is of a yellow instead of +red colour. Orthodox Sri Vaishnavas are very exclusive, and hold that +they co-existed as a separate caste of Brahmans with the Smarthas. But +it was only after Ramanuja's teaching that the Vaishnavas seceded +from the Smarthas, and the ranks were swollen by frequent additions +from amongst the Vadamas. There are some families of Vaishnavas which +observe pollution when there is a death in certain Smartha families, +which belong to the same gotra. Vaishnavas of some places, e.g., +Valavanur, Savalai, and Perangiyur, in the South Arcot district, +are considered low by the orthodox sections of Vaishnavas, because +they are recent converts to Vaishnavism. A good example of Smarthas +becoming Vaishnavas is afforded by the Thummagunta Dravidas, some +of whom have become Vaishnavas, but still take girls in marriage +from Smartha families, but do not give their daughters in marriage +to Smarthas. All Vaishnavas are expected to undergo a ceremony of +initiation into Vaishnavism after the Upanayanam ceremony. At the +time of initiation, they are branded with the marks of the chakram +and sankha (chank) on the right and left shoulders respectively. The +Vaikhanasas and Pancharatras regard the branding as unnecessary. The +ceremony of initiation (samasrayanam) is usually performed by the +head of a mutt. Sometimes, however, it is carried out by an elderly +member of the family of the candidate. Such families go by the name +of Swayam Acharya Purushas (those who have their own men as Acharyas). + +For Vadagalais there are two mutts. Of these, the Ahobila mutt was +formerly at Tiruvallur, but its head-quarters has been transferred +to Narasimhapuram near Kumbakonam. The Parakalaswami mutt is in the +Mysore Province. For Thengalais there are three mutts, at Vanamamalai +and Sriperumbudur in Chingleput, and Tirukoilur in South Arcot. These +are called respectively the Tothadri, Ethirajajhir, and Emberumanar +mutts. There are various points of difference between Vadagalais and +Thengalais, which sometimes lead to bitter quarrels in connection with +temple worship. During the procession of the god at temple festivals, +both Vadagalais and Thengalais go before and after the god, repeating +Sanskrit Vedas and Tamil Prapandhams respectively. Before commencing +these, certain slokas are recited, in one of which the Vadagalais use +the expression Ramanuja daya patram, and the Thengalais the expression +Srisailesa daya patram, and a quarrel ensues in consequence. The main +differences between the two sections are summarised as follows in +the Mysore Census Report, 1891:--"The tenets which form the bone of +contention between the Tengales and Vadagales are stated to number 18, +and seem to cluster round a few cardinal items of controversy:-- + +1. Whether Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu, is (Vibhu) co-omnipresent +and co-illimitable with Vishnu; + +2. Whether Lakshmi is only the mediatrix for, or the co-bestower of +moksham or final beatitude; + +3. Whether there is any graduated moksham attainable by the good and +blessed, according to their multifarious merits; + +4. Whether prapatti, or unconditional surrender of the soul to god, +should be performed once for all, or after every act of spiritual +rebellion; + +5. Whether it (prapatti) is open to all, or is prescribed only for +those specially prepared and apprenticed; + +6. Whether the indivisibly atomic human soul is entered into, and +permeated or not by the omnipresent creator; + +7. Whether god's mercy is exerted with or without cause; + +8. Whether the same (the divine mercy) means the overlooking (dhosha +darsanam) or enjoyment (dhosha bogyatvam) of the soul's delinquencies; + +9. Whether works (karma) and knowledge (jnana) are in themselves +salvation giving, or only lead to faith (bhakthi) by which final +emancipation is attained; + +10. Whether the good of other (unregenerate) castes should be tolerated +according to their graduated social statuses, or should be venerated +without reference to caste inequalities; + +11. Whether karma (works, rituals, etc.) should or not be bodily and +wholly abandoned by those who have adopted prapatti." + +The points of difference between Vadagalais and Thengalais are +thus described by Mr. V. N. Narasimmiyengar [173]:--"The Tengale +schismatists deny to Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu, any participation +in creation, and reduce her to the position of a creature; omit to +ring the bell when worshipping their idols; salute each other and +their gods only once; make use of highly abstruse Tamil verses in +room of Sanskrit mantras and prayers; modify the sraddha ceremony +materially, and do not shave their widows. The principal texts cited +by the Tengale Sri Vaishnavas in support of the immunity of their +widows from the rite of tonsure are the following:-- + +Widows should avoid, even when in affliction and danger, shaving, +eating of sweets, betel nut, flowers, sexual intercourse, conversation +with men, and jewels (Sandilyah). + +A woman, whether unmarried or widowed, who shaves her hair, will go +to the hell called Rauravam. When the husband dies, the widow should +perform his due obsequies without shaving. She should never shave on +any occasion, or for any purpose whatever (Sambhuh). + +If any woman, whether unmarried or widowed, shave (her head), she +will dwell in the hell called Rauravam for one thousand karors of +kalpas. If a widow shave (her head) by ignorance, she will cause hair +to grow in the mouths of her ancestors' ghosts on both sides. If she +perform any ceremonies inculcated by the Srutis and Smritis with her +head shaved, she will be born a Chandali (Manuh). + +There is no sin in a devout widow, whose object is eternal salvation, +wearing her hair. If she should shave, she will assuredly go to +hell. A Vaishnava widow should never shave her head. If she do so +through ignorance, her face should not be looked at (Vridd'ha Manuh +in Khagesvara Samhita). + +If any one observe a Brahmachari beggar with his kachche (cloth passed +between the legs, and tucked in behind), a householder without it, +and a widow without hair on her head, he should at once plunge into +water with his clothes (Ananta Samhita). + +It is considered highly meritorious for Vaishnava widows to wear +their hair, as long as they remain in this world (Hayagriva Samhita)." + +In a note on the two sects of the Vaishnavas in the Madras Presidency, +the Rev. C. E. Kennet writes as follows [174]:--"While both the sects +acknowledge the Sanskrit books to be authoritative, the Vadagalai uses +them to a greater extent than the Thengalai. The former also recognises +and acknowledges the female energy as well as the male, though not in +the gross and sensual form in which it is worshipped among the Saivas, +but as being the feminine aspect of deity, and representing the grace +and merciful care of Providence; while the Tenkalai excludes its +agency in general, and, inconsistently enough, allows it co-operation +in the final salvation of a human soul. But the most curious difference +between the two schools is that relating to human salvation itself, and +is a reproduction in Indian minds of the European controversy between +Calvinists and Arminians. For the adherents of the Vadakalais strongly +insist on the concomitancy of the human will for securing salvation, +whereas those of the Tenkalai maintain the irresistability of divine +grace in human salvation. The arguments from analogy used by the two +parties respectively are, however, peculiarly Indian in character. The +former adopt what is called the monkey argument, the Markata Nyaya, +for the young monkey holds on to or grasps its mother to be conveyed +to safety, and represents the hold of the soul on God. The latter use +the cat argument, the Marjala Nyaya, which is expressive of the hold +of God on the soul; for the kitten is helpless until the mother-cat +seizes it nolens volens, and secures it from danger. The late Major +M. W. Carr inserts in his large collection of Telugu and Sanskrit +proverbs the following:-- + +"The monkey and its cub. As the cub clings to its mother, so man seeks +divine aid, and clings to his God. The doctrine of the Vadakalais. + +"Like the cat and her kitten. The stronger carrying and protecting +the weaker; used to illustrate the free grace of God. The doctrine +of the Tenkalais. + +"Leaving the speculative differences between these two sects, I +have now to mention the practical one which divides them, and which +has been, and continues to be, the principal cause of the fierce +contentions and long-drawn law suits between them. And this relates +to the exact mode of making the sectarian mark on the forehead. While +both sects wear a representation of Vishnu's trident, composed of +red or yellow for the middle line or prong of the trident, and of +white earth for those on each side, the followers of the Vadakalai +draw the middle line only down to the bridge of the nose, but those +of the Tenkalai draw it over the bridge a little way down the nose +itself. Each party maintain that their mode of making the mark is the +right one, and the only means of effecting a settlement of the dispute +is to ascertain how the idol itself is marked, whether as favouring the +Vadakalai or Tenkalai. But this has been found hitherto impossible, +I am told, for instance at Conjeveram itself, the head-quarters of +these disputes, owing to the unreliable and contradictory character +of the evidence produced in the Courts." + +The Hebbar and Mandya sections belong to the Mysore Province, in +which the former are very numerous. The latter are few in number, +and confined to Mandya and Melkote. Some families have settled in the +city of Madras, where they are employed as merchants, bank clerks, +attorneys, etc. + +The Mandyas say that they migrated to Mysore from some place near +Tirupati. Though both the Hebbar and Mandya Brahmans speak Tamil, some +details peculiar to Carnatakas are included in the marriage ceremonial. + +The Vaishnava Sholiars are considered somewhat low in the social +scale. Intermarriage takes place between Smartha and Vaishnavite +Sholiars. The Vaikhanasas and Pancharatras are temple priests +(archakas). Both use as their title Dikshitar. Sometimes they are +called Nambi, but this term is more used to denote Satani temple +servants. + +Reference may here be made to the Pattar Brahmans, who are Tamil +Brahmans, who have settled in Malabar. The name is said to be derived +from the Sanskrit bhatta. It is noted, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, +that "the Pattars present no peculiarities distinguishing them from +the ordinary East Coast Brahmans. Like the latter, they engage in +trade and business, and form a large proportion of the official, +legal, and scholastic classes. With the exception of one class known +as Chozhiya or Arya Pattars, they wear their kudumi (top-knot) on +the back of the head in the east coast fashion, and not on the top +and hanging over the forehead, as is done by the genuine Malayali +castes. They also live as a general rule in regular streets or +gramams on the east coast plan. Few Pattars, except in the Palghat +taluk, are large land-owners. As a class, they have embraced modern +educational facilities eagerly, so far as they subserve their material +prospects. Both Pattars and Embrandiris, but especially the latter, +have adopted the custom of contracting sambandham (alliance) with Nayar +women, but sambandham with the foreign Brahmans is not considered to +be so respectable as with Nambudiris, and, except in the Palghat taluk +(where the Nambudiri is rare), they are not allowed to consort with +the women of aristocratic families." + +In connection with the Arya Pattars, it is recorded, in the +Travancore Census Report, 1901, that "the term Aryapattar means +superior Brahmins. But the actual position in society is not quite +that. At Ramesvaram, which may be considered the seat of Aryapattars, +their present status seems to be actually inferior, due probably, it +is believed, to their unhesitating acceptance of gifts from Sudras, +and to their open assumption of their priestly charge. Though at +present a small body in Malabar, they seem to have once flourished in +considerable numbers. In the case of large exogamous but high-caste +communities like the Kshatriyas of Malabar, Brahmin husbands were +naturally in great requisition, and when, owing to their high +spiritual ideals, the Brahmins of Malabar were either Grihasthas +or Snatakas (bachelor Sanyasins dedicating their life to study, +and to the performance of orthodox rites), the supply was probably +unequal to the demand. The scarcity was presumably added to when the +differences between the Kolattunat Royal Family and the Brahmins of +the Perinchellur gramam became so pronounced as to necessitate the +importing of Canarese and Tulu Brahmins for priestly services at their +homes and temples. The first immigration of Brahmins from the east +coast, called Aryapattars, into Malabar appears to have been under +the circumstances above detailed, and at the instance of the Rajas +of Cranganore. With the gradual lowering of the Brahminical ideal +throughout the Indian Peninsula, and with the increasing struggle for +physical existence, the Nambutiris entered or re-entered the field, and +ousted the Aryapattars first from consortship, and latterly even from +the ceremony of tali-tying in families that could pay a Nambutiri. The +Aryapattar has, in his turn, trespassed into the ranks of the Nayars, +and has begun to undertake the religious rite of marriage, i.e., +tali-tying, in aristocratic families among them. There are only two +families now in all Travancore, and they live in the Karunagapalli +taluk. Malayalam is their household tongue; in dress and personal +habits, they are indistinguishable from Malayala Brahmins. The males +marry into as high a class of Brahmins as they could get in Malabar, +which is not generally higher than that of the Potti. The Potti woman +thus married gets rather low in rank on account of this alliance. The +daughter of an Aryapattar cannot be disposed of to a Brahminical +caste in Malabar. She is taken to the Tinnevelly or Madura district, +and married into the regular Aryapattar family according to the rites +of the latter. The girl's dress is changed into the Tamil form on +the eve of her marriage." + +III. Andhra.--The Telugu-speaking Brahmans are all Andhras, who differ +from Tamil Brahmans in some of their marriage and death ceremonies, +female attire, and sectarian marks. Telugu Brahman women wear their +cloth without passing it between the legs, and the free end of the +skirt is brought over the left shoulder. The sect mark consists of +three horizontal streaks of sacred ashes on the forehead, or a single +streak of sandal paste (gandham). In the middle of the streak is a +circular black spot (akshintalu or akshintalu bottu). The marriage +badge is a circular plate of gold, called bottu, attached to a thread, +on which black glass beads are frequently strung. A second bottu, +called nagavali bottu, is tied on the bride's neck on the nagavali +day. During the time when the bridegroom is performing the vrata +ceremony, the bride is engaged in the worship of Gauri. She sits in a +new basket filled with paddy (unhusked rice) or cholam (Andropogon +Sorghum). On the return from the mock pilgrimage (kasiyatra), +the bride and bridegroom sit facing each other on the dais, with +a screen interposed between them. Just before the bottu is tied on +the bride's neck by the bridegroom, the screen is lowered. During +the marriage ceremony, both the bride and bridegroom wear clothes +dyed with turmeric, until the nagavali day. Among Tamil Brahmans, +the bridegroom wears a turmeric-dyed cloth, and the bride may wear a +silk cloth. Immediately after the tying of the bottu, the contracting +couple throw rice over each other, and those assembled pour rice over +their heads. This is called Talambralu. + +Taken as a class, the Telugu Brahmans are very superstitious, and +the females perform a very large number of vratams. Of the vratams +performed by Telugu and Canarese females, both Brahman and non-Brahman, +the following account is given in the Manual of the Nellore district. A +very favourite deity is Gauri, in honour of whom many of the rites +hereafter noticed are performed. These ceremonies give a vivid idea of +the hopes and fears, the aspirations, and the forebodings of Hindu +womanhood. The following ceremonies are practised by girls after +betrothal, and before union with their husbands:-- + +Atlataddi.--On the third day after the full moon, an early meal before +sunrise, the worship of Gauri in the afternoon, and the presentation of +ten cakes to ten matrons upon the dismissal of the deity invoked. The +object is to secure a young agreeable husband. + +Uppu (salt).--This consists in making a present to any matron of a +pot of salt, full to the brim, at the end of the year, with the view +to secure a long enjoyment of the married state. + +Akshayabandar.--This consists in making a present of a pot full of +turmeric to any matron at the end of the year, with a view to avert +the calamity of widowhood. + +Udayakunkuma.--Putting the red kunkuma mark on the foreheads of five +matrons before sunrise, with the object of being always able to wear +the same mark on her own forehead, i.e., never to become a widow. + +Padiharukudumulu.--The presentation of sixteen cakes once a year for +sixteen years to a matron. This is for the attaining of wealth. + +Kartika Gauri Devi.--Exhibiting to a matron the antimony box, with +a preparation of which the eyes are trimmed to give the brilliancy, +and wearing on the head turmeric rice (akshatalu). The object of this +is said to be to give sight to blind relatives. + +Kandanomi.--Abstaining for a year from the use of arum (Amorphophallus +Campanulatus), of which the corms are an article of food), and +presenting a matron with a silver and gold representation of a kanda +to be worn on the neck. The object to be attained is that she who +performs the rite may never have to shed tears. + +Gummadi Gauri Devi.--The presentation at the end of the year to a +matron of a pumpkin in the morning, and another in the afternoon, +with a silver one at food time, and a gold one to be worn round the +neck. This is for the prolongation of married life. + +Gandala Gauri Devi.--The distribution of twenty-five different sorts of +things, twenty-five to be distributed to matrons at the rate of five +of each sort to each. The object of this is to avert evil accidents +of all kinds, which may threaten the husband. + +Chittibottu.--Making the kunkuma marks on the foreheads of five +matrons in the morning, for the attainment of wealth. + +Isalla Chukka.--Rubbing butter-milk, turmeric, kunkuma, and sandalwood +paste on the threshold of the door. The object is the same as in +the last. + +Tavita Navomi.--To avoid touching bran for any purpose, for the +prolongation of married life. + +Nitya Srungaram.--Offering betel nut, and putting the kunkuma mark +on the face of a matron, for the purpose of securing perpetual beauty. + +Nallapusala Gauri Devi.--The presentation to a matron of a hundred +black beads with one gold one, the object being again to avert +widowhood. + +Mocheti Padmam.--The worship of some deity, and the making of the +forehead mark (bottlu) for four matrons in the first year, eight +in the second, and so on, increasing the number by four each year +for twenty-seven years, being the number of certain stars. This +presentation has to be made in silence. The object is the attainment +of enduring wealth. + +Mogamudo sellu.--The performer washes her face thirteen times daily +in a brass vessel, and offers to some matron some rice, a pearl, +and a coral. + +Undrallatadde.--On the thirteenth day after the full moon, taking food +before sunrise, the girl worships the goddess Gauri in the afternoon, +and, at the time of dismissing the deity invoked (udyapana), she +presents five round cakes to as many matrons. The object of this is +to secure her future husband's affections. + +Vara Lakshmi.--The worship of the goddess Lakshmi for the attainment +of wealth and salvation, or to make the best of both worlds. + +Vavila Gauri Devi.--In order to avert the risk of all accidents +for her future lord, the devotee, on each of the four Tuesdays of +the month Sravana, worships the goddess Gauri Devi, and distributes +Bengal gram to married women. + +Savitri Gauri Devi.--The offering of nine different articles on nine +different days after the sun has entered the solstice, the sign of +Capricorn. This is also practised to secure a husband's affection. + +Tsaddikutimangalavaram.--This is a piece of self-mortification, and +consists in eating on every Tuesday for one year nothing but cold +rice boiled the previous day, and feeding a matron with the same. + +The following are some of the ceremonies practised by young women +after attaining a marriageable age:-- + +Prabatcha Adivaram.--Offering worship to a married couple, and limiting +the taking of food to a single meal on Sunday. This is done with the +object of having children. + +Apadaleni Adivaram.--Taking but one meal every Sunday, and making a +presentation to five matrons of five cakes with a flat basket of rice, +body jackets, and other things. This is for the procuring of wealth. + +Adivaram (Sunday).--Total abstinence from some one article of food for +one year, another article the next year, and so on for five years; +also limitation to a single meal every Sunday, and the presentation +of cloths to Brahmans upon the dismissal of the deity invoked for +worship. The object of this seems to be to secure re-union with the +husband after death. + +Chappitti Adivaram.--Abstinence from salt on every Sunday for a year, +with a view to secure the longevity of children. + +Udayapadmam.--To take for one year a daily bath, and to draw the +representation of a lotus with rice-flour every morning near the sacred +tulasi plant (Ocimum sanctum), which is kept in many Hindu households, +growing on an altar of masonry. The object of this is to restore a +dead husband to life again, i.e., to secure re-union in another life. + +Krishna Tulasi.--To avert widowhood, those who perform this rite +present thirteen pairs of cakes in a gold cup to a Brahman. + +Kartika Chalimidi.--The distribution of chalimidi, which is flour +mixed with sugar water, for three years; in the first year one and +a half seer of rice, in the second year two and a half seers, and in +the third year twenty-six seers, the object sought being to restore +life to children that may die, i.e., restoration in another world. + +Kailasa Gauri Devi.--To grind one and a half viss (a measure) of +turmeric without assistance in perfect silence, and then distribute +it among 101 matrons, the object being to avert widowhood. + +Dhairya Lakshmi.--As a charm against tears, matrons light a magic +light, which must have a cotton wick of the weight of one pagoda (a +gold coin), and, instead of a quarter of a viss of ghee, clarified +butter. + +Dhanapalalu.--Giving four different sorts of grain for five years to +a Brahman, to atone for the sin of the catamenial discharge. + +Nadikesudu.--The distribution of five seers each of nine different +sorts of grain, which must be dressed and eaten in the house. This +is done for the procuring of wealth. + +Nityadhanyamu.--Daily giving a handful of grain to any Brahmin with +the object of averting widowhood. + +Phalala Gauri Devi.--This is performed by the presentation of sixteen +fruits of sixteen different species to any married woman, with the +view of securing healthy offspring. + +Pamidipuvulu.--With the view to avert widowhood and secure influence +with their husbands, young wives practise the daily worship of +thirteen flowers for a time, and afterwards present to a Brahmin the +representations of thirteen flowers in gold, together with a lingam +and panavattam (the seat of the lingam). + +Muppadimudupurnamulu.--To avert widowhood, cakes are offered on the +occasion of thirty-three full-moons; on the first one cake is eaten, +on the second two, and so on up to thirty-three. + +Mudukartelu.--For the attainment of wealth, women light seven +hundred cotton wicks steeped in oil at the three festivals of full +moon, Sankuratri (the time when the sun enters the zodiacal sign of +Capricorn), and Sivaratri. + +Magha Gauri Devi.--The worship of the goddess Gauri in the month of +Magham, with a view to avert widowhood. + +Vishnukanta.--For the same purpose, thirteen pairs of cakes are +offered in a new pot to some married woman. + +Vishnuvidia.--To atone for the sin of the catamenial discharge, +food is eaten without salt on the second day after every new moon. + +Sokamuleni Somavaram.--The taking of food without salt every Monday, +for the restoration of children removed by death. + +Chitraguptulu.--Burning twelve wicks daily in oil, for the attainment +of happiness in a future state. + +Sukravaram.--For the acquisition of wealth, women sometimes limit +themselves to one meal on Fridays, and feed five married women on +each occasion of dismissing the deity invoked for worship. + +Saubhagyatadde.--To avert widowhood, another practice is on the third +day after every new moon to distribute, unassisted and in silence, +one and a quarter viss of turmeric among thirteen matrons. + +Kshirabdhi Dvadasi.--Keeping a fast day specially devoted to the +worship of Vishnu, with a view to secure happiness in a future state. + +Chinuku.--A woman takes a stalk of Indian corn fresh pulled up, +and with it pounds rice-flour mixed with milk in a mortar. This is +to avert widowhood in this world, and to secure happiness in the next. + +Women who have lost children frequently perform the following two +ceremonies for restoration to life or restoration in a future state:-- + +Kundella Amavasya (hare's new moon).--To give thirteen different +things to some married woman every new moon for thirteen months. + +Kadupukadalani Gauri Devi.--The presentation of thirteen pairs of +cakes to thirteen matrons. + +The following ceremonies are often performed after the cessation of +the catamenial discharge, to atone for the sin contracted by their +occurrence:-- + +Annamumuttani Adivaram.--The eating of yams and other roots every +Sunday for three years, or, under certain conditions, a longer period. + +Rushipanchami.--On the fifth day of Bhadrapada month to eat five balusu +(Canthium parviflorum) leaves, and to drink a handful of ghee. + +Gomayani.--To eat three balls of cow-dung every morning for a year. + +Lakshvattulu.--To burn one lac (100,000) of wick lights. + +Lakshmivarapu Ekadasi.--From the time when the eleventh day after +new moon falls on a Thursday, to observe a fast, and to worship the +tulasi plant for eleven days. + +Margasira Lakshmivaram.--The mistress of a family will often devote +herself to the worship of Lakshmi on every Thursday of the month of +Margasira, in order to propitiate the goddess of wealth. + +Somisomavaram.--A special worship performed on every new moon that +falls on Monday, with the giving away of 360 articles, two or three on +each occasion. This is performed with the view of attaining atonement +for sins, and happiness in a future state. + +There are many ceremonies performed by women to whom nature has denied +the much-coveted joys of maternity. Among these may be noted:-- + +Asvadhapradakshinam.--In villages is often to be seen a margosa +(Melia Azadirachta)tree, round which a pipul tree (Ficus religiosa) +has twined itself. The ceremony consists in a woman walking round +and round this tree several times daily for a long period. + +The sub-divisions of the Telugu Brahmans are as follows:-- + + +A.--Vaidiki. + + 1. Murikinadu. + 2. Telaganyam. + 3. Velnadu. + 4. Kasalnadu. + 5. Karnakammalu. + 6. Veginadu. + 7. Konesime. + 8. Arama Dravida. + 9. Aradhya. + 10. Prathamasaki. + + +B.--Niyogi. + + 1. Aruvela. + 2. Nandavarikulu. + 3. Kammalu. + 4. Pesalavayalu. + 5. Pranganadu. + + +C.--Tambala. + + +D.--Immigrants. + + 1. Pudur Dravida. + 2. Thummagunta Dravida. + + +All these sections are endogamous, and will eat together, except +the Tambalas, who correspond to the Gurukkals among the Tamil +Brahmans. Vaidikis are supposed to be superior to Niyogis. The former +do not generally grow moustaches, while the latter do. For sradh +ceremonies, Niyogis do not generally sit as Brahmans representing the +ancestors, Vaidikis being engaged for this purpose. In some places, +e.g., the Nandigama taluk of the Kistna district, the Niyogis are +not referred to by the name Brahman, Vaidikis being so called. Even +Niyogis themselves point to Vaidikis when asked about Brahmans. + +Velnadu, Murikinadu, and Veginadu seem to be territorial names, and +they occur also among some of the non-Brahman castes. The Aradhyas are +dealt with in a special article (see Aradhya). Among the Karnakammas +are certain sub-sections, such as Ogoti and Koljedu. They all belong +to Rig Saka. Of the Telaganyams, some follow the Rig Veda, and others +the Yejur Veda (both black and white Yajus). The Nandavarikulu are +all Rig Vedis, and regard Chaudeswari, the goddess of the Devangas, +as their tutelary deity. When a Nandavariki Brahman goes to a Devanga +temple, he is treated with much respect, and the Devanga priest gives +up his place to the Nandavariki for the time being. The Nandavariki +Brahmans are, in fact, gurus or priests to the Devengas. + +A special feature of the Telugu Brahmans is that, like the Telugu +non-Brahman classes, they have house names or intiperulu, of which +the following are examples:--Kota (fort), Lanka (island), Puchcha +(Citrullus Colocynthis), Chintha (tamarind), Kaki (crow). Niyogi +house-names sometimes terminate with the word razu. + +IV. Carnataka.--The sub-divisions of the Carnatakas or +Canarese-speaking Brahmans are as follows:-- + + +A.--Smartha. + + 1. Aruvaththuvokkalu. + 2. Badaganadu. + 3. Hosalnadu. + 4. Hoisanige or Vaishanige. + 5. Kamme (Bobburu, Karna, and Ulcha). + 6. Sirnadu. + 7. Maraka. + + +B.--Madhva. + + 1. Aruvela. + 2. Aruvaththuvokkalu. + 3. Badaganadu. + 4. Pennaththurar. + 5. Prathamasaki. + 6. Hyderabadi. + + +The Carnatakas very closely resemble the Andhras in their ceremonial +observances, and, like them, attach much importance to vratams. The +Madhva Carnatakas are recent converts from Carnataka or Andhra +Smarthas. The Pennaththurars are supposed to be Tamil Brahmans +converted into Madhvas. They retain some of the customs peculiar to +the Tamil Brahmans. The marriage badge, for example, is the Tamil +tali and not the bottu. Intermarriages between Smarthas and Madhvas +of the same section are common. Madhvas, excepting the very orthodox, +will take food with both Carnataka and Andhra Smarthas. + +The Marakas are thus described by Mr. Lewis Rice. [175] "A caste +claiming to be Brahmans, but not recognised as such. They worship the +Hindu triad, but are chiefly Vishnuvites, and wear the trident mark on +their foreheads. They call themselves Hale Kannadiga or Hale Karnataka, +the name Marka [176] being considered as one of reproach, on which +account also many have doubtless returned themselves as Brahmans of +one or other sect. They are said to be descendants of some disciples +of Sankaracharya, the original guru of Sringeri, and the following +legend is related of the cause of their expulsion from the Brahman +caste to which their ancestors belonged. One day Sankaracharya, +wishing to test his disciples, drank some toddy in their presence, +and the latter, thinking it could be no sin to follow their master's +example, indulged freely in the same beverage. Soon after, when passing +a butcher's shop, Sankaracharya asked for alms; the butcher had nothing +but meat to give, which the guru and his disciples ate. According to +the Hindu shastras, red-hot iron alone can purify a person who has +eaten flesh and drunk toddy. Sankaracharya went to a blacksmith's +furnace, and begged from him some red-hot iron, which he swallowed +and was purified. The disciples were unable to imitate their master +in the matter of the red-hot iron, and besought him to forgive their +presumption in having dared to imitate him in partaking of forbidden +food. Sankaracharya refused to give absolution, and cursed them +as unfit to associate with the six sects of Brahmans. The caste is +making a strong effort to be readmitted among Brahmans, and some have +recently become disciples of Parakalaswami. Their chief occupations +are agriculture, and Government service as shanbogs or village +accountants." It is recorded, in the Mysore Census Report, 1891, +that "some of the more intelligent and leading men in the clan give +another explanation (of the legend). It is said that either in Dewan +Purnaiya's time, or some time before, a member of this micro-caste +rose to power, and persecuted the people so mercilessly that, with +characteristic inaptitude, they gave him the nickname Maraka or the +slaughterer or destroyer, likening him to the planet Mars, which, +in certain constellations, is astrologically dreaded as wielding +a fatal influence on the fortunes of mortals. There is, however, +no doubt that, in their habits, customs, religion and ceremonials, +these people are wholly Brahmanical, but still they remain entirely +detached from the main body of the Brahmans. Since the census of 1871, +the Hale Kannadigas have been strenuously struggling to get themselves +classified among the Brahmans. About 25 years ago, the Sringeri Math +issued on behalf of the Smarta portion of the people a Srimukh (papal +bull) acknowledging them to be Brahmans. A similar pronouncement was +also obtained from the Parakal Math at Mysore about three years later +on behalf of the Srivaishnavas among them. And the Local Government +directed, a little after the census of 1881, that they should be +entered as Brahmans in the Government accounts." + +The Madhva Brahmans commence the marriage ceremony by asking the +ancestors of the bridal couple to bless them, and be present throughout +the performance of the rites. To represent the ancestors, a ravike +(bodice) and dhotra (man's cloth) are tied to a stick, which is placed +near the box containing the salagrama stone and household gods. In +consequence of these ancestors being represented, orthodox Vaidiki +Brahmans refuse to take food in the marriage house. When the bridegroom +is conducted to the marriage booth by his future father-in-law, all +those who have taken part in the Kasiyatra ceremony, throw rice over +him. A quaint ceremony, called rangavriksha (drawing), is performed +on the morning of the second day. After the usual playing with balls +of flowers (nalagu or nalangu), the bridegroom takes hold of the +right hand of the bride, and, after dipping her right forefinger +in turmeric and chunam (lime) paste, traces on a white wall the +outline of a plantain tree, of which a sketch has previously been +made by a married woman. The tracing goes on for three days. First +the base of the plant is drawn, and, on the evening of the third day, +it is completed by putting in the flower spikes. On the third night +the bridegroom is served with sweets and other refreshments by his +mother-in-law, from whose hands he snatches the vessels containing +them. He picks out what he likes best, and scatters the remainder +about the room. The pollution caused thereby is removed by sprinkling +water and cow-dung, which is done by the cook engaged for the marriage +by the bridegroom's family. After washing his hands, the bridegroom +goes home, taking with him a silver vessel, which he surreptitiously +removes from near the gods. Along with this vessel he is supposed +to steal a rope for drawing water, and a rice-pounding stone. But +in practice he only steals the vessel, and the other articles are +claimed by his people on their return home. + +Branding for religious purposes is confined to Sri Vaishnavas and +Madhvas. Sri Vaishnava Brahmans are expected to undergo this ordeal +at least once during their life-time, whereas Madhva Brahmans have to +submit to it as often as they visit their guru (head of a mutt). Of +men of other castes, those who become followers of a Vaishnava or +Madhva Acharya (guru) or mutt, are expected to present themselves +before the guru for the purpose of being branded. But the ceremony +is optional, and not compulsory as in the case of the Brahmans. Among +Sri Vaishnavites, the privilege of branding is confined to the elder +members of a family, Sanyasis (ascetics), and the heads of the various +mutts. All individuals, male and female, must be branded, after the +Upanayanam ceremony in the case of males, and after marriage in the +case of females. The disciples, after a purificatory bath and worship +of their gods, proceed to the residence of the Acharya or to the mutt, +where they are initiated into their religion, and branded with the +chakra on the right shoulder and chank on the left. The initiation +consists in imparting to the disciple, in a very low tone, the Mula +Mantram, the word Namonarayanaya, the sacred syllable Om, and a few +mantrams from the Brahma Rahasyam (secrets about god). A person who +has not been initiated thus is regarded as unfit to take part in +the ceremonies which have to be performed by Brahmans. Even close +relations, if orthodox, will refuse to take food prepared or touched +by the uninitiated. Concerning Madhvas, Monier Williams writes as +follows [177]: "They firmly believe that it is a duty of Vaishnavas +to carry throughout life a memorial of their god on their persons, +and that such a lasting outward and visible sign of his presence helps +them to obtain salvation through him. 'On his right armlet the Brahman +wears the discus, on his left the conch shell.' When I was at Tanjore, +I found that one of the successors of Madhva had recently arrived on +his branding visitation. He was engaged throughout the entire day in +stamping his disciples, and receiving fees from all according to their +means." Madhvas have four mutts to which they repair for the branding +ceremony, viz., Vayasaraya, Sumathendra and Mulabagal in Mysore, +and Uttaraja in South Canara. The followers of the Uttaraja mutt are +branded in five places in the case of adult males, and boys after the +thread investiture. The situations and emblems selected are the chakra +on the right upper arm, right side of the chest, and above the navel; +the chank on the left shoulder and left side of the chest. Women, +and girls after marriage, are branded with the chakra on the right +forearm, and the chank on the left. In the case of widows, the marks +are impressed on the shoulders as in the case of males. The disciples +of the three other mutts are generally branded with the chakra on the +right upper arm, and chank on the left. As the branding is supposed +to remove sins committed during the interval, they get it done every +time they see their guru. There is with Madhvas no restriction as to +the age at which the ceremony should be performed. Even a new-born +babe, after the pollution period of ten days, must receive the mark +of the chakra, if the guru should turn up. Boys before the upanayanam, +and girls before marriage, are branded with the chakra on the abdomen +just above the navel. The copper or brass branding instruments (mudras) +are not heated to a very high temperature, but sufficient to singe the +skin, and leave a deep black mark in the case of adults, and a light +mark in that of young people and babies. In some cases, disciples, who +are afraid of being hurt, bribe the person who heats the instruments; +but, as a rule, the guru regulates the temperature so as to suit the +individual. If, for example, the disciple is a strong, well-built +man, the instruments are well heated, and, if he is a weakling, +they are allowed to cool somewhat before their application. If the +operator has to deal with babies, he presses the instrument against +a wet rag before applying it to the infant's skin. Some Matathipathis +(head priests of the mutt) are, it is said, inclined to be vindictive, +and to make a very hot application of the instruments, if the disciple +has not paid the fee (gurukanika) to his satisfaction. The fee is not +fixed in the case of Sri Vaishnavas, whereas Madhvas are expected to +pay from one to three months' income for being branded. Failure to +pay is punished with excommunication on some pretext or other. The +area of skin branded generally peels off within a week, leaving a +pale mark of the mudra, which either disappears in a few months, or +persists throughout life. Madhvas should stamp mudras with gopi paste +(white kaolin) daily on various parts of the body. The names of these +mudras are chakra, chank or sankha, gatha (the weapon of war used by +Bhima, one of the Pandavas), padma (lotus), and Narayana. The chakra +is stamped thrice on the abdomen above the navel, twice on the right +flank, twice on the right side of the chest above the nipple, twice +on the right arm, once on the right temple, once on the left side +of the chest, and once on the left arm. The chank is stamped twice +on the right side of the chest, in two places on the left arm, and +once on the left temple. The gatha is stamped in two places on the +right arm, twice on the chest, and in one spot on the forehead. The +padma is stamped twice on the left arm, and twice on the left side of +the chest. Narayana is stamped on all places where other mudra marks +have been made. Sometimes it is difficult to put on all the marks +after the daily morning bath. In such cases, a single mudra mark, +containing all the five mudras, is made to suffice. Some regard the +chakra mudra as sufficient on occasions of emergency. + +The god Hanuman (the monkey god) is specially reverenced by Madhvas, +who call him Mukyapranadevaru (the chief god). + +V. Tulu.--The Tulu-speaking Brahmans are, in their manners and customs, +closely allied to the Carnatakas. Their sub-divisions are-- + + + 1. Shivalli. + 2. Kota. + 3. Kandavara. + 4. Havik or Haiga. + 5. Panchagrami. + 6. Koteswar. + + +The following interesting account of the Tulu Brahmans is given by +Mr. H. A. Stuart [178]:-- + +"All Tulu Brahmin chronicles agree in ascribing the creation of +Malabar and Canara, or Kerala, Tuluva, and Haiga, to Parasu Rama, +who reclaimed from the sea as much land as he could cover by hurling +his battle-axe from the top of the Western Ghauts. According to Tulu +traditions, after a quarrel with Brahmins who used to come to him +periodically from Ahi-Kshetra, Parasu Rama procured new Brahmins for +the reclaimed tract by taking the nets of some fishermen, and making a +number of Brahminical threads, with which he invested the fishermen, +and thus turned them into Brahmins, and retired to the mountains to +meditate, after informing them that, if they were in distress and +called on him, he would come to their aid. After the lapse of some +time, during which they suffered no distress, they were curious to +know if Parasu Rama would remember them, and called upon him in order +to find out. He promptly appeared, but punished their thus mocking +him by cursing them, and causing them to revert to their old status +of Sudras. After this, there were no Brahmins in the land till Tulu +Brahmins were brought from Ahi-Kshetra by Mayur Varma of the Kadamba +dynasty. A modified form of the tradition states that Parasu Rama +gave the newly reclaimed land to Naga and Machi Brahmins, who were +not true Brahmins, and were turned out or destroyed by fishermen and +Holeyas (Pariahs), who held the country till the Tulu Brahmins were +introduced by Mayur Varma. All traditions unite in attributing the +introduction of the Tulu Brahmins of the present day to Mayur Varma, +but they vary in details connected with the manner in which they +obtained a firm footing in the land. One account says that Habashika, +chief of the Koragas (Pariahs), drove out Mayur Varma, but was in turn +expelled by Mayur Varma's son, or son-in-law, Lokaditya of Gokarnam, +who brought Brahmins from Ahi-Kshetra and settled them in thirty-two +villages. Another makes Mayur Varma himself the invader of the country, +which till then had remained in the possession of the Holeyas (Pariahs) +and fishermen who had turned out Parasu Rama's Brahmins. Mayur Varma +and the Brahmins whom he had brought from Ahi-Kshetra were again +driven out by Nanda, a Holeya chief, whose son Chandra Sayana had, +however, learned respect for Brahmins from his mother, who had been +a dancing-girl in a temple. His admiration for them became so great +that he not only brought back the Brahmins, but actually made over +all his authority to them, and reduced his people to the position +of slaves. A third account makes Chandra Sayana, not a son of a +Holeya king, but a descendant of Mayur Varma and a conqueror of +the Holeya king. Nothing is known from other sources of Lokaditya, +Habashika, or Chandra Sayana, but inscriptions speak to Mayur Varma +being the founder of the dynasty of the Kadambas of Banavasi in North +Canara. His date is usually put down at about 750 A.D. The correctness +of the traditions, which prevail in Malabar as well as in Canara, +assigning the introduction of Brahmins to the West Coast to Mayur +Varma who was in power about 750 A.D., is to some extent corroborated +by the fact that Brahmins attested the Malabar Perumal's grant to the +Christians in 774 A.D., but not that to the Jews about 700 A.D. The +Brahmins are said to have been brought from Ahi-Kshetra, on the banks +of the Godavari, but it is not clear what connection a Kadamba of +Banavasi could have with the banks of the Godavari, and there may be +something in the suggestion made in the North Kanara Gazetteer that +Ahi-Kshetra is merely a sanskritised form of Haiga or the land of +snakes. The tradition speaks of the Brahmins having been brought by +Lokaditya from Gokarnam, which is in the extreme north of Haiga, and +in the local history of the Honalli Matha in Sunda in North Canara, +Gokarnam is spoken of as being Ahi-Kshetra. Gokarnam is believed to +have been a Brahmin settlement in very early times, and there was +probably a further influx of Brahmins there as Muhammadan conquest +advanced in the north. + +"The class usually styled Tulu Brahmins at the present day are the +Shivalli Brahmins, whose head-quarters are at Udipi, and who are +most numerous in the southern part of the district, but the Kota, +Koteshwar, and Haiga or Havika Brahmins are all branches of the same, +the differences between them having arisen since their settlement in +Canara; and, though they now talk Canarese in common with the people +of other parts to the north of the Sitanadi river, their religious +works are still written in the old Tulu-Malayalam character. Tulu +Brahmins, who have settled in Malabar in comparatively late years, are +known as Embrantris, and treated as closely allied to the Nambutiris, +whose traditions go back to Mayur Varma. Some families of Shivalli and +Havika Brahmins in the southern or Malayalam portion of the district +talk Malayalam, and follow many of the customs of the Malabar or +Nambutiri Brahmins. Many of the thirty-two villages in which the +Brahmins are said to have been settled by Mayur Varma are still +the most important centres of Brahminism. Notably may be mentioned +Shivalli or Udipi, Kota and Koteshwar, which have given names to the +divisions of Tulu Brahmins of which these villages are respectively the +head-quarters. When the Brahmins were introduced by Mayur Varma they +are said to have been followers of Bhattacharya, but they soon adopted +the tenets of the great Malayalam Vedantic teacher Sankaracharya, +who is ordinarily believed to have been born at Cranganore in Malabar +in the last quarter of the eighth century, that is, soon after the +arrival of the Brahmins on the west coast. Sankaracharya is known +as the preacher of the Advaita (non-dual) philosophy, which, stated +briefly, is that all living beings are one with the supreme spirit, +and absorption may finally be obtained by the constant renunciation +of material in favour of spiritual pleasure. This philosophy, however, +was not sufficient for the common multitude, and his system included, +for weaker minds, the contemplation of the first cause through a +multitude of inferior deities, and, as various manifestations of Siva +and his consort Parvati, he found a place for all the most important +of the demons worshipped by the early Dravidians whom the Brahmins +found on the West Coast, thus facilitating the spread of Hinduism +throughout all classes. That the conversion of the Bants and Billavas, +and other classes, took place at a very early date may be inferred +from the fact that, though the great bulk of the Tulu Brahmins of South +Canara adopted the teaching of the Vaishnavite reformer Madhavacharya, +who lived in the thirteenth century, most of the non-Brahmin Hindus in +the district class themselves as Shaivites to this day. Sankaracharya +founded the Sringeri Matha in Mysore near the borders of the Udipi +taluk, the guru of which is the spiritual head of such of the Tulu +Brahmins of South Canara as have remained Smarthas or adherents of the +teaching of Sankaracharya. Madhavacharya is believed to have been born +about 1199 A.D. at Kalianpur, a few miles from Udipi. He propounded +the Dvaita or dual philosophy, repudiating the doctrine of oneness +and final absorption held by ordinary Vaishnavites as well as by the +followers of Sankaracharya. The attainment of a place in the highest +heaven is to be secured, according to Madhavacharya's teaching, not +only by the renunciation of material pleasure, but by the practice of +virtue in thought, word and deed. The moral code of Madhavacharya is +a high one, and his teaching is held by some--not ordinary Hindus of +course--to have been affected by the existence of the community of +Christians at Kalianpur mentioned by Cosmos Indico Pleustes in the +seventh century. Madhavacharya placed the worship of Vishnu above +that of Siva, but there is little bitterness between Vaishnavites +and Shaivites in South Canara, and there are temples in which both +are worshipped under the name of Shankara Narayana. He denied that +the spirits worshipped by the early Dravidians were manifestations +of Siva's consort, but he accorded sanction to their worship as +supernatural beings of a lower order. + +"Shivalli Brahmins. The Tulu-speaking Brahmins of the present day are +almost all followers of Madhavacharya, though a few remain Smarthas, +and a certain number follow what is known as the Bhagavat Sampradayam, +and hold that equal honour is due to both Vishnu and Siva. They are +now generally called Shivalli Brahmins, their head-quarters being at +Udipi or Shivalli, a few miles from Madhavacharya's birth-place. Here +Madhavacharya is said to have resided for some time, and composed +thirty-seven controversial works, after which he set out on a +tour. The temple of Krishna at Udipi is said to have been founded by +Madhavacharya himself, who set up in it the image of Krishna originally +made by Arjuna, and miraculously obtained by him from a vessel wrecked +on the coast of Tuluva. In it he also placed one of the three salagrams +presented to him by the sage Veda Vyasa. Besides the temple at Udipi, +he established eight Mathas or sacred houses, each presided over by +a sanyasi or swami. [Their names are Sodhe, Krishnapur, Sirur, Kanur, +Pejavar, Adamar, Palamar, and Puththige.] These exist to this day, and +each swami in turn presides over the temple of Krishna for a period of +two years, and spends the intervening fourteen years touring through +Canara and the adjacent parts of Mysore, levying contributions from the +faithful for his next two years of office, which are very heavy, as he +has to defray not only the expenses of public worship and of the temple +and Matha establishments, but must also feed every Brahmin who comes to +the place. The following description of a Matha visited by Mr. Walhouse +[179] gives a very good idea of what one of these buildings is like: +'The building was two-storeyed, enclosing a spacious quadrangle round +which ran a covered verandah or cloister; the wide porched entrance +opened into a fine hall supported by massive pillars with expanding +capitals handsomely carved; the ceiling was also wooden, panelled +and ornamented with rosettes and pendants as in baronial halls, +and so were the solid doors. Within these was an infinity of rooms, +long corridors lined with windowless cells, apartments for meditation +and study, store-rooms overflowing with all manner of necessaries, +granaries, upper rooms with wide projecting windows latticed instead +of glass with pierced wood-work in countless tasteful patterns, +and in the quadrangle there was a draw-well and small temple, while +a large yard behind contained cattle of all kinds from a goat to an +elephant. All things needful were here gathered together. Outside +sat pilgrims, poor devotees, and beggars waiting for the daily dole, +and villagers were continually arriving with grain, vegetables, +etc.' The periodical change of the swami presiding over the temple +of Krishna is the occasion of a great festival known as the Pariyaya, +when Udipi is filled to overflowing by a large concourse of Madhvas, +not only from the district but from more distant parts, especially +from the Mysore territory. [A very imposing object in the temple +grounds, at the time of my visit in 1907, was an enormous stack of +fire-wood for temple purposes.] The following is a description [180] +of a festival at the Udipi Krishna temple witnessed by Mr. Walhouse: +'Near midnight, when the moon rode high in a cloudless heaven, his +(Krishna's) image--not the very sacred one, which may not be handled, +but a smaller duplicate--was brought forth by four Brahmins and +placed under a splendid canopy on a platform laid across two large +canoes. The whole square of the tank (pond) was lit up by a triple +line of lights. Small oil cressets at close intervals, rockets and +fireworks ascended incessantly, and the barge, also brilliantly lit +up, and carrying a band of discordant music, and Brahmins fanning +the image with silver fans, was punted round and round the tank amid +loud acclamations. After this, the image was placed in a gorgeous +silver-plated beaked palanquin, and borne solemnly outside the temple +to the great idol car that stood dressed up and adorned with an +infinity of tinsel, flags, streamers and flower wreaths. On this it +was lifted, and placed in a jewel shrine amidst a storm of applause +and clapping of hands--these seem the only occasions when Hindus do +clap hands--and then, with all the company of Brahmins headed by the +swamis marching in front, followed by flambeaus and wild music, the +car was slowly hauled by thousands of votaries round the square which +was illuminated by three lines of lights, ascending at intervals into +pyramids. A pause was made half-way, when there was a grand display +of rockets, fire fountains and wheels, and two lines of camphor +and oiled cotton laid along the middle of the road were kindled +and flamed up brilliantly. Then the car moved on to the entrance of +the temple, and the god's outing was accomplished.' Another famous +temple of the Shivallis is Subramanya at the foot of the ghauts on +the Coorg border, and here also Madhavacharya deposited one of Veda +Vyasa's salagrams. It existed before his time, however, and, as the +name indicates, it is dedicated to the worship of Siva. In addition +to this, it is the principal centre of serpent worship in the district. + +"Many of the Shivalli Brahmins are fair complexioned with well-cut +intelligent features. A number of them own land which they cultivate by +tenants or by hired labourers, and there are several wealthy families +with large landed properties, but the great bulk of them are either +astronomers, astrologers, tantris, purohitas, worshippers in temples, +or professional beggars. They have been backward in availing themselves +of English education, and consequently not many of them are to be +found holding important posts under Government or in the professions, +but a few have come to the front in late years. A good many of them +are village accountants and teachers in village schools. The women, as +is usually the case among all classes, are fairer than the men. Their +education is even more limited, but they are said to be well trained +for the discharge of household and religious duties. They wear the +cloth falling as low as the feet in front, but not usually so low +behind, especially on festive occasions, the end being passed between +the legs and tucked into the fold of the cloth round the waist. Like +all Brahmin women in Canara, they are fond of wearing sweet-scented +flowers in their hair. The language of the Shivalli Brahmins is Tulu, +except to the north of the Sitanadi river, where close intercourse with +the ruling Canarese classes above the ghauts for several centuries has +led to the adoption of that language by all classes. Their religious +books are in Sanskrit, and, even north of the Sitanadi river, they +are written in the old Tulu-Malayalam character. Their houses are +all neat, clean, and provided with verandahs, and a yard in front, +in which stands, in a raised pot, a plant of the tulasi or sacred +basil. Some of the houses of the old families are really large and +substantial buildings, with an open courtyard in the centre. Men and +widows bathe the whole body every day before breakfast, but married +women bathe only up to the neck, it being considered inauspicious for +them to bathe the head also. In temples and religious houses, males +bathe in the evening also. An oil bath is taken once a week. They +are, of course, abstainers from animal food and spirituous liquors, +and a prohibition extends to some other articles, such as onions, +garlic, mushrooms, etc. At times of marriages, deaths or initiations, +it is usual to give feasts, which may be attended by all Dravida +Brahmins. The Shivallis have 252 gotras, and the names of the following +seem to be of totemistic origin:-- + + + Kudrettaya, from kudre, a horse, taya, belonging to. + Talitaya, palmyra palm. + Manolitaya, name of a vegetable. + Shunnataya, chunam, lime. + Kalambitaya, a kind of box. + Nellitaya, the Indian gooseberry. + Goli, banyan tree. + Ane, elephant. + + +"These names were obtained from one of the eight swamis or gurus of the +Udipi math, and according to him they have no totemistic force at the +present day. Girls must be married before maturity, and the ordinary +age now-a-days is between five and eleven. The age of the bridegroom +is usually between fifteen and five and twenty. A maternal uncle's +daughter can be married without consulting any horoscope, and during +the marriage ceremonies it is customary for a bridegroom's sister to +obtain from him a formal promise that, if he has a daughter, he will +give her in marriage to her son. Widows take off all their ornaments, +and wear a red or white cloth. They ought not to attend any auspicious +ceremonies or festivals, but of late years there has been a tendency +to relax the severity of the restrictions on a widow's freedom, and +a young widow is allowed to keep her head unshaven, and to wear a +few ornaments. A few Shivallis in the Malayalam-speaking portion of +the Kasaragod taluk follow the customs and manners of the Malayalam +Brahmins, and amongst these a girl does not lose caste by remaining +unmarried until she comes of age. + +"Koteshwar Brahmins are a small body, who take their name from +Koteshwar in the Coondapoor taluk. They are practically the same as +the Shivalli Brahmins, except that, like all classes in that taluk, +they talk Canarese. + +"Havika, Haviga, or Haiga Brahmins are the descendants of the section +of the Brahmins brought in by Mayur Varma, who settled within the +tract known as Haiga, which comprised the southern part of North Canara +and the extreme northern part of South Canara. They did not, like the +Shivallis, adopt the teaching of Madhavacharya, but remained followers +of Sankaracharya, and they now speak Canarese, though their religious +and family records are written in old Tulu-Malayalam character. Though +originally of the same stock, a distinction has arisen between them +and the Shivalli Brahmins, and they do not intermarry, though they may +eat together. A number of Havika Brahmins are to be found scattered +throughout South Canara, engaged for the most part in the cultivation +of areca palm gardens, in which they are very expert. A very well-to-do +colony of them is to be found in the neighbourhood of Vittal in the +Kasaragod taluk, where they grow areca nuts which are valued only +second to those grown in the magane of the Coondapoor taluk above the +ghauts. The Havika Brahmins, perhaps owing to their residing for many +generations in the comparatively cool shade of the areca nut gardens, +are specially fair even for west coast Brahmins. This fairness of +complexion is particularly noticeable in the women, who do not differ +much in their manners and customs from the Shivalli Brahmin women, +except that they take a prominent part in the work of the gardens, and +never on any occasion wear the end of their cloth passed through the +legs and tucked up behind. The Havik widows are allowed more freedom +than in most other classes. Some Havik Brahmins in the Malayalam +portion of the Kasaragod taluk have, like the Shivallis in the same +locality, adopted the language and customs of the Malayali Brahmins. + +"Kota Brahmins, so called from a village in the northern part of +the Udipi taluk, are, like the Haviks, Smarthas or followers of +Sankaracharya, and now speak Canarese, but the breach between them +and the Shivallis is not so wide, as intermarriages occasionally take +place. In the Coondapoor taluk and the northern part of the Udipi +taluk, the Kotas occupy a place in the community corresponding to +that taken by the Shivallis throughout the rest of the district. + +"Saklapuris, of whom there are a few in the district, are what may be +called a dissenting sect of Havikas who, a few years ago, renounced +their allegiance to the Ramchandrapura matha in favour of one at +Saklapuri near the boundary between North and South Canara. Like the +Havikas, they speak Canarese. + +"Kandavaras obtain their name from the village of Kandavar in the +Coondapoor taluk. They are commonly known as Udapas, and they all +belong to one gotram, that of Visvamitra. They are, therefore, +precluded from marrying within the caste, and take their wives and +husbands from the ranks of the Shivalli Brahmins. They are, indeed, +said to be the descendants of a Shivalli Brahmin who settled in +Kandavar about seven or eight centuries ago. The head of the Annu Udapa +family, which is called after this ancestor, is the hereditary head +of the caste, and presides over all panchayats or caste councils. They +speak Canarese. Their title is Udapa or Udpa." + +In a note on the Brahmans of South Canara, Mr. T. Raghaviah writes as +follows [181]:--"The sentimental objection to manual labour, which is +so predominant in the East Coast Brahmin, and the odium attached to +it in this country, which has crystallised into the religious belief +that, if a Brahmin cultivates with his own hand, the fire of his +hand would burn down all that he touches, have entirely disappeared +in South Canara. In the rural parts of the district, and especially +at the foot of the Western Ghauts, it is an exceedingly common +sight to see Brahmins engaging themselves in digging, ploughing +or levelling their lands, trimming their water-courses or ledges, +raising anicuts across streams, and doing a hundred other items of +manual work connected with agriculture. Brahmin women busy themselves +with cutting green leaves for manure, making and storing manure and +carrying it to their lands or trees, and Brahmin boys are employed in +tending and grazing their own cattle. This is so much the case with +a class of Brahmins called Haviks that there is a proverb that none +but a Havik can raise an areca garden. You find, as a matter of fact, +that nearly all the extensive areca plantations in the district are in +the hands of either the Havik Brahmins or the Chitpavans allied much +to the Mahratta Brahmins of Bombay. These plantations are managed by +these Brahmins, and new ones are raised with the aid of a handful of +Holeyas, or often without even such aid." + +VI. Oriya.--The Oriya Brahmans of the Ganjam district belong to the +Utkala section of the Pancha Gaudas. Between them and the Pancha +Dravidas there is very considerable difference. None of the sections +of the Pancha Dravidas adopt the gosha system as regards their females, +whereas Oriya Brahman women are kept gosha (in seclusion). Occasionally +they go out to bring water, and, if on their way they come across any +males, they go to the side of the road, and turn their backs to the +passers-by. It is noted, in the Manual of the Vizagapatam district, +that Oriya Brahmans "eat many kinds of meat, as pea fowl, sambur +(deer), barking deer, pigeons, wild pig, and fish." Fish must be one +of the dishes prepared on festive occasions. As a rule, Oriya Brahmans +will accept water from a Gaudo (especially a Sullokondia Gaudo), and +sometimes from Gudiyas and Odiyas. Water touched by Dravida Brahmans +is considered by them to be polluted. They call the Dravidas Komma (a +corruption of Karma) Brahmans. The Oriya Brahmans are more particular +than the Dravidas as regards the madi cloth, which has already been +referred to. A cloth intended for use as a madi cloth is never given +to a washerman to be washed, and it is not worn by the Oriya Brahmans +when they answer the calls of nature, but removed, and replaced after +bathing. Marriage with a maternal uncle's daughter, which is common +among the Dravida Brahmans, would be considered an act of sacrilege +by Oriyas. When an Oriya Brahman is charged with being a meat eater, +he retorts that it is not nearly so bad as marrying a mathulakanya +(maternal uncle's daughter). The marriage tali or bottu is dispensed +with by Oriya Brahmans, who, at marriages, attach great importance +to the panigrahanam (grasping the bride's hand) and saptapadi (seven +steps). The Oriya Brahmans are both Smarthas and Vaishnavas who are +generally Paramarthos or followers of Chaitanya. The god Jagannatha +of Puri is reverenced by them, and they usually carry about with them +some of the prasadham (food offered to the god) from Puri. They are +divided into the following twelve sections:-- + + + (1) Santo (samanta, a chief). + (2) Danua (gift-taking). + (3) Padhiya (one who learns the Vedas). + (4) Sarua (saru, tubers of the arum Colocasia antiqitorum). + (5) Holua (holo, yoke of a plough). + (6) Bhodri (Bhadriya, an agraharam on the Ganges). + (7) Barua (a small sea-port town). + (8) Deuliya (one who serves in temples). + (9) Kotokiya (kotaka, palace. Those who live in palaces as + servants to zamindars). + (10) Sahu (creditor). + (11) Jhadua (jungle). + (12) Sodeibalya (those who follow an ungodly life). + + +It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "the Santos +regard themselves as superior to the others, and will not do purohit's +work for them, though they will for zamindars. They are also very +scrupulous about the behaviour of their womenkind. The Danuas live +much by begging, especially at the funerals of wealthy persons, but +both they and the Padhiyas know the Vedas, and are priests to the +zamindars and the higher classes of Sudras. The Saruas cultivate the +'yam' (Colocasia), and the Holuas go a step further, and engage in +ordinary cultivation--actual participation in which is forbidden +to Brahmans by Manu, as it involves taking the lives of worms and +insects. A few of the Saruas are qualified to act as purohits, but +the Holuas hardly ever are, and they were shown in the 1891 census to +be the most illiterate of all the Brahmans of the Presidency. Few of +them even perform the Sandhya and Tarpana, which every Brahman should +scrupulously observe. Yet they are regarded as ceremonially pure, +and are often cooks to the zamindars. Regarding the sixth class, +the Bhodris, a curious legend is related. Bhodri means a barber, +and the ancestor of the sub-division is said to have been the son +of a barber who was brought up at Puri with some Santo boys, and so +learned much of the Vedas and Shastras. He left Puri and went into +Jeypore, wearing the thread and passing himself off as a Brahman, and +eventually married a Brahman girl, by whom he got children who also +married Brahmans. At last, however, he was found out, and taken back to +Puri, where he committed suicide. The Brahmans said they would treat +his children as Brahmans if a plant of the sacred tulsi grew on his +grave, but, instead of tulsi, a plant of tobacco appeared there, and +so his descendants are Bhodris or barber Brahmans, and even Karnams, +Gaudos, and Mahantis decline to accept water at their hands. They +cultivate tobacco and 'yams,' but nevertheless officiate in temples, +and are purohits to the lower non-polluting castes. Of the remaining +six divisions, the Baruas are the only ones who do purohit's work +for other castes, and they only officiate for the lower classes of +Sudras. Except the Sodeibalyas, the others all perform the Sandhya +and Tarpana. Their occupations, however, differ considerably. The +Baruas are pujaris in the temples, and physicians. The Deuliyas are +pujaris and menials in zamindars' houses, growers of 'yams,' and even +day labourers. The Kotokiyas are household servants to zamindars. The +Sahus trade in silk cloths, grain, etc., and are money-lenders. The +Jhaduas are hill cultivators, and traders with pack-bullocks. The +last of the divisions, the Sodeibalyas, are menial servants to the +zamindars, and work for daily hire." + +VII. Sarasvat and Konkani.--Both these classes belong to the Gauda +branch, and speak the Konkani language. The original habitation of +the Konkanis is said to have been the bank of the Sarasvati, a river +well known in early Sanskrit works, but said to have subsequently +lost itself in the sands of the desert, north of Rajputana. As they +do not abstain from fish, the other Brahmans among whom they have +settled regard them as low. The full name as given by the Konkanis +is Gauda Sarasvata Konkanastha. All the Konkani Brahmans found +in South Canara are Rig Vedis. Like the Shivalli Brahmans, they +have numerous exogamous septs, which are used as titles after their +names. For example, Prabhu is a sept, and Krishna Prabhu the name of +an individual. A large majority of the Konkani Brahmans are Madhvas, +and their god is Venkataramana of Tirupati, to whom their temples in +South Canara are dedicated. Other Brahmans do not go to the Konkani +temples, though non-Brahmans do so. A very striking feature of the +Konkani temples is that the god Venkataramana is not represented by +an idol, but by a silver plate with the image of the god embossed +on it. There are three important temples, at Manjeshwar, Mulki, +and Karkal. To these are attached Konkani Brahmans called Darsanas, +or men who get inspired. The Darsana attached to the Mulki temple +comes there daily about 11 A.M. After worship, he is given thirtham +(holy water), which he drinks. Taking in his hands the prasadam +(offering made to the god), he comes out, and commences to shiver +all over his body for about ten minutes. The shivering then abates, +and a cane and long strip of deer skin are placed in his hands, +with which he lashes himself on the back, sides, and head. Holy +water is given to him, and the shivering ceases. Those who have +come to the temple put questions to the Darsana, which are answered +in Konkani, and translated. He understands his business thoroughly, +and usually recommends the people to make presents of money or jewels +to Venkataramana, according to their means. In 1907, a rich Guzerati +merchant, who was doing business at Mangalore, visited the temple, +and consulted the Darsana concerning the condition of his wife, +who was pregnant. The Darsana assured him that she would be safely +delivered of a male child, and made him promise to present to the +temple silver equal in weight to that of his wife, should the prophecy +be realised. The prediction proving true, the merchant gave silver, +sugar-candy, and date fruits, to the required weight at a cost, +it is said, of five thousand rupees. At the Manjeshwar temple, the +Darsana is called the dumb Darsana, as he gives signs instead of +speaking. At a marriage among the Konkanis, for the Nagavali ceremony +eight snakes are made out of rice or wheat flour by women and the +bridal couple. By the side of the pot representing Siva and Parvati, +a mirror is placed. Close to the Nagavali square, it is customary to +draw on the ground the figures of eight elephants and eight Bairavas +in flour. + +The following account of the Konkanis is given in the Cochin Census +Report, 1901:--"The Konkanis are a branch of the Sarasvat sub-division +of the Pancha Gaudas. Judged from their well-built physique, handsome +features and fair complexion, they appear to belong ethnically +to the Aryan stock. The community take their name from their Guru +Sarasvata. Trihotrapura, the modern Tirhut in Behar, is claimed as the +original home of the community. According to their tradition, Parasu +Rama brought ten families, and settled them in villages in and around +Gomantaka, the modern Goa, Panchrakosi, and Kusasthali. When Goa was +conquered by Vijayanagar, they placed themselves under the protection +of the kings of that country. For nearly a quarter of a century after +the conquest of Goa by the Portuguese, they continued unmolested under +the Portuguese Governors. During this period, they took to a lucrative +trade in European goods. With the establishment of the Inquisition +at Goa, and the religious persecution set on foot by the Portuguese, +the community left Goa in voluntary exile. While some submitted to +conversion, others fled to the north and south. Those that fled to the +south settled themselves in Canara and at Calicut. Receiving a cold +reception at the hands of the Zamorin, they proceeded further south, +and placed themselves under the protection of the Rulers of Cochin +and Travancore, where they flourish at the present day. The Christian +converts, who followed in the wake of the first batch of exiles, +have now settled themselves at the important centres of trade in the +State as copper-smiths, and they are driving a very profitable trade +in copper-wares. The Brahman emigrants are called Konkanis from the +fact of their having emigrated from Konkan. In the earliest times, +they are supposed to have been Saivites, but at present they are +staunch Vaishnavites, being followers of Madhavacharya. They are never +regarded as on a par with the other Brahmans of Southern India. There +is no intermarriage or interdining between them and other Brahmans. In +Cochin they are mostly traders. Their occupation seems to have been +at the bottom of their being regarded as degraded. They have their +own temples, called Tirumala Devaswams. They are not allowed access to +the inner structure surrounding the chief shrine of the Malayali Hindu +temples; nor do they in turn allow the Hindus of this coast to enter +corresponding portions of their religious edifices. The Nambudris are, +however, allowed access even to the interior of the sacred shrine. All +caste disputes are referred to their high priest, the Swamiyar of Kasi +Mutt, who resides at Mancheswaram or Basroor. He is held in great +veneration by the community, and his decisions in matters religious +and social are final. Some of their temples possess extensive landed +estates. Their temple at Cochin is one of the richest in the whole +State. The affairs of the temple are managed by Konkani Yogakkars, +or an elected committee. Nayars and castes above them do not touch +them. Though their women use coloured cloths for their dress like the +women of the East Coast, their mode of dress and ornaments at once +distinguish them from other Brahman women. Amongst them there are +rich merchants and landholders. Prabhu, Pai, Shenai, Kini, Mallan, +and Vadhyar, are some of the more common titles borne by them." + +In conclusion, brief mention may be made of several other immigrant +classes. Of these, the Desasthas are Marathi-speaking Brahmans, who +have adopted some of the customs of the Smartha and Madhva Carnatakas, +with whom intermarriage is permitted. A special feature of the +marriage ceremonies of the Desasthas is the worship of Ambabhavani +or Tuljabhavani, with the assistance of Gondala musicians, who sing +songs in praise of the deity. The Chitpavan Brahmans speak Marathi +and Konkani. In South Canara they are, like the Haviks, owners of +areca palm plantations. Karadi Brahmans, who are also found in South +Canara, are said to have come southward from Karhad in the Bombay +Presidency. There is a tradition that Parasu Rama created them from +camel bones. + +Brahmani.--A class of Ambalavasis. (See Unni.) + +Brihaspati Varada.--The name, indicating those who worship their god +on Thursday, of a sub-division of Kurubas. + +Brinjari.--A synonym of Lambadi. + +Budubudike.--The Budubudike or Budubudukala are described in the +Mysore Census Report as being "gipsy beggars and fortune-tellers +from the Marata country, who pretend to consult birds and reptiles to +predict future events. They are found in every district of Mysore, but +only in small numbers. They use a small kind of double-headed drum, +which is sounded by means of the knotted ends of strings attached +to each side of it. The operator turns it deftly and quickly from +side to side, when a sharp and weird sound is emitted, having a rude +resemblance to the warbling of birds. This is done in the mornings, +when the charlatan soothsayer pretends to have divined the future fate +of the householder by means of the chirping of birds, etc., in the +early dawn. They are generally worshippers of Hanumantha." The name +Budubudike is derived from the hour-glass shaped drum, or budbudki. + +For the following account of the Budubudukalas, I am indebted to a +recent article [182]:--"A huge parti-coloured turban, surmounted by +a bunch of feathers, a pair of ragged trousers, a loose long coat, +which is very often out at elbows, and a capacious wallet underneath +his arm, ordinarily constitute the Budubudukala's dress. Occasionally, +if he can afford it, he indulges in the luxury of wearing a tiger or +cheetah (leopard) skin, which hangs down his back, and contributes to +the dignity of his calling. Add to this an odd assortment of clothes +suspended on his left forearm, and the picture is as grotesque as it +can be. He is regarded as able to predict the future of human beings by +the flight and notes of birds. His predictions are couched in the chant +which he recites. The burden of the chant is invariably stereotyped, +and purports to have been gleaned from the warble of the feathered +songsters of the forest. It prognosticates peace, plenty and prosperity +to the house, the birth of a son to the fair, lotus-eyed house-wife, +and worldly advancement to the master, whose virtues are as countless +as the stars, and have the power to annihilate his enemies. It also +holds out a tempting prospect of coming joy in an unknown shape from +an unknown quarter, and concludes with an appeal for a cloth. If the +appeal is successful, well and good. If not, the Budubudukala has +the patience and perseverance to repeat his visit the next day, the +day after that, and so on until, in sheer disgust, the householder +parts with a cloth. The drum, which has been referred to above as +having given the Budubudukala his name, is not devoid of interest. In +appearance it is an instrument of diminutive size, and is shaped like +an hour-glass, to the middle of which is attached a string with a knot +at the end, which serves as the percutient. Its origin is enveloped in +a myth of which the Budubudukala is naturally very proud, for it tells +him of his divine descent, and invests his vocation with the halo of +sanctity. According to the legend, the primitive Budubudukala who first +adorned the face of the earth was a belated product of the world's +creation. When he was born or rather evolved, the rest of humankind +was already in the field, struggling for existence. Practically +the whole scheme was complete, and, in the economy of the universe, +the Budubudukala found himself one too many. In this quandary, he +appealed to his goddess mother Amba Bhavani, who took pity upon him, +and presented him with her husband the god Parameswara's drum with +the blessing 'My son, there is nothing else for you but this. Take +it and beg, and you will prosper.' Among beggars, the Budubudukala +has constituted himself a superior beggar, to whom the handful of +rice usually doled out is not acceptable. His demand, in which more +often than not he succeeds, is for clothes of any description, good, +bad or indifferent, new or old, torn or hole. For, in the plenitude of +his wisdom, he has realised that a cloth is a marketable commodity, +which, when exchanged for money, fetches more than the handful of +rice. The Budubudukala is continually on the tramp, and regulates +his movements according to the seasons of the year. As a rule, he +pays his visit to the rural parts after the harvest is gathered, for +it is then that the villagers are at their best, and in a position +to handsomely remunerate him for his pains. But, in whatever corner +of the province he may be, as the Dusserah approaches, he turns his +face towards Vellore in the North Arcot district, where the annual +festival in honour of the tribal deity Amba Bhavani is celebrated." + +The insigne of the Budubudike, as recorded at Conjeeveram, is said +[183] to be a pearl-oyster. The Oriya equivalent of Budubudike is +stated [184] to be Dubaduba. + +Bujjinigiyoru (jewel-box).--A sub-division of Gangadikara Vakkaliga. + +Bukka.--Described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a "sub-caste +of Balija. They are sellers of saffron (turmeric), red powder, combs, +etc., and are supposed to have been originally Komatis." They are +described by the Rev. J. Cain as travelling about selling turmeric, +opium, and other goods. According to the legend, when Kanyakamma threw +herself into the fire-pit (see Komati), they, instead of following her +example, presented to her bukka powder, turmeric, and kunkuma. She +directed that they should live apart from the faithful Komatis, +and live by the sale of the articles which they offered to her. + +Buragam.--A sub-division of Kalingi. + +Burgher.--A name commonly applied to the Badagas of the Nilgiri +hills. In Ceylon, Burgher is used in the same sense as Eurasian +in India. + +Burmese.--A few Burmese are trained as medical students at Madras for +subsequent employment in the Burmese Medical service. At the Mysore +census, 1901, a single Burman was recorded as being engaged at the +Kolar gold fields. Since Burma became part of the British dominions +in 1886, there has been emigration to that developing country from +the Madras Presidency on a large scale. The following figures show +the numbers of passengers conveyed thence to Burma during the five +years, 1901-05:-- + + + 1901 84,329 + 1902 80,916 + 1903 100,645 + 1904 127,622 + 1905 124,365 + + +Busam (grain).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. + +Busi (dirt).--An exogamous sept of Mutracha. + +Byagara.--Byagara and Begara are synonyms of Holeya. + + + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] "Deccan, Hind, Dakhin, Dakhan; dakkina, the Prakr. form of +Sskt. dakshina, 'the south.' The southern part of India, the +Peninsula, and especially the table-land between the Eastern and +Western Ghauts." Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson. + +[2] History of Creation. + +[3] Malay Archipelago, 1890. + +[4] See article Kadir. + +[5] Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, 1906. + +[6] Globus, 1899. + +[7] Madras Museum Bull., II, 3, 1899. + +[8] Op. cit. + +[9] Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson. + +[10] Mem. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, Miscellanea Ethnographica, 1, 1906. + +[11] Manual of the Geology of India, 2nd edition, 1893. + +[12] Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals, 1871. + +[13] See Annual Report, Archæological Survey of India, 1902-03. + +[14] Bull, Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, 1905. + +[15] Introduction to the Study of Mammals, living and extinct, 1891. + +[16] Anthropology. Translation, 1894. + +[17] I have only seen one individual with woolly hair in Southern +India, and he was of mixed Tamil and African parentage. + +[18] See article Maravan. + +[19] Op. cit. + +[20] Ethnology, 1896. + +[21] Proc. R. Soc. N. S. Wales, XXIII, part III. + +[22] "It is evident that, during much of the tertiary period, Ceylon +and South India were bounded on the north by a considerable extent of +sea, and probably formed part of an extensive southern continent or +great island. The very numerous and remarkable cases of affinity with +Malaya require, however, some closer approximation to these islands, +which probably occurred at a later period." Wallace. Geographical +Distribution of Animals, 1876. + +[23] See Breeks, Primitive Tribes and Monuments of the Nilgiris; +Phillips, Tumuli of the Salem district; Rea, Prehistoric Burial Places +in Southern India; R. Bruce Foote, Catalogues of the Prehistoric +Antiquities in the Madras Museum, etc. + +[24] Contributions to the Craniology of the People of the Empire of +India, Part II. The aborigines of Chuta Nagpur, and of the Central +Provinces, the People of Orissa, Veddahs and Negritos, 1900. + +[25] Other cranial characters are compared by Sir William Turner, +for which I would refer the reader to the original article. + +[26] The People of India, 1908. + +[27] Contemporary Science Series. + +[28] Madras Museum Bull., II, 3, 1899. + +[29] The cephalic indices of various Brahman classes in the Bombay +Presidency, supplied by Sir H. Risley, are as follows:--Desastha, +76.9; Kokanasth, 77.3; Sheni or Saraswat, 79; Nagar, 79.7. + +[30] Measured by Mr. F. Fawcett. + +[31] The Pattar Brahmans are Tamil Brahmans, settled in Malabar. + +[32] According to the Brahman chronology, Mayura Varma reigned from +455 to 445 B.C., but his probable date was about 750 A.D. See Fleet, +Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of the Bombay Presidency, 1882-86. + +[33] Histoire générale des Races Humaines, 1889. + +[34] Les Nègres d'Asie, et la race Nègre en général. Revue +Scientifique, VI July, 1906. + +[35] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, 1891. + +[36] Linguistic Survey of India, IV, 1906. + +[37] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[38] The Todas, 1906. + +[39] Madras Journ., Lit. and Sci., V., 1837. + +[40] Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages. 2nd Ed., 1875. + +[41] Outlines of the Toda Grammar appended to Marshall's Phrenologist +among the Todas. + +[42] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[43] Malabar Law and Custom. + +[44] F. Fawcett. Journ. Anth. Soc., Bombay, 1, 1888. + +[45] Malabar Law and Custom. + +[46] Wigram, Malabar Law and Custom. + +[47] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[48] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[49] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[50] Manual of the Madura district. + +[51] Description of the Character, Manners and Customs of the People +of India. + +[52] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[53] Mysore Census Report, 1891, 1901; Rice, Mysore and Coorg +Gazetteer. + +[54] Hindu Manners and Customs. Ed. 1897. + +[55] Mysore Census Report, 1901. + +[56] Ambalam is an open space or building, where affairs connected +with justice are transacted. Ambalakkaran denotes the president of +an assembly, or one who proclaims the decision of those assembled in +an ambalam. + +[57] Anuloma, the product of the connection of a man with a woman of +a lower caste; Pratiloma, of the connection of a man with a woman of +a higher caste. + +[58] Madras Mail, 1906. + +[59] A. P. Smith, Madras Review, 1902. + +[60] Cochin Census Report, 1901. + +[61] Houses where pilgrims and travellers are entertained, and fed +gratuitously. + +[62] C. Hayavadana Rao. Tales of Komati Wit and Wisdom, 1907. + +[63] Wigram, Malabar Law and Custom. + +[64] Madras Journ. Lit. and Science, XI, 176, 1840. + +[65] Historical Sketches of the South of India. + +[66] Ellis. Kural. + +[67] Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer, 1876-78. + +[68] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[69] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[70] Folk-songs of Southern India. + +[71] Manual of the Nilagiri district. + +[72] The Todas, 1906. + +[73] Account of the Primitive Tribes and Monuments of the Nilagiris, +1873. + +[74] Gazetteer of the Nilgiris. + +[75] Madras Christian College Magazine, 1892. + +[76] Gazetteer of the Nilgiris. + +[77] Manual of Coorg. + +[78] Pioneer, 4th October 1907. + +[79] Description of a singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting the summit +of the Neilgherry Hills. + +[80] The Todas, 1906. + +[81] Op. cit. + +[82] Op. cit. + +[83] Madras Mail, 1907. + +[84] The bridge spanning the river of death, which the blessed cross +in safety. + +[85] Report, Government Botanic Gardens, Nilgiris, 1903. + +[86] E. Schmidt. Reise nach Sudindien, 1894. + +[87] The World's Peoples, 1908. + +[88] H. H. Wilson, Essays and Lectures, chiefly on the Religion of +the Hindus, 1862. + +[89] Hindu Castes and Sects. + +[90] The Mystics, Ascetics, and Saints of India, 1903. + +[91] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[92] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[93] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[94] A Native: Pen and Ink Sketches of South India. + +[95] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[96] Manual of the S. Canara district. + +[97] Yule and Burnell. Hobson-Jobson. + +[98] Calcutta Review. + +[99] Indian Review, VII, 1906. + +[100] See G. Krishna Rao. Treatise on Aliya Santana Law and Usage, +Mangalore, 1898. + +[101] Calcutta Review. + +[102] Malabar Law and Custom, 3rd ed., 1905. + +[103] The Law of Partition and Succession, from the text of +Varadaraja's Vyavaharaniranya by A. C. Burnell (1872). + +[104] Calcutta Review. + +[105] Report of the Malabar Marriage Commission, 1891. + +[106] Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer. + +[107] Rev. J. Cain, Ind. Ant., V, 1876. + +[108] M. Paupa Rao Naidu. The Criminal Tribes of India. No. III, +Madras, 1907. + +[109] Op. cit. + +[110] Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, +Bawariya, 1906. + +[111] Tribes and Castes of Bengal, 1891. + +[112] Journey through Mysore, Canara and Malabar, 1807. + +[113] Gentu or Gentoo is "a corruption of the Portuguese +Gentio, gentile or heathen, which they applied to the Hindus in +contradistinction to the Moros or Moors, i.e., Mahommedans. It +is applied to the Telugu-speaking Hindus specially, and to their +language." Yule and Burnell, Hobson-Jobson. + +[114] Historical Sketches of the South of India: Mysore, 1810-17. + +[115] By law, to constitute dacoity, there must be five or more in +the gang committing the crime. Yule and Burnell, op. cit. + +[116] Circumcision is practised by some Kallans of the Tamil country. + +[117] Madras Mail, 1902. + +[118] Mysore Census Report, 1901. + +[119] Madras Mail, 1905. + +[120] Op. cit. + +[121] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[122] Agricultural Ledger Series, Calcutta, No. 7, 1904. + +[123] Jeypore. Breklum, 1901. + +[124] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[125] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[126] Op. cit. + +[127] Taylor. Catalogue Raisonné of Oriental Manuscripts. + +[128] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[129] Journey from Madras through Mysore, Canara and Malabar. + +[130] Ind. Ant. XVIII, 1889. + +[131] Hobson-Jobson. + +[132] Decadas de Asia. + +[133] J. S. F. Mackenzie, Ind. Ant. IV, 1875. + +[134] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[135] Sanskrit hymn repeated a number of times during daily ablutions. + +[136] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[137] J. S. F. Mackenzie, Ind. Ant. IV, 1875. + +[138] See F. S. Mullaly. Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras +Presidency. + +[139] History of Railway Thieves, Madras, 1904. + +[140] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[141] Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life. + +[142] Gazetteer of the Central Provinces, 1870. + +[143] Report of the Ethnological Committee of the Central Provinces. + +[144] Wilson. Glossary of Judicial and Revenue Terms. + +[145] Manual of Malabar. + +[146] Devil worship of the Tuluvas, Ind. Ant. XXIII, XXIV, and XXV, +1894-96. + +[147] Occasional Essays on Native South Indian Life. + +[148] Madras Mail, 1905. + +[149] Madras Census Report, 1901. + +[150] Manual of the Vizagapatam district. + +[151] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[152] Manual of the Ganjam district. + +[153] Madras Census Report, 1891. + +[154] Manual of the North Arcot district. + +[155] Religious Thought and Life in India. + +[156] Christianity and Caste, 1893. + +[157] In the Vedic verse the word used for my brothers literally +means your husbands. + +[158] A hotri is one who presides at the time of sacrifices. + +[159] Madras Christian College Magazine, March, 1903. + +[160] Religious Thought and Life in India. + +[161] See Thurston, Ethnographic Notes in Southern India, 1906, +pp. 229-37. + +[162] Op. cit. + +[163] Watt, Dict. Economic Products of India. + +[164] Viaggio all' Indie orientali, 1672. + +[165] See Note on the Tulsi Plant. Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, +VIII, I, 1907. + +[166] Madras Mail, 1906. + +[167] Hobson-Jobson. + +[168] Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan, +1891. + +[169] Oriental Commerce. + +[170] Gazetteer of the South Arcot district. + +[171] Collection of the Decisions of High Courts and the Privy +Council on the Hindu Law of Marriage and the Effect of Apostacy after +marriage. Madras, 1891. + +[172] Madras Mail, 1904. + +[173] Ind. Ant. III, 1874. + +[174] Ind. Ant. III, 1874. + +[175] Mysore and Coorg Gazetteer, 1877. + +[176] Said to be derived from ma, a negation, and arka, sun, in +allusion to their not performing the adoration of that luminary which +is customary among Brahmans. + +[177] Brahmanism and Hinduism. + +[178] Manual of the South Canara district. + +[179] Fraser's Magazine, May 1875. + +[180] Loc. cit. + +[181] Indian Review, VII, 1906. + +[182] Madras Mail, 1907. + +[183] J. S. F. Mackenzie, Ind. Ant., IV, 1875. + +[184] Madras Census Report, 1901. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Castes and Tribes of Southern India, by +Edgar Thurston + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42991 *** |