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diff --git a/42985-8.txt b/42985-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7152630..0000000 --- a/42985-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4406 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Social Problems in Porto Rico, by Fred K. Fleagle - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Social Problems in Porto Rico - -Author: Fred K. Fleagle - -Release Date: June 18, 2013 [EBook #42985] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN PORTO RICO *** - - - - -Produced by Carlos Colon, University of Michigan and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - Transcriber's Notes: - - Italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equal - signs=. - - Blank pages have been eliminated. - - Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in the - original. - - A few typographical errors have been corrected. - - - - - SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN - PORTO RICO - - BY - FRED K. FLEAGLE - DEAN, UNIVERSITY OF PORTO RICO - - D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS - BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1917, - BY D. C. HEATH & CO. - 1 E 7 - - - - -FOREWORD - - -IT would seem presumptuous, even after ten years of residence in Porto -Rico, to attempt to classify the social problems of the Island and offer -suggestions as to their solution, were it not for the fact that this -work does not claim to be a complete and final analysis of the -situation, but is designed merely to gather up the material available, -and present it in such form that it may be made the basis of class-room -study. The absence of such a collection of data was a handicap to the -author in his work in rural sociology in the University of Porto Rico, -and this book represents, in a somewhat abbreviated form, the material -covered. The fundamental principles of sociology are touched on but -lightly, since there are already available many excellent books -presenting this phase of the subject. It is expected that the instructor -will supplement by references and discussions, using the facts presented -here to bring out the general principles of theoretical sociology. - -It is to be understood that the facts and data presented here are not to -be taken as a criticism of Porto Rico or of the Porto Ricans. They are -merely an exposition of the social situation as it exists, and do not -differ greatly, either in quantity or character, from similar facts -which could be gathered relating to any country. It is necessary, -however, to know our troubles if they are to be corrected, and we -deceive no one if we claim a state of human perfection which does not -exist. Neither do we relieve ourselves of responsibility for our own -mistakes by calling attention to the fact that other people have made -greater ones than we have. A frank facing of the situation, the -acknowledgment of whatever there may be that is unpleasant in a social -situation, and a sincere desire and attempt to make corrections, is the -only honest thing to do. - -I have always been optimistic for the future of Porto Rico. It is an -island endowed by Nature with more than the usual amount of beauty and -brightness. My relations with the people of Porto Rico have been such as -to convince me that they have absorbed much of the natural atmosphere of -brightness and sunshine which is their heritage, and I believe them sons -and daughters worthy of such a beautiful and pleasant island home as -Porto Rico. - -It will be noted that the emphasis in the following pages has been -placed on rural problems. This does not mean that there are more social -problems in the country than in the towns, but so little has been done -regarding country problems, and the course for which this material was -used as a basis being devoted to rural social problems, no attempt was -made to take up a discussion of the many topics which might be found in -the urban situations. - -Special acknowledgment is made for the material used from the reports of -Drs. Ashford and Gutierrez, and for the data from the reports of the -Insular Bureau of Labor while under the direction of Mr. J. Clark Bills, -Jr. Some of this material is quoted verbatim from the reports, and the -author does not wish to claim it as his own. - - FRED K. FLEAGLE, - _University of Porto Rico_ - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - POPULATION 1 - - THE JÍBARO 6 - - OVERPOPULATION 19 - - THE FAMILY 28 - - RURAL HOUSING CONDITIONS 37 - - WOMAN AND CHILD LABOR 50 - - INDUSTRIES 56 - - THE LAND PROBLEM AND UNEMPLOYMENT 61 - - POVERTY 68 - - SICKNESS AND DISEASE 76 - - CRIME 84 - - INTEMPERANCE 93 - - JUVENILE DELINQUENTS 97 - - RURAL SCHOOLS 105 - - THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY 112 - - RELATION OF THE TEACHER TO THE COMMUNITY 119 - - PRESENT-DAY RURAL SCHOOL MOVEMENTS 125 - - PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND LONGEVITY 130 - - - - -SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN PORTO RICO - - -POPULATION - - -THE Island of Porto Rico, covering an area of about 3,500 square miles, -had in 1910 a total population of 1,118,012. The population was divided -between the towns and country as follows: Urban population 224,620, or -20.1 per cent of the total number, and rural population 893,392, or 79.9 -per cent of the total number. From these figures it is evident that the -greatest problems of Porto Rico--those which affect nearly 80 per cent -of the population--are problems connected with rural life. Of course, -many of the people classified as rural inhabitants do not fall strictly -within this class, as by urban centers we mean towns with a population -of 2,500 inhabitants or more, and thus many of the smaller towns, which -really have the advantages of town life, are classified officially as -rural centers. - -The population of Porto Rico is 65.5 per cent, or nearly two thirds, -white, 30 per cent mulatto, and 4.5 per cent black. It is 98.9 per cent -native and 1.1 per cent foreign born. During the period from 1899 to -1910 there was an increase in the total population of the Island of 17.3 -per cent, which covered an increase of 25 per cent for the native -whites, a decrease of 14.5 per cent for the foreign born whites, a -decrease of 15.4 per cent for the blacks, and an increase of 10.1 per -cent for the mulattoes. The decrease in the number of foreign born -whites is due to the fact that in the census of 1899 this group included -persons born in the United States, while in 1910 these were classified -as natives. The decrease in the number of blacks is doubtless due to -intermarriage with other classes, and as a result we have the children -of such marriages classified as mulattoes. If the number of such -marriages were sufficiently great, the births of blacks would be -insufficient to offset the deaths, and the number of blacks would, in -that case, necessarily decrease. On this assumption we might very well -prophesy that within a few generations the black population in Porto -Rico will absolutely disappear, and that we shall have an increased -number of mulattoes who, in their turn, will tend to disappear, as they -mingle in marriage with people of less colored blood, and in time the -black race will be practically absorbed by the whites. - -Of the foreign countries represented, Spain, with 56.3 per cent of the -total foreign born, leads the list. Cuba and the other West Indies have -20.5 per cent to their credit, France 5.8 per cent, Italy 3.1 per cent, -England 2.9 per cent, Germany 1.9 per cent, Denmark 1.6 per cent, while -no other single country contributes so much as one per cent to the -foreign born population. - -The total number of foreign born in 1910 was 11,766. The rural -population of 893,392 was divided among the races as follows: Whites -604,541, blacks 32,918, mulattoes 255,923. Thus we see that the great -majority of the rural population is of the white race, due no doubt, to -the fact that the colder climate of the highlands of the interior does -not agree with the hereditary love which the colored race has for a warm -climate. - -The population of Porto Rico comprises a mixture of bloods and races -that complicates the social problems of the Island. The French, Italian, -and Spanish elements have tended to mix with the descendants of the -Indians originally found here, and to this has been added in many cases -a mixture of the blood of the colored race, introduced as slaves into -the Island. In some cases the races from the north of Europe have also -mingled, so that to-day it is inaccurate to speak of the Porto Ricans as -a people of one blood, and the characteristics of the people might be -called a composite of the various race elements which have entered into -the formation of the native population. - -The geographical and geological formation of the Island renders it -chiefly agricultural. Little is found in the way of mineral deposits, -and manufacturing on a large scale will never be carried on, due to the -lack of fuel supply and water power. The climate is agreeable and has no -doubt tended to render the people less active than would have been the -case in a colder climate. The prevalence of anemia and malaria -throughout the Island has also weakened the productive ability of the -people and has caused the casual observer to classify the Porto Rican -countryman as unambitious and lazy. The loss of vitality caused by the -diseases just mentioned, together with others which have visited the -Island from time to time, is almost impossible to determine, but there -is no doubt but that the laziness with which the Porto Rican countryman -is credited, disappears with great rapidity when his system has been -freed from the effects of disease. - -The Island imports a great part of its food supply, although food stuffs -of a vegetable nature are easily produced and might be raised in -sufficient quantity to maintain our present population. The Island is -too small to provide grazing areas for large numbers of cattle. - -The problems of the rural population have been practically untouched up -to the present time, as the dominating element in the social and -political life of Porto Rico has come from the towns. The rural people -have consequently lacked stimulus for self-improvement, inasmuch as -there was nothing done to make them dissatisfied with their condition -and lead them to try to better it. A system of rural schools has been -established by the Department of Education, but not in sufficient number -to accommodate all of the children of the country. The solution of the -rural situation depends upon proper schooling, a system of instruction -which will fit the children for living better rural lives and which -shall not be simply the graded system of the towns transplanted to the -country. The special problems of the country should be taken into -consideration in working out the course of study for the schools, and -specially trained teachers should be provided,--teachers who will look -upon their work in the rural school as their profession in life, and who -will make every effort to adapt themselves to the needs of the community -in which they may be located. A continuation of the work which the -Government has already started to improve the sanitary and hygienic -conditions under which the country people live, the abolishing of anemia -and malaria through continuous effort, and instruction as to proper diet -and care of the body, together with instruction as to how to secure the -necessary kinds of food seems to be the only solution to the rural -situation. Certain other problems which relate to the rural family will -solve themselves as the educational and economic situation is bettered. - - - - -THE JÍBARO - - -THE rural population of Porto Rico may be roughly divided into the -landowners, or planters, and the wage-earning countrymen. The planters -are usually people who in many ways closely resemble the country -gentleman or squire of England. They are people of considerable -importance in their communities, frequently well educated and widely -traveled, men who do not hesitate to spend their money freely for their -comfort and that of their families when the crops are plentiful and the -prices good. They exercise a sort of patronage over the country people -who work for them, many of whom live in houses on land provided by the -landlord. The laborers look to the landlord for guidance and for advice -in practically all matters pertaining to their economic life, and the -planter usually reciprocates by caring for the welfare of the countryman -to the best of his ability. - -Many of the planters, especially such as are located in the coffee -districts, have been badly handicapped by the partial destruction of -their coffee plantations through cyclones, and by the low price for -their product, since they have had to compete with South American coffee -in the European and American markets. In addition to this economic -disadvantage, the planters are also handicapped by the infirmity of -their laborers, most of whom are sufferers from anemia, and few of whom -are able to work without the immediate direction of a foreman. The -economic and social condition of the planters is not a matter of -particular interest to us in this connection, inasmuch as they are so -situated that they enjoy all of the advantages of an advanced stage of -civilization. The problem that confronts the progress of Porto Rico is -to be found in the day laborer of the country districts. The following -is taken from the book on _Uncinariasis in Porto Rico_, by Doctors -Ashford and Gutierrez: - -"Our patient has been in times past the _jíbaro_ and will be in time to -come. As we have seen already, while all country districts furnish an -incredible number of sick, the great breeding places of _necator -americanus_ are the coffee plantations, and this is the home of _el -palido_ (the pale man) of Porto Rico. - -"The _jíbaro_ is a type to be well studied before we essay to interest -him in bettering his own condition. Many have written of his virtues, -many of his defects, but few, even in Porto Rico, have seen through the -mist of a pandemic the real man beyond. - -"Coll y Toste says that the origin of the word _jíbaro_ proceeds from a -port in Cuba (Jibara), and that it is composed of two words of Indian -origin, _jiba_, meaning mountain, and _ero_, man. We cannot see the -necessity of invoking this port of Cuba with the excellently applicable -philology he gives us. - -"Brau says that the term is applied to-day to a laborer, but that its -true significance is 'a mountain dweller.' - -"Our understanding of the term, as it is applied to-day, is a peasant, -a tiller of the soil, a man whose life is not that of the town, and who -lacks its culture. And when we say that a man is a _jíbaro_, we put him -in a separate and distinct class, a class of country laborers. These -people 'live now as they lived 100 or 200 years ago, close to the soil.' -The _jíbaro_ is a squatter and does not own the land upon which he -builds his modest house, nor does that house cost him anything save the -trouble of building it. It is a framework of poles, with walls of the -bark of the royal palm (the _yagua_), with roof of the same material or -of a tough grass which is used for thatching, and with a floor of palm -boards. Generally the floor is well raised from the ground on posts, and -the family is truly a poor and miserable one which is content to have an -earthen floor. As a rule, there is but one room for a family, which -rarely goes below five, and whose upper limit is measured by the -accommodation afforded for sleeping. The cooking is done under a shed on -a pile of stones. Weyl says that the house should be valued at about -$20. - -"The food of the _jíbaro_ is poor in fats and the proteids are of -difficult assimilation, being of vegetable origin, as a rule. - -"He arises at dawn and takes a cocoanut dipperful of _café puya_ (coffee -without sugar). Naturally, he never uses milk. With this black coffee he -works till about twelve o'clock, when his wife brings him his breakfast, -corresponding to our lunch. This is composed of boiled salt codfish, -with oil, and has one of the following vegetables of the island to -furnish the carbohydrate element: banana, platano, ñame, batata or -yautia. - -"At three in the afternoon he takes another dipperful of coffee, as he -began the day. At dusk he returns to his house and has one single dish, -a sort of stew, made of the current vegetables of the island, with rice -and codfish. At rare intervals he treats himself to pork, of which he is -inordinately fond, and on still rarer occasions he visits the town and -eats quantities of bread, without butter, of course. - -"Of all this list of country food there are only three elements that are -bought--rice, codfish, and condiments. Rice is imported from the United -States and codfish from Nova Scotia. The bread he eats on his visits to -town is made of American flour. - -"This is a normal _jíbaro_ diet. With the wage paid him he can get no -better, but aside from this he is wedded to cheap bulky foods, chiefly -for reasons to be stated, and is completely ignorant of the importance -of certain foods which any hygienist would like to add to his bill of -fare. If the normal food of the _jíbaro_, as stated, were his usual -food, it would not be so serious a matter, nor would the _jíbaro_ -complain so bitterly of his wretched ration, but the fact is he does not -get the menu detailed above save when he can be said to be prosperous. -Only a few cents difference in wages will cut out the small proportion -of animal proteids he obtains, the codfish, and a cyclone will drive him -in sheer desperation to the town. - -"Aside from all this, if wages were better, it is said, he would leave -his ration as it now is and spend his surplus otherwise. This has not -been given, however, a very earnest trial. He takes also more rum than -he is given credit for by those who have accepted the formula that the -_jíbaro_ does not drink, but it is true that he is not usually -intemperate in this sense. One of his vices is _la mascaura_ (the wad of -tobacco), and he believes the juice of the tobacco to be beneficial in -warding off tetanus. - -"The _jíbaro_, mountain bred, avoids the town whenever possible, avoids -the genteel life of a civilization higher than that of his own. He -instinctively tucks his little hut away in the most inaccessible spots; -he shrinks from the stranger and lapses into stolid silence when brought -face to face with things that are foreign to his life. He does this -because he has been made to feel that he must do all that he is told to -do by established authority, and he knows that this authority never -takes the trouble to look for him unless it expects to get something out -of him; because he is suspicious of outsiders, having been too often led -astray by false prophets and disappointed by broken promises; because he -realizes that he is not a free agent anywhere save in the mountain -fastnesses. In other words, he seeks liberty in his home, freedom from -the constant repression of those he recognizes as his superiors, and -exemption from a repetition of deceptions that have been so often -practiced upon him. He has always been made to stay strictly in his -class, in the _jíbaro_ class. Frequently when he tries to express -himself he is laughed down, frowned down, or growled down. '_Tu eres un -jíbaro_' is not a term of reproach exactly, but it means 'You are not -in a position to express yourself, for you are only a mountaineer. You -know nothing of our world; you are still a child. Your place is under -the shade of the coffee tree; the mark you bear is clear to everyone; -you are a _jíbaro_.' Thus there is a great difference between the -_jíbaro_ and those who are not _jíbaros_, _i.e._, those who live in -towns or those who command in the country. This distinction is neither -made unkindly nor roughly. All the Porto Rican people are kindly and -they love their _jíbaros_, but nevertheless they treat them as though -they were children. And the _jíbaro_ loyally follows his educated, -emancipated fellow citizen, perfectly satisfied to be guided as the -latter sees fit. - -"Much of this guidance is excellent, and it is not our mission to seek -to break down barriers which to-day, may be needful. The _jíbaro_ is -respectful and obedient, fearful of the law and never defiant of his -superiors; he is generous to a fault, sharing with any wayfarer his last -plantain; he is devoted to his family and to his friends. Had he been -ill treated by the educated and controlling class in the island he would -be sullen and savage, but this has not been the case. If it is true that -the _jíbaro_ is in many ways differentiated from the upper classes, it -is equally true that there is no masonry so strong as that existing -among the _jíbaros_ of Porto Rico. Bound to each other by the most -intricate ties of relationship and by a still more potent one, the -eternal bond conferred by the title _compadre_ or godfather, they share -their troubles and shield each other as though they belonged to one -great family. It is really wonderful to see how quickly and with what -complete self-abnegation an orphaned child or widowed mother is gathered -into some poor neighbor's hut and there cared for. For these very same -reasons search for a miscreant in the mountains is a formidable -undertaking. On inquiry no one knows him, never saw him, never even -heard of him, and the closest scrutiny of their faces will not detect -the faintest trace of interest or even of intelligence. - -"Care must be taken in deducing facts from questioning a group of -_jíbaros_ even in the most unimportant matters. They are tremendously -suspicious and generally let someone among them who is _leido_ (one who -has established a local reputation for worldly wisdom) speak for them. -One can be pretty sure that the rest will say 'amen' to all of his -remarks. It is said that this deep suspicion of a strange investigator -proceeds from the methods employed by the Spanish _guardia civil_ or -rural guard, to run down those suspected of unfaithfulness to the -administration, petty infringement of the law, etc. - -"The _jíbaro_ is equally superstitious and very quickly impressed by a -supernatural explanation of any phenomena he cannot understand. The more -outlandish the explanation of a disease the better he likes it, and for -this reason the _curandero_ or local charlatan is so popular and -powerful in the mountains. We very much fear that our abrupt tumbling in -the dust of an ancient explanation of his for anemia, our assertion that -it was due to 'worms' and our administration of 'strong medicine' which -practically put him _hors de combat_ for the day, accounts for part -of our early success. In spite of this lack of knowledge of the world -above him he has one quality which is his ever ready defense, his -astuteness. There is one phrase much used in describing the _jíbaro's_ -acuteness of observation. Referring to a trade it is said: '_Para un -jíbaro, otro, y para los dos, el demonio_,' which means, 'To get the -best of a jíbaro, employ another, and to catch both, Satan himself must -take charge of them.' - -"This astuteness, despite all of the great obstacles in the path of our -work among them, was what chiefly led to success in bringing these -people under treatment. They soon saw that we got results, and with a -fact capable of sensational proof in our hands, the _jíbaro_ accepted us -and we joined the 'order' to which we have made reference. From that -time he has been our friend, and better friends no man ever had, for his -entire support is given us; he preaches our 'new medicine' and wherever -we have expounded these things to him by word of mouth and by virtue of -proof he takes pride in explaining, better than any representative of -the upper classes, how the disease is acquired and how it may be -prevented. - -"The prime fact, however, is that he has, until recently, been much -neglected, neglected by those who are not of his class, neglected by the -authorities. There are municipalities whose town forms but a tenth of -the population of the outlying country, whose taxes are collected to -support it, yet which seem to forget the submerged mass in the -mountains. This being so for the towns which are surrounded by these -people, how attenuated the interest becomes in the capital and larger -cities of the island, and how extremely diluted that of the continental -American who neither knows his needs nor even what _jíbaro_ means. - -"Education will transform this _jíbaro_ into something much better or -much worse, for he will not remain content as he is when he can read, -write, and see the world with his own eyes. In this education the -respect he bears his more fortunate compatriots, the power for good they -have over him, and the confidence he reposes in them must be preserved. -The labor he must perform to enrich the island must be dignified by his -employer and by himself, or else the hills will be deserted and the -_jíbaro_ will become a vicious hanger-on of towns. Better homes, better -means of communication with towns, now becoming an accomplished fact, -better food, education, in which remarkable progress is being made at -this day, better habits of life, especially in the modern prevention of -disease, must form a part of any plan adopted to improve his condition. -The planter who to-day sees the laborer must see in him the man whose -bodily, mental, and moral development will make the plantation a -success. The planter is the man of all men in Porto Rico who must begin -to help the _jíbaro_ upward in order to emerge from his own present -industrial depression. This lack of mental contact, of a common ground -of interest between the _jíbaro_ and the better class of Porto Ricans -drives the former to charlatans for his medical advice, to the wild -fruits and vegetables of the interior for his food, and to weird creeds -for his religious comfort. - -"His dependency causes him to look for protection, for direction and for -ideas from the planter, from the municipality, and from the Insular -Government. He considers himself a ward of his employer and of those -placed in authority over him. He does not care to accept any -responsibility for the simple reason that he has always been made to -feel that he is not a responsible person. Therefore, how can we blame -him when we find him without shoes, knowing that by wearing them he will -protect himself against a dangerous infirmity; without bacon and corn, -without household furniture, with but one room for his entire family. - -"It is a specious excuse, nothing more nor less, which avers that the -_jíbaro_ is born the way he is and cannot be changed at this late day, -that we must await a new generation, etc. On that principle we could -expect very little from the antituberculosis crusades in New York. The -truth is that to change the _jíbaro_, we must convince him that he will -be bettered by the change, and he is sharp enough to change then, but -the gist of all is that these changes must be begun by the men to whom -the _jíbaro_ has always looked for light, and this means good hard work -and much perseverance, tact, and genuine personal interest. From our -acquaintance with the men to whom this burden will fall we should say -that they are not only sufficiently good business men to realize the -benefit they would get out of a healthy laboring class, but that the -innate patriotism of the Porto Rican agriculturist and the deeper -underlying sympathy for his _jíbaro_ will some day bring about reforms -that they alone can make possible. - -"Agricultural laborers, in spite of the small wages they receive, are -nearly if not quite as expensive as those in the United States, for with -50 per cent less of efficiency from disease and wasteful methods of -work, the difference in wage is of small advantage. Weyl states: - - 'The small equity which the planter holds in the estate which he - cultivates does not permit him to pay any higher wages, and the - poverty of the planter prevents him from making the outlay - necessary for the proper cultivation of his land.' - -"Few coffee planters have anywhere near a reasonable amount of their -land under cultivation for the reason that with the poor help and -methods now existent they are unable to extend their plant. The regular -labor, employed all the year round, the peons--who form a relatively -small percentage of the entire number available for work--are paid for a -full day's work, and their degree of anemia is such as to prevent their -doing but about 50 per cent of what they are paid for doing. Our -estimate of the relative efficiency of labor was made from what the -planter himself told us and by a simple experiment which we tried upon -about 500 adult workers in different parts of the interior. We -questioned each one as to the amount of coffee he could pick in a day -and found that from two to three _almudes_ was the utmost the majority -could do, and that one _almud_ was too much for many. Some stated that -after picking a sack full in a remote part of the plantation they were -unable to get it in to the mill without a mule, on account of the fact -that their limbs refused to bear them up. When these people were working -at light work, and at a time when the more they picked, the greater the -profit to themselves, is it reasonable to suppose that when working for -a wage without this incentive this 50 or 60 per cent labor would be any -more efficient? This reduction in laboring capacity demonstrates what a -heavy toll is paid by both employer and employee to uncinariasis in -Porto Rico. - -"As to absentee landlords, Weyl says: - - 'Many of the absentee owners of Porto Rican properties and many of - their agents in Porto Rico consider the island and its population - as equally fit for the crassest exploitation, and are as - contemptuous of the people as they are enthusiastic about the - island. The current use by many Americans of an opprobrious epithet - for Porto Ricans bespeaks an attitude which takes no account of the - human phase of the problem, but considers the population as - composed merely of so many laborers willing to work for such and - such a price.' - -"Thus the poor laborer, his earning capacity cut down by his disease, -with employment which is at best very irregular, with his sick wife and -children for whom he has to buy 'iron tonics' that cost all that he can -rake and scrape together, without money for clothes, much less for -shoes, with a palm-bark hut not too well protected against the damp cold -of the grove in which he lives, with not a scrap of furniture save, -perhaps, a hammock, and, worst of all, with a miserable diet lacking in -proteids and fats, lives from day to day, saving nothing, knowing -nothing of the world beyond his plantation, working mechanically simply -because he is not the drone he has been too frequently painted outside -of Porto Rico, but without any object save to keep on living as -generations have done before him. It has been our experience that when -he is asked 'Why have you sought our dispensary?' the answer has almost -invariably been, 'Because I can no longer work.' The _jíbaro_, -nevertheless, has ever been the lever which has raised the bank account -of Porto Rico, and with an average of 40 per cent of hemoglobin and two -and a half millions of red corpuscles per cubic millimeter he has -labored from sun to sun in the coffee plantation of the mountains, in -the sugar estate of the coast land, and in the tobacco field of the -foothills, in addition to his personal coöperation in other industries -and commercial enterprises. He is a sick man and deserves our highest -respect, and merits our most careful attention as a vital element in the -economic life of the island. The American people should take seriously -into account his future, which is at present anything but promising." - - - - -OVERPOPULATION - - -WHEN we say that a country is overpopulated we speak in relative terms, -inasmuch as the overpopulation of a country does not depend upon the -density of the population alone, but also upon the ability of that -country to produce a sufficient amount of foodstuffs to maintain its -population. Thus a country which has a relatively small population and a -still smaller ability to produce foodstuffs would be more overpopulated -than a country of similar size with a larger population and a still -greater production of foodstuffs. - -In considering the case of Porto Rico, we find that the Island contains -8,317 square kilometers of land. The estimated population at the present -time is 1,200,000. This gives about 140 persons to the square kilometer -as compared with 72 persons in France, 237 persons in Belgium, and 252 -in Saxony. If the productive ability of the soil of Porto Rico is as -great as that of Belgium and Saxony, we must conclude that Porto Rico is -not overpopulated. If for any reason it is less, then the extent of -overpopulation increases directly as the soil grows less in productive -ability. - -Porto Rico has about ten times as many inhabitants per square acre as -the average throughout the United States; but the conditions of climate -do a great deal to equalize this difference. In the first place, the -soil is available in Porto Rico for the production of crops throughout -the twelve months of the year, whereas in parts of the United States and -in northern Europe the soil is usable for only a portion of the year on -account of its unproductive condition during the winter months. Another -matter that must be taken into consideration in the question of -overpopulation, is the severity of the climate. Where the climate is -severe, the country will maintain in comfort a much smaller population -than where the climate is as friendly to the human race as we find it in -Porto Rico. - -Of the population of Porto Rico in 1910, about 75 per cent lived in -communities that had less than 500 inhabitants, showing conclusively -that the great majority of the people of Porto Rico should be classified -as rural inhabitants and that the problems which affect the rural people -of Porto Rico are the problems which would affect, to a great extent, -the entire Island. Only two cities in the Island have a population of -more than 25,000, while only 30 would fall under the head of urban -territory, that is, towns which have a population of 2,500 or more. - -The rate of increase of population in Porto Rico is far in excess of the -rate of increase in the United States, and this is one of the things -that must be taken into consideration in considering the question of -overpopulation. In the United States the rate of increase among the -class of people whose salaries range from $700 to $2,500 is from ten to -twelve per thousand. In Porto Rico, the rate of increase is about twenty -per thousand. - -The following table shows a comparison between the birth rate, death -rate, and rate of increase in the United States and Porto Rico, the -figures given representing the birth and death rate for every thousand -of the population in each country. - - UNITED STATES - Birth rate Death rate Increase - - _Poor Class_: 35 to 40 25 to 35 5 to 10 - _Intermediate class_: 25 to 30 15 to 18 10 to 12 - _Well-to-do class_: 12 to 18 12 to 15 4 to 6 - - PORTO RICO (1914-15) - Birth rate Death rate Increase - 39.12 19.72 19 to 20 - -In order to maintain the population of a country, there must be about -400 children between the ages of one and five years for every thousand -women between the ages of fifteen and forty-five. The following table -shows how Porto Rico compares in this respect with other countries. - - United States 492 children per thousand women - France 409 " " " " - Germany 535 " " " " - England 429 " " " " - Sweden 522 " " " " - Porto Rico 725 " " " " - -Thus we see that the rate of increase of the population of Porto Rico is -much greater than that of the United States. When we take into -consideration the advancement being made in sanitary science in Porto -Rico and in the elimination of disease, as well as the increased -facilities for caring for sickness, we may expect that the rate of -increase here will be augmented each year. - -The general opinion is that Porto Rico is so thickly populated that a -crisis is inevitable, unless some means is found for remedying the -present situation. It does not seem, however, that we are justified in -coming to such a conclusion when we consider the much more densely -populated countries of Belgium and Saxony. Increased production of the -soil due to intensive agriculture, and modern methods of farming, as -well as the breaking up of the land into small farms, have been the -means of taking care of the vast populations of European countries where -climatic conditions are not as favorable as they are in Porto Rico. Of -the total acreage of Porto Rico about 94 per cent is in farms, and we -find that only 30,000 people are directly dependent upon these farms for -their support. Of the total number of acres included in farm land, about -75 per cent is improved and under cultivation, so that there is still -about one quarter of the land that can be devoted to agriculture when it -has been connected with markets, or by other means rendered available -for this purpose. There are in Porto Rico more than 58,000 farms, 46,779 -of which are operated by their owners. These, in the great majority of -cases, are small farms and are of the kind which bring the greatest -amount of benefit to the Island. Some 10,000 farms are operated by -tenants, and these farms also are usually small. - -The following table shows the number of farms of various sizes in the -Island to-day: - - Farms under 5 acres 20,650 - Farms from 5 to 9 acres 11,309 - Farms from 10 to 19 acres 10,045 - Farms from 20 to 49 acres 8,872 - Farms from 50 to 99 acres 3,728 - Farms from 100 to 174 acres 1,726 - Farms from 175 to 499 acres 1,502 - Farms from 500 to 999 acres 332 - Farms of 1000 acres or more 207 - -Of the owners and tenants of these farms 44,521 are white and 13,850 are -colored. About 95 per cent of all the owned farms are free from -mortgage. The average size of the farms in Porto Rico is about 35¾ -acres. - -The experience of European countries has been that large farms, in a -densely populated country are detrimental to the community welfare, -because the holding of such farms by a few condemns a large percentage -of the population to a dependent condition. As the number of farms -decreases, the number of salaried laborers must increase, and as this -floating population increases, there is also a tendency for crime to -increase, as the man who has no responsibilities as a proprietor of land -often lacks the fundamental stimulus to make him observe the laws of his -country. The landowner, having obtained even a small parcel of land, has -an incentive for hard work, wishing to better his financial condition, -while the dependent salaried man, with no visible stimulus for saving, -tends to spend his money as fast as it is earned and seldom accumulates -any property. To such an extent is the possession of land regarded as a -benefit to the individual and an incentive toward good citizenship, that -in some European countries the government has made arrangements to loan -money to worthy young men for the purchase of small farms on the ground -that the government gains a desirable citizen every time that it creates -a landholder. The Government of Porto Rico might well take some steps to -encourage dependent laborers to accumulate property, either by means of -loans to those who desire to purchase property, or by opening up -government land for settlement under the Homestead Act. - -The rise in the price of land and the fact that the greater part of the -land of Porto Rico is devoted to industries which are most productive -when conducted on a fairly large scale, has tended to the accumulation -of large tracts of land, and legal measures should be enacted against -the accumulation of tracts of land of more than 100 or 200 acres, and -providing for the distribution of any large tracts in case of the death -of the present owner: - -At the present time a good deal of the foodstuffs of Porto Rico is -imported into the Island while if there were more widely extended -division of the land into a large number of small farms, the production -of these foodstuffs could be greatly increased, although, of course, -this would tend to decrease the production of certain other crops which -at present claim the chief attention of the people of Porto Rico. - -According to the Report of the Governor of Porto Rico for 1914-15, the -division of land among the various industries, as well as the average -value per acre of land for each of the industries, is shown by the -following table: - - Average value - Crop Acreage per acre - - Cane 211,110 $106.95 - Coffee 165,170 61.60 - Tobacco 18,040 80.81 - Pineapples 3,761 105.24 - Citrus fruits 5,274 121.78 - Coconuts 6,088 118.33 - Minor fruits 102,274 27.53 - -From this table we see that certain industries, such as the cultivation -of pineapples or citrus fruits, which can be carried on successfully on -relatively small farms, bring practically as high a return per acre as -does the production of sugar cane, which is essentially a large farm -product. This argument would not necessarily do away with the -cultivation of sugar cane, but would tend to increase the cultivation of -other crops wherever and whenever the soil and climatic conditions would -permit. - -An increase in the number of owned farms and a consequent decrease in -the number of dependent wage earners, together with the increased -production of foodstuffs which such a system of land management would -necessarily bring as a result, providing the management of the farms was -carried on under modern scientific methods, would, to a great extent, -relieve the situation of overpopulation which we now face. Porto Rico -can support twice the population which she now has with comparative -ease, providing some means is found to relieve the economic situation of -the greater part of the people and to prevent the accumulation of wealth -in the hands of a comparatively small number. It is estimated at the -present time that the wealth of Porto Rico is in the hands of less than -15 per cent of the population, and the remaining 85 per cent are -dependent for their living upon daily or monthly wages. Such a situation -must be changed or else the question of overpopulation will become -indeed serious. There is no particular reason to fear that the -population will increase to such an extent that we shall be unable to -support ourselves on what the Island may produce; but with the increase -of population under present conditions, trouble between capital and -labor and between workmen and their employers cannot be avoided. - -Emigration as a means of relief to the overpopulation of Porto Rico will -not solve the question. In the first place, the Porto Rican people are -essentially a home-loving people, clinging closely to family ties and -not at all disposed to migrate to other countries. A few cases of Porto -Rican families who have moved to other countries have shown that in the -majority of instances the migration was not successful. In the second -place, in order to relieve the situation at all it would be necessary to -provide for the emigration of a large number of families. The removal of -100 or 500 families from Porto Rico would not make any appreciable -difference in the economic situation that we find to-day. The average -family consists of five people, and the removal of 5,000 unskilled -laborers from the Island would not tend to relieve the situation. - -The only means of meeting the situation of overpopulation is through -increasing the food production of the Island by means of division into -small farms, intensive cultivation, and modern methods of farming. The -school must do its share in the teaching of small-farm and garden -farming, and the Government should assume the responsibility for -fostering the increase of the number of small farms as well as for -assisting in the educational work to improve the methods of -cultivation. - - - - -THE FAMILY - - -THE family is the simplest combination of individuals that we find in -organized society and is the basis of social group forms. It ranks in -importance as a social institution with the church, the state, and the -school, coming into existence before any of these three institutions. It -existed in a complete form, consisting of father, mother, and children -long before there was such an institution as civil or religious -marriage. In the history of mankind, the family and marriage grew up -together, the importance of the family requiring certain marriage -customs by which the members of the family could be held together to -protect the interests of the children. - -In Porto Rico we find the average family consisting of five people, and -according to the census of 1910, in the total population 15 years of age -and over, 43.7 per cent of the males and 38 per cent of the females were -single; 36.2 per cent of the males of the total population and 35.4 per -cent of the females were married, while 16 per cent of the males (or a -total of 50,113), and 15.7 per cent of the females (or a total of -51,073), were consensually married, that is, living together by mutual -consent, but without the benefit of a civil or ecclesiastical -marriage.[1] This proportion is somewhat lower than it was in 1899, as -the percentage of consensual marriages in comparison with the population -at that time was 16.3 per cent for the males and 15.2 per cent for the -females. The difference, however, does not exceed one half of one per -cent, and there were actually 17,046 more people living together -consensually in 1910 than in 1899. The seriousness of the situation may -be seen when we consider that of the total population of the Island over -15 years of age, 31.7 per cent, nearly one third, representing 101,186 -people, are living together without any form of marriage ceremony. - - [1] The difference in numbers between men and women living together - consensually is doubtless due to the fact that many men who have - legitimate wives also have consensual wives or mistresses. - -Many reasons have been given for the prevalence of the consensual -marriage in Porto Rico, among which are to be found the necessity of the -ecclesiastical marriage with its complicated forms and the relatively -costly ceremonies which prevailed before the institution of civil -marriage under the American Government. It seems quite probable, -however, that this custom is a relic of the consensual marriage form, -which was established by the early colonizers of Porto Rico, many of -whom came to the Island, leaving their families behind, and entered into -consensual marriage relations with the native women of the Island. In -this way the custom was established, and there was a lack of public -opinion against it which has existed down to the present time, and -until, through the influence of the schools, public opinion against this -form of union can be roused, very little progress will be made in -changing conditions. - -There is no doubt but that many of the consensual marriages are -considered by the parties concerned just as permanent as those -performed by civil or ecclesiastical authorities, and the question of -immorality does not enter into their view of the situation. It is a -question of mutual consent, and especially in the country districts, the -knowledge of the law in regard to these matters is very vague. The -greatest harm in cases of marriage of this sort lies in the tendency to -prevent the spread of public opinion against the custom and in the ease -with which the family relations can be broken at the will of either -member of the family, with the resulting unprotected condition of the -children which may have been born into the family. - -The number of persons of illegitimate birth in the Island of Porto Rico, -as given by the census of 1899 and that of 1910, is as follows: - - White illegitimates 1899 66,855 - White illegitimates 1910 76,695 - Colored illegitimates 1899 81,750 - Colored illegitimates 1910 78,554 - -Thus we see that there was an actual increase of nearly 10,000 white -illegitimate children from the year 1899 to 1910, or an increase of 14.7 -per cent; but during the same time the white population had increased -24.7 per cent, so that there was an actual decrease in the percentage, -according to population, of nearly 10 per cent. During the same period -the colored population had increased 5.9 per cent, but the number of -colored illegitimate children had decreased 3.9 per cent, there being -actually a less number of colored illegitimate children in 1910 than in -1899, although the population had increased. It seems very probable that -this is due to the fact that the great majority of the colored -population in Porto Rico is to be found in the towns, where the school -system is more efficient than in the country districts and where customs -change more easily, due to wider associations and to more frequent and -continued intercourse with people of other points of view. - -In the country the custom has remained, with little change, due to the -fact that the isolation of the country people and the comparatively -small number of children in the rural schools has given little -opportunity to work against the existing situation. Of the children from -the ages of one to ten years there was only an increase of 1,397 white -illegitimate children between 1899 and 1910, which was not anywhere near -the rate of increase of the white population as a whole. During the same -period there was an actual decrease in the number of colored -illegitimate children between the ages of one and ten years, amounting -to 7,717, or a total decrease of illegitimate children under 10 years of -age of 6,320, which would lead us to believe that within the last ten -years the births of consensual marriage and the number of illegitimate -children have decreased much more rapidly than the total census figures -would indicate. - -In addition to the question of consensual marriages, we find that under -the Spanish administration, when ecclesiastical marriage was the only -form recognized, there were no divorces registered in the Island of -Porto Rico. With the introduction of the civil marriage after the -American occupation, and the institution of divorce laws and the -recognition of divorce by the civil authorities, the question of divorce -began to demand attention, and in 1910 we find a total of 1,246 divorces -among the people in the Island of Porto Rico. About two thirds of these -were women,[2] and the divorce question will undoubtedly in time bring -as many problems in Porto Rico as it has in the United States. - - [2] This would indicate that many of the divorced men had remarried - and were listed in the census as married instead of divorced. - -According to the last report of the Insular Chief of Police, it is -estimated that there are in the Island of Porto Rico at the present time -about 10,000 homeless children under 12 years of age who live by -whatever means they are able, many of them begging or stealing, and most -of them having no permanent lodging place, sleeping at night in boxes or -on doorsteps, or wherever they happen to find a lodging place secure -from the rain. These children are, for the most part, deserted and -abandoned children of illegitimate parentage, or orphan children whose -parents have left no provision for their care and education, and they -constitute a fertile soil for the implanting of criminal tendencies and -are ready material for older people of criminal habits. They constitute -a danger to the security of the community, and if it were not for the -relatively high death rate that is found among people of this class, the -Island would soon be overrun by citizens brought up under these -criminal-forming conditions. The Insular Government should take -measures to reduce this danger by means of the compulsory industrial -education of this class of boys and girls. There is enough Government -land available to colonize them in different parts of the Island under -the care of people trained in reformatory and industrial methods, and -this should be done in order that they may become self-supporting -individuals who will contribute to the comfort of the community, rather -than parasites who live on the charity of others. There are any number -of small industries in which they might be trained, as well as along -agricultural lines, and the trades which lack skilled workmen in Porto -Rico would be much benefited by adding to their number graduates of -industrial trade schools, taken from children of this class; these -schools should be operated by the Government, at Government expense, but -could be made largely self-supporting by means of the sale of the -services of the boys, or through the sale of the products turned out. - -The living accommodations of the average rural family are very -unsatisfactory, consisting, as they do, of a dwelling house of one room, -or at the most, two. This reduced house space makes it necessary to eat -and live and sleep in the same room, rendering impossible any degree of -privacy on the part of any of the family. This condition in the case of -growing boys and girls is very undesirable, particularly since it is a -custom to take in as members of the family relatives, sometimes of a -rather remote degree of relationship, in case they are left unprotected. -Another feature of family life which tends toward degeneration and -which is found to a great extent in Porto Rico, is the intermarriage -between relatives within comparatively close degrees of consanguinity. -The civil laws of Porto Rico prohibit the marriage of persons of closer -degrees of relationship than first cousins, and the ecclesiastical laws -of the Roman Church prohibit marriage within eight degrees of -consanguinity. In the record of one family which produced 25 cases of -insanity in two generations, it was found that there had been a -considerable amount of intermarriage between relatives, one of the -grandparents marrying a person who was prohibited by the ecclesiastical -law on four different grounds on account of consanguinity. -Ecclesiastical permission had been obtained to overcome these -difficulties and the marriage took place. There is no doubt that close -intermarriage and the failure to introduce new stock into the family -tends to both mental and physical degeneration. And where families -intermarry for generations, as we find to be the custom in a great many -instances in Porto Rico, there can be no doubt of the ultimate -disastrous outcome from this custom. - -The average Porto Rican family lives very happily and contentedly, the -parents displaying great affection for the children and for relatives -even of a remote degree of relationship. In the case of the death of -parents, relatives usually adopt or take charge of the children which -may be left and bring them up as carefully as they would children of -their own. The family group is naturally closer among Latin peoples -than among Anglo-Saxon races, and this has tended to do away with some -of the vices of family life which are found among Anglo-Saxon peoples, -while the same circumstances have tended to increase other -unsatisfactory conditions of family life peculiar to Latin races. - -One of the features which, from the standpoint of society, may have an -unfortunate result is the mixture of races in the family life. While -this has not taken place to such an extent in the country districts as -it has in the towns, nevertheless, a great many families in Porto Rico -are composed of mixed races. The biological tendency in cases of mixed -races, according to most authorities, is a decrease in the number of -children in the family as generation succeeds generation, unless there -is an addition of new blood to a considerable extent. This may possibly -be one of the means which Nature has provided for solving the problem of -overpopulation in Porto Rico, but there is the added fact that usually -as the succeeding generations become fewer in regard to numbers, they -also become less capable mentally and physically. The race question in -Porto Rico will undoubtedly come to be one of the problems that has to -be solved, and it will be more difficult of solution than the race -problem in the United States, where the races are becoming more widely -separated every year and where it is very infrequent to find persons of -the two races in the same family. In Porto Rico the problem will be -intensified because it is not merely a problem between races, but a race -problem which involves the family organization in many cases. The -government of Brazil has predicted that in a hundred years there will -be no black inhabitants in the Brazilian republic, that they will be -entirely assimilated by the white race or carried off by disease. The -census report for Porto Rico shows a falling off in the black race of -about 9,000 in the last ten years, and an increase of about 30,000 in -the mixed or mulatto population. Thus the assimilation of the black -population is gradually taking place, and whether this will in time lead -to a complete assimilation, or whether the mixed race will become -weakened through this racial intermarriage to such an extent that it -will eventually refuse to propagate, is a question which only time can -answer. There is no doubt, however, that this is one of the problems -that must be confronted in Porto Rico. - - - - -RURAL HOUSING CONDITIONS - - -THE housing of a people is always a matter of prime importance in their -social life and development. There is little progress until the housing -conditions are comfortable and hygienic, and the development of the home -and the family life depends to a great extent on the conditions under -which a people lives. The housing conditions in Porto Rico, especially -for the poorer classes, are far from satisfactory. The dwellings of the -country people are described as follows, in the Report on the Housing -Conditions in Porto Rico, published by the Insular Bureau of Labor in -1914: - -"There are five general problems which the laborer or employer in -tropical countries, who is anxious to build cheap but proper houses, has -to meet. The first is to provide adequate protection against the heat. -As in northern countries it is necessary to shut out the cold winds and -generate and conserve artificial heat within the house, so in tropical -countries it is equally important to let in the breezes and to clear out -any artificial heat that may arise. - -"The second problem is to provide protection against the frequent -tropical rains. This is especially important in tropical countries that -have a protracted rainy season, as it is often difficult to shut out the -rain without also shutting out the fresh air. - -"The third problem is the provision of adequate sanitary facilities. Due -to the heat in southern countries and to the humidity that prevails -during certain seasons of the year, this problem is more difficult of -solution and likewise more important than in countries farther north. - -"The fourth problem is that of securing cheap and durable building -materials. In a land like Porto Rico where tropical shrubs and the palm -are practically the only woods that the laborers are able to obtain, we -must not expect the same solid, commodious habitations which are found -in northern countries where the pine and hemlock abound. - -"The fifth problem, perhaps as important as any of the preceding and -certainly as difficult to remedy, arises partly from the generosity of -nature herself. People can live in tropical countries in almost any form -of habitation. Cold winters have not obliged the poorer classes to be -adepts in house construction. Poverty has forced them to live as cheaply -as possible. Naturally, the laboring classes engaged in tilling the soil -still make their homes in the cheapest forms of huts. This problem has, -therefore, three aspects--an over-indulgent climate, poverty, and a lack -of opportunity by the poorer classes to learn better methods of house -construction. - -"In Porto Rico we have, in addition to the problems mentioned above, two -special conditions which have influenced the form and quality of our -laborers' houses. The first is that the seasonal character of many of -our agricultural industries forces the laborers to migrate from one -section to another in order to find work and, naturally, they are not -inclined to go to the expense and exertion of building substantial -homes. The second, and more important, arises from the fact that the -greater part of our laborers do not own the land their houses are placed -upon and, being subject to ejection at the will of their landlords, they -have no incentive to beautify or improve their homes. - -"According to the census of 1910, the urban territory of Porto -Rico--that is, the places of 2,500 inhabitants or more--contained -224,620 inhabitants, or 20.1 per cent of the total population, while -893,392 inhabitants, or 79.9 per cent, lived in places of less than -2,500 inhabitants, and of these, 837,725 lived in strictly rural -territory. Needless to state, the greater part of the rural inhabitants -belong to the laboring classes and live in the types of rural homes -described in this section. - -"We have divided the habitations of rural laborers, according to their -construction, into the following types: (1) Single houses of thatch, (2) -single houses of wood and zinc, (3) tenements of wood and zinc. - -"Most of the thatched huts in the rural sections have been built by the -laborers who live in them. The land upon which these houses are built -is, however, usually the property of some plantation or landowner. Only -in the more inaccessible sections inland do the laborers who have built -these thatched houses also own the land they are placed upon. It is the -custom among the landowners to allow laborers who work for them to take -the necessary materials--grass, sticks, palm-bark, etc.--from the land -and build their huts. This is done, of course, with the consent of the -landowner, and the huts so built are legally attached to the land and -become the property of the landowner. As a matter of fact, the laborers -who have built these huts claim them as their property and are allowed -to live in them without charge or molestation so long as they work for -the landowner when their services are needed. When a laborer who has -built a hut leaves it and moves to another's land, the hut is claimed by -the landowner and some other laborer is allowed to move into it. There -are also some of these huts that have been built by the landowners at -their own expense, but the plantation owners and other landowners who -have gone into the business of building houses for their workmen usually -construct a better type of house. The thatched hut, therefore, while it -is legally a plantation house, is not usually so considered, either by -the landowner or the laborer. - -"If we judge the importance of a type of house from the number of people -who live in it, this thatched hut is far more important than any other -rural or urban type. The great mass of the rural laborers live in houses -of this type and, as has been shown, fully three-fourths of the total -laborers of the Island live in rural sections. - -"The homes of the wealthy in all parts of the world are constructed to -conform to the standards of the age and place in which they are erected, -and to the personal desires of the occupants, regard being taken only of -the absolutely necessary conditions of environment. The houses of the -poor, on the other hand, are the direct product of local environment. -The hut of the inland laborer of Porto Rico, the _jíbaro_, is a striking -illustration of the effect of environment upon the type of house in -which the poor live. - -"The problem of obtaining cheap and durable building materials is a very -difficult one for the poor laborers of Porto Rico. Hard woods are -extremely scarce, and the poor inland laborer cannot afford to buy -imported lumber, and, therefore, he has been obliged to utilize the -coarse grasses and the products of the palm trees that are accessible at -little or no expense except the labor necessary in their preparation. -Furthermore, many of these people have not the skill nor the necessary -tools to use materials such as stone and clay which they might be able -to obtain. Also, the migratory character of many of these inland -laborers, and the fact that they do not own the land their houses are -built upon, have been fundamental influences in preventing the -development of better house types. The principal agricultural -industries, _i.e._, coffee, sugar, and tobacco, have a busy and a dull -season, and many of the inland laborers are obliged to migrate from one -section to another in order to find work. For this reason hundreds of -laborers pass annually from the inland hills where coffee is grown down -to the sugar plantations on the coast, and then back again to the hills, -the busy seasons of sugar and coffee being at different times of the -year. Of course, these laborers cannot move their houses with them about -the Island, and they naturally tend to build the cheapest kind of -temporary structures. Also very few of them own the land their houses -are placed upon. They are mere squatters, or tenants at will, and the -land owner may eject them at any time for little or no cause, so that -there is no incentive to build substantial structures, and there is no -chance of developing that pride in the home which is so essential to the -building of good houses. - -"The inland laborers who live in these huts have been their own -architects and builders, and they model their homes after the old type -that has prevailed among the hills for centuries. The framework of these -huts is of poles and small sticks cut from shrub trees and nailed or -tied together at the corners with native fiber ropes. The roofs are -generally thatched with a long, tough grass, and the walls are -constructed by binding leaves of the royal palm (_yaguas_) with sticks -and fiber. The floor is of boards or slabs and is raised from one to two -feet above the ground. In some sections _yaguas_ are also used for the -roofs, and in the inland there are many huts with walls of slabs from -the trunk of the palm trees. These huts are usually divided into two -rooms by a flimsy partition of _yaguas_, one room being used as a -bedroom and the other as a combined living and dining room. The kitchen -is a separate room or shed at the rear, and, probably because of the -danger of fire, is usually without floor. The furniture consists of -hammocks, boxes for chairs, a rough table, and a few dishes, all made -from gourds, except the iron pot used in cooking. The value of such -furniture is usually from $4 to $6, and the value of such a house from -$10 to $20. - -"This hut of the inland laborer with its thatched roof and open -construction is, in many respects, a much better house than the casual -observer is likely to believe. A well-constructed thatch roof, when it -is new, offers sufficient protection against rain and excellent -protection from the heat of the tropic sun. New palm bark walls are also -adequate to keep out the rains. Furthermore, almost without exception, -the floors are raised above the ground, so that the surface waters after -a shower run freely under the hut and wash away any refuse that may have -accumulated, and then the sunlight and winds quickly dry the remaining -dampness. In other words, a new well-built hut of this type is a -properly ventilated, cool, and reasonably sanitary habitation, and -represents the best effort of the laborers to adapt themselves, in their -poverty-stricken condition, to the circumstances of their environment. -On the other hand, these huts deteriorate very rapidly. Within six -months or a year, a dozen varieties of insects have made their nests in -the thatched roof, the palm-leaves have cracked, and the floor sags. - -"One who stands on some projecting point high up on a mountain side in -the interior of the Island and carefully scans the hillsides about and -the valley beneath, will be amazed at the number of small huts of this -type that lie within his view. There are hundreds of them. Every knoll -is crowned by its hut; every hillside is dotted by them. No two are ever -placed together; each family seeks its own free life. It is practically -true that one cannot shout in any part of our Island and not be heard -by the occupants of one or more of these huts. - -"To say that these people are contented and prefer to live as they do, -is not true. Customs clinch themselves upon a people so that they appear -contented, and these inland laborers have lived under the same -conditions for three centuries. Their standards of living are modest, -and their desires are few. In this sense they are contented. Yet there -is a deep and powerful change coming over them. They are going to the -cities in greater number than ever before; their children are attending -the little schools in the hills. New ambitions are awakening. When the -dull season comes, they cannot find work. There are times when many of -them are hungry. They are not contented. - -"That the Porto Rican laborer is of cheerful disposition is especially -true of the so-called _jíbaro_. He has been obliged to find his joy in -simple things. He greets you with a smile; he welcomes you to his house -and cheerfully divides his cup of coffee with you; he dances with a show -of gayety on a Sunday afternoon. He is ever cheerful, but not happy. -There may be some customs and prejudices of minor importance that he is -loath to change, but in the main he prefers to live as he does because -he is obliged so to live. Those who adhere to the _laissez faire_ policy -and believe that conditions are good enough as they are, do not know the -real heart of these people. They need and deserve and must ultimately -receive the opportunity to improve their living and working conditions. - -"There are two important causes for the erection of plantation houses: -(1) For the employer, the practical advantage of having a resident -supply of labor on his land; (2) for the laborer, the necessity of -living near his work. Laborers who live in plantation houses are more -largely dependent upon the plantation than are laborers who live in -their own homes. One of the conditions of occupying a plantation house -is that the occupants will work for the plantation whenever their -services are required. Laborers living in plantation houses, can, -therefore, be depended upon by their employers, and this is a great -advantage to the plantation owner. Furthermore, such houses are usually -much better than the laborers who live in them could afford to build for -themselves. Frequently, also, the holdings of the plantation are so -extensive that it would not be possible for the laborers, even if they -had the money, to buy land upon which to build their houses within -walking distance of their work. - -"There are great differences between the single houses of wood and zinc -erected by the various plantations. The better types have been built by -employers who wished to provide healthful and comfortable -quarters--increase the efficiency of their laborers as well as to hold -their labor supply. Unfortunately, at present, such houses are not being -erected by the plantations in all parts of the Island. The majority of -these houses have been built with the sole purpose of holding as large a -labor supply as possible at the least expense. - -"The houses of this type are usually roofed with large strips of zinc, -nailed directly upon the rafters. These roofs are low, unceiled and, as -a result, the houses are extremely hot. The walls are of imported -lumber, sometimes the boards being matched and in other cases -clapboarded. The better houses are painted to diminish the depreciation -and to awaken the pride of the occupants in their homes. The walls are -six or seven feet high. The floors are of boards and raised from one to -two feet above the ground. The houses are set upon posts so that there -is a clear space under them that can be easily cleaned. On the interior -they are divided by half partitions into two or three rooms and are -usually provided with separate kitchens, frequently one kitchen serving -for from one to four houses. These houses cost from $70 to $150, the -average being about $80, according to their size and construction. This -description refers to the better houses of this type and, unfortunately, -the majority of the single plantation houses are not so well -constructed. - -"These tenements represent the older type of plantation houses and -fortunately very few of them are being built at the present time. Their -construction has been prompted by the same reason that has induced -employers to build the single type of plantation house--the desire to -hold a resident supply of labor on the plantation. They are, however, -far inferior to the single houses. - -"The better rural tenements are built with zinc roofs, board walls and -floors, and are raised from one to two feet above the ground. They are -unceiled and have no windows. In the inland many of them have zinc -walls. The poorer ones are located on low, swampy land and are built of -oil cans, pieces of boxes, and other odds and ends. Some of them have -separate kitchens and sanitary facilities, but many have nothing except -such temporary and inadequate structures as the occupants have -themselves built. The first reason for building tenements of this type -has been, of course, to house the greatest number of laborers at the -least expense. They are long structures, one or two rooms wide, each -room an apartment, and crowded with people. Although these rural -tenements are not usually being built at present, there are still -hundreds of them in use. - -"The worst housing conditions upon the plantations prevail in the -buildings, usually tenements of this type, set aside as sleeping -quarters for unmarried laborers. This type of labor is transient, coming -for a few months during the busy season and then passing on to another -section of the Island. Consequently, they are crowded into whatever -quarters may be available at the time. The leaky rooms of the old sugar -mills, the worst rooms in the tenements, single houses that have been -unused for six months and are out of repair and filthy, are usually used -for the emergency--an emergency that lasts from three to six months. -Six, eight, or ten hammocks are hung up between bare walls in a room 10 -feet by 15 feet and are all filled each night. Conditions of ventilation -and general sanitation are frightful. - -"There is one notable exception. One of the largest centrals of our -Island has constructed a large, well-ventilated, and comfortable men's -apartment. The floor is of matched boards, solid and clean. The walls -are also of matched boards, but there is an open space two feet wide at -the top of the walls extending around the building. Overhanging eaves -prevent the rain from beating in through this opening. The roof is of -heavy paper nailed to a thick wooden ceiling. Frames are arranged in the -interior of the building for hanging hammocks, and around the walls are -large individual lockers for the use of those sleeping there. Finally, -the building is cleaned thoroughly every day. - -"No description of the housing conditions of rural laborers would be -complete without mention of the gardens cultivated by the occupants of -the houses. It is safe to say that nine out of every ten laborers in the -rural sections, with the exception of those who live in plantation -houses where there is no land that they are permitted to cultivate, have -planted some sort of garden. It is also true that these gardens are, in -most cases, of very little practical use. Well cultivated and productive -gardens belonging to rural laborers are hard to find. - -"The average garden consists of two or three plantain or banana trees, a -few tubers, and some medicinal plants. Frequently, there are many and -beautiful flowers. Whatever vegetables there may be are poorly cared for -and do not produce more than a third of a proper yield. - -"This subject is of tremendous importance. The soil and climate of Porto -Rico are such that it should be able, even with its dense population, to -produce most of its food. There are unused plots of ground around -practically every hut in the interior of the Island. The decrease in the -production of sugar is going to throw many laborers out of work and they -will be obliged to raise most of their own food or suffer. Many reasons -have been advanced to explain the absence of good small gardens. The -laborers themselves say that they do not plant and cultivate gardens -because they do not own the land and they are allowed to plant only on -condition that they give the greater part of their produce to the -landowners. They claim also that it does not pay to break up the ground -for one crop and that after they have got plantains, etc., growing they -may be obliged to move. It is also true that in most cases they have not -money enough to buy the seed or hire the oxen and implements needed for -breaking up the ground. - -"Also, in some parts of the south coast, it is too dry for profitable -gardening. On the other hand, landowners frequently say that the reasons -why laborers in the rural sections do not plant gardens are lack of -knowledge of gardening methods, lack of realization of the benefits that -they could derive from good gardens, and custom. Without discussing the -relative merits of these reasons, there are two things that must be -faced--such laborers must be educated, so far as possible by example, -and they must be offered the opportunity to hold land with some fixity -of tenure, either by purchasing it on the installment plan or by -obtaining leases from the present landowners." - - - - -WOMAN AND CHILD LABOR - - -FORTUNATELY, the factory system has not been introduced to any great -extent into Porto Rico, nor in all probability will woman and child -labor in factory employment ever constitute a serious problem. The -census of 1910 gives only a total of 1912 woman wage earners in various -industries of the Island. This, of course, does not include the woman -who works throughout the rural districts, and whose condition -constitutes the problem which must be studied and remedied in the -Island. - -The average unskilled laborer in the country districts of Porto Rico -does not earn a sufficient sum to enable him to maintain his family in -comfort. As a result, the wife, and frequently the children, must -contribute to the support of the family as much as they can. In some -parts of the Island, the tasks of the country women are largely limited -to their housework and the cultivation of whatever garden products they -may raise, because such crops as sugar cane do not call to any great -extent for the use of woman labor. In other sections of the Island, -however, particularly those parts where coffee growing is the chief -industry, the gathering and caring for the coffee crop is left, to a -great extent, to the women and children. This, of course, results in a -financial saving to the coffee grower, as the wages for woman and child -labor are much less than for the services of men. The unhealthful -results, however, more than offset the advantages gained by adding the -mother's wages to the family income. - -The harmful results from woman labor may be classified as direct and -indirect. Under the directly harmful results are the weakened physical -condition of the mother, the increased susceptibility to diseases which -are especially common in the coffee districts, particularly anemia, and -such diseases as are the results of exposure. The larva of the hookworm -lives and finds a fertile field for action in the damp and shady regions -devoted to the production of coffee, and as the majority of the women -laborers are not accustomed to wear shoes, they easily permit contact -and contagion from this disease. - -The strength of children and their ability to withstand disease depends -to a great extent upon whether or not they are physically strong at the -period of their birth and during the time they are under the direct care -of the mother. A mother whose system has been weakened by the -debilitating effects of anemia, cannot nourish her child and provide him -with the necessary amount of food, and as a result, the child is either -anemic, or a victim to malnutrition as a result of introducing solid -food into his system before the digestive organs are prepared to take -care of such food. - -Among the indirectly harmful results of woman labor is the necessary -separation of the mothers from the children of the family. The mother on -going to work, either leaves her children in the care of a neighbor, or -leaves them at home where the older children take care of the younger. -This deprives the children of the mother's influence and allows them -liberty to associate with children who may be undesirable companions, -which would be avoided to a great extent if the mother were present to -take care of them. The Juvenile Court records in the United States show -that 85 per cent of the delinquent children brought before the court -have been led into bad habits through the failure of one or both of the -parents to take care of their supervision during play hours. Divorce in -the United States has been strongly attacked for the reason that it -deprives the child of one of his legal protectors. From the same point -of view, woman and child labor, which deprives the child of the care of -his mother, must inevitably produce bad results in the growing -generation. - -The use of child labor in Porto Rico is not particularly preferred -except in coffee districts and in certain agricultural sections where -boys are used at certain times of the year to help drive the oxen, or to -help in planting the crop. As this is outdoor work it does not have the -devitalizing effect upon the child's body which factory work would have, -and as it does not require concentrated attention, it is relieved from -the monotony which would tend to lower the child's mental ability. The -evil results which must be guarded against are those arising from -overwork and from association with undesirable characters while the -child is not under the supervision of his parents. In addition to this, -the child who is engaged at work must lose the benefits which he should -be receiving from attendance at school. During the last year, the -Department of Education has attempted to solve this problem by changing -the vacation period, so that the long vacation of three months will fall -at the coffee-picking season in such sections of the Island as are -devoted to the production of this crop, and where previously there was a -great decrease in school attendance at the time when the harvesting of -the coffee was in progress. This, undoubtedly, will greatly help to do -away with the harmful results which formerly were the consequences of -irregular attendance or non-attendance at school on the part of a great -many of the children in the coffee-growing districts. - -An increase in the number of rural schools so that all of the children -of the rural districts can be accommodated, is also necessary before -this problem is entirely solved. At the present time, a large number of -the children in the country cannot attend school, either because the -school in the neighborhood is overcrowded, or because the nearest school -is at too great a distance for them to attend with regularity. The -removal of these conditions unfortunately depends upon an added -appropriation for the maintenance of the Department of Education, and it -is doubtful whether the income of the Island will be sufficient to -supply the needed increase for years to come. With the gradual -improvement of roads, consolidated schools may help to solve the -problem, and a half-day enrollment for each group will tend to increase -the number of children that can be taken care of. Children who find that -they cannot obtain a place in the school will naturally be made use of -by their parents for wage-earning purposes whenever possible, but the -great majority of parents would not put their children at work if the -children were enrolled in school and if irregularity of attendance were -to lead to dismissal from the school. - -Another thing that would help to relieve the situation, as far as woman -and child labor is concerned, would be the establishment of a minimum -wage for unskilled farm labor, such wage to be sufficient to enable the -laborer to maintain his family without the help of money earned by the -wife or children. The time of the wife could be occupied in poultry -raising and in caring for the family garden, which would also tend to -reduce the cost of living for the family and could easily be -established, if the landowner were to provide sufficient garden space -with each house in addition to the regular wages paid his laborers. Of -course, methods of gardening would have to be included in the rural -school programs, and the rural teacher should act as a supervisor of -these gardens and advisor to the people of the community in which he is -employed. - -The important things to guard against in the life of the family, from -the standpoint of the welfare of both the family and the community, are -that the mother need not be obliged to dissipate the strength, through -outside labor, which she needs in the raising and caring for her -family. The lack of proper supervision of the children through the -absence of the mother from the home must also be guarded against. In -case it can be proved that a father is unable through his own efforts to -earn sufficient to maintain his family, a system of mothers' pensions -carried on by the government should be established in order that the -mother may be safeguarded from want in case of the death of her husband, -and that she may not be obliged to help him in the maintenance of the -family through the performance of such labor as would interfere with her -regular family obligations. - - - - -INDUSTRIES - - -THE principal industries of Porto Rico are necessarily of an -agricultural character, and their importance to the Island financially -is shown by the fact that during the year 1914-15 exports to the value -of $49,356,907 left for the United States and foreign countries. The -imports for the same period reached the amount of $33,884,296, thus -giving a good surplus to the Island after the total imports had been -paid for. The principal classes of imports are the foodstuffs which -might be produced in sufficient quantities to maintain the population of -Porto Rico. This is a situation which should receive attention, inasmuch -as the Island is capable of producing all of the foodstuffs which it -needs for its own consumption. The principal article of export from -Porto Rico is sugar and other products of the sugar cane. The article of -export second in value is tobacco in its various forms. Third comes -coffee; and these three products make up the chief source of wealth. - -The chief criticism in regard to the agricultural situation of Porto -Rico at the present time, is that there has been very little development -of small farm products which would tend to make it possible and -profitable for the landholder who is in possession of only a few acres -to earn a comfortable living. The climate and soil of Porto Rico would, -undoubtedly, lend themselves to the production of many fruits and -vegetables which could be raised with profit on farms limited in size, -and which would enable the small farmer to maintain his family. - -In addition to the introduction of agricultural products fitted for -small farm production, an opportunity should be given and efforts -encouraged for the establishment and improvement of such lines of work -as can be carried on in the homes or by a small group of people working -independently. Among these kinds of work are several, such as the -hat-making and basket-making industries, the production of handmade lace -and embroidery, and other forms of needlework, which might be carried on -by women working independently during the time they have free from the -occupations of their household work. These handmade articles of Porto -Rico are much sought after by tourists, and there is no doubt but that a -large and profitable market could be opened for them in the United -States, if efforts were made to establish the production on a commercial -basis. The individual living in a small town who devotes himself to hat -making is handicapped because he has no steady market for his goods and -is obliged to sell them or trade them for whatever he can obtain from -retail dealers, who themselves attempt to secure only the limited trade -which enters their stores. In order to make industries of this sort -profitable to the producers, it will be necessary to secure a new and -permanent market for the goods, and either the government or some group -of individuals who will not exploit the workers, should act as -middlemen to see that the work is uniform in character, and to attend to -the handling of the finished products and the supplying of a market for -it in the United States. Working as individuals, the countrymen or -dwellers in small towns have turned out products which differ in quality -and in design, and very frequently the lack of resources has obliged -them to construct their products from unsuitable or cheap materials. - -They have been accustomed to ask for their products as high a price as -they thought they could obtain, and often this price is too high for the -quality of the article, while sometimes it does not pay for the labor -and time which has been expended in the production of the article. By -systematizing the work and putting it under the direction of competent -supervisors who would specify the quality of material to be used in the -production of the articles, and who would fix a price which would fairly -represent the time and labor expended by the producer, and who would be -able to reject work that did not meet the standard set, the value of the -goods would be increased. An equally necessary step in this matter would -be the providing of a regular market for the goods and the supervision -of production, so that the market would not be overloaded with certain -articles and lacking in others. Experiments already carried out have -proved the existence of a market for Porto Rican goods in the United -States, and the matter should be taken up under the supervision of the -Insular Government. - -In order to produce trained workers for the production of these -articles, it would be necessary to establish schools for their -instruction which might well be under the direction of the Department of -Education. These schools would not necessarily last throughout the year, -nor would they require any great expenditure of money for their -maintenance. The character of the school should depend upon the locality -in which it was established and should be designed only for the training -of skilled workmen, either child or adult, in particular lines of work. -Short courses of two or three months in these industrial schools should -be offered, and the people who attend them should be assured of a market -for their goods when they have arrived at a point where they can produce -goods of the proper standard. The money expended in the establishment -and maintenance of these schools would more than double the earning -capacity of the unskilled worker, and the general welfare of the -community would be increased by the changing of unskilled and -unproductive citizens into trained, productive laborers. - -It is a well established fact that the trained workman is the most -desirable kind of citizen. The unskilled laborer has no steady market -for his labor and is the first victim in the wage system whenever a -financial crisis causes the employer to lessen his expenses. The -unskilled laborer has for sale a product which the average employer is -not anxious to obtain, whereas the skilled worker can find a much more -steady and regular market for his labor. The lawless, irresponsible -class of citizens in any community is always composed to a great extent -of the unskilled laborers, and any country which has an overwhelming -proportion of its population composed of this class of people is in -constant danger of labor disturbances and conflicts between employers -and employees. The great majority of the men in penal institutions are -unskilled laborers, and if the proportion of this type of citizens is -sufficiently large, it may constitute a real danger to the community. -With increased ability to earn wages comes the desire to improve living -conditions and to rise higher in the social scale. This demands added -education, more hygienic surroundings, and better food and clothing. The -man who earns fifty cents a day, and that at irregular periods, is an -early victim to dissatisfaction and is easily made to believe that life -has not much for him in the future, and that he has not been fairly -treated by his employer. The skilled laborer who earns double this -amount or more, begins to take a new interest in life, as he can see the -results which have come from his directed efforts, and values the -benefit to his family; he educates his children, sees to it that they -are well clothed and fed, and he himself becomes interested in the life -and problems of the community as he becomes gradually a person of some -importance in its economic and social life. A dependent wage-earning -population usually lacks ideals of self-improvement, but the -steady-working, independent producer of marketable goods is constantly -striving to improve the amount and quality of his products. - - - - -THE LAND PROBLEM AND UNEMPLOYMENT - - -ONE of the most difficult problems to solve in the case of a small -country such as Porto Rico, and one which has a definite bearing on both -the economic and the social life of the people, is the land situation. -This is especially true when the chief industries are such as lend -themselves more readily to large plantation farming rather than to small -industries or crops which can be raised profitably on small areas. The -most important products of Porto Rico to-day are large-farm products, -and they naturally tend to develop a small number of large landowners -and a large number of landless citizens. There were in 1910, 46,799 -farms operated by their owners, and it was estimated that 600,000 people -or 117,647 families in rural sections belonged to the landless class. An -equally large proportion of landless citizens is found in urban centers. -Of the 10,936 people in Puerta de Tierra in 1913, only 178 or about 30 -families owned the land on which their houses were located. It is -estimated that there are at least 800,000 people or 156,860 landless -families in Porto Rico. - -In addition to the tendency toward lawlessness that is always found -where there is an overproportion of landless citizens, the systems of -land rental in Porto Rico have certain unfortunate economic aspects -which call for consideration. Part of the renters live in houses which -are owned by the proprietor of the land upon which their houses are -located, and here the case resolves itself simply into the ordinary -relations of renters and householders. This system does not differ to -any great extent from the ordinary rent system in the States and has the -same disadvantages, both economical and social, which are to be found -wherever the rental system is in operation. - -A second system which has been known as the "Land Rent System" is -somewhat different. Under this system a man rents a lot from the owner -of the property and proceeds to erect his own house upon the land. He -then owns the house but not the land upon which it is located. Usually -he rents from the proprietor from month to month or from year to year -and has no definite lease of the land, and there is nothing to prevent -the owner from raising the rental price or from demanding the house of -the renter whenever he feels so inclined. As a matter of fact, it -frequently happens that the land is rented to householders at fifty -cents or a dollar monthly for the purpose of building houses, and within -a short time after the completion of the house the owner of the land -advances the price of rent, so that the house owner finds himself unable -to meet the increased cost. He then has no choice except to move out and -leave his house, together with the amount of work and invested money -which it represents, or to sell the house to another person. Usually the -house is sold to the owner of the land himself, who thus comes into -possession, at a very reduced price, of a house which he, in turn, -rents to another individual. This system is extremely unfortunate for -the renter and should be abolished by the passing of legislation which -would require the granting of a lease for a certain definite period to -every person who builds upon land owned by another. - -A modification of this system is frequently found in the cases where -employees build their houses upon the land which belongs to the -plantation. In many cases the employer does his utmost to make the life -of his tenants as pleasant as possible, granting them garden plots and -trying to make them permanent employees by offering them certain -advantages. In many cases, however, the employer maintains a company -store and requires his employees to purchase all their provisions from -the store, thus making a double profit from them, and frequently -charging them higher prices than they would have to pay elsewhere. In -other cases the employer guarantees the credit of his workmen at a given -local store, and on pay day he turns over to the local storekeeper the -amount due the workmen and the storekeeper deducts from this the amount -which is owing him for provisions and hands over to the workmen what may -be left. As the average countryman has little idea of business and is -lacking in knowledge of how to keep accurate accounts, and, moreover, -since a credit system always tends to extravagance, it frequently -happens that the workman is never entirely out of debt. There is a law -approved in 1908 which makes it unlawful "for any corporation, company, -firm or person engaged in any trade or business, whether directly or -indirectly, to issue, sell, give or deliver to any person employed by -such corporation, company, firm or person, payments of wages to such -laborers, or as an advance for labor not due, in any script, token, -draft, check or other evidence of indebtedness payable or redeemable -otherwise than in lawful money." Section 2 of the same law provides that -"if any corporation, company, firm or person shall coerce or compel or -attempt to coerce or compel an employee to purchase goods or supplies in -payment of wages due him from any corporation, company, firm or person, -such said named corporation, company, firm or person shall be guilty of -a misdemeanor." In this way attempts have been made to protect the -laborer from exploitation, but violations of the law are not uncommon. - -There is need for legislation to provide opportunity for the man of -small means to purchase sufficient land to establish a home. In Porto -Rico there are about 121,346 acres of government lands located in -various parts of the Island which might well be opened to settlement at -a nominal price. Legislation should also be passed which would provide -that private land which is not used for produce for a given term of -years might be opened to settlement and sold to people who would occupy -it and use it for production. There are many acres of private land in -Porto Rico which are not used at all and have not been used for years. -The accumulation of land by an individual or a corporation for purposes -of speculation or for purposes other than cultivation and use for the -production of crops should be discouraged, because the limited amount of -land in the Island does not permit such accumulation except at the -expense of the poorer class of people. There is at present a law -preventing the accumulation of more than 500 acres of land by any -company or corporation, but no penalty has been provided for the -violation of this law, and it is practically useless as it stands at -present. - -In addition to providing means by which people would be encouraged to -own and manage small farms, coöperative organizations for providing a -market for the products of these farms should be established. -Undoubtedly, the government should start such a movement. The spirit of -coöperation is not strong in Porto Rico at the present time, and the -small farm holder finds himself at a disadvantage when he has to compete -with the larger producer and when he is obliged to find a market for his -goods. Some such system as exists in Denmark, where the farmers of a -community have joined themselves into coöperative associations for -selling their products and the purchase of necessary supplies, might -very well be introduced into Porto Rico. This would tend not only to -improve the economic situation by bringing better prices and a steady -market for the farm products, and by making possible the purchase of -necessary supplies in larger quantities, but it would also help to -encourage a sense of unity and mutual confidence among the people of a -given community, which would be of immense value in raising the standard -of citizenship. Community pride and a definite desire for improvement -would necessarily follow such a movement. - -Farming is one of the few occupations which is not influenced by -seasons, so far as unemployment is concerned. Practically all of the -trades have their busy seasons and their idle seasons, and any movement -which would tend to make employment more permanent by providing small -farms for a larger number of people, would be of immense benefit to the -Island as a whole. The Bureau of Labor of Porto Rico in an investigation -which covered the last five months of the year 1913, found that of the -total number of union men reported, 27 per cent were unemployed during -the month of August, 26 per cent during September, 38 per cent during -October, 34 per cent during November, and 46 per cent during December. -The men reporting were engaged in various occupations. It was estimated -that 28 per cent of all the laborers who reported were unemployed on -account of lack of work and not on account of not desiring work. The -different trades represented are as follows: among the dock laborers 62 -per cent were unemployed, 56 per cent of the carpenters, 47 per cent of -the agricultural laborers, 23 per cent of the cigar makers, and 10 per -cent of the typesetters reported that they could not find employment. -Thus it will be seen that when the individual workman is at the mercy of -the employer, he has no independent status such as he would have were he -the owner of even a very modest piece of property, and it is inevitable -that he will find employment only part of the year. Part time -employment tends to low standards of living, because during the period -of reduced financial income the standards of living are lowered, and -when it is found that the family can exist on the reduced income there -is little inducement for seeking work since the desire for economy and -saving is not greatly developed among the working classes of Porto Rico. - -We find a gradual lowering of the moral standard as the necessary -accompaniment of low standards of living, and if continued long enough, -this low moral standard gradually leads to moral and social -degeneration. The necessary steps should be taken by the legislature to -provide for the relief of the landless and unemployed classes, as -otherwise these people will constitute a serious handicap for the -economic and social development of a competent body of citizens. - - - - -POVERTY - - -THE meaning of the word poverty is relative and depends upon the class -of people to whom the word is applied. Poverty, technically, is the lack -of an income sufficient to maintain the individual as the society in -which he lives demands that he should live. Thus a wealthy man may live -in relative poverty if he is in a circle of acquaintances who are much -more wealthy than he is. The amount of income necessary to keep one from -being classed in the poverty-stricken group decreases with the -simplicity of individual, family, and community life. The amount of -property necessary to keep one from poverty in the country is not as -great as the amount of property necessary to keep one from poverty in -the cities, due to the fact that the standards of living in the country -are much simpler and require less expenditure of money to conform to the -social standards. Pauperism is not the same as poverty. Poverty may be -only temporary, depending upon unfavorable conditions which have reduced -the income of the family, such as sickness, accident, lack of -employment, or other factors beyond the control of the individual. -Poverty does not necessarily involve any moral degeneration, while the -pauper is entirely dependent on society and is a moral degenerate. -Poverty, in general, however, is a dangerous condition, because it -generally leads to pauperism. Poverty perpetuates itself if not taken -care of; and if the poor man should give up the struggle against -poverty, the general effect on society would be injurious, because, -through contact, standards of living, social disease, and bad morals are -contagious. - -The competition between capital and labor, which often leads to poverty, -is not fair if it is limited to the individual members of society. As -the individual capitalist has more influence than the individual -laborer, labor must be organized in order to equalize the situation. The -competitive process between capital and labor, and between industrial -organizations, should be controlled so that people should not be -compelled to compete on an unfair basis. - -The existing conditions in any community are largely responsible for -poverty and often for pauperism. They are especially responsible for the -attitude of the individual in regard to poverty as to whether he will -make a fight to gain a place in society above the poverty-stricken -class, or whether he simply resigns himself to his fate and continues to -live in a poverty-stricken condition. In this situation, the well-to-do -class is more responsible for poverty than any other class, because they -have the most power, both legislative and moral, and they must assume -for this reason a greater share of responsibility regarding the -conditions in any given community. Poverty can be alleviated, but -probably not entirely eliminated, and some of the means of combating -poverty are the following: - -First.--Education. By this means the efficiency of the individual in -adjusting himself to trade environment is increased. - -Second.--The self-support of weaker classes through voluntary -associations among themselves, such as labor movements. - -Third.--The proper kind of legal protection, such as factory, and woman -and child labor laws, safeguards in factory work, the minimum wage, and -accident laws. - -Fourth.--Rational charity, by which cases of unusual necessity can be -cared for. This charity should act as a temporary agency and should not -become permanent, as in that case it tends to pauperism. - -Fifth.--Eugenics, by which the physically and mentally unfit, who -contribute largely to the pauper class, may be eliminated from society -and prevented from propagating a second generation. - -Modern charity is more democratic than older charity, and in its -workings material aid is made subordinate to moral aid. It is optimistic -and believes that radical improvements in social conditions are -possible. It believes that the family should always be a self-supporting -group, that charity should try to make the poverty-stricken family -self-supporting, and that the family should be kept together. - -One of the improvements in modern charity is what is known as organized -charity, which is a sort of clearing house for the charities of a -community. Organized charity does not extend material aid so much as it -attempts to find work for needy individuals and thus do away with -poverty by putting the family on a self-supporting basis. Organized -charity would do away with the begging pauper and require him to -present his case at the headquarters of the society, where an -investigation of the necessities of his particular case could be made -and an effort to find suitable employment for him undertaken. The -individual who wished to contribute to charity would contribute to the -central organization instead of to the wandering beggar. This would have -two distinct benefits to society, as it would prevent the disagreeable -sights often encountered where begging is allowed in public, and it -would prevent the individual member of society from being imposed upon -by a beggar who might be in sufficiently good physical condition to -undertake work which would bring in enough to maintain himself and his -family. - -The question of organized charity in Porto Rico has been suggested at -different times, but it has never met with any great popular response, -due to the customs and traditions of a charity-giving people. The Island -to-day has a large number of paupers who are entirely dependent upon the -charity which they receive through begging, and the custom of giving in -response to the requests of these beggars is so widespread, that at the -present time organized charity would have a most difficult field of work -to undertake. - -The Island of Porto Rico is prosperous. In the last fiscal year there -was a surplus of about $15,000,000 of exports over the imports into the -Island; but the distribution of wealth in Porto Rico is not equalized. -It has been estimated that the wealth of the Island is in the hands of -about 15 per cent of the population, and that the remaining 85 per cent -are practically dependent upon uncertain labor and wage conditions for -their maintenance. The per capita wealth of a country determines to a -great degree the financial situation as far as the average individual is -concerned. From the following list of per capita wealth in some of the -leading countries, it will be possible to estimate how the average Porto -Rican compares with the average citizen of other countries in this -regard. The following list is based on statistics of 1909: - - Great Britain per capita wealth $1,442 - France " " " 1,257 - Australia " " " 1,228 - United States " " " 1,123 - Denmark " " " 1,104 - Canada " " " 949 - Belgium " " " 734 - Germany " " " 707 - Spain " " " 548 - Austria Hungary " " " 499 - Greece " " " 485 - Italy " " " 485 - Portugal " " " 417 - Russia " " " 296 - Porto Rico " " " 182 - -From the above table it will be seen that the average individual in -Porto Rico is comparatively poor. - -The economic situation in Porto Rico is giving rise to the formation of -classes based on wealth. With the introduction of available markets and -modern methods of commerce and industry which followed the American -occupation, the land values rapidly increased. The small landholder, -seeing the increase in price which came about and believing that it was -to his best advantage to sell his land, disposed of it to the -representatives of large landholding concerns for what, to him, was a -fabulous price. As soon as the money from this sale was expended, the -original landholder found himself absolutely dependent upon the mercy of -a wage-paying employer. In this way a great part of small landholdings -passed into the hands of representatives of large landholdings and -caused the formation of the two groups, the capitalistic group, which is -limited to a comparatively small number of people, and the wage-earning -group, which comprises probably 90 per cent of the population of Porto -Rico. As a result we lack in Porto Rico the great middle class of -financially independent farmers which constitutes the strength of the -United States and the more prosperous European countries. A serious and -systematic effort to build up a prosperous and independent middle class, -either by encouraging small-farm or other industries, is necessary if -the majority of the people are to attain the advantages which they -should enjoy, and if the social and economic status of the Island is to -be made equitable and stable. - -The reduced wage system and the absolute dependence of the wage-earning -group has given rise to a great many labor disturbances within the last -few years. These labor disturbances have included both city and country -groups and have in nearly all cases been caused by an effort to better -the working conditions and to secure an increase of wages. In the great -majority of the cases there is no doubt but that the laborers were -justified in asking for better conditions than those which actually -existed. That the disturbances sometimes ended in riots and led to the -destruction of property is the fault of the educational condition of the -people, who are easily excited and led to believe that only by the use -of violence can they secure the things which they demand. - -The relation between poverty and health and poverty and morals is very -close. The poverty-stricken family cannot be led to take any great -amount of interest in society or health betterment until means have been -produced by which the economic situation of the family group can be -bettered. The expense of living uses up the daily wage of the ordinary -unskilled laborer in Porto Rico, who averages fifty or sixty cents per -day for the time that the weather and his physical condition permit him -to work. There is also a close relation between sickness and poverty, -the average countryman of Porto Rico being only partly as efficient a -worker as he should be, due to physical weakness caused by anemia or -malaria. Poverty is closely related to degeneration and crime, -especially when it descends into pauperism and absolute dependence upon -charity. - -The climate and geographical conditions of Porto Rico have never -provided the laborer with any incentive to economize, inasmuch as he has -no need for providing against a period of cold, and Nature produces some -form of plant or vegetable food throughout the entire year. Clothing and -lodging may be of the simplest and still prevent much suffering under -such conditions, and with physical weakness caused by disease, the -tendency is to live for the present, and to take little care for the -future through a system of saving and economy. The average manual -laborer saves nothing and makes little effort to accumulate property. -Incentive must be provided through education which will accustom the -countryman to the idea of accumulation of property in a small way, so -that dependence upon charity will not be necessary in the case of a -financial or economic crisis. That there is a movement toward saving is -evident from the fact that on June 30, 1915, there were savings accounts -to the amount of $1,909,969.34 in the various banks in the Island. This, -however, is a comparatively small amount, and the younger generation -should be given definite instruction and incentives along the line of -savings. The introduction of the Postal Savings Bank has been of great -value in this respect, and the school savings banks have also done their -share in inculcating the principles of economy. - - - - -SICKNESS AND DISEASE - - -THE Island of Porto Rico is more free from disease than the average -tropical or semi-tropical country, due to the active efforts of the -medical profession and of the special commissions and departments -created for the elimination of disease within the last few years. -Nevertheless, a great deal of sickness which might be avoided, part of -which is responsible for death, and part of which merely incapacitates -the sufferers or renders them less useful citizens, is to be found. The -elimination of such diseases as smallpox and yellow fever, which -formerly were responsible for a great number of deaths and which -descended upon the Island as epidemics with considerable regularity, has -been accomplished, and if similar care were taken in the case of less -dreaded diseases, there is reason to believe that they could also be -wiped out of existence in the Island. - -For the year 1915-16 there was a total of 26,572 deaths in Porto Rico. -Most of these deaths were from diseases classified as transmissible, -and, consequently, from diseases which could be prevented by complete -quarantine. Following is a list of the number of deaths from the -diseases which took the heaviest toll in the Island: - - Rickets 1,271 - Tuberculosis (lungs) 2,125 - Malaria 1,290 - Typhoid fever 94 - Whooping cough 167 - Tetanus 109 - Cancer 365 - Meningitis 344 - Epilepsy 57 - Acute bronchitis 1,015 - Chronic bronchitis 309 - Bronco-pneumonia 822 - Pneumonia 569 - Diarrhea and enteritis under two years 3,485 - Diarrhea and enteritis two years and over 870 - Infantile tetanus 729 - Lack of care in infancy 117 - Congenital debility in children 1,145 - Uncinariasis 479 - Smallpox 9 - Diphtheria 26 - -The two diseases which are of most vital importance to the people of -Porto Rico at present are undoubtedly tuberculosis and anemia. The -ravages of tuberculosis are more noticeable in the cities, and it has -been stated that in 1912, on one street in San Juan, 12 out of every 100 -residents died of this disease. Anemia is prevalent throughout the -Island, but is more noticeable in the country districts than in the -cities, and while the death rate for anemia is not so high as the death -rate of some other diseases, yet by reason of weakening the vitality of -the sufferers it tends to offer a fertile spot for the incubation of -germs of other diseases, and the working and producing power of the -individual is lessened with the acuteness of the disease. - -It has been claimed that anemia was introduced into Porto Rico by the -negroes who were brought here as slaves in the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries, and the identity of the disease with the anemia existing in -about 20 per cent of all the negroes of the Gold Coast has been -determined. The disease was for a long time limited to the coast land -and was propagated on the sugar plantations, but after the introduction -of coffee, which has come to be the chief product of the mountain -regions, the disease was propagated throughout the entire Island. - -This disease has left its trace among the country people and they have -been accused of laziness and idleness when it is probable that the cause -of the apparent disinclination for work is due to the weakened physical -condition which is a result of the anemia. In this connection, Drs. -Gutierrez and Ashford in their work on _Uncinariasis in Porto Rico_ -quote Col. George D. Flinter, an Englishman in the service of Spain, who -published in 1834 "An account of Porto Rico," as follows: - -"The common white people, or lowest class (called _jíbaros_), swing in -their hammocks all day long, smoking cigars and scraping their native -guitars.... Most of these colonists are inconceivably lazy and -indifferent. Lying back in their hammocks, the entire day is passed -praying or smoking. Their children, isolated from the cities, without -education, live in social equality with the young negroes of both sexes, -acquiring perverted customs, only to later become cruel with their -slaves." - -Commenting on this statement, Drs. Gutierrez and Ashford speak as -follows: - -"What if these people were merely innocent victims of a disease, modern -only in name? What if the brand placed by the Spaniard, the Englishman, -and the Frenchman in olden times upon the _jíbaro_ of Porto Rico were a -bitter injustice? The early reports savor strongly of those touristic -impressions of the Island which from time to time crop out in the press -of modern America, in which 'laziness and worthlessness' of the -'natives' are to be inferred, if, indeed, these very words are not -employed to describe a sick workingman, with only half of the blood he -should have in his body." - -"True, Col. Flinter, Field Marshall Count O'Reilly, and the rest of the -long list of early 'observers' did not know what uncinariasis was. But -is it necessary that we have a record of microscopic examinations of the -feces of the people they describe to realize what can be read between -the lines? Convicts, adventurers, and gypsies may have formed part of -the element that colonized Porto Rico, but we cannot believe that these -were all, nor that their descendants were 'lazy' and 'worthless.' - -"We cannot believe that vicious idleness comes natural to the Spanish -colonist, even in the Tropics, for the very reason that we have seen -these descendants at their very worst, after the neglect of four -centuries by their mother country, and after the laborious increase of -an anemic population in the face of a deadly disease, whose nature was -neither known nor studied, work from sunrise to sunset and seek medical -attention, not because they felt sick, but because they could no longer -work. - -"We strongly feel that these writers have unconsciously described -uncinariasis. Are the Spanish people considered 'lazy' by those who know -them? Were those Spaniards who conquered Mexico, Peru, and all South -America, who formed so formidable a power in the Middle Ages, a lazy -people? - -"Is it 'laziness' or disease that is this very day attracting the -attention of the United States to the descendant of the pure-blooded -English stock in the Southern Appalachian Range, in the mountains of -Carolina and Tennessee, the section of our country where the greatest -predominance of 'pure American blood' occurs, despised by the negro who -calls him 'poor white trash'?" - -During the year 1914-15 there were 6,644 deaths of children under two -years of age, which constituted 28.8 per cent of the total mortality of -the Island. Approximately 14 out of every 100 children born, died in -infancy, and the death rate for the total population was 5.55 per cent -for children under one year of age, and 7.71 per cent for children under -two years of age. Diarrhea and enteritis were responsible for 33.8 per -cent of infant mortality; congenital debility for 13.14 per cent; -infantile tetanus for 10.32; while disease of the respiratory organs -caused 16.17 per cent of the infant mortality. - -It has never been definitely determined just what losses, from the point -of view of days of labor, or from the point of view of vitality of the -laborer, have been caused by malaria. Mr. D. L. Van Dine, in an article -in the _Southern Medical Journal_ for March, 1915, gives the result of -some of his investigations among the laboring class in Louisiana. In -this study, which was made on one of the large plantations and which -covered 74 tenant families with a total of 299 individuals, he shows the -losses which occurred from May to October 15, 1914. There were 970 days -of actual illness of such a nature that the illness was reported to the -physician. Forty-eight out of the seventy-four families were reported to -the doctor for malaria. According to Mr. Van Dine, this does not take -into consideration mild attacks of malaria which were not reported to -the physician, especially in the cases of children. He has estimated -that there were at least 487 days lost in cases which were not reported -to the doctor. He also estimates that there was a loss of 385 days on -the part of the adults who assisted in caring for the malaria patients. -It is estimated that there was a loss in days of labor equal to nearly -six days and a half for each case of malaria. It will easily be seen -that this may be a serious loss of time as far as the production of -crops is concerned, and even thus it does not fairly represent the loss, -as it does not take into consideration the weakened energy of the man -just before or just after the malarial attack. - -Undoubtedly, there is as great a loss in Porto Rico from malaria as is -indicated in the statements just made. It has been reported that in some -sections of the Island, 85 per cent of the people were found to have -malaria germs in their blood. Between the two diseases of malaria and -anemia, there is no doubt that the physical condition of the Porto Rican -countrymen is gradually debilitated. - -Since the American occupation, stress has been laid upon the attempts to -eliminate anemia, and this work has received special attention since -1906. During the year 1914-15 there were 32,278 new cases of anemia -treated in different parts of the Island, and 15,497 cases were -discharged as cured. - -Undoubtedly a great deal of the illness in Porto Rico is the result of -improper food, or food prepared in an improper manner. Malnutrition -among children is frequent and leads to such diseases as rickets, which -we find has an exceptionally high death rate. In the recent measurements -given at the University among university students, it has been found -that there was an average depth of chest of nearly half an inch more -than is found in the American boy or girl of the same age, and this has -been considered as an indication of malnutrition and general softening -of the bones in early childhood. - -A hemoglobin test which was given to the students of the University this -year showed that the average among the men was 80.04 per cent, and only -77.6 per cent among the women. The average for Porto Rico should not -fall below 85 per cent, and the anemic conditions indicated by the low -average is an indication that the disease is to be found not only among -the country people, but also among people of the best conditions of -life. - -It will be impossible to settle the economic and social problems of -Porto Rico until the question of personal health has been more nearly -solved than it is to-day. With a large proportion of the country people -sick from anemia and malaria, and with tuberculosis as prevalent as it -is at the present time, the weakened vitality will not permit strenuous -or continued work sufficient to improve economic conditions to any great -extent. Social conditions, depending as they do upon the economic -situation, must also be slow of improvement, and the most important work -facing the Government of Porto Rico at present is the elimination of -such diseases as impair the physical condition of the people and thus -interfere with economic and social progress. - - - - -CRIME - - -GENERALLY speaking, criminals may be divided into three classes: first, -those who direct crime but who take no active part in the commission of -the crime themselves; second, those who commit crimes which require a -considerable amount of personal courage; third, those who commit crimes -which do not necessarily involve any great amount of personal courage. -There might be added a fourth class, which would consist of those who -commit crime through ignorance of the law or carelessness in informing -themselves of exact legal measures and in heeding this knowledge when -once obtained. During the year 1915-16 there was a total of 53,006 -arrests in the Island of Porto Rico. Of this number, nearly 47,000 were -men and the rest were women. On the basis of a population of 1,200,000, -this would give one arrest for every 22 persons in the Island. Of this -total number of arrests, however, only 438 were cases of felony. There -were a great many arrests for the infraction of municipal -ordinances,--something over 11,000 in all,--and more than 8,000 arrests -for disturbance of the peace. Over 9,000 were for gambling, and over -2,000 for petty larceny; about 5,000 arrests were for infraction of the -sanitary laws, and nearly 2,000 arrests were for infraction of road -laws. This shows that the greater number of arrests was for -comparatively unimportant crimes; by unimportant meaning, of course, -those crimes which do not directly involve the loss of life or of any -great amount of property. The felonies committed during the year were as -follows: - - Murders 41 - Homicides 26 - Attempt at murder 30 - Robbery 5 - Rape 15 - Seduction 24 - Crime against nature 3 - Arson 5 - Burglary 148 - Forgery 6 - Counterfeiting 1 - Grand larceny 10 - Cattle stealing 25 - Smuggling 5 - Extortion 2 - Crime against the public health and security 55 - Mayhem 11 - Violation of postal laws 5 - Violation of graves 1 - Conspiracy 8 - Falsification 7 - -giving a total of 438, which includes not only those sentenced but also -those indicted and acquitted. From this table it will be seen that a -relatively small number of the actual felonies committed are felonies -involving loss of life or an attempt against life. In support of this -table, and in proof of the fact that crimes of violence are relatively -few in Porto Rico, the following table is given, which is a record of -the convictions of the district courts of the Island of Porto Rico in -criminal cases, for the years 1913-14 and 1914-15, and of the convicts -in the penitentiary June 30, 1915: - - Number of Percentage In peni- Per cent - convictions of crimes tentiary in prison - - 1913- 1914- 1913- 1914- - 14 15 14 15 - Violation of laws - enacted in - exercise of - police powers 220 842 .23 .45 142 .10 - Against persons 286 432 .30 .23 371 .25 - Against property 329 312 .34 .17 779 .53 - Against the - administration of - public justice 29 142 .03 .08 21 .01 - Against decency 40 51 .04 .03 97 .06 - Against good morals 36 35 .04 .02 20 .01 - Against reputation 9 16 .01 .01 ... ... - Unclassified 10 7 .01 .01 38 .03 - --- ----- ----- - Totals 959 1,837 1,468 - -From the above table it will be seen that crimes against persons -constitute 23 to 30 per cent of the crimes committed. Of the total -number of convicts in the penitentiary for the commission of crime, 25 -per cent, during the year 1914-15, were there for crimes against -persons. Thus we may definitely state that about 25 per cent of the -crimes carried to the district courts of Porto Rico are those which -involve attempts against the life or well-being of another person. It -will be noticed from the above table that with few exceptions the -percentages of crimes for the two years are very nearly equal. In -1913-14, 34 per cent of the crimes were against property, which was not -strange when we consider that this was a year of financial crisis, due -to the sugar situation. In the same year 23 per cent of the crimes were -in violation of laws enacted in exercise of police powers. These crimes -included breach of the peace. - -In the following year, 1914-15, when we had about 17,000 laborers -engaged in strikes throughout the Island, and when in addition to this -there was a general Insular election, we find that the number of crimes -against property dropped to 17 per cent, whereas the number of crimes in -violation of laws enacted in exercise of police powers rose from 23 per -cent to 45 per cent. This would tend to prove that the average -lawbreaker in Porto Rico is easily influenced by economic circumstances -and by social surroundings, and that at such a period as that of strikes -or elections criminal tendencies take the direction of breach of the -peace and violation of municipal ordinances, rather than such crimes as -arson, burglary, embezzlement, or forgery. - -The influence of the election year is also noticeable in the group of -crimes prejudicial to the administration of public justice, which -includes contempt of court, bribery, and perjury. During the year -1913-14, 3 per cent of the convictions fell under this head, while -during the year 1914-15, the amount was 8 per cent. It will be noticed -that of the prisoners in the penitentiary the percentage of those -convicted for violation of laws enacted in exercise of police power is -only 10 per cent, much less than the percentage of those convicted in -the district courts. This, of course, is accounted for by the fact that -the great majority of violations of these laws are punishable by fines -rather than by imprisonment. In the same way, the percentage of -prisoners for crimes against property is much larger than the percentage -of convictions in the district courts for this crime, due, of course, to -the fact that these crimes are more frequently punished by a prison -sentence than by a fine, thus giving an accumulation from year to year -of convicts, which overbalances the per cent of the court convictions -for any single year. - -According to the report of the Insular Chief of Police, the town which -had the greatest number of arrests, in proportion to its population, for -the year 1915-16, was Arroyo, where there was one arrest for every 8.47 -persons. This was followed by Salinas, with one arrest for every 8.82 -persons. The town with the best record was Las Marías, where there was -one arrest for every 162.03 persons. On the basis of the records of the -municipal courts for the three years of 1912-13, 1913-14, and 1914-15, -the judicial districts stand in the following relation as far as the -number of criminal cases presented during that time is concerned. The -table given shows one criminal case presented every three years for the -number of inhabitants indicated in each judicial district. - - San Juan, one case for every 17.79 persons - Rio Piedras " " " " 18.42 " - Patillas " " " " 19.94 " - Vieques " " " " 19.98 " - Salinas " " " " 23.34 " - Guayama " " " " 24.62 " - Yauco " " " " 24.14 " - Mayaguez " " " " 27.50 " - Vega Baja " " " " 28.74 " - Humacao " " " " 27.31 " - San Lorenzo " " " " 30.66 " - Ciales " " " " 31.07 " - Fajardo " " " " 31.40 " - Juana Diaz " " " " 33.00 " - Cáguas " " " " 33.01 " - Yabucoa " " " " 33.24 " - Añasco " " " " 36.29 " - Ponce " " " " 36.92 " - Manatí " " " " 37.89 " - Arecibo " " " " 38.23 " - Cayey " " " " 38.29 " - Lares " " " " 40.83 " - Rio Grande " " " " 40.90 " - Barros " " " " 41.09 " - Bayamón " " " " 43.87 " - San Germán " " " " 44.70 " - Adjuntas " " " " 44.97 " - Coamo " " " " 45.19 " - Camuy " " " " 47.13 " - San Sebastián " " " " 48.55 " - Aguadilla " " " " 50.22 " - Utuado " " " " 54.61 " - Carolina " " " " 57.63 " - Cabo Rojo " " " " 64.99 " - -The great proportion of crime in San Juan, as compared with the rest of -the Island, is of course largely due to social conditions, inasmuch as -it is the largest city in the Island and to a great extent the resort of -undesirable characters for this reason. In the second place, as a coast -town and the most important shipping and commercial center, it has a -more or less shifting population, and a population composed to a great -extent of an uneducated type among the working classes. Every seaport -town offers opportunities for criminal classes which inland towns do not -possess. The second town in the list, Rio Piedras, is the natural outlet -between San Juan and the rest of the Island, which undoubtedly accounts -for its large percentage of crime. The rest of the towns where crime is -found in large proportion will be discovered to have a large floating -population, people who are day laborers and who have no particular -interest in the community, except as it provides them with an -opportunity for earning daily wages. This class of population is always -unfavorable to a community and is always to be found where large -industries exist which employ a great number of men; and this is -especially true when little attempt is made on the part of the employer -to render the permanence of the job desirable by furnishing -well-provided living facilities for the employee. It is noticeable that -in Cabo Rojo, where the percentage of criminal cases is lowest, the -population depends chiefly upon the hat-making industry for its support. -This is added proof of the value of small industries from the point of -view of community welfare. - -It is noteworthy that there was an immense increase in the number of -crimes committed in the following districts: Ciales, where the number of -cases increased from 431 in 1912 to 754 in 1915; Lares, where the -increase was from 352 to 853; Vieques, where the increase was from 341 -to 684; Yabucoa, where the increase was from 589 to 831; Yauco, where -the increase was from 867 to 1,490. In the rest of the districts the -number of crimes did not vary greatly from year to year, even decreasing -in the case of Rio Piedras from 1,101 in 1912 to 911 in 1915. Of course, -the difference in crime percentage might depend upon the efficiency of -the police force or upon the severity of the Municipal Judge, but -undoubtedly it will be found more often to depend upon local conditions -such as strikes, or the introduction of large numbers of workingmen from -another district to take part in agricultural or industrial work. The -change of location and the resulting necessity of accommodation to local -surroundings is apt to be dangerous to the morals of the individual. - -The great majority of the arrests were for crimes which would be termed -city crimes. The average countryman of Porto Rico is a man who has a -great deal of respect for the law and is inclined to obey it unless led -into trouble in a moment of passion or while under the influence of -alcoholic drinks. Throughout the country districts premeditated crime is -rare, and from the standpoint of improvement of the community, the -cities and large towns should be the chief points of attack. A great -deal of carelessness exists as to complying with local laws and -municipal ordinances, and it is estimated that on June 30, 1915, there -were confined in the Insular jails and detention houses, prisoners in -the relation of one to every 7.17 inhabitants of the Island. The chief -work of the schools along the line of prevention of crime should be the -explanation of laws, both Insular and municipal, and the explanation of -the reasons for such laws, in order that the individual may be led by -his own volition to avoid lawbreaking. Parents should also be impressed -with the necessity of inculcating in their children a respect for -constituted authority and the necessary obedience to it in order that as -the children develop into men and women they may have the proper respect -for the laws and those who have been appointed to enforce them. - - - - -INTEMPERANCE - - -IT is unnecessary to say anything about the evil effects of the use of -alcoholic drinks, whether it be from the physical, moral, or economic -point of view. The recent agitation in favor of the prohibition of the -manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages in Porto Rico, however, has -caused more discussion regarding the situation here than has ever before -been the case, and a brief statement of facts may not be unwarranted. - -The Porto Ricans are not given to the overconsumption of alcoholic -drinks. They are not heavy drinkers, and drunkenness is not at all -common. Probably every village has its unfortunate inhabitants, few in -number, who live usually under the influence of intoxicants. But the -great majority of the people are not given to the excessive use of -alcohol. The use of wines is common, a custom characteristic of most -Latin peoples. - -Porto Rico produces a great deal of alcohol, it being one of the -by-products of the sugar cane. Data are not available to show just how -much of the rum and alcohol produced is used in the Island, and how much -is exported, or how much is used for drinking purposes and how much for -commercial uses. During the fiscal year 1915-16, a total revenue of -$1,111,834.30 was paid to the Insular government on alcoholic liquors -manufactured in Porto Rico or imported into the Island. This gives a -per capita revenue of nearly one dollar, and this revenue was paid on -3,886,705 liters of alcoholic liquors either manufactured here or -imported--a per capita allowance of more than three liters for every -inhabitant of the Island. It is probably true that a great deal of the -alcohol manufactured in Porto Rico was exported, but even granting that -one half was not used here, the amount of one and a half liters for -every inhabitant is excessive. - -The average grocery store carries a complete line of bottled drinks, and -often beer in the keg, as well. This is one of the first things which -impresses the visitor from the States when he enters a grocery store and -sees the shelves packed with all kinds of bottles. There is a constant -sale for goods of this sort, usually to the workingmen and poorer class -of people, who purchase in small quantities, a drink at a time, for -three or five cents; many of them, no doubt, attempting to keep up their -physical strength by the use of such a stimulant, since a more -noticeable stimulating effect is produced by five cents' worth of rum -than could be obtained through the consumption of five cents' worth of -food. When this custom becomes as prevalent as it is in Porto Rico, it -involves serious evil effects. - -There are few drug users in the Island, and the strict enforcement of -the Harrison Drug Law will prevent drug using from becoming the menace -to health and morals to the extent that we find to be the case in many -of the cities of the United States. There is, however, a large quantity -of patent medicines used, many of which have a sufficient amount of -alcohol or narcotic drug element to render them dangerous from the point -of view of habit formation. - -Many of the poorer people do not have the money to pay the fees of a -doctor and to purchase at a drug store the medicine which he prescribes. -Moreover, many medical men do not listen with as much patience as they -might, to the detailed list of complaints which the countryman has to -offer. As a consequence, the countryman buys a bottle of medicine which -has been recommended to him by a friend, or perhaps by the druggist, who -often serves as a consulting physician in the smaller towns. If the -medicine makes him feel better, he becomes a firm believer in its power -to cure. Whether the result produced is actually a bettering of his -physical condition, or merely a deadening of the nerves by means of a -narcotic, he does not stop to ask. He recommends the medicine to his -friends as a sure remedy for all their illnesses, and probably makes of -it a household remedy, to be used by all members of the family when they -feel indisposed. The author has known of many instances in which -medicine has been purchased from patent medicine firms in the States, -because of advertisements in the newspapers, and of several cases, where -the money was returned by federal authorities with the statement that -the company addressed had been closed by the post office authorities -because it was found that their claims were not legitimate and that -their medicines were valueless. The average Porto Rican places a great -deal of confidence in what he reads in the newspapers, and the papers -are not as careful as they should be regarding the question of admitting -advertising matter. - -There is no great amount of public opinion against the use of alcohol in -Porto Rico, and until, through the schools, the press, or some other -agency, the people as a whole can be brought to see the disadvantage of -its use, there can be but little accomplished in the direction of -temperance and prohibition. The prohibition movement in the United -States is not a matter of the moment alone, it is a movement which has -been growing for years, and at the present time seems to have the -majority of the population behind it. This is not the case in Porto -Rico, and it is doubtful whether an abrupt change, unless backed up by -strong public opinion, and the authority of the great majority of the -people, would accomplish much in the way of betterment of conditions. - - - - -JUVENILE DELINQUENTS - - -ONE of the most difficult problems that faces organized society to-day -is the disposal of delinquent children, and in order to meet this -problem, the Juvenile Court system has been established in the United -States, and by a law approved March 11, 1915, the Juvenile Court system -was introduced into Porto Rico to take effect on June 1, 1915. - -Up to within recent times juvenile offenders have been subjected to the -same laws and the same penalties as hardened criminals, and there is no -doubt but that a great many boys and girls who had broken some law or -local ordinance, often through carelessness or ignorance, were placed in -detention houses with older criminals and in this way became accustomed -to the criminal classes and frequently were induced to enter upon a life -of crime. - -The prevailing idea of criminal law is to punish the offender for the -offense committed against the laws of the state. Modern social science -teaches that it is unfair to boys or girls of tender age to visit a -punishment of this sort upon them, especially when it may lead to a -continuance of crime, rather than to an avoidance of it in the future. -Consequently, with the introduction of the Juvenile Court system the -cases are taken out of criminal procedure and placed under the -jurisdiction of courts of equity. The trials are usually informal, -although the child has a right to a trial by jury in case he is accused -of a serious offense, and he has the right to legal counsel, if he so -desires. These rights, however, are very seldom exercised, inasmuch as -it is coming to be recognized that the judges represent an actual -attempt to do what is best for the child and do not represent in any way -the prosecuting power of the state. - -The principal figure in a Juvenile Court is the judge of the court, and -wherever it is possible to do so, men especially trained in juvenile -psychology should be appointed to this office. A knowledge of children -and an understanding and appreciation of their feelings is necessary on -the part of the judge, and he should be a person of sufficiently -magnetic personality to win the sympathies of the children and to enable -him to gain their confidence. To what an extent the influence of a -single man may reach in the case of juvenile offenders and how far his -influence may prevent crime among children, is well seen in the case of -Judge Lindsey, of Denver, Colorado. - -The second official in the court is the probation officer, who is under -the authority of the judge, makes the necessary investigations when -cases are reported to him, and presents the facts in the case to the -judge of the court. He also must look after the children who have passed -through the court to see that the sentences of the court are carried -out; and if the children are placed on probation under the guardianship -of relatives or friends, he must make visits sufficient in number and -often enough so that he can be sure that the best interests of the -child are being safeguarded, and if he finds the case to be otherwise, -to report the facts to the judge of the court. - -As the financial situation in Porto Rico did not permit the -establishment of a completely new judicial system, it was decided to -appoint the judge of each of the seven district courts of the Island to -act as judge of the Juvenile Court. The prosecutors and municipal court -judges are also probation officers _ex officio_, and the justices of the -peace and others appointed by the district judges may be asked to serve -as special probation officers. The Juvenile Courts in Porto Rico have -original jurisdiction over juvenile offenders, and any case appealed -from the Juvenile Courts may go directly to the Supreme Court of the -Island. The courts are courts of record and the judges have authority to -set the dates and places when and where sessions of the court will be -held, to summon witnesses and compel them to appear in court. The -jurisdiction of the Juvenile Courts in Porto Rico extends to all -children under 16 years of age who are accused of any crime whatsoever, -and it also applies to all people under 21 years of age, if they have -ever been under the jurisdiction of the Juvenile Court before they were -16. The Juvenile Court also has jurisdiction over adults who have been -responsible for the abandonment of children or who have contributed in -any way to the delinquency of the child. - -Of course, this situation is not an ideal one for the best working out -of the problems that confront a Juvenile Court system. In the first -place, it is practically impossible for men who act as criminal judges -or criminal prosecutors to adopt the attitude so necessary for the -fulfillment of the work of a juvenile court officer, as their training -has been such as to influence them to believe that the prisoner is an -offender and that violations of the law must be punished with sufficient -severity to prevent a repetition of the offense on the part of the -prisoner, and to serve as a warning for others who might be tempted to -commit the same offense. The Juvenile Court officer, on the other hand, -should regard only the best future interests of the child, and the -question with him should not be as to whether a proper punishment may be -inflicted for what the child has done, but as to how the future conduct -of the child may be bettered after a due consideration of all the -influences of heredity and environment in each particular case. - -From July 1, 1915, to January 1, 1916, a total of 164 cases came before -the Juvenile Courts. Of these, three cases were girls accused of petty -larceny, and two were charged with being abandoned. The remaining 159 -cases were boys. The cause given in nearly every case for the bad -conduct of the children was one of the four following: - - 1. Lack of parental authority. - 2. Bad environment. - 3. Ignorance. - 4. Poverty. - -Of the total number, 83 boys were accused of larceny, 25 were abandoned -children, 18 were accused of fighting, 9 were accused of gambling, 7 -were accused of breach of the peace, 4 were accused of attempts at -larceny, 3 were accused of stoning buildings, and the rest were accused -of various minor offenses. - -An investigation of the home conditions of these boys brings out some -pertinent facts in connection with the influence of a broken home upon -the actions of the children. Of the total number of cases presented, 21 -lived with their parents, 54 lived with their mothers, 23 lived with -their fathers, and 22 lived with relatives, 13 lived with guardians, 13 -had absolutely no homes and existed as best they might, with no -permanent dwelling place, while 8 lived with friends. Thus we see that -in the great majority of cases the children came from homes where they -lacked the guidance and authority of at least one parent. Only 50 of the -164 had attended school, and only 15 had succeeded in passing the third -grade in the public schools. Of the total number, 85 were illegitimate -children, and 15 did not know whether their parents were married or not. - -It is estimated that the city of San Juan alone has 500 homeless -children and that there are at least 10,000 children in the Island who -have absolutely no home and who are entirely without the influence of -parental control. Doubtless, a great majority of these children are the -result of illegitimate unions. What that means to the future of Porto -Rico can very easily be imagined when we consider that they are growing -up absolutely without control and without respect for authority of any -sort. In very few cases do they attend the public schools, and they -must remain in this homeless condition, living as best they can, -stealing or begging, when honest means of obtaining food do not avail. -Thus they grow up learning the vice that can be found among the most -poverty-stricken and criminal classes with whom they associate, and -forming a group of people with criminal tendencies, and in their turn -causing to be produced another generation of children who will be -handicapped by the environment and the training which their fathers have -received. The Government should colonize these homeless children on -government lands where they may be taught a trade and where an attempt -should be made to give them some idea of what life may mean to the -educated, industrious citizen. The results would more than justify the -necessary expenditure of money. - -The Juvenile Court in Porto Rico has three means at its disposal for -taking care of children that fall under its jurisdiction. It may send -them to the Reform School at Mayaguez, in case they are boys. (There is -no Reform School for girls in the Island.) It may also send them to one -of the two charity schools in existence, or it may place them under the -supervision of a friend or relative who must respond to the probation -officer for their good conduct. The Reform School at Mayaguez will -accommodate only 100 inmates, and as these are usually required to -complete a rather long term of years in the institution, the number of -vacancies occurring in the school each year is very small. The charity -schools, both for boys and girls, are also overcrowded, and there is -very little chance of the Juvenile Court being able to send any of its -cases to either of these institutions. As a result, special wards have -been prepared in the Insular penitentiary, and the most serious cases -are assigned to these wards until such a time as there is a possibility -of their being placed in the Reform School. An attempt is made to give -the inmates of these special wards industrial work and some academic -instruction, and they are kept absolutely separate from adult prisoners. - -Of the 164 cases mentioned, the following disposition was made of the -children: 34 were sent to correctional institutions (most of these were -sent to the special wards in the penitentiary), 38 were placed under the -care of their mothers, 24 were placed under the care of their fathers, 9 -were placed under the care of both parents, 8 under the care of friends, -12 under the care of guardians, 17 under the care of relatives, and 6 -were sent to the charity schools. - -The problem of juvenile offenders is more acute in Porto Rico than in -the United States, due to the fact that there are more opportunities -open in Porto Rico for juvenile offenders than are to be found, possibly -with the exception of the largest cities, in the United States. The -early physical development of the tropics adds to the difficulties of -the situation, and also the temptations that surround homeless children -even at a comparatively early age. In addition to this, we have many -instances of consensual marriages, which offer a temptation to even the -very young to lower the standards of morality and to become careless -regarding the marriage relation. The large number of poverty-stricken -and homeless undoubtedly contributes a great deal to physical as well as -mental and moral degeneration, and the combination of these factors may -perhaps account for the large number of weak-minded and insane that we -find at large in the majority of the towns of the Island. In addition, -promiscuous sexual relations undoubtedly contribute to this degeneracy, -and if active steps are not taken to prepare these homeless children for -better living and to enable them to earn an honest living, they will -serve as the propagators of another generation of equally homeless, -pauperized, and degenerate citizens. - - - - -RURAL SCHOOLS - - -ONE of the most perplexing problems which the Department of Education -has to face in Porto Rico is the problem of the rural schools. In -addition to a school budget too small to provide the number of rural -schools necessary for all of the children of school age, there are added -difficulties in the way of poverty and sickness among the country people -which lead to irregular attendance on the part of the children, poor -roads, and the keeping of children out of school in order to help earn -money to support the family, especially in districts where child labor -may be used profitably; and above all these difficulties is the great -difficulty of furnishing the rural schools with teachers who are -adequately trained and who have a comprehensive view of their mission as -teachers and of the duty of the school to the community in which it is -located. - -The rural school problem will never be solved until we are able to -provide teachers who are thoroughly prepared for the work which they -have to do, and who look upon this work as being as important as any -other profession. At present the rural school teachers fall into two -rather large classes: first, the young, inexperienced, and often -untrained teacher; and, second, the old, often out-of-date teacher, who -has been unable to keep step with the progress of the town schools and -has been pushed out into the country. Neither of these classes is -fitted to give the best instruction in the rural schools; neither of -them considers the position of a rural teacher as a permanent one, and -in order to accomplish his best work the rural teacher should be -expected to live in one community for a term of years so that he may -fully understand and appreciate the problems of that community and -become thoroughly acquainted with the patrons of his school. - -The wages of the rural teacher should be such as will enable him to live -in comfort, and as part of his wages the Government might very well -assign him a parcel of land, together with living quarters, which would -tend to make his residence in the district more permanent and which -would enable him to carry on experimental work in agriculture at his own -home. - -There is no doubt but that the time will come when consolidated schools -will be established in each _barrio_ for the benefit of the children of -the community. In this way, better teachers, better school buildings, -better equipment, and a better arranged schedule of studies can be -provided, as an untrained teacher who works with poor facilities and who -has to handle two different groups of children in the day and who may -have six grades to teach, is working under a disadvantage which greatly -handicaps the work. This is especially true when the teacher has no -permanent interest in the rural school problem and regards his term of -office there simply as a stepping-stone to a place in the graded school -system of the town. In the annual report of the Commissioner of -Education for 1914-15 we find the following data in regard to the rural -schools of Porto Rico: - -"The rural schools are located in the _barrios_ or rural subdivisions of -the municipalities. Of the 1,200,000 inhabitants which comprise the -total population of the Island, about 79 per cent live in this rural -area and about 70 per cent of them are illiterate. At the present time -there are approximately 331,233 children of school age (between 5 and 18 -years) living in the barrios. Of these only 91,966 or 27 per cent were -enrolled in the rural schools at any time during the past year. This -shows a decrease from the figures reported last year, but the fact is -accounted for by an order issued from the central office prohibiting -rural teachers from enrolling more than 80 pupils. In some of the -populous barrios the teachers were enrolling 150 pupils and sometimes -more. Inasmuch as neither the material conditions of the school -buildings nor the professional equipment of the teachers justified such -a burden, it was deemed wise, even in the face of an overwhelming school -population for which no provision is made, to limit the enrollment to a -size compatible with a semblance of efficiency. The average number of -pupils belonging during the year to the rural schools was 76,341. The -average number of teachers at work in these schools was 1,243. This -figure includes a number of teachers whose salary was paid by the school -boards from their surplus funds. The corps of teachers for the entire -Island is fixed by the legislature each year when the appropriations to -pay their salaries are made, the commissioner being charged with its -distribution among the various municipalities, but the school boards -may, within certain limitations, increase the number allotted to them -provided they pay their salaries from any surplus funds at their -disposal. The average number of pupils taught by each teacher was about -63. The average daily attendance was 69,786, or 89.7 per cent, which -gives an average of about 58 pupils receiving instruction daily from -each teacher. About 59 per cent of the pupils were boys and 41 per cent -girls. The average age of all pupils in the rural schools was 10.1 -years. - -"The above figures show, in a way, the magnitude of the problem to be -solved before the people of Porto Rico can assume in full the duties and -privileges of self-government. That enormous mass of illiterates, in its -primitive, uncured condition, is not safe timber to build the good ship -of state. We realize that there are serious social and economic problems -to be solved before the people of Porto Rico reach the desired goal. But -the pioneer work must be done by the rural school. Those people must be -brought to a realization of their condition and to wish to improve it. -The rural school, adapted more and more to actual conditions, is the one -agency that can bring this about. At present, we are making provision -for less than one third of the rural school population. It is as if we -had an enormous debt and our resources did not permit us to pay the -interest on it. The problem calls for heroic measures. - -"Of the 1,243 teachers in charge of the rural schools during the past -year, 1,217 or 91 per cent had double enrollment, i.e., one group of 40 -pupils or less in the morning for three hours, and another similar -group in the afternoon for the same period. The distribution of time -among the various subjects of the curriculum depends, of course, on -whether the school has double enrollment or not, as well as on the -number of grades grouped in any one session. - -"The course of study of the rural schools extends over a period of six -years. Of the 91,966 different pupils enrolled during the year, 49.1 per -cent were found in the first grade, 25.7 per cent in the second, 15.9 -per cent in the third, 8.4 per cent in the fourth, and the remaining 0.9 -per cent in the fifth and sixth grades. Of the total enrollment 93.2 per -cent were on half time, the remaining 6.8 per cent receiving instruction -six hours daily. - -"Any enrichment of the rural course of study has been necessarily -conditioned by the meager professional equipment of the rural teaching -force, many of whom entered the service with nothing more than a -common-school education and a few scraps of information about school -management gotten together for the examination. Up to the present the -academic requirements for admission to the examinations for the rural -license have been limited to the eighth-grade diploma or its equivalent, -and the examinations for the obtention of the license have covered the -following subjects: English, Spanish, arithmetic, history of the United -States and of Porto Rico, geography, elementary physiology and hygiene, -nature study, and methods of teaching. It has been announced already -that in all probability candidates for the rural license will have to -present four high-school credits for admission to the examinations. The -excess of teachers now obtaining and the increasing output of the Normal -School will afford opportunity for selection and will raise the standard -of efficiency of the force. At its last quarterly meeting the board of -trustees of the University of Porto Rico voted to raise the entrance -requirements of the Normal Department from four high-school credits to -eight. In view of this, the Department of Education will probably -increase the requirements for admission to the examinations for the -rural license sufficiently to bring them up to the standard established -by the board of trustees for admission to the Normal Department of the -University. - -"The rural teachers are elected by the school boards, subject to the -approval of the Commissioner of Education, who pays their salaries from -an Insular appropriation. The teachers are divided into three salary -classes, as follows: First class, $40; second class, $45; third class, -$50. All rural teachers begin at the $40 salary, and after three years -of experience pass to the $45 class and after five years to the $50 -class. Last year all rural teachers received a salary of $38 only, due -to financial embarrassment. - -"The rural schools were housed in 1,193 separate buildings, containing a -total of 1,250 classrooms. Of these 1,193 rural buildings, 320 are owned -by the school boards and were especially constructed for school purposes -from plans approved by the Department of Education and the sanitary -officials. Most of the rural school buildings contain but one room, -although not a few have two, three, and even four, the tendency toward -the centralized school growing steadily. In all, 24 new rural school -buildings have been erected during the year. Most of these are frame -structures, but some are built of reënforced concrete and have a very -pleasing appearance." - - - - -THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY - - -THE movement toward using the schoolhouse as a center for the social -activities of the community is gaining ground every year and through -this movement the school, as an organization consisting of the teacher -and pupils, is rapidly coming to have much more influence in the -community life than was formerly the case when the school was considered -as merely an organization for the teaching of academic subjects. The -need of a social center in the country districts is especially marked, -inasmuch as there is a decided tendency among the country people to -gather in small groups, based upon relationship or intimate friendship, -to the exclusion of the wider interests of the community. Little attempt -is usually made to direct in any way the outside activities or the -recreation hours of the young people and often their activities take a -direction which is distinctly unsocial. - -The school in adapting itself to the community in order that it may -serve as a social center must make certain investigations, because the -need of social service and the kind of service which shall be -instituted, depends upon existing local conditions. Some of the most -necessary lines of investigation to be made by the teacher and pupils -before the most effective aid can be rendered, are those which follow: - -First.--The number of farmers who own the farms upon which they live and -the number of tenant farmers. - -Second.--The average size of the farms; the number of well-arranged -homes; the total number of acres devoted to each of the important crops. - -Third.--The distance to the nearest market, and the number of miles of -well-kept roads. - -These three points will determine largely the direction which any social -movement must take, because upon them is based the economic situation of -the community. In addition to considering the community from the -economic point of view, we may also consider the sanitary conditions -that prevail in the district, and the teacher and pupils should make a -survey of the district with the following points in mind: - -First.--The sources of water supply. If water is from open wells, where -are they located, and what is the distance from barns and outhouses; are -they built in accordance with specifications from the Department of -Sanitation? - -Second.--How is garbage disposed of in the neighborhood; are common -drinking cups and the common towel prohibited in the schoolroom? Is the -school furnished with a covered water tank, and does it have facilities -for washing the hands and face? Do the people of the neighborhood know -the regulations of the Department of Sanitation in regard to sanitary -conditions; is there much preventable illness in the district, and to -what extent are patent medicines used by the patrons of the school? - -Third.--Are the houses, including the schoolhouses, well ventilated and -well located as far as distance from standing water or other -mosquito-breeding places is concerned? Is the floor of the schoolhouse -swept every night, and are foot scrapers and doormats provided? Does the -teacher inspect the outhouses, and are they built according to -specifications from the Department of Sanitation? - -A union of all the patrons of the district is necessary if any movement -is to be carried out with telling effect, and the teacher should find -out if there is or has been any organization of the men, women, girls, -or boys in the district of a social or civic type; has the school done -anything up to the present time to improve the social life in the -district, and has it ever encouraged local fairs or exhibits of school -or agricultural products, and has it founded boys' or girls' -agricultural or home economics clubs? - -How does the religious condition affect the community, and what is the -attitude of the community toward these matters and toward social -affairs? How do the young men and young women spend their leisure time? -Has the school any magazines or farm papers in its library, and how many -homes in the district have any library, or any musical instruments? - -What has been the attitude of the previous teachers in the district -toward the affairs of the community; how long has each remained in the -district? Are changes in the position of the teachers frequent, and if -so, what is the reason? Have previous teachers actually resided in the -community or have they lived in the nearest town? Have the previous -teachers been professionally trained, and have they taken any interest -in the affairs of the community outside of their regular school duties? - -When the school has succeeded in getting together the information noted -in the above paragraphs, it will then be in a position to determine what -lines of social activity will be best for the particular community. - -The organization of men's clubs and women's clubs for the discussion of -topics of general interest and for the purpose of arousing a feeling of -community interest should be undertaken as soon as possible, the teacher -always remembering that the management of these organizations should be -in the hands of the members who compose them, and that the teacher -should act only as an adviser in case advice may be necessary. The -people should feel that on them rests the responsibility of developing -the civic and social life of the community, and the teacher should not -allow them to shift this responsibility. The organization of boys' clubs -and girls' clubs will present no difficulties to the teacher who has -made a study of the situation and who is prepared for his work. The boys -and girls are in the most easily influenced period of their lives, and -whether or not they will develop a sense of civic and social -responsibility, depends very largely upon the attitude which their -teachers take in regard to these matters. - -Rural life in any community has a tendency to be monotonous and -deadening to the finer qualities. Uninterrupted and unduly prolonged -physical labor tends to the detriment of both the physical and the -mental abilities of the individual. The isolation of the country home -tends to narrow and restrict social intercourse, and the difficulty of -travel and communication increases the monotony of country life. These -circumstances do a great deal to offset the advantage of living in the -country and have contributed a great deal to the stigma that has always -been attached to the countryman. - -If there is to be any reform in this isolated social life of the -community, the reform must come about through the schools. The -Government can aid to a great extent through the provision of well-kept -roads and by the establishment of means of communication such as the -telephone and the telegraph. The man who is in touch with the large -affairs of life forgets his own petty annoyances in the contemplation of -problems of greater importance, while the man who has nothing to think -about except the annoyances of his own life tends to become -self-centered and narrow. - -Rural social center work in the United States has made great progress -within the last few years and has been successful in practically all the -places where it has been tried, especially if the teacher is a person of -tact and intelligence. A great deal depends upon the attitude which the -teacher has in this work, and it is not enough that the teacher should -undertake such work as a burden added to the already overcrowded -curriculum of the day, but the teacher should enter into the movement -with a sincere desire to improve the condition of the community and -bring the patrons of the district to a higher degree of efficiency as -workmen and as citizens. In every community there are many young women -and young men who are above the average school age who are compelled to -work during the day, and who are fast becoming fixed in the monotonous -life that has surrounded the older people of the community, who might -easily be interested by the teacher and influenced through the formation -of social clubs, so that they would form the nucleus for a better coming -generation of citizens. The meetings of young people should partake of -recreation as well as of serious study, and while the avowed intention -of new clubs formed by the school should be for the purpose of bettering -the social and civic condition of the people of the community, they must -be placed in as favorable a light as possible, for it should be -remembered that people will often undertake a movement which will have -decidedly beneficial results if it is disguised under the form of -recreation, when they would hesitate to give their continued assistance -to such a movement if it partook entirely of the nature of serious -study. - -The Department of Education in the Island of Porto Rico is making a -special effort at the present time to interest the older girls and the -women of the towns in social betterment through the medium of mothers' -clubs and girls' clubs, organized under the direction of the teachers of -home economics. These clubs have been organized in practically all of -the towns of the Island and are meeting with general success. In many -cases the girls' clubs assume an aspect of economic improvement in that -they undertake the production of certain salable articles such as -embroidery or handwork, and the teacher in charge of the group provides -the market for the articles produced. Little has been done up to the -present in organizing the men and boys into social groups. Boy scout -organizations were widely established through the Island several years -ago, but on account of the lack of some individual to devote his time to -the organizing side of the movement they have decreased in number and in -influence. Anyone who is at all familiar with the social situation in -Porto Rico, especially in the rural districts, will see at once the -necessity of organizations of the kind mentioned above and will be -impressed with the possibilities for good in a community which can be -exercised by the rural school under the direction of an efficient, well -trained, enthusiastic teacher. The democratic form of government which -the Island enjoys demands the highest possible development of civic and -social ideas and obligations, and in order to fulfill its highest -mission the school should undertake such lines of work as will tend to -develop not only better educated people of academic attainments, but -also better trained citizens in the social and civic sense. - - - - -RELATION OF THE TEACHER TO THE COMMUNITY - - -IN rural sections the school should be a factor of much more importance -than it is in the urban centers for the reason that the country people -are almost entirely shut off from other educative institutions such as -public libraries, free lectures, and association with their -fellow-citizens, privileges which the urban resident is able to use to -great advantage. To carry out effectively the mission of the rural -school in a community and to make it a center from which there may be -spread an influence for social betterment, as well as for intellectual -improvement, the teacher is the all-important factor. There are certain -duties which a teacher owes to his profession, in case he is working in -the country, which cannot be neglected if he is to obtain the results -which he should obtain. Following are some of the most important of -these duties: - -First.--The teacher should visit all homes and get acquainted with the -patrons. This is important in order that he may get an insight into the -conditions under which the people are living, and that he may know the -particular difficulties of the pupils with whom he has to deal. -Moreover, acquaintance on the part of the parents with the teacher will -often aid in avoiding disciplinary difficulties, inasmuch as the parents -come to have increasing confidence in him and his work as their -acquaintance with him increases. - -Second.--The teacher should study conditions from all angles so as to -adapt the school work to the needs of the community. Even in so small an -island as Porto Rico, we have distinctly different occupations centered -in different parts of the Island, and the teacher should remember that -the majority of his pupils will undoubtedly grow up to take a part in -the prevailing industry of the community in which they are born and -raised. The schedule and work of the rural school should not be an -attempt to imitate the plan of study of the urban schools, inasmuch as -the problems are entirely different, and until a teacher has convinced -himself of this fact and has made an attempt to model his work on the -needs of the community, the school will not accomplish its full mission. - -Third.--The teacher should live in the district seven days in the week -during the school term. More and more the idea is becoming prevalent -that rural teachers should be provided with a house and a small plot of -ground near the school in order to become permanent residents of the -district. The average farmer is very conservative and needs visual -demonstration of the merits of new ideas before he will accept them. No -amount of theoretical teaching will improve farming conditions to any -great extent, and unless the teacher is able to become a demonstrator of -his ideas by actually putting them into practice on the plot of ground -which he himself manages, he cannot expect to influence to any great -extent the agricultural movements of the community in which he works. -The school should aim not only for the education of the children who -are actually enrolled, but also for the betterment of the agricultural -and social conditions of the community. - -Fourth.--The rural teacher should be loyal to his pupils and patrons. -The teacher who feels himself an individual superior to the members of -the community whom he is serving and allows this feeling to express -itself in his attitude toward them, loses the greater part of his -influence through this action. The countryman likes to be met on equal -terms and does not enjoy a condescending attitude any more than does his -brother who lives in the town. The teacher should have in mind only the -benefits which he may bring to the community, and if he actually and -actively takes part in the social movements of the place he will come to -learn that human nature is the same in the country as in the town, and -he will be able to acquire a sincere liking for the people with whom he -works. - -Fifth.--The teacher should so conduct himself outside of the school as -to win respect for himself and for his profession. The idea that a -teacher's duty to the school ends with the closing of the actual school -day is a mistaken one. Any action on the part of the teacher outside of -his school work which would tend to lower him in the estimation of his -pupils or their parents, inevitably tends to reduce the amount of -influence which he can exert. A teacher is on duty constantly and cannot -limit his working hours or his working habits to certain defined periods -of time. - -Sixth.--The teacher should stay more than one year in a district, -unless a change means decided professional and financial advancement. -Short term teachers are often of more harm than benefit to the children -of a community. The advent of a new teacher means a change in plans and -usually a change in methods of work. These changes tend to upset the -minds of the children who naturally like to follow well-defined lines of -work. The constant change of teachers also means that none of them stays -sufficiently long to learn the needs of the community and the best -method of meeting these needs. School boards should offer inducements to -rural teachers in the way of increasing the salary for increased length -of service, and thus there would be less desire on the part of the -teacher to move from one district to another. - -Seventh.--The teacher should arouse an interest in the school and do his -part to convince the patrons of the need of a better school to meet the -demands of the present day. A great part of the teacher's work lies -outside of his actual teaching, and more and more we are coming to -conceive the school as a social as well as an educational institution, -and by means of parents' meetings, using the school as a social center -and making the schoolhouse a gathering place for the patrons of the -district, where they may meet and discuss the problems with which they -are confronted, the present-day teacher supplements his actual teaching -duties. There are few other ways in which the social needs of the -country people can be better met than through the rural school. -Moreover, by means of these meetings it is possible to show parents the -progress which is being made by their children in the school work and to -impress them with the necessity of regular and punctual attendance. One -of the surest ways to win the approval of men and women is by -interesting them in the progress of their children, and the wise teacher -will take advantage of every opportunity which presents itself, and go -to great lengths to make opportunities for cultivating the interest of -the parents in the school, through this means. - -Eighth.--The teacher in a rural school should have as the aim of rural -education "better men, better farming, and better living." The country -teacher who appreciates and realizes this is aware of the chief factors -in the solution of the farm problem. He must also remember that he is a -public servant and that the public has a right to expect him to put his -whole soul into the welfare of the community. The schools are held to be -largely responsible for ineffective farming and the low ideals of -country life. A great many of our rural teachers are not at all in -sympathy with rural ideals and rural customs. They regard their position -as merely temporary, and express, even though it may be involuntary on -their part, the idea that the town is much preferable to the country, -and in this way inculcate in the children a distaste for the life of the -country, when it should be their duty to present the best features of -rural life in order to persuade the children to remain on the farms. - -Ninth.--The teacher should be able to discriminate between essentials -and non-essentials and omit the latter, thus giving more time to the -problems of country life. He should get away from the formalism of -textbooks, using them only as tools, and adapt all his work to the needs -and interests of the community. He should not attempt to be too -scientific, but should teach in terms of child life. And even in his -intercourse with the patrons of the school he should put himself, in -manners and conversation, on terms of equality with them. The teacher -should learn to use his energy for better and more definite planning, -and in the schoolroom should do for the children fewer of those things -that may be done by the pupils themselves. There is no reason why pupils -should not be taught to study and work independently, and the school -that fulfills its highest mission trains children to become independent -workers. Especially is this true in the country, where pupils should -work as well as study and recite. Mere academic training in the rural -school will defeat the purpose of the school and will be very apt to -produce young men and young women who are dissatisfied with the -conditions under which they must live after leaving school. - - - - -PRESENT-DAY RURAL SCHOOL MOVEMENTS - - -WITHIN the last few years, rural education in the United States has -received a great deal of attention, and many plans have been suggested -for the betterment of rural teaching. Conferences of state and national -educators have been held for the purpose of discussing the rural school -question, and out of the mass of school movements, discussions, and -ideas which have been presented, there are some which might be made -applicable to the situation as it exists in Porto Rico. - -The following ideas seem to indicate the spirit which underlies rural -education of the present day. They are the result of a conference held -in Kentucky in 1914 by people who were especially interested in rural -school problems: - -First.--The greatest social need of the century is the organization and -consequent up-building of the rural life of America. - -Second.--This must be the outgrowth of the self-activity of rural life -forces. - -Third.--Outside forces can only assist in the work. - -Fourth.--There is a need of raising the general level of living in the -country in order to keep the brightest and best people from leaving the -country in too great numbers. - -Fifth.--To educate the young in the schools, to elevate their ideals, to -arouse their ambitions without raising the level of living and offering -them a broader field for the exercise of their talents, may do as much -harm as good. - -Sixth.--The school is only one of the agencies for community -up-building. - -Seventh.--There must be coöperation among the rural life forces, all -working together for a common end. - -Eighth.--The farmer, the country woman, the country teacher, the country -editor, the country doctor, and the country business man must all join -hands for better living along every line in the country. - -Ninth.--The community is the proper unit for rural development. - -Tenth.--The community must learn how to educate, to organize, and to -develop itself. - -In attempting to carry out the ideas expressed in the statements quoted -above, emphasis has been laid upon educational rallies, school farms, -farmers' Chatauquas, and other means which have as their aim the idea of -arousing community pride and community coöperation, not only for the -benefit and betterment of the school, but also for the benefit and -betterment of the members of the community who are not of school age. A -great deal of emphasis has been laid upon rural school extension work, -that is, work carried on under the supervision of school officers but -which really devotes its main efforts to adults who are living in rural -communities. One of the most recent steps in this direction was the -passing of the bill known as the "Smith Lever Act" by the Federal -Congress in 1914, which ultimately carries with it an appropriation of -over $4,500,000 for agricultural extension and rural welfare. Under this -bill, Porto Rico receives $10,000 per year for extension work among the -farmers, the work being carried out under the supervision of the Federal -Experiment Station located at Mayaguez. - -Another movement which is prominent in rural school affairs at present, -is the tendency toward a larger unit of organization for taxation and -administration. The rural schools of Porto Rico are already under the -municipal unit of school administration, which probably will not be -changed, as close supervision demands rather small units of -organization. In the report of the Commissioner of Education for 1915-16 -a suggestion is made that the appropriation of money for schools -throughout the Island be determined by the school population in a given -community and not by the taxable wealth of that community. It frequently -happens that the wealthiest municipalities are the ones which are least -in need of additional school facilities, and this recommendation tends -to make the unit for school taxation and appropriation of funds an -Insular rather than a municipal unit, as we have to-day. The idea, of -course, is based upon the fact that Porto Rico is small enough so that -every citizen should be interested in the education of all the children -of the Island, and that the movements in education should be Insular in -unit rather than municipal. - -Demonstration schools for rural communities have been organized with a -view to showing the people in a definite and concrete way what a school -can do for a community. These demonstration schools are usually placed -in a central location and put under the charge of the teachers of -greatest experience and ability. All of the children in the different -grades included in the rural school course have a course of study to -complete in the schoolroom, and another equally emphasized course of -study to complete in the home and on the farm. - -Experiments and studies are being carried on which involve the use of -every day throughout the year. To accomplish this end, the father and -mother have become the assistant supervisors of the home work and the -farm work, and they receive the advice, the suggestion, and the -instruction of the rural supervisors of schools. While working to get -the best possible results from the efforts made, and to establish the -facts by samples, by photographs, and by financial relations of cost and -return, these undertakings are accompanied by neighborhood meetings of -many kinds which have had the effect of enlarging community interest, -community support, and community improvement. Out of these efforts have -come better social conditions, more harmonious relations, a development -of better ideals, and a higher conception of life. - -These demonstration schools, in addition to being a force among the -people in the community where they are located, also serve as -educational centers which are to be visited by the other rural teachers -of the community in order that the inexperienced and untrained teacher -may receive the benefit of the teacher of more experience. In addition, -these schools also serve the purpose of experimental schools where many -ideas are worked out and put into effect, and new methods of teaching as -well as untried methods of farming are given a trial. - -The rural school situation is being studied more to-day than ever -before, for it is being realized that our country schools are not -functioning to the best advantage. The social side of the task, -extension work among the patrons of the district, consolidated and more -efficient schools, and better trained teachers are only a few of the -phases of this movement toward making the rural school a real force -throughout the country. The movement is gaining ground each year, and -though there are many problems to be solved and many difficult -situations to be met, yet there is every reason to believe that out of -this mass of experiments there will evolve the rural school of the -future, which will be a more vital factor in the community than has been -the case up to the present day. - - - - -PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND LONGEVITY - - -THE anthropometric examinations given in the University of Porto Rico -during the last two years have provided data from which to determine the -physical development of the Porto Rican. A total of 1,412 examinations -has been made, including 616 men and 796 women. These students ranged in -age from fifteen to thirty years. - -A comparison of the physical development of American and Porto Rican -boys and girls of the same age shows that the Porto Rican surpasses the -American in nearly every point, at the ages of fifteen, sixteen, and -seventeen. At eighteen the physical development is about the same, but -from that time there seems to be little additional growth on the part of -the Porto Rican, while the American continues to develop up to and -including the twenty-second year. This seems to confirm the generally -accepted theory that a person matures earlier in the tropics than he -does in a temperate climate. That the slighter physical development is -the effect of geographic or climatic conditions, and is not entirely due -to race, is proved by the fact that measurements of Chilean boys, who -are of Spanish blood, more nearly approximate those of North American -boys than they do those of Porto Ricans. The following tables show a -comparison of the development of the Porto Rican students with the -average development of American men and women. The measurements are in -pounds and inches. - - - TABLE I - - ==================================================================== - |Average measurements | Average - | of Porto Rican male |measurements of - |students from 16 to 28 | American men - | years of age |from 17 to 30 - | | years of age - ---------------------------+-----------------------+---------------- - Height | 64.94 | 67.6 - Weight | 110.67 | 138.6 - Chest, transversal | 10.26 | 10.8 - Chest, anterior-posterior | 7.92 | 7.5 - Shoulders | 15.06 | 16.1 - Neck | 13.05 | 13.9 - Chest, contracted | 30.63 | 33.7 - Chest, expanded | 33.25 | 36.7 - Waist | 27.92 | 29.1 - Right forearm | 9.33 | 10.4 - Left forearm | 9.20 | 10.4 - Right arm up | 9.61 | 11.9 - Right arm down | 8.45 | 10.4 - Left arm up | 9.42 | 11.8 - Left arm down | 8.22 | 10.3 - Right thigh | 17.97 | 20.3 - Left thigh | 17.83 | 20.2 - Right calf | 12.64 | 13.8 - Left calf | 12.66 | 13.8 - ---------------------------+-----------------------+---------------- - - TABLE II - - ==================================================================== - | Average measurements | Average - | of Porto Rican women | measurements of - | students from 16 to | American women - | 28 years of age | from 17 to - | | 30 years of age - --------------------------+-----------------------+------------------ - Height | 61.78 | 62.9 - Weight | 107.82 | 116. - Chest, transversal | 9.35 | 10. - Chest, anterior-posterior | 6.93 | 6.8 - Shoulders | 13.64 | 14.4 - Neck | 11.98 | 12.1 - Chest, natural | 29.19 | 29.7 - Chest, contracted | 28.57 | 29.6 - Chest, expanded | 31.29 | 32. - Waist | 25.14 | 24.3 - Hips | 33.76 | 35.7 - Right forearm | 8.71 | 8.8 - Left forearm | 8.61 | 8.6 - Right arm down | 8.44 | 9.8 - Left arm down | 8.40 | 9.7 - Right arm up | 8.99 | 10.8 - Left arm up | 8.82 | 10.6 - Right thigh | 18.79 | 21.1 - Left thigh | 18.65 | 21. - Right calf | 12.66 | 13. - Left calf | 12.64 | 13. - --------------------------+-----------------------+----------------- - -If it is true that the Porto Rican reaches the height of physical -development at the age of eighteen, then we may consider that an average -of the measurements of the men and women from and after that age will -give us what is practically the representative physical development of -the Porto Rican adult. These averages are found in the following table. - - - TABLE III - - _Representative development of Porto Rican students at the University - of Porto Rico, of more than 18 years of age._ - - =============================================== - | Men | Women - ---------------------------+----------+-------- - Height | 65.87 | 61.83 - Weight | 116.21 | 107.93 - Shoulders | 15.39 | 13.67 - Chest, transversal | 10.39 | 9.34 - Chest, anterior-posterior | 8.07 | 6.98 - Neck | 13.32 | 12.01 - Chest, muscular | 32.74 | 30.27 - Chest, natural | 31.87 | 29.45 - Chest, expanded | 33.84 | 31.30 - Chest, contracted | 31.36 | 28.23 - Waist | 27.96 | 25.08 - Hips | 32.13 | 33.45 - Right arm down | 8.62 | 8.49 - Right arm up | 9.79 | 8.95 - Right forearm | 9.53 | 8.61 - Left arm down | 8.43 | 8.36 - Left arm up | 9.61 | 8.83 - Left forearm | 9.46 | 8.29 - Right thigh | 18.38 | 18.76 - Left thigh | 18.15 | 18.61 - Right calf | 12.85 | 12.68 - Left calf | 12.90 | 12.64 - ---------------------------+----------+-------- - -For the purpose of comparing the Porto Rican boys with boys of Spanish -blood, but of another climate, Table IV, which shows the comparative -development of Porto Rican and Chilean boys from 16 to 20 years of age, -is given. The measurements for the Chilean boys were furnished by the -Museo Nacional of Santiago, Chili. - - - TABLE IV - - --------------------------+------------+---------- - Sixteen years | Porto Rico | Chili - --------------------------+------------+---------- - Number observed | 16. | 340. - Height | 64.42 | 64.49 - Weight | 105.44 | 123.64 - Chest | 31.01 | 33.09 - Chest, transversal | 9.69 | 10.34 - Chest, anterior-posterior | 7.79 | 7.66 - Waist | 27.28 | 25.11 - | | - Seventeen years | | - | | - Number observed | 75. | 248. - Height | 64.41 | 65.43 - Weight | 113.41 | 128.48 - Chest | 32.06 | 33.52 - Chest, transversal | 10.11 | 10.72 - Chest, anterior-posterior | 7.99 | 7.97 - Waist | 25.05 | 25.54 - | | - Eighteen years | | - | | - Number observed | 92. | 138. - Height | 65.72 | 65.86 - Weight | 118.43 | 133.32 - Chest | 32.61 | 34.33 - Chest, transversal | 10.36 | 11.04 - Chest, anterior-posterior | 8.14 | 8.09 - Waist | 28.08 | 26.09 - | | - Nineteen years | | - | | - Number observed | 107. | 65. - Height | 65.47 | 65.94 - Weight | 111.53 | 133.98 - Chest | 32.33 | 34.66 - Chest, transversal | 10.27 | 11.35 - Chest, anterior-posterior | 8.15 | 8.17 - Waist | 27.15 | 26.13 - | | - Twenty years | | - | | - Number observed | 78. | 18. - Height | 65.91 | 66.18 - Weight | 113.32 | 113.52 - Chest | 32.36 | 34.71 - Chest, transversal | 10.39 | 11.43 - Chest, anterior-posterior | 7.77 | 8.33 - Waist | 27.58 | 26.44 - --------------------------+------------+---------- - -A study of the census of 1910 showing the distribution of the population -of Porto Rico by race and by age periods gives some interesting -information. If the situation given there is taken to be typical of -general conditions, by considering the number of children of each class -under one year of age, we find that the highest birth rate is among the -mulattoes; next in order come the native whites of native parentage, -next the blacks, and last the native whites of foreign or mixed -parentage. The actual percentage of each class under one year of age is -as follows: mulattoes, 3.9 per cent; native whites of native parentage, -3.6 per cent; blacks, 2.5 per cent; native whites of foreign or mixed -parentage, 2 per cent. The percentage of the population under five years -of age in each class tends to confirm this statement. It is as follows: -mulattoes 17.9 per cent; native whites of native parentage, 14.7 per -cent; blacks, 12.2 per cent; native whites of foreign or mixed -parentage, 9.5 per cent. - -While the mulattoes have the highest birth rate, it is also true that, -as a general thing, they are the shortest lived of any of the classes -mentioned. The class which generally has greatest longevity consists of -the negroes; next in order come the native whites of mixed or foreign -parentage, then the native whites of native parentage, and last, the -mulattoes. Thus the order, as regards length of life, is nearly the -reverse of what it is as regards birth rate. - -It is observed also that while native whites of foreign or mixed -parentage have a comparatively great length of life and a comparatively -low birth rate, their children, who fall in the class of native whites -of native parentage, have shorter lives and tend to produce larger -families, than did the parents. In each class the females outnumber the -males, the proportion being 100 females to 99.4 males for the total -population, which, however, includes the foreign-born whites, where the -males outnumber the females. In the classes of native-born citizens, the -difference between the numbers of the sexes is greater than the ratio -for the total population would indicate, being the greatest among the -mulattoes, where the ratio is 93.6 males for every 100 females. In each -class it is found that the women enjoy greater length of life than do -the men. - -The following table shows what proportion of the total number of each -class of the population falls under the age groups designated. - - Transcriber's Note: The following abbreviations were used to keep this - table to a reasonable width: - - M = Males - F = Females - - TABLE V - - ===================================================================== - | | | | Native | - | | | Native | white | - | Negroes | Mulattoes | white | of foreign| Foreign - | | | of native | or mixed | born white - | | | parentage | parentage | - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- - | M | F | M | F | M | F | M | F | M | F - ---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- - Under | | | | | | | | | | - 5 years | 12.9| 11.6| 18.3| 17.4| 17.1| 16.4| 10.1| 8.9| .8| 2.1 - 5 to 24 | 42.3| 42.5| 48.2| 47.1| 46.2| 46.4| 45.6| 45.9| 18.8| 20.8 - 25 to 54 | 34.4| 34.8| 29. | 30.1| 31.7| 31.5| 36.6| 35.6| 64.6| 57.2 - 55 to 84 | 9.7| 10.5| 4.4| 5.3| 5. | 5. | 7.4| 9.3| 15.6| 19.2 - 85 years | | | | | | | | | | - and over | .7| .8| .1| .2| .1| .2| .1| .3| .2| .8 - ---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- - -It will be noticed that above the age of 55 there is a larger proportion -of women than men in each class. Judging the median age for each group -to be the year which divides the total number of that group into two -equal divisions, so far as number is concerned, we find the following -median ages: blacks, 23; mulattoes, 18; native whites of native -parentage, 20; native whites of foreign or mixed parentage, 22; -foreign-born whites, 37. These results correspond exactly with the -statements previously made regarding the longevity of each group. This -would, of course, only give the median age for each class at the time -the census was taken, in 1910, but as practically the same age -distribution is also found in the census of 1899, it may be concluded -that the results are approximately correct. This means that 50 per cent -of each group does not live beyond the age indicated, and is sometimes -known as the "mean length of life." Data for calculating the average -length of life are not available. - -A comparison of the age groups in the United States and in Porto Rico -shows that the proportion in the younger ages is greater in Porto Rico -than it is in the United States. - - -TABLE VI - - ==================+==============+=============== - | Native white | Colored - +------+-------+------+-------- - | Porto| United| Porto| United - | Rico | States| Rico | States - ------------------+------+-------+------+-------- - Under 5 years | 16.5 | 13.5 | 17.1 | 12.9 - 5 to 14 years | 26.3 | 23. | 27.1 | 24.4 - 15 to 24 years | 20. | 20.3 | 19.8 | 21.3 - 25 to 44 years | 25.4 | 26.5 | 24.2 | 26.8 - 45 to 64 years | 9.6 | 13. | 9.4 | 11.3 - 65 years and over | 2.2 | 3.6 | 2.4 | 3. - ------------------+------+-------+------+-------- - -Undoubtedly the work of the Department of Sanitation and of the -Institute of Tropical Medicine will do much to change the death rate -within the next few years, and to prolong life. We may well expect the -next census to show a much larger percentage of the population in the -higher age groups. - - - - -ADVERTISEMENTS - - - - -Education - - - ADMINISTRATION AND DISCIPLINE - - Chancellor's Our Schools: their Administration and Supervision $1.50 - Chancellor's Our City Schools: their Direction and Management 1.25 - Davenport's Education for Efficiency 1.00 - Hollister's High School Administration 1.50 - Morehouse's The Discipline of the School 1.25 - Stout's The High School 1.50 - - - EDUCATIONAL CLASSICS - - Ascham's The Schoolmaster (Arber) 1.25 - Franklin's Educational Ideal (Cloyd) 1.00 - Kant On Education (Churton) .75 - Pestalozzi's Leonard and Gertrude. Paper, .25. Cloth .90 - Rousseau's Emile. Paper, .25. Cloth .90 - Thompson's Day Dreams of a Schoolmaster 1.25 - - - HERBARTIANISM - - Adams's Herbartian Psychology Applied to Education 1.00 - Felkin's Introduction to Herbart's Science and Practice of - Education 1.00 - Herbart's Science of Education. 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