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diff --git a/42970-h/42970-h.htm b/42970-h/42970-h.htm index 3e56ff2..98f03af 100644 --- a/42970-h/42970-h.htm +++ b/42970-h/42970-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Gates of India, by Thomas Holdich. @@ -158,46 +158,7 @@ td {padding-left: 1em; </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gates of India, by Thomas Holdich - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Gates of India - Being an Historical Narrative - -Author: Thomas Holdich - -Release Date: June 17, 2013 [EBook #42970] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GATES OF INDIA *** - - - - -Produced by Melissa McDaniel and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42970 ***</div> <div class="tnbox"> <p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b></p> @@ -220,12 +181,12 @@ in favor of the text.</p> </div> <p class="center">MACMILLAN AND CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br /> -LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA<br /> +LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA<br /> MELBOURNE</p> <p class="center">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> -NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO<br /> -ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO</p> +NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO<br /> +ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO</p> <p class="center">THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br /> TORONTO</p> @@ -323,7 +284,7 @@ Sir A. Cunningham's <i>Coins of Alexander's Successors in Kabul</i>. For the Arab phase of commercial exploration I am indebted to Sir William Ouseley's translation, <i>Oriental Geography of Ibn Haukel</i>, and -the <i>Géographie d'Edrisi; traduite par P. Aimedée +the <i>Géographie d'Edrisi; traduite par P. Aimedée Joubert</i>. For more modern records the official reports of Burnes, Lord, and Leech on Afghanistan; Burnes' <i>Travels into Bokhara, etc.; Cabul</i>, by the @@ -492,7 +453,7 @@ Gates</span></td> <td class="tdb" colspan="3">CHAPTER VII</td> </tr> <tr> -<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">Mediæval Geography—Seistan and Afghanistan</span></td> +<td class="tda"><span class="smcap">Mediæval Geography—Seistan and Afghanistan</span></td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td> </tr> <tr> @@ -1089,7 +1050,7 @@ of expression. <p>It was between the sixth century <span class="s08">B.C.</span> and the days of Herodotus that Miletus was destroyed, and captive Greeks were transported by Darius -Hystaspes from the Lybian Barké to Baktria, +Hystaspes from the Lybian Barké to Baktria, where we find traces of them again under their original Greek name in the northern regions of Afghanistan. It was long ere the days of Darius @@ -1490,7 +1451,7 @@ itself is exceedingly instructive, indicating that the Pactyans, or Pathans, or Pukhtu speaking peoples have occupied the districts of the Upper Indus for four-and-twenty centuries at least; and coincident -with them we learn that the Aprytæ or Afridi +with them we learn that the Aprytæ or Afridi shared the honour of being resident landowners. Nor need we suppose that the beginning of this history was the beginning of their existence. The @@ -1576,7 +1537,7 @@ of the Indian trans-frontier, although Bunbury associates the name Kaspioi with the Caspian Sea. It is far more likely that the Kaspioi of Herodotus are to be recognized as the people of the ancient -Kaspira or Kasmira, and the Daritæ as the Daraddesa +Kaspira or Kasmira, and the Daritæ as the Daraddesa (Dards) of the contiguous mountains. All Kashmir, even to the borders of Tibet (whence came the story of the gold-digging ants), was well @@ -2423,7 +2384,7 @@ place-name now to be recognized anywhere on the Indus banks. But any unusual relic of the past, the story of which has passed beyond the memory of the present tribes-people (even though it may be -obviously of mediæval Arabic origin), is invariably +obviously of mediæval Arabic origin), is invariably attributed to Alexander. It is, however, chiefly in the sculpture and decorations of Buddhist buildings (which never existed in Alexander's @@ -2815,7 +2776,7 @@ Balkh consists of about 500 houses of Afghan settlers, a colony of Jews, and a small bazaar set <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span> in the midst of a waste of ruins and many acres -of debris. The walls of the city are 6½ or 7 miles +of debris. The walls of the city are 6½ or 7 miles in perimeter; in some places they are supported by a rampart like the walls of Herat. These, of course, are modern, as is the fort and citadel, or @@ -3121,7 +3082,7 @@ of Seistan, however, is quite a different Helmund from the same river nearer its source. Its character changes from the point where it makes its great bend northward towards its final exit into the -lagoons and swamps of the Hamún. At Chaharburjak, +lagoons and swamps of the Hamún. At Chaharburjak, where the high-road to Seistan from the south crosses the river into Afghan territory, the Helmund is a wide rippling stream (when not in @@ -3423,14 +3384,14 @@ Afghanistan</i> (<i>Asiatic Quarterly</i>, October 1891) is at least interesting. He points out that the captive Greeks who were transported in the sixth century <span class="s08">B.C.</span> by Darius Hystaspes from the Lybian -Barké to Baktrian territory were still occupying a -village called Barké in the time of Herodotus. +Barké to Baktrian territory were still occupying a +village called Barké in the time of Herodotus. A century later again during the Macedonian campaign, Kyrenes, or Kyreneans, existed in that region according to Arrian, and it is difficult to account for them in that part of Asia unless they were the descendants of those same exiles from -Barké, a colony of Kyrene whom Darius originally +Barké, a colony of Kyrene whom Darius originally transported to Baktria. They were in possession of the Kaoshan Pass too, and might have rendered very effective aid to Alexander during his passage @@ -3512,7 +3473,7 @@ owing to the completeness with which these flanking expeditions were carried out that he was able to keep open his connection with Greece. There have been discussions as to the route which -he followed. Hyphæstion, in command of the +he followed. Hyphæstion, in command of the main body, undoubtedly followed the main route which would take him most directly to the plains of the Punjab, which route is sufficiently well indicated @@ -3676,7 +3637,7 @@ included the Hyspaspists, who were comparatively lightly armed, with the archers, the "companion" cavalry and the lancers, was evidently picked for mountain warfare. The heavier brigades were with -Hyphæstion who struck out by the straightest route +Hyphæstion who struck out by the straightest route for Peukelaotis, which has been identified with an ancient site about 17 miles to the north-east of Peshawur on the eastern bank of the Swat @@ -3703,7 +3664,7 @@ the junction of the Kao River.</p> <p>It is far more impossible to identify the actual sites of Alexander's first military engagements than it is to say, for instance, at this period of history, -where Cæsar landed in Great Britain, as we have +where Cæsar landed in Great Britain, as we have no means of making exhaustive local inquiries; but subsequent history clearly indicates that his next step after settling the Laghman tribes was to push @@ -3988,17 +3949,17 @@ has therefore been generally accepted for many years, and it has remained for our latest authority to question it seriously.</p> -<p>The latest investigator into the archæological +<p>The latest investigator into the archæological interests of the Indian trans-frontier is Dr. M. A. Stein, the Inspector-General of Education in India. The marvellous results of his researches in Chinese Turkistan have rendered his name famous all over -the archæological world, and it is to him that we +the archæological world, and it is to him that we owe an entirely new conception of the civilization of Indo-China during the Buddhist period. Dr. Stein's methods are thorough. He leaves nothing to speculation, and indulges in no romance, whatever may be -the temptation. He takes with him on his archæological +the temptation. He takes with him on his archæological excursions a trained native surveyor of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span> Indian survey, and he thus not only secures an @@ -4151,13 +4112,13 @@ to Embolina, which is said to be a city close adjoining the rock of Aornos. On the route thither he is said by Arrian to have taken "many other small towns seated upon that river," <i>i.e</i>. the Indus; two -princes of that province, Cophæus and Assagetes, +princes of that province, Cophæus and Assagetes, accompanying him. This sufficiently indicates that his march must have been up the right bank of the Indus, which would be the natural route for him to follow. Arrived at Embolina, he arranged for a base of supplies at that point, and then, with -"Archers, Agrians, Cænus' Troop" and the +"Archers, Agrians, Cænus' Troop" and the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span> choicest, best armed, and most expeditious foot out of the whole army, besides 200 auxiliary horse @@ -4476,10 +4437,10 @@ to previous invasions of India from Greece, which were regarded as historical in Arrian's time. However, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span> as soon as Alexander arrived at Nysa a -deputation of Nysæans, headed by one Akulphis, +deputation of Nysæans, headed by one Akulphis, waited on him, and, after recovering from the astonishment that his extraordinary appearance inspired, -they presented a petition. "The Nysæans +they presented a petition. "The Nysæans entreat thee O King, for the reverence thou bearest to Dionysos, their God, to leave their city untouched ... for Bacchus ... built this city for an @@ -4509,7 +4470,7 @@ and calling loudly upon the god, not only by the name of Dionysos, but by all his other names." A sort of Bacchic orgy!</p> -<p>But who were the Nysæans, and what became +<p>But who were the Nysæans, and what became of them? In Arrian's <i>Indika</i> he says: "The Assakenoi" (who inhabited the Swat valley east of Nysa) "are not men of great stature like the @@ -4534,7 +4495,7 @@ tribes of to-day, there seems no sound reason for disputing the origin of this particular name.</p> <p>Ptolemy barely mentions Nysa, but we learn -something about the Nysæans from fragments of +something about the Nysæans from fragments of the <i>Indika</i> of Megasthenes, which have been collected by Dr. Schwanbeck and translated by M'Crindle. We learn that this pre-Alexandrian @@ -4564,7 +4525,7 @@ on going forth to war, and on other occasions, marched in Bacchic fashion with drums beating," etc.</p> -<p>Again we find, in a fragment quoted by Polyænus, +<p>Again we find, in a fragment quoted by Polyænus, that Dionysos, "in his expedition against the Indians, in order that the cities might receive him willingly, disguised the arms with which he @@ -4584,7 +4545,7 @@ subjugation of India by a Western race (who may have been of Greek origin) before the invasions of Assyrian, Mede, or Persian. It could not well have been later than the sixth century <span class="s08">B.C.</span>, and might -have been earlier by many centuries. The Nysæans, +have been earlier by many centuries. The Nysæans, whose city Alexander spared, were the descendants of those conquerors who, coming from the West, were probably deterred by the heat of the plains of @@ -4663,7 +4624,7 @@ the new script. "The subject of this sculpture seems to be a Bacchic procession." What if it really is a Bacchic procession, and the characters thereon inscribed prove to be an archaic form of -Greek—the forgotten forms of the Nysæan alphabet?</p> +Greek—the forgotten forms of the Nysæan alphabet?</p> <p>Whilst surveying in the Kunar valley along <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span> @@ -5148,10 +5109,10 @@ sea in all this part of the Asiatic coast-line.</p> <p>Alexander left Patala about the beginning of September 326 <span class="s08">B.C.</span> to push his way through the -country of the Arabii and Oritæ to Gadrosia (or +country of the Arabii and Oritæ to Gadrosia (or Makran) and Persia. The Arabii occupied the country between Karachi and the Purali (or river -of Las Bela), and the Oritæ and Gadrosii apparently +of Las Bela), and the Oritæ and Gadrosii apparently combined with other tribes to hold the country that lay beyond the Purali (or Arabius). He had previously done all that a good general can do to ensure @@ -5214,20 +5175,20 @@ force to the Arabius; and that is all. But from Quintus Curtius we learn that it was nine marches to Krokala (a point easier of identification than most, from the preservation of the name which survived -through mediæval ages in the Karak—the +through mediæval ages in the Karak—the much-dreaded pirate of the coast—and can now be recognized in Karachi) and five marches thence to the Arabius. He started in cool monsoon weather. His route, after leaving Krokala, is determined by the natural features of the country as then existing. There was no shore route in these days. Alexander -followed the subsequent mediæval route which +followed the subsequent mediæval route which connected Makran with Sind in the days of Arab ascendancy, a route that has been used as a highway into India for nearly eight centuries. It is not <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span> the route which now connects Karachi and Las -Bela, but belongs to the later mediæval phase of +Bela, but belongs to the later mediæval phase of history. As the sea then extended at least to Liari, in the basin of the Purali or Arabius, we are obliged to locate the position of his crossing @@ -5249,10 +5210,10 @@ required for subsequent operations. After crossing, we are told that Alexander "turned to his left towards the sea" (from which he was evidently distant some space), and with a picked force he -made a sudden descent on the Oritæ. He marched +made a sudden descent on the Oritæ. He marched one night only through desert country and in the morning came to a well-inhabited district. Pushing -on with cavalry only, he defeated the Oritæ, and +on with cavalry only, he defeated the Oritæ, and then later joining hands with the rest of his forces, he penetrated to their capital city. For these operations he must necessarily have been hedged @@ -5260,11 +5221,11 @@ operations he must necessarily have been hedged in between the Purali and Hala range, which he clearly had not crossed as yet. Now we are expressly told by Arrian that the capital city of -the Oritæ was but a village that did duty for the +the Oritæ was but a village that did duty for the capital, and that the name of it was Rambakia. -The care of it was committed to Hephæstion +The care of it was committed to Hephæstion that he might colonize it after the fashion of the -Greeks. But we find that Hephæstion certainly +Greeks. But we find that Hephæstion certainly did not stay long there, and could only have left the native village as he found it, with no very extensive improvements.</p> @@ -5282,7 +5243,7 @@ latter has but recently been uncovered from the sand, but an existing mud wall and its position on the coast indicate that it is not old enough for our purpose. The other, Khair Kot, is an undoubted -relic of mediæval Arab supremacy. It +relic of mediæval Arab supremacy. It is the Kambali of Idrisi on the high-road from Armail (now Bela) to the great Sind port of Debal, and the record of it belongs to another @@ -5297,7 +5258,7 @@ evidence.</p> <p>From Rambakia Alexander proceeded with half his targeteers and part of his cavalry to force the -pass which the Gadrosii and Oritæ had conjointly +pass which the Gadrosii and Oritæ had conjointly seized "with the design of stopping his progress." This pass might either have been the turning pass at the northern end of the Hala, or it might have @@ -5306,10 +5267,10 @@ River springs farther on. I should think it was probably the former, where there is better room for cavalry to act.</p> -<p>Immediately after defeating the Oritæ (who +<p>Immediately after defeating the Oritæ (who apparently made little resistance) Alexander appointed Leonatus, with a picked force, to support -the new Governor of Rambakia (Hephæstion having +the new Governor of Rambakia (Hephæstion having rejoined the army), and left him to make arrangements for victualling the fleet when it arrived, whilst he pushed on through desert country into @@ -5349,7 +5310,7 @@ Alexander's route to Pura, the capital of Gadrosia. Three chapters are full of most graphic and lively descriptions of the difficulties and horrors of that march. We only hear that he reached Pura sixty -days after leaving the country of the Oritæ, and +days after leaving the country of the Oritæ, and there is no record of the number of troops that survived. Luckily, however, the log kept by the admiral of the fleet, Nearkhos, comes into our @@ -5466,13 +5427,13 @@ weather was made, and two galleys and a transport were lost. It was at Krokala that they joined hands with the army again. Here Nearkhos formed a camp, and it was "in this part of the country" that -Leonatus defeated the Oritæ and their allies in a +Leonatus defeated the Oritæ and their allies in a great battle wherein 6000 were slain. Arrian adds that a full account of the action and its sequel, the crowning of Leonatus with a golden crown by Alexander, is given in his other work, but as a matter of fact the other account is so entirely -different (representing the Oritæ as submitting +different (representing the Oritæ as submitting quietly) that we can only suppose this to have been a separate and distinct action from the cavalry skirmish mentioned before.</p> @@ -5618,7 +5579,7 @@ more properly Hashtala, sometimes even called Haftala. I am unable to determine the meaning of the termination to which the numerals are prefixed. Another name for it is Sangadip, which -is also the mediæval name for Ceylon. There can +is also the mediæval name for Ceylon. There can be no doubt about the identity of this island of sun worship and historic fable.</p> @@ -5629,7 +5590,7 @@ nearer the modern telegraph line. So far he had almost step by step followed out the subsequent line of the Indo-Persian telegraph, and at the Hingol he was not very far south of it. Near here -Leonatus had had his fight with the Oritæ, and +Leonatus had had his fight with the Oritæ, and Alexander had spent much time (for it must be remembered that he started a month before his fleet, and that the fleet and Leonatus at least joined hands @@ -5695,13 +5656,13 @@ coast.</p> point Alexander left the Hingol, but for the survival of names given in history as those of a people with whom he had to contend, viz. the -Parikanoi, the Sagittæ, and the Sakæ, names +Parikanoi, the Sagittæ, and the Sakæ, names not mentioned by Arrian. Now, Herodotus gives the Parikanoi and Asiatic Ethiopians as being the inhabitants of the seventeenth satrapy of the Persian Empire, and Bellew suggests that the Greek Parikanoi is a Greek transcript of the Persian form -of Parikan, the plural of the Sanscrit Parvá-ka—or, +of Parikan, the plural of the Sanscrit Parvá-ka—or, in other words, the <i>Ba-rohi</i>—or men of the hills. However this may be, there is the bed of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span> @@ -5711,7 +5672,7 @@ we need look no farther for the Parikanoi. In support of Bellew's theory it may be stated that it is not only in the heart of the Brahui country, but the Sajidi are still a tribe of Jalawan Brahuis, of -which the chief family is called Sakæ, and that they +which the chief family is called Sakæ, and that they occupy territory in Makran a little to the north of the Parkan. There is every reason why Alexander should have selected this route. It was his first @@ -5766,10 +5727,10 @@ naturally have led him. He clearly lost his way, as Arrian says he did, or else the estimated number of marches is wrong. We are told by Arrian that he reached Pura, the capital of Gadrosia, on the -sixtieth day after leaving the country of the Oritæ. +sixtieth day after leaving the country of the Oritæ. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span> This is a little indefinite, as he may be considered -to have left the country of the Oritæ when he +to have left the country of the Oritæ when he started to collect supplies from the northern district, and we do not know how long he was on this reconnaissance. Probably, however, the date of @@ -6027,10 +5988,10 @@ read Fa Hian's account of the great car procession, we are no longer surprised at the effect which Buddhist symbolism exercised on its disciples. Fa Hian and his fellow-travellers were -lodged in a sanghârâma, or temple of the "Great +lodged in a sanghârâma, or temple of the "Great <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span> Vehicle," where were three thousand priests "who -assemble to eat at the sound of the <i>ghantâ</i>. On +assemble to eat at the sound of the <i>ghantâ</i>. On entering the dining hall their carriage is grave and demure, and they take their seats in regular order. All of them keep silence; there is no noise with @@ -6038,13 +5999,13 @@ their eating bowls; when the attendants give more food they are not allowed to speak to one another but only to make signs with the hand." "In this country," says Fa Hian, "there are fourteen great -sanghârâmas. From the first day of the fourth +sanghârâmas. From the first day of the fourth month they sweep and water the thoroughfares within the city and decorate the streets. Above the city gate they stretch an awning and use every kind of adornment. This is when the King and Queen and Court ladies take their place. The -Gomâti priests first of all take their images in the +Gomâti priests first of all take their images in the procession. About three or four li from the city they make a four-wheeled image car about 30 feet high, in appearance like a moving palace adorned @@ -6125,7 +6086,7 @@ appear to be indications of a close connection <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> between these two centres of Buddhism. The great temple a mile or two to the west of Khotan, called -the Nava Sanghârâma, or royal new temple, is the +the Nava Sanghârâma, or royal new temple, is the same as that to the south-west of Balkh, according to a later traveller, Hiuen Tsiang, while the kings of Khotan were said to be descended from Vaisravana, @@ -6501,7 +6462,7 @@ of the world's physiography, and recording it. <h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> -<p class="center">MEDIÆVAL GEOGRAPHY—SEISTAN AND AFGHANISTAN</p> +<p class="center">MEDIÆVAL GEOGRAPHY—SEISTAN AND AFGHANISTAN</p> <p class="p2">It was about eight centuries before Buddhism, debased and corrupted, tainted with Siva worship @@ -6556,7 +6517,7 @@ directors for public works in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The might of the sword of Islam but <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span> carved the way for the slave-owner and the -merchant to follow. Thus it is that mediæval +merchant to follow. Thus it is that mediæval records of exploration in Afghanistan and Baluchistan are mostly Arab records; and it is from them that we learn the "open sesame" of India's @@ -6613,7 +6574,7 @@ those practical geographers who have left us their records of travel in the East; but there are indications of an occasional influx of Arabs from the coasts of Southern Arabia about whom we learn -nothing whatever from mediæval histories. It will +nothing whatever from mediæval histories. It will be at any rate interesting to discuss the general trend of exploration and travel, associated either with pilgrimage or commerce, which distinguished @@ -6689,7 +6650,7 @@ time, with the assistance of wind and weather, can accomplish that. But it is remarkable with what completeness time succeeds. I have stood on the site of a buried city in Sind—a city, too, of the -mediæval era of Arab ascendency—and have recognized +mediæval era of Arab ascendency—and have recognized no trace of it but what appeared to be the turbaned effigies of a multitude of faithful mourners in various expressive attitudes of grief and despair, @@ -6750,7 +6711,7 @@ phase of the existence of a city the glory of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span> whose history is to be found in the world-wide tradition of past centuries. And so it happens -that, moving in the footsteps of these old mediæval +that, moving in the footsteps of these old mediæval commercial travellers, with the story of their travels in one's hand, and the indications of hill and plain and river to testify to the way they went, and a @@ -6780,7 +6741,7 @@ was literally at their feet; and we can now proceed to trace out some of their principal lines of route and their chief halting-places in those <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span> -districts of which the mediæval geography has +districts of which the mediæval geography has lately become known.</p> <p>It is not at all necessary, even if it were possible, @@ -6926,7 +6887,7 @@ year the wind is modified, and then there instantly arises the plague of insects which render life a burden to every living thing. And yet Seistan has played a most important part in the history of Asia, -and may play an important rôle again.</p> +and may play an important rôle again.</p> <p>Arab records are very full of Seistan. The earliest of them that give any serious geographical @@ -6948,7 +6909,7 @@ traces the Helmund as running to Seistan first and then to the Darya-i-Zarah. This is in fact correct, only the Darya-i-Zarah (or Gaod-i-Zireh, as we know it) receives no water from the Helmund until -the great Hamún (lagoons) to the north of Nasratabad +the great Hamún (lagoons) to the north of Nasratabad are filled to overflow. He also mentions two rivers as flowing into the Zarah—one from Farah (an important place in his time), which is @@ -6956,7 +6917,7 @@ impossible, as it would have to cross the Helmund; and one from Ghur. This indicates almost certainly that the name Zarah was not confined, as it is now, to the great salt swamp south of Rudbar on -the Helmund, but it included the Hamúns north +the Helmund, but it included the Hamúns north of Nasratabad, into which the Farah River and the Ghur River do actually empty themselves. At present these two great lake systems are separated @@ -6983,7 +6944,7 @@ available for a flank march on Kandahar.</p> later, <i>i.e.</i> about the end of the eleventh century, the Seistan province extended far beyond its present limits. Bamian and Ghur (<i>i.e.</i> the central hills of -Afghanistan) were <i>vis-à-vis</i> to that province; Farah +Afghanistan) were <i>vis-à -vis</i> to that province; Farah was included; and probably the whole line of the frontier hills from the Sulimanis, opposite Multan, to Sibi and Kalat. It was an enormous province, @@ -7066,7 +7027,7 @@ more rich in fruit and all sorts of productions. Grapes are transported to Bost (or Bist), a town two days distant passing by Firozand, which possesses a big market, and is on the traveller's -right as he travels to Benjawai, which is <i>vis-à-vis</i> +right as he travels to Benjawai, which is <i>vis-à -vis</i> to Derthel." "Rudhan (?Rudbar) is a small town south of the Helmund."</p> @@ -7178,7 +7139,7 @@ glowing panegyric by contemporary historians, one would expect a rather more enthusiastic notice. But even Kabul (nine days' journey distant from Ghazni) is only recognized as "<i>L'une des grandes -villes de l'Inde, entourée de murs</i>," with a "<i>bonne +villes de l'Inde, entourée de murs</i>," with a "<i>bonne citadelle et au dehors divers faubourgs</i>."<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> <p>There is little to interest us, however, in tracing @@ -7200,7 +7161,7 @@ poor and empty of historic monuments. Even now were Kabul, Kandahar, and Herat, its three great cities, to be flattened out by a widespread earthquake there would be little that was not of Buddhist origin -left for the future archæologist to make a stir about.</p> +left for the future archæologist to make a stir about.</p> <p>Idrisi writes of the Kingdom of Ghur as apart from Herat, although a great part of the long Herat @@ -7238,7 +7199,7 @@ fair survey of the land of the Chahar Aimak or of Zamindawar. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span></p> -<p>The mediæval provinces of Ghur and Bamain +<p>The mediæval provinces of Ghur and Bamain figure so largely in the records of Arab geography, and appear to have been so fully open to commerce during the centuries succeeding the Arab conquests, @@ -7380,7 +7341,7 @@ milder climate of the lower hills, into which the plateau subsides.</p> <p>Whilst we are chiefly concerned in tracing out -the mediæval commercial routes of Afghanistan, we +the mediæval commercial routes of Afghanistan, we may briefly summarize the events which prove that those traversed between Herat and the central kingdoms were important routes, worn smooth by @@ -7448,7 +7409,7 @@ although it was mountainous, yet enjoyed an excellent climate. It must have been a military centre too, with fortresses and places of defence. During its later history it is clear that Ghur was often -governed from Herat, but in earlier mediæval days +governed from Herat, but in earlier mediæval days Ghur possessed a distinct capital and a separate entity amongst Afghan kingdoms, and was able to hold its own against even so powerful an adversary @@ -7480,7 +7441,7 @@ way to what we are told of this capital.</p> <p>If we look for the best modern lines of communication through Central Afghanistan we shall certainly -find that they correspond with mediæval routes, +find that they correspond with mediæval routes, fitting themselves to the conformation of the country. Central Afghanistan is open to invasion from the north, west, and south, but not directly from the @@ -7552,7 +7513,7 @@ Here also are very ancient ruins, and the people say that they date from the time of Moses. At that time they say that cups were buried with the dead, one at the head and one at the foot of the corpse. -Our native surveyor Imám Sharif saw one of these +Our native surveyor Imám Sharif saw one of these cups with an inscription on it, but was unable to secure the relic.</p> @@ -7612,7 +7573,7 @@ route.</p> <p>Since so many routes converge on Daolatyar at the head of the Hari Rud valley, one would -naturally look for Daolatyar to figure in mediæval +naturally look for Daolatyar to figure in mediæval geography as an important centre. It is not easy, however, to identify any of the places mentioned by Idrisi as representing this particular focus of @@ -7647,7 +7608,7 @@ Eastern geography, for it is only through the itineraries of these wandering Semetic merchants and travellers that we can arrive at any estimation of the peculiar phase of civilization which existed in -Asia in the mediæval centuries of our era; a period +Asia in the mediæval centuries of our era; a period at which there is good reason to suppose that civilization was as much advanced in the East as in the West. It is not the professional explorers, nor yet @@ -7674,7 +7635,7 @@ Indeed, there are evidences of their existence in Makran long before the days of Alexander; but there is very little evidence of any overland approach to India across the Indus. Hindustan, -to the mediæval Arab, commenced at the Hindu +to the mediæval Arab, commenced at the Hindu Kush, and Kabul and Ghazni were "Indian" frontier towns; and the invasions and conquests of India dating back to Assyrian times include no @@ -7813,7 +7774,7 @@ local importance "before Herat had become what it is now," about 9 miles west of Herat, called Kharachanabad. This can easily be recognized in the modern Khardozan, a walled but very -ancient town, which is about 8½ miles distant. +ancient town, which is about 8½ miles distant. Between it and the walls of the city there is now no place of importance, nor does it appear <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span> @@ -7923,7 +7884,7 @@ tons of slimy detritus in a crawling mass, and spread it out in fans at their feet. It is not safe to say that the modern passes of the Paropamisus north of Herat—the Ardewan and the Babar—were -the passes of mediæval commerce, although the +the passes of mediæval commerce, although the Ardewan is marked by certain wells and ruined caravanserais which show that it has long been used. It seems possible that these passes may @@ -7989,7 +7950,7 @@ nor gardens; but "lead is found there, and a small stream."</p> <p>The great trade centres of Turkistan, north -of the Paropamisus, in mediæval days were undoubtedly +of the Paropamisus, in mediæval days were undoubtedly near Panjdeh, at the confluence of the Kushk and Murghab rivers, and at Merv-el-Rud, or Maruchak. Two or three obvious routes lead @@ -8038,7 +7999,7 @@ general vague resemblance between the names of certain old Arab towns and places yet to be found in the Herat valley and Badghis, it is only here and there that it has been possible to identify -the precise position of a mediæval site. The +the precise position of a mediæval site. The dependencies of Badghis, enumerated by Idrisi, require the patient and careful researches of a Stein <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span> @@ -8216,7 +8177,7 @@ Talikan, at one time the seat of government of a vast area of the Oxus basin. There is, however, another Talikan<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> in Badakshan to the east of Balkh, and there are symptoms that some confusion existed -between the two in the minds of our mediæval +between the two in the minds of our mediæval geographers. Ibn Haukel writes of Talikan as possessing more wholesome air than Merv-el-Rud, and he refers to the river running between the @@ -8249,7 +8210,7 @@ caves which have been carved out of the cliffs at Panjdeh, and not to any site on the river banks.</p> <p>The confusion which occasionally exists between -places bearing the same name in mediæval geographical +places bearing the same name in mediæval geographical annals is very obvious in Idrisi's description of Merv. The greater Merv (the Russian provincial capital) is clearly mixed up in his mind @@ -8672,7 +8633,7 @@ known, that it may be as well to give a short description of the existing lines of communication connecting the Oxus plains and Herat with Bamian and Kabul, before attempting to follow out their -mediæval adaptation to commercial intercourse.</p> +mediæval adaptation to commercial intercourse.</p> <p>From Balkh, or Mazar-i-Sharif, or from Deh Dadi (the new fortified position near Mazar) the @@ -8696,7 +8657,7 @@ up the space from the Elburz to the great divide of Central Afghanistan. East and west of the Balkh River the plateau increases in elevation as it reaches southward, culminating in knolls or peaks -12,000 and 13,000 feet high about the latitude 35° +12,000 and 13,000 feet high about the latitude 35° 30', and falling gently where it encloses the actual sources of the river. It is this plateau, or uplift, which forms the dominant topographical feature @@ -8813,7 +8774,7 @@ the Hindu Kush, crossed by nearly every available pass either into the Ghorband valley or that of the Panjshir.</p> -<p>It would almost appear from mediæval geographical +<p>It would almost appear from mediæval geographical <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span> record that there was no way between Herat and Kabul that did not lead to the Bamian @@ -8992,7 +8953,7 @@ with the Band-i-Amir) with the ruined fortresses of Gawargar and Zohak, wonderful for the multiplicity of its lines of defence, all attest to the former position of Bamian in Afghan history and explain its -prominence in mediæval annals. And yet there is +prominence in mediæval annals. And yet there is not much said about the road thither from Balkh, or onward to the "Indian city" of Kabul.</p> @@ -9054,7 +9015,7 @@ essayed to reduce that region and make it part of civilized Afghanistan. Even he was content to leave it alone after a year or two of vain hammering at its southern gates. Kafiristan formed part of the -mediæval province, or kingdom, of Bolor; but it is +mediæval province, or kingdom, of Bolor; but it is always written of as the home of an uncouth and savage race of people, with whom it was difficult to establish intercourse. Kafiristan is, however, in @@ -9281,7 +9242,7 @@ anything more perfect than the metal which is extracted from the mines of Panjshir, a small town built on a hill at one day's distance from Hariana and of which the inhabitants are remarkable for -violence and wickedness (mechanceté) of their +violence and wickedness (mechanceté) of their character. The river, which issues from Panjshir, runs to Hariana as we have said." ... "From there (? Hariana) to Karwan, southward, two days' @@ -9319,7 +9280,7 @@ Chapdara Pass, is a modern development.</p> <p>Here, however, we must take leave of the routes to India, which are sufficiently dealt with elsewhere, and returning to Badakshan see if we can unravel -some of the mediæval geography of the region +some of the mediæval geography of the region which stretches eastward to the Oxus affluents and the Pamirs. We know that between Khotan and Balkh there was a very well-trodden pilgrim route @@ -9538,7 +9499,7 @@ to wealth and power of the subsequent Arab.</p> <img src="images/i_306.jpg" width="550" height="241" alt="" /> <p class="caption">SKETCH MAP of -ANCIENT & MEDIÆVAL MAKRAN<br /> +ANCIENT & MEDIÆVAL MAKRAN<br /> to illustrate paper by COL. T. H. HOLDICH.<br /> <br /> @@ -9771,7 +9732,7 @@ a thousand years, from the withdrawal of Alexander's attenuated force to the rise and spread of Islam, we hear nothing of Makran, and we are left to the traditions of the Baluch tribes to fill up the gap in -history. What the Arabs made of mediæval Makran +history. What the Arabs made of mediæval Makran <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span> as a gate of India may be briefly told. Recent surveys have revealed their tracks, although we @@ -9870,7 +9831,7 @@ whether that key has been in the hands of Arab, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span> Turk, Venetian, Portuguese, or Englishman. And though there are traces of a rapid decline in the -mediæval prosperity of Makran after the commencement +mediæval prosperity of Makran after the commencement of the eleventh century, yet its comparative remoteness in geographical position saved it subsequently from the ruthless destruction inflicted by @@ -9915,7 +9876,7 @@ its physical characteristics. With the exception of the coast-line the topography of Makran to-day is the topography of Makran in Alexandrian days. This is very different indeed from the uncertain -character of the Indus valley mediæval geography. +character of the Indus valley mediæval geography. There the extraordinary hydrographical changes that have taken place; the shifting of the great river itself from east to west, dependent on certain @@ -9924,7 +9885,7 @@ disappearance of ancient channels and river-beds; the formation of a delta, and the ever-varying alterations in the coast-line (due greatly to monsoon influences), leave large tracts almost unrecognizable -as described in mediæval literature. Makran is, for +as described in mediæval literature. Makran is, for the most part, a country of hills. Its valleys are narrow and sharply defined; its mountains only passable at certain well-known points, which must @@ -9960,7 +9921,7 @@ identification of successive stages becomes merely a matter of local search. We know where the old Arab cities <i>must</i> have been, and we have but to look about to find their ruins. The best key, -perhaps, to this mediæval system is to be found +perhaps, to this mediæval system is to be found in a map given by the Baghdad traveller, Ibn Haukal, who wrote his account of Makran early in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span> @@ -9970,7 +9931,7 @@ sufficient to give us the clue we require at first starting. In the written geographical accounts of the country, we labour under the disadvantage of possessing no comparative standard of distance. -The Arab of mediæval days described the distance +The Arab of mediæval days described the distance to be traversed between one point and another much as the Bedou describes it now. It is so many days' journey. Occasionally, indeed, we find @@ -10075,7 +10036,7 @@ that Tiz was the port for the commerce of Seistan in its most palmy days.</p> <p>From Tiz to Kiz (or Kej, which is reckoned as -the first big city on the road to India in mediæval +the first big city on the road to India in mediæval geography) was, according to Istakhri and Idrisi, a five-days' journey. Kiz is doubtless synonymous with Kej, but the long straight valley of that name @@ -10111,8 +10072,8 @@ more especially as that district lies well to the north of the direct road to India, were it not for local evidence that the fertile and flourishing Panjgur valley must certainly be included somehow in the -mediæval geographical system, and that the conditions -of khafila traffic in mediæval times were +mediæval geographical system, and that the conditions +of khafila traffic in mediæval times were such as to preclude the possibility of the more direct route being utilized. To explain this fully would demand a full explanation also of the physical @@ -10250,8 +10211,8 @@ About 8 miles north of Las Bela are the ruins of a comparatively recent Arab settlement, but they do <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span> not appear to be important. It is probable that -certain other ruins, about 1½ miles east of the town, -called Karia Pir, represent the latest mediæval site, +certain other ruins, about 1½ miles east of the town, +called Karia Pir, represent the latest mediæval site, the site which was adopted after the destruction of the older city by Mahomed Kasim on his way to invade Sind. Karia Pir is full of Arabic coins and @@ -10286,9 +10247,9 @@ them as those of Yusli. About Kambali, too, there can be very little doubt. There are certain well-known ruins called Khairokot not far to the west of the village of Liari. We know from -mediæval description that Kambali was close +mediæval description that Kambali was close to the sea, and the sea shaped its coast-line in -mediæval days so as nearly to touch the site +mediæval days so as nearly to touch the site called Khairokot. Even now, under certain conditions of tide, it is possible to reach Liari in a coast fishing-boat, although the process of land @@ -10298,7 +10259,7 @@ occasionally impossible even to reach the fishing village of Sonmiani itself. The ruins of Khairokot are so extensive, and yield such large evidences of Arab occupation that a place must certainly be -found for them in the mediæval system. Kambali +found for them in the mediæval system. Kambali appears to be the only possible solution to the problem, although it was somewhat off the direct road between Armail and Debal.</p> @@ -10400,7 +10361,7 @@ ships with an overland journey which was obviously performed on a camel, or the days' stages could never have been accomplished. But the number of cities in Western Makran and Kirman which still -exist under their mediæval names, and which are +exist under their mediæval names, and which are thickly surrounded with evidences of their former wealth and greatness, certifies to a former trade through Persia to India which could have been @@ -10515,7 +10476,7 @@ frequent and convenient.</p> <p>I cannot leave this corner of Makran without a short reference to what lay beyond to the north-west, on the Kirman border, as it appears to me -that one or two geographical riddles of mediæval +that one or two geographical riddles of mediæval days have recently been cleared up by the results of our explorations. Idrisi says that "Tubaran is near Fahraj, which belongs to Kirman. It is a @@ -10553,7 +10514,7 @@ other is some 16 miles east of Bampur, to the north-west of Sarbaz. Both are on the banks of a river, "cultivated and fertile"; both are the centres of an area of ruins extending for -miles; both must find a place in mediæval geography. +miles; both must find a place in mediæval geography. For many reasons, into which I cannot fully enter, I am inclined to place the Pahra of Arrian in the site near Bampur. It suits the @@ -10586,7 +10547,7 @@ than could possibly have been expected from the generality of Idrisi's compilation.</p> <p>I cannot, however, now open up a fresh chapter -on mediæval geography in Persia. It is Makran +on mediæval geography in Persia. It is Makran itself to which I wish to draw attention. In our thirst for trans-frontier knowledge farther north and farther west, we have somewhat overlooked this @@ -10671,7 +10632,7 @@ now in illustrating the geography of Makran and pointing out its facilities as a land of possible routes to India, and in showing how the exploration of Baluchistan and of Western India was secured -in mediæval times by means of these routes.</p> +in mediæval times by means of these routes.</p> <p>It will, then, be interesting to note that at the eastern extremity of Makran, dovetailed between @@ -10814,7 +10775,7 @@ a railway the opportunity for invasion of India. <p class="center">EARLIEST ENGLISH EXPLORATION—CHRISTIE AND POTTINGER</p> -<p class="p2">The Arabs of the Mediæval period, whose footsteps +<p class="p2">The Arabs of the Mediæval period, whose footsteps we have been endeavouring to trace, were after their fashion true geographers and explorers. True that with them the process of empire-making was @@ -10897,7 +10858,7 @@ and thirty years after Polo's journey another European traveller passed through Badakshan and across the Pamirs. This was the lay Jesuit, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span> -Benedict Goës, a true geographer, bent on the +Benedict Goës, a true geographer, bent on the exploration of Cathay and the reconnaissance of its capabilities as a mission field. He crossed the Parwan Pass of the Hindu Kush from Kabul to @@ -10966,7 +10927,7 @@ as natives in a native ship, and from the very outset they found it necessary to play up to their disguise. The port of Sonmiani on the north-eastern shores of the Arabian Sea was the objective -in the first instance, and the rôle of horse-dealers +in the first instance, and the rôle of horse-dealers in the service of a Bombay firm was the part they elected to play. How far it really imposed on Baluch or Afghan it is difficult to say. One @@ -11154,7 +11115,7 @@ Ferrier mentions the same place subsequently, and locates it about a day's march to the north of Kala-i-Fath (which Christie did not visit), and it must have been one of the most famous of -mediæval towns in Seistan. But as collective +mediæval towns in Seistan. But as collective ruins covering an area of 500 square miles have been noted by Mr. Tate, the surveyor of the late Seistan mission, who camped in their midst to @@ -11175,7 +11136,7 @@ north-west.</p> track connecting Jalalabad on the Helmund with Peshawaran on the Farah Rud in dry seasons, but which disappears in seasons of flood, when -the two hamúns or lakes of Seistan become +the two hamúns or lakes of Seistan become one. Pushing on to Jawani he passed Anardara on April 4, and reached Herat on the 18th. His description of Herat is of a very general @@ -11250,7 +11211,7 @@ surveyed. He struck southwards down the Bado <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span> river, which leads almost directly to Kharan and the desert beyond it stretching to the Mashkhel -"hamún" or swamp. He did not visit Kharan +"hamún" or swamp. He did not visit Kharan itself, and he apparently misplaces its position by at least 50 miles, unless, indeed (which is quite possible), the present site of the Naoshirwani @@ -11473,7 +11434,7 @@ to be gained by friendship with England, and the weakness of our support was hardly suspected until it was disclosed by the results of the first Afghan war. So Masson and Ferrier assumed the -rôle of Afghan travellers, clothed in Afghan +rôle of Afghan travellers, clothed in Afghan garments, but more or less ignorant of the Afghan language, living with the people, partaking of their hospitality, studying their ways, joining their @@ -11631,7 +11592,7 @@ twenty men sitting in the shade of a rock, hospitably received and entertained, and news of the arrival of a European quickly spread. Every European was expected to be a doctor in those -days, and Masson had to assume the rôle and make +days, and Masson had to assume the rôle and make the most of his limited medical knowledge. He either prescribed local remedies, or healed the sick on Christian Science principles with a certain @@ -11715,7 +11676,7 @@ haze shadowing the rounded outlines of some ancient stupa, whilst trying to unriddle the tangle of Afghan politics or taking notes of weird stories and ancient legends. Nothing seems to have -come amiss to his inquiring mind. Archæology, +come amiss to his inquiring mind. Archæology, numismatics, botany, geology, and history—it was all new to him, and an inexhaustible opportunity lay before him. He certainly made good @@ -11851,7 +11812,7 @@ geographical knowledge of the eastern fringe of Kafiristan, whilst the identification of the Koh-i-Mor with the classic Meros, and of certain sections of the eastern Kafirs as representative of the ancient -Nysæans, clearly establishes the Greek connection +Nysæans, clearly establishes the Greek connection about which Masson was so sceptical. But the Kafirs of Central and Western Kafiristan, the inhabitants of the upper basins of the Alishang and @@ -12266,12 +12227,12 @@ room for much speculation; but from Sehwan to Sonmiani his route is not so clear. He started backwards on his tracks from Sehwan, then struck southward through lower Sind, passing on his way -many ancient sites (locally known as "gôt," <i>i.e.</i> -kôt, or fort), the origin of which he was apparently +many ancient sites (locally known as "gôt," <i>i.e.</i> +kôt, or fort), the origin of which he was apparently unable to determine, but halting at no place with a name that is still prominent, unless the modern Pokran represents his Pokar. I am not aware -whether the "gôts" described by Masson in lower +whether the "gôts" described by Masson in lower Sind have as yet been scientifically examined, but <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">372</a></span> his description of them tallies with that of similar @@ -12289,7 +12250,7 @@ he was traversing a province which figured as Bodh in Arab chronicles, and is full of the traces of Buddhist occupation. Makran, Las Bela, and the Sind borderland still offer a mine of wealth for -archæological research. The last two or three days' +archæological research. The last two or three days' march was in company with a Bulfut (Lumri) camel-man, whose mount was shared by Masson. As the Lumri sowar was in the habit not only of @@ -12354,7 +12315,7 @@ MacMahon<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanch <p>What Masson never seemed to appreciate (any more than the Arab traders who trod the same roads -in mediæval centuries) was the change of altitude +in mediæval centuries) was the change of altitude that accrued after long travelling over apparently flat roads. The natural change in the character of vegetation with the increase of altitude appears, @@ -12383,7 +12344,7 @@ to their country from Bombay) behaved with remarkable modesty and good faith, and altogether belied their natural characteristics of truculence and treachery. The journey was made -on camel-back in a kajáwa, a method of travelling +on camel-back in a kajáwa, a method of travelling which ensures a good overlook of the proceedings of the khafila and the country traversed by it, but which can have few other recommendations. Kandahar, @@ -12988,7 +12949,7 @@ on archaeological research; and at the close of the autumn Dr. Gerard, the companion of Lieut. Burnes, appeared at Kabul. Honigberger's researches, like those of Gerard, appear to have been confined to -archæology, and the results of them form an interesting +archæology, and the results of them form an interesting story which was given to the world by Eugene Jacquet; but as neither of these gentlemen can be said to have contributed to the early geographical @@ -13013,7 +12974,7 @@ has become quite a favourite resort for tourists.</p> <p>Masson's story of Afghan intrigue, which is the substance of Afghan history at this period, is as -interesting as are his archæological investigations, +interesting as are his archæological investigations, for it affords us a view of events which occurred behind the scenes, shut off from India by the curtain of the frontier hills; but whilst he thus @@ -13341,7 +13302,7 @@ man, as an explorer, call for little more comment. Once again, in the year preceding the disastrous termination to our first occupation of Kabul, did he make Karachi and Sonmiani his base of departure -for a fresh venture in behalf of archæological +for a fresh venture in behalf of archæological research in Afghanistan. It was his intention to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">406</a></span> proceed to Kandahar and Kabul, but his plans were @@ -14008,7 +13969,7 @@ regretted that no modern explorer has touched the valley of Anjuman to the west of Minjan, which, whilst it is perhaps the main contributor to the waters of the Kokcha, also appears to have contained -a recognised route in mediæval times. "If you +a recognised route in mediæval times. "If you wish not to go to destruction, avoid the narrow valley of Koran," is a native warning quoted by Wood, which seems to apply to the upper Kokcha. @@ -14021,7 +13982,7 @@ Andarab River, the only possible route eastwards would be to the head of the Andarab at Khawak, and thence over the Nawak Pass into the Anjuman valley. Nor can the Nawak (which is as well known -a pass as the Khawak) have any <i>raison d'être</i> unless +a pass as the Khawak) have any <i>raison d'être</i> unless it connects with that valley. There is, however, the possibility of a wrong inference from Idrisi's vague statement. "Badakshan" (which was represented by @@ -14063,7 +14024,7 @@ winds of the Hindu Kush in their teeth, was sufficiently trying. These devastated regions seem to be never free from the plague of wind. It is bad enough in the Pamirs in summer, but in winter when -superadded to the effects of a cold registering 6° +superadded to the effects of a cold registering 6° below zero it must have been maddening. There was no great difficulty in crossing the divide between Zebak (a small but not unimportant town) and the @@ -14256,7 +14217,7 @@ and undoubtedly this was the road best known to them across the Hindu Kush, and probably as much used as the Kaoshan or Parwan passes, which were more direct. For many centuries, however, in -mediæval history the Panjshir valley possessed such +mediæval history the Panjshir valley possessed such an evil reputation as the home of the worst robbers in Asia, that a wide berth was given to it by casual travellers. Timur Shah made good use of it @@ -14349,7 +14310,7 @@ the great cities of the Oxus plains and Central Asia.</p> between the mountains and the Oxus, form part of a region which once represented the wealth of civilization in Asia. The whole region was dotted -with towns of importance in mediæval times, and +with towns of importance in mediæval times, and the fame of its beauty and wealth had passed down the ages from the days of Assyria and Greece to those of the destroying Mongol hordes. From @@ -14379,7 +14340,7 @@ traced of Moorcroft's travels in Afghan Turkistan.</p> <p>A previous story of Moorcroft is highly interesting. An early Tibetan explorer (the celebrated -Abbé Huc) told a tale of a certain Englishman +Abbé Huc) told a tale of a certain Englishman named Moorcroft, who was reported to have lived in Lhasa for twelve years previous to the year 1838 and who was supposed to have been assassinated on @@ -14406,7 +14367,7 @@ books (thirty volumes) were recovered, and the list of them would surprise any modern traveller who believes in a light and handy equipment. Dr. Lord's inquiries, in my opinion, effectually dispose -of the venerable Abbé's story of Moorcroft's +of the venerable Abbé's story of Moorcroft's residence at Lhasa; although, of course, the record of his visit to Western Tibet and the Manasarawar Lakes earlier in the century must have been well @@ -14568,7 +14529,7 @@ English.</p> the unauthorised robbers of the Kabul road and the official despoilers of the city he paid dearly for the right of transit through Afghanistan of himself -and his merchandise. It was this assumed rôle +and his merchandise. It was this assumed rôle of merchant (if indeed it was assumed) that hampered Moorcroft from first to last in his journeys beyond the frontier of British India. There was something @@ -14603,7 +14564,7 @@ which his description tallies more or less with that of Captain Talbot, R.E., who unearthed what is probably the same relic some sixty years later. To Moorcroft we owe the identification of Haibak -with the old mediæval town of Semenjan, and he +with the old mediæval town of Semenjan, and he states that he was told on the spot that this was its ancient name. No such name was recognised sixty years later, but the evidence of Idrisi's records confirms @@ -15095,7 +15056,7 @@ service foreigners found honourable employment. Masson was in the field at the same time as Vigne, and the success of his antiquarian researches in Northern Afghanistan, as well as those of Honigberger -and other archæologists during the time +and other archæologists during the time that Dost Mahomed ruled in Kabul, and whilst the Amir's brother, Jabar Khan, befriended <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">463</a></span> @@ -15135,7 +15096,7 @@ same trials and difficulties, and enjoying unrestrained intercourse. This kind of fellowship is world wide. One can trace a genial spirit of <i>camaraderie</i> pervading the wanderings of Chinese -pilgrims, the tracks of mediæval Arab merchants, +pilgrims, the tracks of mediæval Arab merchants, the ways of modern missionaries, or the ocean paths of sailors. Once on the move, with the sweet influences of primitive nature pervading earth and air @@ -15209,7 +15170,7 @@ of the ridge. It is quite probable that the ruins of more than one ancient city are to be found in the neighbourhood of this very ancient highway. Ancient as it is, however, it formed no part of the -mediæval commercial system of the Arabs—a +mediæval commercial system of the Arabs—a system which apparently did not include the frontier passes into India; and I have failed to identify Vigne's Zohaka with any previous indications. @@ -16211,7 +16172,7 @@ Lash Jowain. From here to Farah and from Farah once again to Herat, his road was made straight for him, and we need only note what he has to say about the extent of the ruins near Sabzawar to be -convinced that here was the mediæval provincial +convinced that here was the mediæval provincial capital of Parwana. At Herat he was enabled to do what would have saved him a most adventurous journey (and lost us the pleasure of recording @@ -16607,7 +16568,7 @@ at all.</p> <p>But beyond all contention the hidden jewels to be acquired by scientific research in Badakshan are -archæological and antiquarian rather than geographical. +archæological and antiquarian rather than geographical. Now that Nineveh and Babylon have yielded up their secrets, there is no such field out of Egypt for the antiquarian and his spade as the @@ -16731,7 +16692,7 @@ Our knowledge of the Helmund River (such knowledge, that is to say, as justifies us in mapping the course of the river with a firm line) from its sources ends almost exactly at the intersection of the parallel -of 34° of North latitude with the meridian of 67° +of 34° of North latitude with the meridian of 67° East longitude. For the next 120 miles we really know nothing about its course, except that it is said to run nearly straight through the heart of the @@ -17408,7 +17369,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Altitude: <ul class="none"> - <li>Abstract, mediæval ignorance of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> + <li>Abstract, mediæval ignorance of, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> <li>As a factor in defence, <a href="#Page_419">419</a></li> </ul></li> @@ -17475,7 +17436,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Indian invasion by, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_294">4</a></li> <li>Indian route used by, <i>via</i> Girishk, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> <li>Makran under ascendency of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>-<a href="#Page_295">5</a></li> - <li>Methods of, mediæval and modern, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> + <li>Methods of, mediæval and modern, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> <li>Records of travel by, untrustworthiness of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> <li>Sabœan, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li> <li>Sind under, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></li> @@ -17744,7 +17705,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Language of, Persian in origin, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> <li>Lasonoi emigration to, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> <li>Makran. <i>See <a href="#Makran">that title</a></i></li> - <li>Mediæval geography regarding, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> + <li>Mediæval geography regarding, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> <li>Mongol invasion of India through, <a href="#Page_526">526</a></li> <li>Natural features and conditions of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_33">3</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li> <li>Persian Empire including, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> @@ -17908,7 +17869,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Bodh, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li> -<li>Bokhara (Sogdiæ): +<li>Bokhara (Sogdiæ): <ul class="none"> <li>Alexander's success in, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> <li>Balkh under chief of, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li> @@ -17947,7 +17908,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Mingals, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> <li>Revolt of, at Kalat, <a href="#Page_406">406</a> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">536</a></span></li> - <li>Sakæ, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_164">4</a></li> + <li>Sakæ, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_164">4</a></li> <li>Stock of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> <li>Traditions of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> </ul></li> @@ -17970,7 +17931,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Haibak, at, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>-<a href="#Page_265">5</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a></li> <li>Jalalabad, relics at, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li> <li>Kashmir, in, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">80</a></li> - <li>Nava Sanghârâma, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> + <li>Nava Sanghârâma, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> <li>Ritual of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_176">6</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>-<a href="#Page_182">2</a></li> <li>Sind, ruins in, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></li> <li>Swat, in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> @@ -18111,7 +18072,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Conolly, Lieut., <a href="#Page_390">390</a></li> -<li>Cophæus, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li>Cophæus, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> <li>Court, M., <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li> @@ -18385,7 +18346,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Firozand, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> -<li>Firozkohi (mediæval capital of Ghur), <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> +<li>Firozkohi (mediæval capital of Ghur), <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> <li>Firozkohi plateau: <ul class="none"> @@ -18514,8 +18475,8 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Ghur, kingdom of: <ul class="none"> - <li>Description and history of, in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_213">13</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>-<a href="#Page_219">19</a></li> - <li>Routes through, in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_224">24</a></li> + <li>Description and history of, in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_213">13</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>-<a href="#Page_219">19</a></li> + <li>Routes through, in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_224">24</a></li> </ul></li> <li>Ghur river, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li> @@ -18545,7 +18506,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Gobi desert, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> -<li>Goës, Benedict, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-<a href="#Page_328">8</a></li> +<li>Goës, Benedict, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>-<a href="#Page_328">8</a></li> <li>Goldsmid, General Sir F., <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> @@ -18700,17 +18661,17 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Antiquarian treasures in, <a href="#Page_496">496</a></li> <li>Description of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> <li>Nadir Shah in, <a href="#Page_526">526</a></li> - <li>Pottery débris in, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> + <li>Pottery débris in, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> <li>Survey of, thoroughness of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> </ul></li> -<li>Hephæstion, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> +<li>Hephæstion, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> <li><a name="Herat" id="Herat"></a>Herat (Aria): <ul class="none"> <li>Ancient cities on or near site of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> <li>Balkh, routes to, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>-<a href="#Page_240">40</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_248">8</a></li> - <li>Capital of Ghur in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> + <li>Capital of Ghur in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> <li>Christie at, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>-<a href="#Page_337">7</a></li> <li>Commerce of, during Arab supremacy, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> <li>Defence of, against the Persians (1837), <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li> @@ -18727,7 +18688,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Panjdeh and Merv, route to, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> <li>Persian satrapy including, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> <li>Persian siege of, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li> - <li>Tributary to Ghur in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> + <li>Tributary to Ghur in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> </ul></li> <li>Herat valley, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_212">12</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>; @@ -18748,7 +18709,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Andarab in relation to, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> <li>Command of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> <li>Masson's account of, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></li> - <li>Mediæval use of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> + <li>Mediæval use of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> <li>Wood's account of, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>-<a href="#Page_418">18</a></li> <li>Snow line of, on north and south sides, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></li> </ul></li> @@ -18768,7 +18729,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Housab, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> -<li>Huc, Abbé, cited, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li> +<li>Huc, Abbé, cited, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li> <li>Huec Sheng, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> @@ -18798,7 +18759,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li><i>Iliad</i> cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> -<li>Imám Sharif, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> +<li>Imám Sharif, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> <li>India (<i>for particular districts, rivers, etc., see their names</i>): <ul class="none"> @@ -19020,8 +18981,8 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Hicks' tomb at, <a href="#Page_469">469</a></li> <li>Masson British agent in, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>; his account of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_377">7</a></li> - <li>Mediæval estimate of, as "Indian" town, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>; - mediæval description quoted, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> + <li>Mediæval estimate of, as "Indian" town, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>; + mediæval description quoted, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> <li>Modern conditions in, social and material, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li> <li>Moorcroft's journey to, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></li> <li>Routes to and from: @@ -19164,7 +19125,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Kabul compared with, in matter of tolerance, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li> <li>Leech's mission to, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>-<a href="#Page_402">402</a></li> <li>Masson at, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_361">61</a></li> - <li>Mediæval insignificance of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> + <li>Mediæval insignificance of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> <li>Routes from, to: <ul class="none"> <li>Ghazni, <a href="#Page_512">512</a></li> @@ -19324,7 +19285,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Khaibar route to India: <ul class="none"> <li>Evil reputation of, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li> - <li>Hyphæstion's march by, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> + <li>Hyphæstion's march by, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> <li>Masson's journey by, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="#Page_352">2</a></li> </ul></li> @@ -19883,7 +19844,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <ul class="none"> <li>Alexander's capture of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>; route from, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - <li>Nysæans at, question as to, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_129">9</a></li> + <li>Nysæans at, question as to, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_129">9</a></li> </ul></li> <li>Marabad, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> @@ -20133,7 +20094,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Nassoor, Sheikh, <a href="#Page_497">497</a></li> -<li>Nava Sanghârâma, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> +<li>Nava Sanghârâma, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> <li>Navigation, ancient, character of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_57">7</a></li> @@ -20202,7 +20163,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>War-hymn connected with, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_132">2</a></li> </ul></li> -<li>Nysæan inscriptions, question as to, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_130">30</a></li> +<li>Nysæan inscriptions, question as to, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_130">30</a></li> <li>Nysaioi, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>-<a href="#Page_127">7</a></li> </ul> @@ -20217,11 +20178,11 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Ora (? modern Bazar), <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li>Oritæ, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li>Oritæ, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> <li>Orodis, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> -<li><a name="Oxus" id="Oxus"></a>Oxus district, mediæval geography of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> +<li><a name="Oxus" id="Oxus"></a>Oxus district, mediæval geography of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> <li>Oxus jungles, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></li> @@ -20253,7 +20214,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li><a name="Pamirs" id="Pamirs"></a>Pamirs: <ul class="none"> <li>Climate of, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></li> - <li>Mediæval geography of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + <li>Mediæval geography of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> <li>Routes across, <a href="#Page_502">502</a></li> <li>Taghdumbash, <a href="#Page_517">517</a></li> </ul></li> @@ -20290,7 +20251,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Panjshir valley: <ul class="none"> - <li>Mediæval reputation of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li> + <li>Mediæval reputation of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li> <li>Timur in, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>-<a href="#Page_356">6</a></li> <li>otherwise mentioned, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>-<a href="#Page_357">7</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a></li> </ul></li> @@ -20429,7 +20390,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Polo, Marco, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li> -<li>Polyænus quoted, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">8</a></li> +<li>Polyænus quoted, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">8</a></li> <li>Pony-ferries on the Oxus—at Kilif, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>; at Khwaja Salar, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>-<a href="#Page_461">61</a></li> @@ -20594,7 +20555,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Safed Koh, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> -<li>Sagittæ, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> +<li>Sagittæ, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> <li>St. John cited, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li> @@ -20608,7 +20569,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Sajidi, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> -<li>Sakæ, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li>Sakæ, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> <li>Sakah, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> @@ -20678,7 +20639,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Afghan army's experience in, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></li> <li>Climate and natural conditions in, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a></li> <li>Extent of, less than of ancient Drangiana, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>; - extent in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> + extent in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li> <li>Firearms imported into, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> <li>Goldsmid's mission to, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> <li>Inhabitants of, mentioned by Herodotus, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> @@ -20689,7 +20650,7 @@ case in order to be secure we must be strong. <li>Reputation of, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> <li>Surveys of, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>-<a href="#Page_497">7</a></li> <li>Telegraph to, from Narmashir, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li> - <li>Tributary to Ghur in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> + <li>Tributary to Ghur in mediæval times, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> </ul></li> <li>Sekhwan, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li> @@ -21334,382 +21295,6 @@ Kabul by good motor roads.</p> </div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Gates of India, by Thomas Holdich - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GATES OF INDIA *** - 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