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diff --git a/42968-h/42968-h.htm b/42968-h/42968-h.htm index 4f43f3f..1dd7da9 100644 --- a/42968-h/42968-h.htm +++ b/42968-h/42968-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Riddle of the Universe, by Ernst Haeckel. @@ -153,46 +153,7 @@ td p { </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Riddle of the Universe at the close of -the nineteenth century, by Ernst Haeckel - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: The Riddle of the Universe at the close of the nineteenth century - -Author: Ernst Haeckel - -Translator: Joseph McCabe - -Release Date: June 17, 2013 [EBook #42968] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RIDDLE OF THE UNIVERSE *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Paul Clark, Marilynda -Fraser-Cunliffe and the Online Distributed Proofreading -Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42968 ***</div> <div class="transnote"> <p>Transcriber's Note:</p> @@ -565,7 +526,7 @@ that we should introduce to English readers the latest work of Professor Haeckel. Germany, as the reader will quickly perceive, is witnessing the same strange reaction of thought that we see about us here in England, -yet <i>Die Welträthsel</i> found an immediate and very +yet <i>Die Welträthsel</i> found an immediate and very extensive circle of readers. One of the most prominent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span> zoologists of the century, Professor Haeckel, has a unique claim to pronounce with authority, from the @@ -586,7 +547,7 @@ the topics included; yet the reader will soon discover a vein of exceptionally interesting thought in the chapters on evolution. The evolution of the human body is no longer a matter of serious dispute. It has passed -the first two tribunals—those of theology and of an <i>à +the first two tribunals—those of theology and of an <i>à priori</i> philosophy—and is only challenged at the third and last—that of empirical proof—by the decorative heads of scientific bodies and a few isolated thinkers.</p> @@ -894,7 +855,7 @@ be preferable, whether the constitution should be<span class="pagenum"><a name=" aristocratic or democratic, are subordinate questions in comparison with the supreme question: Shall the modern civilized state be spiritual or secular? Shall it be -<i>theocratic</i>—ruled by the irrational formulæ of faith and +<i>theocratic</i>—ruled by the irrational formulæ of faith and by clerical despotism—or <i>nomocratic</i>—under the sovereignty of rational laws and civic right? The first task is to kindle a rational interest in our youth, and to @@ -1014,7 +975,7 @@ of a wise ruler. God, as creator, sustainer, and ruler of the world, is thus represented after a purely human fashion in his thought and work. Hence it follows, in turn, that man is godlike. “God made man to His -own image and likeness.” The older, naïve mythology +own image and likeness.” The older, naïve mythology is pure “homotheism,” attributing human shape, flesh, and blood to the gods. It is more intelligible than the modern mystic theosophy that adores a personal God @@ -1329,10 +1290,10 @@ OUR BODILY FRAME</h2> <p class="summary">Fundamental Importance of Anatomy—Human Anatomy—Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen, Vesalius—Comparative Anatomy—Georges -Cuvier—Johannes Müller—Karl Gegenbaur—Histology—The -Cellular Theory—Schleiden and Schwann—Kölliker—Virchow—Man +Cuvier—Johannes Müller—Karl Gegenbaur—Histology—The +Cellular Theory—Schleiden and Schwann—Kölliker—Virchow—Man a Vertebrate, a Tetrapod, a Mammal, -a Placental, a Primate—Prosimiæ and Simiæ—The Catarrhinæ—Papiomorphic +a Placental, a Primate—Prosimiæ and Simiæ—The Catarrhinæ—Papiomorphic and Anthropomorphic Apes—Essential Likeness of Man and the Ape in Corporal Structure</p> @@ -1426,9 +1387,9 @@ the next three centuries devoted themselves mainly to a more accurate study of the human organism. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> elaborate science which we now call comparative anatomy was born in the year 1803, when the great French -zoologist Georges Cuvier (a native of Mömpelgard, in -Alsace) published his profound <i>Leçons sur l’anatomie -comparée</i>, and endeavored to formulate, for the first +zoologist Georges Cuvier (a native of Mömpelgard, in +Alsace) published his profound <i>Leçons sur l’anatomie +comparée</i>, and endeavored to formulate, for the first time, definite laws as to the organism of man and the beasts. While his predecessors—among whom was Goethe in 1790—had mainly contented themselves with @@ -1441,7 +1402,7 @@ of extreme consequence for our “question of all questions,” since it clearly brought out the fact that man belonged to the vertebral type, and differed fundamentally from all the other types. It is true that the keen-sighted -Linné had already, in his <i>Systema Natuae</i>, +Linné had already, in his <i>Systema Natuae</i>, made a great step in advance by assigning man a definite place in the class of mammals; he had even drawn up the three groups of half-apes, apes, and men (<i>Lemur</i>, @@ -1451,7 +1412,7 @@ empirical foundation, supplied by comparative anatomy, which Cuvier was the first to attain. Further developments were added by the great comparative anatomists of our own century—Friedrich Meckel -(Halle), Johannes Müller (Berlin), Richard Owen, T. +(Halle), Johannes Müller (Berlin), Richard Owen, T. Huxley, and Karl Gegenbaur (Jena, subsequently Heidelberg). The last-named, in applying the evolutionary theory, which Darwin had just established, to comparative @@ -1481,9 +1442,9 @@ element of all the different tissues. This was first discovered world, by Matthias Schleiden, and immediately afterwards proved to be the same in the animal world by Theodor Schwann, the pupil and assistant of Johannes -Müller at Berlin. Two other distinguished +Müller at Berlin. Two other distinguished pupils of this great master, who are still living, Albert -Kölliker and Rudolph Virchow, took up the cellular +Kölliker and Rudolph Virchow, took up the cellular theory, and the theory of tissues which is founded on it, in the sixties, and applied them to the human organism in all its details, both in health and disease; @@ -1506,8 +1467,8 @@ and different from those of the other vertebrates; man, even in these finest histological relations, is a <i>true mammal</i>.</p> -<p>The microscopic researches of Albert Kölliker and -Franz Leydig (at Würzburg) not only enlarged our +<p>The microscopic researches of Albert Kölliker and +Franz Leydig (at Würzburg) not only enlarged our knowledge of the finer structure of man and the beasts in every direction, but they were especially important in the light of their connection with the evolution of @@ -1521,7 +1482,7 @@ the vertebrates. This most important and most highly developed group in the animal world was first recognized in its natural unity in 1801 by the great Lamarck; he embraced under that title the four higher -animal groups of Linné—mammals, birds, amphibia, +animal groups of Linné—mammals, birds, amphibia, and fishes. To these he opposed the two lower classes, insects and worms, as invertebrates. Cuvier (1812) established the unity of the vertebrate type on a firmer @@ -1728,7 +1689,7 @@ the Jurassic period. We will only specify here, as the most important living representatives of these four main groups, the rodentia, the ungulata, the carnivora, and the primates. To the legion of the primates belong -the prosimiæ (half-apes), the simiæ (real apes), +the prosimiæ (half-apes), the simiæ (real apes), and man. All the members of these three orders agree in many important features, and are at the same time distinguished by these features from the other twenty-three @@ -1822,8 +1783,8 @@ build of the body (especially of the head), but also on account of certain features which are unimportant in themselves but very significant in their constancy. The sacrum of the anthropoid ape, like that of man, is -made up of the fusion of five vertebræ; that of the <i>cynopithecus</i> -consists of three (more rarely four) sacral vertebræ. +made up of the fusion of five vertebræ; that of the <i>cynopithecus</i> +consists of three (more rarely four) sacral vertebræ. The premolar teeth of the <i>cynopitheci</i> are greater in length than breadth; those of the <i>anthropomorpha</i> are broader than they are long; and the first molar @@ -1852,8 +1813,8 @@ by the anatomist Robert Hartmann, in his work on <i>The Anthropoid Apes</i>;<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> he proposed to divide the order of <i>Simiae</i> in a new way—namely, into the two great groups of <i>primaria</i> (man and the anthropoid ape) -and the <i>simiae</i> proper, or <i>pitheci</i> (the rest of the catarrhinæ -and all the platyrrhinæ). In any case, we have +and the <i>simiae</i> proper, or <i>pitheci</i> (the rest of the catarrhinæ +and all the platyrrhinæ). In any case, we have a clear proof of <i>the close affinity of man and the anthropoid ape</i>.</p> @@ -1905,7 +1866,7 @@ Galen—Experiment and Vivisection—Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood by Harvey—Vitalism: Haller—Teleological and Vitalistic Conception of Life—Mechanical and Monistic View of the Physiological Processes—Comparative -Physiology in the Nineteenth Century: Johannes Müller—Cellular +Physiology in the Nineteenth Century: Johannes Müller—Cellular Physiology: Max Verworn—Cellular Pathology: Virchow—Mammal Physiology—Similarity of all Vital Activity in Man and the Ape</p> @@ -2132,7 +2093,7 @@ beginning of human anatomy and physiology was physiology,” which embraces the whole sphere of life phenomena, from the lowest animal up to man, is a triumph of the nineteenth century. Its famous creator -was Johannes Müller, of Berlin (born, the son of a +was Johannes Müller, of Berlin (born, the son of a shoemaker, at Coblentz, in 1801). For fully twenty-five years—from 1833 to 1858—this most versatile and most comprehensive biologist of our age evinced an activity @@ -2141,7 +2102,7 @@ which is only comparable with the associated work of Haller and Cuvier. Nearly every one of the great biologists who have taught and worked in Germany for the last sixty years was, directly or in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>directly, -a pupil of Johannes Müller. Starting from the +a pupil of Johannes Müller. Starting from the anatomy and physiology of man, he soon gathered all the chief groups of the higher and lower animals within his sphere of comparison. As, moreover, he compared @@ -2152,14 +2113,14 @@ philosophic fashion, he attained a biological knowledge far in advance of his predecessors.</p> <p>The most valuable fruit of these comprehensive studies -of Johannes Müller was his <i>Manual of Human Physiology</i>. +of Johannes Müller was his <i>Manual of Human Physiology</i>. This classical work contains much more than the title indicates; it is the sketch of a comprehensive “comparative biology.” It is still unsurpassed in respect of its contents and range of investigation. In particular, we find the methods of observation and experiment applied in it as masterfully as the philosophic -processes of induction and deduction. Müller was originally +processes of induction and deduction. Müller was originally a vitalist, like all the physiologists of his time. Nevertheless, the current idea of a vital force took a novel form in his speculations, and gradually transformed @@ -2175,13 +2136,13 @@ the same mechanical interpretation in the life of the senses and of the mind as in the working of the muscles; the same in the phenomena of circulation, respiration, and digestion as in generation and development. -Müller’s success was chiefly due to the fact<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +Müller’s success was chiefly due to the fact<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> that he always began with the simplest life phenomena of the lowest animals, and followed them step by step in their gradual development up to the very highest, to man. In this his method of <i>critical comparison</i> proved its value both from the physiological and from the anatomical -point of view. Johannes Müller is, moreover, +point of view. Johannes Müller is, moreover, the only great scientist who has equally cultivated these two branches of research, and combined them with equal brilliancy. Immediately after his death @@ -2189,12 +2150,12 @@ his vast scientific kingdom fell into four distinct provinces, which are now nearly always represented by four or more chairs—human and comparative anatomy, pathological anatomy, physiology, and the history -of evolution. This sudden division of Müller’s +of evolution. This sudden division of Müller’s immense realm of learning in 1858 has been compared to the dissolution of the empire which Alexander the Great had consolidated and ruled.</p> -<p>Among the many pupils of Johannes Müller who, +<p>Among the many pupils of Johannes Müller who, either during his lifetime or after his death, labored hard for the advancement of the various branches of biology, one of the most fortunate—if not the most important—was @@ -2202,7 +2163,7 @@ Theodor Schwann. When the able botanist Schleiden, in 1838, indicated the cell as the common elementary organ of all plants, and proved that all the different tissues of the plant are merely combinations -of cells, Johannes Müller recognized at once the +of cells, Johannes Müller recognized at once the extraordinary possibilities of this important discovery. He himself sought to point out the same composition in various tissues of the animal body—for instance, in @@ -2215,16 +2176,16 @@ Thus was the foundation laid of the “cellular theory,” the profound importance of which, both in physiology and anatomy, has become clearer and more widely recognized in each subsequent year. Moreover, it was -shown by two other pupils of Johannes Müller that the +shown by two other pupils of Johannes Müller that the activity of all organisms is, in the ultimate analysis, the activity of the components of their tissues, the microscopic cells—these were the able physiologist Ernst -Brücke, of Vienna, and the distinguished histologist -Albert Kölliker, of Würzburg. Brücke correctly denominated +Brücke, of Vienna, and the distinguished histologist +Albert Kölliker, of Würzburg. Brücke correctly denominated the cells the “elementary organisms,” and showed that, in the body of man and of all other animals, they are the only actual, independent factors of -the life process. Kölliker earned special distinction, +the life process. Kölliker earned special distinction, not only in the construction of the whole science of histology, but particularly by showing that the animal ovum and its products are simple cells.</p> @@ -2239,18 +2200,18 @@ Protistae</i> (1889) he showed, as a result of an ingenious series of experimental researches, that the “theory of a cell-soul” which I put forward in 1866<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> is completely established by an accurate study of the unicellular protozoa, -and that “the psychic phenomena of the protistæ +and that “the psychic phenomena of the protistæ form the bridge which unites the chemical processes of inorganic nature with the mental life of the highest animals.” Verworn has further developed these views, and based them on the modern theory of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> evolution, in his <i>General Physiology</i>. This distinguished work returns to the comprehensive point of -view of Johannes Müller, in opposition to the one-sided +view of Johannes Müller, in opposition to the one-sided and narrow methods of those modern physiologists who think to discover the nature of the vital phenomena by the exclusive aid of chemical and physical -experiments. Verworn showed that it is only by Müller’s +experiments. Verworn showed that it is only by Müller’s comparative method and by a profound study of the physiology of the cell that we can reach the higher stand-point which will give us a comprehensive survey @@ -2283,14 +2244,14 @@ accepted down to the middle of the nineteenth century.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p> <p>It was then that Rudolf Virchow, another pupil of -Müller, conceived the happy idea of transferring the +Müller, conceived the happy idea of transferring the cellular theory from the healthy to the diseased organism; he sought in the more minute metamorphoses of the diseased cells and the tissues they composed the true source of those larger changes which, in the form of disease, threaten the living organism with peril and death. Especially during the seven years of his professorship -at Würzburg (1849-56) Virchow pursued his +at Würzburg (1849-56) Virchow pursued his great task with such brilliant results that his <i>Cellular Pathology</i> (published in 1858) turned, at one stroke, the whole of pathology and the dependent science of practical @@ -2380,9 +2341,9 @@ OUR EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT</h2> <p class="summary">The Older Embryology—The Theory of Preformation—The Theory of Scatulation: Haller and Leibnitz—The Theory of Epigenesis: C. F. Wolff—The Theory of Germinal Layers: Carl -Ernst Baer—Discovery of the Human Ovum: Remak, Kölliker—The +Ernst Baer—Discovery of the Human Ovum: Remak, Kölliker—The Egg-Cell and the Sperm-Cell—The Theory of the -Gastræa—Protozoa and Metazoa—The Ova and the Spermatozoa: +Gastræa—Protozoa and Metazoa—The Ova and the Spermatozoa: Oscar Hertwig—Conception—Embryonic Development in Man—Uniformity of the Vertebrate Embryo—The Germinal Membranes in Man—The Amnion, the Serolemma, @@ -2564,14 +2525,14 @@ and the layers which arise from it to the tissues and cells which compose the fully developed organism? The correct answer to this difficult question was given about the middle of this century by two distinguished pupils -of Johannes Müller—Robert Remak, of Berlin, and -Albert Kölliker, of Würzburg. They showed that the +of Johannes Müller—Robert Remak, of Berlin, and +Albert Kölliker, of Würzburg. They showed that the ovum is at first one simple cell, and that the many germinal globules, or granules, which arise from it by repeated segmentation, are also simple cells. From this mulberry-like group of cells are constructed first the germinal layers, and subsequently by differentiation, -or division of labor, all the different organs. Kölliker +or division of labor, all the different organs. Kölliker has the further merit of showing that the seminal fluid of male animals is also a mass of microscopic cells. The active pin-shaped “seed-animalcules,” or <i>spermatozoa</i>, @@ -2606,7 +2567,7 @@ and most of them seemed to be altogether without true germinal layers. It was not until about the middle of the century that such layers were found in some of the invertebrates. Huxley, for instance, found them in the -medusæ in 1849, and Kölliker in the cephalopods in +medusæ in 1849, and Kölliker in the cephalopods in 1844. Particularly important was the discovery of Kowalewsky (1886) that the lowest vertebrate—the lancelot, or amphioxus—is developed in just the same manner @@ -2616,21 +2577,21 @@ or ascidian. Even in some of the worms, the radiata and the articulata, a similar formation of the germinal layers was pointed out by the same observer. I myself was then (since 1886) occupied with the embryology of -the sponges, corals, medusæ, and siphonophoræ, and, +the sponges, corals, medusæ, and siphonophoræ, and, as I found the same formation of two primary germ layers everywhere in these lowest classes of multicellular animals, I came to the conclusion that this impor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>tant embryonic feature is common to the entire animal world. The circumstance that in the sponges and the -cnidaria (polyps, medusæ, etc.) the body consists for a +cnidaria (polyps, medusæ, etc.) the body consists for a long time, sometimes throughout life, merely of two simple layers of cells, seemed to me especially significant. Huxley had already (1849) compared these, in -the case of the medusæ, with the two primary germinal +the case of the medusæ, with the two primary germinal layers of the vertebrates. On the ground of these observations and comparisons I then, in 1872, in my <i>Philosophy of the Calcispongiae</i>, published the “theory of -the gastræa,” of which the following are the essential +the gastræa,” of which the following are the essential points:</p> <p>I. The whole animal world falls into two essentially @@ -2687,13 +2648,13 @@ the actual gastrula, in which it is preserved by heredity.</p> <p>VII. This phylogenetic conclusion, based on the comparison of ontogenetic facts, is confirmed by the -circumstance that there are several of these gastræades +circumstance that there are several of these gastræades still in existence (<i>gastraemaria</i>, <i>cyemaria</i>, <i>physemaria</i>, etc.), and also some ancient forms of other animal groups whose organization is very little higher (the <i>olynthus</i> of the sponges, the <i>hydra</i>, or common fresh-water polyp, of the cnidaria, the <i>convoluta</i> and other -cryptocæla, or worms of the simplest type, of the <i>platodes</i>).</p> +cryptocæla, or worms of the simplest type, of the <i>platodes</i>).</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p> @@ -2702,7 +2663,7 @@ tissue-forming animals from the gastrula we have to distinguish two principal groups. The earlier and <i>lower</i> types (the <i>coelenteria</i> or <i>acoelomia</i>) have no body cavity, no vent, and no blood; such is the case with -the gastræades, sponges, cnidaria, and platodes. The +the gastræades, sponges, cnidaria, and platodes. The later and <i>higher</i> types (the <i>caelomaria</i> or <i>bilateria</i>), on the other hand, have a true body cavity, and generally blood and a vent; to these we must refer the worms @@ -2710,10 +2671,10 @@ and the higher types of animals which were evolved from these later on, the echinodermata, mollusca, articulata, tunicata, and vertebrata.</p> -<p>Those are the main points of my “gastræa theory”; +<p>Those are the main points of my “gastræa theory”; I have since enlarged the first sketch of it (given in 1872), and have endeavored to substantiate it in a series -of “Studies on the gastræa theory” (1873-84). Although +of “Studies on the gastræa theory” (1873-84). Although it was almost universally rejected at first, and fiercely combated for ten years by many authorities, it is now (and has been for the last fifteen years) accepted @@ -2811,7 +2772,7 @@ above the cord the spinal marrow develops out of the outer germinal layer, while the gut makes its appearance underneath. Then, on both sides, to the right and left of the axial rod, appear the segments of the -“pro-vertebræ” and the outlines of the muscular plates, +“pro-vertebræ” and the outlines of the muscular plates, with which the formation of the members of the vertebrate body begins. The gill-clefts appear on either side of the fore-gut; they are the openings of the @@ -2922,7 +2883,7 @@ of short villi; these “chorion-villi” take the form of pit-like depressions of the mucous membrane of the mother, and are easily detached at birth. That happens in most of the ungulata (the sow, camel, mare, -etc.), the cetacea, and the prosimiæ; these “mallo-placentalia” +etc.), the cetacea, and the prosimiæ; these “mallo-placentalia” (with a <i>diffuse</i> placenta) have been denominated the <i>indeciduata</i>. The same formation is present in man and the other placentals in the beginning. @@ -2936,7 +2897,7 @@ with loss of blood. This detachable membrane—the <i>decidua</i>—is a characteristic of the higher placentalia, which have, consequently, been grouped under the title of <i>deciduata</i>; to that category belong the carnassia, -rodentia, simiæ, and man. In the carnassia and some +rodentia, simiæ, and man. In the carnassia and some of the ungulata (the elephant, for instance) the placenta takes the form of a girdle, hence they are known as the <i>zonoplacentalia</i>; in the rodentia, the insectivora (the @@ -3010,7 +2971,7 @@ with the primates</i>.</p> <h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br /> THE HISTORY OF OUR SPECIES</h2> -<p class="summary">Origin of Man—Mythical History of Creation—Moses and Linné—The +<p class="summary">Origin of Man—Mythical History of Creation—Moses and Linné—The Creation of Permanent Species—The Catastrophic Theory: Cuvier—Transformism: Goethe—Theory of Descent: Lamarck—Theory of Selection: Darwin—Evolution (Phylogeny)—Ancestral @@ -3046,7 +3007,7 @@ within very narrow limits; the vast majority of these historical processes can only be known by direct inference—by critical reflection, and by a comparative use of empirical sciences which belong to very different -fields of thought, palæontology, ontogeny, and morphology. +fields of thought, palæontology, ontogeny, and morphology. To this we must add the immense opposition which was everywhere made to biological evolution on account of the close connection between questions of @@ -3069,7 +3030,7 @@ Middle Ages triumphant Christendom naturally arrogated to itself the sole right of pronouncing on the question; and, the Bible being the basis of the structure of the Christian religion, the whole story of creation -was taken from the book of Genesis. Even Carl Linné, +was taken from the book of Genesis. Even Carl Linné, the famous Swedish scientist, started from that basis when, in 1735, in his classical <i>Systema Naturae</i>, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> made the first attempt at a systematic arrangement, @@ -3080,7 +3041,7 @@ nomenclature; to each kind of animals and plants he gave a particular specific name, and added to it the wider-reaching name of the genus. A <i>genus</i> served to unite the nearest related <i>species</i>; thus, for instance, -Linné grouped under the genus “dog” (<i>canis</i>), as different +Linné grouped under the genus “dog” (<i>canis</i>), as different species, the house-dog (<i>canis familiaris</i>), the jackal (<i>canis aureus</i>), the wolf (<i>canis lupus</i>) the fox (<i>canis vulpes</i>), etc. This binary nomenclature immediately @@ -3088,20 +3049,20 @@ proved of such great practical assistance that it was universally accepted, and is still always followed in zoological and botanical classification.</p> -<p>But the theoretical dogma which Linné himself connected +<p>But the theoretical dogma which Linné himself connected with his practical idea of species was fraught with the gravest peril to science. The first question which forced itself on the mind of the thoughtful scientist was the question as to the nature of the concept of species, its contents, and its range. And the creator of the idea answered this fundamental question by a -naïve appeal to the dominant Mosaic legend of creation: +naïve appeal to the dominant Mosaic legend of creation: “<i>Species tot sunt diversae, quot diversas formas ab initio creavit infinitum ens</i>”—(There are just so many distinct species as there were distinct types created in the beginning by the Infinite). This theosophic dogma cut short all attempt at a natural explanation of -the origin of species. Linné was acquainted only with +the origin of species. Linné was acquainted only with the plant and animal worlds that exist to-day; he had no suspicion of the much more numerous extinct species which had peopled the earth with their varying @@ -3115,7 +3076,7 @@ description and true interpretation of many of these fossil remains. He showed, too, that a series of very different animal populations have succeeded each other in the various stages of the earth’s history. Since Cuvier -held firmly to Linné’s idea of the absolute permanency +held firmly to Linné’s idea of the absolute permanency of species, he thought their origin could only be explained by the supposition that a series of great cataclysms and new creations had marked the history of @@ -3147,7 +3108,7 @@ organ—the leaf. In his vertebral theory of the skull he endeavored to prove that the skulls of the vertebrates—including man—were all alike made up of certain groups of bones, arranged in a definite structure, and -that these bones are nothing else than transformed vertebræ. +that these bones are nothing else than transformed vertebræ. It was his penetrating study of comparative osteology that led Goethe to a firm conviction of the unity of the animal organization; he had recognized @@ -3264,7 +3225,7 @@ magnificent, so thorough, and so far-reaching a success with a single classical work as Darwin did in 1859 with his famous <i>Origin of Species</i>. It is true that the reform of comparative anatomy and physiology by -Johannes Müller had inaugurated a new and fertile +Johannes Müller had inaugurated a new and fertile epoch for the whole of biology, that the establishment of the cellular theory by Schleiden and Schwann, the reform of ontogeny by Baer, and the formulation of @@ -3363,7 +3324,7 @@ with the invertebrate animals (1896), the third with the vertebrates (1895). The ancestral tree of both the smaller and the larger groups is carried on in this work as far as my knowledge of the three great -“ancestral documents”—palæontology, ontogeny, and +“ancestral documents”—palæontology, ontogeny, and morphology—qualified me to extend it.</p> <p>I had already, in my <i>General Morphology</i> (at the @@ -3378,7 +3339,7 @@ determined by the physiological functions of heredity (generation) and adaptation (maintenance).” Darwin himself had emphasized the great significance of his theory for the elucidation of embryology in 1859, -and Fritz Müller had endeavored to prove it as regards +and Fritz Müller had endeavored to prove it as regards the Crustacea in the able little work, <i>Facts and Arguments for Darwin</i> (1864). My own task has been to prove the universal application and the fundamental @@ -3411,7 +3372,7 @@ Man</i> in 1871. In the mean time (1863) Huxley had very ably discussed this most important consequence of evolution in his famous <i>Place of Man in Nature</i>. With the aid of comparative anatomy and ontogeny, -and the support of the facts of palæontology, Huxley +and the support of the facts of palæontology, Huxley proved that the “descent of man from the ape” is a necessary consequence of Darwinism, and that no other scientific explanation of the origin of the human race @@ -3439,7 +3400,7 @@ which approaches nearest, in my own opinion, to the still remote truth, in the light of our present knowledge of the documentary evidence. I was especially preoccupied in its composition to use the three empirical -“documents”—palæontology, ontogeny, and morphology +“documents”—palæontology, ontogeny, and morphology (or comparative anatomy)—as evenly and harmoniously as possible. It is true that my hypotheses were in many cases supplemented and corrected in detail @@ -3457,8 +3418,8 @@ Triassic period, the marsupials in the Jurassic, and then the oldest placentals in the Cretaceous. Of the placentals, in turn, the first to appear in the oldest Ter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>tiary period (the Eocene) are the lowest primates, the -prosimiæ, which are followed by the simiæ in the Miocene. -Of the catarrhinæ, the cynopitheci precede the +prosimiæ, which are followed by the simiæ in the Miocene. +Of the catarrhinæ, the cynopitheci precede the anthropomorpha; from one branch of the latter, during the Pliocene period, arises the ape-man without speech (the <i>pithecanthropus alalus</i>); and from him descends, @@ -3468,14 +3429,14 @@ finally, speaking man.</p> much more difficult to investigate and much less safe than this tree of our vertebrate predecessors; we have no fossilized relics of their soft, boneless structures, so -palæontology can give us no assistance in this case. +palæontology can give us no assistance in this case. The evidence of comparative anatomy and ontogeny, therefore, becomes all the more important. Since the human embryo passes through the same <i>chordula</i>-stage as the germs of all other vertebrates, since it evolves, similarly, out of two germinal layers of a <i>gastrula</i>, we infer, in virtue of the biogenetic law, the early existence -of corresponding ancestral forms—vermalia, gastræada, +of corresponding ancestral forms—vermalia, gastræada, etc. Most important of all is the fact that the human embryo, like that of all other animals, arises originally from a single cell; for this “stem-cell” @@ -3498,7 +3459,7 @@ which results with absolute necessity from the general inductive law of the theory of descent.”</p> <p>For the definitive proof and establishment of this -fundamental pithecometra-thesis the palæontological +fundamental pithecometra-thesis the palæontological discoveries of the last thirty years are of the greatest importance; in particular, the astonishing discoveries of a number of extinct mammals of the Tertiary period @@ -3557,13 +3518,13 @@ of primates. Formerly fossil remains of the primates were very scarce. Even Cuvier, the great founder of palaeontology, maintained until his last day (1832) that there were no fossilized primates; he had himself, it is -true, described the skull of an Eocene prosimiæ (<i>adapis</i>), +true, described the skull of an Eocene prosimiæ (<i>adapis</i>), but he had wrongly classed it with the ungulata. However, during the last twenty years a fair number of well-preserved -fossilized skeletons of prosimiæ and simiæ +fossilized skeletons of prosimiæ and simiæ have been discovered; in them we find all the chief<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> intermediate members which complete the connecting -chain of ancestors from the oldest prosimiæ to +chain of ancestors from the oldest prosimiæ to man.</p> <p>The most famous and most interesting of these discoveries @@ -3572,11 +3533,11 @@ is the fossil ape-man of Java, the much-talked-of doctor, Eugen Dubois, in 1894. It is in truth the much-sought “missing link,” supposed to be wanting in the chain of primates, which stretches unbroken from the -lowest catarrhinæ to the highest-developed man. I +lowest catarrhinæ to the highest-developed man. I have dealt exhaustively with the significance of this discovery in the paper which I read on August 26, 1898, at the Fourth International Zoological Congress at -Cambridge.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The palæontologist, who knows the conditions +Cambridge.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The palæontologist, who knows the conditions of the formation and preservation of fossils, will think the discovery of the pithecanthropus an unusually lucky accident. The apes, being arboreal, seldom @@ -3585,7 +3546,7 @@ fall into the water) which would secure the preservation and petrifaction of their skeleton. Thus, by the discovery of this fossil man-monkey of Java the descent of man from the ape has become just as clear and certain -from the palæontological side as it was previously from +from the palæontological side as it was previously from the evidence of comparative anatomy and ontogeny. We now have all the principal documents which tell the history of our race.</p> @@ -3792,12 +3753,12 @@ middle of the century; he passed at that time as one of the most distinguished representatives of the newly awakened <i>materialism</i>, which appeared in 1855, especially through two famous works, almost contemporaneous -in appearance—Ludwig Büchner’s <i>Matter and +in appearance—Ludwig Büchner’s <i>Matter and Force</i> and Carl Vogt’s <i>Superstition and Science</i>. Virchow published his general biological views on the vital processes in man—which he takes to be purely mechanical natural phenomena—in a series of distinguished -papers in the first volumes of the <i>Archiv für +papers in the first volumes of the <i>Archiv für pathologische Anatomie</i>, which he founded. The most important of these articles, and the one in which he most clearly expresses his monistic views of that @@ -4011,7 +3972,7 @@ work of Reimarus: “General observations on the instincts of animals” (Hamburg, 1760). At the same time a deeper scientific investigation had been facilitated by the thorough reform of physiology by Johannes -Müller. This distinguished biologist, having +Müller. This distinguished biologist, having a comprehensive knowledge of the whole field of or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>ganic nature, of morphology, and of physiology, introduced the “exact methods” of observation and experiment @@ -4031,7 +3992,7 @@ Darwin gave in 1859 by his work on <i>The Origin of Species</i>, and by the application of the idea of evolution to the province of psychology. The more important of these works we owe to Romanes and Sir J. Lubbock, -in England; to W. Wundt, L. Büchner, G. Schneider, +in England; to W. Wundt, L. Büchner, G. Schneider, Fritz Schultze, and Karl Groos, in Germany; to Alfred Espinas and E. Jourdan, in France; and to Tito Vignoli, in Italy.</p> @@ -4044,7 +4005,7 @@ Formerly assistant and pupil of Helmholtz, Wundt had early accustomed himself to follow the application of the laws of physics and chemistry through the whole field of physiology, and, consequently, in -the sense of Johannes Müller, in <i>psychology</i>, as a subsection +the sense of Johannes Müller, in <i>psychology</i>, as a subsection of the latter. Starting from this point of view, Wundt published his valuable “Lectures on human and animal psychology” in 1863. He proved, as he @@ -4150,7 +4111,7 @@ purposes. Unfortunately, the enormous quantity of raw material of this science has not yet been treated in a satisfactory critical manner. What confused and mystic ideas still prevail in this department may be -seen, for instance, in the <i>Völkergedanke</i> of the famous +seen, for instance, in the <i>Völkergedanke</i> of the famous traveller, Adolf Bastian, who, though a prolific writer,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> merely turns out a hopeless mass of uncritical compilation and confused speculation.</p> @@ -4258,7 +4219,7 @@ stages of thought and ideation in the nearest related mammals. Man’s highest mental powers—reason, speech, and conscience—have arisen from the lower stages of the same faculties in our primate ancestors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> -(the simiæ and prosimiæ). Man has no single mental +(the simiæ and prosimiæ). Man has no single mental faculty which is his exclusive prerogative. His whole psychic life differs from that of the nearest related mammals only in degree, and not in kind; quantitatively, @@ -4419,7 +4380,7 @@ that they cannot be directly observed; they have to be inferred from their results—from the change in size and form of the growing organism.</p> -<p>II. Many protists, particularly unicellular algæ of +<p>II. Many protists, particularly unicellular algæ of the groups of diatomacea and desmidiacea, accomplish a kind of creeping or swimming motion by <i>secretion</i>, by ejecting a slimy substance at one side.</p> @@ -4528,7 +4489,7 @@ fibre inside at the opposite end; the latter contracts as soon as the former is stimulated.</p> <p>V. In other cnidaria, notably in the free swimming -medusæ—which are closely related to the stationary +medusæ—which are closely related to the stationary polyps—the simple neuro-muscular cell becomes two different cells, connected by a filament; an external <i>sense-cell</i> (in the outer skin) and an internal <i>muscular @@ -4887,7 +4848,7 @@ life of the plastidules (as in “abridged heredity”). The unconscious purposive actions of the higher animals (for instance, their mechanical instincts) thus come to appear in the light of innate impulses. We -have to explain in the same way the origin of the “<i>à +have to explain in the same way the origin of the “<i>à priori</i> ideas” of man; they were originally formed empirically by his predecessors.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p> @@ -5091,7 +5052,7 @@ to be self-evident by the majority of people. Some of the first teachers of the Christian Churches—such as St. Augustine and Calvin—rejected the freedom of the will as decisively as the famous leaders of pure materialism, -Holbach in the eighteenth and Büchner in +Holbach in the eighteenth and Büchner in the nineteenth century. Christian theologians deny it, because it is irreconcilable with their belief in the omnipotence of God and in predestination. God, omnipotent @@ -5400,7 +5361,7 @@ into the vagina. This is the sole means, in the land-dwelling animals, by which the fertilizing element can reach the released ova (which usually takes place in the uterus in man). In the case of the lower aquatic -animals (fishes, mussels, medusæ, etc.) the mature +animals (fishes, mussels, medusæ, etc.) the mature sexual elements on both sides are simply discharged into the water, and their union is let to chance; they have no real copulation, and so they show none of those @@ -5507,7 +5468,7 @@ of <i>latent heredity</i> or atavism apply to the soul just as validly as to the anatomical organization. We find these remarkable phenomena of reversion in a very simple and instructive form in the alternation of generations -of the polyps and medusæ. Here we see two very +of the polyps and medusæ. Here we see two very different generations alternate so regularly that the first resembles the third, fifth, and so on; while the second (very different from the preceding) is like the fourth, @@ -5536,7 +5497,7 @@ of the nobility, whose conspicuous share in the life of the State has given occasion to a more careful historical picture of the individuals in the chain of generations—for instance, in the Hohenzollerns, the princes of -Orange, the Bourbons, etc., and in the Roman Cæsars.</p> +Orange, the Bourbons, etc., and in the Roman Cæsars.</p> <p>The causal-nexus of <i>biontic</i> (individual) and <i>phyletic</i> (historical) evolution, which I gave in my <i>General @@ -5594,7 +5555,7 @@ In all the classes of amniotes these membranes (the fashion. They represent the protective arrangements which were acquired by the earliest reptiles (<i>proreptilia</i>), the common parents of all the amniotes, in the -Permian period (towards the end of the palæozoic age), +Permian period (towards the end of the palæozoic age), when these higher vertebrates accustomed themselves to live on land and breathe the atmosphere. Their ancestors, the amphibia of the Carboniferous period, @@ -5745,7 +5706,7 @@ goal that is still buried in the mists of the future, and almost imperceptible to many—do not differ from those of other branches of evolutionary research. Comparative anatomy, physiology, and ontogeny are of the first -importance. Much support is given also by palæontology, +importance. Much support is given also by palæontology, for the order in which the fossil remains of the various classes of vertebrates succeed each other in the course of organic evolution reveals to us, to some extent, @@ -5753,7 +5714,7 @@ the gradual growth of their psychic power as well as their phyletic connection. We must admit that we are here, as we are in every branch of phylogenetic research, driven to the construction of a number of hypotheses -in order to fill up the considerable lacunæ of +in order to fill up the considerable lacunæ of empirical phylogeny. Yet these hypotheses cast so clear and significant a light on the chief stages of historical development that we are afforded a most gratifying @@ -5779,7 +5740,7 @@ platodes. In these earliest flat-worms, which have no specialized nervous system, the outer skin-covering serves as a general sensitive and psychic organ. Finally, comparative embryology teaches us that these -simple metazoa have arisen by gastrulation from blastæades, +simple metazoa have arisen by gastrulation from blastæades, from hollow spheres, the wall of which is merely one simple layer of cells, the <i>blastoderm</i>; and the same science, with the aid of the biogenetic law, explains how @@ -5883,7 +5844,7 @@ every living cell has psychic properties, and that the<span class="pagenum"><a n psychic life of the multicellular animals and plants is merely the sum total of the psychic functions of the cells which build up their structure. In the lower -groups (in algæ and sponges, for instance) <i>all</i> the cells +groups (in algæ and sponges, for instance) <i>all</i> the cells of the body have an equal share in it (or with very slight differences); in the higher groups, in harmony with the law of the “division of labor,” only a select portion @@ -6004,14 +5965,14 @@ blastula is given us by the biogenetic law, which explains the phenomena we directly observe to be the outcome of heredity, and relates them to corresponding historical processes which took place long ago in -the origin of the earliest protist-cœnobia, the blastæads. +the origin of the earliest protist-cœnobia, the blastæads. But we get a physiological and psychological insight into these important phenomena of the earliest cell-communities by observation and experiment on their modern representatives. Such permanent cell-communities or colonies are still found in great numbers both among the plasmodomous primitive plants (for -instance, the paulotomacea, diatomacea, volvocinæ, +instance, the paulotomacea, diatomacea, volvocinæ, etc.) and the plasmophagous primitive animals (the infusoria and rhizopods). In all these cœnobia we can easily distinguish two different grades of psychic @@ -6096,7 +6057,7 @@ from each other (as was formerly supposed), but are connected throughout by fine threads or bridges of protoplasm. When the sensitive mimosa closes its graceful leaves and droops its stalk at contact, or on -being shaken; when the irritable fly-trap (the dionæa) +being shaken; when the irritable fly-trap (the dionæa) swiftly clasps its leaves together at a touch, and captures a fly; the sensation seems to be keener, the transmission of the stimulus more rapid, and the movement @@ -6110,7 +6071,7 @@ psychic activity of those lower metazoa which have tissues, and sometimes differentiated organs, but no nerves or specific organs of sense. To this category belong four different groups of the earliest cœlenterates: -(<i>a</i>) the gastræads, (<i>b</i>) the platodaria, (<i>c</i>) the +(<i>a</i>) the gastræads, (<i>b</i>) the platodaria, (<i>c</i>) the sponges, and (<i>d</i>) the hydropolyps, the lowest form of cnidaria.</p> @@ -6129,7 +6090,7 @@ functions of movement and sensation. The homogeneous sensitive cells of the skin-layer bear long, slender hairs or lashes (<i>cilia</i>), by the vibration of which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> swimming motion is effected. The few surviving forms -of gastræads, the gastræmaria (<i>trichoplacidae</i>) and cyemaria +of gastræads, the gastræmaria (<i>trichoplacidae</i>) and cyemaria (<i>orthonectidae</i>), are extremely interesting, from the fact that they remain throughout life at a stage of structure which is passed by all the other metazoa @@ -6152,7 +6113,7 @@ primitive mouth (or <i>prostoma</i>).<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a> is the primitive psychic organ in the metazoa; from it, in all the nerve animals, not only the external skin and the organs of sense, but also the nervous system, -are developed. In the gastræads, which have no +are developed. In the gastræads, which have no nerves, all the cells which compose the simple epithelium of the ectoderm are equally organs of sensation and of movement; we have here the tissue-soul in its @@ -6175,7 +6136,7 @@ sieve, with fine pores, in order to permit the entrance of the nourishing stream of water. In the majority of sponges—even in the most familiar one, the bath-sponge—the bulbous organism constructs a kind of stem or tree, -which is made up of thousands of these gastræads, and +which is made up of thousands of these gastræads, and permeated by a nutritive system of canals. Sensation and movement are only developed in the faintest degree in the sponges; they have no nerves, muscles, or organs @@ -6192,14 +6153,14 @@ numerous group of the cœlenterates the historical evolution of the <i>nerve-soul</i> out of the <i>tissue-soul</i> is repeated before our eyes. To this group belong the innumerable classes of stationary polyps and corals, and of swimming -medusæ and siphonophora. As the common ancestor +medusæ and siphonophora. As the common ancestor of all the cnidaria we can safely assign a very simple polyp, which is substantially the same in structure as the common, still surviving, fresh-water polyp—the -hydra. Yet the hydræ, and the stationary, closely re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>lated +hydra. Yet the hydræ, and the stationary, closely re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>lated <i>hydropolyps</i>, have no nerves or higher sense-organs, although they are extremely sensitive. On the -other hand, the free-swimming medusæ, which are developed +other hand, the free-swimming medusæ, which are developed from them—and are still connected with them by alternation of generations—have an independent nervous system and specific sense-organs. Here, also, we @@ -6209,16 +6170,16 @@ and thus learn its phylogenetic origin. This is the more interesting as such phenomena are <i>polyphyletic</i>—that is, they have occurred several times—more than once, at least—quite independently. As I have -shown elsewhere, the hydromedusæ have arisen from the +shown elsewhere, the hydromedusæ have arisen from the hydropolyps in a different manner from that of the evolution -of the scyphomedusæ from the scyphopolyps; +of the scyphomedusæ from the scyphopolyps; the gemmation is terminal in the case of the latter, and lateral with the former. In addition, both groups have characteristic hereditary differences in the more minute structure of their psychic organs. The class of siphonophora is also very interesting to the psychologist. In these pretty, free-swimming organisms, which come -from the hydromedusæ we can observe a double soul: +from the hydromedusæ we can observe a double soul: the <i>personal soul</i> of the numerous individualities which compose them, and the common, harmoniously acting psyche of the entire colony.</p> @@ -6264,7 +6225,7 @@ facts.</p> <p>Each of the higher animal species has a characteristic psychic organ; the central nervous system of each has certain peculiarities of shape, position, and -composition. The medusæ, among the radiating +composition. The medusæ, among the radiating cnidaria, have a ring of nervous matter at the border of the fringe, generally provided with four or eight ganglia. The mouth of the five-rayed cnidarion is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> @@ -6326,7 +6287,7 @@ sketch of the organism, and it is always the chief feature of the different kinds of psychic organ which evolve from it in time. Only one single group of invertebrates has a similar structure: the rare, marine <i>tunicata</i>, -copelata, ascidia, and thalidiæ. These animals have +copelata, ascidia, and thalidiæ. These animals have other important peculiarities of structure (especially in the chorda and the gut) which show a striking divergence from the other invertebrates and resemblance @@ -6340,7 +6301,7 @@ a very simple organization (most of them subsequently attach themselves to the bottom of the sea and degenerate). The vertebrate, on the other hand, is characterized by an early development of internal members, -and the formation of pro-vertebræ (<i>vertebratio</i>). This +and the formation of pro-vertebræ (<i>vertebratio</i>). This prepares the way for the much higher development of their organism, which finally attains perfection in man. This is easily seen in the finer structure of his spinal @@ -6367,8 +6328,8 @@ by eight different groups of vertebrates: (1) the acrania; (2) the cyclostomata; (3) the fishes; (4) the amphibia; (5) the implacental mammals (monotremes and marsupials); (6) the earlier placental mammals, -especially the prosimiæ; (7) the younger primates, -the simiæ; and (8) the anthropoid apes and man.</p> +especially the prosimiæ; (7) the younger primates, +the simiæ; and (8) the anthropoid apes and man.</p> <p>I. First stage—the <i>acrania</i>: their only modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> representative is the lancelot or amphioxus; the psychic @@ -6439,7 +6400,7 @@ the middle brain, disappears altogether.</p> <p>II. The brain development of the lowest and earliest mammals (the monotremes, marsupials, and prochoriates) -is closely allied to that of their palæozoic ancestors, +is closely allied to that of their palæozoic ancestors, the Carboniferous amphibia (the <i>stegocephala</i>) and the Permian reptiles (the <i>tocosauria</i>).</p> @@ -6459,7 +6420,7 @@ in the anthropoid apes.</p> faculty which separate man from the anthropoid ape are slighter than the corresponding interval between the anthropoid apes and the lower primates (the earliest -simiæ and prosimiæ).</p> +simiæ and prosimiæ).</p> <p>VI. Consequently, the historical, gradual evolution of the human soul from a long chain of higher and @@ -6686,7 +6647,7 @@ and they alone, have consciousness. This theory would draw a sharp distinction between the psychic life of the animal and of the plant. Such a distinction was urged by many of the older writers, and was -clearly formulated by Linné in his celebrated <i>Systema +clearly formulated by Linné in his celebrated <i>Systema Naturae</i>; the two great kingdoms of the organic world are, in his opinion, divided by the fact that animals have sensation and consciousness, and the plants are @@ -6726,7 +6687,7 @@ as an animal is said to have one; and many credit the vegetal soul with a consciousness similar to that of the animal soul. In truth, the remarkable stimulated movements of the leaves of the sensitive plants (the mimosa, -drosera, and dionæa), the automatic movements +drosera, and dionæa), the automatic movements of other plants (the clover and wood-sorrel, and especially the hedysarum), the movements of the “sleeping plants” (particularly the <i>papilionacea</i>), etc., are strikingly @@ -6757,7 +6718,7 @@ animals; that is especially true of the very sensitive and lively infusoria. In the relation of these sensitive cell-organisms to their environment, and in many other of their vital expressions (for instance, in the wonderful -architecture of the rhizopods, the thalamophoræ, +architecture of the rhizopods, the thalamophoræ, and the infusoria), we seemed to have clear indications of conscious psychic action. If, then, we accept the biological theory of consciousness (No. IV.), and credit @@ -6939,7 +6900,7 @@ cerebral vesicle, the “fore-brain.” Now, the morphological proof of this physiological thesis has been successfully given by the remarkable progress of the microscopic anatomy of the brain, which we owe to the -perfect methods of research of modern science (Kölliker, +perfect methods of research of modern science (Kölliker, Flechsig, Golgi, Edinger, Weigert, and others).</p> <p>The most important development is the discovery of @@ -7061,7 +7022,7 @@ Still, however certain we are of the fact of this natural evolution of consciousness, we are, unfortunately, not yet in a position to enter more deeply into the question and construct special hypotheses in -elucidation of it. Palæontology, it is true, gives us a +elucidation of it. Palæontology, it is true, gives us a few facts which are not without significance. For instance, the quantitative and qualitative development of the brain of the placental mammals during the Tertiary @@ -7190,7 +7151,7 @@ life <i>physiological individuals</i>, just as much as the multicellular tissue-plants and animals. A sexual propagation by simple division is found in many of the multicellular species (for instance, in many -cnidaria, corals, medusæ, etc.); the mother animal, +cnidaria, corals, medusæ, etc.); the mother animal, the division of which gives birth to the two daughter animals, ceases to exist with the segmentation. “The protozoa,” says Weismann, “have no individuals @@ -7324,7 +7285,7 @@ microscopic anatomy of the brain, gradually deprived athanatism of every basis; now, indeed, it is rarely that an informed and honorable biologist is found to defend the immortality of the soul. All the monistic -philosophers of the century (Strauss, Feuerbach, Büchner, +philosophers of the century (Strauss, Feuerbach, Büchner, Spencer, etc.) are thanatists.</p> <p>The dogma of personal immortality owes its great @@ -7436,7 +7397,7 @@ one body it seeks such other as is most suited to its character for its habitation. The souls of bloody tyrants pass into the bodies of wolves and vultures, those of virtuous toilers migrate into the bodies of bees and -ants, and so forth. The childish naïvety of this Platonic +ants, and so forth. The childish naïvety of this Platonic morality is obvious; on closer examination his views are found to be absolutely incompatible with the scientific truth which we owe to modern anatomy, @@ -7533,7 +7494,7 @@ force,” and finally it came to be regarded as the soul itself, or, in a narrower sense, as its highest manifestation, the “spirit.” From that the imagination went on to derive the mystic notion of individual “spirits”; -these, also, are still usually conceived as “aëriform +these, also, are still usually conceived as “aëriform beings”—though they are credited with the physiological functions of an organism, and they have been photographed in certain well-known spiritist circles.</p> @@ -7692,7 +7653,7 @@ the youth presents them in full bloom, the mature man shows their ripe fruit; in old age we see the gradual decay of the psychic powers, corresponding to the senile<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> degeneration of the brain. The <i>phylogenetic</i> argument -derives its strength from palæontology, and the comparative +derives its strength from palæontology, and the comparative anatomy and physiology of the brain; co-operating with and completing each other, these sciences prove to the hilt that the human brain (and, consequently, @@ -8640,7 +8601,7 @@ processes in “lifeless” bodies. Not only the growth and the nutrition of plants and animals, but even their functions of sensation and movement, their sense-action and psychic life, depend on the conversion of potential -into kinetic energy, and <i>vice versâ</i>. This supreme +into kinetic energy, and <i>vice versâ</i>. This supreme law dominates also those elaborate performances of the nervous system which we call, in the higher animals and man, “the action of the mind.”</p> @@ -8816,7 +8777,7 @@ on our children in the biblical lessons of their earliest years. The numerous attempts that have been made, especially in England, to harmonize it with the modern theory of evolution have entirely failed. It -obtained some importance in science when Linné adopted +obtained some importance in science when Linné adopted it in the establishment of his system, and based his definition of organic species (which he considered to be unchangeable) on it: “There are as many different @@ -8832,7 +8793,7 @@ animals and plants was created anew, and destroyed by a general catastrophe at its close; there were as many general creative acts as there are distinct geological periods (the catastrophic theory of Cuvier [1818] -and Louis Agassiz [1858]). Palæontology, which +and Louis Agassiz [1858]). Palæontology, which seemed to support this theory in its more imperfect stage, has since completely refuted it.</p> @@ -8909,9 +8870,9 @@ unknown for ninety years; it was only disinterred in his <i>Cosmos</i>. In the mean time the great French math<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>ematician, Pierre Laplace, had arrived independently at similar views to those of Kant, and he gave them -a mathematical foundation in his <i>Exposition du Système -du Monde</i> (1796). His chief work, the <i>Mécanique -Céleste</i>, appeared a hundred years ago. The analogous +a mathematical foundation in his <i>Exposition du Système +du Monde</i> (1796). His chief work, the <i>Mécanique +Céleste</i>, appeared a hundred years ago. The analogous features of the cosmogony of Kant and Laplace consist, as is well known, in a mechanical explanation of the movements of the planets, and the conclusion @@ -8928,7 +8889,7 @@ While new cosmic bodies arise and develop out of rotating masses of nebula in some parts of the universe, in other parts old, extinct, frigid suns come into collision, and are once more reduced by the heat generated -to the condition of nebulæ.</p> +to the condition of nebulæ.</p> <p>Nearly all the older and the more recent cosmogonies, including most of those which were inspired by @@ -8969,7 +8930,7 @@ telescope itself has been vastly improved, and has, in alliance with photography, made a host of scientific discoveries of which no one dreamed at the beginning of the century. In particular, a closer acquaintance -with comets, meteorites, star-clusters, and nebulæ has +with comets, meteorites, star-clusters, and nebulæ has helped us to realize the great significance of the smaller bodies which are found in millions in the space between the stars.</p> @@ -9039,7 +9000,7 @@ collision—is taking place in another quarter.</p> <p>VIII. The immense quantity of heat which is generated in this mechanical process of the collision of swiftly moving bodies represents the new kinetic energy -which effects the movement of the resultant nebulæ +which effects the movement of the resultant nebulæ and the construction of new rotating bodies. The eternal drama begins afresh. Even our mother earth, which was formed of part of the gyrating solar system @@ -9253,7 +9214,7 @@ fertile—the <i>ontological</i> method, or the principle of “actualis It consists in a careful study and manipulation of <i>actual</i> phenomena with a view to the elucidation of the analogous historical processes of the past. The -Society of Science at Göttingen had offered a prize in +Society of Science at Göttingen had offered a prize in 1818 for “the most searching and comprehensive inquiry into the changes in the earth’s crust which are historically demonstrable, and the application which @@ -9269,7 +9230,7 @@ of Geology</i> (1830) laid the firm foundation on which<span class="pagenum"><a the fabric of the history of the earth was so happily erected. The important geogenetic research of Alexander Humboldt, Leopold Buch, Gustav Bischof, Edward -Süss, and other geologists, were wholly based on +Süss, and other geologists, were wholly based on the empirical foundation and the speculative principles of Karl Hoff and Charles Lyell. They cleared the way for purely rational science in the field of geology; they @@ -9370,7 +9331,7 @@ among the mammals. Huxley then proved, in his famous essay on <i>The Place of Man in Nature</i>, that this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> momentous thesis is an inevitable consequence of the theory of descent, and is thoroughly established by -the facts of anatomy, embryology, and palæontology. +the facts of anatomy, embryology, and palæontology. He considered this “question of all questions” to be substantially answered. Darwin followed with a brilliant discussion of the question under many aspects in @@ -9382,7 +9343,7 @@ the first attempt to trace the descent of man through the entire chain of his ancestry right up to the earliest archigonous monera; the attempt was based equally on the three great “documents” of evolutionary science—anatomy, -embryology, and palæontology. The +embryology, and palæontology. The progress we have made in anthropogenetic research during the last few years is described in the paper which I read on “Our Present Knowledge of the Origin @@ -9600,7 +9561,7 @@ to do so is restricted. He grants it this capacity to some extent; but for the majority of the vital processes (and especially for man’s psychic activity) he thinks we are bound to postulate <i>final</i> causes. The remarkable -§79 of the <i>critique</i> of judgment bears the characteristic +§79 of the <i>critique</i> of judgment bears the characteristic heading: <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>“On the Necessity for the Subordination of the Mechanical Principle to the Teleological in the Explanation of a Thing as a Natural End.” It @@ -9662,7 +9623,7 @@ which man invents and constructs; as long as life continues the functions of the several organs are directed to definite ends, just as is the operation of the various parts of a machine. Hence it was quite natural -that the older naïve study of nature, in explaining +that the older naïve study of nature, in explaining the origin and activity of the living being, should postulate a creator who had “arranged all things with wisdom and understanding,” and had constructed each @@ -9685,7 +9646,7 @@ force, which differed from the familiar forces of physics and chemistry, and only took these in part, during life, into its service. This vitalism prevailed until about the middle of the nineteenth century. -Johannes Müller, the great Berlin physiologist, was +Johannes Müller, the great Berlin physiologist, was the first to menace it with a destructive dose of facts. It is true that the distinguished biologist had himself (like all others in the first half of the century) @@ -9694,7 +9655,7 @@ deemed it indispensable for an elucidation of the ultimate sources of life; nevertheless, in his classical and still unrivalled <i>Manual of Physiology</i> (1833) he gave a demonstrative proof that there is really nothing to be -said for this vital force. Müller himself, in a long +said for this vital force. Müller himself, in a long series of remarkable observations and experiments, showed that most of the vital processes in the human organism (and in the other animals) take place according @@ -9707,15 +9668,15 @@ digestion, assimilation, and circulation. Only two branches of the life of the organism, mental action and reproduction, retained any element of mystery, and seemed inexplicable without assuming a vital force.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> -But immediately after Müller’s death such important +But immediately after Müller’s death such important discoveries and advances were made in these two branches that the uneasy “phantom of vital force” was driven from its last refuge. By a very remarkable -coincidence Johannes Müller died in the year 1858, +coincidence Johannes Müller died in the year 1858, which saw the publication of Darwin’s first communication concerning his famous theory. The theory of selection solved the great problem that had mastered -Müller—the question of the origin of orderly arrangements +Müller—the question of the origin of orderly arrangements from purely mechanical causes.</p> <p>Darwin, as we have often said, had a twofold immortal @@ -9801,7 +9762,7 @@ our own human organism we have similar useless rudimentary structures in the muscles of the ear, in the eye-lid, in the nipple and milk-gland of the male, and in other parts of the body; indeed, the vermiform -appendix of our cæcum is not only useless, but extremely +appendix of our cæcum is not only useless, but extremely dangerous, and inflammation of it is responsible for a number of deaths every year.</p> @@ -9998,8 +9959,8 @@ from which our own race has sprung, unfolds clearly before our eyes during this long period. Three different stages in the evolution of the vertebrate correspond to the three epochs; the <i>fishes</i> characterized the primary -(palæozoic) age, the <i>reptiles</i> the secondary (mesozoic), -and the <i>mammals</i> the tertiary (cænozoic). Of the +(palæozoic) age, the <i>reptiles</i> the secondary (mesozoic), +and the <i>mammals</i> the tertiary (cænozoic). Of the three groups the fishes rank lowest in organization, the reptiles come next, and the mammals take the highest place. We find, on nearer examination of the @@ -10278,10 +10239,10 @@ element in the belief of most Christians at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Towards the middle of the century he was gradually eliminated by being progressively explained away, or he was restricted to -the subordinate <i>rôle</i> he plays as Mephistopheles in +the subordinate <i>rôle</i> he plays as Mephistopheles in Goethe’s great drama. To-day the majority of educated people look upon “belief in a personal devil” as -a mediæval superstition, while “belief in God” (that +a mediæval superstition, while “belief in God” (that is, the personal, good, and loving God) is retained as an indispensable element of religion. Yet the one belief is just as much (or as little) justified as the other. @@ -10568,7 +10529,7 @@ likened to man. “In his gods man paints himself.” This anthropomorphic conception of God as one who thinks, feels, and acts like man prevails with the great majority of theists, sometimes in a cruder and -more naïve form, sometimes in a more refined and +more naïve form, sometimes in a more refined and abstract degree. In any case the form of theosophy we have described is sure to affirm that God, the supreme being, is infinite in perfection, and therefore far @@ -10700,7 +10661,7 @@ dualist antithesis of God and the world, in its recognition that the world exists in virtue of its own inherent forces. The maxim of the pantheist, ‘God and the world are one,’ is merely a polite way of giving -the Lord God his <i>congé</i>.”</p> +the Lord God his <i>congé</i>.”</p> <p>During the whole of the Middle Ages, under the bloody despotism of the popes, atheism was persecuted with @@ -10811,9 +10772,9 @@ nerve the perception of smell, and so on. No matter what stimuli impinge on and irritate a given sense-organ, its reaction is always of the same character. From this specific energy of the sense-nerves, which -was first fully appreciated by Johannes Müller, very +was first fully appreciated by Johannes Müller, very erroneous inferences have been drawn, especially in -favor of a dualistic and <i>à priori</i> theory of knowledge. +favor of a dualistic and <i>à priori</i> theory of knowledge. It has been affirmed that the brain, or the soul, only perceives a certain condition of the stimulated nerve, and that, consequently, no conclusion can be drawn @@ -10855,7 +10816,7 @@ Albrecht Rau has thoroughly established this view in his excellent work on <i>Sensation and Thought</i>, a physiological inquiry into the nature of the human understanding (1896). It points out the correct significance -of Müller’s law of specific sense-energies, +of Müller’s law of specific sense-energies, adding searching investigations into their relation to the brain, and in the last chapter there is an able “philosophy of sensitivity” based on the ideas of Ludwig @@ -10867,7 +10828,7 @@ other vertebrates has brought to light a number of extremely important facts, the knowledge of which we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> owe to the penetrating research of the nineteenth century, especially of the second half of the century. This -is particularly true of the two most elaborate “æsthetic” +is particularly true of the two most elaborate “æsthetic” organs, the eye and the ear. They present a different and more complicated structure in the vertebrates than in the other animals, and have also a characteristic @@ -11188,11 +11149,11 @@ that millions of educated people are still dominated by this dreary superstition; even distinguished scientists are entangled in it. A number of spiritualist journals spread the faith far and wide, and our “superior circles” -do not scruple to hold <i>séances</i> in which “spirits” +do not scruple to hold <i>séances</i> in which “spirits” appear, rapping, writing, giving messages from “the beyond,” and so on. It is a frequent boast of spiritists that even eminent men of science defend their superstition. -In Germany, A. Zöllner and Fechner are quoted +In Germany, A. Zöllner and Fechner are quoted as instances; in England, Wallace and Crookes. The regrettable circumstance that physicists and biologists of such distinction have been led astray by spiritism @@ -11200,8 +11161,8 @@ is accounted for, partly by their excess of imagination and defect of critical faculty, and partly by the powerful influence of dogmas which a religious education imprinted on the brain in early youth. Moreover, it -was precisely through the famous <i>séances</i> at Leipzig, -in which the physicists, Zöllner, Fechner, and Wilhelm +was precisely through the famous <i>séances</i> at Leipzig, +in which the physicists, Zöllner, Fechner, and Wilhelm Weber, were imposed on by the clever American conjuror, Slade, that the fraud of the latter was afterwards fully exposed; he was discovered to be a common impostor. @@ -11404,7 +11365,7 @@ to the four canonical gospels, we now know that they were selected from a host of contradictory and forged manuscripts of the first three centuries by the three hundred and eighteen bishops who assembled at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> -Council of Nicæa in 327. The entire list of gospels +Council of Nicæa in 327. The entire list of gospels numbered forty; the canonical list contains four. As the contending and mutually abusive bishops could not agree about the choice, they determined to leave @@ -11535,7 +11496,7 @@ ablest of the Hohenzollerns; Frederick the Great condensed his judgment in the phrase that the study of history led one to think that from Constantine to the date of the Reformation the whole world was insane. L. -Büchner has given us an admirable, brief description +Büchner has given us an admirable, brief description of this “period of insanity” in his work on <i>Religious and Scientific Systems</i>. The reader who desires a closer acquaintance with the subject would do well to consult @@ -11553,7 +11514,7 @@ has still a considerable influence. The old trick of deceiving the faithful by a complete reversal of facts and an invention of miraculous circumstances is still worked by it with great success. We will only mention -Lourdes and the “Holy Coat” of Trêves. The ultramontane +Lourdes and the “Holy Coat” of Trêves. The ultramontane professor of history at Frankfurt, Johannes Janssen, affords a striking example of the length they will go in distorting historical truth; his much-read @@ -11576,7 +11537,7 @@ for the legendary life beyond, and thus scientific research was robbed of any real value. The deliberate and successful attack on science began in the early part of the fourth century, particularly after the Council -of Nicæa (327), presided over by Constantine—called +of Nicæa (327), presided over by Constantine—called the “Great” because he raised Christianity to the po<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span>sition of a state religion, and founded Constantinople, though a worthless character, a false-hearted hypocrite, @@ -11749,9 +11710,9 @@ comparative anatomy of Cuvier) and of a new biology (by the <i>Philosophie Zoologique</i> of Lamarck). The two great French scientists were quickly succeeded by two contemporary German scholars—Baer, the founder -of the science of evolution, and Johannes Müller, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> +of the science of evolution, and Johannes Müller, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> founder of comparative morphology and physiology. -A pupil of Müller, Theodor Schwann, created the far-reaching +A pupil of Müller, Theodor Schwann, created the far-reaching cellular theory in 1838, in conjunction with M. Schleiden. Lyell had already traced the evolution of the earth to natural causes, and thus proved the application @@ -11810,7 +11771,7 @@ for the progress of a rational study of nature: its most powerful and bitterest enemy, the Roman Church, threw off its mask of ostensible concern for higher mental development about the middle of the nineteenth -century, and declared a <i>guerre à l’outrance</i> against independent +century, and declared a <i>guerre à l’outrance</i> against independent science. This happened in three important challenges to reason, for the explicitness and resoluteness of which modern science and culture cannot but @@ -11961,7 +11922,7 @@ conception and birth of Christ. The author curtly gives us in one sentence the remarkable statement which contains this solution: “Josephus Pandera, the Roman officer of a Calabrian legion which was in -Judæa, seduced Miriam of Bethlehem, and was the +Judæa, seduced Miriam of Bethlehem, and was the father of Jesus.” Other details given about Miriam (the Hebrew name for Mary) are far from being to the credit of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>“Queen of Heaven.”</p> @@ -12029,7 +11990,7 @@ years ago vividly recalled the condition of Babylon.</p> take sexual relations less seriously, find <i>Mary’s Romance</i> attractive enough; the special cult which “Our Lady” enjoys in France and Italy is often associated -with this love-story with curious naïveté. Thus, for +with this love-story with curious naïveté. Thus, for example, Paul de Regla (Dr. Desjardin), author of <i>Jesus of Nazareth considered from a Scientific, Historical, and Social Standpoint</i> (1894), finds precisely in the illegitimate @@ -12269,7 +12230,7 @@ of our <a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">sixteenth chapter</a>, reject what is called “revelation,” the poetry of faith, that affirms the discovery of truth in a supernatural fashion, without the assistance of reason. And since the entire structure -of the Judæo-Christian religion, like that of the Mohammedan +of the Judæo-Christian religion, like that of the Mohammedan and the Buddhistic, rests on these so-called revelations, and these mystic fruits of the imagination directly contradict the clear results of empirical research, @@ -12368,8 +12329,8 @@ the millions of fine pictures of saints, of profoundly conceived representations of Christ and the madonna—all are proofs of the development of a noble art in the Middle Ages, which is unique of its kind. All these -splendid monuments of mediæval art are untouched -in their high æsthetic value, whatever we say of their +splendid monuments of mediæval art are untouched +in their high æsthetic value, whatever we say of their mixture of truth and fancy. Yes; but what has all that to do with the pure teaching of Christianity—with that religion of sacrifice that turned scornfully away @@ -12404,7 +12365,7 @@ during the present century in connection with science. The remarkable expansion of our knowledge of nature, and the discovery of countless beautiful forms of life, which it includes, have awakened quite -a new æsthetic sense in our generation, and thus given +a new æsthetic sense in our generation, and thus given a new tone to painting and sculpture. Numerous scientific voyages and expeditions for the exploration of unknown lands and seas, partly in earlier centuries, @@ -12422,7 +12383,7 @@ especially by the discovery of the marvellous inhabitants of the deep sea, which were first brought to light by the famous expedition of the <i>Challenger</i> (1872-76). Thousands of graceful radiolaria and thalamophora, -of pretty medusæ and corals, of extraordinary molluscs, +of pretty medusæ and corals, of extraordinary molluscs, and crabs, suddenly introduced us to a wealth of hidden organisms beyond all anticipation, the peculiar beauty and diversity of which far transcend all @@ -12450,7 +12411,7 @@ or, better still, with a good microscope, we find everywhere in nature a new world of inexhaustible charms.</p> <p>But the nineteenth century has not only opened our -eyes to the æsthetic enjoyment of the microscopic world; +eyes to the æsthetic enjoyment of the microscopic world; it has shown us the beauty of the greater objects in nature. Even at its commencement it was the fashion to regard the mountains as magnificent but forbidding, @@ -12465,7 +12426,7 @@ recently been revealed to us in all their splendor, and the remarkable progress we have made in facility and rapidity of conveyance has given even the less wealthy an opportunity of approaching them. All this progress -in the æsthetic enjoyment of nature—and, proportionately, +in the æsthetic enjoyment of nature—and, proportionately, in the scientific understanding of nature—implies an equal advance in higher mental development and, consequently, in the direction of our monistic religion.</p> @@ -12500,14 +12461,14 @@ on the memory by a drawing or water-color sketch.</p> <p>The infinite wealth of nature in what is beautiful and sublime offers every man with open eyes and an -æsthetic sense an incalculable sum of choicest gifts. +æsthetic sense an incalculable sum of choicest gifts. Still, however valuable and agreeable is the immediate enjoyment of each single gift, its worth is doubled by a knowledge of its meaning and its connection with the rest of nature. When Humboldt gave us the “outline of a physical description of the world” in his magnificent <i>Cosmos</i> forty years ago, and when he combined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> -scientific and æsthetic consideration so happily in his +scientific and æsthetic consideration so happily in his standard <i>Prospects of Nature</i>, he justly indicated how closely the higher enjoyment of nature is connected with the “scientific establishment of cosmic laws,” and @@ -13121,13 +13082,13 @@ instruction in “biblical history” and in the<span class="pagenum"><a mythology of Greece and Rome. Both of these will remain in the curriculum. The reason for that is obvious enough; the whole of our painting and sculpture, -the chief branches of monistic æsthetics, are intimately +the chief branches of monistic æsthetics, are intimately blended with the Christian, Greek, and Roman mythologies. There will only be this important difference—that the Christian myths and legends will not be taught as truths, but as poetic fancies, like the Greek and Roman myths; the high value of the ethical -and æsthetical material they contain will not be lessened, +and æsthetical material they contain will not be lessened, but increased, by this means. As regards the Bible, the “book of books” will only be given to the children in carefully selected extracts (a sort of “school @@ -13187,7 +13148,7 @@ every educated man; the modern training in observation furnishes an attractive introduction to the biological sciences (anthropology, zoology, and botany). A start must be made with descriptive system (in conjunction -with ætiology or bionomy); the elements of +with ætiology or bionomy); the elements of anatomy and physiology to be added later on.</p> <p>8. The first principles of physics and chemistry must @@ -13237,7 +13198,7 @@ Metamorphoses—Evolution of the Planetary System—Analogy of the Phylogenetic Processes on the Earth and on Other Planets—Organic Inhabitants of Other Heavenly Bodies—Periodic Variation in the Making of Worlds—II. Progress -of Geology and Palæontology—Neptunism and Vulcanism—Theory +of Geology and Palæontology—Neptunism and Vulcanism—Theory of Continuity—III. Progress of Physics and Chemistry—IV. Progress of Biology—Cellular Theory and Theory of Descent—V. Anthropology—Origin of Man—General @@ -13287,7 +13248,7 @@ a clear knowledge in the second half of the present century; with regard to the starry heavens, the motions of the planets, and so on, he had acquired astonishing information forty-five hundred years ago. The -ancient Chinese, Hindoos, Egyptians, and Chaldæans +ancient Chinese, Hindoos, Egyptians, and Chaldæans in the distant East knew more of the science of the spheres than the majority of educated Christians did in the West four thousand years after them. An eclipse @@ -13321,10 +13282,10 @@ to astronomy. It was done by the youthful Kant in of the heavens he undertook the discussion, not only of the “constitution,” but also of the “mechanical origin” of the whole world-structure on Newtonian principles. -The splendid <i>Système du Monde</i> of Laplace, +The splendid <i>Système du Monde</i> of Laplace, who had independently come to the same conclusions as Kant on the world-problem, gave so firm a basis to -this new <i>Mécanique Céleste</i> in 1796 that it looked as +this new <i>Mécanique Céleste</i> in 1796 that it looked as if nothing entirely new of equal importance was left to be discovered in the nineteenth century. Yet here<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> again it had the honor of opening out entirely new @@ -13344,7 +13305,7 @@ of the physical and chemical unity of the entire cosmos is certainly one of the most valuable general truths which we owe to astrophysics, the new branch of astronomy which is honorably associated with the name -of Friedrich Zöllner. Not less important is the clear +of Friedrich Zöllner. Not less important is the clear knowledge we have obtained that the same laws of mechanical development that we have on the earth rule throughout the infinite universe. A vast, all-embracing @@ -13354,7 +13315,7 @@ of the earth; it can be traced in the evolution of its living inhabitants as surely as in the history of peoples or in the life of each human individual. In one part of space we perceive, with the aid of our best telescopes, -vast nebulæ of glowing, infinitely attenuated +vast nebulæ of glowing, infinitely attenuated gas; we see in them the embryos of heavenly bodies, billions of miles away, in the first stage of their development. In some of these “stellar embryos” the @@ -13442,14 +13403,14 @@ social cell-communities (cœnobia), and subsequently tissue-forming plants and animals (metaphyta and metazoa).</p> -<p>III. It is also very probable that thallophyta (algæ +<p>III. It is also very probable that thallophyta (algæ and fungi) were the first to appear in the plant-kingdom, then diaphyta (mosses and ferns), finally anthophyta (gymnosperm and angiosperm flowering plants).</p> <p>IV. It is equally probable that the biogenetic process took a similar course in the animal kingdom—that -from the blastæads (catallacta) first gastræads +from the blastæads (catallacta) first gastræads were formed, and from these lower animal forms (cœlenteria) higher organisms (cœlomaria) were afterwards evolved.</p> @@ -13591,7 +13552,7 @@ to the entire natural evolution of the earth. The <i>Principles of Geology</i> of Lyell (1830) secured the full recognition of the supremely important theory of continuity in the formation of the earth’s crust, as opposed -to the catastrophic theory of Cuvier.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> Palæontology, +to the catastrophic theory of Cuvier.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> Palæontology, which had been founded by Cuvier’s work on fossil bones (1812), was of the greatest service to geology; by the middle of the present century it had advanced @@ -13617,7 +13578,7 @@ the shaping of the continents. In the second place, our idea of the length of the vast period of time which had been absorbed in their formation has been consid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span>erably enlarged. We now know that the huge mountains -of the palæozoic, mesozoic, and cenozoic formations +of the palæozoic, mesozoic, and cenozoic formations have taken, not thousands, but millions of years in their growth. In the third place, we now know that all the countless fossils that are found in those formations @@ -13900,7 +13861,7 @@ Creation</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Rudolph Virchow, <i>Die Gründung der Berliner Universität und +<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Rudolph Virchow, <i>Die Gründung der Berliner Universität und der Uebergang aus dem Philosophischen in das naturwissenschaftliche Zeitalter</i>. (Berlin; 1893.)</p></div> @@ -13920,7 +13881,7 @@ naturwissenschaftlichen Methoden</i>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Zell-Seelen und Seelen-Zellen.</i> Ernst Haeckel, <i>Gesammelte -populäre Vorträge. I. Heft.</i> 1878.</p></div> +populäre Vorträge. I. Heft.</i> 1878.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -14036,7 +13997,7 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Actualism, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Æsthesis, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Æsthesis, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> <li class="indx">Affinity, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li> @@ -14073,7 +14034,7 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Apes, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> <li class="isub1">anthropoid, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Archæus, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Archæus, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> <li class="indx">Archigony, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> @@ -14134,7 +14095,7 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Bruno (Giordano), <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Büchner (Ludwig), <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Büchner (Ludwig), <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> <li class="indx">Buddhism, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> @@ -14145,7 +14106,7 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Carbon as creator, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> <li class="isub1">theory, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Catarrhinæ, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Catarrhinæ, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> <li class="indx">Catastrophic theory, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> @@ -14388,10 +14349,10 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Gaseous souls, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> <li class="isub1">vertebrates, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Gastræa, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Gastræa, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> <li class="isub1">theory of the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Gastræads, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Gastræads, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> <li class="indx">Gastrula, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> @@ -14510,7 +14471,7 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Kinetic energy, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> <li class="isub1">theory of substance, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Kölliker, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Kölliker, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> <li class="ifrst">Lamarck, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, etc.</li> @@ -14625,7 +14586,7 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Mosaism, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Müller (Johannes), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Müller (Johannes), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> <li class="indx">Mythology of the soul, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> @@ -14718,7 +14679,7 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Platodes, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Platyrrhinæ, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Platyrrhinæ, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> <li class="indx">Pneuma zoticon, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> @@ -14741,7 +14702,7 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Proplacentals, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Prosimiæ, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Prosimiæ, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> <li class="indx">Prostoma, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> @@ -14751,7 +14712,7 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Protozoa, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Provertebræ, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Provertebræ, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> <li class="indx">Pseudo-Christianity, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> @@ -14835,7 +14796,7 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Siebold, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Simiæ, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Simiæ, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> <li class="indx">Social duties, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> <li class="isub1">instincts, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> @@ -14909,7 +14870,7 @@ xvi.</p></div></div> <li class="indx">Superstition, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li> -<li class="indx">Süss (Edward), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> +<li class="indx">Süss (Edward), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> <li class="indx">Syllabus, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> @@ -15086,386 +15047,6 @@ And it was done in many, and sometimes very <span class="u">romatic</span>, ways And it was done in many, and sometimes very <span class="u">romantic</span>, ways.</p> </div> - 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