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diff --git a/42964-8.txt b/42964-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c77fb5b..0000000 --- a/42964-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27373 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Bible Animals;, by J. G. Wood - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Bible Animals; - Being a Description of Every Living Creature Mentioned in - the Scripture, from the Ape to the Coral. - -Author: J. G. Wood - -Illustrator: W. F. Keyl - T. W. Wood - E. A. Smith - -Release Date: June 17, 2013 [EBook #42964] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIBLE ANIMALS; *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Mary Akers and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -Transcriber's note: - Spelling and punctuation inconsistencies have been harmonized. - The original hyphenation and use of accented words has been - retained. Obvious printer errors have been repaired. Italic text - has been marked with _underscores_. Please see the end of this - book for further notes. Bible references are as they are in the - original book. - - - - - [Illustration: THE OSTRICH. - - "What time she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the horse and - his rider."--JOB xxxix. 18.] - - - - - BIBLE ANIMALS; - - BEING A DESCRIPTION OF - EVERY LIVING CREATURE MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES, - FROM THE APE TO THE CORAL. - - BY THE - - REV. J. G. WOOD, M.A., F.L.S. ETC., - - AUTHOR OF "HOMES WITHOUT HANDS," - "COMMON OBJECTS OF THE SEA-SHORE AND COUNTRY," ETC. - - _WITH ONE HUNDRED NEW DESIGNS - BY W. F. KEYL, T. W. WOOD, AND E. A. SMITH._ - - ENGRAVED BY G. PEARSON. - - _NEW EDITION._ - - LONDON: - LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. - 1883. - - - - - LONDON: - - R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, - - BREAD STREET HILL. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Owing to the conditions of time, language, country, and race under -which the various books of the Holy Scriptures were written, it is -impossible that they should be rightly understood at the present day, -and in this land, without the aid of many departments of knowledge. -Contemporary history, philology, geography, and ethnology must all be -pressed into the service of the true Biblical scholar; and there is -yet another science which is to the full as important as either of the -others. This is Natural History, in its widest sense. - -The Oriental character of the Scriptural books causes them to abound -with metaphors and symbols, taken from the common life of the time. -They embrace the barren precipitous rocks alternating with the green -and fertile valleys, the trees, flowers, and herbage, the creeping -things of the earth, the fishes of the sea, the birds of the air, and -the beasts which abode with man or dwelt in the deserts and forests. -Unless, therefore, we understand these writings as those understood -them for whom they were written, it is evident that we shall -misinterpret instead of rightly comprehending them. Even with secular -books of equally ancient date, the right understanding of them would -be important, but in the case of the Holy Scriptures it is more than -important, and becomes a duty. The field which is laid open to us is -so large that only one department of Natural History, namely Zoology, -can be treated in this work, although it is illustrated by many -references to other branches of Natural History, to the physical -geography of Palestine, Egypt, and Syria, the race-character of the -inhabitants, and historical parallels. The importance of Zoology in -elucidating the Scriptures cannot be overrated, and without its aid we -shall not only miss the point of innumerable passages of the Old and -New Testament, but the words of our Lord Himself will either be -totally misinterpreted, or at least lose the greater part of their -significance. - -The object of the present work is therefore to take, in its proper -succession, every creature whose name is given in the Scriptures, and -to supply so much of its history as will enable the reader to -understand all the passages in which it is mentioned. A general -account of each animal will be first given, followed by special -explanations (wherever required) of those texts in which pointed -reference is made to it, but of which the full force cannot be -gathered without a knowledge of Natural History. - -The illustrations are all taken from the living animals, while the -accessory details have been obtained either from the Egyptian or -Assyrian monuments, from actual specimens, or from the photographs and -drawings of the latest travellers. They have been selected and -arranged so that each illustration explains one or more passages of -Scripture, and it is hoped that the work will possess equal interest -for the natural historian and the Biblical student. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -MAMMALIA. - -THE APE. - - The Monkey tribe rarely mentioned in Scripture--Why the Ape was - introduced into Palestine--Solomon's ships, and their cargo of - Apes, peacocks, ivory, and gold--Various species of Monkey that - might have been imported--The Rhesus Monkey--The Hoonuman, or - Entellus--Habits of the Monkey, and reverence in which it is - held by the natives--The Egyptians and their Baboon - worship--Idols and memorials--The Wanderoo--Its singular - aspect--Reasons why it should be introduced into - Palestine--General habits of the Wanderoo--Its love of - curiosities--Probability that Solomon had a menagerie--Various - species of Monkey that may be included in the term _Kophim_--The - Satyr of Scripture--Babylon in its glory and fall--Fulfilment of - prophecy--Judaic ideas of the Satyrs, or Seirim 1 - -THE BAT. - - The Bat mentioned always with abhorrence--Meaning of the Hebrew - name--The prohibition against eating Bats--The edible species, - their food and mode of life--The noisome character of the Bat, - and the nature of its dwelling-place--Its hatred of - light--Baruch and his prophecy--Appropriateness of the - prophecy--Singular Mahommedan legend respecting the original - creation of the Bat--The legend compared with the apocryphal - gospels--The Bats of Palestine--Mr. Tristram's discoveries--Bats - found in the quarries from which the stone of the Temple was - hewn--Edible Bats in a cave near the centre of - Palestine--Another species of long-tailed Bat captured in the - rock caves where hermits had been buried--Other species which - probably inhabit Palestine 11 - -THE LION. - - Frequent mention of the Lion in the Scriptures--Probability that - it was once a common animal, though now extinct--Reasons for its - disappearance--The Lion employed as an emblem in the - Bible--Similarity of the African and Asiatic species--The chief - characteristics of the Lion--Its strength, activity, and mode - of seizing its prey--Various names of the Lion--Its courage when - roused--Its roar, and peculiar mode of utterance--Invisibility - of the Lion at dusk--The Lion lying in wait--The dwelling-place - of the Lion--Its restlessness at night--Passages illustrative of - these characteristics--Modes of capturing the Lion--The pitfall - and the net--Lions kept as curiosities--The Lion-hunt as - depicted on the buildings of ancient Nineveh 18 - -THE LEOPARD. - - The Leopard not often mentioned in the Scriptures--Its - attributes exactly described--Probability that several animals - were classed under the name--How the Leopard takes its - prey--Craft of the Leopard--Its ravages among the flocks--The - empire of man over the beast--The Leopard at bay--Localities - wherein the Leopard lives--The skin of the Leopard--Various - passages of Scripture explained 29 - -THE CAT. - - The Cat never mentioned by name in the canonical Scriptures, and - only once in the Apocrypha--The Cat domesticated among the - Egyptians, and trained in bird-catching--Neglected capabilities - of the Cat--Anecdote of an English Cat that caught fish for her - master--Presumed reason why the Scriptures are silent about the - Cat--The Cat mentioned by Baruch 36 - -THE DOG. - - Antipathy displayed by Orientals towards the Dog, and manifested - throughout the Scriptures--Contrast between European and - Oriental Dogs--Habits of the Dogs of Palestine--The city Dogs - and their singular organization--The herdsman's Dog--Various - passages of Scripture--Dogs and the crumbs--Their - numbers--Signor Pierotti's experience of the Dogs--Possibility - of their perfect domestication--The peculiar humiliation of - Lazarus--Voracity of the Wild Dogs--The fate of Ahab and - Jezebel--Anecdote of a volunteer Watch-dog--Innate affection of - the Dog towards mankind--Peculiar local instinct of the Oriental - Dog--Albert Smith's account of the Dogs at Constantinople--The - Dervish and his Dogs--The Greyhound--Uncertainty of the word 39 - -THE WOLF. - - Identity of the animal indisputable--Its numbers, past and - present--The Wolf never mentioned directly--Its general - habits--References in Scripture--Its mingled ferocity and - cowardice--Its association into packs--The Wolf's bite--How it - takes its prey--Its ravages among the flocks--Allusions to this - habit--The shepherd and his nightly enemies--Mr. Tristram and - the Wolf--A semi-tamed Wolf at Marsaba 50 - -THE FOX, OR JACKAL. - - The two animals comprehended under one name--The Jackal--Its - numbers in ancient and modern Palestine--General habits of the - Jackal--Localities where the Jackal is found--Samson, and the - three hundred "foxes"--Popular objections to the narrative--The - required number easily obtained--Signor Pierotti's remarks upon - the Jackal--An unpleasant position--How the fields were set on - fire--The dread of fire inherent in wild beasts--The truth of - the narrative proved--The Fox and Jackal destructive among - grapes--Allusions to the Fox in the New Testament--Partially - tamed Foxes 55 - -THE HYÆNA. - - The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded - to--Signification of the word _Zabua_--Translated in the - Septuagint as "Hyæna"--A scene described by the Prophet - Isaiah--The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the present day--Its - well-known cowardice and fear of man--The uses of the Hyæna, and - the services which it renders--The particular species of - Hyæna--The Hyæna in the burial-grounds--Hunting the - Hyæna--Curious superstition respecting the talismanic properties - of its skin--Precautions adopted in flaying it--Popular legends - of the Hyæna and its magical powers--The cavern home of the - Hyæna--The Valley of Zeboim 62 - -THE WEASEL. - - Difficulty of identifying the Weasel of Scripture--The Weasel of - Palestine--Suggested identity with the Ichneumon 68 - -THE FERRET. - - Translation of the Hebrew word _Anakah_--The Shrew-mouse of - Palestine--Etymology of the word--The Gecko or Fan-foot, its - habits and peculiar cry--Repugnance felt by the Arabs of the - present day towards the Gecko 69 - -THE BADGER. - - Difficulty of identifying the _Tachash_ of Scripture--References - to "badgers' skins"--The Dugong thought to be the Badger--The - Bedouin sandals--Nature of the materials for the - Tabernacle--Habits of the Badger--The species found in - Palestine--Uses of the Badgers' skins--Looseness of zoological - terms 70 - -THE BEAR. - - The Syrian Bear--Identity of the Hebrew and Arabic titles--Its - colour variable according to age--Bears once numerous in - Palestine, and now only occasionally seen--Reason for their - diminution--Present localities of the Bear, and its favourite - haunts--Food of the Bear--Its general habits--Its ravages among - the flocks--The Bear dangerous to mankind--The Bear robbed of - her whelps--Illustrative passages--Its mode of fighting--Various - references to the Bear, from the time of Samuel to that of St. - John 75 - -THE HEDGEHOG, OR BITTERN. - - Various readings of the word _Kippôd_--The Jewish Bible and its - object--The Syrian Hedgehog and its appearance--Its fondness for - dry spots--The prophecies of Isaiah and Zephaniah, and their - bearing on the subject--The Porcupine supposed to be the - Kippôd--The Hedgehog and Porcupine called by the same name in - Greek and Arabic--Habits of the Porcupine--Its quills, and the - manner of their shedding 80 - -THE PORCUPINE. - - Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine--The same - Greek name applied to the Porcupine and Hedgehog--Habits of the - Porcupine--The common Porcupine found plentifully in Palestine - 85 - -THE MOLE. - - The two Hebrew words which are translated as "Mole"--Obscurity - of the former name--A parallel case in our own language--The - second name--The Moles and the Bats, why associated - together--The real Mole of Scripture, its different names, and - its place in zoology--Description of the Mole-rat and its - general habits--Curious superstition--Discovery of the species - by Mr. Tristram--Scripture and science--How the Mole-rat finds - its food--Distinction between the Mole and the present animal 86 - -THE MOUSE. - - Conjectures as to the right translation of the Hebrew word - _Akbar_--Signification of the word--The Mice which marred the - land--Miracles, and their economy of power--The Field-mouse--Its - destructive habits and prolific nature--The insidious nature of - its attacks, and its power of escaping observation--The Hamster, - and its habits--Its custom of storing up provisions for the - winter--Its fertility and unsociable nature--The Jerboa, its - activity and destructiveness--Jerboas and Hamsters eaten by - Arabs and Syrians--Various species of Dormice and Sand-rats 91 - -THE HARE. - - The prohibitions of the Mosaic law--The chewing of the cud and - division of the hoof--Identity of the Hare of - Scripture--Rumination described--The Hare a rodent and not a - ruminant--Cowper and his Hares--Structure of the rodent - tooth--The Mosaic law accommodated to its recipients--The Hares - of Palestine and their habits 96 - -CATTLE. - - The cattle of Palestine, and their decadence at the present - day--Ox-flesh not used for food in modern times--Oxen of the - stall, and oxen of the pasture--The use of the ox in - agriculture--The yoke and its structure--The plough and the - goad--The latter capable of being used as a weapon--Treading out - the corn--The cart and its wheels--The ox used as a beast of - burden--Cattle turned loose to graze--The bulls of - Bashan--Curiosity of the ox tribe--A season of drought--Branding - the cattle--An Egyptian field scene--Cattle-keeping an - honourable post--The ox as used for sacrifice--Ox-worship--The - bull Apis, and his history--Persistency of the - bull-worship--Jeroboam's sin--Various names of cattle--The - Indian buffalo 101 - -THE WILD BULL. - - The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament--Passages in which it is - mentioned--The Wild Bull in the net--Hunting with nets in the - East--The Oryx supposed to be the Tô of Scripture--Description - of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, and habits--The points in - which the Oryx agrees with the Tô--The "snare" in which the foot - is taken, as distinguished from the net 116 - -THE REÊM, OR "UNICORN" OF SCRIPTURE. - - The Reêm evidently known to the Jews--Various theories - concerning the Unicorn--Supposed identity with the Indian - Rhinoceros--Passages of Scripture alluding to the strength, - violent and intractable temper of the Reêm--The Reêm a - two-horned animal--Its evident connexion with the Ox tribe--Its - presumed identity with the now extinct Urus--Mr. Dawkins' - treatise on the Urus--Enormous size and dangerous character of - the Urus--Rabbinical legend of the Reêm--Identity of the Urus - with the modern varieties of cattle--The Bull-hunts of Nineveh - 121 - -THE BISON. - - The Bison tribe and its distinguishing marks--Its former - existence in Palestine--Its general habits--Origin of its - name--Its musky odour--Size and speed of the Bison--Its - dangerous character when brought to bay--Its defence against the - Wolf--Its untameable disposition 131 - -THE GAZELLE, OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE. - - The Gazelle identified with the _Tsebi_, i.e. the Roe or Roebuck - of Scripture--Various passages relating to the Tsebi--Its - swiftness, its capabilities as a beast of chase, its beauty, and - the quality of its flesh--The Tsebiyah rendered in Greek as - Tabitha, and translated as Dorcas, or Gazelle--Different - varieties of the Gazelle--How the Gazelle defends itself against - wild beasts--Chase of the Gazelle--The net, the battue, and the - pitfall--Coursing the Gazelle with greyhounds and falcons--Mr. - Chasseaud's account of a hunting party--Gentleness of the - Gazelle 133 - -THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX. - - The Dishon or Dyshon--Signification of the word - _Pygarg_--Certainty that the Dishon is an antelope, and that it - must be one of a few species--Former and present range of the - Addax--Description of the Addax--The Strepsiceros of Pliny 141 - -THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE. - - The word _Jachmur_ evidently represents a species of - antelope--Probability that the Jachmur is identical with the - Bubale, or Bekk'r-el-Wash--Resemblance of the animal to the ox - tribe--Its ox-like horns and mode of attack--Its capability of - domestication--Former and present range of the Bubale--Its - representation on the monuments of ancient Egypt--Delicacy of - its flesh--Size and general appearance of the animal 143 - -THE SHEEP. - - Importance of Sheep in the Bible--The Sheep the chief wealth of - the pastoral tribes--Tenure of land--Value of good - pasture-land--Arab shepherds of the present day--Difference - between the shepherds of Palestine and England--Wanderings of - the flocks in search of food--Value of the wells--How the Sheep - are watered--Duties of the shepherd--The shepherd a kind of - irregular soldier--His use of the sling--Sheep following their - shepherd--Calling the Sheep by name--The shepherd usually a part - owner of the flocks--Structure of the sheepfolds--The rock - caverns of Palestine--David's adventure with Saul--Penning of - the Sheep by night--Use of the dogs--Sheep sometimes brought up - by hand--How Sheep are fattened in the Lebanon district--The two - breeds of Sheep in Palestine--The broad-tailed Sheep, and its - peculiarities--Reference to this peculiarity in the Bible--The - Talmudical writers, and their directions to sheep-owners 146 - -THE CHAMOIS. - - The Zemer or Chamois only once mentioned in the - Bible--Signification of the word _Zemer_--Probability that the - Zemer is the Aoudad--Appearance of the Aoudad--Its strength and - activity--Fierce temper of the adult male--Horns of the - Aoudad--Their probable use as musical instruments--Habits of the - Aoudad--The Mouflon probably classed with the Aoudad under the - name of Zemer--Appearance and habits of the Mouflon 185 - -THE GOAT. - - Value of the Goat--Its use in furnishing food--The male kid the - usual animal of slaughter--Excellence of the flesh, and - deception of Isaac--Milk of the Goat--An Oriental milking - scene--The hair of the Goat, and the uses to which it is - put--The Goat's skin used for leather--The "bottle" of - Scripture--Mode of making and repairing the bottles--Ruse of the - Gibeonites--The "bottle in the smoke"--The sacks and the - kneading-troughs--The Goat as used for sacrifice--General habits - of the Goat--Separation of the Goats from the sheep--Performing - Goats--Different breeds of Goats in Palestine 189 - -THE WILD GOAT. - - The Azelim or Wild Goats of Scripture identical with the Beden - or Arabian Ibex--Different names of the Beden--Its appearance - and general habits--En-gedi, or Goats' Fountain--The Beden - formerly very plentiful in Palestine, and now tolerably - common--Its agility--Difficulty of catching or killing it--How - the young are captured--Flesh of the Beden--Use of the horns at - the present day--The Ako of Deuteronomy 203 - -THE DEER. - - The Hart and Hind of Scripture--Species of Deer existing in - Palestine--Earliest mention of the Hind--The Hart classed among - the clean animals--Passages alluding to its speed--Care of the - mother for her young, and her custom of secreting it--Tameable - character of the Deer--The Rabbinical writers and their - theories--Shedding of the Deer's horns--Its fabled mode of - sleeping--The gall in the tail--Curious traditions of the enmity - between Deer and serpents--Virtues of a Deer-skin coat 208 - -THE CAMEL. - -CHAPTER I. - - The two species of Camel, and the mode of distinguishing - them--Value of the Camel in the East--Camels mentioned as - elements of wealth--Uses of the Camel--The Jews forbidden to eat - its flesh--The milk of the Camel--Thirst-enduring - capability--The internal reservoir--The hump, and its uses to - the animal--The Camel as a beast of draught and burden--How the - Camel is laden--Knowledge of its own powers--Camels for - riding--Difficulty of sitting a Camel--A rough-paced - steed--Method of guiding the Camel--The mesh'ab, or Camel-stick - of office--The women's saddle--Rachel's stratagem--Ornaments of - the Camel--The swift dromedary, Heirie, or Deloul--Its ungainly - aspect--Speed and endurance of the Deloul--The Camel-posts of - Bornu--Camel-drivers and their conduct--The driver's song--Young - Camels and their appearance--The deserted Camel 216 - -CHAPTER II. - - The Camel and its master--Occasional fury of the animal--A boy - killed by a Camel--Another instance of an infuriated - Camel--Theory respecting the Arab and his Camel--Apparent - stupidity of the Camel--Its hatred of a load, and mode of - expressing its disapprobation--Riding a Camel through the - streets--A narrow escape--Ceremony of weaning a young Camel--The - Camel's favourite food--Structure of the foot and adaptation to - locality--Difficulty in provisioning--Camel's hair and - skin--Sal-ammoniac and desert fuel--The Camel and the needle's - eye--Straining at a gnat and swallowing a Camel 233 - -THE BACTRIAN CAMEL. - - General description of the animal--Its use in mountain - roads--Peculiar formation of the foot--Uses of a mixed - breed--Its power of enduring cold--Used chiefly as a beast of - draught--Unfitness for the plough--The cart and mode of - harnessing--The load which it can draw--Camel-skin ropes--A - Rabbinical legend 244 - -THE HORSE. - - The Hebrew words which signify the Horse--The Horse introduced - into Palestine from Egypt--Similarity of the war-horse of - Scripture and the Arab horse of the present day--Characteristics - of the Horse--Courage and endurance of the Horse--Hardness of - its unshod hoofs--Love of the Arab for his Horse--Difficulty of - purchasing the animal--The Horse prohibited to the - Israelites--Solomon's disregard of the edict--The war-chariot, - its form and use--Probable construction of the iron chariot--The - cavalry Horse--Lack of personal interest in the animal 248 - -THE ASS. - - Importance of the Ass in the East--Its general use for the - saddle--Riding the Ass not a mark of humility--The triumphal - entry--White Asses--Character of the Scriptural Ass--Saddling - the Ass--The Ass used in agriculture--The Ass's millstone--The - water-wheel and the plough--Reminiscences of the Ass in the - Scriptural narrative--Its value as property--The flesh of the - Ass--The siege of Samaria and its horrors--Various legends - respecting the Ass--The impostor and his fate--Samson and Balaam - 264 - -THE WILD ASS. - - The Arod and Pere of Scripture--Various allusions to the Wild - Ass--Its swiftness and wildness--The Wild Ass of Asia and - Africa--Knowledge of the animal displayed by the sacred - writers--How the Wild Ass is hunted--Excellence of its - flesh--Sir R. K. Porter's meeting with a Wild Ass--Origin of the - domestic Ass--The Wild Asses of Quito 279 - -THE MULE. - - Ancient use of the Mule--Various breeds of Mule--Supposed date - of its introduction into Palestine--Mule-breeding forbidden to - the Jews--The Mule as a saddle-animal--Its use on occasions of - state--The king's Mule--Mules brought from Babylon after the - captivity--Obstinacy of the Mule--The Mule as a beast of - burden--The "Mule's burden" of earth--Mules imported by the - Phoenicians--Legends respecting the Mule 285 - -SWINE. - - The Mosaic prohibition of the pig--Hatred of Swine by Jews and - Mahometans--A strange use of bacon--The prodigal son--Resistance - to the prosecution of Antiochus--Swine hated by the early - Egyptians--Supposed connexion between Swine and diseases of the - skin--Destruction of the herd of Swine--The locality of the - event discovered--Pigs bred for the monasteries--The jewel of - gold in a Swine's snout--The wild boar of the woods, and the - beast of the reeds--The damage which it does to the - vines--General account of the wild boar of Palestine--Excellence - of its flesh 292 - -THE ELEPHANT. - - The Elephant indirectly mentioned in the Authorized - Version--Solomon's ivory throne--Ivory used in Egypt--Horns of - ivory--The ivory palaces--Beds of ivory--The Tyrian ships--Ivory - mentioned by Homer--Vessels of ivory--The Elephant as an engine - of war--Antiochus and his Elephants--Oriental - exaggeration--Self-devotion of Eleazar--Attacking the Elephants, - and their gradual abandonment in war--The Talmudical writers on - the Elephant--A funeral and an omen 302 - -THE CONEY, OR HYRAX. - - The Shaphan of Scripture, and the correct meaning of the - word--Identification of the Shaphan with the Syrian - Hyrax--Description of the animal--Its feet, teeth, and apparent - rumination--Passages in which the Coney is mentioned--Habits of - the animal--Its activity and wariness--The South African Hyrax, - and its mode of life--Difficulty of procuring it--Similarity in - appearance and habits of the Syrian species--Three species of - Hyrax known to naturalists--The Talmudical writers on the - Shaphan--The jerboa and the rabbit--A curious speculation and a - judicious compromise 312 - -BEHEMOTH. - - Literal translation of the word _Behemoth_--Various theories - respecting the identity of the animal--The Hippopotamus known to - the ancient Hebrews--Geographical range of the animal--"He - eateth grass like the ox"--Ravages of the Hippopotamus among the - crops--Structure of the mouth and teeth--The "sword or scythe" - of the Hippopotamus--Some strange theories--Haunts of the - Hippopotamus--The Egyptian hunter--A valuable painting--Strength - of the Hippopotamus--Rising of the Nile--Modern - hunters--Wariness of the Hippopotamus--The pitfall and the - drop-trap 318 - - -BIRDS. - -THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE. - - Difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in - Scripture--The Vultures of Palestine--The Lämmergeier, or - Ossifrage of Scripture--The Hebrew word _Peres_, and its - signification--The Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker--Appearance of the - Lämmergeier--Its flight and mode of feeding--How the Lämmergeier - kills snakes and tortoises, and breaks marrow-bones--Mode of - destroying the chamois and mountain sheep--Nest of the - Lämmergeier 333 - -THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE. - - The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian - Vulture--Its appearance on the Egyptian monuments--Signification - of the word _Râchâm_--Various translations of the word--The - shape, size, and colour of the bird--Its value as a scavenger, - and its general habits--The Egyptian Vultures and the - griffons--Its fondness for the society of man--Nest of the - Egyptian Vulture 339 - -THE GRIFFON VULTURE, OR EAGLE OF SCRIPTURE. - - The Griffon Vulture identified with the Eagle of Scripture--The - word _Nesher_ and its signification--Geographical range of the - Griffon--Its mode of flight and sociable habits--The featherless - head and neck of the bird--The Vulture used as an image of - strength, swiftness, and rapacity--Its powers of sight--How - Vultures assemble round a carcase--Nesting-places of the - Griffon--Mr. Tristram's description of the Griffon--Rock caves - of the Wady Hamâm--Care of the young, and teaching them to - fly--Strength of the Griffon--Its emblematical use in Egypt and - Assyria--The god Nisroch--Noble aspect of the Griffon--Its - longevity--Various attitudes assumed by the bird 344 - -THE EAGLE. - - Signification of the word _Asniych_--The Golden Eagle and its - habits--The Imperial Eagle--Its solitary mode of life--The - Short-toed Eagle common in Palestine--Its zoological - position--Food of the Short-toed Eagle--Its form and colour 354 - -THE OSPREY. - - The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle--Its geographical range--Mode of - securing prey--Structure of its feet--Its power of balancing - itself in the air 356 - -THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE. - - The word _Dayah_ and its signification--Dayah a collective term - for different species of Kites--The Common or Red Kite plentiful - in Palestine--Its piercing sight and habit of soaring--The Black - Kite of Palestine and its habits--The Egyptian Kite--The Raah or - Glede of Scripture--The Buzzards and their habits--The Peregrine - Falcon an inhabitant of Central Palestine, and the Lanner of the - eastern parts of the country 357 - -THE HAWK. - - The Netz or Hawk--Number of species probably grouped under that - name--Rare occurrence of the word--The Sparrow-Hawk and its - general habits--Its place of nesting--The Kestrel, or - Wind-hover--Various names by which it is known in England--Its - mode of feeding and curious flight--The Hariers--Probable - derivation of the name--Species of Hariers known to inhabit - Palestine--Falconry apparently unknown to the ancient Jews 364 - -THE OWL. - - The words which have been translated as "Owl"--The Côs, or - Little Owl--Use made of the Little Owl in bird-catching--Habits - of the bird--The Barn, Screech, or White Owl a native of - Palestine--The Yanshûph, or Egyptian Eagle Owl--Its food and - nest--The Lilith, or Night Monster--Various interpretations of - the word--The Kippoz probably identical with the Scops Owl, or - Marouf 37 - -THE NIGHT-HAWK. - - Different interpretations of the word _Tachmâs_--Probability - that it signifies the Nightjar--Various names of the bird--Its - remarkable jarring cry, and wheeling flight--Mode of - feeding--Boldness of the bird--Deceptive appearance of its size - 377 - -THE SWALLOW. - - Identification of the smaller birds--Oriental indifference to - natural history--Use of collective terms--The - Swallow--Signification of the word _Deror_--The Bird of - Liberty--Swallows and Swifts--The Sunbirds and - Bee-eaters--Variety of small birds found in Palestine--The - Swallows of Palestine--Swallows protected by man in various - countries--Nesting of the Swallow--The Rufous Swallow and - Martin--The Sis or Swift--Various species of Swift inhabiting - the Holy Land--Talmudical notions of the Swift or Swallow--The - leper and his offering--The cooking pot and the sacrificial - vessel--Signification of the word _Tzippor-deror_ 381 - -THE HOOPOE, OR LAPWING OF SCRIPTURE. - - The Dukiphath of Scripture--Various interpretations of the - word--The Hoopoe--Its beauty and ill reputation--The unpleasant - odour of its nest--Food of the Hoopoe--Its beautiful nest, and - remarkable gestures--A curious legend of Solomon and the Hoopoe - 392 - -THE SPARROW. - - Signification of the word _Tzippor_--The bird used for the - leper's sacrifice--The Sparrow upon the house-top--Architecture - of the East--Proclamation from the house-tops--The Blue Thrush, - its appearance and habits--Little birds exposed for sale in the - market--The two Sparrows sold for a farthing--Bird-catching--The - net, the snare, and the trap--The Sparrow that builds her nest - in the Temple--The Tree Sparrow--Various Sparrows that inhabit - Palestine--Birds kept in cages 395 - -THE CUCKOO. - - The Cuckoo only twice mentioned in Scripture--Difficulty of - identifying the Shachaph--The common species, and the Great - Spotted Cuckoo--Depositing the egg--Conjectures respecting the - Shachaph--Etymology of the word--The various gulls, and other - sea-birds 405 - -THE DOVE. - - Parallel between the lamb and the Dove--Derivation of the Hebrew - word _Yonâh_--The Dove and the olive branch--Abram's sacrifice, - and its acceptance--The sacrifice according to the law of - Moses--The Dove-sellers of the Temple--Talmudical zoology--The - story of Ilisch--The Dove and the raven--The Dove a type of - Israel--The Beni-yonâh, or Sons of Pigeons--Home-finding - instinct of the pigeon--The Oriental Dove-cotes--Voice of the - Dove--Its strength of wing--The Dove's dung of Samaria--Various - pigeons of Palestine--The Rock Dove and its multitudes--The Dove - and the Griffon--The Turtle Doves of Palestine, and their - appearance and habits 408 - -POULTRY. - - Poultry plentiful in Palestine at the present day--The Domestic - Fowl unknown in the early times of Israel--The eating and - gathering of eggs--References to Poultry in the New - Testament--The egg and the scorpion--The fatted fowl of - Solomon--The hen brooding over her eggs--Poultry prohibited - within Jerusalem--The cock-crowing 421 - -THE PEACOCK. - - The foreign curiosities imported by Solomon--The word _Tucciyim_ - and its various interpretations--Identity of the word with the - Cingalese name of the Peacock--Reasons why the Peacock should - have been brought to Solomon--Its subsequent neglect and - extirpation 425 - -THE PARTRIDGE. - - The word _Kore_ and its signification--The Partridge upon the - mountains--David's simile--The Desert Partridge and its - habits--Hunting the Partridge with sticks--Eggs of the - Partridge--A disputed reading, and probable signification of the - passage--Egg-hunting in Palestine--The various species of - Partridge--The Francolin and the Sand-grouse 426 - -THE QUAIL. - - Signification of the word _Selâv_--Various passages in which the - word is mentioned--The locust, the stork, and the - sand-grouse--Spreading the birds around the camp--Migration of - the Quail--Drying the Quails for food--Modes of catching the - Quail in the East--The Quail-hunters of Northern - Africa--Quarrelsome nature of the bird--Quail-fighting in the - East--How the Quails were brought to the Israelites 430 - -THE RAVEN. - - Signification of the word _Oreb_--The Haven tribe plentiful in - Palestine--The Raven and the dove--Elijah and the - Ravens--Various explanations of the circumstance--Feeding the - young Ravens--Luis of Grenada's sermon--The white Raven of - ancient times--An old legend--Reference to the blackness of the - Raven's plumage--Desert-loving habits of the Raven--Its mode of - attacking the eye--Notions of the old commentators--Ceremonial - use of the Raven--Return of the Ravens--Cunning of the - bird--Nesting-places of the Raven--The magpie and its - character--The starling--Its introduction into Palestine--The - Rabbi perplexed--Solution of the difficulty 439 - -THE OSTRICH. - - Hebrew words designating the Ostrich--Description of the bird in - the Book of Job--Ancient use of Ostrich plumes--Supposed - heedlessness of eggs and young--Mode of depositing the - eggs--Hatching them in the sand--Natural enemies of the - Ostrich--Anecdote of Ostriches and their young--Alleged - stupidity of the Ostrich--Methods of hunting and snaring the - bird--The Ostrich in domestication--Speed of the Ostrich--The - flesh of the bird prohibited to the Jews--Ostrich eggs and their - uses--Food of the Ostrich--Mode of drinking--Cry of the Ostrich, - and reference made to it in Micah 450 - -THE BITTERN. - - Signification of the word _Kippod_--The Bittern and its general - appearance--The bird of solitude--Difficulty of detecting the - Bittern in its haunts--Mudie's description of the Bittern and - its home--The strange cry of the bird--Superstitions connected - with it--The Night-raven--Nest of the Bittern--Scarcity of the - bird at the present day--Food of the Bittern--The bird formerly - brought to table 462 - -THE HERON. - - The Heron mentioned as an unclean bird--The Heron used for food - in England, and considered as a delicacy--Sociable character of - the bird, and its mode of feeding--Its enormous appetite--How - the Heron fights--Ancient falconry--Nesting of the Heron--The - papyrus marshes and their dangers--Description of the - papyrus--Vessels of bulrushes--The Egret and its beautiful - plumage--Uses of the train feathers 468 - -THE CRANE. - - Various passages in which the Crane is mentioned--Its migratory - habits and loud voice--Geographical range of the Crane--The bird - once plentiful in the fen districts of England--Its favourite - roosting-places--Size of the Crane, and measurement of the - wings--The Crane once used as food--Plumes of the Crane and - their use--Structure of the vocal organs--Nest and eggs of the - Crane. 474 - -THE STORK. - - Signification of the Hebrew word _Chasidah_--Various passages in - which it is mentioned--The Chasidah therefore a large, - wide-winged, migratory bird--Its identification with the - Stork--Derivation of its Hebrew name--The Stork always - protected--Uses of the tail--Its mode of quartering the ground - in search of food--Migratory habits of the Stork--Nesting of the - bird, and its favourite localities--The fir-trees of - Palestine--Love of the Stork for its young 478 - -THE SWAN. - - Signification of the word _Tinshemeth_--The Gallinule and the - Ibis--Appearance and habits of the Hyacinthine Gallinule--A - strange use for the bird--The White or Sacred Ibis--The bird - mentioned by Herodotus--The Glossy Ibis, or Black - Ibis--Veneration with which the bird was regarded 485 - -THE CORMORANT. - - The word _Shâlâk_ and its signification--The Greek - Catarrhactes--Habits of the Cormorant--The bird trained to catch - fish--Mode of securing its prey--Nests and eggs of the - Cormorant--Nesting in fir-trees--Flesh of the bird 490 - -THE PELICAN. - - The Pelican of the wilderness--Attitudes of the bird--Its love - of solitude--Derivation of the Hebrew word--Fantastic - interpretation--Mode of feeding the young--Fables regarding the - Pelican--Breeding-places of the bird--The object of its wide - wings and large pouch--Colour of the Pelican 495 - - -REPTILES. - -THE TORTOISE. - - Reptiles in general--Looseness of the term "creeping - things"--The Tzab of the Scriptures, translated as - Tortoise--Flesh and eggs of the Tortoise--Its slow - movements--Hibernation dependent on temperature--The - Water-Tortoises--Their food and voracity--Their eggs--Their - odour terrifying the horses--The Dhubb lizard and its - legends--Its armed tail, and the use made of it--Its food, and - localities which it prefers 505 - -THE LEVIATHAN, OR CROCODILE. - - Signification of the word _Leviathan_--Description in the Book - of Job--Structure and general habits of the Crocodile--The - throat-valve and its use--Position of the nostrils--Worship of - the Crocodile--The reptile known in the Holy Land--Two legends - respecting its presence there--Mode of taking prey--Cunning of - the Crocodile--The baboons and the Crocodile--Speed of the - reptile--Eggs and young of the Crocodile, and their - enemies--Curious story of the ichneumon and ibis--Modes of - capturing the Crocodile--Analysis of Job's description--The - Crocodile also signified by the word _Tannin_. Aaron's rod - changed into a Tannin--Various passages in which the word - occurs--Use of the word by the Prophet Jeremiah 514 - -THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD. - - Difficulty of identifying the Letââh--Probability that it is a - collective and not a specific term--Various Lizards of - Palestine--The Green or Jersey Lizard--The Cyprius, its - appearance and habits--The Glass Snake or - Scheltopusic--Translation of the word _Chomet_--Probability that - it signifies the Skink--Medicinal uses of the Lizard--The Seps - tribe--The common Cicigna, and the popular belief concerning its - habits--The Sphænops and its shallow tunnel 529 - -THE CHAMELEON, MONITOR, AND GECKO. - - Translation of the word _Koach_--Signification of the word, and - its applicability to the Chameleon--Power of the reptile's - grasp--The prehensile tail--Demeanour of the Chameleon on the - ground--The independent eyes--Its frequent change of - colour--Mode of taking prey--Strange notions respecting the - Chameleon--The Monitor, or Land Crocodile--Its habits and use to - mankind--The Nilotic Monitor, and its habit of destroying the - eggs and young of the Crocodile--The Gecko or Ferret of - Scripture 534 - -SERPENTS. - - Serpents in general--Signification of the Hebrew word - _Nachash_--Various passages in which the Nachash is - mentioned--The fiery Serpents of the wilderness--Explanation of - the words "flying" and "fiery" as applied to Serpents--Haunts of - the Serpent--The Cobra, or Asp of Scripture--Meaning of the word - _Pethen_--The deaf Adder that stoppeth her ear--Serpent-charming - in the East--Principle on which the charmers work--Sluggishness - of the Serpent nature--Ceremony of initiation into - Serpent-charming--Theories respecting the deaf Adder--Luis of - Grenada's sermon--The Cerastes, or Horned Serpent--Appearance - and habits of the reptile--The "Adder in the path" 540 - -THE VIPER, OR EPHEH. - - Passages in which the word _Epheh_ occurs--El-effah--The Sand - Viper, or Toxicon--Its appearance and habits--The - Acshub--Adder's poison--The Spuugh-Slange--The Cockatrice, or - Tsepha--The Yellow Viper--Ancient ideas concerning the - Cockatrice--Power of its venom 552 - -THE FROG. - - The Frog only mentioned in the Old Testament as connected with - the plagues of Egypt--The severity of this plague explained--The - Frog detestable to the Egyptians--The Edible Frog and its - numbers--Description of the Species. 557 - - -FISHES. - -CHAPTER I. - - Impossibility of distinguishing the different species of - fishes--The fishermen Apostles--Fish used for food--The miracle - of the loaves and Fishes--The Fish broiled on the coals--Clean - and unclean Fishes--The scientific writings of Solomon--The - Sheat-fish, or Silurus--The Eel and the Muræna--The Long-headed - Barbel--Fish-ponds and preserves--The Fish-ponds of Heshbon--The - Sucking-fish--The Lump-sucker--The Tunny--The Coryphene 563 - -CHAPTER II. - - Various modes of capturing Fish--The hook and line--Military use - of the hook--Putting a hook in the jaws--The fishing - spear--Different kinds of net--The casting-net--Prevalence of - this form--Technical words among fishermen--Fishing by - night--The draught of Fishes--The real force of the - miracle--Selecting the Fish--The Fish-gate and Fish-market--Fish - killed by a draught--Fishing in the Dead Sea--Dagon, the - fish-god of Philistina, Assyria, and Siam--Various Fishes of - Egypt and Palestine 571 - - -INVERTEBRATES. - -MOLLUSCS. - - The purple of Scripture--Various Molluscs from which it is - obtained--The common Dog whelk of England--The sac containing - the purple dye--Curious change of colour--Mode of obtaining the - dye--The Tyrian purple--The king of the Ethiopians and the - purple robe--The professional purple dyers--Various words - expressive of different shades of purple--Care taken to keep the - preparation of the dye secret 586 - -THE SNAIL. - - The Snail which melteth--Rendering of the Jewish Bible--Theory - respecting the track of the Snail--The Hebrew word - _Shablul_--Various Snails of Palestine 589 - -THE ONYCHA. - - Ingredients of the sacred incense--The Onyx, or - Onycha--Derivation of the word--The Arabic Dofr--The Doofu of - Abyssinia--Odour of the perfume 590 - -THE PEARL. - - The Pearl of Scripture--Wisdom compared to Pearl--Different - renderings of the Hebrew word--Opinions of the - Talmudists--Structure of Pearls--The Pearls of the marine and - aquatic mussels--Pearl-fisheries of the Conway--Metaphorical - uses of the Pearl--The Pearl of great price--Casting Pearls - before swine--An ancient proverb 592 - -INSECTS. - - Insects--Beetles not mentioned in Scripture--The Locust--Various - species of the insect, and different words used to signify - it--The Arbeh of Scripture, and its derivation--The two - migratory Locusts at rest and on the wing--The Locust - swarms--Gordon Cumming's account--Progress of the insect - hosts--Vain attempts to check them--Tossed up and down as a - Locust--Effect of the winds on the insect--The east and the west - winds--Locusts used for food--Ancient and modern travellers--The - food of St. John 596 - -THE BEE. - - The Hebrew word _Debôrah_-The Honey Bee of Palestine--Abundance - of Bees in the Holy Land--Habitations of the wild Bee--Hissing - for the Bee--Bees in dead carcases--The honey of - Scripture--Domesticated Bees and their hives--Stores of wild - honey--The story of Jonathan--The Crusaders and the - honey--Butter and honey--Oriental sweetmeats--The Dibs, or - grape-honey, and mode of preparation--Wax, its use as a metaphor - 605 - -THE HORNET. - - The Tzirah or Hornet of Scripture--Travellers driven away by - Hornets--The Hornet used as a metaphor--Oriental symbolism--The - Talmudical writers--Sting of the Hornet 613 - -THE ANT. - - The Ant of Scripture--Solomon's allusion to the Ant--Habit of - laying up stores of food--A controversy respecting the Ant--The - Ants of Palestine, and their habits--The Agricultural or - Mound-making Ant--Preparing ground, sowing, tending, reaping, - and storing the crop--Different habits of Ants--Development of - the insect--The winged Ants--An Arab proverb 616 - -THE CRIMSON WORM. - - The scarlet or crimson of Scripture--Signification of the word - _Tolââth_--The Coccus or Cochineal of Palestine compared with - that of Mexico--Difference between the sexes--Mode of preparing - the insect--The Arabic word _Kermes_ 622 - -THE CLOTHES MOTH. - - The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth--The Sâs and - the 'Ash--Similitude between the Hebrew _sâs_ and the Greek - _sês_--Moths and garments--Accumulation of clothes in the - East--Various uses of the hoarded robes--The Moths, the rust, - and the thief 624 - -THE SILKWORM MOTH. - - Various passages wherein Silk is mentioned--The virtuous woman - and her household--Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted - with Silk--Present cultivation of the Silkworm--The Silk-farms - of the Lebanon--Signification of the word _Meshi_--Silkworms and - thunder--Luis of Grenada's sermon--The Hebrew word _Gâzam_, and - its signification--The Palmer-worm of Scripture 627 - -FLIES. - - Flies of Scripture--Dead Flies and the apothecary's - ointment--Gadflies and their attacks--Annoyance caused by the - House-fly--Flies and ophthalmia--Signor Pierotti's account of - the Flies--The sovereign remedy against Flies--Causes of their - prevalence 632 - -GNATS. - - The Gnat of Scripture--Straining out the Gnat and swallowing the - camel, a typographical error--Probable identity of the Gnat and - the mosquito 635 - -THE LOUSE. - - Insect parasites--The plague of Lice--Its effect on the - magicians or priests--The Hebrew word _Chinnim_--Probability - that it may be represented by "tick"--Habits of the ticks, their - dwellings in dust, and their effects on man and beast 636 - -THE FLEA. - - Prevalence of the Flea in the East, and the annoyance caused by - them to travellers--Fleas of the Lebanon--The Bey's - bedfellows--The Pasha at the bath--Use of the word in Scripture - 638 - -THE SCORPION. - - The Scorpions of Palestine--Signification of the word - _Akrabbim_--Habits of the Scorpion--Dangers of mud walls--Venom - of the Scorpion--Scorpions at sea--The Scorpion whip, and its - use--The Scorpion Pass 640 - -THE SPIDER. - - Signification of the word _Semamith_--Various interpretations of - a Scriptural passage--Talmudical opinions respecting the - creature--The 'Akkabish and its web--Spiders of Palestine 643 - -THE WORM. - - Various words translated as "Worm"--Probable confusion of the - words--The Rimmah and the Tole'ah--The Worm which destroyed - Jonah's gourd--The Earthworm 644 - -THE HORSE LEECH. - - Signification of the word _Alukah_--The Arabic word--Leeches in - Palestine--The horse and the Leech--Leeches in England 646 - -SPONGE AND CORAL. - - Use of the Sponge in Scripture--Probability that the ancient - Jews were acquainted with it--Sponges of the Mediterranean--The - Coral, and its value--Signification of the word _Ramoth_ 647 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - -FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. - - PAGE - - THE OSTRICH AND ITS HUNTERS. (Job xxxix. 19) _Frontispiece._ - - THE LION AND HIS DEN. (Ezek. xix. 2) _to face_ 26 - - DOGS PROWLING AT NIGHT. (Psa. lix. 14) " 48 - - THE BADGER AND ITS HOME. (Exod. xxvi. 14) " 72 - - BEARS DESCENDING FROM THE HILLS. - (Prov. xxviii. 15) " 76 - - OXEN BEARING THE YOKE. (Lam. iii. 27) " 104 - - SHEEP AND THEIR SHEPHERD AND FOLD. - (Psa. xxiii. 2) " 156 - - GOATS WOUNDED BY LION. (Amos iii. 12) " 202 - - THE HIND AND HER YOUNG. (Job xxxix. 1) " 212 - - CAMELS AND THEIR BURDENS. (Isa. xxx. 6) " 222 - - THE WAR HORSE GOING TO BATTLE. (Job xxxix. 25) " 250 - - WILD ASSES AND THE HUNTERS. (Job xxxix. 5-8) " 282 - - THE WILD BOAR IN THE VINEYARD. (Psa. lxxx. 13) " 300 - - ELEPHANTS IN A FOREST. (Ezek. xxvii. 15) " 312 - - THE HIPPOPOTAMUS OR BEHEMOTH. (Job xl. 21) " 324 - - VULTURES AND THEIR PREY. (Matt. xxiv. 28) " 352 - - THE EAGLE AND ITS NEST. (Job xxxix. 27) " 354 - - THE OSPREY AND ITS HAUNTS. (Deut. xiv. 12) " 356 - - THE OWL AMONG RUINS. (Job xxx. 29) " 376 - - PEACOCKS. (1 Kings x. 22) " 426 - - THE BITTERN AND ITS HOME. (Isa. xiv. 23) " 466 - - THE STORK IN THE FIR-TREES. (Psa. civ. 17) " 482 - - THE CROCODILE OR LEVIATHAN. (Job xli. 7) " 520 - - LOCUSTS ON THE MARCH. (Exod. x. 5) " 600 - - -ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. - - PAGE - - THE RHESUS AND ENTELLUS. (1 Kings x. 22) 3 - - THE WANDEROO 6 - - BATS IN THEIR CAVE. (Levit. xi. 19) 17 - - THE LEOPARD BY THE WAY. (Hos. xiii. 7) 30 - - THE WOLF AMONG THE SHEEP. (John x. 12) 51 - - JACKALS AND THE SCAPEGOAT. (Psa. lxiii. 10) 56 - - HYÆNAS AND VULTURES. (Ezek. xxix. 5) 65 - - THE HEDGEHOG. (Isa. xxxiv. 11) 81 - - THE MOLE-RAT. (Levit. xi. 30) 87 - - FIELD-MICE AMONG CORN. (1 Sam. vi. 5) 93 - - SYRIAN HARES. (Deut. xiv. 7) 97 - - OXEN TREADING OUT CORN. (Deut. xxv. 4) 107 - - THE BUFFALO. (Amos vi. 12) 114 - - THE WILD BULL, OR ORYX. (Isa. li. 21) 119 - - THE UNICORN, OR BISON. (Job xxxix. 9) 132 - - GAZELLES UPON THE MOUNTAINS. (Cant. ii. 8) 136 - - THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX. (Deut. xiv. 4) 142 - - THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE. (1 Kings iv. 23) 145 - - SHEEP LED TO PASTURE. (John x. 3) 154 - - THE RAM'S HORN TRUMPET. (Josh. vi. 4) 175 - - THE PLACE OF SACRIFICE ON MOUNT GERIZIM 181 - - THE CHAMOIS, OR AOUDAD. (Deut. xiv. 4, 5) 187 - - GOATS DIVIDED FROM SHEEP. (Matt. xxv. 52) 199 - - THE WILD GOAT, OR IBEX. (Psa. cxiv. 18) 206 - - THE HIND, OR FALLOW-DEER. (Cant. ii. 7) 209 - - THE DROMEDARY AND ITS RIDER. (Jer. ii. 23) 231 - - THE CAMEL AND THE "NEEDLE'S EYE." (Matt. xix. 24) 243 - - BACTRIAN CAMELS HARNESSED. (Isa. xxi. 7) 246 - - THE WAR CHARIOT OF EGYPT. (Jer. xlvi. 9) 261 - - THE STATE CHARIOT OF ASSYRIA. (Jer. xvii. 25) 262 - - SYRIAN ASSES. (Prov. xxvi. 3) 269 - - MULES AND THEIR DRIVER. (Psa. xxxii. 9) 287 - - CONIES AMONG THE ROCKS. (Prov. xxx. 26) 313 - - THE HIPPOPOTAMUS IN THE RIVER. (Job xl. 21) 325 - - THE HIPPOPOTAMUS AND TRAP. (Job xl. 24) 328 - - THE OSSIFRAGE, OR LÄMMERGEIER. (Deut. xiv. 12) 334 - - THE GIER-EAGLE, OR EGYPTIAN VULTURE. (Deut. xiv. 17) 340 - - THE VULTURE, OR KITE. (JOB xxviii. 7) 358 - - THE GLEDE, OR PEREGRINE FALCON. (Deut. xiv. 13) 361 - - THE LANNER FALCON 363 - - THE HAWK, OR KESTREL. (Job xxxix. 26) 366 - - THE LITTLE OWL. (Psa. cii. 6) 372 - - THE NIGHT-HAWK. (Deut. xiv. 15) 378 - - THE SWALLOW AND SWIFT. (Jer. viii. 7) 385 - - THE LAPWING, OR HOOPOE. (Levit. xi. 19) 393 - - THE SPARROW, OR BLUE THRUSH. (Psa. cii. 7) 399 - - THE SPARROW, OR TREE SPARROW. (Psa. lxxxiv. 3) 403 - - THE CUCKOO. (Levit. xi. 16) 406 - - THE ROCK DOVE. (Cant. ii. 14) 416 - - THE TURTLE DOVE. (Cant. ii. 12) 420 - - POULTRY. (Luke xiii. 34) 423 - - THE PARTRIDGE ON THE MOUNTAINS. (1 Sam. xxvi. 20) 428 - - THE QUAIL. (Psa. cv. 40) 431 - - THE RAVEN. (Job xxxviii. 41) 441 - - THE OSTRICH AND ITS EGGS. (Job xxxix. 14) 454 - - THE BITTERN. (Isa. xiv. 23) 463 - - THE HERON. (Deut. xi. 19) 469 - - THE CRANE. (Isa. xxxviii. 14) 475 - - THE SWAN OR IBIS, OR GALLINULE. (Deut. xiv. 16) 486 - - THE PELICAN OF THE WILDERNESS. (Psa. cii. 6) 496 - - THE TORTOISE AND DHUBB. (Levit. xi. 29) 507 - - THE LIZARD, OR CYPRIUS. (Levit. xi. 30) 530 - - THE CHAMELEON AND THE GECKO. (Levit. xi. 30) 535 - - THE ASP AND THE ADDER, OR THE COBRA AND THE CERASTES. - (Psa. lviii. 4; Gen. xlix. 17) 542 - - THE VIPER, OR TOXICOA. (Job xx. 16) 553 - - THE FROG. (Exod. viii. 3) 558 - - FISHES--MURÆNA, BARBEL, AND SHEAT-FISH. (Levit. xi. 10) 566 - - FISHES--SUCKING-FISH, TUNNY, AND CORYPHENE. (Levit. x. 9) 569 - - FISHES--LATES, MULLUS, AND URANOSCOPUS. (Numb. xi. 5) 582 - - THE PEARL OYSTER. (Matt. xiii. 45) 594 - - THE BEE. (Isa. vii 19) 606 - - THE HORNET. (Exod. xxiii. 28) 614 - - THE ANT. (Prov. vi. 6) 621 - - THE CRIMSON WORM, OR COCHINEAL. (Isa. i. 18) 623 - - BUTTERFLIES AND CATERPILLARS OF PALESTINE. (Joel i. 4) 631 - - FLIES. (Isa. vii. 18) 635 - - THE SCORPION. (Rev. ix. 10) 641 - - THE CORAL. (Job xxviii. 18) 648 - - - - -MAMMALIA. - - -BIBLE ANIMALS. - - - - -THE APE. - - The Monkey tribe rarely mentioned in Scripture--Why the Ape was - introduced into Palestine--Solomon's ships, and their cargo of - Apes, peacocks, ivory and gold--Various species of Monkey that - might have been imported--The Rhesus Monkey--The Hoonuman or - Entellus--Habits of the Monkey, and reverence in which it is - held by the natives--The Egyptians and their Baboon - worship--Idols and memorials--The Wanderoo--its singular - aspect--Reasons why it should be introduced into - Palestine--General habits of the Wanderoo--its love of - curiosities--Probability that Solomon had a menagerie--Various - species of Monkey that maybe included in the term "Kophim"--The - Satyr of Scripture--Babylon in its glory and fall--Fulfilment of - prophecy--Judaic ideas of the Satyrs, or Seirim. - - -Animals belonging to the monkey tribe are but sparingly mentioned in -Holy Writ. If, as is possible, the Satyr of Scripture signifies some -species of baboon, there are but three passages either in the Old or -New Testament where these animals are mentioned. In 1 Kings x. 22, and -the parallel passage 2 Chron. ix. 21, the sacred historian makes a -passing allusion to apes as forming part of the valuable cargoes which -were brought by Solomon's fleet to Tharshish, the remaining articles -being gold, ivory, and peacocks. The remaining passage occurs in Is. -xiii. 21, where the prophet foretells that on the site of Babylon -satyrs shall dance. - -The reason for this reticence is simple enough. No monkey was -indigenous to Palestine when the various writers of the Bible lived, -and all their knowledge of such animals must have been derived either -from the description of sailors, or from the sight of the few -specimens that were brought as curiosities from foreign lands. Such -specimens must have been extremely rare, or they would not have been -mentioned as adjuncts to the wealth of Solomon, the wealthiest, as -well as the wisest monarch of his time. To the mass of the people they -must have been practically unknown, and therefore hold but a very -inferior place in the Scriptures, which were addressed to all mankind. - -There is scarcely any familiar animal, bird, reptile or insect, which -is not used in some metaphorical sense in the imagery which pervades -the whole of the Scriptures. For example, the various carnivorous -animals, such as the lion, wolf, and bear, are used as emblems of -destruction in various ways; while the carnivorous birds, such as the -eagle and hawk, and the destructive insects, such as the locust and -the caterpillar, are all similarly employed in strengthening and -illustrating the words of Holy Writ. - -But we never find any animal of the monkey tribe mentioned -metaphorically, possibly because any monkeys that were imported into -Palestine must only have been intended as objects of curiosity, just -as the peacocks which accompanied them were objects of beauty, and the -gold and ivory objects of value--all being employed in the decoration -of the king's palace. - -The question that now comes before us is the species of monkey that is -signified by the Hebrew word Kophim. In modern days, we distinguish -this tribe of animals into three great sections, namely, the apes, the -baboons, and the monkey; and according to this arrangement the ape, -being without tails, must have been either the chimpanzee of Africa, -the orang-outan of Sumatra, or one of the Gibbons. But there is no -reason to imagine that the word Kophim was intended to represent any -one of these animals, and it seems evident that the word was applied -to any species of monkey, whether it had a tail or not. - -Perhaps the best method of ascertaining approximately the particular -species of monkey, is to notice the land from which the animals came. -Accordingly, we find that the ships of Solomon brought gold, ivory, -apes, and peacocks, and that they evidently brought their cargoes from -the same country. Consequently, the country in question must produce -gold, and must be inhabited by the monkey tribe, by the elephant, and -by the peacock. If the peacock had not been thus casually mentioned, -we should have been at a loss to identify the particular country to -which reference is made; but the mention of that bird shows that some -part of Asia must be signified. It is most probable that the vessels -in question visited both India and Ceylon, although, owing to the very -imperfect geographical knowledge of the period, it is not possible to -assert absolutely that this is the case. In India, however, and the -large island of Ceylon, gold, elephants, peacocks, and monkeys exist; -and therefore we will endeavour to identify the animals which are -mentioned under the general term Apes, or Kophim. - - [Illustration: THE RHESUS AND ENTELLUS. - - "_Bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes._"--1 KINGS x. 22.] - -We are quite safe in suggesting that some of the apes in question must -have belonged to the Macaques, and it is most likely that one of them -was the RHESUS, or BHUNDER, scientifically named _Macacus Rhesus_. - -This animal is very plentiful in India, and is one of the many -creatures which are held sacred by the natives. Consequently, it takes -up its quarters near human habitations, feeling sure that it will not -be injured, and knowing that plenty of food is at hand. It is said -that in some parts of India the natives always leave one-tenth of -their grain-crops for the monkeys, and thus the animals content -themselves with this offering, and refrain from devastating the -fields, as they would otherwise do. This story may be true or not. It -is certainly possible that in a long series of years the monkeys of -that neighbourhood have come to look upon their tithe as a matter -belonging to the ordinary course of things; but whether it be true or -not, it illustrates the reverence entertained by the Hindoos for their -monkeys. - -In many places where grain and fruit crops are cultivated, the monkeys -get rather more than their share, plundering without scruple, and -finding no hindrance from the rightful owners, who dare not drive them -away, lest they should injure any of these sacred beings. However, -being unmindful of the maxim, "qui facit per alium, facit per se," -they are only too glad to avail themselves of the assistance of -Europeans, who have no scruples on the subject. Still, although they -are pleased to see the monkeys driven off, and their crops saved, they -would rather lose all their harvest than allow a single monkey to be -killed, and in the earlier years of our Indian colony, several riots -took place between the natives and the English, because the latter had -killed a monkey through ignorance of the reverence in which it was -held. - -Another monkey which may probably have been brought to Palestine from -India is the HOONUMAN, ENTELLUS, or MAKUR, which is more reverenced by -the Hindoos than any other species. Its scientific title is _Presbytes -entellus_. In some parts of India it is worshipped as a form of -divinity, and in all it is reverenced and protected to such an extent -that it becomes a positive nuisance to Europeans who are not -influenced by the same superstitious ideas as those which are so -prevalent in India. Being a very common species, it could easily be -captured, especially if, as is likely to be the case, it was fearless -of man through long immunity from harm. The sailors who manned -Solomon's navy would not trouble themselves about the sacred character -of the monkeys, but would take them without the least scruple wherever -they could be found. - -The Hoonuman would also be valued by them on account of its docility -when taken young, and the amusing tricks which it is fond of -displaying in captivity as well as in a state of freedom. Moreover, it -is rather a pretty creature, the general colour being yellowish, and -the face black. - -Perfectly aware of the impunity with which they are permitted to act, -these monkeys prefer human habitations to the forests which form the -natural home of their race, and crowd into the villages and temples, -the latter being always swarming with the long-tailed host. As is the -case with the Rhesus, the Hoonuman monkeys are much too fond of -helping themselves from the shops and stalls, and if they can find a -convenient roof, will sit there and watch for the arrival of the most -dainty fruits. - -However, the natives, superstitious as they are, and unwilling to -inflict personal injury on a monkey, have no scruple in making -arrangements by which a monkey that trespasses on forbidden spots will -inflict injury on itself. They may not shoot or wound in any way the -monkeys which cluster on their roofs, and the animals are so perfectly -aware of the fact, that they refuse to be driven away by shouts and -menacing gestures. But, they contrive to make the roofs so -uncomfortable by covering them with thorns, that the monkeys are -obliged to quit their points of vantage, and to choose some spot where -they can sit down without fear of hurting themselves. - -That the Hindoos should pay homage almost divine to a monkey, does -seem equally absurd and contemptible. But, strange as this -superstition may be, and the more strange because the intellectual -powers of the educated Hindoos are peculiarly subtle and penetrating, -it was shared by a greater, a mightier, and a still more intellectual -race, now extinct as a nation. The ancient Egyptians worshipped the -baboon, and ranked it among the most potent of their deities; and it -can but strike us with wonder when we reflect that a people who could -erect buildings perfectly unique in the history of the world, who held -the foremost place in civilization, who perfected arts which we, at a -distance of three thousand years, have only just learned, should pay -divine honours to monkeys, bulls, and snakes. Such, however, was the -case; and we find that the modern Hindoo shows as great reverence for -the identical animals as did the Egyptian when Pharaoh was king, and -Joseph his prime minister. - -It is said by some, that neither the Egyptian of the ancient times, -nor the Hindoo of the present day, actually worshipped those -creatures, but that they reverenced them as external signs of some -attribute of God. Precisely the same remarks have been made as to the -worship of idols, and it is likely enough that the highly educated -among the worshippers did look upon a serpent merely as an emblem of -divine wisdom, a bull as an image of divine strength, and a monkey as -an external memorial of the promised incarnation of divinity. So with -idols, which to the man of educated and enlarged mind were nothing but -visible symbols employed for the purpose of directing the mind in -worship. But, though this was the case with the educated and -intellectual, the ignorant and uncultivated, who compose the great -mass of a nation, did undoubtedly believe that both the living animal -and the lifeless idol were themselves divine, and did worship them -accordingly. - - [Illustration: THE WANDEROO.] - -There is one species of monkey, which is extremely likely to have been -brought to Palestine, and used for the adornment of a luxurious -monarch's palace. This is the WANDEROO, or NIL-BHUNDER (_Silenus -veter_). The Wanderoo, or Ouanderoo, as the name is sometimes spelled, -is a very conspicuous animal, on account of the curious mane that -covers its neck and head, and the peculiarly formed tail, which is -rather long and tufted, like that of a baboon, and has caused it to be -ranked among those animals by several writers, under the name of the -Lion-tailed Baboon. That part of the hairy mass which rolls over the -head is nearly black, but as it descends over the shoulders, it -assumes a greyer tinge, and in some specimens is nearly white, -reminding the observer of the huge wigs which were so prevalent in the -time of Charles II, or of the scarcely less enormous head-dresses with -which our judges are decorated. As is the case with many animals, the -mane is not seen in the young specimens, and increases in size with -age, only reaching its full dimensions when the animal has attained -adult age. Moreover, the grey hue belongs exclusively to the elder -monkeys, and only in the oldest specimens is the full, white, -venerable, wig-like mane to be seen in perfection. - -In captivity, the general demeanour of this monkey corresponds with -its grave and dignified aspect. It seems to be more sedate than the -ordinary monkeys, to judge from the specimens which have lived in the -Zoological Gardens, and sits peering with its shiny brown eyes out of -the enormous mane, with as much gravity as if it were really a judge -deciding an important case in law. Not that it will not condescend to -the little tricks and playful sallies for which the monkeys are so -celebrated; but it soon loses the vivacity of youth, and when -full-grown, presents as great a contrast to its former vivacity, as -does a staid full-grown cat sitting by the fire, to the restless, -lively, playful kitten of three months old. During its growth, it can -be taught to go through several amusing performances, but it has -little of the quick, mercurial manner, which is generally found among -the monkey tribe. - -The docility of the Wanderoo often vanishes together with its youth. -The same animal may be gentle, tractable, and teachable when young, -and yet, when a few years have passed over its head and whitened its -mane, may be totally obstinate and dull, refusing to perform the feats -which it accomplished in its youth, or to learn others more suitable -to its years. Consistent kind treatment will, however, have its effect -upon the creature, but as a general rule, an old Wanderoo is apt to be -a treacherous and spiteful animal. - -The natives of the country in which the Wanderoo lives, attribute to -it the wisdom which its venerable aspect seems to imply, much as the -ancient Athenians venerated the owl as the bird of wisdom, and the -chosen companion of the learned Minerva. In many places, the Wanderoo -is thought to be a sort of king among monkeys, and to enjoy the same -supremacy over its maneless kinsfolk, that the king-vulture maintains -over the other vultures which are destitute of the brilliant crest -that marks its rank. - -I am induced to believe that the Wanderoo must have been one of the -monkeys which were brought to Solomon, for two reasons. - -In the first place, it is a native both of India and Ceylon, and -therefore might have formed an article of merchandise, together with -the peacock, gold, and ivory. And if, as is extremely probable, the -Tharshish of the Scripture is identical with Ceylon, it is almost -certain that the Wanderoo would have been brought to Solomon, in order -to increase the glories of his palace. Sir Emerson Tennant points out -very forcibly, that in the Tamil language, the words for apes, ivory, -and peacocks, are identical with the Hebrew names for the same -objects, and thus gives a very strong reason for supposing that Ceylon -was the country from which Solomon's fleet drew its supplies. - -Another reason for conjecturing that the Wanderoo would have been one -of the animals sent to grace the palace of Solomon is this. In the -days when that mighty sovereign lived, as indeed has been the case in -all partially civilized countries, the kings and rulers have felt a -pride in collecting together the rarest objects which they could -purchase, giving the preference to those which were in any way -conspicuous, whether for intrinsic value, for size, for beauty, or for -ugliness. Thus, giants, dwarfs, and deformed persons of either sex, -and even idiots, were seen as regular attendants at the court, a -custom which extended even into the modern history of this country, -the "Fool" being an indispensable appendage to the train of every -person of rank. Animals from foreign lands were also prized, and value -was set upon them, not only for their variety, but for any external -characteristic which would make them especially conspicuous. - -Ordinary sovereigns would make collections of such objects, simply -because they were rare, and in accordance with the general custom; -and in importing the "apes" and peacocks together with the gold and -ivory, Solomon but followed the usual custom. He, however, on whom the -gift of wisdom had been especially bestowed, would have another motive -besides ostentation or curiosity. He was learned in the study of that -science which we now call Natural History. It is, therefore, extremely -probable, that he would not neglect any opportunities of procuring -animals from distant lands, in order that he might study the products -of countries which he had not personally visited, and it is not likely -that so conspicuous an animal as the Wanderoo would have escaped the -notice of those who provided the cargo for which so wealthy a king -could pay, and for which they would demand a price proportionate to -its variety. - -There is perhaps no monkey which is so conspicuous among its kin as -the Wanderoo, and certainly no monkey or ape inhabiting those parts of -the world to which the fleet of Solomon would have access. Its staid, -sedate manners, its black body, lion-like tail, and huge white-edged -mane, would distinguish it so boldly from its kinsfolk, that the -sailors would use all their efforts to capture an animal for which -they would be likely to obtain a high price. - -The peculiar and unique character of Solomon affords good reason for -conjecture that, not only were several species of the monkey tribe -included under the general word Kophim, but that the number of species -must have been very large. An ordinary monarch would have been content -with one or two species, and would probably have been perfectly -satisfied if a number of monkeys had been brought from beyond seas, -irrespective of distinction of species. But, if we consider the -character of Solomon, we shall find that he would not have been -content with such imperfect knowledge. We are told that he wrote -largely of the various productions of the earth, and, to judge him by -ourselves, it is certain that with such magnificent means at his -command, he would have ransacked every country that his ships could -visit, for the purpose of collecting materials for his works. It is -therefore almost certain that under the word Kophim may be included -all the most plentiful species of monkey which inhabit the countries -to which his fleet had access, and that in his palace were collected -together specimens of each monkey which has here been mentioned, -besides many others of which no special notice need be taken, such as -the Bonnet Monkeys, and other Macaques. - -We now come to the vexed question of the SATYRS, respecting which word -great controversies have been raised. The Hebrew word Seirim merely -signifies "hairy beings," and does not seem to be applied to any -definite species of animal. Several scholars, therefore, translate the -word by "wild goats," and instead of reading the passages (Is. xiii. -21, and xxxiv. 14) "Satyrs shall dance there," they read them, "The -he-goats shall skip there." This is certainly an easier interpretation -than that which is accepted in our translation, but whether it is more -correct may be doubted. Moreover, the word "goat" would not convey the -idea of utter desolation which the prophecy implied, and which has -been so signally fulfilled in the Babylon of the present day. The vast -palaces and temples have sunk into shapeless heaps of ruins, affording -scarcely a trace by which the buildings can be identified. The many -massive gates, for which the city was famous, have disappeared. The -double lines of fortification are only to be distinguished by a few -scattered mounds, while the wonderful palace of Nebuchadnezzar has -left but a few shattered walls as relics of an edifice whose fame -spread over the world. - -What precise animal was meant by the word Seirim cannot be -ascertained, nor is it even certain whether the word signified any -particular species at all. The ancient commentators identified Seirim -with the semi-human creatures of mythology, known as Satyrs, and -strengthened this opinion by a reference to Lev. xvii. 7, where the -Israelites are warned against worshipping Seirim, or "devils" -according to our translation. In common with all the civilized world, -they fully believed that Satyrs were veritable inhabitants of the -woods and deserts, with forms half man half goat, with powers more -than human, and with passions below humanity. Of course we cannot now -accept such an interpretation, but must grant, either that a mere -metaphor of desolation was intended, or that the prophecy alluded to -various wild animals that inhabit deserted places. Accept which -interpretation we will, it is impossible to identify any particular -animal with the "Satyr" of Isaiah, and therefore it will be better to -decline giving any opinion on a subject which cannot be definitely -explained. - - - - -THE BAT. - - The Bat mentioned always with abhorrence--Meaning of the Hebrew - name--The prohibition against eating Bats--The edible species, - their food and mode of life--The noisome character of the Bat, - and the nature of its dwelling-place--Its hatred of - light--Baruch and his prophecy--Appropriateness of the - prophecy--Singular Mahommedan legend respecting the original - creation of the Bat--The legend compared with the apocryphal - gospels--The Bats of Palestine--Mr. Tristram's discoveries--Bats - found in the quarries from which the stone of the Temple was - hewn--Edible Bats in a cave near the centre of - Palestine--Another species of long-tailed Bat captured in the - rock caves where hermits had been buried--Other species which - probably inhabit Palestine. - - -Among the animals that are forbidden to be eaten by the Israelites we -find the BAT prominently mentioned, and in one or two parts of -Scripture the same creature is alluded to with evident abhorrence. In -Isaiah ii. 20, for example, it is prophesied that when the day of the -Lord comes, the worshippers of idols will try to hide themselves from -the presence of the Lord, and will cast their false gods to the bats -and the moles, both animals being evidently used as emblems of -darkness and ignorance, and associated together for a reason which -will be given when treating of the mole. The Hebrew name of the Bat is -expressive of its nocturnal habits, and literally signifies some being -that flies by night, and it is a notable fact that the Greek and Latin -names for the bat have also a similar derivation. - -In Lev. xi. 20, the words, "All fowls that creep, going upon all four, -shall be an abomination unto you," are evidently intended to apply to -the bat, which, as is now well known, is not a bird with wings, but a -mammal with very long toes, and a well developed membrane between -them. Like other mammals, the Bat crawls, or walks, on all four legs, -though the movement is but a clumsy one, and greatly different from -the graceful ease with which the creature urges its course through the -evening air in search of food. - -Perhaps the prohibition to eat so unsightly an animal may seem almost -needless; but it must be remembered that in several parts of the -earth, certain species of Bat are used as food. These are chiefly the -large species, that are called Kalongs, and which feed almost entirely -on fruit, thus being to their insectivorous relatives what the -fruit-loving bear is among the larger carnivora. These edible Bats -have other habits not shared by the generality of their kin. Some of -the species do not retire to caves and hollow trees for shelter during -their hours of sleep, but suspend themselves by their hind legs from -the topmost branches of the trees whose fruit affords them -nourishment. In this position they have a most singular aspect, -looking much as if they themselves were large bunches of fruit hanging -from the boughs. Thus, they are cleanly animals, and are as little -repulsive as bats can be expected to be. - -But the ordinary bats, such as are signified by the "night-fliers" of -the Scriptures, are, when in a state of nature, exceedingly unpleasant -creatures. Almost all animals are infested with parasitic insects, but -the Bat absolutely swarms with them, so that it is impossible to -handle a Bat recently dead without finding some of them on the hands. -Also, the bats are in the habit of resorting to caverns, clefts in the -rocks, deserted ruins, and similar dark places, wherein they pass the -hours of daylight, and will frequent the same spots for a long series -of years. In consequence of this habit, the spots which they select -for their resting place become inconceivably noisome, and can scarcely -be entered by human beings, so powerful is the odour with which they -are imbued. - -Sometimes, when travellers have been exploring the chambers of ruined -buildings, or have endeavoured to penetrate into the recesses of rocky -caves, they have been repelled by the bats which had taken up their -habitation therein. No sooner does the light of the torch or lamp -shine upon the walls, than the clusters of bats detach themselves from -the spots to which they had been clinging, and fly to the light like -moths to a candle. No torch can withstand the multitude of wings that -come flapping about it, sounding like the rushing of a strong wind, -while the bats that do not crowd around the light, dash against the -explorers, beating their leathery wings against their faces, and -clinging in numbers to their dress. They would even settle on the -face unless kept off by the hands, and sometimes they force the -intruders to beat a retreat. They do not intend to attack, for they -are quite incapable of doing any real damage; and, in point of fact, -they are much more alarmed than those whom they annoy. Nocturnal in -their habits, they cannot endure the light, which completely dazzles -them, so that they dash about at random, and fly blindly towards the -torches in their endeavours to escape. - -If, then, we keep in mind the habits of the bats, we shall comprehend -that their habitations must be inexpressibly revolting to human -beings, and shall the better understand the force of the prophecy that -the idols shall be cast to the bats and the moles. - -There is another, and a very forcible passage, in which the Bat is -mentioned. In the apocryphal book of Baruch, the Bat is used as a -lively image of something peculiarly repulsive and hateful. Baruch was -the secretary and faithful friend of Jeremiah the prophet, and Chapter -VI. of the book of Baruch purports to be an epistle of Jeremiah to the -captive Jews about to be led away to Babylon. After showing that they -had brought their fate upon themselves by neglecting the worship of -the true God, and prophesying that they would remain in captivity for -seven generations, the writer proceeds, in a strain of scathing and -sustained satire, to deride the idols which they had adored, and to -censure the infamous ceremonies that formed part of the worship. - -After describing the idols, made splendid with silver and gold, whose -hands hold sceptres, and axes, and wands, and yet cannot save -themselves from robbers; whose tongues are polished by the workman and -yet cannot speak a word; whose eyes are covered with dust which they -cannot wipe off for themselves; he proceeds as follows: "Their hearts -are gnawed upon by things creeping out of the earth; and when they eat -them and their clothes they feel it not. Their faces are blacked -through the smoke that cometh out of the Temple. Upon their bodies and -heads sit bats, swallows and birds, and the cats also. By this ye may -know that they are no gods; therefore fear them not." - -It is not to be expected that so strange looking an animal as the Bat -would escape mention in the legends which are so plentiful in the -East. - -Signor Pierotti, who has done such signal service in the investigation -of the Holy Land, gives a most remarkable semi-Mahommedan and -semi-Christian legend respecting the origin of the Bat. The -Mahommedans, unlike the generality of Jews, have always respected the -memory of our Lord Christ--the Prophet Isa, as they call Him--ranking -Him as one of the greatest of God's prophets, though they deny His -actual divinity. In this curious legend, they have confused the forty -days fast in the wilderness with the enforced Mahommedan fast called -Ramadhan, much as the writers of the apocryphal gospels attributed to -the holy family and the apostles certain phrases and acts of worship -which were not in existence until several centuries after the -Christian era. - -Towards the west of Jericho, there is a mountain which is identified -both by Christians and Mahommedans as being the spot to which our Lord -retired during his passion, and which, in consequence of this -supposition, is called Kuruntun, or Quarantine. - -The reader, while perusing the following legend, must bear in mind -that the fast of Ramadhan lasts for a month, and that from sunrise to -sunset an entire abstinence from all kinds of nourishment is -imperative upon all good Mussulmans. Even such luxuries as smoking or -inhaling perfumes are forbidden, and although washing is permitted, -the head must not be plunged under water, lest a few drops might find -their way through the nostrils. In consequence of this strict -prohibition, the moments of daybreak and sunset are noted with the -most scrupulous care, the tables being set, pipes lighted, coffee -prepared, and every luxury being made ready just before sunset, so -that as the orb disappears beneath the horizon, the fasting multitudes -may not lose a moment in satisfying their wants. A similar anxiety -marks the approach of daybreak, because, as the first beams of the sun -break through the darkness, neither food nor drink may pass their -lips. - -We will now proceed to the Mahommedan legend, as it is given by S. -Pierotti: "In this wild spot the great prophet Isa retired with his -disciples to keep the holy month of the Ramadhan, afar from the -tumults of the world. As the view westward was obstructed by the -mountains of Jerusalem, and, consequently, the sunset could not be -seen, he made, by the permission of God, an image in clay -representing a winged creature; and, after invoking the aid of the -Eternal, breathed upon it. Immediately it flapped its large wings, and -fled into one of the dark caverns in the mountains. This creature was -the Khopash (bat), which lies hid so long as the sun shines upon the -world, and comes forth from its retreat when it sets. Every night, at -the Moghreb, _i.e._ at the moment of breaking the fast, this bat -fluttered round Isa, who then prepared himself with his disciples for -prayer. - -"As soon as they had performed this sacred duty, the Merciful caused -to descend from heaven a silver table, covered with a cloth whose -brilliancy illumined the darkness, on which were placed a large -roasted fish, five loaves, salt, vinegar, oil, pomegranates, dates, -and fresh salad, gathered in the gardens of heaven. On these the -Prophet supped, and the angels of heaven ministered at table." - -This curious legend bears a great resemblance to the tales which are -told of our Lord's childhood in some of the spurious gospels. It shows -that both emanated from the same class of mind. In both is seen a -strange mixture of vivid imagination contrasted with unexpected and -almost puerile lack of invention; and, in both is exhibited a total -failure in apprehension of cause and effect. Indeed, it is evident -that this legend was the work of a comparatively modern Mahommedan -story-teller, who appropriated the forty days' fast of our Lord from -the true gospels, and the making of a flying creature of clay from the -false, and modified them both to suit the purposes of his tale. - -No particular species of Bat seems to be indicated by the Hebrew word -Hatalleph, which is evidently used in a comprehensive sense, and -signifies all and any species of Bat. Until very lately, the exact -species of Bats which inhabit Palestine were not definitely -ascertained, and could only be conjectured. But, Mr. Tristram, who -travelled in the Holy Land for the express purpose of investigating -its physical history, has set this point at rest, in his invaluable -work, "The Land of Israel," to which frequent reference will be made -in the course of the following pages. - -Almost every cavern which he entered was tenanted by bats, and he -procured several species of these repulsive but interesting animals. -While exploring the vast prairies in which the stone for the Temple -was worked beneath the earth, so that no sound of tool was heard -during the building, numbers of bats were disturbed by the lights, and -fluttered over the heads of the exploring party. - -On another occasion, he was exploring a cave near the centre of -Palestine, when he succeeded in procuring some specimens, and -therefore in identifying at least one species. "In climbing the rocks -soon afterwards, to examine a cave, I heard a singular whining chatter -within, and on creeping into its recesses, a stone thrown up roused -from their roosting-places a colony of large bats, the soft waving -flap of whose wings I could hear in the darkness. How to obtain one I -knew not; but on vigorously plying my signal whistle, all the party -soon gathered to my help. B. suggested smoking them, so a fire of -brushwood was kindled, and soon two or three rushed out. Two fell to -our shot, and I was delighted to find myself the possessor of a couple -of large fox-headed bats of the genus Pteropus (_Xantharpya -ægyptiaca_), and extending twenty and a half inches from wing to wing. -As none of the bats of Palestine are yet known, this was a great -prize, and another instance of the extension westward of the Indian -fauna." These Bats belong to the fruit-eating tribe, and are closely -allied to the Flying Foxes of Java, Australia, and Southern Africa. -Therefore, this would be one of the species commonly used for food, -and hence the necessity for the prohibition. The present species -extends over the greater part of Northern Africa and into parts of -Asia. - -The same traveller subsequently discovered several more species of -bats. On one occasion, he was exploring some caves, near the site of -the ancient Jericho. On the eastern face of the cliffs are a number of -caves, arranged in regular tiers, and originally approached by steps -cut out of the face of the rock. These staircases are, however, washed -away by time and the rains, and in consequence the upper tiers were -almost inaccessible. In some of these caves the walls were covered -with brilliant, but mutilated frescoes; and in others, hermits had -lived and died and been buried. Mr. Tristram and his companions had -penetrated to the second tier, and there made a curious discovery. - - [Illustration: THE BAT. - - "_The Lapwing and the Bat are unclean._"--LEV. xi. 19.] - -"In the roof of this was a small hole, athwart which lay a stick. -After many efforts, we got a string across it, and so hauled up a -rope, by which, finding the stick strong enough, we climbed, and with -a short exercise of the chimney-sweeper's art, we found ourselves in a -third tier of cells, similar to the lower ones, and covered with the -undisturbed dust of ages. Behind the chapel was a dark cave, with an -entrance eighteen inches high. Having lighted our lantern, we crept in -on our faces, and found the place full of human bones and skulls; with -dust several inches deep. We were in the burying-place of the -Anchorites. Their bones lay heaped, but in undisturbed order, probably -as the corpses had been stretched soon after death, and as in the -campo-santo of some Italian monasteries, had been desiccated, and in -the dry atmosphere had gradually pulverized. The skeletons were laid -west and east, awaiting the resurrection. After capturing two or three -long-tailed bats, of a species new to us (_Rhinopoma microphylla_), -the only living occupants, we crept out, with a feeling of religious -awe, from this strange sepulchral cave." This bat is called the -Egyptian Rhinopome, and the same species of Bat was found in -considerable numbers in the cave at Es Sumrah. Three more species were -found in the tombs of the kings, and it is probable that many other -species inhabit Palestine. It is certain, at all events, that -representatives of three more families of Bats inhabit Egypt, and -therefore are most probably to be found in Palestine. - - - - -THE LION. - - Frequent mention of the Lion in the Scriptures--Probability that - it was once a common animal, though now extinct--Reasons for its - disappearance--The Lion employed as an emblem in the - Bible--Similarity of the African and Asiatic species--The chief - characteristics of the Lion--its strength, activity, and mode of - seizing its prey--Various names of the Lion--its courage when - roused--its roar and peculiar mode of utterance--Invisibility of - the Lion at dusk--The Lion lying in wait--The dwelling-place of - the Lion--Its restlessness at night--Passages illustrative of - these characteristics--Modes of capturing the Lion--The pitfall - and the net--Lions kept as curiosities--The Lion hunt as - depicted, on the buildings of ancient Nineveh. - - -Of all the undomesticated animals of Palestine, none is mentioned so -frequently as the LION. This may appear the more remarkable, because -for many years the Lion has been extinct in Palestine. The leopard, -the wolf, the jackal, and the hyæna, still retain their place in the -land, although their numbers are comparatively few; but the Lion has -vanished completely out of the land. The reason for this disappearance -is twofold, first, the thicker population; and second, the -introduction of firearms. - -No animal is less tolerant of human society than the Lion. In the -first place, it dreads the very face of man, and as a rule, whenever -it sees a man will slink away and hide itself. There are, of course, -exceptional cases to this rule. Sometimes a Lion becomes so old and -stiff, his teeth are so worn, and his endurance so slight, that he is -unable to chase his usual prey, and is obliged to seek for other means -of subsistence. In an unpopulated district, he would simply be starved -to death, but when his lot is cast in the neighbourhood of human -beings, he is perforce obliged to become a "man-eater." Even in that -case, a Lion will seldom attack a man, unless he should be able to do -so unseen, but will hang about the villages, pouncing on the women as -they come to the wells for water, or upon the little children as they -stray from their parents, and continually shifting his quarters lest -he should be assailed during his sleep. The Lion requires a very large -tract of country for his maintenance, and the consequence is, that in -proportion as the land is populated does the number of Lions decrease. - -Firearms are the special dread of the Lion. In the first place, the -Lion, like all wild beasts, cannot endure fire, and the flash of the -gun terrifies him greatly. Then, there is the report, surpassing even -his roar in resonance; and lastly, there is the unseen bullet, which -seldom kills him at once, but mostly drives him to furious anger by -the pain of his wound, yet which he does not dread nearly so much as -the harmless flash and report. There is another cause of the Lions -banishment from the Holy Land. It is well known that to attract any -wild beast or bird to some definite spot, all that is required is to -provide them with a suitable and undisturbed home, and a certainty of -food. Consequently, the surest method of driving them away is to -deprive them of both these essentials. Then the Lion used to live in -forests, which formerly stretched over large tracts of ground, but -which have long since been cut down, thus depriving the Lion of its -home, while the thick population and the general use of firearms have -deprived him of his food. In fact, the Lion has been driven out of -Palestine, just as the wolf has been extirpated from England. - -But, in the olden times, Lions must have been very plentiful. There is -scarcely a book in the Bible, whether of the Old or New Testaments, -whether historical or prophetical, that does not contain some mention -of this terrible animal; sometimes describing the actions of -individual Lions, but mostly using the word as an emblem of strength -and force, whether used for a good purpose or abused for a bad one. - -There are several varieties of Lion, which may be reduced to two, -namely, the African and the Asiatic Lion. It is almost certain, -however, that these animals really are one and the same species, and -that the trifling differences which exist between an African and an -Asiatic Lion, are not sufficient to justify a naturalist in -considering them to be distinct species. The habits of both are -identical, modified, as is sure to be the case, by the difference of -locality; but then, such variations in habit are continually seen in -animals confessedly of the same species, which happen to be placed in -different conditions of climate and locality. - -That it was once exceedingly plentiful in Palestine is evident, from a -very cursory knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. It is every where -mentioned as a well-known animal, equally familiar and dreaded. When -the disobedient prophet was killed by the Lion near Bethel, the fact -seemed not to have caused any surprise in the neighbourhood. When the -people came out to rescue the body of the prophet, they wondered much -because the Lion was standing by the fallen man, but had not torn him, -and had left the ass unhurt. But that a Lion should have killed a man -seems to have been an event which was not sufficiently rare to be -surprising. - -We will now proceed to those characteristics of the Lion which bear -especial reference to the Scriptures. - -In the first place, size for size, the Lion is one of the strongest of -beasts. Perhaps it is surpassed in point of sheer strength by the -mole, but it possesses infinitely more activity than that animal. -Moreover, the strength of the mole is concentrated in its -fore-quarters, the hind limbs being comparatively feeble; whereas, the -strength of the Lion is equally distributed over the body and limbs, -giving to the animal an easy grace of movement which is rare except -with such a structure. A full-grown Lion cannot only knock down and -kill, but can carry away in its mouth, an ordinary ox; and one of -these terrible animals has been known to pick up a heifer in its -mouth, and to leap over a wide ditch still carrying its burden. -Another Lion carried a two-year old heifer, and was chased for five -hours by mounted farmers, so that it must have traversed a very -considerable distance. Yet, in the whole of this long journey, the -legs of the heifer had only two or three times touched the ground. - -It kills man, and comparatively small animals, such as deer and -antelopes, with a blow of its terrible paw; and often needs to give no -second blow to cause the death of its victim. The sharp talons are not -needed to cause death, for the weight of the blow is sufficient for -that purpose. - -When the hunter pursues it with dogs, after the usual fashion, there -is often a great slaughter among them, especially among those that are -inexperienced in the chase of the Lion. Urged by their instinctive -antipathy, the dogs rush forward to the spot where the Lion awaits -them, and old hounds bay at him from a safe distance, while the young -and inexperienced among them are apt to convert the sham attack into a -real one. Their valour meets with a poor reward, for a few blows from -the Lion's terrible paws send his assailants flying in all directions, -their bodies streaming with blood, and in most cases a fatal damage -inflicted, while more than one unfortunate dog lies fairly crushed by -the weight of a paw laid with apparent carelessness upon its body. -There is before me a Lion's skin, a spoil of one of these animals shot -by the celebrated sportsman, Gordon Cumming. Although the skin lies -flat upon the floor, and the paws are nothing but the skin and talons, -the weight of each paw is very considerable, and always surprises -those who hear it fall on the floor. - -There are several Hebrew words which are used for the Lion, but that -which signifies the animal in its adult state is derived from an -Arabic word signifying strength; and therefore the Lion is called the -Strong-one, just as the Bat is called the Night-flier. No epithet -could be better deserved, for the Lion seems to be a very incarnation -of strength, and, even when dead, gives as vivid an idea of -concentrated power as when it was living. And, when the skin is -stripped from the body, the tremendous muscular development never -fails to create a sensation of awe. The muscles of the limbs, -themselves so hard as to blunt the keen-edged knives employed by a -dissecter, are enveloped in their glittering sheaths, playing upon -each other like well-oiled machinery, and terminating in tendons -seemingly strong as steel, and nearly as impervious to the knife. Not -until the skin is removed can any one form a conception of the -enormously powerful muscles of the neck, which enable the Lion to lift -the weighty prey which it kills, and to convey it to a place of -security. - -Although usually unwilling to attack an armed man, it is one of the -most courageous animals in existence when it is driven to fight, and -if its anger is excited, it cares little for the number of its foes, -or the weapons with which they are armed. Even the dreaded firearms -lose their terrors to an angry Lion, while a Lioness, who fears for -the safety of her young, is simply the most terrible animal in -existence. We know how even a hen will fight for her chickens, and how -she has been known to beat off the fox and the hawk by the reckless -fury of her attack. It may be easily imagined, therefore, that a -Lioness actuated by equal courage, and possessed of the terrible -weapons given to her by her Creator, would be an animal almost too -formidable for the conception of those who have not actually witnessed -the scene of a Lioness defending her little ones. - -The roar of the Lion is another of the characteristics for which it is -celebrated. There is no beast that can produce a sound that could for -a moment be mistaken for the roar of the Lion. The Lion has a habit of -stooping his head towards the ground when he roars, so that the -terrible sound rolls along like thunder, and reverberates in many an -echo in the far distance. Owing to this curious habit, the roar can be -heard at a very great distance, but its locality is rendered -uncertain, and it is often difficult to be quite sure whether the Lion -is to the right or the left of the hearer. - -There are few sounds which strike more awe than the Lion's roar. Even -at the Zoological Gardens, where the hearer knows that he is in -perfect safety, and where the Lion is enclosed in a small cage faced -with strong iron bars, the sound of the terrible roar always has a -curious effect upon the nerves. It is not exactly fear, because the -hearer knows that he is safe; but it is somewhat akin to the feeling -of mixed awe and admiration with which one listens to the crashing -thunder after the lightning has sped its course. If such be the case -when the Lion is safely housed in a cage, and is moreover so tame that -even if he did escape, he would be led back by the keeper without -doing any harm, the effect of the roar must indeed be terrific when -the Lion is at liberty, when he is in his own country, and when the -shades of evening prevent him from being seen even at a short -distance. - -In the dark, there is no animal so invisible as a Lion. Almost every -hunter has told a similar story--of the Lion's approach at night, of -the terror displayed by dogs and cattle as he drew near, and of the -utter inability to see him, though he was so close that they could -hear his breathing. Sometimes, when he has crept near an encampment, -or close to a cattle inclosure, he does not proceed any farther lest -he should venture within the radius illumined by the rays of the fire. -So he crouches closely to the ground, and, in the semi-darkness, looks -so like a large stone, or a little hillock, that any one might pass -close to it without perceiving its real nature. This gives the -opportunity for which the Lion has been watching, and in a moment he -strikes down the careless straggler, and carries off his prey to the -den. Sometimes, when very much excited, he accompanies the charge with -a roar, but, as a general fact, he secures his prey in silence. - -The roar of the Lion is very peculiar. It is not a mere outburst of -sound, but a curiously graduated performance. No description of the -Lion's roar is so vivid, so true, and so graphic as that of Gordon -Cumming: "One of the most striking things connected with the Lion is -his voice, which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It -consists at times of a low, deep moaning, repeated five or six times, -ending in faintly audible sighs. At other times he startles the forest -with loud, deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated five or six times in -quick succession, each increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, -when his voice dies away in five or six low, muffled sounds, very much -resembling distant thunder. As a general rule, Lions roar during the -night, their sighing moans commencing as the shades of evening envelop -the forest, and continuing at intervals throughout the night. In -distant and secluded regions, however, I have constantly heard them -roaring loudly as late as nine or ten o'clock on a bright sunny -morning. In hazy and rainy weather they are to be heard at every hour -in the day, but their roar is subdued." - -Lastly, we come to the dwelling-place of the Lion. This animal always -fixes its residence in the depths of some forest, through which it -threads its stealthy way with admirable certainty. No fox knows every -hedgerow, ditch, drain, and covert better than the Lion knows the -whole country around his den. Each Lion seems to have his peculiar -district, in which only himself and his family will be found. These -animals seem to parcel out the neighbourhood among themselves by a -tacit law like that which the dogs of eastern countries have imposed -upon themselves, and which forbids them to go out of the district in -which they were born. During the night he traverses his dominions; -and, as a rule, he retires to his den as soon as the sun is fairly -above the horizon. Sometimes he will be in wait for prey in the -broadest daylight, but his ordinary habits are nocturnal, and in the -daytime he is usually asleep in his secret dwelling-place. - -We will now glance at a few of the passages in which the Lion is -mentioned in the Holy Scriptures, selecting those which treat of its -various characteristics. - -The terrible strength of the Lion is the subject of repeated -reference. In the magnificent series of prophecies uttered by Jacob on -his deathbed, the power of the princely tribe of Judah is predicted -under the metaphor of a Lion--the beginning of its power as a Lion's -whelp, the fulness of its strength as an adult Lion, and its matured -establishment in power as the old Lion that couches himself and none -dares to disturb him. Then Solomon, in the Proverbs, speaks of the -Lion as the "strongest among beasts, and that turneth not away for -any." - -Solomon also alludes to its courage in the same book, Prov. xxviii. 1, -in the well-known passage, "The wicked fleeth when no man pursueth: -but the righteous are bold as a lion." And, in 2 Sam. xxiii. 20, the -courage of Benaiah, one of the mighty three of David's army, is -specially honoured, because he fought and killed a Lion single-handed, -and because he conquered "two lion-like men of Moab." David, their -leader, had also distinguished himself, when a mere keeper of cattle, -by pursuing and killing a Lion that had come to plunder his herd. In -the same book of Samuel which has just been quoted (xvii. 10), the -valiant men are metaphorically described as having the hearts of -Lions. - -The ferocity of this terrible beast of prey is repeatedly mentioned, -and the Psalms are full of such allusions, the fury and anger of -enemies being compared to the attacks of the Lion. - -Many passages refer to the Lion's roar, and it is remarkable that the -Hebrew language contains several words by which the different kind of -roar is described. One word, for example, represents the low, deep, -thunder-like roar of the Lion seeking its prey, and which has already -been mentioned. This is the word which is used in Amos iii. 4, "Will a -lion roar in the forest when he hath no prey?" and in this passage the -word which is translated as Lion signifies the animal when full grown -and in the prime of life. Another word is used to signify the sudden -exulting cry of the Lion as it leaps upon its victim. A third is used -for the angry growl with which a Lion resents any endeavour to deprive -it of its prey, a sound with which we are all familiar, on a miniature -scale, when we hear a cat growling over a mouse which she has just -caught. The fourth term signifies the peculiar roar uttered by the -young Lion after it has ceased to be a cub and before it has attained -maturity. This last term is employed in Jer. li. 38, "They shall -_roar_ together like lions; they shall _yell_ as lions' whelps," in -which passage two distinct words are used, one signifying the roar of -the Lion when searching after prey, and the other the cry of the young -Lions. - -The prophet Amos, who in his capacity of herdsman was familiar with -the wild beasts, from which he had to guard his cattle, makes frequent -mention of the Lion, and does so with a force and vigour that betoken -practical experience. How powerful is this imagery, "The lion hath -roared; who will not fear? The Lord God hath spoken; who can but -prophesy?" Here we have the picture of the man himself, the herdsman -and prophet, who had trembled many a night, as the Lions drew nearer -and nearer; and who heard the voice of the Lord, and his lips poured -out prophecy. Nothing can be more complete than the parallel which he -has drawn. It breathes the very spirit of piety, and may bear -comparison even with the prophecies of Isaiah for its simple grandeur. - -It is remarkable how the sacred writers have entered into the spirit -of the world around them, and how closely they observed the minutest -details even in the lives of the brute beasts. There is a powerful -passage in the book of Job, iv. 11, "The old lion perisheth for lack -of prey," in which the writer betrays his thorough knowledge of the -habits of the animal, and is aware that the usual mode of a Lion's -death is through hunger, in consequence of his increasing inability to -catch prey. - -The nocturnal habits of the Lion and its custom of lying in wait for -prey are often mentioned in the Scriptures. The former habit is spoken -of in that familiar and beautiful passage in the Psalms (civ. 20), -"Thou makest darkness, and it is night; wherein all the beasts of the -forest do creep forth. The young Lions roar after their prey; and seek -their meat from God. The sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, -and lay them down in their dens." - -Its custom of lying in wait is frequently alluded to. See Psalm x. 9, -where it is said of the wicked man, that "He lieth in wait secretly, -as a lion in his den." Also, Lam. iii. 10, "He was unto me as a bear -lying in wait, and as a lion in secret places." Also, Ps. xvii. 11, -wherein the peculiar gait and demeanour of the Lion is admirably -depicted, "They have now compassed us in our steps; they have set -their eyes bowing down to the earth; like as a lion that is greedy of -his prey, and as it were a young lion lurking in secret places." - -The retired spots, deep in the forest, where the Lion makes his den, -are repeatedly mentioned. See for example, Cant. iv. 8, "Look from the -top of Amana, from the top of Shenir and Hermon, from the lions' -dens." Also, Jer. iv. 7, "The lion is come up from his thicket, and -the destroyer of the Gentiles is on his way." The same Prophet -contains several passages illustrative of the Lion's habitation; see -ch. v. 6, "Wherefore a lion out of the forest shall slay them;" xii. -8, "Mine heritage is unto me as a lion in the forest;" and lastly, -xxv. 38, "He hath forsaken his covert as the lion." - -An animal so destructive among the flocks and herds could not be -allowed to carry out its depredations unchecked, and as we have -already seen, the warfare waged against it has been so successful, -that the Lions have long ago been fairly extirpated in Palestine. The -usual method of capturing or killing the Lion was by pitfalls or nets, -to both of which there are many references in the Scriptures. - - [Illustration: THE LION. - - "The lion is come up from his thicket."--JER.. iv. 7. - - "She lay down among lions, she nourished her whelps among young - lions."--EZEKIEL. xix. 2.] - -The mode of hunting the Lion with nets was identical with that which -is practised in India at the present time. The precise locality of the -Lion's dwelling-place having been discovered, a circular wall of net -is arranged round it, or if only a few nets can be obtained, they are -set in a curved form, the concave side being towards the Lion. They -then send dogs into the thicket, hurl stones and sticks at the -den, shoot arrows into it, fling burning torches at it, and so -irritate and alarm the animal that it rushes against the net, which -is so made that it falls down and envelopes the animal in its folds. -If the nets be few, the drivers go to the opposite side of the den, -and induce the Lion to escape in the direction where he sees no foes, -but where he is sure to run against the treacherous net. Other large -and dangerous animals were also captured by the same means. - -Allusions to this sort of hunting are familiar to all students of the -Bible. In the book of Job, xix. 6, the writer laments that "God hath -compassed me with his net," in allusion to the custom of surrounding -the den of the animal. The Psalms make frequent mention of the net as -used in hunting. See Ps. ix. 15, "In the net they hid is their foot -taken." Ps. xxxv. 8, "Let his net that he hath hid catch himself," -together with other passages. Then, the prophet Isaiah alludes to the -utter helplessness of a wild animal when thus taken. Isaiah li. 20, -"Thy sons have fainted, they lie at the head of all the streets, as a -wild bull in a net." - -Another and more common, because an easier and a cheaper method was, -by digging a deep pit, covering the mouth with a slight covering of -sticks and earth, and driving the animal upon the treacherous -covering. It is an easier method than the net, because after the pit -is once dug, the only trouble lies in throwing the covering over its -mouth. But, it is not so well adapted for taking beasts alive, as they -are likely to be damaged, either by the fall into the pit, or by the -means used in getting them out again. Animals, therefore, that are -caught in pits are generally, though not always, killed before they -are taken out. The net, however, envelops the animal so perfectly, and -renders it so helpless, that it can be easily bound and taken away. -The hunting net is very expensive, and requires a large staff of men -to work it, so that none but a rich man could use the net in hunting. - -The passages in which allusion is made to the use of the pitfall in -hunting are too numerous to be quoted, and it will be sufficient to -mention one or two passages, such as those wherein the Psalmist -laments that his enemies have hidden for him their net in a pit, and -that the proud have digged pits for him. - -Lions that were taken in nets seem to have been kept alive in dens, -either as mere curiosities, or as instruments of royal vengeance. -Such seems to have been the object of the Lions which were kept by -Darius, into whose den Daniel was thrown, by royal command, and which -afterwards killed his accusers when thrown into the same den. It is -plain that the Lions kept by Darius must have been exceedingly -numerous, because they killed at once the accusers of Daniel, who were -many in number, together with their wives and children, who, in -accordance with the cruel custom of that age and country, were -partakers of the same punishment with the real culprits. The whole of -the first part of Ezek. xix. alludes to the custom of taking Lions -alive and keeping them in durance afterwards. - -Sometimes the Lion was hunted as a sport, but this amusement seems to -have been restricted to the great men, on account of its expensive -nature. Such hunting scenes are graphically depicted in the famous -Nineveh sculptures, which represent the hunters pursuing their mighty -game in chariots, and destroying them with arrows. Rude, and even -conventional as are these sculptures, they have a spirit, a force, and -a truthfulness, that prove them to have been designed by artists to -whom the scene was a familiar one. Nothing can be better than the -attitudes of the Lions; and, whether they are shown in the act of -striking a blow, with all the talons thrust out and the toes spread as -widely as possible; whether they are springing on the chariot of the -hunter, or sinking lifeless beneath his arrows, every attitude is -marvellously true to nature, and makes the spectator regret that the -artist should have been trammelled by the exigencies of the work on -which he was engaged. - - - - -THE LEOPARD. - - The Leopard not often mentioned in the Scriptures--its - attributes exactly described--Probability that several animals - were classed under the name--How the Leopard takes its - prey--Craft of the Leopard--its ravages among the flocks--The - empire of man over the beast--The Leopard at Bay--Localities - wherein the Leopard lives--The skin of the Leopard--Various - passages of Scripture explained. - - -Of the Leopard but little is said in the Holy Scriptures. - -In the New Testament this animal is only mentioned once, and then in a -metaphorical rather than a literal sense. In the Old Testament it is -casually mentioned seven times, and only in two places is the word -Leopard used in the strictly literal sense. Yet, in those brief -passages of Holy Writ, the various attributes of the animal are -delineated with such fidelity, that no one could doubt that the -Leopard was familiarly known in Palestine. Its colour, its swiftness, -its craft, its ferocity, and the nature of its dwelling-place, are all -touched upon in a few short sentences scattered throughout the Old -Testament, and even its peculiar habits are alluded to in a manner -that proves it to have been well known at the time when the words were -written. - -It is my purpose in the following pages to give a brief account of the -Leopard of the Scriptures, laying most stress on the qualities to -which allusion is made, and then to explain the passages in which the -name of the animal occurs. - -In the first place, it is probable that under the word Leopard are -comprehended three animals, two of which, at least, were thought to be -one species until the time of Cuvier. These three animals are the -LEOPARD proper (_Leopardus varius_), the OUNCE (_Leopardus uncia_), -and the CHETAH, or HUNTING LEOPARD (_Gueparda jubata_). All these -three species belong to the same family of animals; all are spotted -and similar in colour, all are nearly alike in shape, and all are -inhabitants of Asia, while two of them, the Leopard and the Chetah, -are also found in Africa. - -It is scarcely necessary to mention that the Leopard is a beast of -prey belonging to the cat tribe, that its colour is tawny, variegated -with rich black spots, and that it is a fierce and voracious animal, -almost equally dreaded by man and beast. It inhabits many parts of -Africa and Asia, and in those portions of the country which are -untenanted by mankind, it derives all its sustenance from the -herb-eating animals of the same tracts. - - [Illustration: THE LEOPARD. - - "_As a Leopard by the way will I observe them._"--HOS. xiii. 7.] - -To deer and antelopes it is a terrible enemy, and in spite of their -active limbs, seldom fails in obtaining its prey. Swift as is the -Leopard, for a short distance, and wonderful as its spring, it has not -the enduring speed of the deer or antelope, animals which are -specially formed for running, and which, if a limb is shattered, can -run nearly as fast and quite as far on three legs as they can when all -four limbs are uninjured. Instinctively knowing its inferiority in the -race, the Leopard supplies by cunning the want of enduring speed. - -It conceals itself in some spot whence it can see far around without -being seen, and thence surveys the country. A tree is the usual spot -selected for this purpose, and the Leopard, after climbing the trunk -by means of its curved talons, settles itself in the fork of the -branches, so that its body is hidden by the boughs, and only its head -is shown between them. With such scrupulous care does it conceal -itself, that none but a practised hunter can discover it, while any -one who is unaccustomed to the woods cannot see the animal even when -the tree is pointed out to him. - -As soon as the Leopard sees the deer feeding at a distance, he slips -down the tree and stealthily glides off in their direction. He has -many difficulties to overcome, because the deer are among the most -watchful of animals, and if the Leopard were to approach to the -windward, they would scent him while he was yet a mile away from them. -If he were to show himself but for one moment in the open ground he -would be seen, and if he were but to shake a branch or snap a dry twig -he would be heard. So, he is obliged to approach them against the -wind, to keep himself under cover, and yet to glide so carefully along -that the heavy foliage of the underwood shall not be shaken, and the -dry sticks and leaves which strew the ground shall not be broken. He -has also to escape the observation of certain birds and beasts which -inhabit the woods, and which would certainly set up their alarm-cry as -soon as they saw him, and so give warning to the wary deer, which can -perfectly understand a cry of alarm, from whatever animal it may -happen to proceed. - -Still, he proceeds steadily on his course, gliding from one covert to -another, and often expending several hours before he can proceed for a -mile. By degrees he contrives to come tolerably close to them, and -generally manages to conceal himself in some spot towards which the -deer are gradually feeding their way. As soon as they are near enough, -he collects himself for a spring, just as a cat does when she leaps on -a bird, and dashes towards the deer in a series of mighty bounds. For -a moment or two they are startled and paralysed with fear at the -sudden appearance of their enemy, and thus give him time to get among -them. Singling out some particular animal, he leaps upon it, strikes -it down with one blow of his paw, and then, crouching on the fallen -animal, he tears open its throat, and laps the flowing blood. - -In this manner does it obtain its prey when it lives in the desert, -but when it happens to be in the neighbourhood of human habitations, -it acts in a different manner. Whenever man settles himself in any -place, his presence is a signal for the beasts of the desert and -forest to fly. The more timid, such as the deer and antelope, are -afraid of him, and betake themselves as far away as possible. The more -savage inhabitants of the land, such as the lion, leopard, and other -animals, wage an unequal war against him for a time, but are -continually driven farther and farther away, until at last they are -completely expelled from the country. The predaceous beasts are, -however, loth to retire, and do so by very slow degrees. They can no -longer support themselves on the deer and antelopes, but find a simple -substitute for them in the flocks and herds which man introduces, and -in the seizing of which there is as much craft required as in the -catching of the fleeter and wilder animals. Sheep and goats cannot run -away like the antelopes, but they are penned so carefully within -inclosures, and guarded so watchfully by herdsmen and dogs, that the -Leopard is obliged to exert no small amount of cunning before it can -obtain a meal. - -Sometimes it creeps quietly to the fold, and escapes the notice of the -dogs, seizes upon a sheep, and makes off with it before the alarm is -given. Sometimes it hides by the wayside, and as the flock pass by it -dashes into the midst of them, snatches up a sheep, and disappears -among the underwood on the opposite side of the road. Sometimes it is -crafty enough to deprive the fold of its watchful guardian. Dogs which -are used to Leopard-hunting never attack the animal, though they are -rendered furious by the sound of its voice. They dash at it as if they -meant to devour it, but take very good care to keep out of reach of -its terrible paws. By continually keeping the animal at bay, they give -time for their master to come up, and generally contrive to drive it -into a tree, where it can be shot. - -But instances have been known where the Leopard has taken advantage of -the dogs, and carried them off in a very cunning manner. It hides -itself tolerably near the fold, and then begins to growl in a low -voice. The dogs think that they hear a Leopard at a distance, and dash -towards the sound with furious barks and yells. In so doing, they are -sure to pass by the hiding-place of the Leopard, which springs upon -them unawares, knocks one of them over, and bounds away to its den in -the woods. It does not content itself with taking sheep or goats from -the fold, but is also a terrible despoiler of the hen-roosts, -destroying great numbers in a single night when once it contrives to -find its way into the house. - -As an instance of the cunning which seems innate in the Leopard, I may -mention that whenever it takes up its abode near a village, it does -not meddle with the flocks and herds of its neighbours, but prefers to -go to some other village at a distance for food, thus remaining -unsuspected almost at the very doors of the houses. - -In general, it does not willingly attack mankind, and at all events -seems rather to fear the presence of a full-grown man. But, when -wounded or irritated, all sense of fear is lost in an overpowering -rush of fury, and it then becomes as terrible a foe as the lion -himself. It is not so large nor so strong, but it is more agile and -quicker in its movements; and when it is seized with one of these -paroxysms of anger, the eye can scarcely follow it as it darts here -and there, striking with lightning rapidity, and dashing at any foe -within reach. Its whole shape seems to be transformed, and absolutely -to swell with anger; its eyes flash with fiery lustre, its ears are -thrown back on the head, and it continually utters alternate snarls -and yells of rage. It is hardly possible to recognise the graceful, -lithe glossy creature, whose walk is so noiseless, and whose every -movement is so easy, in the furious passion-swollen animal that flies -at every foe with blind fury, and pours out sounds so fierce and -menacing that few men, however well armed, will care to face it. - -As is the case with most of the cat tribe, the Leopard is an excellent -climber, and can ascend trees and traverse their boughs without the -least difficulty. It is so fond of trees, that it is seldom to be seen -except in a well-wooded district. Its favourite residence is a forest -where there is plenty of underwood, at least six or seven feet in -height, among which trees are sparingly interspersed. When crouched in -this cover it is practically invisible, even though its body may be -within arm's length of a passenger. The spotted body harmonizes so -perfectly with the broken lights and deep shadows of the foliage that -even a practised hunter will not enter a covert in search of a Leopard -unless he is accompanied by dogs. The instinct which teaches the -Leopard to choose such localities is truly wonderful, and may be -compared with that of the tiger, which cares little for underwood, but -haunts the grass jungles, where the long, narrow blades harmonize with -the stripes which decorate its body. - -The skin of the Leopard has always been highly valued on account of -its beauty, and in Africa, at the present day, a robe made of its -spotted skin is as much an adjunct of royalty as is the ermine the -emblem of judicial dignity in England. In more ancient times, a -leopard skin was the official costume of a priest, the skin being -sometimes shaped into a garment, and sometimes thrown over the -shoulders and the paws crossed over the breast. - -Such is a general history of the Leopard. We will now proceed to the -various passages in which it is mentioned, beginning with its outward -aspect. - -In the first place, the Hebrew word Namer signifies "spotted," and is -given to the animal in allusion to its colours. The reader will now -see how forcible is the lament of Jeremiah, "Can the Ethiopian change -his skin, or the Leopard his spots?" Literally, "Can the Ethiopian -change his skin, or the spotted one his spots?" - -The agility and swiftness of the Leopard are alluded to in the -prediction by the prophet Habakkuk of the vengeance that would come -upon Israel through the Chaldeans. In chap. i. 5, we read: "I will -work a work in your days, which ye will not believe though it be told -you. For, lo, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation, -which shall march through the breadth of the land, to possess the -dwelling-places that are not theirs. They are terrible and dreadful; -their judgment and their dignity shall proceed of themselves. Their -horses also are swifter than the Leopards, and are more fierce than -the evening wolves." - -The craftiness of the Leopard, and the manner in which it lies in wait -for its prey, are alluded to in more than one passage of Holy Writ. -Hosea the prophet alludes to the Leopard, in a few simple words which -display an intimate acquaintance with the habits of this formidable -animal, and in this part of his prophecies he displays that peculiar -local tone which distinguishes his writings. Speaking of the -Israelites under the metaphor of a flock, or a herd, he proceeds to -say: "According to their pasture so were they filled; they were -filled, and their heart was exalted; therefore have they forgotten me. -Therefore I will be unto them as a lion, as a Leopard by the way will -I observe them." The reader will note the peculiar force of this -sentence, whereby God signifies that He will destroy them openly, as a -lion rushes on its prey, and that he will chastise them unexpectedly, -as if it were a Leopard crouching by the wayside, and watching for the -flock to pass, that it may spring on its prey unexpectedly. The same -habit of the Leopard is also alluded to by Jeremiah, who employs -precisely the same imagery as is used by Habakkuk. See Jer. v. 5, 6, -"These have altogether broken the yoke, and burst the bonds. Wherefore -a lion out of the forest shall slay them, and a wolf of the evenings -shall spoil them, a leopard shall watch over their cities." It is -evident from the employment of this image by two prophets, the one -being nearly a hundred years before the other, that the crafty, -insidious habits of the Leopard were well known in Palestine, and that -the metaphor would tell with full force among those to whom it was -addressed. - -The havoc which the Leopard makes among the sheep and goats is alluded -to by the prophet Isaiah, chap. xi. 6: "The wolf also shall dwell with -the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid, and the calf -and the young lion together, and a little child shall lead them." Here -again we find the same imagery employed, the people being signified -under the metaphor of flocks and herds, and their enemies symbolised -by lions, wolves, and Leopards. And herein the Prophet speaks as from -accurate knowledge of the habits of the three predaceous animals. The -wolf, as a rule, devastates the sheepfolds; the Leopard will steal -upon and carry off the straggling goat or kid, because it can follow -them upon the precipices where no wolf would dare to tread; while the -lion, being the strongest and more daring of the three, attacks the -herds, and carries away to its lair the oxen which neither Leopard nor -wolf could move. - -There is of course a deeper meaning than has been mentioned but any -commentary on that subject would be out of place in a work like the -present, and, however tempting the subject may be to the writer, it is -better that the reader should be left to investigate it for himself. - -Lastly, the peculiar localities which the Leopard loves are mentioned -in the Song of Solomon, chap. iv. 8: "Come with me from Lebanon, my -spouse, with me from Lebanon: look from the top of Amana, from the top -of Shenir and Hermon, from the lions' dens, from the mountains of the -leopards." Formerly, large forests of pine, oak, and cedar covered -Lebanon, and in those days the wild beasts of the forest would be -extremely plentiful. Even at the present day they are not extinct, and -a recent traveller, the Rev. J. L. Porter, states that considerable -numbers of wild beasts still inhabit the retired glens of the range of -Lebanon, and that he himself has seen jackals, hyænas, wolves, bears, -and Leopards. - -The remaining passages, in which a beast formed like a Leopard was -seen in a vision by the prophet Daniel and St. John the Evangelist, -are purely allegorical, and have nothing to do with the actual animal. - - - - -THE CAT. - - The Cat never mentioned by name in the canonical Scriptures, and - only once in the Apocrypha--The Cat domesticated among the - Egyptians, and trained in bird-catching--Neglected capabilities - of the Cat--Anecdote of an English Cat that caught fish for her - master--Presumed reason why the Scriptures are silent about the - Cat--The Cat mentioned by Baruch. - - -It is a very remarkable circumstance that the word CAT is not once -mentioned in the whole of the canonical Scriptures, and only once in -the Apocrypha. - -The Egyptians, as is well known, kept Cats domesticated in their -houses, a fact which is mentioned by Herodotus, in his second book, -and the 66th and 67th chapters. After describing the various animals -which were kept and fed by this nation, he proceeds to narrate the -habits of the Cat, and writes as follows: - -"When a fire takes place, a supernatural impulse seizes the cats. For -the Egyptians, standing at a distance, take care of the cats and -neglect to quench the fire; but the cats make their escape, and -leaping over the men, cast themselves into the fire, and when this -occurs, great lamentations are made among the Egyptians. In whatever -house a cat dies of a natural death, all the family shave their -eyebrows. All cats that die are carried to certain sacred houses, -where, after being embalmed, they are buried in the city of Bubastis." - -Now, as many of those cat-mummies have been discovered in good -preservation, the species has been identified with the Egyptian Cat of -the present day, which is scientifically termed _Felis maniculatus_. -Not only did the Egyptians keep Cats at their houses, but, as is shown -by certain sculptures, took the animals with them when they went -bird-catching, and employed them in securing their prey. Some persons -have doubted this statement, saying, that in the first place, the Cat -is not possessed of sufficient intelligence for the purpose; and that -in the second place, as the hunter is represented as catching wild -fowl, the Cat would not be able to assist him, because it would not -enter the water. Neither objection is valid, nor would have been made -by a naturalist. - -There are no grounds whatever for assuming that the Cat has not -sufficient intelligence to aid its master in hunting. On the contrary, -there are many familiar instances where the animal has been trained, -even in this country, to catch birds and other game, and bring its -prey home. By nature the Cat is an accomplished hunter, and, like -other animals of the same disposition, can be taught to use its powers -for mankind. We all know that the chetah, a member of the same tribe, -is in constant use at the present day, and we learn from ancient -sculptures that the lion was employed for the same purpose. Passing -from land to water, mankind has succeeded in teaching the seal and the -otter to plunge into the water, catch their finny prey, and deliver it -to their owners. Among predaceous birds, we have trained the eagle, -the falcon, and various hawks, to assist us in hunting the finned and -feathered tribes, while we have succeeded in teaching the cormorant to -catch fish for its master, and not for itself. Why, then, should the -Cat be excepted from a rule so general? The fact is, the Cat has -been, although domesticated for so many centuries, a comparatively -neglected animal; and it is the fashion to heap upon it the -contumacious epithets of sullen, treacherous, selfish, spiteful, and -intractable, just as we take as our emblems of stupidity the ass and -the goose, which are really among the most cunning of the lower -animals. We have never tried to teach the Cat the art of hunting for -her owners, but that is no reason for asserting that the animal could -not be taught. - -As to entering the water, every one who is familiar with the habits of -the Cat knows perfectly well that the Cat will voluntarily enter water -in chase of prey. A Cat does not like to wet her feet, and will not -enter the water without a very powerful reason, but when that motive -is supplied, she has no hesitation about it. A curious and valuable -confirmation of this fact appeared some time ago in "The Field" -newspaper, in which was recorded the history of an old fisherman, -whose Cat invariably went to sea with him, and as invariably used to -leap overboard, seize fish in her mouth, and bring them to the side of -the boat, where her kindly owner could lift her out, together with the -captured fish. - -The Cat, then, having been the favoured companion of the Egyptians, -among whom the Israelites lived while they multiplied from a family -into a nation, it does seem very remarkable that the sacred writers -should not even mention it. There is no prohibition of the animal, -even indirectly, in the Mosaic law; but it may be the case that the -Israelites repudiated the Cat simply because it was so favoured by -their former masters. - -The only passage in the Apocrypha is a passing allusion in Baruch (vi. -22), where it is said of the idols, that bats and birds shall sit on -their bodies, and the cats also. That the word is rightly translated -admits of no doubt, because it is the same that is employed by -Herodotus in the passage already quoted. - - - - -THE DOG. - - Antipathy displayed by Orientals towards the Dog, and manifested - throughout the Scriptures--Contrast between European and - Oriental Dogs--Habits of the Dogs of Palestine--The City Dogs - and their singular organization--The herdsman's Dog--Various - passages of Scripture--Dogs and the crumbs--their - numbers--Signor Pierotti's experience of the Dogs--Possibility - of their perfect domestication--The peculiar humiliation of - Lazarus--Voracity of the Wild Dogs--The fate of Ahab and - Jezebel--Anecdote of a volunteer Watch-dog--Innate affection of - the Dog towards mankind--Peculiar local Instinct of the Oriental - Dog--Albert Smith's account of the Dogs at Constantinople--The - Dervish and his Dogs--The Greyhound--Uncertainty of the word. - - -Scarcely changed by the lapse of centuries, the Oriental of the -present day retains most of the peculiarities which distinguished him -throughout the long series of years during which the books of sacred -Scripture were given to the world.. In many of these characteristics -he differs essentially from Europeans of the present day, and exhibits -a tone of mind which seems to be not merely owing to education, but to -be innate and inherent in the race. - -One of these remarkable characteristics is the strange loathing with -which he regards the Dog. In all other parts of the world, the Dog is -one of the most cherished and valued of animals, but among those -people whom we popularly class under the name of Orientals, the Dog is -detested and despised. As the sacred books were given to the world -through the mediumship of Orientals, we find that this feeling towards -the Dog is manifested whenever the animal is mentioned; and whether we -turn to the books of the Law, the splendid poetry of the Psalms and -the book of Job, the prophetical or the historical portions of the Old -Testament, we find the name of the Dog repeatedly mentioned; and in -every case in connexion with some repulsive idea. If we turn from the -Old to the New Testament, we find the same idea manifested, whether in -the Gospels, the Epistles, or the Revelation. - -To the mind of the true Oriental the very name of the Dog carries with -it an idea of something utterly repugnant to his nature, and he does -not particularly like even the thought of the animal coming across his -mind. And this is the more extraordinary, because at the commencement -and termination of their history the Dog was esteemed by their -masters. The Egyptians, under whose rule they grew to be a nation, -knew the value of the Dog, and showed their appreciation in the many -works of art which have survived to our time. Then the Romans, under -whose iron grasp the last vestiges of nationality crumbled away, -honoured and respected the Dog, made it their companion, and -introduced its portrait into their houses. But, true to their early -traditions, the Jews of the East have ever held the Dog in the same -abhorrence as is manifested by their present masters, the followers of -Mahommed. - -Owing to the prevalence of this feeling, the Dogs of Oriental towns -are so unlike their more fortunate European relatives, that they can -hardly be recognised as belonging to the same species. In those lands -the traveller finds that there is none of the wonderful variety which -so distinguishes the Dog of Europe. There he will never see the bluff, -sturdy, surly, faithful mastiff, the slight gazelle-like greyhound, -the sharp, intelligent terrier, the silent, courageous bulldog, the -deep-voiced, tawny bloodhound, the noble Newfoundland, the clever, -vivacious poodle, or the gentle, silken-haired spaniel. - -As he traverses the streets, he finds that all the dogs are alike, and -that all are gaunt, hungry, half starved, savage, and cowardly, more -like wolves than dogs, and quite as ready as wolves to attack when -they fancy they can do so with safety. They prowl about the streets in -great numbers, living, as they best can, on any scraps of food that -they may happen to find. They have no particular masters, and no -particular homes. Charitable persons will sometimes feed them, but -will never make companions of them, feeling that the very contact of a -dog would be a pollution. They are certainly useful animals, because -they act as scavengers, and will eat almost any animal substance that -comes in their way. - -The strangest part of their character is the organization which -prevails among them. By some extraordinary means they divide the town -into districts, and not one dog ever ventures out of that particular -district to which it is attached. The boundaries, although invisible, -are as effectual as the loftiest walls, and not even the daintiest -morsel will tempt a dog to pass the mysterious line which forms the -boundary of his district. Generally, these bands of dogs are so savage -that any one who is obliged to walk in a district where the dogs do -not know him is forced to carry a stout stick for his protection. Like -their European relatives, they have great dislike towards persons who -are dressed after a fashion to which they are unaccustomed, and -therefore are sure to harass any one who comes from Europe and wears -the costume of his own country. As is customary among animals which -unite themselves in troops, each band is under the command of a single -leader, whose position is recognised and his authority acknowledged by -all the members. - -These peculiarities are to be seen almost exclusively in the dogs -which run wild about the towns, because there is abundant evidence in -the Scriptures that the animal was used in a partially domesticated -state, certainly for the protection of their herds, and possibly for -the guardianship of their houses. That the Dog was employed for the -first of these purposes is shown in Job xxx. 1: "But now they that are -younger than I have me in derision, whose fathers I would have -disdained to have set with the dogs of my flock." And that the animal -was used for the protection of houses is thought by some commentators -to be shown by the well-known passage in Is. lvi. 10: "His watchmen -are blind: they are all ignorant, they are all dumb dogs, they cannot -bark; sleeping, lying down, loving to slumber." Still, it is very -probable that in this passage the reference is not made to houses, but -to the flocks and herds which these watchmen ought to have guarded. - -The rooted dislike and contempt felt by the Israelites towards the Dog -is seen in numerous passages. Even in that sentence from Job which has -just been quoted, wherein the writer passionately deplores the low -condition into which he has fallen, and contrasts it with his former -high estate, he complains that he is despised by those whose fathers -he held even in less esteem than the dogs which guarded his herds. -There are several references to the Dog in the books of Samuel, in all -of which the name of the animal is mentioned contemptuously. For -example, when David accepted the challenge of Goliath, and went to -meet his gigantic enemy without the ordinary protection of mail, and -armed only with a sling and his shepherd's staff, Goliath said to him, -"Am I a dog, that thou comest to me with staves?" (1 Sam. xvii. 43.) -And in the same book, chapter xxiv. 14, David remonstrates with Saul -for pursuing so insignificant a person as himself, and said, "After -whom is the King of Israel come out? after a dead dog, after a flea." - -The same metaphor is recorded in the second book of the same writer. -Once it was employed by Mephibosheth, the lame son of Jonathan, when -extolling the generosity of David, then King of Israel in the place of -his grandfather Saul: "And he bowed himself, and said, 'What is thy -servant, that thou shouldest look upon such a dead dog as I am?" (2 -Sam. ix. 8.) In the same book, chapter xvi. 9, Abishai applies this -contemptuous epithet to Shimei, who was exulting over the troubled -monarch with all the insolence of a cowardly nature, "Why should this -dead dog curse my lord the king?" Abner also makes use of a similar -expression, "Am I a dog's head?" And we may also refer to the familiar -passage in 2 Kings viii. 13. Elisha had prophesied to Hazael that he -would become king on the death of Ben-hadad, and that he would work -terrible mischief in the land. Horrified at these predictions, or at -all events pretending to be so, he replied, "But what, is thy servant -a dog, that he should do this great thing?" - -If we turn from the Old to the New Testament, we find the same -contemptuous feeling displayed towards the Dog. It is mentioned as an -intolerable aggravation of the sufferings endured by Lazarus the -beggar as he lay at the rich man's gate, that the dogs came and licked -his sores. In several passages, the word Dog is employed as a metaphor -for scoffers, or unclean persons, or sometimes for those who did not -belong to the Church, whether Jewish or Christian. In the Sermon on -the Mount our Lord himself uses this image, "Give not that which is -holy unto dogs" (Matt. vii. 6.) In the same book, chapter xv. 26, -Jesus employs the same metaphor when speaking to the Canaanitish woman -who had come to ask him to heal her daughter: "It is not meet to take -the children's bread and cast it to dogs." And that she understood the -meaning of the words is evident from her answer, in which faith and -humility are so admirably blended. Both St. Paul and St. John employ -the word Dog in the same sense. In his epistle to the Philippians, -chapter iii. 2, St. Paul writes, "Beware of dogs, beware of evil -workers." And in the Revelation, chapter xxii. 14, these words occur: -"Blessed are they that do his commandments, that they may have right -to the tree of life, and may enter in through the gates to the city; -for without are dogs, and sorcerers, and whoremongers, and murderers, -and idolaters, and whomsoever loveth and maketh a lie." - -That the dogs of ancient times formed themselves into bands just as -they do at present is evident from many passages of Scripture, among -which may be mentioned those sentences from the Psalms, wherein David -is comparing the assaults of his enemies to the attacks of the dogs -which infested the city. "Thou hast brought me into the dust of death; -for dogs have compassed me, the assembly of the wicked have enclosed -me." This passage will be better appreciated when the reader has -perused the following extract from a recent work by Signor Pierotti. -After giving a general account of the Dogs of Palestine and their -customs, he proceeds as follows:-- - -"In Jerusalem, and in the other towns, the dogs have an organization -of their own. They are divided into families and districts, especially -in the night time, and no one of them ventures to quit his proper -quarter; for if he does, he is immediately attacked by all the -denizens of that into which he intrudes, and is driven back, with -several bites as a reminder. Therefore, when an European is walking -through Jerusalem by night, he is always followed by a number of -canine attendants, and greeted at every step with growls and howls. -These tokens of dislike, however, are not intended for him, but for -his followers, who are availing themselves of his escort to pass -unmolested from one quarter to another. - -"During the hard winter of 1859, I fed many of the dogs, who -frequented the road which I traversed almost every evening, and -afterwards, each time that I passed, I received the homage not only of -the individuals, but of the whole band to which they belonged, for -they accompanied me to the limits of their respective jurisdictions -and were ready to follow me to my own house, if I did but give them a -sign of encouragement, coming at my beck from any distance. They even -recollected the signal in 1861, though it was but little that I had -given them." - -The account which this experienced writer gives of the animal presents -a singular mixture of repulsive and pleasing traits, the latter being -attributable to the true nature of the Dog, and the former to the -utter neglect with which it is treated. He remarks that the dogs which -run wild in the cities of Palestine are ill-favoured, ill-scented, and -ill-conditioned beasts, more like jackals or wolves than dogs, and -covered with scars, which betoken their quarelsome nature. Yet, the -same animals lose their wild, savage disposition, as soon as any human -being endeavours to establish that relationship which was evidently -intended to exist between man and the dog. How readily even these -despised and neglected animals respond to the slightest advance, has -been already shown by Sig. Pierotti's experience, and there is no -doubt that these tawny, short-haired, wolf-like animals, could be -trained as perfectly as their more favoured brethren of the western -world. - -As in the olden times, so at the present day, the dogs lie about in -the streets, dependent for their livelihood upon the offal that is -flung into the roads, or upon the chance morsels that may be thrown to -them. An allusion to this custom is made in the well-known passage in -Matt. xv. The reader will remember the circumstance that a woman of -Canaan, and therefore not an Israelite, came to Jesus, and begged him -to heal her daughter, who was vexed with a devil. Then, to try her -faith, He said, "It is not meet to take the children's bread, and to -cast it to dogs." And she said, "Truth, Lord: yet the dogs eat of the -crumbs which fall from their master's table." Now, the "crumbs" which -are here mentioned are the broken pieces of bread which were used at -table, much as bread is sometimes used in eating fish. The form of the -"loaves" being flat, and much like that of the oat-cake of this -country, adapted them well to the purpose. The same use of broken -bread is alluded to in the parable of Lazarus, who desired to be fed -with the crumbs that fell from the rich man's table, _i.e._ to partake -of the same food as the dogs which swarmed round him and licked his -sores. Thus we see that Lazarus was supposed to have undergone the -very worst indignities to which poverty could bring a man, and the -contrast between himself and the other personage of the parable -receives additional strength. - -The "crumbs," however liberally distributed, would not nearly suffice -for the subsistence of the canine armies, and their chief support -consists of the offal, which is rather too plentifully flung into the -streets. The Dogs of Palestine are, indeed, much like hyænas of -certain African towns, and act as scavengers, devouring any animal -substance that may fall in their way. If the body of any animal, not -excluding their own kind, be found lying in the streets, the dogs will -assemble round it, and tear it to pieces, and they have no scruples -even in devouring a human body. Of course, owing to the peculiar -feeling entertained by the Orientals towards the Dog, no fate can be -imagined more repulsive to the feelings of humanity than to be eaten -by dogs; and therein lies the terror of the fate which was prophesied -of Ahab and Jezebel. Moreover, the blood, even of the lower animals, -was held in great sanctity, and it was in those days hardly possible -to invoke a more dreadful fate upon any one than that his blood should -be lapped by dogs. - -We lose much of the real force of the Scriptures, if we do not possess -some notion of the manners and customs of Palestine and the -neighbouring countries, as well as of the tone of mind prevalent among -the inhabitants. In our own country, that any one should be eaten by -dogs would be a fate so contrary to usage, that we can hardly conceive -its possibility, and such a fate would be out of the ordinary course -of events. But, if such a fate should happen to befall any one, we -should have no stronger feeling of pity than the natural regret that -the dead person was not buried with Christian rites. - -But, with the inhabitants of Palestine, such an event was by no means -unlikely. It was, and is still, the custom to bury the corpse almost -as soon as life has departed, and such would ordinarily have been the -case with the dead body of Jezebel. But, through fear of the merciless -Jehu, by whose command she had been flung from the window of her own -palace, no one dared to remove her mangled body. The dogs, therefore, -seized upon their prey; and, even before Jehu had risen from the -banquet with which he celebrated his deed, nothing was left of the -body but the skull, the feet, and the hands. - -In Mr. Tristram's work, the author has recognised the true dog nature, -though concealed behind an uninviting form: "Our watch-dog, Beirût, -attached himself instinctively to Wilhelm, though his canine instinct -soon taught him to recognise every one of our party of fourteen, and -to cling to the tents, whether in motion or at rest, as his home. Poor -Beirût! though the veriest pariah in appearance, thy plebeian form -encased as noble a dog-heart as ever beat at the sound of a stealthy -step." - -The same author records a very remarkable example of the sagacity of -the native Dog, and the fidelity with which it will keep guard over -the property of its master. "The guard-house provided us, unasked, -with an invaluable and vigilant sentry, who was never relieved, nor -ever quitted the post of duty. The poor Turkish conscript, like every -other soldier in the world, is fond of pets, and in front of the grim -turret that served for a guard-house was a collection of old -orange-boxes and crates, thickly peopled with a garrison of dogs of -low degree, whose attachment to the spot was certainly not purchased -by the loaves and fishes which fell to their lot. - -"One of the family must indeed have had hard times, for she had a -family of no less than five dependent on her exertions, and on the -superfluities of the sentries' mess. With a sagacity almost more than -canine, the poor gaunt creature had scarcely seen our tents pitched -before she came over with all her litter and deposited them in front -of our tent. At once she scanned the features of every member of the -encampment, and introduced herself to our notice. During the week of -our stay, she never quitted her post, or attempted any depredation on -our kitchen-tent, which might have led to her banishment. Night and -day she proved a faithful and vigilant sentry, permitting no stranger, -human or canine, European or Oriental, to approach the tents without -permission, but keeping on the most familiar terms with ourselves and -our servants. - -"On the morning of our departure, no sooner had she seen our camp -struck, than she conveyed her puppies back to their old quarters in -the orange-box, and no intreaties or bribes could induce her to -accompany us. On three subsequent visits to Jerusalem, the same dog -acted in a similar way, though no longer embarrassed by family cares, -and would on no account permit any strange dog, nor even her -companions at the guard-house, to approach within the tent ropes." - -After perusing this account of the Dog of Palestine, two points strike -the reader. The first is the manner in which the Dog, in spite of all -the social disadvantages under which it labours, displays one of the -chief characteristics of canine nature, namely, the yearning after -human society. The animal in question had already attached herself to -the guard-house, where she could meet with some sort of human -converse, though the inborn prejudices of the Moslem would prevent the -soldiers from inviting her to associate with them, as would certainly -have been done by European soldiers. She nestled undisturbed in the -orange-box, and, safe under the protection of the guard, brought up -her young family in their immediate neighbourhood. But, as soon as -Europeans arrived, her instinct told her that they would be closer -associates than the Turkish soldiers who were quartered in the -guard-house, and accordingly she removed herself and her family to the -shelter of their tents. - -Herein she carried out the leading principle of a dog's nature. A dog -_must_ have a master, or at all events a mistress, and just in -proportion as he is free from human control, does he become less -dog-like and more wolf-like. In fact, familiar intercourse with -mankind is an essential part of a dogs true character, and the animal -seems to be so well aware of this fact, that he will always contrive -to find a master of some sort, and will endure a life of cruel -treatment at the hands of a brutal owner rather than have no master at -all. - -The second point in this account is the singular local instinct which -characterises the Dogs of Palestine and other eastern countries, and -which is as much inbred in them as the faculty of marking game in the -pointer, the combative nature in the bulldog, the exquisite scent in -the bloodhound, and the love of water in the Newfoundland dog. In -England, we fancy that the love of locality belongs especially to the -cat, and that the Dog cares little for place, and much for man. But, -in this case, we find that the local instinct overpowered the yearning -for human society. Fond as was this dog of her newly-found friends, -and faithful as she was in her self-imposed service, she would not -follow them away from the spot where she had been born, and where she -had produced her own young. - -This curious love for locality has evidently been derived from the -traditional custom of successive generations, which has passed from -the realm of reason into that of instinct. The reader will remember -that Sig. Pierotti mentions an instance where the dogs which he had -been accustomed to feed would follow him as far as the limits of -their particular district, but would go no farther. The late Albert -Smith, in his "Month at Constantinople," gives a similar example of -this characteristic. He first describes the general habits of the -dogs. - -On the first night of his arrival, he could not sleep, and went to the -window to look out in the night. "The noise I heard then I shall never -forget. To say that if all the sheep-dogs, in going to Smithfield on a -market-day, had been kept on the constant bark, and pitted against the -yelping curs upon all the carts in London, they could have given any -idea of the canine uproar that now first astonished me, would be to -make the feeblest of images. The whole city rang with one vast riot. -Down below me, at Tophané--over-about Stamboul--far away at -Scutari--the whole sixty thousand dogs that are said to overrun -Constantinople appeared engaged in the most active extermination of -each other, without a moment's cessation. The yelping, howling, -barking, growling, and snarling, were all merged into one uniform and -continuous even sound, as the noise of frogs becomes when heard at a -distance. For hours there was no lull. I went to sleep, and woke -again, and still, with my windows open, I heard the same tumult going -on; nor was it until daybreak that anything like tranquillity was -restored. - -"Going out in the daytime, it is not difficult to find traces of the -fights of the night about the limbs of all the street dogs. There is -not one, among their vast number, in the possession of a perfect skin. -Some have their ears gnawed away or pulled off; others have their eyes -taken out; from the backs and haunches of others perfect steaks of -flesh had been torn away; and all bear the scars of desperate combats. - - [Illustration: "At evening let them return; and let them make a noise - like a dog, and go round about the city. Let them wander up and down - for meat, and grudge if they be not satisfied"--PSALM lix. 14, 15.] - -"Wild and desperate as is their nature, these poor animals are -susceptible of kindness. If a scrap of bread is thrown to one of them -now and then, he does not forget it; for they have, at times, a hard -matter to live--not the dogs amongst the shops of Galata or Stamboul, -but those whose 'parish' lies in the large burying-grounds and desert -places without the city; for each keeps, or rather is kept, to his -district, and if he chanced to venture into a strange one, the odds -against his return would be very large. One battered old animal, to -whom I used occasionally to toss a scrap of food, always followed -me from the hotel to the cross street in Pera, where the two -soldiers stood on guard, but would never come beyond this point. -He knew the fate that awaited him had he done so; and therefore, -when I left him, he would lie down in the road, and go to sleep -until I came back. - -"When a horse or camel dies, and is left about the roads near the -city, the bones are soon picked very clean by these dogs, and they -will carry the skulls or pelves to great distances. I was told that -they will eat their dead fellows--a curious fact, I believe, in canine -economy. They are always troublesome, not to say dangerous, at night; -and are especially irritated by Europeans, whom they will single out -amongst a crowd of Levantines." - -In the same work there is a short description of a solitary dervish, -who had made his home in the hollow of a large plane-tree, in front of -which he sat, surrounded by a small fence of stakes only a foot or so -in height. Around him, but not venturing within the fence, were a -number of gaunt, half-starved dogs, who prowled about him in hopes of -having an occasional morsel of food thrown to them. Solitary as he -was, and scanty as must have been the nourishment which he could -afford to them, the innate trustfulness of the dog-nature induced them -to attach themselves to human society of some sort, though their -master was one, and they were many--he was poor, and they were hungry. - -Once in the Scriptures the word Greyhound occurs, namely, in Prov. -xxx. 29-31: "There be three things which go well, yea, four are comely -in going: a lion, which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not -away for any; a greyhound; an he-goat also; and a king, against whom -there is no rising up." But the word "Greyhound" is only employed -conjecturally, inasmuch as the signification of the Hebrew word -_Zarzir-mathnâim_ is "one girt about the loins." Some commentators -have thought that the horse might be signified by this word, and that -the girding about the loins referred to the trappings with which all -Easterns love to decorate their steeds. Probably, however, the word in -question refers neither to a horse nor a dog, but to a human athlete, -or wrestler, stripped, and girt about the loins ready for the contest. - - - - - -THE WOLF. - - Identity of the animal indisputable--its numbers, past and - present--The Wolf never mentioned directly--its general - habits--References in Scripture--its mingled ferocity and - cowardice--its association into packs--The Wolf's bite--How it - takes its prey--its ravages among the flocks--Allusions to this - habit--The shepherd and his nightly enemies--Mr. Tristram and - the Wolf--A semi-tamed Wolf at Marsaba. - - -There is no doubt that the Hebrew word _Zeëb_, which occurs in a few -passages of the Old Testament, is rightly translated as WOLF, and -signifies the same animal as is frequently mentioned in the New -Testament. - -This fierce and dangerous animal was formerly very plentiful in -Palestine, but is now much less common, owing to the same causes which -have extirpated the lion from the country. It is a rather remarkable -fact, that in no passage of Holy Writ is the Wolf directly mentioned. -Its name is used as a symbol of a fierce and treacherous enemy, but -neither in the Old nor New Testament does any sacred writer mention -any act as performed by the Wolf. We have already heard of the lion -which attacked Samson and was killed by him, of the lion which slew -the disobedient prophet, and of the lions which spared Daniel when -thrown into their den. We also read of the dogs which licked Ahab's -blood, and ate the body of Jezebel, also of the bears which tore the -mocking children. - -But in no case is the Wolf mentioned, except in a metaphorical sense; -and this fact is the more remarkable, because the animals were so -numerous that they were very likely to have exercised some influence -on a history extending over such a lengthened range of years, and -limited to so small a portion of the earth. Yet we never hear of the -Wolf attacking any of the personages mentioned in Scripture; and -although we are told of the exploit of David, who pursued a lion and a -bear that had taken a lamb out of his fold, we are never told of any -similar deed in connexion with the Wolf. - - [Illustration: THE WOLF. - - "_The wolf catcheth and scattereth the sheep_"--JOHN x. 12.] - -This animal was then what it is now. Seldom seen by day, it lies -hidden in its covert as long as the light lasts, and steals out in -search of prey in the evening. This custom of the Wolf is mentioned in -several passages of Holy Scripture, such as that in Jer. v. 5, 6: -"These have altogether broken the yoke, and burst the bonds. Wherefore -a lion out of the forest shall slay them, and a wolf of the evenings -shall spoil them." In this passage the reader will see that the -rebellious Israelites are compared to restive draught cattle which -have broken away from their harness and run loose, so that they are -deprived of the protection of their owners, and exposed to the fury of -wild beasts. A similar reference is made in Hab. i. 8: "Their horses -also are swifter than the leopards, and are more fierce than the -evening wolves." The same habit of the Wolf is alluded to in Zeph. -iii. 3: "Her princes within her are roaring lions; her judges are -evening wolves." - -Individually, the Wolf is rather a timid animal. It will avoid a man -rather than meet him. It prefers to steal upon its prey and take it -unawares, rather than to seize it openly and boldly. It is ever -suspicious of treachery, and is always imagining that a trap is laid -for it. Even the shallow device of a few yards of rope trailing from -any object, or a strip of cloth fluttering in the breeze, is quite -sufficient to keep the Wolf at bay for a considerable time. This fact -is well known to hunters, who are accustomed to secure the body of a -slain deer by simply tying a strip of cloth to its horn. If taken in a -trap of any kind, or even if it fancies itself in an enclosure from -which it can find no egress, it loses all courage, and will submit to -be killed without offering the least resistance. It will occasionally -endeavour to effect its escape by feigning death, and has more than -once been known to succeed in this device. - -But, collectively, the Wolf is one of the most dangerous animals that -can be found. Herding together in droves when pressed by hunger, the -wolves will openly hunt prey, performing this task as perfectly as a -pack of trained hounds. Full of wiles themselves, they are craftily -wise in anticipating the wiles of the animals which they pursue; and -even in full chase, while the body of the pack is following on the -footsteps of the flying animal, one or two are detached on the flanks, -so as to cut it off if it should attempt to escape by doubling on its -pursuers. - -There is no animal which a herd of wolves will not attack, and very -few which they will not ultimately secure. Strength avails nothing -against the numbers of these savage foes, which give no moment of -rest, but incessantly assail their antagonist, dashing by instinct at -those parts of the body which can be least protected, and lacerating -with their peculiar short, snapping bite. Should several of their -number be killed or disabled, it makes no difference to the wolves, -except that a minute or two are wasted in devouring their slain or -wounded brethren, and they only return to the attack the more excited -by the taste of blood. Swiftness of foot avails nothing against the -tireless perseverance of the wolves, who press on in their peculiar, -long, slinging gallop, and in the end are sure to tire out the swifter -footed but less enduring animal that flees before them. The stately -buffalo is conquered by the ceaseless assaults of the wolves; the bear -has been forced to succumb to them, and the fleet-footed stag finds -his swift limbs powerless to escape the pursuing band, and his -branching horns unable to resist their furious onset when once they -overtake him. - -In the passage from Habakkuk which has already been quoted, allusion -is made to the ferocity of the Wolf, and the same characteristic is -mentioned in several other parts of Scripture. Take, for example, Gen. -xlix. 27: "Benjamin shall ravin as a wolf: in the morning he shall -devour the prey, and at night he shall divide the spoil." Or the -passage in Ezekiel xxii. 27: "Her princes in the midst thereof are -like wolves ravening the prey, to shed blood." Or the well-known -metaphor of our Lord in Matt. vii. 15: "Beware of false prophets, -which come to you in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening -wolves." - -That the Wolf is a special enemy to the sheep-fold is shown in many -parts of the Scriptures, both in the Old and New Testaments, -especially in the latter. In John x. 1-16, Jesus compares himself to a -good shepherd, who watches over the fold, and, if the wolves should -come to take the sheep, would rather give up His life than they should -succeed. But the false teachers are compared to bad shepherds, hired -for money, but having no interest in the sheep, and who therefore will -not expose themselves to danger in defence of their charge. - -This metaphor was far more effective in Palestine, and at that time, -than it is in this country and at the present day. In this land, the -shepherd has no anxiety about the inroads of wild beasts, but in -Palestine one of his chief cares was to keep watch at night lest the -wolves should attack the fold, and to drive them away himself in case -they should do so. Therefore the shepherd's life was one which -involved no small danger as well as anxiety, and the metaphor used by -our Lord gains additional force from the knowledge of this fact. - -A similar metaphor is used when Jesus wished to express in forcible -terms the dangers to which the chosen seventy would oft be subjected, -and the impossibility that they should be able to overcome the many -perils with which they would be surrounded. "Go your ways: behold, I -send you forth as lambs among wolves" (Luke x. 3). - -The well-known fact of the ravages of wolves among sheep has been -employed by the prophet Isaiah in two passages, wherein he foretells -the peaceful state of the world when the kingdom of the Messiah shall -have been established: "The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and -the leopard shall lie down with the kid; and the calf and the young -lion and the fatling together; and a little child shall lead them" -(Is. xi. 6). The second passage occurs in chapter lxv. 23-25, and is -of a similar character: "They shall not labour in vain, nor bring -forth for trouble; for they are the seed of the blessed of the Lord, -and their offspring with them. And it shall come to pass, that before -they call, I will answer; and while they are yet speaking, I will -hear. The wolf and the lamb shall feed together, and the lion shall -eat straw like the bullock: and dust shall be the serpent's meat. They -shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain, saith the Lord." - -Mr. Tristram several times met wolves while he was engaged in his -travels, and mostly saw solitary specimens. One such encounter took -place in the wilderness of Judah: "On my way back, I met a fine -solitary wolf, who watched me very coolly, at the distance of sixty -yards, while I drew my charge and dropped a bullet down the barrel. -Though I sent the ball into a rock between his legs as he stood -looking at me in the wady, he was not sufficiently alarmed to do more -than move on a little more quickly, ever and anon turning to look at -me, while gradually increasing his distance. Darkness compelled me to -desist from the chase, when he quietly turned and followed me at a -respectful distance. He was a magnificent animal, larger than any -European wolf, and of a much lighter colour." - -Those who are acquainted with the character of the animal will -appreciate the truthfulness of this description. The cautious prowl at -a distance, the slow trot away when he fancied he might be attacked, -the reverted look, and the final turning back and following at a -respectful distance, are all characteristic traits of the Wolf, no -matter to what species it may belong, nor what country it may inhabit. - -On another occasion, while riding in the open plain of Gennesaret, the -horse leaped over the bank of a little ditch, barely three feet in -depth. After the horse had passed, and not until then, a Wolf started -out of the ditch, literally from under the horse's hoofs, and ran off. -The animal had been crouching under the little bank, evidently -watching for some cows and calves which were grazing at a short -distance, under the charge of a Bedouin boy. The same author mentions -that one of the monks belonging to the monastery at Marsaba had -contrived to render a Wolf almost tame. Every evening at six o'clock -the Wolf came regularly across the ravine, had a piece of bread, and -then went back again. With the peculiar jealousy of all tamed animals, -the Wolf would not suffer any of his companions to partake of his good -fortune. Several of them would sometimes accompany him, but as soon as -they came under the wall of the monastery he always drove them away. - -The inhabitants of Palestine say that the Wolves of that country are -not gregarious, and that they hunt singly, or at most in little packs -of few in number. Still they dread the animal exceedingly, and say -that one Wolf will do more damage in a flock of sheep than a whole -pack of jackals. - -As a general rule, the Syrian wolf, like the Syrian bear, is of a -lighter colour than its European relatives, and appears to be a larger -and stronger animal. - - - - -THE FOX OR JACKAL. - - The two animals comprehended under one name--The Jackal--its - numbers in ancient and modern Palestine--General habits of the - Jackal--Localities where the Jackal is found--Samson, and the - three hundred "foxes"--Popular objections to the narrative--The - required number easily obtained--Signor Pierotti's remarks upon - the Jackal--An unpleasant position--How the fields were set on - fire--The dread of fire inherent in wild beasts--The truth of - the narrative proved--The Fox and Jackal destructive among - grapes--Allusions to the Fox in the New Testament--Partially - tamed Foxes. - - -There are several passages in the Old Testament in which the word FOX -occurs, and it is almost certain that the Hebrew word _Shuâl_, which -is rendered in our translation as Fox, is used rather loosely, and -refers in some places to the Jackal, and in others to the Fox. We -will first take those passages in which the former rendering of the -word is evidently the right one, and will begin by examining those -characteristics of the animal which afford grounds for such an -assertion. - - [Illustration: THE FOX OR JACKAL. - - "_They shall be a portion for foxes._"--PSALM ixiii. 10. _The end of - the Scape Goat._] - -Even at the present time, the Jackal is extremely plentiful in -Palestine; and as the numbers of wild beasts have much decreased in -modern days, the animals must have been even more numerous than they -are at present. It is an essentially nocturnal and gregarious animal. -During the whole of the day the Jackals lie concealed in their holes -or hiding-places, which are usually cavities in the rocks, in tombs, -or among ruins. At nightfall they issue from their dens, and form -themselves into packs, often consisting of several hundred -individuals, and prowl about in search of food. Carrion of various -kinds forms their chief subsistence, and they perform in the country -much the same task as is fulfilled by the dogs in the cities. - -If any animal should be killed, or even severely wounded, the Jackals -are sure to find it out and to devour it before the daybreak. They -will scent out the track of the hunter, and feed upon the offal of the -beasts which he has slain. If the body of a human being were to be -left on the ground, the Jackals would certainly leave but little -traces of it; and in the olden times of warfare, they must have held -high revelry in the battle-field after the armies had retired. It is -to this propensity of the Jackal that David refers--himself a man of -war, who had fought on many a battle-field, and must have seen the -carcases of the slain mangled by these nocturnal prowlers: "Those that -seek my soul, to destroy it, shall go into the lower parts of the -earth. They shall fall by the sword; they shall be a portion for -foxes" (Ps. lxiii. 9, 10). Being wild beasts, afraid of man, and too -cowardly to attack him even when rendered furious by hunger, and -powerful by force of numbers, they keep aloof from towns and cities, -and live in the uninhabited parts of the country. Therefore the -prophet Jeremiah, in his Book of Lamentations, makes use of the -following forcible image, when deploring the pitiful state into which -Judæa had fallen: "For this our heart is faint; for these things our -eyes are dim: because of the mountain of Zion, which is desolate, the -foxes walk upon it" (Lam. v. 17). And Ezekiel makes use of a similar -image: "O Israel, thy prophets are like foxes in the desert." - -But, by far the most important passage in which the Fox is mentioned, -is that wherein is recorded the grotesque vengeance of Samson upon the -Philistines: "And Samson went and caught three hundred foxes, and took -firebrands, and turned tail to tail, and put a firebrand in the midst -between two tails. And when he had set the brands on fire, he let them -go into the standing corn of the Philistines, and burnt up both the -shocks and also the standing corn, with the vineyards and olives" -(Judges xv. 4, 5). Now, as this is one of the passages of Holy Writ to -which great objections have been taken, it will be as well to examine -these objections, and see whether they have any real force. The first -of these objections is, that the number of foxes is far too great to -have been caught at one time, and to this objection two answers have -been given. The first answer is, that they need not have been caught -at once, but by degrees, and kept until wanted. But the general tenor -of the narrative is undoubtedly in favour of the supposition that this -act of Samson was unpremeditated, and that it was carried into -operation at once, before his anger had cooled. The second answer is, -that the requisite number of Foxes might have been miraculously sent -to Samson for this special purpose. This theory is really so foolish -and utterly untenable, that I only mention it because it has been put -forward. It fails on two grounds: the first being that a miracle would -hardly have been wrought to enable Samson to revenge himself in so -cruel and unjustifiable a manner; and the second, that there was not -the least necessity for any miracle at all. - -If we put out of our minds the idea of the English Fox, an animal -comparatively scarce in this country, and solitary in its habits, and -substitute the extremely plentiful and gregarious Jackal, wandering in -troops by night, and easily decoyed by hunger into a trap, we shall -see that double the number might have been taken, if needful. -Moreover, it is not to be imagined that Samson caught them all with -his own hand. He was at the head of his people, and had many -subordinates at his command, so that a large number of hunters might -have been employed simultaneously in the capture. In corroboration of -this point, I insert an extremely valuable extract from Signor -Pierotti's work, in which he makes reference to this very portion of -the sacred history:-- - -"It is still very abundant near Gaza, Askalon, Ashdod, Ekron, and -Ramleh. I have frequently met with it during my wanderings by night, -and on one occasion had an excellent opportunity of appreciating their -number and their noise. - -"One evening in the month of January 1857, while it was raining a -perfect deluge, I was obliged, owing to the dangerous illness of a -friend, to return from Jerusalem to Jaffa. The depth of snow on the -road over a great part of the mountain, the clayey mud in the plain, -and the darkness of the night, prevented my advancing quickly; so that -about half-past three in the morning I arrived on the bank of a small -torrent, about half an hour's journey to the east of Ramleh. I wished -to cross: my horse at first refused, but, on my spurring it, advanced -and at once sank up to the breast, followed of course by my legs, -thus teaching me to respect the instinct of an Arab horse for the -future. - -"There I stuck, without the possibility of escape, and consoled my -horse and myself with some provisions that I had in my saddle-bags, -shouting and singing at intervals, in the hope of obtaining succour, -and of preventing accidents, as I knew that the year before a mule in -the same position had been mistaken for a wild beast, and killed. The -darkness was profound, and the wind very high; but, happily, it was -not cold; for the only things attracted by my calls were numbers of -jackals, who remained at a certain distance from me, and responded to -my cries, especially when I tried to imitate them, as though they took -me for their music-master. - -"About five o'clock, one of the guards of the English consulate at -Jerusalem came from Ramleh and discovered my state. He charitably -returned thither, and brought some men, who extricated me and my horse -from our unpleasant bath, which, as may be supposed, was not -beneficial to our legs. - -"During this most uncomfortable night, I had good opportunity of -ascertaining that, if another Samson had wished to burn again the -crops in the country of the Philistines, he would have had no -difficulty in finding more than three hundred jackals, and catching as -many as he wanted in springs, traps, or pitfalls. (See Ps. cxl. 5.)" - -The reader will now see that there was not the least difficulty in -procuring the requisite number of animals, and that consequently the -first objection to the truth of the story is disposed of. - -We will now proceed to the second objection, which is, that if the -animals were tied tail to tail, they would remain on or near the same -spot, because they would pull in different directions, and that, -rather than run about, they would turn round and fight each other. -Now, in the first place, we are nowhere told that the tails of the -foxes, or jackals, were placed in contact with each other, and it is -probable that some little space was left between them. That animals so -tied would not run in a straight line is evident enough, and this was -exactly the effect which Samson wished to produce. Had they been at -liberty, and the fiery brand fastened to their tails, they would have -run straight to their dens, and produced but little effect. But their -captor, with cruel ingenuity, had foreseen this contingency, and, by -the method of securing them which he adopted, forced them to pursue a -devious course, each animal trying to escape from the dreaded -firebrand, and struggling in vain endeavours to drag its companion -towards its own particular den. - -All wild animals have an instinctive dread of fire; and there is none, -not even the fierce and courageous lion, that dares enter within the -glare of the bivouac fire. A lion has even been struck in the face -with a burning brand, and has not ventured to attack the man that -wielded so dreadful a weapon. Consequently it may be imagined that the -unfortunate animals that were used by Samson for his vindictive -purpose, must have been filled with terror at the burning brands which -they dragged after them, and the blaze of the fire which was kindled -wherever they went. They would have no leisure to fight, and would -only think of escaping from the dread and unintelligible enemy which -pursued them. - -When a prairie takes fire, all the wild inhabitants flee in terror, -and never think of attacking each other, so that the bear, the wolf, -the cougar, the deer, and the wild swine, may all be seen huddled -together, their natural antagonism quelled in the presence of a common -foe. So it must have been with the miserable animals which were made -the unconscious instruments of destruction. That they would stand -still when a burning brand was between them, and when flames sprang up -around them, is absurd. That they would pull in exactly opposite -directions with precisely balanced force is equally improbable, and it -is therefore evident that they would pursue a devious path, the -stronger of the two dragging the weaker, but being jerked out of a -straight course and impeded by the resistance which it would offer. -That they would stand on the same spot and fight has been shown to be -contrary to the custom of animals under similar circumstances. - -Thus it will be seen that every objection not only falls to the -ground, but carries its own refutation, thus vindicating this episode -in sacred history, and showing, that not only were the circumstances -possible, but that they were highly probable. Of course every one of -the wretched animals must have been ultimately burned to death, after -suffering a prolonged torture from the firebrand that was attached to -it. Such a consideration would, however, have had no effect for -deterring Samson from employing them. The Orientals are never sparing -of pain, even when inflicted upon human beings, and in too many cases -they seem utterly unable even to comprehend the cruelty of which they -are guilty. And Samson was by no means a favourable specimen of his -countrymen. He was the very incarnation of strength, but was as -morally weak as he was corporeally powerful; and to that weakness he -owed his fall. Neither does he seem to possess the least trace of -forbearance any more than of self-control, but he yields to his own -undisciplined nature, places himself, and through him the whole -Israelitish nation, in jeopardy, and then, with a grim humour, -scatters destruction on every side in revenge for the troubles which -he has brought upon himself by his own acts. - -There is a passage in the Old Testament which is tolerably familiar to -most students of the Scriptures: "Take us the foxes, the little foxes, -that spoil the vines, for our vines have tender grapes" (Solomon's -Song, ii. 15). In this passage allusion is made to the peculiar -fondness for grapes and several other fruits which exist both in the -Fox and the Jackal. Even the domesticated dog is often fond of ripe -fruits, and will make great havoc among the gooseberry bushes and the -strawberry beds. But both the Fox and the Jackal display a wonderful -predilection for the grape above all other fruit, and even when -confined and partly tamed, it is scarcely possible to please them -better than by offering them a bunch of perfectly ripe grapes. The -well-known fable of the fox and the grapes will occur to the mind of -every one who reads the passage which has just been quoted. - -There are two instances in the New Testament where the Fox is -mentioned, and in both cases the allusion is made by the Lord himself. -The first of these passages is the touching and well-known reproach, -"The foxes have holes, and the birds of the air have nests, but the -Son of Man hath not where to lay his head" (Matt. viii. 20). The -second passage is that in which He speaks of Herod as "that fox," -selecting a term which well expressed the character of the cruel and -cunning ruler to whom it was applied. - -The reader will remember that, in the history of the last-mentioned -animal an anecdote is told of a semi-tamed wolf that used to come -every evening for the purpose of receiving a piece of bread. At the -same monastery, three foxes used to enjoy a similar privilege. They -came regularly to the appointed place, which was not that which the -wolf frequented, and used to howl until their expected meal was given -to them. Several companions generally accompanied them, but were -always jealously driven away before the monks appeared with the bread. - - - - -THE HYÆNA. - - The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded - to--Signification of the word Zabua--Translated in the - Septuagint as Hyæna--A scene described by the Prophet - Isaiah--The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the present day--its - well-known cowardice and fear of man--The uses of the Hyæna and - the services which it renders--The particular species of - Hyæna--The Hyæna in the burial-grounds--Hunting the - Hyæna--Curious superstition respecting the talismanic properties - of its skin--Precautions adopted in flaying it--Popular legends - of the Hyæna and its magical powers--The cavern home of the - Hyæna--The Valley of Zeboim. - - -Although in our version of the Scriptures the Hyæna is not mentioned -by that name, there are two passages in the Old Testament which -evidently refer to that animal, and therefore it is described in these -pages. If the reader will refer to the prophet Jeremiah, xii. 7-9, he -will find these words: "I have forsaken mine house, I have left mine -heritage; I have given the dearly beloved of my soul into the hand of -her enemies. Mine heritage is unto me as a lion in the forest; it -crieth out against me: therefore have I hated it. Mine heritage is -unto me as a speckled bird; the birds round about are against her: -come ye, assemble all the beasts of the field, come to devour." Now, -the word _zabua_ signifies something that is streaked, and in the -Authorized Version it is rendered as a speckled bird. But in the -Septuagint it is rendered as Hyæna, and this translation is thought by -many critical writers to be the true one. It is certain that the word -_zabua_ is one of the four names by which the Talmudical writers -mention the Hyæna, when treating of its character; and it is equally -certain that such a rendering makes the passage more forcible, and is -in perfect accordance with the habits of predacious animals. - -The whole scene which the Prophet thus describes was evidently -familiar to him. First, we have the image of a deserted country, -allowed to be overrun with wild beasts. Then we have the lion, which -has struck down its prey, roaring with exultation, and defying any -adversary to take it from him. Then, the lion having eaten his fill -and gone away, we have the Hyænas, vultures, and other carrion-eating -creatures, assembling around the carcase, and hastening to devour it. -This is a scene which has been witnessed by many hunters who have -pursued their sport in lands where lions, hyænas, and vultures are -found; and all these creatures were inhabitants of Palestine at the -time when Jeremiah wrote. - -At the present day, the Hyæna is still plentiful in Palestine, though -in the course of the last few years its numbers have sensibly -diminished. The solitary traveller, when passing by night from one -town to another, often falls in with the Hyæna, but need suffer no -fear, as it will not attack a human being, and prefers to slink out of -his way. But dead, and dying, or wounded animals are the objects for -which it searches; and when it finds them, it devours the whole of its -prey. The lion will strike down an antelope, an ox, or a goat--will -tear off its flesh with its long fangs, and lick the bones with its -rough tongue until they are quite cleaned. The wolves and jackals will -follow the lion, and eat every soft portion of the dead animal, while -the vultures will fight with them for the coveted morsels. But the -Hyæna is a more accomplished scavenger than lion, wolf, jackal, or -vulture; for it will eat the very bones themselves, its -tremendously-powerful jaws and firmly-set teeth enabling it to crush -even the leg-bone of an ox, and its unparalleled digestive powers -enabling it to assimilate the sharp and hard fragments which would -kill any creature not constituted like itself. - -In a wild, or even a partially-inhabited country, the Hyæna is, -therefore, a most useful animal. It may occasionally kill a crippled -or weakly ox, and sometimes carry off a sheep; but, even in that case, -no very great harm is done, for it does not meddle with any animal -that can resist. But these few delinquencies are more than compensated -by the great services which it renders as scavenger, consuming those -substances which even the lion cannot eat, and thus acting as a -scavenger in removing objects which would be offensive to sight and -injurious to health. - -The species which is mentioned in the Scriptures is the Striped Hyæna -(_Hyæna striata_); but the habits of all the species are almost -exactly similar. We are told by travellers of certain towns in -different parts of Africa which would be unendurable but for the -Hyænas. With the disregard for human life which prevails throughout -all savage portions of that country, the rulers of these towns order -executions almost daily, the bodies of the victims being allowed to -lie where they happened to fall. No one chooses to touch them, lest -they should also be added to the list of victims, and the decomposing -bodies would soon cause a pestilence but for the Hyænas, who assemble -at night round the bodies, and by the next morning have left scarcely -a trace of the murdered men. - -Even in Palestine, and in the present day, the Hyæna will endeavour to -rifle the grave, and to drag out the interred corpse. The bodies of -the rich are buried in rocky caves, whose entrances are closed with -heavy stones, which the Hyæna cannot move; but those of the poor, -which are buried in the ground, must be defended by stones heaped over -them. Even when this precaution is taken, the Hyæna will sometimes -find out a weak spot, drag out the body, and devour it. - -In consequence of this propensity, the inhabitants have an utter -detestation of the animal. They catch it whenever they can, in -pitfalls or snares, using precisely the same means as were employed -two thousand years ago; or they hunt it to its den, and then kill it, -stripping off the hide, and carrying it about still wet, receiving a -small sum of money from those to whom they show it. Afterwards the -skin is dressed, by rubbing it with lime and salt, and steeping it in -the waters of the Dead Sea. It is then made into sandals and leggings, -which are thought to be powerful charms, and to defend the wearer from -the Hyæna's bite. - - [Illustration: THE HYÆNA. - - "_I have given thee for meat to the beasts of the field and to the - fowls of the heaven._"--EZEK. xxix. 5.] - -They always observe certain superstitious precautions in flaying the -dead animal. Believing that the scent of the flesh would corrupt the -air, they invariably take the carcase to the leeward of the tents -before they strip off the skin. Even in the animal which has been kept -for years in a cage, and has eaten nothing but fresh meat, the odour -is too powerful to be agreeable, as I can testify from practical -experience when dissecting a Hyæna that had died in the Zoological -Gardens; and it is evident that the scent of an animal that has lived -all its life on carrion must be almost unbearable. The skin being -removed, the carcase is burnt, because the hunters think that by this -process the other Hyænas are prevented from finding the body of their -comrade, and either avenging its death or taking warning by its fate. - -Superstitions seem to be singularly prevalent concerning the Hyæna. In -Palestine, there is a prevalent idea that if a Hyæna meets a solitary -man at night, it can enchant him in such a manner as to make him -follow it through thickets and over rocks, until he is quite -exhausted, and falls an unresisting prey; but that over two persons he -has no such influence, and therefore a solitary traveller is gravely -advised to call for help as soon as he sees a Hyæna, because the -fascination of the beast would be neutralized by the presence of a -second person. So firmly is this idea rooted in the minds of the -inhabitants, that they will never travel by night, unless they can -find at least one companion in their journey. - -In Northern Africa there are many strange superstitions connected with -this animal, one of the most curious of which is founded on its -well-known cowardice. The Arabs fancy that any weapon which has killed -a Hyæna, whether it be gun, sword, spear, or dagger, is thenceforth -unfit to be used in warfare. "Throw away that sword," said an Arab to -a French officer, who had killed a Hyæna, "it has slain the Hyæna, and -it will be treacherous to you." - -At the present day, its numbers are not nearly so great in Palestine -as they used to be, and are decreasing annually. The cause of this -diminution lies, according to Signor Pierotti, more in the destruction -of forests than in the increase of population and the use of -fire-arms, though the two latter causes have undoubtedly considerable -influence. - -There is a very interesting account by Mr. Tristram of the haunt of -these animals. While exploring the deserted quarries of Es Sumrah, -between Beth-arabah and Bethel, he came upon a wonderful mass of -hyænine relics. The quarries in which were lying the half-hewn blocks, -scored with the marks of wedges, had evidently formed the resort of -Hyænas for a long series of years. "Vast heaps of bones of camels, -oxen, and sheep had been collected by these animals, in some places to -the depth of two or three feet, and on one spot I counted the skulls -of seven camels. There were no traces whatever of any human remains. -We had here a beautiful recent illustration of the mode of foundation -of the old bone caverns, so valuable to the geologist. These bones -must all have been brought in by the Hyænas, as no camel or sheep -could possibly have entered the caverns alive, nor could any floods -have washed them in. Near the entrance where the water percolates, -they were already forming a soft breccia." - -The second allusion to the Hyæna is made in 1 Sam. xiii. 18, "Another -company turned to the way of the border that looketh to the Valley of -Zeboim towards the wilderness," _i.e._ to the Valley of Hyænas. - -The colour of the Striped Hyæna varies according to its age. When -young, as is the case with many creatures, birds as well as mammals, -the stripes from which it derives its name are much more strongly -marked than in the adult specimen. The general hue of the fur is a -pale grey-brown, over which are drawn a number of dark stripes, -extending along the ribs and across the limbs. - -In the young animal these stripes are nearly twice as dark and twice -as wide as in the adult, and they likewise appear on the face and on -other parts of the body, whence they afterwards vanish. The fur is -always rough; and along the spine, and especially over the neck and -shoulders, it is developed into a kind of mane, which gives a very -fierce aspect to the animal. The illustration shows a group of Hyænas -coming to feed on the relics of a dead animal. The jackals and -vultures have eaten as much of the flesh as they can manage, and the -vultures are sitting, gorged, round the stripped bones. The Hyænas are -now coming up to play their part as scavengers, and have already begun -to break up the bones in their crushing-mills of jaws. - - - - -THE WEASEL. - - Difficulty of identifying the Weasel of Scripture--The Weasel of - Palestine--Suggested identity with the Ichneumon. - - -The word Weasel occurs once in the Holy Scriptures, and therefore it -is necessary that the animal should be mentioned. There is a great -controversy respecting the identification of the animal, inasmuch as -there is nothing in the context which gives the slightest indication -of its appearance or habits. - -The passage in question is that which prohibits the Weasel and the -mouse as unclean animals (see Lev. xi. 29). Now the word which is here -translated Weasel is _Choled_, or _Chol'd_; and, I believe, never -occurs again in the whole of the Old Testament. Mr. W. Houghton -conjectures that the Hebrew word Choled is identical with the Arabic -_Chuld_ and the Syriac _Chuldo_, both words signifying a mole; and -therefore infers that the unclean animal in question is not a Weasel, -but a kind of mole. - -The Weasel does exist in Palestine, and seems to be as plentiful there -as in our own country. Indeed, the whole tribe of Weasels is well -represented, and the polecat is seen there as well as the Weasel. - -It has been suggested with much probability, that, as is clearly the -case in many instances, several animals have been included in the -general term Weasel, and that among them may be reckoned the common -ichneumon (_Herpestes_), which is one of the most plentiful of animals -in Palestine, and which may be met daily. - -The Septuagint favours the interpretation of Weasel, and, as there is -no evidence on either side, there we may allow the question to rest. -As, however, the word only occurs once, and as the animal, whatever it -may be, is evidently of no particular importance, we may reserve our -space for the animals which have more important bearings upon the Holy -Scriptures. The subject will be again mentioned in the account of the -Mole of the Old Testament. - - - - -THE FERRET. - - Translation of the Hebrew word _Anakah_--The Shrew-mouse of - Palestine--Etymology of the word--The Gecko or Fan-foot, its - habits and peculiar cry--Repugnance felt by the Arabs of the - present day towards the Gecko. - - -Why the Hebrew word _Anakah_ should have been translated in our -version as Ferret there is little ground for conjecture. - -The name occurs among the various creeping things that were reckoned -as unclean, and were prohibited as food (see Lev. xi. 29, 30): "These -also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that creepeth -upon the earth: the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his -kind, and the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the -snail, and the mole." Now the word in question is translated in the -Septuagint as the Mygale, or Shrew-mouse, and it is probable that this -animal was accepted by the Jews as the Anakah. But, whether or not it -was the Shrew-mouse, it is certain that it is not the animal which we -call the Ferret. Mr. Tristram suggests that the etymology of the name, -_i.e._ Anâkah, the Groaner, or Sigher, points to some creature which -utters a mournful cry. And as the animal in question is classed among -the creeping things, he offers a conjecture that the Gecko, -Wall-lizard, or Fan-foot, may be the true interpretation of the word. - -Being one of the lizards, it belongs to the "creeping things," and -frequently utters a mournful sound like the word "geck-o." It is -exceedingly plentiful, and inhabits the interior of houses, where it -can find the flies and other insects on which it lives. On account of -the structure of the toes, each of which is flattened into a disk-like -form, and furnished on the under surface with a series of plates like -those on the back of the sucking-fish, it can walk up a smooth, -perpendicular wall with perfect ease, and can even cling to the -ceiling like the flies on which it feeds. - -The structure of the feet enables it to move about without the least -sound, and at first an observer is apt to be rather startled at the -mournful cry, and at the silent rapidity with which it darts from -place to place. - -The Arabs of the present day are horribly afraid of the Gecko, -thinking that it poisons everything that it touches, and are even more -terrified than are ignorant people in England when they see a toad. -Both creatures are equally repulsive in aspect, and equally harmless -towards the human race. - - - - -THE BADGER. - - Difficulty in identifying the _Tachash_ of Scripture--References - to "Badgers' skins"--The Dugong thought to be the Badger--The - Bedouin sandals--Nature of the materials for the - Tabernacle--Habits of the Badger--The species found in - Palestine--Uses of the Badgers' skins--Looseness of zoological - terms. - - -Until very lately, there was much difficulty in ascertaining whether -the word _Tachash_ has been rightly translated as Badger. It occurs in -several parts of the Scriptures, and almost invariably is used in -relation to a skin or fur of some sort. We will first examine the -passages in which the Badger is mentioned, and then proceed to -identify the animal. - -Nearly all the references to the Badger occur in the book of Exodus, -and form part of the directions for constructing the Tabernacle and -its contents. The first notice of the word occurs in Exodus xxv. 5, -where the people of Israel are ordered to bring their offerings for -the sanctuary, among which offerings are gold, silver, and brass, -blue, purple, and scarlet, fine linen, goats' hair, rams' skins dyed -red, badgers' skins, and shittim wood--all these to be used in the -construction of the Tabernacle. Then a little farther on, in chapter -xxvi. 14, we find one of the special uses to which the badgers' skins -were to be put, namely, to make the outer covering or roof of the -tabernacle. Another use for the badgers' skins was to form an outer -covering for the ark, table of shewbread, and other furniture of the -Tabernacle, when the people were on the march. - -In all these cases the badger-skin is used as a covering to defend a -building or costly furniture, but there is one example where it is -employed for a different purpose. This passage occurs in the book of -Ezekiel, chapter xvi. 10. The prophet is speaking of Jerusalem under -the image of a woman, and uses these words, "I anointed thee with oil; -I clothed thee also with broidered work, and shod thee with badger's -skin, and I girded thee about with fine linen, and I covered thee with -silk. I decked thee also with ornaments, and I put bracelets upon thy -hands, and a chain upon thy neck, and I put a jewel on thy forehead, -and earrings in thine ears, and a beautiful crown upon thine head." - -So we have here the fact, that the same material which was used for -the covering of the Tabernacle, and of the sacred furniture, could -also be used for the manufacture of shoes. This passage is the more -valuable because of an inference which may be drawn from it. The -reader will see that the badger-skin, whatever it may have been, must -have been something of considerable value, and therefore, in all -probability, something of much rarity. - -In the present instance, it is classed with the most luxurious robes -that were known in those days, and it is worthy of special mention -among the bracelet, earrings, necklace, and coronal with which the -symbolized city was adorned. If the reader will now refer to the -passage in which the children of Israel were commanded to bring their -offerings, he will see that in those cases also the badger-skins were -ranked with the costliest articles of apparel that could be found, and -had evidently been brought from Egypt, the peculiar home of all the -arts; together with the vast quantity of gold and jewels which were -used for the same sacred purpose. - -Now we find that the badger-skins in question must possess three -qualities: they must be costly, they must be capable of forming a -defence against the weather, and they must be strong enough to be -employed in the manufacture of shoes. If we accept the word Tachash as -signifying a Badger, we shall find that these conditions have been -fulfilled. - -But many commentators have thought that badger-skins could not have -been procured in sufficient numbers for the purpose, and have -therefore conjectured that some other animal must be signified by the -word Tachash. - -A species of dugong (_Halicore hemprichii_) is the animal that has -been selected as the Badger of the Scriptures. It is one of the marine -mammalia, and always lives near the shore, where it can find the -various algæ on which it feeds. It is a gregarious animal, and, as it -frequently ascends rivers for some distance, it may be captured in -sufficient numbers to make both its flesh and skin useful. Moreover, -it is of considerable size, fourteen or fifteen feet in length being -its usual dimensions, so that a comparatively small number of the -skins would be required for the covering of the Tabernacle. - -That shoes can be made of it is evident from the fact that at the -present day shoes, or rather sandals, are made from its hide, and are -commonly used by the Bedouins. But the very qualities and -peculiarities which render it a fit material for the sandal of a -half-naked Bedouin Arab, who has to walk continually over hard, hot, -sandy, and rough ground, would surely make it unsuitable for the -delicate shoes worn by a woman of rank who spends her time in the -house, and the rest of whose clothing is of fine linen and silk, -embroidered with gold and jewels. In our own country, the hobnailed -shoes of the ploughman and the slight shoe of a lady are made of very -different materials, and it is reasonable to conjecture that such was -the case when the passage in question was written. - - [Illustration: THE BADGER. - - "Thou shalt make a covering above of badgers' skins."--EX. xxvi. 14.] - -Then Dr. Robinson, who admits that the hide of the dugong could hardly -have been used as the material for a lady's shoe, thinks that it would -have answered very well for the roof of the Tabernacle, because it was -large, clumsy, and coarse. It seems strange that he did not also -perceive that the two latter qualities would completely disqualify -such skins for that service. Everything clumsy and coarse was -studiously prohibited, and nothing but the very best was considered -fit for the Tabernacle of the Lord. By special revelation, Moses was -instructed to procure, not merely the ordinary timber of the country -for the framework--not only the fabrics which would keep out rain and -wind--not simply the metals in common use, from which to make the -lamps and other furniture--not the ordinary oils for supplying the -lamps; but, on the contrary, the finest linen, the most elaborate -embroidery, the rarest woods, the purest gold, the costliest -gems, were demanded, and nothing common or inferior was accepted. -The commonest material that was permitted was the long, soft -fleece of rams' wool; but, even in that case, the wool had to be dyed -of the regal scarlet--a dye so rare and so costly that none but the -wealthiest rulers could use it. Even the very oil that burned in the -lamps must be the purest olive-oil, prepared expressly for that -purpose. - -The very fact, therefore, that any article was plentiful and could -easily be obtained, would be a proof that such article was not used -for so sacred a purpose; while it is impossible that anything coarse -and clumsy could have been accepted for the construction of that -Tabernacle within which the Shekinah ever burned over the -Mercy-seat--over which the cloud rested by day, and the fire shone by -night, visible external proofs of the Divine glory within. - -We therefore dismiss from our minds the possibility of accepting any -material for it which was not exceptionably valuable, and which would -be employed in the uses of ordinary life. The great object of the -minutely-elaborate directions which were given through Moses to the -Israelites was evidently to keep continually before their eyes the -great truth that they owed all to God, and that their costliest -offerings were but acknowledgments of their dependence. - -We will now presume that the Tachash of the Pentateuch and Ezekiel is -really the animal which we know by the name of Badger. It exists -throughout the whole of the district traversed by the Israelites, -though it is not very plentiful, nor is it easily taken. Had such been -the case, its fur would not have been employed in the service of the -sanctuary. - -It is nocturnal in its habits, and very seldom is seen during the -hours of daylight, so that it cannot be captured by chase. It is not -gregarious, so that it cannot be taken in great numbers, as is the -case with certain wild animals which have been thought to be the -Tachash of Scripture. It is not a careless animal, so that it cannot -be captured or killed without the exercise of considerable ingenuity, -and the expenditure of much time and trouble. It is one of the -burrowing animals, digging for itself a deep subterranean home, and -always ready whenever it is alarmed to escape into the dark recesses -of its dwelling, from which it can scarcely be dislodged. It is not a -large animal, so that a considerable number of skins would be required -in order to make a covering which should overlap a structure -forty-five feet in length and fifteen in breadth. Were it a solitary -animal, there might be a difficulty in procuring a sufficient number -of skins. But it is partly gregarious in its habits, living together -in small families, seven or eight being sometimes found to inhabit a -single dwelling-place. It is, therefore, sufficiently rare to make its -skin valuable, and sufficiently plentiful to furnish the requisite -number of skins. All these facts tend to show that the cost of such a -covering must have been very great, even though it was the outermost, -and, consequently, the least valuable of the four. It has been -suggested that these skins were only used to lay over the lines where -the different sets of coverings overlapped each other, and that, in -consequence, they need not have been very numerous. - -But we find that these same skins, which were evidently those which -formed the external roof, were used, when the Tabernacle was taken -down, for the purpose of forming distinct coverings for the ark of the -testimony, the table of shewbread, the seven-branched candlestick, the -golden altar, the various vessels used in the ministrations, and -lastly, the altar of sacrifice itself. Thus, when we recollect the -dimensions of the ark, the table, the candlestick, and the two altars, -we shall see that, in order to make separate covers for them, a -quantity of material would be used which would be amply sufficient to -cover the whole roof of the Tabernacle, even if it had, as was most -probably the case, a ridged, and not a flat roof. - -We now come to our next point, namely, the aptitude of the Badger's -skin to resist weather. Any one who has handled the skin of the Badger -will acknowledge that a better material could hardly be found. The fur -is long, thick, and, though light, is moderately stiff, the hairs -falling over each other in such a manner as to throw off rain or snow -as off a penthouse. And, as to the third point, namely, its possible -use as a material for the manufacture of shoes, we may call to mind -that the skin of the Badger is proverbially tough, and that this very -quality has caused the animal to be subjected to most cruel treatment -by a class of sporting men which is now almost extinct. - -The Septuagint gives little assistance in determining the precise -nature of the Tachash, and rather seems to consider the word as -expressive of the colour with which the fur was dyed than that of the -animal from which it was taken. Still, it must be remembered that not -only are zoological terms used very loosely in the Scriptures, but -that in Hebrew, as in all other languages, the same combination of -letters often expresses two different ideas, so that the word Tachash -may equally signify a colour and an animal. Moreover, it has been well -pointed out that the repeated use of the word in the plural number -shows that it cannot refer to colour; while its almost invariable -combination with the Hebrew word that signifies a skin implies that it -does not refer to colour, but to an animal. - -What that animal may be, is, as I have already mentioned, conjectural. -But, as the authorized translation renders the word as Badger, and as -this reading fulfils the conditions necessary to its identification, -and as no other reading does fulfil them, we cannot be very far wrong -if we accept that translation as the correct one, and assume the -Tachash of the Scriptures to be the animal which we call by the name -of Badger. - - - - -THE BEAR. - - The Syrian Bear--Identity of the Hebrew and Arabic titles--Its - colour variable according to age--Bears once numerous in - Palestine, and now only occasionally seen--Reason for their - diminution--Present localities of the Bear, and its favourite - haunts--Food of the Bear--Its general habits--Its ravages among - the flocks--The Bear dangerous to mankind--The Bear robbed of - her whelps--Illustrative passages--Its mode of fighting--Various - references to the Bear, from the time of Samuel to that of St. - John. - - -Whatever doubt may exist as to the precise identity of various animals -mentioned in the Scriptures, there is none whatever as to the creature -which is frequently alluded to under the name of Bear. - -The Hebrew word is _Dôb_, and it is a remarkable fact that the name of -this animal in the Arabic language is almost identical with the Hebrew -term, namely, _Dubh_. The peculiar species of Bear which inhabits -Palestine is the Syrian Bear (_Ursus Isabellinus_), and, though it has -been variously described by different eye-witnesses, there is no doubt -that the same species was seen by them all. As is the case with many -animals, the Syrian Bear changes its colour as it grows older. When a -cub, it is of a darkish brown, which becomes a light brown as it -approaches maturity. But, when it has attained its full growth, it -becomes cream-coloured, and each succeeding year seems to lighten its -coat, so that a very old Bear is nearly as white as its relative of -the Arctic regions. Travellers, therefore, who have met the younger -specimens, have described them as brown in hue, while those who have -seen more aged individuals have stated that the colour of the Syrian -Bear is white. - -Owing to the destruction of forests, the Bear, which is essentially a -lover of the woods, has decreased considerably in number. Yet, even at -the present time, specimens may be seen by the watchful traveller, -mostly about the range of Lebanon, but sometimes at a considerable -distance from that locality. Mr. Tristram, for example, saw it close -to the Lake of Gennesaret. "We never met with so many wild animals as -on one of those days. First of all, a wild boar got out of some scrub -close to us, as we were ascending the valley. Then a deer was started -below, ran up the cliff, and wound along the ledge, passing close to -us. Then a large ichneumon almost crossed my feet and ran into a -cleft; and, while endeavouring to trace him, I was amazed to see a -brown Syrian Bear clumsily but rapidly clamber down the rocks and -cross the ravine. He was, however, far too cautious to get within -hailing distance of any of the riflemen." - - [Illustration: "As a roaring lion and a ranging bear, so is a wicked - ruler over the poor people."--PROV. xxviii. 15.] - -The same author mentions that some of the chief strongholds of this -Bear are certain clefts in the face of a precipitous chasm through -which the river Leontes flows. This river runs into the sea a few -miles northward of Tyre, and assists in carrying off the melted snows -from the Lebanon range of mountains. His description is so -picturesque, that it must be given in his own words. "The channel, -though a thousand feet deep, was so narrow that the opposite ridge was -within gunshot. Looking down the giddy abyss, we could see the cliff -on our side partially covered with myrtle, bay, and caper -hanging from the fissures, while the opposite side was perforated -with many shallow caves, the inaccessible eyries of vultures, -eagles, and lanner falcons, which were sailing in multitudes -around. The lower part had many ledges clad with shrubs, the -strongholds of the Syrian Bear, though inaccessible even to goats. Far -beneath dashed the milk-white river, a silver line in a ruby setting -of oleanders, roaring doubtless fiercely, but too distant to be heard -at the height on which we stood. This _cleft_ of the Leontes was the -only true Alpine scenery we had met with in Palestine, and in any -country, and amidst any mountains, it would attract admiration." - -On those elevated spots the Bear loves to dwell, and throughout the -summer-time generally remains in such localities. For the Bear is one -of the omnivorous animals, and is able to feed on vegetable as well as -animal substances, preferring the former when they can be found. There -is nothing that a Bear likes better than strawberries and similar -fruits, among which it will revel throughout the whole fruit season, -daintily picking the ripest berries, and becoming wonderfully fat by -the constant banquet. Sometimes, when the fruits fail, it makes -incursions among the cultivated grounds, and is noted for the ravages -which it makes among a sort of vetch which is much grown in the Holy -Land. - -But during the colder months of the year the Bear changes its diet, -and becomes carnivorous. Sometimes it contents itself with the various -wild animals which it can secure, but sometimes it descends to the -lower plains, and seizes upon the goats and sheep in their pastures. -This habit is referred to by David, in his well-known speech to Saul, -when the king was trying to dissuade him from matching himself against -the gigantic Philistine. "And Saul said to David, Thou art not able to -go against this Philistine to fight with him: for thou art but a -youth, and he a man of war from his youth.... Thy servant kept his -father's sheep, and there came a lion and a bear, and took a lamb out -of the flock: and I went out after him, and smote him, and delivered -it out of his hand; and when he arose against me, I caught him by the -beard, and smote him, and slew him. Thy servant slew both the lion and -the bear: and this uncircumcised Philistine shall be as one of them, -seeing he hath defied the armies of the living God."--1 Sam. xvii. -33-36. - -Though not generally apt to attack mankind, it will do so if first -attacked, and then becomes a most dangerous enemy. See, for example, -that most graphic passage in the book of the prophet Amos, whose -business as a herdsman must have made him conversant with the habits, -not only of the flocks and herds which he kept, but of the wild beasts -which might devour them:--"Woe unto you that desire the day of the -Lord! to what end is it for you? the day of the Lord is darkness, and -not light. As if a man did flee from a lion, and a bear met him; or -went into a house, and leaned his hand on the wall, and a serpent bit -him." (v. 19.) - -Another reference to the dangerous character of the Bear is made in 2 -Kings ii. 23, 24, in which is recorded that two she-bears came out of -the wood near Bethel, and killed forty-two of the children that mocked -at Elisha. - -As the Bear is not swift of foot, but rather clumsy in its movements, -it cannot hope to take the nimbler animals in open chase. It prefers -to lie in wait for them in the bushes, and to strike them down with a -sudden blow of its paw, a terrible weapon, which it can wield as -effectively as the lion uses its claws. An allusion to this habit is -made in the Lamentations of Jeremiah (iii. 10), "He was unto me as a -bear lying in wait, and as a lion in secret places." - -Harmless to man as it generally is, there are occasions on which it -becomes a terrible and relentless foe, not seeking to avoid his -presence, but even searching for him, and attacking him as soon as -seen. In the proper season of the year, hunters, or those who are -travelling through those parts of the country infested by the Bear, -will sometimes find the cubs, generally two in number, their mother -having left them in the den while she has gone to search for food. -Although they would not venture to take the initiative in an attack -upon either of the parents, they are glad of an opportunity which -enables them to destroy one or two Bears without danger to themselves. -The young Bears are easily killed or carried off, because at a very -early age they are as confident as they are weak, and do not try to -escape when they see the hunters approaching. - -The only danger lies in the possibility that their deed may be -discovered by the mother before they can escape from the locality, -and, if she should happen to return while the robbers are still in -the neighbourhood, a severe conflict is sure to follow. At any time an -angry Bear is a terrible antagonist, especially if it be wounded with -sufficient severity to cause pain, and not severely enough to cripple -its movements. But, when to this easily-roused ferocity is added the -fury of maternal feelings, it may be imagined that the hunters have -good reason to fear its attack. - -To all animals that rear their young is given a sublime and almost -supernatural courage in defending their offspring, and from the -lioness, that charges a host of armed men when her cubs are in danger, -to the hen, which defies the soaring kite or prowling fox, or to the -spider, that will give up her life rather than abandon her yet -unhatched brood, the same self-sacrificing spirit actuates them all. -Most terrible therefore is the wrath of a creature which possesses, as -is the case of the Bear, the strongest maternal affections, added to -great size, tremendous weapons, and gigantic strength. That the sight -of a Bear bereaved of her young was well known to both writers and -contemporary readers of the Old Testament, is evident from the fact -that it is mentioned by several writers, and always as a familiar -illustration of furious anger. See for example 2 Sam. xvii. 8, when -Hushai is dissuading Absalom from following the cautious counsel of -Ahithophel, "For thou knowest thy father and his men, that they be -mighty men of war, and they be chafed in their minds as a bear robbed -of her whelps in the field." Solomon also, in the Proverbs (xvii. 12), -uses the same image, "Let a bear robbed of her whelps meet a man, -rather than a fool in his folly." - -When the Bear fights, it delivers rapid strokes with its armed paw, -tearing and rending away everything that it strikes. A blow from a -bear's paw has been several times known to strip the entire skin, -together with the hair, from a man's head, and, when fighting with -dogs, to tear its enemies open as if each claw were a chisel. This -mode of fighting is clearly alluded to by the prophet Hosea, who -seems, from the graphic force of his sentences, to have been an actual -spectator of some such combat, "I will meet them as a bear that is -bereaved of her whelps, and will rend the caul of their heart" (Hos. -xiii. 8). - -That the Bear was a well-known animal both in the earlier and later -times of the Scripture is also evident from the fact that it was -twice used as a symbol exhibited to a seer in a vision. The first of -these passages occurs in the book of Daniel (vii. 5), when the prophet -is describing the wonderful vision of the four beasts:--"And behold -another beast, a second, like to a bear, and it raised up itself on -one side, and it had three ribs in the mouth of it, between the teeth -of it, and they said thus unto it, Arise, devour much flesh." The -second allusion occurs in the Revelation, the seven-headed and -ten-crowned beast having a form like that of a leopard, but feet like -those of a Bear. - - - - -THE HEDGEHOG, OR BITTERN. - - Various readings of the word _Kippôd_--The Jewish Bible and its - object--The Syrian Hedgehog and its appearance--Its fondness for - dry spots--The prophecies of Isaiah and Zephaniah, and their - bearing on the subject--The Porcupine supposed to be the - Kippôd--The Hedgehog and Porcupine called by the same name in - Greek and Arabic--Habits of the Porcupine--Its quills, and the - manner of their shedding. - - -In our Authorized Bible, there are one or two passages where the -Hebrew word _Kippôd_ is translated as BITTERN. For example, there is -Isaiah xiv. 22, 23, "I will cut off from Babylon the name, and -remnant, and son and nephew, saith the Lord. I will also make it a -possession for the bittern, and pools of water, and I will sweep it -with the besom of destruction, saith the Lord of hosts." - -Then there is another passage of the same prophet (xxxiv. 11), "But -the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it (_i.e._ Idumea), the -owl also and the raven shall dwell in it." The last mention of this -creature occurs in Zephaniah ii. 14, "And flocks shall lie down in the -midst of her (_i.e._ Nineveh), all the beasts of the nations: both the -bittern and the cormorant shall lodge in the upper lintels of it; -their voice shall sing in the windows; desolation shall be in the -thresholds; for he shall uncover the cedar-work." - -Now, in the "Jewish School and Family Bible," a new literal -translation by Dr. A. Benisch, under the superintendence of the Chief -Rabbi, the word Kippôd is translated, not as Bittern, but Hedgehog. As -I shall have to refer to this translation repeatedly in the course of -the present work, I will give a few remarks made by the translator in -the preface. - - [Illustration: SYRIAN HEDGEHOG. - - "_Pelican and hedgehog shall possess it._"--ISA. xxxiv. 11. (Jewish - Bible).] - -After premising that both Christian and Jew agree in considering the -Old Testament as emanating from God, and reverencing it as such, he -proceeds to say that the former, as holding himself absolved from the -ceremonial law of the Mosaic dispensation, has not the interest in the -exact signification of every letter of the law which necessarily -attaches itself to the Jew, who considers himself bound by that law, -although some ceremonies, "by their special reference to the Temple in -Jerusalem and the actual existence of Israel in the Holy Land, are at -present not practicable." - -He then observes that the translators of the authorized Anglican -version, whose many excellences he fully admits, could not be -considered as free agents, as they were bound by the positive -injunctions of their monarch, as well as by the less obvious, but more -powerful influence of Christian authorities, to alter the original -translation as little as possible, and to keep the ecclesiastical -words. Retaining, therefore, the renderings of the Anglican -translation whenever it can be done without infringing upon absolute -accuracy, the translator has marked with great care various passages -where he has felt himself obliged to give a different rendering to the -Hebrew. Whenever words, especially such as are evidently the names of -animals, cannot be rendered with any amount of probability, they have -not been translated at all, and to those about which there are good -grounds of doubt a distinctive mark is affixed. - -Now to the word Hedgehog, by which the Hebrew Kippôd is rendered, no -such marking is attached in either of the three quoted passages, and -it is evident therefore that the rendering is satisfactory to the -highest authorities on the Hebrew language. And we have the greater -assurance of this accuracy, because, in the mere translation of the -name of an animal, no doctrinal point is involved, and so there can be -no temptation to the translator to be carried away by preconceived -ideas, and to give to the word that rendering which may tend to -establish his peculiar doctrinal ideas. - -The Septuagint also translates Kippôd as [Greek: echinos] (_echinus_) -_i.e._ the Hedgehog, and this rendering is advocated by the eminent -scholar Gesenius, who considers it to be formed from the Hebrew word -_kaped_, _i.e._ contracted; reference being of course made to the -Hedgehog's habit of rolling itself up when alarmed, and presenting -only an array of bristles to the enemy. This derivation of the word is -certainly more convincing than a suggestion which has been made, that -the Hebrew Kippôd may signify the Hedgehog, because it resembles the -Arabic name of the same animal, viz. Kunfod. - -As therefore the word Kippôd is translated as Hedgehog in the -Septuagint and Jewish Bible, and as Bittern in the authorized version, -we very naturally ask ourselves whether either or both of these -animals inhabit Palestine and the neighbouring countries. We find that -both are plentiful even at the present day, and that more than one -species of Hedgehog and Bittern are known in the Holy Land. About the -Bittern we shall treat in good time, and will now take up the -rendering of Hedgehog. - -There are at least two species of Hedgehog known in Palestine, that of -the north being identical with our own well-known animal (_Erinaceus -Europoeus_), and the other being a distinct species (_Erinaceus -Syriacus_). The latter animal is the species which has been chosen for -illustration. It is smaller than its northern relative, lighter in -colour, and, as may be seen from the illustration, is rather different -in general aspect. - -Its habits are identical with those of the European Hedgehog. Like -that animal it is carnivorous, feeding on worms, snails, frogs, -lizards, snakes, and similar creatures, and occasionally devouring the -eggs and young of birds that make their nest on the ground. - -Small as is the Hedgehog, it can devour all such animals with perfect -ease, its jaws and teeth being much stronger than might be anticipated -from the size of their owner. - -One or two objections that have been made to the translation of the -Kippôd as Hedgehog must be mentioned, so that the reader may see what -is said on both sides in dubious cases. One objection is, that the -Kippôd is (in Isaiah xiv. 23) mentioned in connexion with pools of -water, and that, as the Hedgehog prefers dry places to wet, whereas -the Bittern is essentially a marsh-dweller, the latter rendering of -the word is preferable to the former. Again, as the Kippôd is said by -Zephaniah to "lodge in the upper lintels," and its "voice to sing in -the windows," it must be a bird, and not a quadruped. We will examine -these passages separately, and see how they bear upon the subject. As -to Zephaniah ii. 13, the Jewish Bible treats the passage as -follows:--"And he will stretch out his hand against the north, and -destroy Assyria; and will make Nineveh a desolation, and arid like the -desert. And droves shall crouch in the midst of her, all the animals -of nations: both pelican and hedgehog (Kippôd) shall lodge nightly in -the knobs of it, a voice shall sing in the windows; drought shall be -in the thresholds, for he shall uncover the cedar-work." - -Now the reader will see that, so far from the notion of marsh-land -being connected with the Kippôd, the whole imagery of the prophecy -turns upon the opposite characteristics of desolation, aridity, and -drought. The same imagery is used in Isaiah xxxiv. 7-12, which the -Jewish Bible reads as follows, "For it is the day of the vengeance of -the Eternal, and the year of recompenses for the quarrel of Zion. And -the brooks thereof shall be turned into pitch, and the dust thereof -into brimstone, and the land thereof shall become burning pitch. It -shall not go out night nor day; the smoke of it shall go up for ever; -from generation to generation it shall lie waste; none shall pass -through it for ever and ever. Pelican and hedgehog (Kippôd) shall -possess it; owls also and ravens shall dwell in it; and he shall -stretch over it the line of desolation, and the stones of emptiness." -And to the end of the chapter the same idea of drought, desolation, -and solitude is carried out. - -Thus, even putting the question in the simplest manner, we have two -long passages which directly connect the Kippôd with drought, aridity, -and desolation, in opposition to one in which the Kippôd and "pools of -water" are mentioned in proximity to each other. Now the fact is, that -the sites of Nineveh and Babylon fulfil both prophecies, being both -dry and marshy--dry away from the river, and marshy among the -reed-swamps that now exist on its banks. - -So much for the question of locality. - -As to the second objection, namely, that the Kippôd was to lodge in -the upper lintels, and therefore must be a bird, and not a quadruped, -it is sufficient to say that the allusion is evidently made to ruins -that are thrown down, and not to buildings that are standing upright. - -As to the words, "their voices shall sing in the windows," the reader -may see, on reference to the English Bible, that the word "their" is -printed in italics, showing that it does not exist in the original, -and has been supplied by the translator. Taking the passage as it -really stands, "Both the cormorant and the bittern (Kippôd) shall -lodge in the upper lintels of it; a voice shall sing in the windows," -it is evident that the voice or sound which sings in the windows does -not necessarily refer to the cormorant and Bittern at all. Dr. Harris -remarks that "the phrase is elliptical, and implies 'the voice of -birds.'" - - - - -THE PORCUPINE. - - Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine--The same - Greek name applied to the Porcupine and Hedgehog--Habits of the - Porcupine--the common Porcupine found plentifully in Palestine. - - -Although, like the hedgehog, the Porcupine is not mentioned by name in -the Scriptures, many commentators think that the word Kippôd signifies -both the hedgehog and Porcupine. - -That the two animals should be thought to be merely two varieties of -one species is not astonishing, when we remember the character of the -people among whom the Porcupine lives. Not having the least idea of -scientific geology, they look only to the most conspicuous -characteristics, and because the Porcupine and hedgehog are both -covered with an armature of quills, and the quills are far more -conspicuous than the teeth, the inhabitants of Palestine naturally -class the two animals together. In reality, they belong to two very -different orders, the hedgehog being classed with the shrew-mice and -moles, while the Porcupine is a rodent animal, and is classed with the -rats, rabbits, beavers, marmots, and other rodents. - -At the present day the inhabitants of the Holy Land believe the -Porcupine to be only a large species of hedgehog, and the same name is -applied to both animals. Such is the case even in the Greek language, -the word Hystrix ([Greek: hystrinx] or [Greek: hysthrix]) being -employed indifferently in either sense. - -Its food is different from that of the hedgehog, for whereas the -hedgehog lives entirely on animal food, as has been already mentioned, -the Porcupine is as exclusively a vegetable eater, feeding chiefly on -roots and bark. - -It is quite as common in Palestine as the hedgehog, a fact which -increases the probability that the two animals may have been mentioned -under a common title. Being a nocturnal animal, it retires during the -day-time to some crevice in a rock or burrow in the ground, and there -lies sleeping until the sunset awakens it and calls it to action. And -as the hedgehog is also a nocturnal animal, the similarity of habit -serves to strengthen the mutual resemblance. - -The Porcupine is peculiarly fitted for living in dry and unwatered -spots, as, like many other animals, of which our common rabbit is a -familiar example, it can exist without water, obtaining the needful -moisture from the succulent roots on which it feeds. - -The sharply pointed quills with which its body is covered are solid, -and strengthened in a most beautiful manner by internal ribs, that run -longitudinally along its length, exactly like those of the hollow iron -masts, which are now coming so much into use. As they are, in fact, -greatly developed hairs, they are continually shed and replaced, and -when they are about to fall are so loosely attached that they fall off -if pulled slightly, or even if the animal shakes itself. Consequently -the shed quills that lie about the localities inhabited by the -Porcupine indicate its whereabouts, and so plentiful are these quills -in some places that quite a bundle can be collected in a short time. - -There are many species of Porcupines which inhabit different parts of -the world, but that which has been mentioned is the common Porcupine -of Europe, Asia, and Africa (_Hystrix cristata_). - - - - -THE MOLE. - - The two Hebrew words which are translated as Mole--Obscurity of - the former name--A parallel case in our own language--The second - name--The Moles and the Bats, why associated together--The real - Mole of Scripture, its different names, and its place in - zoology--Description of the Mole-rat and its general - habits--Curious superstition--Discovery of the species by Mr. - Tristram--Scripture and science--How the Mole-rat finds its - food--Distinction between the Mole and the present animal. - - -There are two words which are translated as Mole in our authorized -version of the Bible. One of them is so obscure that there seems no -possibility of deciding the creature that is represented by it. We -cannot even tell to what class of the animal kingdom it refers, -because in more than one place it is mentioned as one of the unclean -birds that might not be eaten (translated as _swan_ in our version), -whereas, in another place, it is enumerated among the unclean creeping -things. - - [Illustration: THE MOLE-RAT. - - "_These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that - creep upon the earth ... the lizard, the snail, and the mole._"--LEV. - xi. 29, 30.] - -We may conjecture that the same word might be used to designate two -distinct animals, though we have no clue to their identification. It -is rather a strange coincidence, in corroboration of this theory, that -our word Mole signifies three distinct objects--firstly, an animal; -secondly, a cutaneous growth; and thirdly, a bank of earth. Now, -supposing English to be a dead language, like the Hebrew, it may well -be imagined that a translator of an English book would feel extremely -perplexed when he saw the word Mole used in such widely different -senses. - -The best Hebraists can do no more than offer a conjecture founded on -the structure of the word _Tinshemeth_, which is thought by some to be -the chameleon. Some think that it is the Mole, some the ibis, some the -salamander, while others consider it to be the centipede; and in -neither case have any decisive arguments been adduced. - -We will therefore leave the former of these two names, and proceed to -the second, _Chephor-peroth_. - -This word occurs in that passage of Isaiah which has already been -quoted when treating of the bat. "In that day a man shall cast his -idols of silver and his idols of gold, which they made each one to -himself to worship, to the moles and to the bats; to go into the -clefts of the rocks and into the tops of the ragged rocks, for fear of -the Lord and for the glory of his majesty, when he ariseth to shake -terribly the earth." - -It is highly probable that the animal in question is the Mole of -Palestine, which is not the same as our European species, but is much -larger in size, and belongs to a different order of mammalia. The true -Mole is one of the insectivorous and carnivorous animals, and is -allied to the shrews and the hedgehogs; whereas the Mole of Palestine -(_Spalax typhlus_) is one of the rodents, and allied to the rabbits, -mice, marmots, and jerboas. A better term for it is the Mole-rat, by -which name it is familiar to zoologists. It is also known by the names -of Slepez and Nenni. - -In length it is about eight inches, and its colour is a pale slate. As -is the case with the true Moles, the eyes are of very minute -dimensions, and are not visible through the thick soft fur with which -the whole head and body are covered. Neither are there any visible -external ears, although the ear is really very large, and extremely -sensitive to sound. This apparent privation of both ears and eyes -gives to the animal a most singular and featureless appearance, its -head being hardly recognisable as such but for the mouth, and the -enormous projecting teeth, which not only look formidable, but really -are so. There is a curious superstition in the Ukraine, that if a man -will dare to grasp a Mole-rat in his bare hand, allow it to bite him, -and then squeeze it to death, the hand that did the deed will ever -afterwards possess the virtue of healing goitre or scrofula. - -This animal is spread over a very large tract of country, and is very -common in Palestine. Mr. Tristram gives an interesting account of its -discovery. "We had long tried in vain to capture the Mole of -Palestine. Its mines and its mounds we had seen everywhere, and -reproached ourselves with having omitted the mole-trap among the -items of our outfit. From the size of the mounds and the shallowness -of the subterranean passages, we felt satisfied it could not be the -European species, and our hopes of solving the question were raised -when we found that one of them had taken up its quarters close to our -camp. After several vain attempts to trap it, an Arab one night -brought a live Mole in a jar to the tent. It was no Mole properly so -called, but the Mole-rat, which takes its place throughout Western -Asia. The man, having observed our anxiety to possess a specimen, -refused to part with it for less than a hundred piastres, and -scornfully rejected the twenty piastres I offered. Ultimately, Dr. -Chaplin purchased it for five piastres after our departure, and I kept -it alive for some time in a box, feeding it on sliced onions." - -The same gentleman afterwards caught many of the Mole-rats, and kept -them in earthen vessels, as they soon gnawed their way through wood. -They fed chiefly on bulbs, but also ate sopped bread. Like many other -animals, they reposed during the day, and were active throughout the -night. - -The author then proceeds to remark on the peculiarly appropriate -character of the prophecy that the idols should be cast to the Moles -and the bats. Had the European Mole been the animal to which reference -was made, there would have been comparatively little significance in -the connexion of the two names, because, although both animals are -lovers of darkness, they do not inhabit similar localities. But the -Mole-rat is fond of frequenting deserted ruins and burial-places, so -that the Moles and the bats are really companions, and as such are -associated together in the sacred narrative. Here, as in many other -instances, we find that closer study of the Scriptures united to more -extended knowledge are by no means the enemies of religion, as some -well-meaning, but narrow-minded persons think. On the contrary, the -Scriptures were never so well understood, and their truth and force so -well recognised, as at the present day; and science has proved to be, -not the destroyer of the Bible, but its interpreter. We shall soon -cease to hear of "Science _versus_ the Bible," and shall substitute -"Science and the Bible _versus_ Ignorance and Prejudice." - -The Mole-rat needs not to dig such deep tunnels as the true Moles, -because its food does not lie so deep. The Moles live chiefly upon -earthworms, and are obliged to procure them in the varying depths to -which they burrow. But the Mole-rat lives mostly upon roots, -preferring those of a bulbous nature. Now bulbous roots are, as a -rule, situated near the surface of the ground, and, therefore, any -animal which feeds upon them must be careful not to burrow too deeply, -lest it should pass beneath them. The shallowness of the burrows is -thus accounted for. Gardens are often damaged by this animal, the -root-crops, such as carrots and onions, affording plenty of food -without needing much exertion. - -The Mole-rat does not keep itself quite so jealously secluded as does -our common Mole, but occasionally will come out of the burrow and lie -on the ground, enjoying the warm sunshine. Still it is not easily to -be approached; for though its eyes are almost useless, the ears are so -sharp, and the animal is so wary, that at the sound of a footstep it -instantly seeks the protection of its burrow, where it may bid -defiance to its foes. - -How it obtains its food is a mystery. There seems to be absolutely no -method of guiding itself to the precise spot where a bulb may be -growing. It is not difficult to conjecture the method by which the -Mole discovers its prey. Its sensitive ears may direct it to the spot -where a worm is driving its way through the earth, and should it come -upon its prey, the very touch of the worm, writhing in terror at the -approach of its enemy, would be sufficient to act as a guide. I have -kept several Moles, and always noticed that, though they would pass -close to a worm without seeming to detect its presence, either by -sight or scent, at the slightest touch they would spring round, dart -on the worm, and in a moment seize it between their jaws. But with the -Mole-rat the case is different. The root can utter no sound, and can -make no movement, nor is it likely that the odour of the bulb should -penetrate through the earth to a very great distance. - - - - -THE MOUSE. - - Conjectures as to the right translation of the Hebrew word - _Akbar_--Signification of the word--The Mice which marred the - land--Miracles, and their economy of power--The Field-mouse--Its - destructive habits and prolific nature--The insidious nature of - its attacks, and its power of escaping observation--The Hamster, - and its habits--Its custom of storing up provisions for the - winter--Its fertility and unsociable nature--The Jerboa, its - activity and destructiveness--Jerboas and Hamsters eaten by - Arabs and Syrians--Various species of Dormice and Sand-rats. - - -That the Mouse mentioned in the Old Testament was some species of -rodent animal is tolerably clear, though it is impossible to state any -particular species as being signified by the Hebrew word _Akbar_. The -probable derivation of this name is from two words which signify -"destruction of corn," and it is therefore evident that allusion is -made to some animal which devours the produce of the fields, and which -exists in sufficient numbers to make its voracity formidable. - -Some commentators on the Old Testament translate the word Akbar as -jerboa. Now, although the jerboa is common in Syria, it is not nearly -so plentiful as other rodent animals, and would scarcely be selected -as the means by which a terrible disaster is made to befall a whole -country. The student of Scripture is well aware that, in those -exceptional occurrences which are called miracles, a needless -development of the wonder-working power is never employed. We are not -to suppose, for example, that the clouds of locusts that devoured the -harvests of the Egyptians were created for this express purpose, but -that their already existing hosts were concentrated upon a limited -area, instead of being spread over a large surface. Nor need we fancy -that the frogs which rendered their habitations unclean, and -contaminated their food, were brought into existence simply to inflict -a severe punishment on the fastidious and superstitious Egyptians. - -Of course, had such an exercise of creative power been needed, it -would have been used, but we can all see that a needless miracle is -never worked. He who would not suffer even a crumb of the miraculously -multiplied bread to be wasted, is not likely to waste that power by -which the miracle was wrought. - -If we refer to the early history of the Israelitish nation, as told in -1 Sam. iv.--vi., we shall find that the Israelites made an -unwarrantable use of the ark, by taking it into battle, and that it -was captured and carried off into the country of the Philistines. Then -various signs were sent to warn the captors to send the ark back to -its rightful possessors. Dagon, the great fish-god, was prostrated -before it, painful diseases attacked them, so that many died, and -scarcely any seem to have escaped, while their harvests were ravaged -by numbers of "mice that marred the land." - -The question is now simple enough. If the ordinary translation is -accepted, and the word Akbar rendered as Mouse, would the necessary -conditions be fulfilled, _i.e._ would the creature be destructive, and -would it exist in very great numbers? Now we shall find that both -these conditions are fulfilled by the common Field-mouse (_Arvicola -arvalis_). - -This little creature is, in proportion to its size, one of the most -destructive animals in the world. Let its numbers be increased from -any cause whatever, and it will most effectually "mar the land." It -will devour every cereal that is sown, and kill almost any sapling -that is planted. It does not even wait for the corn to spring up, but -will burrow beneath the surface, and dig out the seed before it has -had time to sprout. In the early part of the year, it will eat the -green blade as soon as it springs out of the ground, and is an adept -at climbing the stalks of corn, and plundering the ripe ears in the -autumn. - -When stacked or laid up in barns, the harvest is by no means safe, for -the Mice will penetrate into any ordinary barn, and find their way -into any carelessly-built stack, from which they can scarcely be -ejected. The rat itself is not so dire a foe to the farmer, as the -less obtrusive, but equally mischievous Field-mouse. The ferret will -drive the rats out of their holes, and if they have taken possession -of a wheat-stack they can be ejected by depriving them of access to -water. But the burrows of the Field-mouse are so small that a ferret -cannot make its way through them, and the nightly dew that falls on -the stack affords an ample supply of water. - - [Illustration: THE FIELD-MOUSE. - - "_Wherefore ye shall make images of your mice that mar the land._"--1 - SAM. vi. 5.] - -When the Field-mouse is deprived of the food which it loves best, it -finds a subsistence among the trees. Whenever mice can discover a -newly-planted sapling, they hold great revel upon it, eating away the -tender young bark as high as they can reach, and consequently -destroying the tree as effectually as if it were cut down. Even when -the young trees fail them, and no tender bark is to be had, the -Field-mice can still exert their destructive powers. They will then -betake themselves to the earth, burrow beneath its surface, and devour -the young rootlets of the forest trees. All botanists know that a -healthy tree is continually pushing forward fresh roots below the -ground, in order to gain sufficient nourishment to supply the -increasing growth above. If, therefore, these young roots are -destroyed, the least harm that can happen to the tree is that its -further growth is arrested; while, in many cases, the tree, which -cannot repair the injuries it has received, droops gradually, and -finally dies. Even in this country, the Field-mouse has proved itself -a terrible enemy to the agriculturist, and has devastated considerable -tracts of land. - -So much for the destructive powers of the Field-mouse, and the next -point to be considered is its abundance. - -Nearly all the rats and mice are singularly prolific animals, -producing a considerable number at a brood, and having several broods -in a season. The Field-mouse is by no means an exception to the -general rule, but produces as many young in a season as any of the -Mice. - -Not only is it formidable from its numbers, but from the insidious -nature of its attacks. Any one can see a rabbit, a hare, or even a -rat; but to see a Field-mouse is not easy, even when the little -creatures are present in thousands. A Field-mouse never shows itself -except from necessity, its instinct teaching it to escape the -observation of its many furred and feathered enemies. Short-legged and -soft-furred, it threads its noiseless way among the herbage with such -gentle suppleness that scarcely a grass-blade is stirred, while, if it -should be forced to pass over a spot of bare ground, the red-brown hue -of its fur prevents it from being detected by an inexperienced eye. -Generally the Field-mouse is safe from human foes, and has only to -dread the piercing eye and swift wings of the hawk, or the silent -flight and sharp talons of the owl. - -Although there can be no doubt that the Field-mouse is one of the -animals to which the name of Akbar is given, it is probable that many -species were grouped under this one name. Small rodents of various -kinds are very plentiful in Palestine, and there are several species -closely allied to the Field-mouse itself. - -Among them is the Hamster (_Cricetus frumentarius_), so widely known -for the ravages which it makes among the crops. This terribly -destructive animal not only steals the crops for immediate -subsistence, but lays up a large stock of provisions for the winter, -seeming to be actuated by a sort of miserly passion for collecting and -storing away. There seems to be no bounds to the quantity of food -which a Hamster will carry into its subterranean store-house, from -seventy to one hundred pounds' weight being sometimes taken out of -the burrow of a single animal. The fact of the existence of these -large stores shows that the animal must need them, and accordingly we -find that the Hamster is only a partial hibernator, as it is awake -during a considerable portion of the winter months, and is -consequently obliged to live on the stores which it has collected. - -It is an exceedingly prolific animal, each pair producing on an -average twenty-five young in the course of a year. The families are -unsociable, and, as soon as they are strong enough to feed themselves, -the young Hamsters leave their home, and make separate burrows for -themselves. Thus we see that the Hamster, as well as the Field-mouse, -fulfils the conditions which are needed in order to class it under the -general title of Akbar. - -I have already stated that some translators of the Bible use the word -Jerboa as a rendering of the Hebrew Akbar. As the Jerboa certainly is -found in Palestine, there is some foundation for this idea, and we may -safely conjecture that it also is one of the smaller rodents which are -grouped together under the appellation of Mouse. - -The Common Jerboa (_Dipus Ægyptiacus_) is plentiful in Palestine, and -several other species inhabit the same country, known at once by their -long and slender legs, which give them so curious a resemblance to the -kangaroos of Australia. The Jerboas pass over the ground with -astonishing rapidity. Instead of creeping stealthily among the -grass-blades, like the short-limbed field-mouse, the Jerboa flies -along with a succession of wonderful leaps, darting here and there -with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow its wayward -movements. When quiet and undisturbed, it hops along gently enough, -but as soon as it takes alarm, it darts off in its peculiar manner, -which is to the ordinary walk of quadrupeds what the devious course of -a frightened snipe is to the steady flight of birds in general. - -It prefers hot and dry situations, its feet being defended by a thick -coating of stiff hairs, which serve the double purpose of protecting -it from the heat, and giving it a firm hold on the ground. It is -rather a destructive animal, its sharp and powerful teeth enabling it -to bite its way through obstacles which would effectually stop an -ordinary Mouse. That the Jerboa may be one of the Akbarim is rendered -likely by the prohibition in Lev. xi. 29, forbidding the Mouse to be -eaten. It would be scarcely probable that such a command need have -been issued against eating the common Mouse, whereas the Jerboa, a -much larger and palatable animal, is always eaten by the Arabs. The -Hamster is at the present day eaten in Northern Syria. - -Beside these creatures there are the Dormice, several species of which -animal inhabit Palestine at the present day. There are also the -Sand-rats, one species of which is larger than our ordinary rats. The -Sand-rats live more in the deserts than the cultivated lands, making -their burrows at the foot of hills, and among the roots of bushes. - - - - -THE HARE. - - The prohibitions of the Mosaic law--The chewing of the cud, and - division of the hoof--Identity of the Hare of - Scripture--Rumination described--The Hare a rodent and not a - ruminant--Cowper and his Hares--Structure of the rodent - tooth--The Mosaic law accommodated to its recipients--The Hares - of Palestine and their habits. - - -Among the many provisions of the Mosaic law are several which refer to -the diet of the Israelites, and which prohibit certain kinds of food. -Special stress is laid upon the flesh of animals, and the list of -those which may be lawfully eaten is a singularly restricted one, all -being excluded except those which "divide the hoof and chew the cud." -And, lest there should be any mistake about the matter, examples are -given both of those animals which may and those which may not be -eaten. - -The ox, sheep, goat, and antelopes generally are permitted as lawful -food, because they fulfil both conditions; whereas there is a special -prohibition of the swine, because it divides the hoof but does not -chew the cud, and of the camel, coney, and hare because they chew the -cud, but do not divide the hoof. Our business at present is with the -last of these animals. - -Considerable discussion has been raised concerning this animal, -because, as is well known to naturalists, the Hare is not one of the -ruminant animals, but belongs to the same order as the rat, rabbit, -beaver, and other rodents. Neither its teeth nor its stomach are -constructed for the purpose of enabling it to ruminate, i.e. to return -into the mouth the partially-digested food, and then to masticate it -afresh; and therefore it has been thought that either there is some -mistake in the sacred narrative, or that the Hebrew word has been -mistranslated. - - [Illustration: THE SYRIAN HARE. - - "_Nevertheless, these ye shall not eat of them that chew the cud, or - of them that divide the cloven hoof: as the camel, and the hare, and - the coney._"--DEUT. xiv. 7.] - -Taking the latter point first, as being the simplest of the two, we -find that the Hebrew word which is rendered as Hare is Arnebeth, and -that it is rendered in the Septuagint as Dasypus, or the Hare,--a -rendering which the Jewish Bible adopts. That the Arnebeth is really -the Hare may also be conjectured from the fact that the Arabic name -for that animal is Arneb. In consequence of the rather wide sense to -which the Greek word Dasypus (_i.e._ hairy-foot) is used, some -commentators have suggested that the rabbit may have been included in -the same title. This, however, is not at all likely, inasmuch as the -Hare is very plentiful in Palestine, and the rabbit is believed not -to be indigenous to that part of the world. And, even if the two -animals had been classed under the same title, the physiological -difficulty would not be removed. - -Before proceeding further, it will be as well to give a brief -description of the curious act called rumination, or "chewing the -cud." - -There are certain animals, such as the oxen, antelopes, deer, sheep, -goats, camels, &c. which have teeth unfitted for the rapid mastication -of food, and which therefore are supplied with a remarkable apparatus -by which the food can be returned into the mouth when the animal has -leisure, and be re-masticated before it passes into the true digestive -organs. - -For this purpose they are furnished with four stomachs, which are -arranged in the following order. First comes the paunch or "rumen" -(whence the word "ruminating"), into which passes the food in a very -rough state, just as it is torn, rather than bitten, from the herbage, -and which is analogous to the crop in birds. It thence passes into the -second stomach, or "honeycomb," the walls of which are covered with -small angular cells. Into those cells the food is received from the -first stomach, and compressed into little balls, which can be -voluntarily returned into the mouth for mastication. - -After the second mastication has been completed, the food passes at -once into the third stomach, and thence into the fourth, which is the -true digesting cavity. By a peculiar structure of these organs, the -animal is able to convey its food either into the first or third -stomach, at will, _i.e._ into the first when the grass is eaten, and -into the third after rumination. Thus it will be seen that an animal -which chews the cud must have teeth of a certain character, and be -possessed of the fourfold stomach which has just been described. - -Two points are conceded which seem to be utterly irreconcilable with -each other. The first is that the Mosaic law distinctly states that -the Hare chews the cud; the second is, that in point of fact the Hare -is not, and cannot be, a ruminating animal, possessing neither the -teeth nor the digestive organs which are indispensable for that -process. Yet, totally opposed as these statements appear to be, they -are in fact, not so irreconcilable as they seem. - -Why the flesh of certain animals was prohibited, we do not at the -present time know. That the flesh of swine should be forbidden food is -likely enough, considering the effects which the habitual eating of -swine's flesh is said to produce in hot countries. But it does seem -very strange that the Israelites should have been forbidden to eat the -flesh of the camel, the coney (or hyrax), and the Hare, and that these -animals should have been specified is a proof that the eating or -refraining from their flesh was not a mere sanitary regulation, but -was a matter of importance. The flesh of all these three animals is -quite as good and nutritious as that of the oxen, or goats, which are -eaten in Palestine, and that of the Hare is far superior to them. -Therefore, the people of Israel, who were always apt to take liberties -with the restrictive laws, and were crafty enough to evade them on so -many occasions, would have been likely to pronounce that the flesh of -the Hare was lawful meat, because the animal chewed the cud, or -appeared to do so, and they would discreetly have omitted the passage -which alluded to the division of the hoof. - -To a non-scientific observer the Hare really does appear to chew the -cud. When it is reposing at its ease, it continually moves its jaws -about as if eating something, an action which may readily be mistaken -for true rumination. Even Cowper, the poet, who kept some hares for -several years, and had them always before his eyes, was deceived by -this mumbling movement of the jaws. Speaking of his favourite hare, -"Puss," he proceeds as follows: "Finding him exceedingly tractable, I -made it my custom to carry him always after breakfast into the garden, -where he hid himself generally under the leaves of a cucumber vine, -sleeping, _or chewing the cud_, till evening." - -The real object of this continual grinding or mumbling movement is -simple enough. The chisel-like incisor teeth of the rodent animals -need to be rubbed against each other, in order to preserve their edge -and shape, and if perchance such friction should be wanting to a -tooth, as, for example, by the breaking of the opposite tooth, it -becomes greatly elongated, and sometimes grows to such a length as to -prevent the animal from eating. Instinctively, therefore, the Hare, as -well as the rabbit and other rodents, always likes to be nibbling at -something, as any one knows who has kept rabbits in wooden hutches, -the object of this nibbling not being to eat the wood, but to keep -the teeth in order. - -But we may naturally ask ourselves, why the Mosaic law, an emanation -from heaven, should mention an animal as being a ruminant, when its -very structure shows that such an act was utterly impossible? The -answer is clear enough. The law was suited to the capacity of those -for whom it was intended, and was never meant to be a handbook of -science, as well as a code of religious duties and maxims. The Jews, -like other Orientals, were indifferent to that branch of knowledge -which we designate by the name of physical science, and it was -necessary that the language in which the law was conveyed to them -should be accommodated to their capabilities of receiving it. - -It would have been worse than useless to have interrupted the solemn -revelation of Divine will with a lesson in comparative anatomy; the -object of the passage in question being, not to teach the Jews the -distinctive characteristics of a rodent and a ruminant, but to guard -against their mistaking the Hare for one of the ruminants which were -permitted as food. That they would in all probability have fallen into -that mistake is evident from the fact that the Arabs are exceedingly -fond of the flesh of the Hare, and accept it, as well as the camel, as -lawful food, because it chews the cud, the division of the hoof not -being considered by them as an essential. - -Hares are very plentiful in Palestine, and at least two species are -found in that country. One of them, which inhabits the more northern -and hilly portion of Palestine, closely resembles our own species, but -has not ears quite so long in proportion, while the head is broader. -The second species, which lives in the south, and in the valley of the -Jordan, is very small, is of a light dun colour, and has very long -ears. In their general habits, these Hares resemble the Hare of -England. - - - - -CATTLE. - - The cattle of Palestine, and their decadence at the present - day--Ox-flesh not used for food in modern times--Oxen of the - stall, and oxen of the pasture--The use of the ox in - agriculture--The yoke and its structure--The plough and the - goad--The latter capable of being used as a weapon--Treading out - the corn--The cart and its wheels--The ox used as a beast of - burden--Cattle turned loose to graze--The bulls of - Bashan--Curiosity of the ox-tribe--A season of drought--Branding - the cattle--An Egyptian field scene--Cattle-keeping an - honourable post--The ox as used for sacrifice--Ox-worship--The - bull Apis, and his history--Persistency of the - bull-worship--Jeroboam's sin--Various names of cattle--The - Indian buffalo. - - -Under this head we shall treat of the domesticated oxen of Scripture, -whether mentioned as Bull, Cow, Ox, Calf, Heifer, &c. - -Two distinct species of cattle are found in Palestine, namely, the -ordinary domesticated ox, and the Indian buffalo, which lives in the -low-lying and marshy valley of the Jordan. Of this species we shall -treat presently. - -The domesticated cattle are very much like our own, but there is not -among them that diversity of breed for which this country is famous; -nor is there even any distinction of long and short horned cattle. -There are some places where the animals are larger than in others, but -this difference is occasioned simply by the better quality and greater -quantity of the food. - -As is the case in most parts of the world where civilization has made -any progress, Domesticated Cattle were, and still are, plentiful in -Palestine. Even at the present time the cattle are in common use, -though it is evident, from many passages of Holy Writ, that in the -days of Judæa's prosperity cattle were far more numerous than they are -now, and were treated in a better fashion. - -To take their most sacred use first, a constant supply of cattle was -needed for the sacrifices, and, as it was necessary that every animal -which was brought to the altar should be absolutely perfect, it is -evident that great care was required in order that the breed should -not deteriorate, a skill which has long been rendered useless by the -abandonment of the sacrifices. - -Another reason for their better nurture in the times of old is that in -those days the ox was largely fed and fatted for the table, just as is -done with ourselves. At the present day, the flesh of the cattle is -practically unused as food, that of the sheep or goat being always -employed, even when a man gives a feast to his friends. But, in the -old times, stalled oxen, _i.e._ oxen kept asunder from those which -were used for agricultural purposes, and expressly fatted for the -table, were in constant use. See for example the well-known passage in -the Prov. xv. 17, "Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a -stalled ox and hatred therewith." Again, the Prophet Jeremiah makes -use of a curious simile, "Egypt is like a very fair heifer, but -destruction cometh; it cometh out of the north. Also her hired men are -in the midst of her like fatted bullocks [or, bullocks of the stall], -for they also are turned back, and are fled away together." (Jer. -xlvi. 20.) And in 1 Kings iv. 22, 23, when describing the glories of -Solomon's household, the sacred writer draws a distinction between the -oxen which were especially fattened for the table of the king and the -superior officers, and those which were consumed by the lower orders -of his household: "And Solomon's provision for one day was thirty -measures of fine flour, and threescore measures of meal, ten fat oxen, -and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and an hundred sheep, beside -harts, and roebucks, and fallow-deer, and fatted fowl." Again, in the -well-known parable of the king's marriage, there is an allusion to -fatted animals, and a distinction is made between the oxen of the -pasture and those of the stall. "Again, he sent forth other servants, -saying, Tell them which are bidden, Behold, I have prepared my dinner, -my oxen and my fatlings are killed, and all things are ready." - -Calves--mostly, if not always, bull-calves--were largely used for food -in Palestine, and in the households of the wealthy were fatted for the -table. See, for example, the familiar parable of the prodigal son, in -which the rejoicing father is mentioned as preparing a great feast in -honour of his son's return, and ordering the fatted calf to be -killed--the calf in question being evidently one of the animals that -were kept in good condition against any festive occasion. And, even in -the earliest history of the Bible, the custom of keeping a fatted calf -evidently prevailed, as is shown by the conduct of Abraham, who, when -he was visited by the three heavenly guests, "ran unto the herd, and -fetched a calf, tender and good," and had it killed and dressed at -once, after the still existing fashion of the East. - -But, even in the times of Israel's greatest prosperity, the chief use -of the ox was as an agricultural labourer, thus reversing the custom -of this country, where the horse has taken the place of the ox as a -beast of draught, and where cattle are principally fed for food. -Ploughing was, and is, always performed by oxen, and allusions to this -office are scattered plentifully through the Old and New Testaments. - -When understood in this sense, oxen are almost always spoken of in -connexion with the word "yoke," and as each yoke comprised two oxen, -it is evident that the word is used as we employ the term "brace," or -pair. The yoke, which is the chief part of the harness, is a very -simple affair. A tolerably stout beam of wood is cut of a sufficient -length to rest upon the necks of the oxen standing side by side, and a -couple of hollows are scooped out to receive the crest of the neck. In -order to hold it in its place, two flexible sticks are bent under -their necks, and the ends fixed into the beam of the yoke. In the -middle of this yoke is fastened the pole of the plough or cart, and -this is all the harness that is used, not even traces being required. - -It will be seen that so rude an implement as this would be very likely -to gall the necks of the animals, unless the hollows were carefully -smoothed, and the heavy beam adapted to the necks of the animals. This -galling nature of the yoke, so familiar to the Israelites, is used -repeatedly as a metaphor in many passages of the Old and New -Testaments. These passages are too numerous to be quoted, but I will -give one or two of the most conspicuous among them. The earliest -mention of the yoke in the Scriptures is a metaphor. - -After Jacob had deceived his father, in procuring for himself the -blessing which was intended for his elder brother, Isaac comforts Esau -by the prophecy that, although he must serve his brother, yet "it -shall come to pass when thou shalt have the dominion, that thou shalt -break his yoke from off thy neck." Again, in the next passage where -the yoke is mentioned, namely, Lev. xxvi. 13, the word is employed in -the metaphorical sense: "I am the Lord your God, which brought you -forth out of the land of Egypt, that ye should not be their bondmen, -and I have broken the bands of your yoke, and made you go upright." - -Then, in Deut. xxviii. 48, the word yoke is not only used -metaphorically, but with an addition that forcibly expresses its -weight and galling character: "Therefore shalt thou serve thine -enemies, which the Lord shall send against thee, in hunger, and in -thirst, and in nakedness, and in want of all things, and He shall put -a yoke of iron upon thy neck, until He have destroyed thee." - -The word yoke is also used as a metaphor for servitude, even of a -domestic character, as we may see in 1 Tim. vi. 1: "Let as many -servants as are under the yoke count their own masters worthy of all -honour." In the Acts of the Apostles, we find St. Peter using the same -metaphor: "Why tempt ye God, to put a yoke on the neck of the -disciples, which neither our fathers nor we were able to bear?" And -the Lord Himself uses the same metaphor in the well-known passage, -"Take my yoke upon you, for my yoke is easy and my burden light." - -The plough was equally simple, and consisted essentially of a bent -branch, one end of which was armed with an iron point by way of a -share, while the other formed the pole or beam, and was fastened to -the middle of the yoke. It was guided by a handle, which was usually a -smaller branch that grew from the principal one. A nearly similar -instrument is used in Asia Minor to the present day, and is a curious -relic of the most ancient times of history, for we find on the -Egyptian monuments figures of the various agricultural processes, in -which the plough is made after this simple manner. - - [Illustration: "It is good for a man to bear the yoke in his - youth."--LAM. iii. 27. - - "He maketh them also to skip like a calf."--PSALM xxix. 6.] - -Of course such an instrument is a very ineffective one, and can but -scratch, rather than plough the ground, the warmth of the climate and -fertility of the land rendering needless the deep ploughing of our own -country, where the object is to turn up the earth to the greatest -possible depth. One yoke of oxen was generally sufficient to draw a -plough, but occasionally a much greater number were required. We read, -for example, of Elisha, who, when he received his call from Elijah, -was ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen, i.e. twenty-four. It has been -suggested, that the twelve yoke of oxen were not all attached to the -same plough, but that there were twelve ploughs, each with its single -yoke of oxen. This, however, was scarcely likely to be the case, -as it is definitely stated that Elisha "was ploughing with -twelve yoke of oxen before him, and he with the twelfth," and it -is much more probable that the land was heavy, and that, therefore, -the plough could not be properly worked without the additional force. - -The instrument with which the cattle were driven was not a whip, but a -goad. This goad was a long and stout stick, armed with a spike at one -end, and having a kind of spud at the other, with which the earth -could be scraped off the share when it became clogged. Such an -instrument might readily be used as a weapon, and, in the hands of a -powerful man, might be made even more formidable than a spear. As a -weapon, it often was used, as we see from many passages of the -Scriptures. For example, it is said in Judges iii. 31, "that Shamgar -the son of Anath killed six hundred Philistines with an ox-goad." - -Afterwards, in the beginning of Saul's reign, when the Israelites -fairly measured themselves against the Philistines, it was found that -only Saul and Jonathan were even tolerably armed. Fearful of the -numbers and spirit of the Israelites, the Philistines had disarmed -them, and were so cautious that they did not even allow them to -possess forges wherewith to make or sharpen the various agricultural -instruments which they possessed, lest they should surreptitiously -provide themselves with weapons. The only smith's tool which they were -allowed to retain was a file with which each man might trim the edges -of the ploughshares, mattocks, axes, and sharpen the points of the -goad. The only weapons which they could muster were made of their -agricultural implements, and among the most formidable of them was the -goad. - -How the goad came into use in Palestine may easily be seen. The -Egyptians, from among whom the people of Israel passed into the -Promised Land, did not use the goad in ploughing, but the whip, which, -from the representations on the Egyptian monuments, was identical with -the koorbash, or "cow-hide" whip, which is now in use in the same -country. But this terrible whip, which is capable, when wielded by a -skilful hand, of cutting deep grooves through the tough hide of the -ox, could not be obtained by the Jews, because the hippopotamus, of -whose hide it was made, did not live in or near Palestine. They -therefore were forced to use some other instrument wherewith to urge -on the oxen, and the goad was clearly the simplest and most effective -implement for this purpose. - -After the land was ploughed and sown, and the harvest was ripened, the -labours of the oxen were again called into requisition, first for -threshing out the corn, and next for carrying or drawing the grain to -the storehouses. - -In the earlier days, the process of threshing was very simple. A -circular piece of ground was levelled, and beaten very hard and flat, -its diameter being from fifty to a hundred feet. On this ground the -corn was thrown, and a number of oxen were driven here and there on -it, so that the constant trampling of their feet shook the ripe grain -out of the ears. The corn was gathered together in the middle of the -floor, and as fast as it was scattered by the feet of the oxen, it was -thrown back towards the centre. - -Afterwards, an improvement was introduced in the form of a rough -sledge, called "moreg," to which the oxen were harnessed by a yoke, -and on which the driver stood as he guided his team round the -threshing-floor. This instrument is mentioned in Isa. xli. 15: -"Behold, I will make thee anew and sharp threshing instrument having -teeth [or mouths]: thou shalt thresh the mountains, and beat them -small, and shalt make the hills as chaff." Mention is also made of the -same implement in 2 Sam. xxiv. 22, where it is related that Araunah -the Jebusite offered to give David the oxen for a burnt-sacrifice, and -the moregs and other implements as wood with which they could be -burned. - -The work of treading out the corn was a hard and trying one for the -oxen, and it was probably on this account that the kindly edict was -made, that the oxen who trod out the corn should not be muzzled. As a -rule, the cattle were not fed nearly as carefully as is done with us, -and so the labours of the threshing-floor would find a compensation in -the temporary abundance of which the animals might take their fill. - -After the corn was threshed, or rather trodden out, the oxen had to -draw it home in carts. These were but slight improvements on the -threshing-sledge, and were simply trays or shallow boxes on a pair of -wheels. As the wheels were merely slices cut from the trunk of a tree, -and were not furnished with iron tires, they were not remarkable for -roundness, and indeed, after a little time, were worn into rather -irregular ovals, so that the task of dragging a cart over the rough -roads was by no means an easy one. And, as the axle was simply a stout -pole fastened to the bottom of the cart, and having its rounded ends -thrust through holes in the middle of the wheels, the friction was -enormous. As, moreover, oil and grease were far too precious luxuries -to be wasted in lubricating the axles, the creaking and groaning of -the wheels was a singularly disagreeable and ear-piercing sound. - - [Illustration: TREADING OUT CORN. - - "_Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the - corn._"--(DEUT. xxv. 4.)] - -The common hackery of India is a good example of the carts mentioned -in the Scriptures. As with the plough, the cart was drawn by a couple -of oxen, connected by the yoke. The two kinds of cart, namely, the -tray and the box, are clearly indicated in the Scriptures. The new -cart on which the Ark was placed when it was sent back by the -Philistines (see 1 Sam. vi. 7) was evidently one of the former kind, -and so was that which was made twenty years afterwards, for the -purpose of conveying the Ark to Jerusalem. - -The second kind of cart is mentioned by the Prophet Amos (ch. ii. 13), -"Behold, I am pressed under you, as a cart is pressed that is full of -sheaves," reference being evidently made to heaping up of the sheaves -in the cart, and pressing them down, as is done at the present day. - -That oxen were also employed as beasts of burden is shown by the -passage in 1 Chron. xii. 40, "Moreover, they that were nigh them, even -unto Issachar, and Zebulun, and Napthali, brought bread on asses, and -on camels, and on mules, and on oxen." - -Although the cattle were evidently better tended in the olden times -than at present, those animals which were used for agriculture seem to -have passed rather a rough life, especially in the winter time. It is -rather curious that the Jews should have had no idea of preserving the -grass by making it into hay, as is done in Europe. Consequently the -chief food of the cattle was the straw and chaff which remained on the -threshing-floor after the grain had been separated. See Isa. xxx. 23: -"In that day shall thy cattle feed in large pastures. The oxen -likewise, and the young asses that ear the ground shall eat clean -provender, which hath been winnowed with the shovel and with the fan." - -This, indeed, was the only use to which the straw could be put, for it -was so crushed and broken by the feet of the oxen and the -threshing-sledge that it was rendered useless. Allusion is made to the -crushing of the straw in many passages of Scripture. See, for example, -Isa. xxv. 10, "Moab shall be trodden down [or threshed] under him, -even as straw is trodden down for the dunghill." - -The want of winter forage is the chief reason why cattle are so -irregularly disposed over Palestine, many parts of that country being -entirely without them, and only those districts containing them in -which fresh forage may be found throughout the year. - -Except a few yoke of oxen, which are kept in order to draw carts, and -act as beasts of burden, the cattle are turned loose for a -considerable portion of the year, and run about in herds from one -pasturage to another. Thus they regain many of the characteristics of -wild animals, and it is to this habit of theirs that many of the -Scriptural allusions can be traced. - -For example, see Ps. xxii. 12, "Many bulls have compassed me, strong -bulls of Bashan have beset me round. They gaped on me with their -mouths [or, their mouths opened against me] as a ravening and a -roaring lion." This passage alludes to the curiosity inherent in -cattle, which have a habit of following objects which they do not -understand or dislike, and surrounding it with looks of grave -wonderment. Even in their domesticated state this habit prevails. When -I was a boy, I sometimes amused myself with going into a field where a -number of cows and oxen were grazing, and lying down in the middle of -it. The cattle would soon become uneasy, toss their heads about, and -gradually draw near on every side, until at last they would be pressed -together closely in a circle, with their heads just above the object -of their astonishment. Their curious, earnest looks have always been -present to my mind when reading the above quoted passage. - -The Psalmist does not necessarily mean that the bulls in question were -dangerous animals. On the contrary, the bulls of Palestine are gentle -in comparison with our own animals, which are too often made savage by -confinement and the harsh treatment to which they are subjected by -rough and ignorant labourers. In Palestine a pair of bulls may -constantly be seen attached to the same yoke, a thing that never would -be seen in this country. - -The custom of turning the herds of cattle loose to find pasture for -themselves is alluded to in Joel i. 18, "How do the beasts groan! the -herds of cattle are perplexed because they have no pasture." We can -easily imagine to ourselves the terrible time to which the prophet -refers, "when the rivers of waters are dried up, and the fire hath -devoured the pastures of the wilderness," as it is wont to do when a -spark falls upon grass dried up and withered, by reason of the sun's -heat and the lack of water. Over such a country, first withered by -drought, and then desolated by fire, would the cattle wander, vainly -searching on the dusty and blackened surface for the tender young -blades which always spring up on a burnt pasture as soon as the first -rains fall. Moaning and bellowing with thirst and disappointment, -they would vainly seek for food or water in places where the seed lies -still under the clods where it was sown (v. 17), where the vines are -dried up, and the fig, the pomegranate and the palm (v. 12) are all -withered for want of moisture. - -Such scenes are still to be witnessed in several parts of the world. -Southern Africa is sometimes sadly conspicuous for them, an -exceptional season of drought keeping back the fresh grass after the -old pastures have been burned (the ordinary mode of cultivating -pasture land). Then the vast herds of cattle, whose milk forms the -staff of life to the inhabitants, wander to and fro, gathering in -masses round any spot where a spring still yields a little water, and -bellowing and moaning with thirst as they press their way towards the -spot where their owners are doling out to each a small measure of the -priceless fluid. - -The cattle are branded with the mark of their owners, so that in these -large herds there might be no difficulty in distinguishing them when -they were re-captured for the plough and the cart. On one of the -Egyptian monuments there is a very interesting group, which has -furnished the idea for the plate which illustrates this article. It -occurs in the tombs of the kings at Thebes, and represents a ploughing -scene. The simple two-handled plough is being dragged by a pair of -cows, who have the yoke fastened across the horns instead of lying on -the neck, and a sower is following behind, scattering the grain out of -a basket into the newly-made furrows. In front of the cows is a young -calf, which has run to meet its mother, and is leaping for joy before -her as she steadily plods along her course. - -The action of both animals is admirably represented; the steady and -firm gait of the mother contrasting with the light, gambolling step -and arched tail of her offspring. Both are branded with the same mark, -namely, three equal-armed crosses, one on the haunch, another on the -side, and a third on the neck. The driver carries the whip, or -koorbash, which has been already mentioned, and which is familiar to -travellers in Southern Africa under the title of "sjambok." - -In the olden times of the Israelitish race, herd-keeping was -considered as an honourable occupation, in which men of the highest -rank might engage without any derogation to their dignity. We find, -for instance, that Saul himself, even after he had been appointed -king, was acting as herdsman when the people saw the mistake they had -made in rejecting him as their monarch, and came to fetch their -divinely-appointed leader from his retirement. (See 1 Sam. xi. 5.) -Doeg, too, the faithful companion of Saul, was made the chief herdsman -of his master's cattle, so that for Saul to confer such an office, and -Doeg to accept it, shows that the post was one of much honour. And -afterwards, when David was in the zenith of his power, he completed -the organization of his kingdom, portioning out not only his army into -battalions, and assigning a commanding officer to each battalion, but -also appointing a ruler to each tribe, and setting officers over his -treasury, over the vineyards, over the olive-trees, over the -storehouses, and over the cattle. And these offices were so important -that the names of their holders are given at length in 1 Chron. xxvii. -those of the various herdsmen being thought as worthy of mention as -those of the treasurers, the military commanders, or the headmen of -the tribes. - -Before concluding this necessarily short account of the domesticated -oxen of Palestine, it will be needful to give a few lines to the -animal viewed in a religious aspect. Here we have, in bold contrast to -each other, the divine appointment of certain cattle to be slain as -sacrifices, and the reprobation of worship paid to those very cattle -as living emblems of divinity. This false worship was learned by the -Israelites during their long residence in Egypt, and so deeply had the -customs of the Egyptian religion sunk into their hearts, that they -were not eradicated after the lapse of centuries. It may easily be -imagined that such a superstition, surrounded as it was with every -external circumstance which could make it more imposing, would take a -powerful hold of the Jewish mind. - -Chief among the multitude of idols or symbols was the god Apis, -represented by a bull. Many other animals, specially the cat and the -ibis, were deeply honoured among the ancient Egyptians, as we learn -from their own monuments and from the works of the old historians. All -these creatures were symbols as well as idols, symbols to the educated -and idols to the ignorant. - -None of them was held in such universal honour as the bull Apis. The -particular animal which represented the deity, and which was lodged -with great state and honour in his temple at Memphis, was thought to -be divinely selected for the purpose, and to be impressed with certain -marks. His colour must be black, except a square spot on the forehead, -a crescent-shaped white spot on the right side, and the figure of an -eagle on his back. Under the tongue must be a knob shaped like the -sacred scarabæus, and the hairs of his tail must be double. - -This representative animal was only allowed to live for a certain -time, and when he had reached this allotted period, he was taken in -solemn procession to the Nile, and drowned in its sacred waters. His -body was then embalmed, and placed with great state in the tombs at -Memphis. - -After his death, whether natural or not, the whole nation went into -mourning, and exhibited all the conventional signs of sorrow, until -the priests found another bull which possessed the distinctive marks. -The people then threw off their mourning robes, and appeared in their -best attire, and the sacred bull was exhibited in state for forty days -before he was taken to his temple at Memphis. The reader will here -remember the analogous case of the Indian cattle, some of which are -held to be little less than incarnations of divinity. - -Even at the very beginning of the exodus, when their minds must have -been filled with the many miracles that had been wrought in their -behalf, and with the cloud and fire of Sinai actually before their -eyes, Aaron himself made an image of a calf in gold, and set it up as -a symbol of the Lord. That the idol in question was intended as a -symbol by Aaron is evident from the words which he used when summoning -the people to worship, "To-morrow is a feast of the Lord" (Gen. xxxii. -5). The people, however, clearly lacked the power of discriminating -between the symbol and that which it represented, and worshipped the -image just as any other idol might be worshipped. And, in spite of the -terrible and swift punishment that followed, and which showed the -profanity of the act, the idea of ox-worship still remained among the -people. - -Five hundred years afterwards we find a familiar example of it in the -conduct of Jeroboam, "who made Israel to sin," the peculiar crime -being the open resuscitation of ox-worship. "The king made two calves -of gold and said unto them, It is too much for you to go up to -Jerusalem: behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of -the land of Egypt. And he set the one in Bethel, and the other put he -in Dan.... And he made an house of high places, and made priests of -the lowest of the people, which were not of the tribe of Levi. And -Jeroboam ordained a feast ... like unto the feast in Judah, and he -offered upon the altar. So did he in Bethel, sacrificing unto the -calves that he had made." - -Here we have a singular instance of a king of Israel repeating, after -a lapse of five hundred years, the very acts which had drawn down on -the people so severe a punishment, and which were so contrary to the -law that they had incited Moses to fling down and break the sacred -tables on which the commandments had been divinely inscribed. Nothing -is omitted: the shape of the idol, the material of which it is -composed, the offerings, and the very words in which Aaron had so -deeply sinned, "Behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out -of the land of Egypt." Successive monarchs followed his example, and, -according to the graphic words of Scripture, they "departed not from -the ways of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin." - -As was likely to be the case in a land where cattle were of such -importance, and often formed the principal wealth of the inhabitants, -many words were in use to distinguish the cattle according to sex, -age, and number. Thus, Bakar signifies the adult animal of either sex, -the test of full growth being fitness for the plough. Consequently, -Ben-Baka, or son of the herd, signifies a male calf, and Aiglah-Bakar, -a female calf. The term Bakar is derived from a Hebrew word signifying -to cleave or plough, and hence it is used as to signify those animals -which are old enough to be put to the plough. - -Then there is the word Shor, or Tor, to signify a single head of -cattle, of any age, or of either sex. The second form of this word is -familiar to us in the Latin word "taurus," and the English "steer." -There are several other words, such as Par, a young bull, and Parah, a -heifer, which do not need explanation. - - -Another species of the ox-tribe now inhabits Palestine, though -commentators rather doubt whether it is not a comparatively late -importation. This is the true BUFFALO (_Bubalus buffelus_, Gray), -which is spread over a very large portion of the earth, and is very -plentiful in India. In that country there are two distinct breeds of -the Buffalo, namely, the Arnee, a wild variety, and the Bhainsa, a -tamed variety. The former animal is much larger than the latter, being -sometimes more than ten feet in length from the nose to the root of -the tail, and measuring between six and seven feet in height at the -shoulder. Its horns are of enormous length, the tail is very short, -and tufts of hair grow on the forehead and horns. The tamed variety is -at least one-third smaller, and, unlike the Arnee, never seems to get -into high condition. It is an ugly, ungainly kind of beast, and is -rendered very unprepossessing to the eye by the bald patches which are -mostly found upon its hide. - - [Illustration: THE BUFFALO.] - -Being a water-loving animal, the Buffalo always inhabits the low-lying -districts, and is fond of wallowing in the oozy marshes in which it -remains for hours, submerged all but its head, and tranquilly chewing -the cud while enjoying its mud-bath. While thus engaged the animal -depresses its horns so that they are scarcely visible, barely allowing -more than its eyes, ears, and nostrils to remain above the surface, so -that the motionless heads are scarcely distinguishable from the grass -and reed tufts which stud the marshes. Nothing is more startling to an -inexperienced traveller than to pass by a silent and tranquil pool -where the muddy surface is unbroken except by a number of black lumps -and rushy tufts, and then to see these tufts suddenly transformed into -twenty or thirty huge beasts rising out of the still water as if by -magic. Generally, the disturber of their peace had better make the -best of his way out of their reach, as the Buffalo, whether wild or -tame, is of a tetchy and irritable nature, and resents being startled -out of its state of dreamy repose. - -In the Jordan valley the Buffalo is found, and is used for -agriculture, being of the Bhainsa, or domesticated variety. Being much -larger and stronger than the ordinary cattle, it is useful in drawing -the plough, but its temper is too uncertain to render it a pleasant -animal to manage. As is the case with all half-wild cattle, its milk -is very scanty, but compensates by the richness of the quality for the -lack of quantity. - - - - -THE WILD BULL. - - The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament--Passages in which it is - mentioned--The Wild Bull in the net--Hunting with nets in the - East--The Oryx supposed to be the Tô of Scripture--Description - of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, and habits--The points in - which the Oryx agrees with the Tô--The "snare" in which the foot - is taken, as distinguished from the net. - - -In two passages of the Old Testament an animal is mentioned, -respecting which the translators and commentators have been somewhat -perplexed, in one passage being translated as the "Wild Ox," and in -the other as the "Wild Bull." In the Jewish Bible the same rendering -is preserved, but the sign of doubt is added to the word in both -cases, showing that the translation is an uncertain one. - -The first of these passages occurs in Deut. xiv. 5, where it is -classed together with the ox, sheep, goats, and other ruminants, as -one of the beasts which were lawful for food. Now, although we cannot -identify it by this passage, we can at all events ascertain two -important points--the first, that it was a true ruminant, and the -second, that it was not the ox, the sheep, or the goat. It was, -therefore, some wild ruminant, and we now have to ask how we are to -find out the species. - -If we turn to Isa. li. 20, we shall find a passage which will help us -considerably. Addressing Jerusalem, the prophet uses these words, "By -whom shall I comfort thee? Thy sons have fainted, they lie at the head -of all the streets, as a wild bull in a net; they are full of the fury -of the Lord, the rebuke of thy God." We now see that the Tô or Teô -must be an animal which is captured by means of nets, and therefore -must inhabit spots wherein the toils can be used. Moreover, it is -evidently a powerful animal, or the force of the simile would be lost. -The prophet evidently refers to some large and strong beast which has -been entangled in the hunter's nets, and which lies helplessly -struggling in them. We are, therefore, almost perforce driven to -recognise it as some large antelope. - -The expression used by the prophet is so characteristic that it needs -a short explanation. In this country, and at the present day, the use -of the net is almost entirely restricted to fishing and bird-catching; -but in the East nets are still employed in the capture of very large -game. - -A brief allusion to the hunting-net is made at page 27, but, as the -passage in Isaiah li. requires a more detailed account of this mode of -catching large animals, it will be as well to describe the sport as at -present practised in the East. - -When a king or some wealthy man determines to hunt game without taking -much trouble himself, he gives orders to his men to prepare their -nets, which vary in size or strength according to the particular -animal for which they are intended. If, for example, only the wild -boar and similar animals are to be hunted, the nets need not be of -very great width; but for agile creatures, such as the antelope, they -must be exceedingly wide, or the intended prey will leap over them. As -the net is much used in India for the purpose of catching game, -Captain Williamson's description of it will explain many of the -passages of Scripture wherein it is mentioned. - -The material of the net is hemp, twisted loosely into a kind of rope, -and the mode in which it is formed is rather peculiar. The meshes are -not knotted together, but only twisted round each other, much after -the fashion of the South American hammocks, so as to obtain -considerable elasticity, and to prevent a powerful animal from -snapping the cord in its struggles. Some of these nets are thirteen -feet or more in width, and even such a net as this has been overleaped -by a herd of antelopes. Their length is variable, but, as they can be -joined in any number when set end to end, the length is not so -important as the width. - -The mode of setting the nets is singularly ingenious. When a suitable -spot has been selected, the first care of the hunters is to stretch a -rope as tightly as possible along the ground. For this purpose stout -wooden stakes or truncheons are sunk crosswise in the earth, and -between these the rope is carefully strained. The favourite locality -of the net is a ravine, through which the animals can be driven so as -to run against the net in their efforts to escape, and across the -ravine a whole row of these stakes is sunk. The net is now brought to -the spot, and its lower edge fastened strongly to the ground rope. - -The strength of this mode of fastening is astonishing, and, although -the stakes are buried scarcely a foot below the surface, they cannot -be torn up by any force which can be applied to them; and, however -strong the rope may be, it would be broken before the stakes could be -dragged out of the ground. - -A smaller rope is now attached to the upper edge of the net, which is -raised upon a series of slight poles. It is not stretched quite -tightly, but droops between each pair of poles, so that a net which is -some thirteen feet in width will only give nine or ten feet of clear -height when the upper edge is supported on the poles. These latter are -not fixed in the ground, but merely held in their places by the weight -of the net resting upon them. - -When the nets have been properly set, the beaters make a wide circuit -through the country, gradually advancing towards the fatal spot, and -driving before them all the wild animals that inhabit the -neighbourhood. As soon as any large beast, such, for example, as an -antelope, strikes against the net, the supporting pole falls, and the -net collapses upon the unfortunate animal, whose struggles--especially -if he be one of the horned animals--only entangle him more and more in -the toils. - -As soon as the hunters see a portion of the net fall, they run to the -spot, kill the helpless creature that lies enveloped in the elastic -meshes, drag away the body, and set up the net again in readiness for -the next comer. Sometimes the line of nets will extend for half a mile -or more, and give employment to a large staff of hunters, in killing -the entangled animals, and raising afresh those portions of the net -which had fallen. - -Allusions to this mode of hunting are plentiful in the Old Testament. -Take, for example, Job xviii. 7: "The steps of his strength shall be -straitened, and his own counsel shall cast him down; for he is cast -into a net by his own feet, and he walketh upon a snare." And again in -the next chapter, ver. 6, "Know now that God hath overthrown me, and -hath compassed me with His net," in which is depicted forcibly the -helpless state of one on whom the net has fallen, and who is lying on -the ground vainly struggling in the meshes. - -See also Ps. lvii. 6, "They have prepared a net for my steps, my soul -is bowed down;" and Ps. lxvi. 11, "Thou broughtest us into the net, -thou laidest affliction upon our loins." In the prophet Ezekiel are -several passages which refer to the hunting net, and make especial -mention of the manner in which it falls over its victim. One of these -occurs in chap. xii. 13, "My net also will I spread upon him, and he -shall be taken in my snare." Again in chap. xix. 8, "Then the nations -set against him on every side from the provinces, and spread their net -over him" In this passage a forcible allusion is made to the manner in -which the wild animal is surrounded by the hunters, who surround and -gradually close in upon them, as they drive their victims into the -toils. The same combination of the hunters is also referred to by the -prophet Micah, vii. 2, "There is none upright among men: they all lie -in wait for blood; they hunt every man his brother with a net." - - [Illustration: WILD BULL, OR ORYX. - - "_They lie at the head of all the streets, like a wild bull in a - net._"--ISAIAH li. 21.] - -Accepting the theory that the Tô is one of the large antelopes that -inhabit, or used to inhabit, the Holy Land and its neighbourhood, we -may safely conjecture that it may signify the beautiful animal known -as the ORYX (_Oryx leucoryx_), an animal which has a tolerably wide -range, and is even now found on the borders of the Holy Land. It is a -large and powerful antelope, and is remarkable for its beautiful -horns, which sometimes exceed a yard in length, and sweep in a most -graceful curve over the back. - -Sharp as they are, and evidently formidable weapons, the manner in -which they are set on the head renders them apparently unserviceable -for combat. When, however, the Oryx is brought to bay, or wishes to -fight, it stoops its head until the nose is close to the ground, the -points of the horns being thus brought to the front. As the head is -swung from side to side, the curved horns sweep through a considerable -space, and are so formidable that even the lion is chary of attacking -their owner. Indeed, instances are known where the lion has been -transfixed and killed by the horns of the Oryx. Sometimes the animal -is not content with merely standing to repel the attacks of its -adversaries, but suddenly charges forward with astonishing rapidity, -and strikes upwards with its horns as it makes the leap. - -But these horns, which can be used with such terrible effect in -battle, are worse than useless when the animal is hampered in the net. -In vain does the Oryx attempt its usual defence: the curved horns get -more and more entangled in the elastic meshes, and become a source of -weakness rather than strength. We see now how singularly appropriate -is the passage, "Thy sons lie at the heads of all the streets, as a -wild bull (or Oryx) in a net," and how completely the force of the -metaphor is lost without a knowledge of the precise mode of fixing the -nets, of driving the animals into them, and of the manner in which -they render even the large and powerful animals helpless. - -The height of the Oryx at the shoulder is between three and four feet, -and its colour is greyish white, mottled profusely with black and -brown in bold patches. It is plentiful in Northern Africa, and, like -many other antelopes, lives in herds, so that it is peculiarly suited -to that mode of hunting which consists in surrounding a number of -animals, and driving them into a trap of some kind, whether a fenced -enclosure, a pitfall, or a net. - -There is, by the way, the term "snare," which is specially used with -especial reference to catching the foot as distinguished from the net -which enveloped the whole body. For example, in Job xviii. 8, "He is -cast into a net, he walketh on a snare," where a bold distinction is -drawn between the two and their mode of action. And in ver. 10, "The -snare is laid for him in the ground." Though I would not state -definitely that such is the case, I believe that the snare which is -here mentioned is one which is still used in several parts of the -world. - -It is simply a hoop, to the inner edge of which are fastened a number -of elastic spikes, the points being directed towards the centre. This -is merely laid in the path which the animal will take, and is tied by -a short cord to a log of wood. As the deer or antelope treads on the -snare, the foot passes easily through the elastic spikes, but, when -the foot is raised, the spikes run into the joint and hold the hoop -upon the limb. Terrified by the check and the sudden pang, the animal -tries to run away, but, by the united influence of sharp spikes and -the heavy log, it is soon forced to halt, and so becomes an easy prey -to its pursuers. - - - - -THE REÊM, OR "UNICORN" OF SCRIPTURE. - - The Reêm evidently known to the Jews--Various theories - concerning the Unicorn--Supposed identity with the Indian - Rhinoceros--Passages of Scripture alluding to the strength, - violent and intractable temper of the Reêm--The Reêm a - two-horned animal--Its evident connection with the Ox tribe--Its - presumed identity with the now extinct Urus--Mr. Dawkins' - treatise on the Urus--Enormous size and dangerous character of - the Urus--Rabbinical legend of the Reêm--Identity of the Urus - with the modern varieties of cattle--The Bull hunts of Nineveh. - - -There are many animals mentioned in the Scriptures which cannot be -identified with any certainty, partly because their names occur only -once or twice in the sacred writings, and partly because, when they -are mentioned, the context affords no clue to their identity by giving -any hint as to their appearance or habits. In such cases, although the -translators would have done better if they had simply given the Hebrew -word without endeavouring to identify it with any known animal, they -may be excused for committing errors in their nomenclature. There is -one animal, however, for which no such excuse can be found, and this -is the Reêm of Scripture, translated as Unicorn in the authorized -version. - -Now the word Reêm is mentioned seven times in the Old Testament, and -is found, not in one, but several books, showing that it was an animal -perfectly well known to those for whom the sacred books were written. -It is twice mentioned in the Pentateuch, several times in the Psalms, -once in the book of Job, once by Isaiah, and reference is once made to -it in the historical books. In these various passages, abundant -details are given of its aspect and habits, so that there is very -little doubt as to the identity of the animal. - -The Septuagint translates Reêm by the word Monoceros, or the -One-horned, which has been transferred to the Vulgate by the term -Unicornis, a word having the same signification. - -In an age when scientific investigation was utterly neglected, such a -translation would readily be accepted without cavil, and there is no -doubt that the generality of those who read the passages in question -accepted them as referring to the Unicorn of heraldry with which we, -as Englishmen, are so familiar. I may perhaps mention briefly that -such an animal is a physiological impossibility, and that the Unicorn -of the fables was a mere compound of an antelope, a horse, and a -narwhal. The tusks or teeth of the narwhal were in former days -exhibited as horns of the Unicorn, and so precious were they that one -of them was laid up in the cathedral of St. Denis, and two in the -treasury of St. Mark's at Venice, all of which were exhibited in the -year 1658 as veritable Unicorns' horns. - -The physiological difficulty above mentioned seems to have troubled -the minds of the old writers, who saw that an ivory horn had no -business to grow upon the junction of the two bones of the skull, and -yet felt themselves bound to acknowledge that such an animal did -really exist. They therefore put themselves to vast trouble in -accounting for such a phenomenon, and, in their determination to -believe in the animal, invented theories nearly as wonderful as the -existence of the Unicorn itself. - -One of these theories, arguing that the two horns may be as easily -fused together as the hoofs, is stated as follows. "Because the middle -is equally distant from both the extremes; and the hoof of this beast -may be well said to be cloven and whole, because the horn is of the -substance of the hoof, and the hoof of the substance of the horn, and -therefore the horn is whole and the hoof cloven; for the cleaving -either of the horn or of the hoof cometh from the defect of nature, -and therefore God hath given to horses and asses whole hoofs, because -there is greatest use of their legs, but unto Unicorns a whole and -entire horn, that, as the ease of man is procured by the help of -horses, so the health of them is procured by the horn of the Unicorn." - -This last sentence refers to the then universal belief, that the horn -of the Unicorn was a panacea for all illness and an antidote to all -poisons. It was thought to be so sensitive, that if a poisoned cup -were but brought near it a thick moisture would exude from its -surface, and if fragments were thrown into the cup they would cause -the liquid to swell and bubble, and at last to boil over. This -supposed virtue forms the basis of an argument used by one of the -writers on the subject, and, as the passage affords a good example of -theological argument in 1658, it will be given entire. - -After enumerating various animals (and, by the way, once actually -hitting upon the "fish called Monoceros," _i.e._ the narwhal), the -writer proceeds as follows, in the quaint and nervous English of his -time: "Now our discourse of the Unicorn is of none of these beasts, -for there is not any virtue attributed to their horns, and therefore -the vulgar sort of infidel people, which scarcely believe any herb but -such as they see in their own gardens, or any beast but such as is in -their own flocks, or any knowledge but such as is bred in their own -brains, or any birds which are not hatched in their own nests, have -never made question of these; but of the true Unicorn, whereof there -were more proofs in the world, because of the nobleness of his horn, -they have ever been in doubt. By which distinction it appeareth unto -me that there is some secret enemy in the inward degenerate nature of -man, which continually blindeth the eyes of God His people, from -beholding and believing the greatness of God His works. - -"But to the purpose: that there is such a beast, the Scripture itself -witnesseth, for _David_ thus speaketh in the 92d Psalm, _Et erigetur -cornu meus tanquam Monocerotis_. That is, 'My horn shall be lifted up -like the horn of a Unicorn.' Whereupon all divines that ever wrote -have not only collected that there is a Unicorn, but also affirm the -similitude to be betwixt the kingdom of _David_ and the horn of the -Unicorn, that as the horn of the Unicorn is wholesome to all beasts -and creatures, so should be the kingdom of David to the generation of -Christ. - -"And do we think that _David_ would compare the vertue of his kingdom -and the powerful redemption of the world, unto a thing that is not, or -is uncertain, or is fantastical? God forbid that ever any man should -so do despight to the Holy Ghost. For this cause we read also in -_Suidas_, that good men who worship God and follow His laws are -compared to Unicorns, whose greater parts, as their whole bodies, are -unprofitable and untameable, yet their horn maketh them excellent; so -in good men, although their fleshy parts be good for nothing, and fall -down to the earth, yet their grace and piety exalteth their souls to -the heavens." - -In late years, after the true origin of the Unicorn's horn was -discovered, and the belief in its many virtues abandoned, the Reêm, or -Monoceros, was almost unhesitatingly identified with the rhinoceros of -India, and for a long time this theory was the accepted one. It is -now, however, certain that the Reêm was not the rhinoceros, and that -it can be almost certainly identified with an animal which, at the -time when the passages in question were written, was plentiful in -Palestine, although, like the lion, it is now extinct. - -We will now take in their order the seven passages in which the animal -is mentioned, substituting the word Reêm for Unicorn. - -The first of these passages occurs in Numbers xxiii., where the -remarkable prophecies of Balaam are recorded. "The Lord his God is -with them, and the shout of a king is among them. God brought them out -of Egypt, he hath as it were the strength of Reêm:" (ver. 21, 22). -From this passage we gain one piece of information, namely, that the -Reêm was an exceptionally powerful animal. Indeed, it was evidently -the strongest animal that was known to the prophet and his hearers, or -it would not have been mentioned as a visible type of Divine power. - -Next we come to Deut. xxxiii., wherein another prophecy is revealed, -namely, that of Moses, just before his death and mysterious burial. -Speaking of Joseph and his tribe, the aged prophet uses these words, -"Let the blessing come upon the head of Joseph, and upon the top of -the head of him that was separated from his brethren. His glory is -like the firstling of his bullock, and his horns are like the horns of -Reêm: with them he shall push the people together to the ends of the -earth; and they are the ten thousands of Ephraim, and they are the -thousands of Manasseh" (ver. 16, 17). - -In this passage we gather more information. In the first place it is -to be noticed that the Reêm is mentioned in connexion with the -domestic cattle, and that the name is used as one that is familiar to -the hearers. Next, as the marginal reading gives the word, Reêm is -used in the singular and not in the plural number, so that the passage -may be read, "his horns are like the horns of a Unicorn." Thus we come -to the important point that the Reêm was not a one-horned, but a -two-horned animal. - -It may here be remarked that the Reêm horns were the emblem of the two -tribes that sprung from Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh, himself being -typified by the Reêm, and his two powerful sons by the horns. - -Next, in the Psalms, we find that the powerful, two-horned Reêm was -also a dangerous and violent animal. (See Psa. xxii. 19, 21.) - -"Be not Thou far from me, O Lord: O my strength, haste Thee to help -me. - -"Deliver my soul from the sword, my darling from the power (or the -hand) of the dog. - -"Save me from the lion's mouth: for Thou hast heard me from the horns -of Reêm." - -In Ps. xcii. there is another allusion to the powerful horns of the -Reêm. "For lo, Thine enemies, O Lord, for lo, Thine enemies shall -perish; all the workers of iniquity shall be scattered. But my horn -shalt Thou exalt like the horn of Reêm." - -From these passages we gather the following important points. First, -the Reêm was an animal familiar to the people of Palestine, as is -evident from the manner in which its name is introduced into the -sacred writings; secondly, it was the most powerful animal known to -the Israelites; thirdly, it was a two-horned animal; fourthly, it was -a savage and dangerous beast; and fifthly, it had some connexion with -the domesticated cattle. - -This last-mentioned point is brought out more strongly in the -remaining passages of Scripture. In Job, for example, a parallel is -drawn between the wild and untameable Reêm and the beasts of draught -and burden. - -In that magnificent series of passages in which the Lord answers Job -out of the whirlwind, and which indeed are a worthy sequel to Elihu's -impassioned discourse on the text that "God is greater than man," the -wild animals are mentioned in evident contrast to the tame. First come -the wild goats of the rock; then the wild ass, who "scorneth the -multitude of the city, neither regardeth the crying of the driver;" -and then the Reêm, which is clearly contrasted with the tamed ox. - -"Will Reêm be willing to serve thee, or abide by thy crib? Canst thou -bind Reêm with his band in the furrow? or will he harrow the valleys -after thee? Wilt thou trust him, because his strength is great? or -wilt thou leave thy labour to him? Wilt thou believe him that he will -bring home thy seed, and gather it in thy barn?" See chap. xxxix. -9-12. - -Now in these passages, the principal duties of the domesticated cattle -are described--the ploughing the furrow, the drawing of the harrow, -and the carrying home of the ripened corn, for all which purposes the -tameless spirit of Reêm renders him useless, in spite of his vast -strength. The prophet Isaiah has a passage in which the Reêm is -evidently classed with the ox tribe. See chap. xxxiv. 6, 7. - -"The sword of the Lord is filled with blood; it is made fat with -fatness, and with the blood of lambs and goats, with the fat of the -kidneys of rams: for the Lord hath a sacrifice in Bozrah, and a great -slaughter in the land of Idumea. And Reêm shall come down with them, -and the bullocks with the bulls; and their land shall be soaked with -blood, and their dust made fat with fatness." - -The last passage in which reference is made to this animal is in Ps. -xxix. 5, 6. - -"The voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars; yea, the Lord breaketh the -cedars of Lebanon. He maketh them also to skip like a calf; Lebanon -and Sirion like a young Reêm." - -On turning to the Jewish Bible we find that the word Reêm is -translated as buffalo, and there is no doubt that this rendering is -nearly the correct one, and at the present day naturalists are nearly -all agreed that the Reêm of the Old Testament must have been the now -extinct Urus. A smaller animal, the Bonassus or Bison, also existed -in Palestine, and even to the present day continues to maintain itself -in one or two spots, though it will probably be as soon completely -erased from the surface of the earth as its gigantic congener. - -That the Reêm was one of the two animals is certain, and that it was -the larger is nearly as certain. The reason for deciding upon the Urus -is, that its horns were of great size and strength, and therefore -agree with the description of the Reêm; whereas those of the Bonassus, -although powerful, are short, and not conspicuous enough to deserve -the notice which is taken of them by the sacred writers. - -Of the extinct variety we know but little. We do know, however, that -it was a huge and most formidable animal, as is evident from the -skulls and other bones which have been discovered. - -Hitherto there has been considerable difficulty in treating of the -ancient Urus, on account of the great confusion which existed in the -various synonyms that were given to the animal. The tangled skein has, -however, been carefully unravelled by Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., -F.R.S., who has published an exceedingly valuable paper on the subject -in the _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_, March 21, 1866. - -After describing the general character of the Urus, he proceeds to -remark: "The synonyms of the _Bos Urus_ are in a state of very great -confusion, arising from the fact that the two words denoting two -distinct species, the Urox and the Aurochs, are derived from the same -Sanscrit root, _Ur_, _Aur_, or _Or_, that signifies a forest, or sandy -waste. The root can be traced through many languages, and still -survives in the Greek [Greek: _horos_] (a mountain), the Norwegian -_Ore_, the Icelandic _Ure_ (the stony desert surrounding the base of -the mountains); and is preserved without change in the old German _Ur_ -(a forest), and in _Ur_ of the Chaldees. It appears also in the Ural -Mountains, and also in the canton of _Uri_, the crest of which is an -ox-head." It is worthy of mention that, in the last-mentioned place, -when new magistrates are elected, two ancient and gigantic horns, -remarkable for their double curvature, are carried in solemn -procession. - -The presence of these horns affords a remarkable confirmation to a -well-known passage in Julius Cæsars familiar "Commentaries." "The Uri -are little inferior to elephants in size" ("magnitudine paullo infra -elephantos"); "but are bulls in their nature, colour, and figure. -Great is their strength, and great their swiftness; nor do they spare -man or beast when they have caught sight of them. These, when trapped -in pitfalls, the hunters diligently kill. The youths, exercising -themselves by this sort of hunting, are hardened by the toil; and -those among them who have killed most, bringing with them the horns as -testimonials, acquire great praise. But these Uri cannot be habituated -to man or made tractable, not even when young. The great size of the -horns, as well as the form and quality of them, differ much from the -horns of our oxen. These, when carefully selected, they ring round the -edge with silver, and use them for drinking cups at their ample -feasts." - -The enormous size of the horns of an ox which was in all probability -the Urus is mentioned by another writer, who also alludes to their use -as drinking vessels. He states that some of these horns were so large -as to hold about four gallons, and then proceeds to remark that their -primitive use as drinking-cups was the reason why Bacchus was -represented as wearing horns, and was sometimes worshipped under the -form of a bull. - -It is worthy of notice, that the Sanscrit root _Ur_ is retained in the -name of the enormous Indian ox, the Gaur, a term which is formed from -two words, namely, Gau, or Ghoo, a cow, and Ur, so that the name -signifies Wild Cow. - -As to the size of the animal Urus, it is evident, by measurement of -certain remains, that it must have well deserved Cæsar's comparison -with the elephant. A skull that is described by Cuvier gave the -following measurements. Width of skull between the bases of the -horn-cores (_i.e._ the bony projections on which the hollow horns are -set), rather more than twelve inches and an half. Circumference of the -cores at the base, twelve inches and nine-tenths. Length of the cores, -twenty-seven inches and nine-tenths; and distances between their tips, -thirty-two inches and a half. - -According to the proportions of the domesticated ox, these -measurements indicated that the animal was twelve feet in length, and -six feet and a half in height. Now, if the reader will sketch out on a -wall an ox of these dimensions, he will appreciate the enormous -dimensions of the ancient Urus, far better than can be done by merely -reading figures in a book. - -But this animal, gigantic as it was, is not the largest specimen that -has been discovered. A portion of an Urus skull was discovered in the -Avon, at Melksham, near Bath, the horn-cores of which, as described by -Mr. H. Woods, were seventeen inches and a half in circumference, -thirty-six inches and a half in length, and the distance from tip to -tip was thirty-nine inches. Taking the same proportions as those of -the ordinary ox, the author shows that the skull in question belonged -to an animal very much larger than that which was described by Cuvier. -In another specimen the distance between the tips of the horn-cores -was forty-two inches, but their length only thirty-six. - -Of course, the size of the horn-cores gives little indication of the -dimensions of the horns themselves, and the principal point to be -noticed is the shape of the core, which in some specimens, though not -in all, instead of presenting the regular double curvature with which -we are so familiar in our domestic oxen, first curves outwards, then -bends backwards or a little downwards and forwards. This peculiarity -in the shape of the horns is specially noted by Cæsar, and we may -therefore receive with more security his account of their enormous -size. - -A curious rabbinical legend of the Reêm is given in Lewysohn's -"Zoologie des Talmuds." When the ark was complete, and all the beasts -were commanded to enter, the Reêm was unable to do so, because it was -too large to pass through the door. Noah and his sons therefore were -obliged to tie the animal by a rope to the ark, and to tow it behind; -and, in order to prevent it from being strangled, they tied the rope, -not round its neck, but to its horn. - -The same writer very justly remarks that the Scriptural and Talmudical -accounts of the Reêm have one decided distinction. The Scripture -speaks chiefly of its fierceness, its untameable nature, its strength, -and its swiftness, as its principal characteristics, while the Talmud -speaks almost exclusively of its size. It was evidently the largest -animal of which the writers had ever heard, and, according to Oriental -wont, they exaggerated it preposterously. Whenever the Talmudical -writers treat of animals with which they are personally acquainted, -they are simple, straightforward, and accurate. But, as soon as they -come to animals unknown to them except by hearsay, they go off into -the wildest extravagances, such, for example, as asserting that the -leopard is a hybrid between the wild boar and the lioness. The -exaggerated statements concerning the Reêm show therefore that the -animal must have been extinct long before the time of the writers. - -The question now arises, What is the distinction between the ancient -Urus and our modern cattle? The answer is simple enough. The -difference in the shape of the horn-cores is, as has been shown, not -characteristic of the animal in general, but only of certain -individuals; while other variations in the shape and length of certain -bones are of too little consequence to be accepted as bases whereon to -found a new genus or even species, and we may therefore assume that -the Urus of Cæsar, the Reêm of Scripture, was nothing more than a very -large variety of the ox, modified of course in aspect and habits by -the locality in which it lived. This assumption is strengthened by the -fact that Mr. Dawkins, in the treatise to which reference has already -been made, has "traced the gigantic Urus from the earliest Pleistocene -times through the pre-historic period at least as far as the twelfth -century after Christ." - -The reader may remember that in Cæsar's brief but graphic account of -the Urus, he mentions that it was hunted by those who wished to -distinguish themselves. Now, on many of the sculptures of Nineveh, -there are delineations of bull hunts, which show, as Mr. Layard justly -observes, that the wild bull appears to have been considered scarcely -less formidable and noble game than the lion. The king himself is -shown as attacking it, while the warriors partake of the sport either -mounted or on foot. - -The exact variety of the wild bull which is being chased is not very -recognisable. It certainly is not the ordinary domestic animal, the -shape approaching somewhat to that of the antelope. The body is -covered with marks which are evidently intended to represent hair, -though it does not follow that the hair need be thick and shaggy like -that of the bison tribe. - - - - -THE BISON. - - The Bison tribe and its distinguishing marks--Its former - existence in Palestine--Its general habits--Origin of its - name--Its musky odour--Size and speed of the Bison--Its - dangerous character when brought to bay--Its defence against the - wolf--Its untameable disposition. - - -A few words are now needful respecting the second animal which has -been mentioned in connexion with the Reêm; namely, the Bison, or -Bonassus. The Bisons are distinguishable from ordinary cattle by the -thick and heavy mane which covers the neck and shoulders, and which is -more conspicuous in the male than in the female. The general coating -of the body is also rather different, being thick and woolly instead -of lying closely to the skin like that of the other oxen. The Bison -certainly inhabited Palestine, as its bones have been found in that -country. It has, however, been extinct in the Holy Land for many -years, and, not being an animal that is capable of withstanding the -encroachments of man, it has gradually died out from the greater part -of Europe and Asia, and is now to be found only in a very limited -locality, chiefly in a Lithuanian forest, where it is strictly -preserved, and in some parts of the Caucasus. There it still preserves -the habits which made its ancient and gigantic relative so dangerous -an animal. Unlike the buffalo, which loves the low-lying and marshy -lands, the Bison prefers the high wooded localities, where it lives in -small troops. - -Its name of Bison is a modification of the word Bisam, or musk, which -was given to it on account of the strong musky odour of its flesh, -which is especially powerful about the head and neck. This odour is -not so unpleasant as might be supposed, and those who have had -personal experience of the animal say that it bears some resemblance -to the perfume of violets. It is developed most strongly in the adult -bulls, the cows and young male calves only possessing it in a slight -degree. - - [Illustration: BISON KILLING WOLF. - - "_Will the unicorn he willing to serve thee?_"--JOB xxxix. 9.] - -It is a tolerably large animal, being about six feet high at the -shoulder--a stature nearly equivalent to that of the ordinary Asiatic -elephant; and, in spite of its great bulk, is a fleet and active -animal, as indeed is generally the case with those oxen which inhabit -elevated localities. Still, though it can run with considerable speed, -it is not able to keep up the pace for any great distance, and at the -end of a mile or two can be brought to bay. - -Like most animals, however large and powerful they may be, it fears -the presence of man, and, if it sees or scents a human being, will try -to slip quietly away; but when it is baffled in this attempt, and -forced to fight, it becomes a fierce and dangerous antagonist, -charging with wonderful quickness, and using its short and powerful -horns with great effect. A wounded Bison, when fairly brought to bay, -is perhaps as awkward an opponent as can be found, and to kill it -without the aid of firearms is no easy matter. - -Although the countries in which it lives are infested with wolves, it -seems to have no fear of them when in health; and, even when pressed -by their winter's hunger, the wolves do not venture to attack even a -single Bison, much less a herd of them. Like other wild cattle, it -likes to dabble in muddy pools, and is fond of harbouring in thickets -near such localities; and those who have to travel through the forest -keep clear of such spots, unless they desire to drive out the animal -for the purpose of killing it. - -Like the extinct Aurochs, the Bison has never been domesticated, and, -although the calves have been captured while very young, and attempts -have been made to train them to harness, their innate wildness of -disposition has always baffled such efforts. - - - - -THE GAZELLE, OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE. - - The Gazelle identified with the _Tsebi_, i.e. the Roe or Roebuck - of Scripture--Various passages relating to the Tsebi--Its - swiftness, its capabilities as a beast of chase, its beauty, and - the quality of its flesh--The Tsebiyah rendered in Greek as - Tabitha, and translated as Dorcas, or Gazelle--Different - varieties of the Gazelle--How the Gazelle defends itself against - wild beasts--Chase of the Gazelle--The net, the battue, and the - pitfall--Coursing the Gazelle with greyhounds and falcons--Mr. - Chasseaud's account of a hunting party--Gentleness of the - Gazelle. - - -We now leave the Ox tribe, and come to the Antelopes, several species -of which are mentioned in the Scriptures. Four kinds of antelope are -found in or near the Holy Land, and there is little doubt that all of -them are mentioned in the sacred volume. - -The first that will be described is the well-known GAZELLE, which is -acknowledged to be the animal that is represented by the word _Tsebi_, -or _Tsebiyah_. The Jewish Bible accepts the same rendering. This word -occurs many times, sometimes as a metaphor, and sometimes representing -some animal which was lawful food, and which therefore belonged to the -true ruminants. Moreover, its flesh was not only legally capable of -being eaten, but was held in such estimation that it was provided for -the table of Solomon himself, together with other animals which will -be described in their turn. - -We will first take the passages where the word is used metaphorically, -or as a poetical image. That it was exceedingly swift of foot is -evident from several instances in which the animal is mentioned. For -example, in 2 Sam. ii. 18, we are told that Asahel, the brother of -Joab, was "as light of foot as a wild roe," or, as the passage may -also be translated, "one of the roes that is in the field." And in 1 -Chron. xii. 8, we find the following description of eleven warriors -who attached themselves to David:--"Of the Gadites there separated -themselves unto David into the hold to the wilderness men of might, -and men of war fit for the battle, that could handle shield and -buckler, whose faces were like the faces of lions, and were as swift -as the roes upon the mountains." - -That it was a beast of chase is as plainly to be gathered from the -sacred writings. See, for example, Prov. vi. 4, 5: "Give not sleep to -thine eyes, nor slumber to thine eyelids. Deliver thyself as a roe -from the hand of the hunter, and as a bird from the hand of the -fowler." - -The same imagery is employed by the prophet Isaiah, xiii. 13, 14:-- - -"Therefore I will shake the heavens, and the earth shall remove out of -her place, in the wrath of the Lord of hosts, and in the day of His -fierce anger. And it shall be as the chased roe, and as a sheep that -no man taketh up: they shall every man turn to his own people, and -flee every one into his own land." - -Having now learned that the Tsebi was very fleet of foot and a beast -of chase, we come to another series of passages, which show that it -was an animal of acknowledged beauty. In that most remarkable poem, -the Song of Solomon, or the "Song of Songs," as it is more rightly -named, there are repeated allusions to the Tsebi. In some cases the -name of the Roe is used as a sort of adjuration--"I charge thee by the -roes;" and in others the lover, whether man or woman, is compared to -the Roe. There is one consecutive series of passages in which the word -is repeatedly used. See Cant. ii. 7-9: "I charge you, O ye daughters -of Jerusalem, by the roes, and by the hinds of the field, that ye stir -not up, nor awake my love, till he please. The voice of my beloved! -behold, he cometh leaping upon the mountains, skipping upon the hills. -My beloved is like a roe or a young hart." And in the last verse of -the poem the same image is repeated--"Make haste, my beloved, and be -thou like to a roe or to a young hart upon the mountains of spices." - -Allusion is made to the beauty of the Roe, or Gazelle, in a well-known -name, Tabitha, which is, in fact, a slight corruption of the Hebrew -Tsebiyah, and is translated into Greek as Dorcas, or Gazelle. "Now -there was at Joppa a certain disciple named Tabitha, which by -interpretation is called Dorcas (_i.e._ the Gazelle). This woman was -full of good works and alms deeds which she did." - -As to the flesh of the Gazelle, or Roe, it is mentioned in Deut. xii. -15, xiv. 5, as one of the animals that affords lawful food; and the -same permission is reiterated in xv. 22, with the proviso that the -blood shall be poured out on the earth like water. - -Having now glanced at the various passages of Scripture wherein the -Gazelle is mentioned, we will proceed to the animal itself, its -appearance, locality, and general habits, in order to see how they -agree with the Scriptural allusions to the Tsebi. - -As to its flesh, it is even now considered a great dainty, although it -is not at all agreeable to European taste, being hard, dry, and -without flavour. Still, as has been well remarked, tastes differ as -well as localities, and an article of food which is a costly luxury in -one land is utterly disdained in another, and will hardly be eaten -except by one who is absolutely dying of starvation. - -The Gazelle is very common in Palestine in the present day, and, in -the ancient times, must have been even more plentiful. There are -several varieties of it, which were once thought to be distinct -species, but are now acknowledged to be mere varieties, all of which -are referable to the single species _Gazella Dorcas_. There is, for -example, the Corinna, or Corine Antelope, which is a rather -boldly-spotted female; the Kevella Antelope, in which the horns are -slightly flattened; the small variety called the Ariel, or Cora; the -grey Kevel, which is a rather large variety; and the Long-horned -Gazelle, which owes its name to a rather large development of the -horns. - - [Illustration: THE GAZELLE, (_Gazella Dorcus_) OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE - - "_Behold, he cometh leaping upon the mountains, skipping upon the - hills. My beloved is like a roe or a young hart._"--CANT. ii. 8, 9.] - -Whatever variety may inhabit any given spot, they all have the same -habits. They are gregarious animals, associating together in herds -often of considerable size, and deriving from their numbers an element -of strength which would otherwise be wanting. Against mankind, numbers -are of no avail; but when the agile though feeble Gazelle has to -defend itself against the predatory animals of its own land, it can -only defend itself by the concerted action of the whole herd. Should, -for example, the wolves prowl round a herd of Gazelles, after their -treacherous wont, the Gazelles instantly assume a posture of -self-defence. They form themselves into a compact phalanx, all the -males coming to the front, and the strongest and boldest taking on -themselves the honourable duty of facing the foe. The does and the -young are kept within their ranks, and so formidable is the array of -sharp, menacing horns, that beasts as voracious as the wolf, and far -more powerful, have been known to retire without attempting to charge. - -As a rule, however, the Gazelle does not desire to resist, and prefers -its legs to its horns as a mode of insuring safety. So fleet is the -animal, that it seems to fly over the ground as if propelled by -volition alone, and its light, agile frame is so enduring, that a fair -chase has hardly any prospect of success. Hunters, therefore, prefer a -trap of some kind, if they chase the animal merely for food or for the -sake of its skin, and contrive to kill considerable numbers at once. -Sometimes they dig pitfalls, and drive the Gazelles into them by -beating a large tract of country, and gradually narrowing the circle. -Sometimes they use nets, such as have already been described, and -sometimes they line the sides of a ravine with archers and spearmen, -and drive the herd of Gazelles through the treacherous defile. - -These modes of slaughter are, however, condemned by the true hunter, -who looks upon those who use them much in the same light as an English -sportsman looks on a man who shoots foxes. The greyhound and the -falcon are both employed in the legitimate capture of the Gazelle, and -in some cases both are trained to work together. Hunting the Gazelle -with the greyhound very much resembles coursing in our own country, -and chasing it with the hawk is exactly like the system of falconry -that was once so popular an English sport, and which even now shows -signs of revival. - -It is, however, when the dog and the bird are trained to work together -that the spectacle becomes really novel and interesting to an English -spectator. - -As soon as the Gazelles are fairly in view, the hunter unhoods his -hawk, and holds it up so that it may see the animals. The bird fixes -its eye on one Gazelle, and by that glance the animal's doom is -settled. The falcon darts after the Gazelles, followed by the dog, who -keeps his eye on the hawk, and holds himself in readiness to attack -the animal that his feathered ally may select. Suddenly the falcon, -which has been for some few seconds hovering over the herd of -Gazelles, makes a stoop upon the selected victim, fastening its talons -in its forehead, and, as it tries to shake off its strange foe, flaps -its wings into the Gazelle's eyes so as to blind it. Consequently, the -rapid course of the antelope is arrested, so that the dog is able to -come up and secure the animal while it is struggling to escape from -its feathered enemy. Sometimes, though rarely, a young and -inexperienced hawk swoops down with such reckless force that it misses -the forehead of the Gazelle, and impales itself upon the sharp horns, -just as in England the falcon is apt to be spitted on the bill of the -heron. - -The most sportsmanlike mode of hunting the Gazelle is to use the -falcon alone; but for this sport a bird must possess exceptional -strength, swiftness, and intelligence. A very spirited account of such -a chase is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud, in his "Druses of the -Lebanon:"-- - -"Whilst reposing here, our old friend with the falcon informs us that -at a short distance from this spot is a khan called Nebbi Youni, from -a supposition that the prophet Jonah was here landed by the whale; but -the old man is very indignant when we identify the place with a fable, -and declare to him that similar sights are to be seen at Gaza and -Scanderoon. But his good humour is speedily recovered by reverting to -the subject of the exploits and cleverness of his falcon. This reminds -him that we have not much time to waste in idle talk, as the greater -heats will drive the gazelles from the plains to the mountain -retreats, and lose us the opportunity of enjoying the most -sportsmanlike amusement in Syria. Accordingly, bestriding our animals -again, we ford the river at that point where a bridge once stood. - -"We have barely proceeded twenty minutes before the keen eye of the -falconer has descried a herd of gazelles quietly grazing in the -distance. Immediately he reins in his horse, and enjoining silence, -instead of riding at them, as we might have felt inclined to do, he -skirts along the banks of the river, so as to cut off, if possible, -the retreat of these fleet animals where the banks are narrowest, -though very deep, but which would be cleared at a single leap by the -gazelles. Having successfully accomplished this manoeuvre, he again -removes the hood from the hawk, and indicates to us that precaution -is no longer necessary. Accordingly, first adding a few slugs to the -charges in our barrels, we balance our guns in an easy posture, and, -giving the horses their reins, set off at full gallop, and with a loud -hurrah, right towards the already startled gazelles. - -"The timid animals, at first paralysed by our appearance, stand and -gaze for a second terror-stricken at our approach; but their pause is -only momentary; they perceive in an instant that the retreat to their -favourite haunts has been secured, and so they dash wildly forward -with all the fleetness of despair, coursing over the plain with no -fixed refuge in view, and nothing but their fleetness to aid in their -delivery. A stern chase is a long chase, and so, doubtless, on the -present occasion it would prove with ourselves, for there is many and -many a mile of level country before us, and our horses, though swift -of foot, stand no chance in this respect with the gazelles. - -"Now, however, the old man has watched for a good opportunity to -display the prowess and skill of his falcon: he has followed us only -at a hand-gallop; but the hawk, long inured to such pastime, stretches -forth its neck eagerly in the direction of the flying prey, and being -loosened from its pinions, sweeps up into the air like a shot, and -passes overhead with incredible velocity. Five minutes more, and the -bird has outstripped even the speed of the light-footed gazelle; we -see him through the dust and haze that our own speed throws around us, -hovering but an instant over the terrified herd; he has singled out -his prey, and, diving with unerring aim, fixes his iron talons into -the head of the terrified animal. - -"This is the signal for the others to break up their orderly retreat, -and to speed over the plain in every direction. Some, despite the -danger that hovers on their track, make straight for their old and -familiar haunts, and passing within twenty yards of where we ride, -afford us an opportunity of displaying our skill as amateur huntsmen -on horseback; nor does it require but little nerve and dexterity to -fix our aim whilst our horses are tearing over the ground. However, -the moment presents itself, the loud report of barrel after barrel -startles the unaccustomed inmates of that unfrequented waste; one -gazelle leaps twice its own height into the air, and then rolls over, -shot through the heart; another bounds on yet a dozen paces, but, -wounded mortally, staggering, halts, and then falls to the ground. - -"This is no time for us to pull in and see what is the amount of -damage done, for the falcon, heedless of all surrounding incidents, -clings firmly to the head of its terrified victim, flapping its strong -wings awhile before the poor brute's terrified eyes, half blinding it -and rendering its head dizzy; till, after tearing round and round with -incredible speed, the poor creature stops, panting for breath, and, -overcome with excessive terror, drops down fainting upon the earth. -Now the air resounds with the acclamations and hootings of the -ruthless victors. - -"The old man is wild in his transports of delight. More certain of the -prowess of his bird than ourselves, he has stopped awhile to gather -together the fruits of our booty, and, with these suspended to his -saddle bow, he canters up leisurely, shouting lustily the while the -praises of his infallible hawk; then getting down, and hoodwinking the -bird again, he first of all takes the precaution of fastening together -the legs of the fallen gazelle, and then he humanely blows up into its -nostrils. Gradually the natural brilliancy returns to the dimmed eyes -of the gazelle, then it struggles valiantly, but vainly, to -disentangle itself from its fetters. - -"Pitying its efforts, the falconer throws a handkerchief over its -head, and, securing this prize, claims it as his own, declaring that -he will bear it home to his house in the mountains, where, after a few -weeks' kind treatment and care, it will become as domesticated and -affectionate as a spaniel. Meanwhile, Abou Shein gathers together the -fallen booty, and, tying them securely with cords, fastens them behind -his own saddle, declaring, with a triumphant laugh, that we shall -return that evening to the city of Beyrout with such game as few -sportsmen can boast of having carried thither in one day." - -The gentle nature of the Gazelle is as proverbial as its grace and -swiftness, and is well expressed in the large, soft, liquid eye, which -has formed from time immemorial the stock comparison of Oriental poets -when describing the eyes of beauty. - - - - -THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX. - - The Dishon or Dyshon--Signification of the word - Pygarg--Certainty that the Dishon is an antelope, and that it - must be one of a few species--Former and present range of the - Addax--Description of the Addax--The Strepsiceros of Pliny. - - -There is a species of animal mentioned once in the Scriptures under -the name of Dishon which the Jewish Bible leaves untranslated, and -merely gives as Dyshon, and which is rendered in the Septuagint by -Pugargos, or PYGARG, as one version gives it. Now, the meaning of the -word Pygarg is white-crouped, and for that reason the Pygarg of the -Scriptures is usually held to be one of the white-crouped antelopes, -of which several species are known. Perhaps it may be one of them--it -may possibly be neither, and it may probably refer to all of them. - -But that an antelope of some kind is meant by the word Dishon is -evident enough, and it is also evident that the Dishon must have been -one of the antelopes which could be obtained by the Jews. Now as the -species of antelope which could have furnished food for that nation -are very few in number, it is clear that, even if we do not hit upon -the exact species, we may be sure of selecting an animal that was -closely allied to it. Moreover, as the nomenclature is exceedingly -loose, it is probable that more than one species might have been -included in the word Dishon. - -Modern commentators have agreed that there is every probability that -the Dishon of the Pentateuch was the antelope known by the name of -Addax. - -This handsome antelope is a native of Northern Africa. It has a very -wide range, and, even at the present day, is found in the vicinity of -Palestine, so that it evidently was one of the antelopes which could -be killed by Jewish hunters. From its large size, and long twisted -horns, it bears a strong resemblance to the Koodoo of Southern Africa. -The horns, however, are not so long, nor so boldly twisted, the curve -being comparatively slight, and not possessing the bold spiral shape -which distinguishes those of the koodoo. - - [Illustration: THE ADDAX, OR PYGARG OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_These are the beasts which ye shall eat: the ox, the sheep, ... the - pygarg, and the wild ox, and the chamois._"--DEUT. xiv. 4, 5.] - -The ordinary height of the Addax is three feet seven or eight inches, -and the horns are almost exactly alike in the two sexes. Their length, -from the head to the tips, is rather more than two feet. Its colour is -mostly white, but a thick mane of dark black hair falls from the -throat, a patch of similar hair grows on the forehead, and the back -and shoulders are greyish brown. There is no mane on the back of the -neck, as is the case with the koodoo. - -The Addax is a sand-loving animal, as is shown by the wide and -spreading hoofs, which afford it a firm footing on the yielding soil. -In all probability, this is one of the animals which would be taken, -like the wild bull, in a net, being surrounded and driven into the -toils by a number of hunters. It is not, however, one of the -gregarious species, and is not found in those vast herds in which some -of the antelopes love to assemble. - -Some writers reject the Addax as the Dishon, and are inclined to -consider that the real representative of the word is to be found in -the Ariel or Isabella gazelles. Of these, however, we have already -treated, and enough has been said about them to show that these -gazelles are in all probability comprised under the name Tsebi. - -It has been suggested, in contradiction to the opinion that the Dishon -is the Addax, that the word Strepsiceros, or Twisted Horn, is given to -it by Pliny, who also mentions that one of the native names for the -animal is Adas, or Akas, and that he distinguishes it from the Pygarg. -Still, the weight of evidence is so great in favour of the identity of -the Dishon and the Pygarg, that we may accept the interpretation with -safety. - - - - -THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE. - - The word Jachmur evidently represents a species of - antelope--Probability that the Jachmur is identical with the - Bubale, or Bekk'r-el-Wash--Resemblance of the animal to the ox - tribe--Its ox-like horns and mode of attack--Its capability of - domestication--Former and present range of the Bubale--Its - representation on the monuments of ancient Egypt--Delicacy of - its flesh--Size and general appearance of the animal. - - -It has already been mentioned that in the Old Testament there occur -the names of three or four animals, which clearly belong to one or -other of three or four antelopes. Only one of these names now remains -to be identified. This is the Jachmur, or Yachmur, a word which has -been rendered in the Septuagint as Boubalos, and has been translated -in our Authorized Version as FALLOW DEER. - -We shall presently see that the Fallow Deer is to be identified with -another animal, and that the word Jachmur must find another -interpretation. If we follow the Septuagint, and call it the BUBALE, -we shall identify it with a well-known antelope, called by the Arabs -the "Bekk'r-el-Wash," and known to zoologists as the BUBALE -(_Acronotus bubalis_). - -This fine antelope would scarcely be recognised as such by an -unskilled observer, as in its general appearance it much more -resembles the ox tribe than the antelope. Indeed, the Arabic title, -"Bekk'r-el-Wash," or Wild Cow, shows how close must be the resemblance -to the oxen. The Arabs, and indeed all the Orientals in whose -countries it lives, believe it not to be an antelope, but one of the -oxen, and class it accordingly. - -How much the appearance of the Bubale justifies them in this opinion -may be judged by reference to the figure on page 145. The horns are -thick, short, and heavy, and are first inclined forwards, and then -rather suddenly bent backwards. This formation of the horns causes the -Bubale to use his weapons after the manner of the bull, thereby -increasing the resemblance between them. When it attacks, the Bubale -lowers its head to the ground, and as soon as its antagonist is within -reach, tosses its head violently upwards, or swings it with a sidelong -upward blow. In either case, the sharp curved horns, impelled by the -powerful neck of the animal, and assisted by the weight of the large -head, become most formidable weapons. - -It is said that in some places, where the Bubales have learned to -endure the presence of man, they will mix with his herds for the sake -of feeding with them, and by degrees become so accustomed to the -companionship of their domesticated friends, that they live with the -herd as if they had belonged to it all their lives. This fact shows -that the animal possesses a gentle disposition, and it is said to be -as easily tamed as the gazelle itself. - -Even at the present day the Bubale has a very wide range, and formerly -had in all probability a much wider. It is indigenous to Barbary, and -has continued to spread itself over the greater part of Northern -Africa, including the borders of the Sahara, the edges of the -cultivated districts, and up the Nile for no small distance. In former -days it was evidently a tolerably common animal of chase in Upper -Egypt, as there are representations of it on the monuments, drawn -with the quaint truthfulness which distinguishes the monumental -sculpture of that period. - - [Illustration: THE BUBALE, OR FALLOW DEER OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_And Solomon's provision for one day was thirty measures of fine - flour, and threescore measure of meal; ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen - out of the pastures, and an hundred sheep; beside harts and roebucks, - and fallow-deer, and fatted fowl._"--1 KINGS iv. 22, 23.] - -It is probable that in and about Palestine it was equally common, so -that there is good reason why it should be specially named as one of -the animals that were lawful food. Not only was its flesh permitted to -be eaten, but it was evidently considered as a great dainty, inasmuch -as the Jachmur is mentioned in 1 Kings iv. 23 as one of the animals -which were brought to the royal table. See the passage quoted in full -below the illustration. - -Even at the present day it is seen near the Red Sea; and as within the -memory of man it had a much larger range than can now be assigned to -it, we may safely conjecture that it resided in Palestine in -sufficient numbers to afford a constant supply of food to the royal -residence. - -In size the Bubale is about equal to that of a heifer, and its general -colour is reddish brown. The head is long and narrow, so that the -heavy and deeply-ridged horns seem to stand out with peculiar -boldness. The shoulders are rather high, the neck is very ox-like, and -from the end of the tail hangs a tuft of long black hair. It is a -gregarious animal, and is found in herds, though not of very great -numbers. - -The Bubale is closely allied to the hartebeest, the well-known -antelope of Southern Africa. - - - - -THE SHEEP. - - - Importance of Sheep in the Bible--The Sheep the chief wealth of - the pastoral tribes--Tenure of land--Value of good - pasture-land--Arab shepherds of the present day--Difference - between the shepherds of Palestine and England--Wanderings of - the flocks in search of food--Value of the wells--How the Sheep - are watered--Duties of the shepherd--The shepherd a kind of - irregular soldier--His use of the sling--Sheep following their - shepherd--Calling the Sheep by name--The shepherd usually a part - owner of the flocks--Structure of the sheepfolds--The rock - caverns of Palestine--David's adventure with Saul--Penning of - the Sheep by night--Use of the dogs--Sheep sometimes brought up - by hand--How Sheep are fattened in the Lebanon district--The two - breeds of Sheep in Palestine--The broad-tailed Sheep, and its - peculiarities--Reference to this peculiarity in the Bible--The - Talmudical writers, and their directions to sheep-owners. - - -We now come to a subject which will necessarily occupy us for some -little time. - -There is, perhaps, no animal which occupies a larger space in the -Scriptures than the SHEEP. Whether in religious, civil, or domestic -life, we find that the Sheep is bound up with the Jewish nation in a -way that would seem almost incomprehensible, did we not recall the -light which the New Testament throws upon the Old, and the many -allusions to the coming Messiah under the figure of the Lamb that -taketh away the sins of the world. - -In treating of the Sheep, it will be perhaps advisable to begin the -account by taking the animal simply as one of those creatures which -have been domesticated from time immemorial, dwelling slightly on -those points on which the sheep-owners of the old days differed from -those of our own time. - -In the first place, the tenure of land was--and is still--entirely -different from anything that can be found in our own country. With us, -the comparatively large amount of population, placed on a -comparatively small area of ground, prohibits the mode of -sheep-keeping as practised in the East, where the pasture-lands are of -vast extent, and common to all who choose to take their flocks to -them. We have at present the Downs and the Highlands as examples of -such pasturage, but they are of small extent when compared with the -vast plains which are used for this purpose in the East. - -The only claim to the land seems, in the old times of the Scriptures, -to have lain in cultivation, or perhaps in the land immediately -surrounding a well. But any one appears to have taken a piece of -ground and cultivated it, or to have dug a well wherever he chose, and -thereby to have acquired a sort of right to the soil. The same custom -prevails at the present day among the cattle-breeding races of -Southern Africa. The banks of rivers, on account of their superior -fertility, were considered as the property of the chiefs who lived -along their course, but the inland soil was free to all. - -Had it not been for this freedom of the land, it would have been -impossible for the great men to have nourished the enormous flocks and -herds of which their wealth consisted; but, on account of the lack of -ownership of the soil, a flock could be moved to one district after -another as fast as it exhausted the herbage, the shepherds thus -unconsciously imitating the habits of the gregarious animals, which -are always on the move from one spot to another. - -Pasturage being thus free to all, Sheep had a higher comparative value -than is the case with ourselves, who have to pay in some way for their -keep. There is a proverb in the Talmud which may be curtly translated, -"Land sell, sheep buy." - -The value of a good pasture-ground for the flocks is so great, that -its possession is well worth a battle, the shepherds being saved from -a most weary and harassing life, and being moreover fewer in number -than is needed when the pasturage is scanty. Sir S. Baker, in his work -on Abyssinia, makes some very interesting remarks upon the Arab -herdsmen, who are placed in conditions very similar to those of the -Israelitish shepherds in a bad pasture-land. - -"The Arabs are creatures of necessity; their nomadic life is -compulsory, as the existence of their flocks and herds depends upon -the pasturage. Thus, with the change of seasons they must change their -localities according to the presence of fodder for their cattle.... -The Arab cannot halt in one spot longer than the pasturage will -support his flocks. The object of his life being fodder, he must -wander in search of the ever-changing supply. His wants must be few, -as the constant change of encampment necessitates the transport of all -his household goods; thus he reduces to a minimum his domestic -furniture and utensils.... - -"This striking similarity to the descriptions of the Old Testament is -exceedingly interesting to a traveller when residing among these -curious and original people. With the Bible in one's hand, and these -unchanged tribes before the eyes, there is a thrilling illustration of -the sacred record; the past becomes the present, the veil of three -thousand years is raised, and the living picture is a witness to the -exactness of the historical description. At the same time there is a -light thrown upon many obscure passages in the Old Testament by the -experience of the present customs and figures of speech of the Arabs, -which are precisely those that were practised at the periods -described.... - -"Should the present history of the country be written by an Arab -scribe, the style of the description would be precisely that of the -Old Testament. There is a fascination in the unchangeable features of -the Nile regions. There are the vast pyramids that have defied time, -the river upon which Moses was cradled in infancy, the same sandy -desert through which he led his people, and the watering-places where -their flocks were led to drink. The wild and wandering Arabs, who -thousands of years ago dug out the wells in the wilderness, are -represented by their descendants, unchanged, who now draw water from -the deep wells of their forefathers, with the skins that have never -altered their fashion. - -"The Arabs, gathering with their goats and sheep around the wells -to-day, recall the recollection of that distant time when 'Jacob went -on his journey, and came into the land of the people of the east. And -he looked, and behold a well in the field, and lo! there were three -flocks of sheep lying by it,' &c. The picture of that scene would be -an illustration of Arab daily life in the Nubian deserts, where the -present is a mirror of the past." - -Owing to the great number of Sheep which they have to tend, and the -peculiar state of the country, the life of the shepherd in Palestine -is even now very different from that of an English shepherd, and in -the days of the early Scriptures the distinction was even more -distinctly marked. - -Sheep had to be tended much more carefully than we generally think. In -the first place, a thoughtful shepherd had always one idea before his -mind,--namely, the possibility of obtaining sufficient water for his -flocks. Even pasturage is less important than water, and, however -tempting a district might be, no shepherd would venture to take his -charge there if he were not sure of obtaining water. In a climate such -as ours, this ever-pressing anxiety respecting water can scarcely be -appreciated, for in hot climates not only is water scarce, but it is -needed far more than in a temperate and moist climate. Thirst does its -work with terrible quickness, and there are instances recorded where -men have sat down and died of thirst in sight of the river which they -had not strength to reach. - -In places therefore through which no stream runs, the wells are the -great centres of pasturage, around which are to be seen vast flocks -extending far in every direction. These wells are kept carefully -closed by their owners, and are only opened for the use of those who -are entitled to water their flocks at them. - -Noontide is the general time for watering the Sheep, and towards that -hour all the flocks may be seen converging towards their respective -wells, the shepherd at the head of each flock, and the Sheep following -him. See how forcible becomes the imagery of David, the shepherd poet, -"The Lord is my Shepherd; I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down -in green pastures (or, in pastures of tender grass): He leadeth me -beside the still waters" Ps. xxiii. 1, 2). Here we have two of the -principal duties of the good shepherd brought prominently before -us,--namely, the guiding of the Sheep to green pastures and leading -them to fresh water. Very many references are made in the Scriptures -to the pasturage of sheep, both in a technical and a metaphorical -sense; but as our space is limited, and these passages are very -numerous, only one or two of each will be taken. - -In the story of Joseph, we find that when his father and brothers were -suffering from the famine, they seem to have cared as much for their -Sheep and cattle as for themselves, inasmuch as among a pastoral -people the flocks and herds constitute the only wealth. So, when -Joseph at last discovered himself, and his family were admitted to the -favour of Pharaoh, the first request which they made was for their -flocks. "Pharaoh said unto his brethren, What is your occupation? And -they said unto Pharaoh, Thy servants are shepherds, both we, and also -our fathers. - -"They said moreover unto Pharaoh, For to sojourn in the land are we -come; for thy servants have no pasture for their flocks; for the -famine is sore in the land of Canaan: now therefore, we pray thee, let -thy servants dwell in the land of Goshen." - -This one incident, so slightly remarked in the sacred history, gives a -wonderfully clear notion of the sort of life led by Jacob and his -sons. Forming, according to custom, a small tribe of their own, of -which the father was the chief, they led a pastoral life, taking their -continually increasing herds and flocks from place to place as they -could find food for them. For example, at the memorable time when the -story of Joseph begins, he was sent by his father to his brothers, who -were feeding the flocks, and he wandered about for some time, not -knowing where to find them. It may seem strange that he should be -unable to discover such very conspicuous objects as large flocks of -sheep and goats, but the fact is that they had been driven from one -pasture-land to another, and had travelled in search of food all the -way from Shechem to Dothan. - -In 1 Chron. iv. 39, 40, we read of the still pastoral Israelites that -"they went to the entrance of Gedor, even unto the east side of the -valley, to seek pasture for their flocks. And they found fat pasture -and good, and the land was wide, and quiet, and peaceable." - -How it came to be quiet and peaceable is told in the context. It was -peaceable simply because the Israelites were attracted by the good -pasturage, attacked the original inhabitants, and exterminated them so -effectually that none were left to offer resistance to the usurpers. -And we find from this passage that the value of good pasture-land -where the Sheep could feed continually without being forced to wander -from one spot to another was so considerable, that the owners of the -flocks engaged in war, and exposed their own lives, in order to obtain -so valuable a possession. - -As to the figurative passages, they are far too numerous to be quoted, -and are found throughout the whole of the Old and New Testaments. For -example, see Psalm lxxix. 13, "So we Thy people and the sheep of Thy -pasture will give Thee thanks for ever." And again, "I will feed them -upon the mountains of Israel by the rivers, and in all the inhabited -places of the country. I will feed them in a good pasture, and upon -the high mountains of Israel shall their fold be: there shall they lie -in a good fold, and in a fat pasture shall they feed upon the -mountains of Israel" (Ezek. xxxiv. 13, 14). - -We will now look at one or two of the passages that mention watering -the Sheep--a duty so imperative on an Oriental shepherd, and so -needless to our own. - -In the first place we find that most graphic narrative which occurs in -Gen xxix. to which a passing reference has already been made. When -Jacob was on his way from his parents to the home of Laban in -Padan-aram, he came upon the very well which belonged to his uncle, -and there saw three flocks of Sheep lying around the well, waiting -until the proper hour arrived. According to custom, a large stone was -laid over the well, so as to perform the double office of keeping out -the sand and dust, and of guarding the precious water against those -who had no right to it. And when he saw his cousin Rachel arrive with -the flock of which she had the management, he, according to the -courtesy of the country and the time, rolled away the ponderous -barrier, and poured out water into the troughs for the Sheep which -Rachel tended. - -About two hundred years afterwards, we find Moses performing a similar -act. When he was obliged to escape into Midian on account of his fatal -quarrel with a tyrannical Egyptian, he sat down by a well, waiting for -the time when the stone might be rolled away, and the water be -distributed. Now it happened that this well belonged to Jethro, the -chief priest of the country, whose wealth consisted principally of -Sheep. He entrusted his flock to the care of his seven daughters, who -led their Sheep to the well and drew water as usual into the troughs. -Presuming on their weakness, other shepherds came and tried to drive -them away, but were opposed by Moses, who drove them away, and with -his own hands watered the flock. - -Now in both these examples we find that the men who performed the -courteous office of drawing the water and pouring it into the -sheep-troughs married afterwards the girl to whose charge the flocks -had been committed. This brings us to the Oriental custom which has -been preserved to the present day. - -The wells at which the cattle are watered at noon-day are the -meeting-places of the tribe, and it is chiefly at the well that the -young men and women meet each other. As each successive flock arrives -at the well, the number of the people increases, and while the sheep -and goats lie patiently round the water, waiting for the time when the -last flock shall arrive, and the stone be rolled off the mouth of the -well, the gossip of the tribe is discussed, and the young people have -ample opportunity for the pleasing business of courtship. - -As to the passages in which the wells, rivers, brooks, water-springs, -are spoken of in a metaphorical sense, they are too numerous to be -quoted. - -And here I may observe, that in reality the whole of Scripture has its -symbolical as well as its outward signification; and that, until we -have learned to read the Bible strictly according to the spirit, we -cannot understand one-thousandth part of the mysteries which it -conceals behind its veil of language; nor can we appreciate -one-thousandth part of the treasures of wisdom which lie hidden in its -pages from those who have eyes and cannot see, ears and cannot hear. - -Another duty of the shepherd of ancient Palestine was to guard his -flock from depredators, whether man or beast. Therefore the shepherd -was forced to carry arms; to act as a sentry during the night; and, in -fact, to be a sort of irregular soldier. A fully-armed shepherd had -with him his bow, his spear, and his sword, and not even a shepherd -lad was without his sling and the great quarter-staff which is even -now universally carried by the tribes along the Nile--a staff as thick -as a man's wrist, and six or seven feet in length. He was skilled in -the use of all these weapons, especially in that of the sling. - -In England, in these days, the sling is only considered as a mere toy, -whereas, before the introduction of fire-arms, it was one of the most -formidable weapons that could be wielded by light troops. Round and -smooth stones weighing three or four ounces were the usual -projectiles, and, by dint of constant practice from childhood, the -slingers could aim with a marvellous precision. Of this fact we have a -notable instance in David, who knew that the sling and the five stones -in the hand of an active youth unencumbered by armour, and wearing -merely the shepherd's simple tunic, were more than a match for all the -ponderous weapons of the gigantic Philistine. - -It has sometimes been the fashion to attribute the successful aim of -David to a special miracle, whereas those who are acquainted with -ancient weapons know well that no miracle was wrought, because none -was needed; a good slinger at that time being as sure of his aim as a -good rifleman of our days. - -The sling was in constant requisition, being used both in directing -the Sheep and in repelling enemies: a stone skilfully thrown in front -of a straying Sheep being a well-understood signal that the animal had -better retrace its steps if it did not want to feel the next stone on -its back. - -Passing his whole life with his flock, the shepherd was identified -with his Sheep far more than is the case in this country. He knew all -his Sheep by sight, he called them all by their names, and they all -knew him and recognised his voice. He did not drive them, but he led -them, walking in their front, and they following him. Sometimes he -would play with them, pretending to run away while they pursued him, -exactly as an infant-school teacher plays with the children. - -Consequently, they looked upon him as their protector as well as their -feeder, and were sure to follow wherever he led them. - -We must all remember how David, who had passed all his early years as -a shepherd, speaks of God as the Shepherd of Israel, and the people as -Sheep; never mentioning the Sheep as being driven, but always as being -led. "Thou leddest Thy people like a flock, by the hands of Moses and -Aaron" (Ps. lxxvii. 20); "The Lord is my Shepherd.... He leadeth me -beside the still waters" (Ps. xxiii. 1, 2); "Lead me in a plain path, -because of mine enemies" (Ps. xxvii. 11); together with many other -passages too numerous to be quoted. - - [Illustration: SHEEP FOLLOWING THEIR SHEPHERD. - - "_He calleth his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out._"--JOHN - x. 3.] - -Our Lord Himself makes a familiar use of the same image: "He calleth -his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out. And when he putteth forth -his own sheep, he goeth before them, and the sheep follow him: for -they know his voice. And a stranger will they not follow, but will -flee from him: for they know not the voice of strangers" (John x. -3-5). And again at verse 26: "Ye believe not, because ye are not of my -sheep, as I said unto you. My sheep hear my voice, and I know them, -and they follow me." - -Although the shepherds of our own country know their Sheep by sight, -and say that there is as much difference in the faces of Sheep as of -men, they have not, as a rule, attained the art of teaching their -Sheep to recognise their names. This custom, however, is still -retained, as may be seen from a well-known passage in Hartley's -"Researches in Greece and the Levant:"-- - -"Having had my attention directed last night to the words in John x. -3, I asked my man if it were usual in Greece to give names to the -sheep. He informed me that it was, and that the sheep obeyed the -shepherd when he called them by their names. This morning I had an -opportunity of verifying the truth of this remark. Passing by a flock -of sheep, I asked the shepherd the same question which I had put to -the servant, and he gave me the same answer. I then bade him call one -of his sheep. He did so, and it instantly left its pasturage and its -companions, and ran up to the hands of the shepherd, with signs of -pleasure, and with a prompt obedience which I had never before -observed in any other animal. - -"It is also true that in this country, 'a stranger will they not -follow, but will flee from him.' The shepherd told me that many of his -sheep were still wild, that they had not learned their names, but that -by teaching them they would all learn them." - -Generally, the shepherd was either the proprietor of the flock, or had -at all events a share in it, of which latter arrangement we find a -well-known example in the bargain which Jacob made with Laban, all the -white Sheep belonging to his father-in-law, and all the dark and -spotted Sheep being his wages as shepherd. Such a man was far more -likely to take care of the Sheep than if he were merely a paid -labourer; especially in a country where the life of a shepherd was a -life of actual danger, and he might at any time be obliged to fight -against armed robbers, or to oppose the wolf, the lion, or the bear. -The combat of the shepherd David with the last-mentioned animals has -already been noticed. - -In allusion to the continual risks run by the Oriental shepherd, our -Lord makes use of the following well-known words:--"The thief cometh -not but for to steal, and to kill, and to destroy: I am come that they -might have life, and have it more abundantly. I am the Good Shepherd: -the good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep. But he that is an -hireling, ... whose own the sheep are not, seeth the wolf coming, and -leaveth the sheep, and fleeth: and the wolf catcheth them, and -scattereth the sheep. The hireling fleeth because he is an hireling, -and careth not for the sheep." - -Owing to the continual moving of the Sheep, the shepherd had very hard -work during the lambing time, and was obliged to carry in his arms the -young lambs which were too feeble to accompany their parents, and to -keep close to him those Sheep who were expected soon to become -mothers. At that time of year the shepherd might constantly be seen at -the head of his flock, carrying one or two lambs in his arms, -accompanied by their mothers. - -In allusion to this fact Isaiah writes: "His reward is with Him, and -His work before Him. He shall feed His flock like a shepherd; He shall -gather the lambs with His arms and carry them in His bosom, and shall -gently lead them that are with young" (or, "that give suck," according -to the marginal reading). Here we have presented at once before us the -good shepherd who is no hireling, but owns the Sheep; and who -therefore has "his reward with him, and his work before him;" who -bears the tender lambs in his arms, or lays them in the folds of his -mantle, and so carries them in his bosom, and leads by his side their -yet feeble mothers. - -Frequent mention is made of the folds in which the Sheep are penned; -and as these folds differed--and still differ--materially from those -of our own land, we shall miss the force of several passages of -Scripture if we do not understand their form, and the materials of -which they were built. Our folds consist merely of hurdles, moveable -at pleasure, and so low that a man can easily jump over them, and so -fragile that he can easily pull them down. Moreover, the Sheep are -frequently enclosed within the fold while they are at pasture. - - [Illustration: THE SHEEP. - - "He maketh me to lie down in green pastures."--PSALM xxiii. 2.] - -If any one should entertain such an idea of the Oriental fold, he -would not see the force of the well-known passage in which our Lord -compares the Church to a sheep fold, and Himself to the door. "He that -entereth not by the door into the sheep fold, but climbeth up some -other way, the same is a thief and a robber. But he that entereth in -by the door is the shepherd of the sheep. To him the porter openeth, -and the sheep hear his voice.... All that ever came before me -are thieves and robbers: but the sheep did not hear them. I -am the door: by me if any man enter in, he shall be saved, and shall -go in and out, and find pasture." - -Had the fold here mentioned been a simple enclosure of hurdles, such -an image could not have been used. It is evident that the fold to -which allusion was made, and which was probably in sight at the time -when Jesus was disputing with the Pharisees, was a structure of some -pretensions; that it had walls which a thief could only enter by -climbing over them--not by "breaking through" them, as in the case of -a mud-walled private house; and that it had a gate, which was guarded -by a watchman. - -In fact, the fold was a solid and enduring building, made of stone. -Thus in Numbers xxxii. it is related that the tribes of Reuben and -Gad, who had great quantities of Sheep and other cattle, asked for the -eastward side of Jordan as a pasture-ground, promising to go and fight -for the people, but previously to build fortified cities for their -families, and folds for their cattle, the folds being evidently, like -the cities, buildings of an enduring nature. - -If the reader will refer to the upper left-hand corner of the large -illustration, he will see in the distance the fold into which the -sheep are gathered at nightfall, and will perceive that it is a strong -stone building, with walls of a considerable height. In some places -the folds are simply rock caverns, partly natural and partly -artificial, often enlarged by a stone wall built outside it. It was -the absence of these rock caverns on the east side of Jordan that -compelled the Reubenites and Gadites to build folds for themselves, -whereas on the opposite side places of refuge were comparatively -abundant. - -See, for example, the well-known history related in 1 Sam. xxiii. -xxiv. David and his miscellaneous band of warriors, some six hundred -in number, were driven out of the cities by the fear of Saul, and were -obliged to pass their time in the wilderness, living in the "strong -holds" (xxiii. 14, 19), which we find immediately afterwards to be -rock caves (ver. 25). These caves were of large extent, being able to -shelter these six hundred warriors, and, on one memorable occasion, to -conceal them so completely as they stood along the sides, that Saul, -who had just come out of the open air, was not able to discern them -in the dim light, and David even managed to approach him unseen, and -cut off a portion of his outer robe. - -That this particular cave was a sheepfold we learn from xxiv. 2-4: -"Then Saul took three thousand chosen men out of all Israel, and went -to seek David and his men upon the rocks of the wild goats. And he -came to the sheepcotes by the way." Into these strongholds the Sheep -are driven towards nightfall, and, as the flocks converge towards -their resting-place, the bleatings of the sheep are almost deafening. - -The shepherds as well as their flocks found shelter in these caves, -making them their resting-places while they were living the strange, -wild, pastoral life among the hills; and at the present day many of -the smaller caves and "holes of the rock" exhibit the vestiges of -human habitation in the shape of straw, hay, and other dried herbage, -which has been used for beds, just as we now find the rude couches of -the coast-guard men in the cliff caves of our shores. - -The dogs which are attached to the sheepfolds were, as they are now, -the faithful servants of man, although, as has already been related, -they are not made the companions of man as is the case with ourselves. -Lean, gaunt, hungry, and treated with but scant kindness, they are yet -faithful guardians against the attack of enemies. They do not, as do -our sheepdogs, assist in driving the flocks, because the Sheep are not -driven, but led, but they are invaluable as nocturnal sentries. -Crouching together outside the fold, in little knots of six or seven -together, they detect the approach of wild animals, and at the first -sign of the wolf or the jackal they bark out a defiance, and scare -away the invaders. It is strange that the old superstitious idea of -their uncleanness should have held its ground through so many tens of -centuries; but, down to the present day, the shepherd of Palestine, -though making use of the dog as a guardian of his flock, treats the -animal with utter contempt, not to say cruelty, beating and kicking -the faithful creature on the least provocation, and scarcely giving it -sufficient food to keep it alive. - -Sometimes the Sheep are brought up by hand at home. "House-lamb," as -we call it, is even now common, and the practice of house-feeding -peculiar in the old Scriptural times. - -We have an allusion to this custom in the well-known parable of the -prophet Nathan: "The poor man had nothing, save one little ewe lamb, -which he had bought and nourished up: and it grew up together with -him, and with his children; it did eat of his own meat, and drank of -his own cup, and lay in his bosom, and was unto him as a daughter" (2 -Sam. xii. 3). A further, though less distinct, allusion is made to -this practice in Isaiah vii. 21: "It shall come to pass in that day, -that a man shall nourish a young cow, and two sheep." - -How the Sheep thus brought up by hand were fattened may be conjectured -from the following passage in Mr. D. Urquhart's valuable work on the -Lebanon:-- - -"In the month of June, they buy from the shepherds, when pasturage has -become scarce and sheep are cheap, two or three sheep; these they feed -by hand. After they have eaten up the old grass and the provender -about the doors, they get vine leaves, and, after the silkworms have -begun to spin, mulberry leaves. They purchase them on trial, and the -test is appetite. If a sheep does not feed well, they return it after -three days. To increase their appetite they wash them twice a day, -morning and evening, a care they never bestow on their own bodies. - -"If the sheep's appetite does not come up to their standard, they use -a little gentle violence, folding for them forced leaf-balls and -introducing them into their mouths. The mulberry has the property of -making them fat and tender. At the end of four months the sheep they -had bought at eighty piastres will sell for one hundred and forty, or -will realize one hundred and fifty. - -"The sheep is killed, skinned, and hung up. The fat is then removed; -the flesh is cut from the bones, and hung up in the sun. Meanwhile, -the fat has been put in a cauldron on the fire, and as soon as it has -come to boil, the meat is laid on. The proportion of the fat to the -lean is as four to ten, eight 'okes' fat and twenty lean. A little -salt is added, it is simmered for an hour, and then placed in jars for -the use of the family during the year. - -"The large joints are separated and used first, as not fit for keeping -long. The fat, with a portion of the lean, chopped fine, is what -serves for cooking the 'bourgoul,' and is called _Dehen_. The sheep -are of the fat-tailed variety, and the tails are the great delicacy." - -This last sentence reminds us that there are two breeds of Sheep in -Palestine. One much resembles our ordinary English Sheep, while the -other is a very different animal, being to the ordinary Sheep what the -greyhound is to the rough terrier. It is much taller on its legs, -larger-boned, and long-nosed. Only the rams have horns, and they are -not twisted spirally like those of our own Sheep, but come backwards, -and then curl round so that the point comes under the ear. The great -peculiarity of this Sheep is the tail, which is simply prodigious in -point of size, and is an enormous mass of fat. Indeed, the long-legged -and otherwise lean animal seems to concentrate all its fat in the -tail, which, as has been well observed, appears to abstract both flesh -and fat from the rest of the body. So great is this strange -development, that the tail alone will sometimes weigh one-fifth as -much as the entire animal. A similar breed of Sheep is found in -Southern Africa and other parts of the world. In some places, the tail -grows to such an enormous size that, in order to keep so valuable a -part of the animal from injury, it is fastened to a small board, -supported by a couple of wheels, so that the Sheep literally wheels -its own tail in a cart. It has been thought by some systematic -naturalists that this variety is a distinct species, and the -broad-tailed breeds of Sheep have, in consequence, been distinguished -by several names. For example, the present variety is called _Ovis -laticaudatus_ by several authors, _Ovis laticauda platyceros_ by -another, and _Ovis cauda obesa_ by another. The broad-tailed Sheep of -Tartary is called _Ovis steatopyga_. Another author calls it _Ovis -macrocercus_; and the broad-tailed Sheep of Southern Africa is called -_Ovis Capensis_. Yet they are in reality one and the same variety of -the common domesticated Sheep, differing in some particulars according -to the conditions in which they are placed, but having really no -specific distinction. It is, by the way, from the wool of the unborn -broad-tailed Sheep that the much-prized Astrachan fur is made. - -The various Scriptural writers seem never to have noticed the -difference between the breeds of Sheep; the names that are employed -denoting the different ages and sexes of the Sheep, but having no -reference to the breed. - -For example, the word "Tâleh" signifies a very young sucking lamb, -such as is mentioned in 1 Sam. vii. 9: "And Samuel took a sucking lamb -(Tâleh), and offered it for a burnt offering wholly unto the Lord." -The same word is used in Isa. lxv. 25: - -"The wolf and the lamb (tâleh) shall feed together;" the force of this -well-known passage being much increased by the correct rendering of -the word "tâleh." The Jewish Bible renders the word as "a lamb of -milk." - -The word "kebes," or "keves," (the e being pronounced like the same -letter in the word "seven") signifies a male lamb of a year or so old, -the feminine being "kebesah." When the young lamb was weaned, and was -sent to pasture, it was called by another name, _i.e._ "kar," this -word being evidently derived from the Hebrew verb which signifies to -skip. The adult ram is signified by the word "ayil," or "ail," and the -ewe by "rakal." - -Frequent reference to the fat of the tail is made in the Authorized -Version of the Scriptures, though in terms which would not be -understood did we not know that the Sheep which is mentioned in those -passages is the long-tailed Sheep of Syria. See, for example, the -history narrated in Exod. xxix. 22, where special details are given as -to the ceremony by which Aaron and his sons were consecrated to the -priesthood. "Thou shalt take of the ram the fat and the rump, and the -fat that covereth the inwards, and the caul above the liver, and the -two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them." In the Jewish Bible the -passage is given with much more precision, "Thou shalt take of the ram -the fat, _and the fat tail_," &c. The same rendering is used in Lev. -iii. 9: "And he shall offer of the sacrifice of the feast offering a -fire offering unto the Eternal; the fat thereof, and the whole fat -tail shall he take off hard by the backbone; and the fat that covereth -the inwards, and all the fat that is upon the inwards." - -But though this particular breed is not very distinctly mentioned in -the Bible, the Talmudical writers have many allusions to it. In the -Mischna these broad-tailed Sheep are not allowed to leave their folds -on the Sabbath-day, because by wheeling their little tail-waggons -behind them they would break the Sabbath. The writers describe the -tail very graphically, comparing its shape to that of a saddle, and -saying that it is fat, without bones, heavy and long, and looks as if -the whole body were continued beyond the hind-legs, and thence hung -down in place of a tail. - -The Rabbinical writers treat rather fully of the Sheep, and give some -very amusing advice respecting their management. If the ewes cannot be -fattened in the ordinary manner, that end may be achieved by tying up -the udder so that the milk cannot flow, and the elements which would -have furnished milk are forced to produce fat. If the weather should -be chilly at the shearing time, and there is danger of taking cold -after the wool is removed, the shepherd should dip a sponge in oil and -tie it on the forehead of the newly-shorn animal. Or, if he should not -have a sponge by him, a woollen rag will do as well. The same potent -remedy is also efficacious if the Sheep should be ill in lambing time. - -That the Sheep is liable to the attack of the gadfly, which deposits -its eggs in the nostrils of the unfortunate animal, was as well known -in the ancient as in modern times. It is scarcely necessary to mention -that the insect in question is the _Æstrus ovis_. Instinctively aware -of the presence of this insidious and dreaded enemy, which, though so -apparently insignificant, is as formidable a foe as any of the beasts -of prey, the Sheep display the greatest terror at the sharp, menacing -sound produced by the gadfly's wings as the insect sweeps through the -air towards its destination. They congregate together, placing their -heads almost in contact with each other, snort and paw the ground in -their terror, and use all means in their power to prevent the fly from -accomplishing its purpose. - -When a gadfly succeeds in attaining its aim, it rapidly deposits an -egg or two in the nostril, and then leaves them. The tiny eggs are -soon hatched by the natural heat of the animal, and the young larvæ -crawl up the nostril towards the frontal sinus. There they remain -until they are full-grown, when they crawl through the nostrils, fall -on the ground, burrow therein, and in the earth undergo their changes -into the pupal and perfect stages. - -It need hardly be said that an intelligent shepherd would devote -himself to the task of killing every gadfly which he could find, and, -as these insects are fond of basking on sunny rocks or tree-trunks, -this is no very difficult matter. - -The Rabbinical writers, however, being totally ignorant of practical -entomology, do not seem to have recognised the insect until it had -reached its full larval growth. They say that the rams manage to shake -the grubs out of their nostrils by butting at one another in mimic -warfare, and that the ewes, which are hornless, and are therefore -incapable of relieving themselves by such means, ought to be supplied -with plants which will make them sneeze, so that they may shake out -the grubs by the convulsive jerkings of the head caused by inhaling -the irritating substance. - -The same writers also recommend that the rams should be furnished with -strong leathern collars. - -When the flock is on the march, the rams always go in the van, and, -being instinctively afraid of their ancient enemy the wolf, they -continually raise their heads and look about them. This line of -conduct irritates the wolves, who attack the foremost rams and seize -them by the throat. If, therefore, a piece of stout leather be -fastened round the ram's neck, the wolf is baffled, and runs off in -sullen despair. - -Generally, the oldest ram is distinguished by a bell, and, when the -flock moves over the hilly slopes, the Sheep walk in file after the -leader, making narrow paths, which are very distinct from a distance, -but are scarcely perceptible when the foot of the traveller is -actually upon them. From this habit has arisen an ancient proverb, "As -the sheep after the sheep, so the daughter after the mother," a saying -which is another form of our own familiar proverb, "What is bred in -the bone will not come out of the flesh." - - -We now come to the Sheep considered with reference to its uses. First -and foremost the Sheep was, and still is, one of the chief means of -subsistence, being to the pastoral inhabitants of Palestine what the -oxen are to the pastoral inhabitants of Southern Africa. - -To ordinary persons the flesh of the Sheep was a seldom-tasted luxury; -great men might eat it habitually, "faring sumptuously every day," and -we find that, among the glories of Solomon's reign, the sacred -chronicler has thought it worth while to mention that part of the -daily provision for his household included one hundred Sheep. No -particular pains seem to have been taken about the cooking of the -animal, which seems generally to have been boiled. As, however, in -such a climate the flesh could not be kept for the purpose of making -it tender, as is the case in this part of the world, it was cooked as -soon as the animal was killed, the fibres not having time to settle -into the rigidity of death. - -Generally, when ordinary people had the opportunity of tasting the -flesh of the Sheep, it was on the occasion of some rejoicing,--such, -for example, as a marriage feast, or the advent of a guest, for whom a -lamb or a kid was slain and cooked on the spot, a young male lamb -being almost invariably chosen as less injurious than the ewe to the -future prospects of the flock. Roasting over a fire was sometimes -adopted, as was baking in an oven sunk in the ground, a remarkable -instance of which we shall see when we come to the Jewish sacrifices. -Boiling, however, was the principal mode; so much so, indeed, that the -Hebrew word which signifies boiling is used to signify any kind of -cooking, even when the meat was roasted. - -The process of cooking and eating the Sheep was as follows. - -The animal having been killed according to the legal form, the skin -was stripped off, and the body separated joint from joint, the right -shoulder being first removed. This, it will be remembered, was the -priest's portion; see Lev. vii. 32: "The right shoulder shall ye give -unto the priest for an heave offering of the sacrifices of your peace -offerings." The whole of the flesh was then separated from the bones, -and chopped small, and even the bones themselves broken up, so that -the marrow might not be lost. - -A reference to this custom is found in Micah iii. 2, 3, "Who pluck off -their skin from off them, and their flesh from off their bones; who -also eat the flesh of my people ... and they break their bones, and -chop them in pieces, as for the pot, and as flesh within the caldron." -The reader will now understand more fully the force of the prophecy, -"He keepeth all His bones: not one of them is broken" (Psa. xxxiv. -20). - -The mixed mass of bones and flesh was then put into the caldron, which -was generally filled with water, but sometimes with milk, as is the -custom with the Bedouins of the present day, whose manners are in many -respects identical with those of the early Jews. It has been thought -by some commentators that the injunction not to "seethe a kid in his -mother's milk" (Deut. xiv. 21) referred to this custom. I believe, -however, that the expression "in his mother's milk" does not signify -that the flesh of the kid might not be boiled in its mother's milk, -but that a kid might not be taken which was still in its mother's -milk, _i.e._ unweaned. - -Salt and spices were generally added to it; see Ezek. xxiv. 10: "Heap -on wood, kindle the fire, consume the flesh, and spice it well." The -surface was carefully skimmed, and, when the meat was thoroughly -cooked, it and the broth were served up separately. The latter was -used as a sort of sauce, into which unleavened bread was dipped. So in -Judges vi. 19 we read that when Gideon was visited by the angel, -according to the hospitable custom of the land, he "made ready a kid, -and unleavened cakes of an ephah of flour: the flesh he put in a -basket, and he put the broth in a pot, and brought it out unto him -under the oak, and presented it to him." - -Valuable, however, as was the Sheep for this purpose, there has always -existed a great reluctance to kill the animal, the very sight of the -flocks being an intense gratification to a pastoral Oriental. The -principal part of the food supplied by the Sheep was, and is still, -the milk; which afforded abundant food without thinning the number of -the flock. As all know who have tasted it, the milk of the Sheep is -peculiarly rich, and in the East is valued much more highly than that -of cattle. The milk was seldom drunk in a fresh state, as is usually -the case with ourselves, but was suffered to become sour, curdled, and -semi-solid. - -This custom exists at the present day, the curdled milk being known by -the name of "leben." It is worthy of notice that all the Kaffir tribes -of Southern Africa, who live almost entirely on milk, also use it -curdled, under the name of "amasi," and utterly refuse to drink it in -its fresh state, looking upon new milk much as we should look upon -unfermented ale. It is curdled by being placed in a vessel together -with some of the already curdled milk, and the usual plan is to -preserve for this special purpose a vessel which is never wholly -emptied, and which is found to curdle the milk with great rapidity. - -"Leben" is exceedingly nutritious, and especially adapted for -children, who, when accustomed to it, will very much prefer it to the -milk in a fresh state. Two separate words are used in the Old -Testament to distinguish fresh from curdled milk, the former being -called Châlâb, and the latter Chemhah. - -For butter (if we may accept the rendering of the word) the milk of -the cow or the goat seems to have been preferred, although that of the -Sheep also furnishes it. This distinction is drawn even in the -earliest days of Jewish history, and in the Song of Moses (Deut. -xxxii. 13, 14) we find this passage, "He made him to suck honey out of -the rock, and oil out of the flinty rock; butter of kine and milk of -sheep, with fat of lambs." - -There is, however, a little uncertainty about the word which is -translated as butter, and as this word is only used in a very few -passages, we will refer briefly to them. The first mention of butter -occurs in Gen. xviii. 8, where we are told that Abraham "took butter, -and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them." -In this passage we find the words "chemhah" and "châlâh" are used, the -former being translated in the Jewish Bible as "clotted cream." -Abraham therefore gave his angelic guests their choice of milk, both -fresh and curdled. In the passage from Deut. xxxii. 14, which has -already been mentioned, the same words are used, as they are in the -well-known passage in the history of Jael and Sisera (Judges v. 25): -"He asked water, and she gave him milk (châlâb); she brought forth -butter (chemhah) in a lordly dish." - -Again, the butter which Shobi, Machir, and Barzillai brought to David, -together with honey, was the chemhah (2 Sam. xvii. 29). In the -familiar passage, "Butter and honey shall He eat" (Isa. vii. 15), the -same word is used; and so it is in Job xx. 17, "He shall not see the -rivers, the floods, the brooks of honey and butter." - -But in Prov. xxx. 33, "Surely the churning (mitz) of milk (châlâb) -bringeth forth butter" (chemhah), we have a proof that the chemhah, -whatever it may be, is produced by the churning or pressure of the -fresh milk. As to the exact force of the word "mitz" there is a little -doubt, some persons translating it as pressure, and others as -agitating or shaking, a movement which, when applied to milk, would be -rightly translated as churning. This latter interpretation is -strengthened by the context, "Surely the churning (mitz) of milk -bringeth forth butter, and the wringing (mitz) of the nose bringeth -forth blood." - -It is most probable that the chemhah may signify both clotted cream -and butter, just as many words in our language have two or more -significations. Some commentators have thought that the ancient Jews -were not acquainted with butter. This theory, however, is scarcely -tenable. Butter is used largely at the present day, and is made after -the simple fashion of the East, by shaking the cream in a vessel, -exactly as it is made among the black tribes of Southern Africa and -other parts of the world. And, considering the unchanging character of -institutions in the East, we may assume as certain that the ancient -inhabitants of Palestine were, like their modern successors, -acquainted both with the clotted cream and true butter. - -Moreover, two substances, butter and honey, which are mentioned in -Samuel, in Job, and in Isaiah, as connected with each other, are still -eaten together in the East. - -A reference to the milk of Sheep is to be found in the New Testament: -"Who planteth a vineyard, and eateth not of the fruit thereof? or who -feedeth a flock, and eateth not of the milk of the flock?" (1 Cor. ix. -7). - -In this country the milk of the Sheep is scarcely ever used, but in -Scotland, especially in the great Sheep-feeding districts, its milk is -valued as it deserves, and is specially employed for the manufacture -of cheese. - -The mention of cheese brings us to another branch of the subject. -Gesenius thinks that the chemhah mentioned in Prov. xxx. must be a -kind of cheese, on account of the word "mitz," _i.e._ pressure. Thus -the word "cheese" occurs three times in the Authorized Version of the -Bible, and in all these passages a different word is used. We will -take them in their order. The first mention occurs in 1 Sam. xvii. 17, -18, "And Jesse said unto David his son, Take now for thy brethren an -ephah of this parched corn, and these ten loaves, and run to the camp -to thy brethren; and carry these ten cheeses unto the captain of their -thousand." In this passage the word which is rendered "cheeses" in the -Authorized Version is "charitz," a term which is translated in the -Jewish Bible as "slices of cheeses," on account of the etymology of -the word, which is derived from a root signifying slicing or cutting. - -Another word is used in 2 Sam. xvii. 29, where, among the provisions -that Barzillai brought to David, is mentioned "cheese of kine." The -Hebrew word "shaphôth," which is translated as cheese, derives its -origin from a root signifying to scrape. - -The third term translated as cheese is to be found in Job x. 10, "Hast -thou not poured me out as milk, and curdled me like cheese?" The word -"gebînah," which is here translated as "cheese" both in the Authorized -Version and the Jewish Bible, is derived from a root signifying to -curdle. - -Here, then, we have three passages, in each of which a different word -is mentioned, and yet these words have been translated in a precisely -similar manner, both in our own version and in the Jewish Bible. The -subject is so well summed up by the Rev. W. L. Bevan, in Smith's -"Dictionary of the Bible," that we may insert here the passage:-- - -"It is difficult to decide how far these terms correspond with our -notion of _cheese_, for they simply imply various degrees of -coagulation. It may be observed that cheese is not at the present day -common among the Bedouin Arabs, butter being decidedly preferred. But -there is a substance closely corresponding to those mentioned in 1 -Sam. xvii., 2 Sam. xvii., consisting of coagulated buttermilk, which -is dried until it becomes quite hard, and is then ground. The Arabs -eat it with butter. (Burckhardt, 'Notes on the Bedouins,' i. 60.) - -"In reference to this subject, it is noticeable that the ancients seem -generally to have used either butter or cheese, but not both. Thus the -Greeks had in reality but one expression for the two; for [Greek: -boúteron] = [Greek: boûs-turós] ('cheese of kine'). The Romans used -cheese extensively, while all nomad tribes preferred butter. The -distinction between cheese proper and coagulated milk seems to be -referred to in Pliny xi. 96." - -The reader will observe that this opinion exactly coincides with that -which was expressed a few lines above, namely, that the Hebrews used -one word to express both butter and cheese. The coagulated and dried -buttermilk--_i.e._ the "leben" of the Bedouins, and the "amasi" of the -Kaffir tribe--may well be the "shaphôth bâkâr," or "scrapings of the -kine," as being necessarily scraped off the stone or metal plate on -which it was dried. - - -We now come to a portion of the Sheep scarcely less important than the -flesh and the milk, _i.e._ the fleece, or wool. - -In the ancient times nearly the whole of the clothing was made of -wool, especially the most valuable part of it, namely the large -mantle, or "haick," in which the whole person could be folded, and -which was the usual covering during sleep. The wool, therefore, would -be an article of great national value; and so we find that when the -king of Moab paid his tribute in kind to the king of Israel, it was -carefully specified that the Sheep should not be shorn. "And Mesha -king of Moab was a sheep-master, and rendered unto the king of Israel -an hundred thousand lambs, and an hundred thousand rams, with the -wool." - -The wool of the Sheep of Palestine differed extremely in value; some -kinds being course and rough, while others were long, fine, and soft. - -The wool was dressed in those times much as it is at present, being -carded and then spun with the spindle, the distaff being apparently -unused, and the wool simply drawn out by the hand. The shape of the -spindle was much like that of the well-known flat spinning-tops that -come from Japan--namely, a disc through which passes an axle. A smart -twirl given by the fingers to the axle makes the disc revolve very -rapidly, and its weight causes the rotation to continue for a -considerable time. Spinning the wool was exclusively the task of the -women, a custom which prevailed in this country up to a very recent -time, and which still traditionally survives in the term "spinster," -and in the metaphorical use of the word "distaff" as synonymous with a -woman's proper work. - -Only a few passages occur in the Scriptures in which spinning is -mentioned. In Exod. xxxv. 25 we are told that, when the people were -preparing the materials for the Tabernacle, "all the women that were -wise-hearted did spin with their hands, and brought that which they -had spun, both of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, and of fine -linen." It is true that in Prov. xxxi. 19 there is mention both of the -distaff and spindle: "She layeth her hands to the spindle, and her -hand holds the distaff;" but the word which is translated as "distaff" -is more probably the flat disc which gave to the spindle its whirling -movement. Buxtorf's "Hebrew Lexicon" favours this interpretation, -translating the word as "verticulum, quasi fusi directorium," the word -being derived from a root signifying straight, or to keep something -else straight. - -The only other reference to spinning is the well-known passage, -"Consider the lilies, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they -spin: and yet I say unto you, That Solomon in all his glory was not -arrayed like one of these." - -When spun into threads, the wool was woven in the simple loom which -has existed up to our own day, and which is identical in its general -principles throughout a very large portion of the world. It consisted -of a framework of wood, at one end of which was placed the "beam" to -which the warp was attached; and at the other end was the "pin" on -which the cloth was rolled as it was finished. - -The reader may remember that when Delilah was cajoling Samson to tell -her the secret of his strength, he said, "If thou weavest the seven -locks of my head with the web." So, as he slept, she interwove his -long hair with the fabric which was on her loom, and, to make sure, -"fastened it with the pin," _i.e._ wove it completely into the cloth -which was rolled round the pin. So firmly had she done so, that when -he awoke he could not disentangle his hair, but left the house with -the whole of the loom, the beam and the pin, and the web hanging to -his head. - -The threads of the warp were separated by slight rods, and the woof -was passed between them with a shuttle shaped something like a sword, -which answered the double purpose of conducting the thread, and of -striking it with the edge so as to make it lie regularly in its place. - -The loom may either have been upright or horizontal, but was probably -the former, the weaver standing at his work, beginning at the top, and -so weaving down. The seamless coat or tunic of our Lord was thus made, -being "woven from the top throughout," like the Roman garments of a -similar character, called _rectæ_, signifying that they were woven in -an upright loom. According to the Jewish traditions, the sacerdotal -garments were thus made in one piece. - -Allusion is made to the speed with which the weaver throws his shuttle -in Job vii. 6, "My days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle, and are -passed without hope." When the fabric was finished, the weaver cut it -away from the thrum, an operation which is noticed in the following -passage of Isa. xxxviii. 12, "Mine age is departed, and is removed -from me like a shepherd's tent: I have cut off like a weaver my life: -He will cut me off with pining sickness." The latter sentence is -translated in the Jewish Bible "He will cut me off from the thrum," -and the same rendering is in the marginal note of the Authorized -Version. - -The reader may remember a remarkable prohibition in Deut. xxii. 11, -"Thou shalt not wear a garment of divers sorts, as woollen and linen -together," a prohibition which was sufficiently important to be -repeated in Lev. xix. 19. Now the word which is rendered as "divers -sorts" in one passage and as "mingled" in the other has been variously -interpreted, some persons rendering it as motley, some as spurious or -counterfeit, and some as spotted like a leopard. It is probable, -however, that our Authorized Version is the correct one, and that we -may accept the exposition of Josephus on the subject. He states that -such garments, _i.e._ of linen warp and woollen woof, were intended -wholly for sacerdotal use, and were in consequence prohibited to the -laity. - -Wool when taken from the Sheep was of various colours, according to -the animal from which it was shorn; but the most valuable was -necessarily the white variety, which might either be used without -dyeing, or stained of any favourite hue. Several allusions to the -whiteness of such wool are made in the Scriptures. See for example Ps. -cxlvii. 16, "He giveth snow like wool, and scattereth the hoarfrost -like ashes." Also Isa. i. 18, "Though your sins be as scarlet, they -shall be as white as snow; though they be red like crimson, they shall -be as wool." In the prophet Daniel the Ancient of Days is described as -having "His garments as white as snow, and the hair of His head like -the pure wool." And in Rev. i. 14 the same image is repeated, "His -head and His hairs were white like wool, as white as snow." - -The reader will not fail to observe that in all these passages wool -and snow are mentioned as of equal whiteness. The reference is -probably made to the newly-carded wool, which is peculiarly white and -soft. - -Wool was often dyed of various colours; blue, purple, and scarlet -being those which were generally employed. The rams' skins which -formed part of the covering of the Tabernacle were ordered to be dyed -scarlet, partly on account of the significance of the colour, and -partly because none but the best and purest fleeces would be chosen -for so rare and costly a dye. How the colour was produced we shall -learn towards the end of the volume. - -As with us, sheep-shearing was always a time of great rejoicing and -revelry, which seem often to have been carried beyond the bounds of -sobriety. Thus when Nabal had gathered together his three thousand -Sheep in Carmel, and held a shearing festival, David sent to ask for -some provisions for his band, and was refused in accordance with the -disposition of the man, who had inflamed his naturally churlish nature -with wine. "He held a feast in his house, like the feast of a king: -and Nabal's heart was merry within him, for he was very drunken" (1 -Sam. xxv. 36). - -The same was probably the case when Laban was shearing his Sheep (Gen. -xxxi. 19). Otherwise it would scarcely have been possible for Jacob to -have gone away unknown to Laban, taking with him his wives and -children, his servants, his camels, and his flocks, the rapid increase -of which had excited the jealousy of his uncle, and which were so -numerous that, in fear of his brother Esau, he divided them into two -bands, and yet was able to select from them a present to his brother, -consisting in all of nearly six hundred sheep, camels, oxen, goats, -and asses. - -Sometimes the shepherds and others who lived in pastoral districts -made themselves coats of the skins of the Sheep, with the wool still -adhering to it. The custom extends to the present day, and even in -many parts of Europe the sheep-skin dress of the shepherds is a -familiar sight to the traveller. The skin was sometimes tanned and -used as leather, but was considered as inferior to that of the goat. -Mr. Tristram conjectures that the leathern "girdle" worn by St. John -the Baptist was probably the untanned sheep-skin coat which has been -just mentioned. So it is said of the early Christians, that "they -wandered about in sheep-skins and goat-skins, being destitute, -afflicted, tormented," the sheep-skins in question being evidently the -rude shepherd's coats. - - -Next to the wool come the horns. - -In our country we have done our best to produce a hornless breed of -Sheep, thinking the nutriment which produces the horns can be better -expended on the body and fleece, but in the East the horns form an -important commodity, and are valued in proportion to their size. - -The chief use of the ram's horn was as a vessel in which to carry -liquids, especially those which, like oil, were poured out in small -quantities. For this purpose a wooden plug was driven tightly into -the larger end, so as to close it completely, and frequently covered, -in addition, with raw hide, in order to hold it firmly in its place, -while the small part of the pointed end was cut off, and the aperture -closed with a small stopper. The old powder-horns which were formerly -much used in England, and which even now are employed in Palestine and -many other countries, were good examples of this form of vessel. - -That the horn was the favourite vessel for carrying oil is seen in -many passages of the Scriptures. For example, when Saul was to be -superseded by David, Samuel was ordered to fill his horn with oil and -go to Jesse's house, 1 Sam. i. 39. The allusion was evidently to a -vessel whose ordinary use was the holding of oil. Again, when David -named Solomon his son (see 1 Kings i. 39), "Zadok the priest took an -horn of oil out of the Tabernacle, and anointed Solomon," the oil -being that which was kept in the Tabernacle for sacred purposes, and -the ingredients of which were so carefully chosen, for it was to be an -"oil of holy ointment, an ointment compounded after the art of the -apothecary (or perfumer), which shall be an holy anointing oil" (Ex. -xxx. 25). - -The horn of the ram had also a national value, as from it were made -the sacred trumpets which played so important a part in the history of -the Jewish nation. There is no doubt that the primitive trumpets were -originally formed either from the horn of an animal, such as the ox, -the large-horned antelopes, the sheep, and the goat, and that in -process of time they were made of metal, generally copper or silver. - -References are frequently made in the Bible to these trumpets, for -which there were different names, probably on account of their -different forms. These names are, however, very loosely rendered in -our version, the same word being sometimes translated the "cornet" and -sometimes the "trumpet." Putting aside, however, these points of -difference, we have chiefly to remark the fact that trumpets made of -rams' horns were ordered by the Mosaic law to be sounded at certain -times, and that their notes formed an important part of the ritual. - -Each jubilee year, for example, was ushered in by the blasts of the -sacred trumpets. "Then shalt thou cause the trumpet of the jubilee to -sound on the tenth day of the seventh month, in the day of atonement -shall ye make the trumpet sound throughout all your land" (Lev. xxv. -9). Then there was the festival known as the Feast of Trumpets. "In -the seventh month, on the first day of the month, ye shall have an -holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work: it is a day of blowing -the trumpets unto you" (Numb. xxix. 1). - -Perhaps the most prominent instance of the blowing of the sacred -trumpet may be found in the familiar passage in the book of Joshua -(ch. vi.) in which is described the fall of Jericho. "Ye shall compass -the city, all ye men of war, and go about the city once. This ye shall -do six days. And seven priests shall bear before the ark seven -trumpets of rams' horns (or jubilee cornets); and the seventh day ye -shall compass the city seven times, and the priests shall blow with -the trumpets. And it shall come to pass, when they make a long blast -with the rams' horns, and when ye hear the sound of the trumpet, all -the people shall shout with a great shout; and the wall of the city -shall fall down flat, and the people shall ascend up every man -straight before him." - -Trumpets were also used as signals to the people. "Declare ye in -Judah, and publish in Jerusalem, and say, Blow ye the trumpet in the -land: cry, gather together and say, Assemble yourselves, and let us go -into the defenced cities" (Jer. iv. 5). And on that great and solemn -day when the law was given from Mount Sinai the signal to the people -was the sound of the trumpet (or cornet, as the word is translated in -the margin). "And it came to pass on the third day in the morning, -that there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the -mount, and the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud; so that all the -people that was in the camp trembled" (Exod. xix. 16). - -The Hebrew word which is here translated as "trumpet" is "shofar," -which signifies also a horn, and is therefore very rightly translated -in the margin and in the Jewish Bible as "cornet." What may have been -the shape of the shofar is evident from the fact that the same -instrument is used even at the present day in certain parts of the -Jewish ritual. One of these trumpets is now before me, and is shown in -the accompanying illustration. - -In length it measures eighteen inches, _i.e._ a cubit, and it is -formed entirely in one piece. As far as I can judge, it is made from -the left horn of the broad-tailed Sheep, which, as has already been -remarked, is not spiral, but flattish, curved backwards, and forming -nearly a circle, the point passing under the ear. This structure, -added to the large size of the horn, adapts it well for its purpose. -In order to bring it to the proper shape, the horn is softened by -heat, and is then modelled into the very form which was used by the -Jewish priests who blew the trumpet before the ark. - - [Illustration: RAM'S HORN TRUMPET.] - -At the present day one such trumpet, at least, is found in every -Jewish community, and is kept by the man who has the privilege of -blowing it. On the New Year's festival and the Day of Atonement the -trumpet is used in the Jewish ritual, and as the ceremonies connected -with blowing it are extremely interesting, they will be briefly -described. - -The trumpeter, who is not necessarily a priest, but may be any pious -man selected from the congregation, prepares himself by bathing, and -at the appointed time puts on the white shirt or shroud in which Jews -are buried. Before the trumpet is blown, a prayer is said, containing -many cabalistic names of angels and _malachim_, or powers. These names -may not be pronounced. - -The Rabbi then stands, and gives out the names of the sacred tones in -their succession. By the kindness of Dr. Herman Beigel, I have been -enabled to hear the tones, and to put them into musical notes,--I -believe for the first time since they have been used. The tones are -four in number, and are called as follows: Tekeeah (the blowing), -Shebârim (the repeated notes), Terooah (the note of joy), and -Tekeeah-gedôlah (the lengthened blowing). It is not very easy exactly -to express on paper these ancient tones, but the following notes will -give a good idea of them. - - [Illustration: Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah-gedôlah.] - -These tones are blown in three partitions, in the following order:-- - - PARTITION I. PARTITION II. - - Tekeeah. Shebârim. Tekeeah. Tekeeah. Terooah. Tekeeah. - - Tekeeah. Shebârim. Tekeeah. Tekeeah. Terooah. Tekeeah. - - Tekeeah. Shebârim. Tekeeah. Tekeeah. Terooah. Tekeeah. - - PARTITION III. - - Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah. - - Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah. - - Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah-gedôlah. - -Between each partition a pause is made, during which the congregation -join in a prayer which is full of cabalistic names of the angels who -have charge over the sacred tones. And, according to a beautiful -Hebrew tradition, when the trumpet is blown with the proper rites, -each tone is transformed into an angel, who ascends to join his -heavenly colleagues, and with them forms a crown before the throne of -God. So that, ever since the Jewish ritual was established, every New -Year's festival and Day of Atonement send forth their own angels, as -additional jewels to the heavenly crown. - -These tones are the same all over the world, and have been unchanged -for countless generations, so that we may be nearly certain that the -blast before which the walls of Jericho fell were the four sacred -tones which have just been described. The reader will perceive that -all the tones are simply octaves, blown with more or less rapidity, -the short notes of Terooah being taken as quickly as the trumpeter can -blow them, and the concluding note well swelled out, until "the voice -of the cornet waxes exceeding loud." Sometimes fifths are used instead -of octaves. - -The sounds of the shofar are very peculiar and harsh, quite unlike the -notes of any modern instrument. In spite, however, of the wild and -almost discordant harshness of the instrument, and the abrupt and even -startling character of the Shebârim and Terooah, the sound of the -shofar has a strangely solemn effect, carrying back the mind of the -hearer to the time when the priests bore their rams'-horn trumpets -before the ark, and blew the same sacred blasts under the shadow of -Sinai. - -Dr. Beigel has made a most singular discovery concerning the tones of -the shofar. If the reader will blow them on a flute in the exact order -in which they stand, he will find that he is playing a portion of the -nightingale's song. This remarkable fact has been communicated to the -Chief Rabbi and other Rabbim, who are unanimous in expressing their -satisfaction at it. We cannot, of course, venture to say whether the -sacred tones were in the first instance copied from the notes of a -singing bird, but it is not unlikely that, whether consciously or not, -the mind of the ancient composer might have been influenced by tones -which he had often heard, and which could be reproduced in the limited -compass of the ram's horn trumpet. - -The old Rabbinical writers have a curious saying about the ram: "The -ram in life has one tone, in death seven." This they explain in the -following way. When the animal is living the only sound which it can -produce is the bleat, but when it is dead it is made into musical -instruments. - - 1. Of the horns are made trumpets. - - 2. Of the leg-bones are made flutes. - - 3. Of the large intestines are made lute-strings. - - 4. Of the small intestines are made harp-strings. - - 5. Of the skin is made the drum-head. - - 6. Of the wool are made the pomegranates which hang between the - golden bells of the High Priest's garment. - -This latter sentence explains a passage in Exodus xxviii. 33, which is -not very easy of comprehension. When describing the ephod of the High -Priest, the sacred writer proceeds to say, "And beneath upon the hem -of it thou shalt make pomegranates of blue, and of purple, and of -scarlet, round about the hem thereof, and bells of gold between them -round about." Both the material and the use of the blue and purple and -scarlet pomegranates are here left uncertain, but this old Rabbinical -saying explains both. They were made of the dyed wool of the sheep, -and their use was to prevent the bells from clashing harshly together, -and to keep up a sort of gentle chime as the High Priest went about -his sacred duties. - -It is very true that only six tones instead of seven are enumerated, -but we must not be too critical in dissecting an aphorism. - - -We now come to the important subject, the use of the Sheep in sacrifice. -No animal was used so frequently for this purpose as the Sheep, and -in many passages of the Mosaic law are specified the precise age as -well as the sex of the Sheep which was to be sacrificed in certain -circumstances. Sometimes the Sheep was sacrificed as an offering of -thanksgiving, sometimes as an expiation for sin, and sometimes as a -redemption for some more valuable animal. The young male lamb was the -usual sacrifice; and almost the only sacrifice for which a Sheep might -not be offered was that of the two goats on the great Day of -Atonement. To mention all the passages in which the Sheep is ordered -for sacrifice would occupy too much of our space, and we will -therefore restrict ourselves to the one central rite of the Jewish -nation, the sacrifice of the Paschal lamb, the precursor of the Lamb -of God, who taketh away the sins of the world. - -Without examining in full the various ceremonies of the Paschal -sacrifice, we will glance over the salient points which distinguish it -from any other sacrifice. - -The lamb must be a male, which is selected and examined with the -minutest care, that it may be free from all blemish, and must be of -the first year. It must be killed on the fourteenth of the month Abib -as the sun is setting, and the blood must be sprinkled with hyssop. In -the first or Egyptian Passover the blood was sprinkled on the lintels -and doorposts of the houses, but afterwards on the altar. It must be -roasted with fire, and not boiled, after the usual custom in the East; -not a bone must be broken. It must be eaten by the household in haste, -as if they were just starting on a journey, and if any of it should be -left, it must be consumed in the fire, and not eaten on the following -day. - -Such are the chief points in connexion with the Paschal rite, at once -a sacrifice and a feast. The original directions not being -sufficiently minute to meet all the practical difficulties which might -hinder the correct performance of the rite, a vast number of -directions are given by the Rabbinical writers. In order, for example, -to guard against the destruction of any part of the animal by careless -cooking over a fire, or the possible fracture of a bone by a sudden -jet of flame, the Paschal lamb was rather baked than roasted, being -placed in an earthen oven from which the ashes had been removed. In -order to prevent it from being burned or blackened against the sides -of the oven, (in which case it would be cooked with earthenware and -not with fire), it was transfixed with a wooden stake, made from the -pomegranate-tree, and a transverse spit was thrust through the -shoulders. These spits were made of wood, because a metal spit would -become heated in the oven, and would cause all the flesh which it -touched to be roasted with metal, and not with fire; and the wood of -the pomegranate was chosen, because that wood was supposed not to emit -any sap when heated. If a drop of water had fallen on the flesh, the -law would have been broken, as that part of the flesh would be -considered as boiled, and not roasted. - -As to the eating of unleavened bread and bitter herbs with the lamb, -the custom does not bear on the present subject. In shape the oven -seems to have resembled a straw beehive, having an opening at the side -by which the fuel could be removed and the lamb inserted. - -It is most interesting to compare with the ancient Paschal sacrifice -the mode of conducting the Passover as still practised on Mount -Gerizim by the Samaritans, who still "worship in this mountain," as -their fathers had done. The Samaritans, a turbulent nation, or rather -an aggregation of tribes who had adopted their own modification of the -Jewish religion, considered Mount Gerizim as the most sacred spot on -the earth, and made it a principle of their faith to worship there. -They hallowed the mountain with various traditions, some perhaps true, -others clearly erroneous. They said that on the summit of Mount -Gerizim, and not on the comparatively little hill of Moriah, Abraham's -marvellous faith was so fearfully tested. They even now point out the -very spot on which it took place--a small smoothed plot of ground on -the summit of the mountain, remarkable for the contrast which its -level plateau presents to the rough, rugged sides of the mountain, -broken by clefts and strewn with great angular stones, as if a rocky -mountain had been blown to pieces and the fragments showered on -Gerizim. - -On Gerizim are the "twelve stones" of Joshua, placed by him in -commemoration of the passage of the Jordan. There are the great, -massive stones placed closely together in a row, and apparently -forming part of the rocky mountain itself. - -On Gerizim are the seven steps made by Adam when he was driven out of -Paradise, and in Gerizim is the cave in which the Tabernacle was -built. On Gerizim the Passover was celebrated in the time of Christ, -and on Gerizim it is celebrated still. The Samaritans have often been -prevented from doing so by the Moslems, and even so late as 1842 the -Mahometan Ulema threatened to murder the whole of the little -community, under two hundred in number, on the ground that they had no -religion. - -The Samaritans believe themselves to be children of Ephraim and -Manasseh, and that their present priest is lineally descended from a -branch of the tribe of Levi, and have accordingly a great pride in -their descent. They observe the ceremonial law with exceeding care, -and, even through the many years of persecution to which they have -been subjected, they have never failed to go thrice in the year to the -top of their holy mountain, repeating parts of the Law as they ascend. -A great loss has lately fallen upon them. They had at one time a -priesthood of the house of Aaron, but the family gradually dwindled -away, and at last utterly perished. - -The ceremony of the Passover has been described by several persons, -such as the late Consul Rogers and the Dean of Westminster, the latter -of whom has given a most striking and vivid account of the rite in his -"Lectures on the Jewish Church." - -The place which is now employed in the celebration of this rite is a -level spot about two hundred yards from the summit of the mountain, a -place which is apparently selected on account of its comparative quiet -and seclusion. Dean Stanley thinks that in former times, when the -Samaritans were the masters of the country, they celebrated the -sacrifice on the sacred plateau on the very summit of the mountain, so -that the rite could be seen for a vast distance on every side. Now, -however, the less conspicuous place is preferred. By the kindness of -the Palestine Exploration Society, I am enabled to present the reader -with a view of this sacred spot, taken from a photograph made an hour -or two before the time of sacrifice. The rough, rugged character of -the mountain is shown by this illustration, though not so well as in -several other photographs of Gerizim, in which the entire surface -seems to be loosely covered with stones like those of which the low -wall is built. Near the centre of the illustration may be seen a pile -of sticks and the tops of two caldrons, on each of which a stone is -laid to keep the cover from being blown off by the wind. These sticks -nearly fill a trench in which the caldrons are sunk, and their use -will be presently seen on reading Dean Stanley's narrative. In the far -distance are the plains of Samaria, and the long-drawn shadows of the -priest and his nephew, and probable successor, show that the time of -sacrifice is rapidly approaching. - - [Illustration: THE PLACE OF SACRIFICE.] - -On the previous day the whole of the community had pitched their tents -on the mountain, and as the time of sunset approached the women -retired to the tents, and all the males, except those who were unclean -according to the provisions of the Mosaic law, assembled near a long -deep trench that had been dug in the ground. The men are clothed in -long white garments, and the six young men who are selected as the -actual sacrificers are dressed in white drawers and shirts. These -youths are trained to the duty, but whether they hold any sacred -office could not be ascertained. - -Then, according to the narrative of Dean Stanley, "the priest, -ascending a large rough stone in front of the congregation, recited in -a loud chant or scream, in which the others joined, prayers or praises -chiefly turning on the glories of Abraham and Isaac. Their attitude -was that of all Orientals in prayer; standing, occasionally -diversified by the stretching out of the hands, and more rarely by -kneeling or crouching, with their knees wrapped in their clothes and -bent to the ground, towards the Holy Place on the summit of Gerizim. -The priest recited his prayers by heart; the others had mostly books -in Hebrew and Arabic. - -"Presently, suddenly there appeared amongst the worshippers six sheep, -driven up by the side of the youths before mentioned. The unconscious -innocence with which they wandered to and fro amongst the bystanders, -and the simplicity in aspect and manner of the young men who tended -them, more recalled a pastoral scene in Arcadia, or one of those -inimitable patriarchal _tableaux_ represented in the Ammergau Mystery, -than a religious ceremonial. - -"The sun, meanwhile, which had hitherto burnished up the Mediterranean -in the distance, now sank very nearly to the farthest western ridge -overhanging the plain of Sharon. The recitation became more vehement. -The priest turned about, facing his brethren, and the whole history of -the Exodus from the beginning of the plagues of Egypt was rapidly, -almost furiously, chanted. The sheep, still innocently playful, were -driven more closely together. - -"The setting sun now touched the ridge. The youths burst into a wild -murmur of their own, drew forth their long bright knives, and -brandished them aloft. In a moment the sheep were thrown on their -backs, and the flashing knives rapidly drawn across their throats. -Then a few convulsive but silent struggles--'as a sheep ... dumb ... -that openeth not his mouth,'--and the six forms lay lifeless on the -ground, the blood streaming from them; the one only Jewish sacrifice -lingering in the world. In the blood the young men dipped their -fingers, and a small spot was marked on the foreheads and noses of the -children. A few years ago the red stain was placed on all. But this -had now dwindled away into the present practice, preserved, we were -told, as a relic or emblem of the whole. Then, as if in congratulation -at the completion of the ceremony, they all kissed each other, in the -Oriental fashion, on each side of the head. - -"The next process was that of the fleecing and roasting of the -slaughtered animals, for which the ancient temple furnished such ample -provisions. Two holes on the mountain side had been dug; one at some -distance, of considerable depth, the other, close to the scene of the -sacrifice, comparatively shallow. In this latter cavity, after a short -prayer, a fire was kindled, out of the mass of dry heath, juniper, and -briers, such as furnished the materials for the conflagration in -Jotham's parable, delivered not far from this spot. - -"Over the fire were placed two caldrons full of water. Whilst the -water boiled, the congregation again stood around, and (as if for -economy of time) continued the recitation of the Book of Exodus, and -bitter herbs were handed round wrapped in a strip of unleavened -bread--'with unleavened bread and bitter herbs shall they eat it.' -Then was chanted another short prayer; after which the six youths -again appeared, poured the boiling water over the sheep, and plucked -off their fleeces. The right forelegs of the sheep, with the entrails, -were thrown aside and burnt. The liver was carefully put back. Long -poles were brought, on which the animals were spitted; near the bottom -of each pole was a transverse peg or stick, to prevent the body from -slipping off." - -This cross-piece does not, however, penetrate the body, which in most -cases scarcely touches it, so that there is little or no resemblance -to a crucifixion. The writer lays especial stress on this point, -because the early Christians saw in the transverse spit an emblem of -the cross. In the Jewish Passover this emblem would have been more -appropriate, as in that ceremony the cross-piece was passed through -the shoulders, and the forefeet tied to it. - -The Sheep being now prepared, they were carried to the oven, which on -this occasion was a deep, circular pit, in which a fire had been -previously kindled. Into this the victims were carefully lowered, the -stakes on which they were impaled guarding their bodies from touching -the sides of the oven, and the cross-piece at the end preventing them -from slipping off the stake to the bottom of the pit among the ashes. -A hurdle was then laid on the mouth of the pit, and wet earth was -heaped upon it so as to close it completely. The greater part of the -community then retired to rest. In about five hours, the Paschal moon -being high in the heavens, announcement was made that the feast was -about to begin. Then, to resume Dean Stanley's narrative, - -"Suddenly the covering of the hole was torn off, and up rose into the -still moonlit sky a vast column of smoke and steam; recalling, with a -shock of surprise, that, even by an accidental coincidence, Reginald -Heber should have so well caught this striking feature of so remote -and unknown a ritual: - - 'Smokes on Gerizim's mount Samaria's sacrifice.' - -"Out of the pit were dragged successively the six sheep, on their long -spits, black from the oven. The outlines of their heads, their ears, -their legs, were still visible--'his head, with his legs, and with the -inward parts thereof.' They were hoisted aloft, and then thrown on -large square brown mats, previously prepared for their reception, on -which we were carefully prevented from treading, as also from touching -even the extremities of the spit. - -"The bodies thus wrapped in the mats were hurried down to the trench -where the sacrifice had taken place, and laid out upon them in a line -between two files of the Samaritans. Those who had before been dressed -in white robes still retained them, with the addition now of shoes on -their feet and staves in their hands, and ropes round their -waists--'thus shall ye eat it; with your loins girded, your shoes on -your feet, your staff in your hand.' The recitation of prayers or of -the Pentateuch recommenced, and continued till it suddenly terminated -in their all sitting down on their haunches, after the Arab fashion at -meals, and beginning to eat. This, too, is a deviation from the -practice of only a few years since, when they retained the Mosaic -ritual of standing whilst they ate. The actual feast was conducted in -rapid silence, as of men in hunger, as no doubt most of them were, and -so as soon to consume every portion of the blackened masses, which -they tore away piecemeal with their fingers--'ye shall eat in haste.' -There was a general merriment, as of a hearty and welcome meal. - -"In ten minutes all was gone but a few remnants. To the priest and to -the women, who, all but two (probably his two wives), remained in the -tents, separate morsels were carried round. The remnants were gathered -into the mats, and put on a wooden grate, or hurdle, over the hole -where the water had been originally boiled; the fire was again lit, -and a huge bonfire was kindled. By its blaze, and by candles lighted -for the purpose, the ground was searched in every direction, as for -the consecrated particles of sacramental elements; and these fragments -of flesh and bone were thrown upon the burning mass--'ye shall let -nothing remain until the morning; and that which remaineth until the -morning ye shall burn with fire;' 'there shall not anything of the -flesh which thou sacrificest the first day at even remain all night -until the morning;' 'thou shalt not carry forth aught of the flesh -abroad out of the house.' The flames blazed up once more, and then -gradually sank away. - -"Perhaps in another century the fire on Mount Gerizim will be the only -relic left of this most interesting and ancient rite." - - - - -THE CHAMOIS. - - The Zemer or Chamois only once mentioned in the - Bible--Signification of the word Zemer--Probability that the - Zemer is the Aoudad--Appearance of the Aoudad--Its strength and - activity--Fierce temper of the adult male--Horns of the - Aoudad--Their probable use as musical instruments--Habits of the - Aoudad--The Mouflon probably classed with the Aoudad under the - name of Zemer--Appearance and habits of the Mouflon. - - -Among the animals which may be used for food is mentioned one which in -our version is rendered Chamois. See Deut. xiv. 5, a passage which has -several times been quoted. - -It is evident to any one acquainted with zoology that, whatever may be -the Hebrew word, "Chamois" cannot be the correct rendering, inasmuch -as the real Chamois does not inhabit Palestine, nor are there any -proofs that it ever did so. We must, therefore, look for some other -animal. - -Then, the Hebrew word, which only occurs once in the Bible, is Zamar, -or Zemer, _i.e._ the leaper, and therefore an animal which is -conspicuous for its agility. Zoologists have now agreed in the opinion -that the Zamer of Deuteronomy is the handsome wild sheep which we know -under the name of Aoudad (_Ammotragus Tragelaphus_). This splendid -sheep is known by various names. It is the Jaela of some authors, and -the Bearded Sheep of others. It is also called the Fichtall, or -Lerwea; and the French zoologists describe it under the name of -_Mouflon à manchettes_, in allusion to the fringe of long hair that -ornaments the fore limbs. - -The Aoudad is a large and powerful animal, exceedingly active, and has -the habits of the goat rather than of the sheep, on which account it -is reckoned among the goats by the Arabs of the present day, and -doubtless was similarly classed by the ancient inhabitants of -Palestine. The height of the adult Aoudad is about three feet, and its -general colour is pale dun, relieved by the dark masses of long hair -that fall from the neck and the tufts of similar hair which decorate -the knees of the male. The female is also bearded and tufted, but the -hair, which in the male looks like the mane of the lion, in the female -is but slightly developed. - -It is so powerful and active an animal, that an adult male which lived -for some time in the Zoological Gardens was much dreaded by the -keepers, not even the man who fed it liking to enter the enclosure if -he could help himself. The animal was given to making unexpected -charges, and would do so with astonishing quickness, springing round -and leaping at the object of his hate with tremendous force, and with -such rapidity that even the experienced keeper, who knew all the ways -of the animals under his charge, had often some difficulty in slipping -behind the door, against which the horns of the Aoudad would clatter -as if they would break the door to pieces. So fond was he of attacking -something that he would often butt repeatedly at the wooden side of -the shed, hurling himself against it with eager fury. - -The horns of the Aoudad are about two feet in length, and are of -considerable diameter. They curve boldly and gracefully backwards, -their points diverging considerably from each other, so that when the -animal throws its head up, the points of the horns come on either -side of the back. This divergence of the horns has another object. -They cover a considerable space, so that when the animal makes its -charge the object of its anger has much more difficulty in escaping -the blow than if the horns were closer together. - - [Illustration: THE AOUDAD CHASED. - - "_These are the beasts which ye shall eat: the ox, the sheep, the goat - ... and the chamois._"--DEUT. xiv. 4, 5.] - -Whether these horns were used as musical instruments is doubtful, -simply because we are not absolutely sure that the Zamar and the -Aoudad are identical, however great may be the probability. But -inasmuch as the horn-trumpets were evidently of various sizes, it is -certain that the Jewish musicians would never have neglected to take -advantage of such magnificent materials as they would obtain from the -horns of this animal. Perhaps the Chaldaic "keren" may have been the -horn of the Aoudad, or of the animal which will next be mentioned. - -The Aoudad is wonderfully active, and even the young ones bound to an -astonishing height. I have seen the marks of their hoofs eight feet -from the ground. - -In its wild state the Aoudad lives in little flocks or herds, and -prefers the high and rocky ground, over which it leaps with a -sure-footed agility equal to that of the Chamois itself. These flocks -are chased by hunters, who try to get it upon the lowest and least -broken ground, where it is at a disadvantage, and then run it down -with their horses, as seen in the illustration on page 187. - -The Aoudad was formerly plentiful in Egypt, and even now is found -along the Atlas mountain-range. It is seen on the Egyptian monuments, -and, owing to its evident profusion, we have every reason to -conjecture that it was one of those animals which were specially -indicated as chewing the cud and cleaving the hoof. - - -PERHAPS THE MOUFLON (_Caprovis Musimon_) may be the animal which is -meant by the Hebrew word Zamar, and it is not unlikely that both -animals may have been included in one name. - -This animal, which is nearly allied to the Aoudad, is also very -goatlike in general aspect. It is indeed to this resemblance that the -name Caprovis, or goat-sheep, has been given to it. The name -Ammotragus, which, as mentioned above, belongs to the Aoudad, has a -similar signification. - -The horns of the Mouflon belong only to the male animal, and are of -enormous size, so that if trumpets of deep tone and great power were -needed, they could be obtained from the horns of this animal. Those of -the Aoudad are very large, and would be well adapted for the same -purpose, but they would not furnish such instruments as the horns of -the Mouflon, which are so large that they seem almost unwieldy for an -animal of twice the Mouflon's size, and give visible proofs of the -strength and agility of an animal which can carry them so lightly and -leap about under their weight so easily as does the Mouflon. - -At the present time the Mouflon is only to be found in Cyprus, -Sardinia, and Corsica, but formerly it was known to inhabit many -other parts of the earth, and was almost certainly one of the many -animals which then haunted the Lebanon, but which have in later days -been extirpated. - - - - -THE GOAT. - - Value of the Goat--Its use in furnishing food--The male kid the - usual animal of slaughter--Excellence of the flesh and deception - of Isaac--Milk of the Goat--An Oriental milking scene--The hair - of the goat, and the uses to which it is put--The Goat's skin - used for leather--The "bottle" of Scripture--Mode of making and - repairing the bottles--Ruse of the Gibeonites--The "bottle in - the smoke"--The sacks and the kneading troughs--The Goat as used - for sacrifice--General habits of the Goat--Separation of the - Goats from the sheep--Performing Goats--Different breeds of - Goats in Palestine. - - -Whether considered in reference to food, to clothing, or to sacrifice, -the GOAT was scarcely a less important animal than the sheep. It was -especially valuable in such a country as Palestine, in which the soil -and the climate vary so much according to the locality. Upon the large -fertile plains the sheep are bred in vast flocks, the rich and -succulent grass being exactly to their taste; while in the hilly and -craggy districts the Goats abound, and delight in browsing upon the -scanty herbage that grows upon the mountain-side. - -For food the Goat was even more extensively used than the sheep. The -adult male was, of course, not eaten, being very tough, and having an -odour which would repel any but an actually starving man. Neither were -the females generally eaten, as they were needed for the future -increase of the flocks. The young male kid formed the principal -material of a feast, and as soon as a stranger claimed the hospitality -of a man in good circumstances, the first thing that was done was to -take a young male kid and dress it for him. - -For example, when the angel visited Gideon in the guise of a stranger, -Gideon "went in and made ready a kid, and unleavened cakes of an ephah -of flour," and brought them to his guest (Judges vi. 19). And when -Isaac was on his death-bed, and asked Esau to take his bow and arrows -and hunt for "venison," which was probably the flesh of one of the -antelopes which have already been mentioned, a ready substitute was -found in the two kids, from whose flesh Rebekah made the dish for -which he longed. The imposition might easily pass without detection, -because the flesh of the kid is peculiarly tender, and can scarcely be -distinguished from lamb, even when simply roasted. Isaac, therefore, -with his senses dulled by his great age, was the less likely to -discover the imposture, when the flesh of the kids was stewed into -"savoury meat such as he loved." - -A curious illustration of the prevalence of kid's flesh as food is -given in the parable of the prodigal son, for whom his father had -killed the fatted calf. "And he answering said to his father, Lo, -these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed I at any time -thy commandment: and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I might make -merry with my friends" (Luke xv. 29). The force of the reproval cannot -be properly understood unless we are acquainted with the customs of -the East. The kid was the least valuable animal that could have been -given, less valuable than a lamb, and infinitely inferior to the -fatted calf, which was kept in wealthy households for some feast of -more than ordinary magnificence. - -The kid was cooked exactly in the same manner as the sheep, namely, by -cutting to pieces and stewing in a caldron, the meat and broth being -served separately. See, for example, the case of Gideon, to whom a -reference has already been made. When he brought the banquet to his -guest, "the flesh he put in a basket, and he put the broth in a pot, -and brought it out unto him under the oak, and presented it. And the -angel of God said unto him, Take the flesh and the unleavened cakes, -and lay them upon this rock, and pour out the broth." - -The same custom exists at the present day. When an Arab chief receives -a guest, a kid is immediately killed and given to the women to be -cooked in a separate tent, and the guest is pressed to stay until it -is ready, in the very words used by Gideon three thousand years ago. -"Depart not hence, I pray thee, until I come unto thee, and bring -forth my present, and set it before thee." And the angelic guest -answered him just as a modern Arab traveller would answer his host, "I -will tarry until thou come again." For the refusal of proffered -hospitality would be and still is considered to be, either a studied -insult, or a proof of bad manners, and no one with any claims to -breeding would commit such an action without urgent cause and much -apology. - -Like the sheep, the Goat is extremely valuable as a milk-producer, and -at the present day the milk of the Goat is used as largely as that of -the sheep. "At Rasheiya, under Mount Hermon," writes Mr. Tristram, "we -saw some hundreds of goats gathering for the night in the wide open -market-place beneath the castle. It was no easy matter to thread our -way among them, as they had no idea of moving for such belated -intruders on their rest. All the she-goats of the neighbouring hills -are driven in every evening, and remain for their morning's milking, -after which they set forth on their day's excursion. - -"Each house possesses several, and all know their owners. The evening -milking is a picturesque scene. Every street and open space is filled -with the goats; and women, boys, and girls are everywhere milking with -their small pewter pots, while the goats are anxiously awaiting their -turn, or lying down to chew the cud as soon as it is over. As no kids -or he-goats are admitted, the scene is very orderly, and there is none -of the deafening bleating which usually characterises large flocks. - -"These mountain goats are a solemn set, and by the gravity of their -demeanour excite a suspicion that they have had no youth, and never -were kids. They need no herdsman to bring them home in the evening, -for, fully sensible of the danger of remaining unprotected, they hurry -homewards of their own accord as soon as the sun begins to decline." - - -Like the wool of the sheep, the hair of the Goat is used for the -manufacture of clothing; and, as is the case with wool, its quality -differs according to the particular breed of the animal, which assumes -almost as many varieties as the sheep or the dog. The hair of some -varieties is thick and rough, and can only be made into coarse cloths, -while others, of which the mohair Goat and Cashmere Goat are familiar -examples, furnish a staple of surpassing delicacy and fineness. It is -most likely that the covering and curtains of the Tabernacle mentioned -in Exod. xxvi. 7 were of the latter kind, as otherwise they would have -been out of character with the fine linen, and blue and scarlet, their -golden clasps, and the profuse magnificence which distinguished every -part of the sacred building. Moreover, the hair of the Goat is classed -among the costly offerings which were made when the Tabernacle was -built. "And they came forth, men and women, as many as were willing -hearted, and brought bracelets, and earrings, and rings, and tablets, -all jewels of gold: and every man that offered offered an offering of -gold unto the Lord. And every man, with whom was found blue, and -purple, and scarlet, and fine linen, and goats' hair, and red skins of -rams, and badgers' skins, brought them" to be used in the structure of -that wonderful building, in which nothing might be used except the -finest and costliest that could be procured. - -One of the principal uses to which the goat-skin was applied was the -manufacture of leather, for which purpose it is still used, and is -considered far better than that of the sheep. Perhaps the most common -form in which this leather is used is the well-known water-vessel, or -"bottle" of the Bible. - -These so-called bottles are made from the entire skin of the animal, -which is prepared in slightly different methods according to the -locality in which the manufacture is carried on. In Palestine they are -soaked for some little time in the tanning mixture, and are then -filled with water, after the seams have been pitched. In this state -they are kept for some time, and are kept exposed to the sun, covered -entirely with the tanning fluid, and filled up with water to supply -the loss caused by evaporation and leakage. - -The hair is allowed to remain on the skins, because it acts as a -preservative against the rough usage to which they are subject at the -hard hands of the water-carriers. By degrees the hairy covering wears -off, first in patches, and then over the entire surface, so that a new -bottle can be recognised at a glance, and any one who wished to sell -an old bottle at the price of a new one would be at once detected. - -Vessels made in this rude manner are absolutely necessary in the -countries wherein they are used. Wooden or metal vessels would be too -heavy, and, besides, the slight though constant evaporation that -always takes place through the pores of the leather keeps down the -temperature of the water, even under a burning sun, the slight loss -which is caused by the porousness of the skin being more than -counterbalanced by the coolness of the water. It is true that the -goat-skin communicates to the liquid a flavour far from pleasant, but -in those countries the quality of the water is of little consequence, -provided that it is plentiful in quantity, and tolerably cool. - -Even in our own country, leathern drinking-cups are sometimes used, -and all who have taken any interest in antiquarian manners are -familiar with the "leather bottle" and the "black-jack," the former -only surviving in museums and as signs to public-houses, though the -latter has within the memory of the present generation been in common -use. Leathern bottles are still used in the Turkish army, and I have -in my collection one of these water-bottles, which is practically the -same article as the "bottle" of Scripture, though it is of -comparatively small size, and is made with some attempt at elegance of -form. - -In all parts of the world where the skin is used for this purpose the -mode of manufacture is practically identical. An account of the art of -preparing the goat-skin as practised in Abyssinia is given by Mr. C. -Johnston, in his "Travels in Southern Abyssinia:"-- - -"To be of any value it must be taken off uncut, except around the -neck, and in those situations necessary to enable the butchers to draw -the legs out of the skin; also, of course, where the first incision is -made to commence the process, and which is a circular cut carried -around both haunches, not many inches from and having the tail for a -centre. The hide is then stripped over the thighs, and two smaller -incisions being made round the middle joint of the hind-legs enable -them to be drawn out. - -"A stick is now placed to extend these extremities, and by this, for -the convenience of the operators, the whole carcase is suspended from -the branch of a tree, and, by some easy pulls around the body, the -skin is gradually withdrawn over the fore-legs, which are incised -around the knees, to admit of their being taken out; after which, the -head being removed, the whole business concludes by the skin being -pulled inside out over the decollated neck. One of the parties now -takes a rough stone and well rubs the inside surface, to divest it of -a few fibres of the subcutaneous muscle which are inserted into the -skin, and after this operation it is laid aside until the next day; -the more interesting business of attending to the meat calling for -immediate attention. - -"These entire skins are afterwards made into sacks by the apertures -around the neck and legs being secured by a double fold of the skin -being sewed upon each other, by means of a slender but very tough -thong. These small seams are rendered quite air-tight, and the larger -orifice around the haunches being gathered together by the hands, the -yet raw skin is distended with air; and the orifice being then tied -up, the swollen bag is left in that state for a few days, until slight -putrefaction has commenced, when the application of the rough stone -soon divests its surface of the hair. After this has been effected, a -deal of labour, during at least one day, is required to soften the -distended skin by beating it with heavy sticks, or trampling upon it -for hours together, the labourer supporting himself by clinging to the -bough of a tree overhead, or holding on by the wall of the house. - -"In this manner, whilst the skin is drying, it is prevented from -getting stiff, and, still further to secure it from this evil -condition, it is frequently rubbed with small quantities of butter. -When it is supposed that there is no chance of the skin becoming hard -and easily broken, the orifice is opened, the air escapes, and a very -soft, flaccid leather bag is produced, but which, for several days -after, affords an amusement to the owner, when otherwise unemployed, -by well rubbing it all over with his hands." - -The reader will see that the two processes are practically identical, -the chief difference being that in one country the skins are distended -with water and in the other with air. - -As these bottles are rather apt to be damaged by the thorns, branches, -rocks, and similar objects with which they come in contact, and are -much too valuable to be thrown away as useless, their owners have -discovered methods of patching and repairing them, which enable them -to be used for some time longer. Patches of considerable size are -sometimes inserted, if the rent should be of importance, while the -wound caused by a thorn is mended by a simple and efficacious -expedient. The skin is first emptied, and a round flat piece of wood, -or even a stone of suitable shape, is put into it. The skin is then -held with the wounded part downwards, and the stone shaken about until -it comes exactly upon the hole. It is then grasped, the still wet hide -gathered tightly under it, so as to pucker up the skin, and a ligature -is tied firmly round it. Perhaps some of my readers may have -practised the same method of mending a punctured football. - -Allusion to this mode of mending the skin bottles is made in Josh. ix. -4, 13. The Gibeonites "did work wilily, and went and made as if they -had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses, and wine -bottles, old, and rent, and bound up ... and said ... these bottles of -wine, which we filled, were new; and, behold, they be rent." - -If these skin bottles be allowed to become dry, as is sometimes the -case when they are hung up in the smoky tents, they shrivel up, and -become rotten and weak, and are no longer enabled to bear the pressure -caused by the fermentation of new wine. So, in Ps. cxix. 81-83: "My -soul fainteth for Thy salvation: but I hope in Thy word. - -"Mine eyes fail for Thy word, saying, When wilt Thou comfort me? - -"For I am become like a bottle in the smoke; yet do I not forget Thy -statutes." - -How forcible does not this image become, when we realize the early -life of the shepherd poet, his dwelling in tents wherein are no -windows nor chimneys, and in which the smoke rolls to and fro until it -settles in the form of soot upon the leathern bottles and other rude -articles of furniture that are hung from the poles! - -In the New Testament there is a well-known allusion to the weakness of -old bottles: "Neither do men put new wine into old bottles, or the -bottles break and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish; but -they put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved." It would -be impossible to understand the meaning of this passage unless we knew -that the "bottles" in question were not vessels of glass or -earthenware, but merely the partly-tanned skins of goats. - -Another allusion to the use of the goat-skin is made in that part of -the Book of Joshua which has already been mentioned. If the reader -will refer to Josh. ix. 4, he will see that the Gibeonites took with -them not only old bottles, but old sacks. Now, these sacks bore no -resemblance to the hempen bags with which we are so familiar, but were -nothing more than the same goat-skins that were employed in the -manufacture of bottles, but with the opening at the neck left open. -They were, in fact, skin-bottles for holding solids instead of -liquids. The sacks which Joseph's brethren took with them, and in the -mouths of which they found their money, were simply goat-skin bags, -made as described. - -Yet another use for the goat-skin. It is almost certain that the -"kneading-troughs" of the ancient Israelites were simply circular -pieces of goat-skin, which could be laid on the ground when wanted, -and rolled up and carried away when out of use. Thus, the fact that -"the people took their dough before it was leavened, their -kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothing upon their -shoulders," need cause no surprise. - -Nothing could be more in accordance with probability. The women were -all hard at work, preparing the bread for the expected journey, when -the terrified Pharaoh "called for Moses and Aaron by night, and said, -Rise up, and get you forth from among my people, both ye and the -children of Israel, and go, serve the Lord, as ye have said.... And -the Egyptians were urgent upon the people that they might send them -out of the land in haste; for they said, We be all dead men." - -So the women, being disturbed at their work, and being driven out of -the country before they had leavened, much less baked, their bread, -had no alternative but to roll up the dough in the leathern -"kneading-troughs," tie them up in a bundle with their spare clothing, -and carry them on their shoulders; whereas, if we connect the -kneading-troughs with the large heavy wooden implements used in this -country, we shall form an entirely erroneous idea of the proceeding. -As soon as they came to their first halting-place at Succoth, they -took the leathern kneading-troughs out of their clothes, unrolled -them, took the dough which had not even been leavened, so unexpectedly -had the order for marching arrived, made it into flat cakes, and baked -them as they best could. The same kind of "kneading-trough" is still -in use in many parts of the world. - -Stone as well as earthenware jars were also used by the inhabitants of -ancient Palestine; but they were only employed for the storage of wine -in houses, whereas the bottles that were used in carrying wine from -one place to another were invariably made of leather. Water also was -stored in stone or earthenware jars. See, for example, John ii. 6: -"And there were set there six waterpots of stone, after the manner of -the purifying of the Jews, containing two or three firkins apiece." -Whereas, when it was carried about, it was poured into bottles made of -skin. Such was probably the "bottle of water" that Abraham put on -Hagar's shoulder, when she was driven away by the jealousy of Sarah. -Such was the "bottle of wine" that Hannah brought as her offering when -she dedicated Samuel to the service of God; and such was the "bottle -of milk" that Jael opened for Sisera when he came to her tent. Even -oil is carried in these bottles, which are certainly better adapted to -the backs of mules, which are the usual beasts of burden, than they -would be if they were made of glass or earthenware. - -The Rabbinical writers have much to say upon the Goat; but as the -greater part of their observations and directions are without any -general interest, only a few will be selected from them. - -Knowing the great strength of the Goat of their own days, they -exaggerate the power of those which belonged to the ancients. Job's -he-goats, for example, are said to have been so strong and fierce that -they could conquer wolves, while some were so powerful that they -carried bears upon their horns. They also were accustomed to climb -rocks, dig up roots, and bring them down in their mouths. - -The milk of the white Goat is useful medicinally for affections of the -lungs, and the spleen of a female kid for diseases of the spleen. But -if Goats are allowed to drink of the water in which blacksmiths cool -their iron, the spleen gradually withers away, and at last disappears -altogether. If the owner should desire to fatten a she-goat, he ought -to tie up the udders so tightly that the milk cannot come into them, -and the nourishment is therefore converted into fat instead of milk. -Also, he should take care to keep his Goats away from the place where -bread is being made, as they are very fond of the unbaked dough, and -always die if they eat it. - - -In sacrifices, the Goat was in nearly as much requisition as the lamb, -and in one--namely, that which was celebrated on the Great Day of -Atonement--the Goat was specially mentioned as the only animal which -could be sacrificed. The reader will, perhaps, remember that for this -peculiar sacrifice two Goats were required, on which two lots were -cast, one for the Lord, _i.e._ with the word "Jehovah" upon it, and -the other for the scapegoat, _i.e._ inscribed with the word "Azazel." -The latter term is derived from two Hebrew words, the former being -"Az," which is the general name for the Goat, and the second "azel," -signifying "he departed." The former, which belonged to Jehovah, was -sacrificed, and its blood sprinkled upon the mercy-seat and the altar -of incense; and the Goat Azazel was led away into the wilderness, -bearing upon its head the sins of the people, and there let loose. - - -These being the uses of the Goat, it may naturally be imagined that -the animal is one of extreme importance, and that it is watched as -carefully by its owners as the sheep. Indeed, both sheep and Goats -belong to the same master, and are tended by the same shepherd, who -exercises the same sway over them that he does over the sheep. - -They are, however, erratic animals, and, although they will follow the -shepherd wherever he may lead them, they will not mix with the sheep. -The latter will walk in a compact flock along the valley, the shepherd -leading the way, and the sheep following him, led in their turn by the -sound of the bell tied round the neck of the master-ram of the flock. -The Goats, however, will not submit to walk in so quiet a manner, but -prefer to climb along the sides of the rocks that skirt the valleys, -skipping and jumping as they go, and seeming to take delight in -getting themselves into dangerous places, where a man could not -venture to set his foot. - -In the evening, when the shepherds call their flocks to repose, they -often make use of the caverns which exist at some height in the -precipitous side of the hills, as being safe strongholds, where the -jackal and the hyæna will not venture to attack them. When such is the -case, the shepherds take their station by the mouth of the cave, and -assist the sheep as they come sedately up the narrow path that leads -to the cavern. The Goats, however, need no assistance, but come -scrambling along by paths where no foot but a Goat's could tread, -mostly descending from a considerable height above the cave, and, as -if in exultation at their superior agility, jumping over the backs of -the sheep as they slowly file into the accustomed fold. - -Friendly as they are, the Goats and sheep never mingle together. There -may be large flocks of them feeding in the same pasturage, but the -Goats always take the highest spots on which verdure grows, while the -sheep graze quietly below. Goats are specially fond of the tender -shoots of trees, which they find in plenty upon the mountain side; -and, according to Mr. Tristram, by their continual browsing, they have -extirpated many species of trees which were once common on the hills -of Palestine, and which now can only be found in Lebanon on the east -of the Jordan. - - [Illustration: GOATS ON THE MARCH. - - "_As a shepherd divideth the sheep from the goats._"--MATT. xxv. 32.] - -Even when folded together in the same enclosure, the Goats never mix -with the sheep, but gather together by themselves, and they -instinctively take the same order when assembled round the wells at -mid-day. - -This instinctive separation of the sheep and the goats naturally -recalls to our minds the well-known saying of our Lord that "before -Him shall be gathered all nations, and He shall separate them one from -another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats: and He shall -set the sheep on His right hand, and the goats on His left." - -The image thus used was one that was familiar to all the hearers, who -were accustomed daily to see the herds of sheep and Goats under one -shepherd, yet totally distinct from each other. At feeding-time the -Goats will be browsing in long lines on the mountain sides, while the -sheep are grazing in the plain or valley; at mid-day, when the flocks -are gathered round the wells to await the rolling away of the stone -that guards the water, the Goats assemble on one side and the sheep on -the other. And at night, when they are all gathered into one fold by -one shepherd, they are still separated from each other. The same image -is employed by the prophet Ezekiel: "As for you, O my flock, thus said -the Lord God, Behold I judge between cattle and cattle, between rams -and the he-goats." - -Generally, the leading Goat was distinguished by a bell as well as the -leading sheep, and in reference to this custom there was an old -proverb, "If the shepherd takes the lead, he blinds the bell-goat," -while another proverb is based upon the inferior docility of the -animal--"If the shepherd be lame, the Goats will run away." - -Yet the Goat can be tamed very effectively, and can even be -taught to perform many tricks. "We saw just below us, on the -rudely-constructed 'parade,' a crowd of men and children, surrounding -a fantastically-dressed man exhibiting a Goat, which had been tutored to -perform some cunning trick. It stood with its four feet close together -on the top of a very long pole, and allowed the man to lift it up and -carry it round and round within the circle; then the Goat was perched -on four sticks, and again carried about. A little band of music-pipes, -drums, and tambourines--called together the people from all parts of -the town to witness this performance. - -"The Goat danced and balanced himself obediently and perfectly, in -very unnatural-looking positions, as if thoroughly understanding the -words and commands of his master. The men who watched the actions of -the Goat looked as grave and serious as if they were attending a -philosophical or scientific lecture." ("Domestic Life in Palestine," -by Miss Rogers.) - -Another feat is a favourite with the proprietors of trained Goats. The -man takes a stool and plants it carefully on the ground, so as to be -perfectly level, and then orders the Goat to stand upon it. A piece of -wood about six inches in length, and shaped something like a dice-box, -is then placed on the stool, and the Goat manages to stand on it, all -his sharp, hard hoofs being pressed closely together on the tiny -surface. The man then takes another piece of wood and holds it to the -Goat's feet. The animal gently removes first one foot and then -another, and, by careful shifting of the feet, enables its master to -place the second piece of wood on the first. Successive additions are -made, until at the last the Goat is perched on the topmost of some -nine or ten pieces of wood balanced on each other, the whole looking -like a stout reed marked off with joints. - -The stately steps and bold bearing of the old he-goat is mentioned in -the Proverbs: "There be three things which go well, yea, four are -comely in going: - -"A lion, which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not away for -any; - -"A greyhound; an he-goat also; and a king, against whom there is no -rising up." (Prov. xxx. 29-31.) The word which is here rendered as -he-goat signifies literally the "Butter," and is given to the animal -on account of the mode in which it uses its formidable horns. The word -is not common in the Bible, but it is used even at the present day -among the Arabs. - -Several herds of goats exist in Palestine, the most valuable of which -is the Mohair Goat, and the most common the Syrian Goat. These, -however dissimilar they may be in appearance, are only varieties of -the ordinary domestic animal, the former being produced artificially -by carefully selecting those specimens for breeding which have the -longest and finest hair. It was from the hair of this breed that the -costly fabrics used in the Tabernacle were woven, and it is probably -to this breed that reference is made in Solomon's Song, iv. 1, 2: -"Behold, thou art fair, my love; behold, thou art fair; thou hast -doves' eyes within thy locks: thy hair is as a flock of goats, that -appear from Mount Gilead. - -"Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep that are even shorn, which came -up from the washing." In this passage the careful reader will also -note another reference to the habits of the Goats and sheep, the hair -being compared to the dark-haired Goats that wander on the tops of the -hills, while the teeth are compared to sheep that are ranged in -regular order below. The Mohair Goat is known scientifically as _Capra -Angorensis_. The same image is used again in chap. vi. 5. - -The second breed is that which is commonest throughout the country. It -is known by the name of the Syrian Goat, and is remarkable for the -enormous length of its ears, which sometimes exceed a foot from root -to tip. This variety has been described as a separate species under -the name of _Capra Mambrica_, or _C. Syriaca_, but, like the Mohair -Goat, and twenty-three other so-called species, is simply a variety of -the common Goat, _Hircus ægragus_. - -Reference is made to the long ears of the Syrian Goat in Amos iii. 12: -"Thus saith the Lord: As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the -lion two legs, or a piece of an ear; so shall the children of Israel -be taken out that dwell in Samaria." Such a scene, which was familiar -to Amos, the shepherd as well as the prophet, is represented in the -illustration. In the foreground is the goat on which the lion has -sprung, and from which one of the long ears has been torn away. Its -companions are gathering round it in sympathy, while its kid is trying -to discover the cause of its mother's uneasiness. In the background is -a group of armed shepherds, standing round the lion which they have -just killed, while one of them is holding up the torn ear which he has -taken out of the lion's mouth. - - [Illustration: THE GOAT. - - "As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the lion a piece of an - ear."--AMOS iii. 12.] - - - - -THE WILD GOAT. - - The Azelim or Wild Goats of Scripture identical with the Beden - or Arabian Ibex--Different names of the Beden--Its appearance - and general habits--En-gedi, or Goats' Fountain--The Beden - formerly very plentiful in Palestine, and now tolerably - common--Its agility--Difficulty of catching or killing it--How - the young are captured--Flesh of the Beden--Use of the horns at - the present day--The Ako of Deuteronomy. - - -In three passages of the Old Testament occurs a word, "Azelim," which -is variously translated in our Authorized Version. - -It is first seen in 1 Sam. xxiv. 2, in which it is rendered as "Wild -Goats." "It was told Saul, saying, Behold, David is in the wilderness -of En-gedi [_i.e._ the Fountain of the Goat]. Then Saul took three -thousand chosen men out of all Israel, and went to seek David and his -men upon the rocks of the wild goats (_azelim_)." The same word occurs -in Job xxxix. 1: "Knowest thou the time when the wild goats of the -rock bring forth?" It is also found in Ps. civ. 18: "The high hills -are a refuge for the wild goats." In all these passages it is rendered -as "wild goats." But, in Prov. v. 19, it is translated as roe: -"Rejoice with the wife of thy youth. Let her be as the loving hind and -pleasant roe (_azelah_)." The Jewish Bible follows the same diverse -renderings. - -We now have to discover the animal which was signified by the word -Azel. According to its etymology, it is the Climber, just as the adult -he-goat is called the Butter. - -That it was a climbing animal is evident from its name, and that it -loved to clamber among precipices is equally evident from the repeated -connexion of the word rock with the name of the animal. We also see, -from the passage in Job, that it is a wild animal whose habits were -not known. There is scarcely any doubt that the Azel of the Old -Testament is the ARABIAN IBEX or BEDEN (_Capra Nubiana_). This animal -is very closely allied to the well-known Ibex of the Alps, or -Steinbock, but may be distinguished from it by one or two slight -differences, such as the black beard and the slighter make of the -horns, which moreover have three angles instead of four, as is the -case with the Alpine Ibex. - -The Beden is known by several names. It is sometimes called the Jaela, -sometimes the Nubian Wild Goat, and is also known as the Wild Goat of -Sinai. The general colour of the Beden is grey, becoming brownish in -winter, and being whitish grey beneath. The feet are spotted with -black and white, and the beard of the male is black, differing from -that of the Alpine Ibex, which is brown. The female is beardless. The -lines along the back and the sides of the tail are black, and there -are three streaks on each ear. - -The Beden generally lives in little herds of eight or ten, and is even -now to be found in Palestine. At the strange, wild, weird-looking -En-gedi (Ain Jiddy), or Fountain of the Goats, the Beden is still to -be seen. Mr. Tristram suggests that David and his followers took up -their residence at En-gedi for the sake of the Wild Goats that were -plentiful upon the spot, and which would furnish food for himself and -his hardy band of outlaws. "In the neighbourhood of En-gedi," remarks -this traveller, "while encamped by the Dead Sea shore, we obtained -several fine specimens, and very interesting it was to find the -graceful creature by the very fountain to which it gave name. - -"When clambering over the heights above En-gedi, I often, by the help -of my glass, saw the Ibex from a distance, and once, when near -Mar-saba, only a few miles from Jerusalem, started one at a distance -of four hundred yards. At the south end of the Dead Sea they were -common, and I have picked up a horn both near Jericho on the hills and -also on the hills of Moab on the eastern side. At Jericho, too, I -obtained a young one which I hoped to rear, but which died after I had -had it for ten days, owing, I believe, to the milk with which it was -fed being sour. Further north and west we did not find it, though I -have reason to believe that a few linger on the mountains between -Samaria and the Jordan, and perhaps also on some of the spurs of -Lebanon. We found its teeth in the breccia of bone occurring in the -Lebanon, proving its former abundance there." - -As the Beden was found so plentifully even in these days when -fire-arms have rendered many wild animals scarce and wary, so that -they will not show themselves within range of a bullet, it is evident -that in the time when David lived at En-gedi and drank of the Goats' -Fountain they were far more numerous, and could afford nourishment to -him and his soldiers. Travellers, moreover, who do not happen to be -experienced hunters, will often fail in seeing the Beden, even in -places where it is tolerably plentiful. The colour of its coat -resembles so nearly that of the rocks, that an inexperienced eye would -see nothing but bare stones and sticks where a practised hunter would -see numbers of Beden, conspicuous by their beautifully curved horns. - -The agility of the Beden is extraordinary. Loving the highest and most -craggy parts of the mountain ridge, it flings itself from spot to spot -with a recklessness that startles one who has not been accustomed to -the animal, and the wonderful certainty of its foot. It will, for -example, dash at the face of a perpendicular precipice that looks as -smooth as a brick wall, for the purpose of reaching a tiny ledge which -is hardly perceptible, and which is some fifteen feet or so above the -spot whence the animal sprang. Its eye, however, has marked certain -little cracks and projections on the face of the rock, and as the -animal makes its leap, it takes these little points of vantage in -rapid succession, just touching them as it passes upwards, and by the -slight stroke of its foot keeping up the original impulse of its leap. -Similarly, the Ibex comes sliding and leaping down precipitous sides -of the mountains, sometimes halting with all the four feet drawn -together, on a little projection scarcely larger than a penny, and -sometimes springing boldly over a wide crevasse, and alighting with -exact precision upon a projecting piece of rock that seems scarcely -large enough to sustain a rat comfortably. - -The young of the Ibex are sometimes captured and tamed. They are, -however, difficult to rear, and give much more trouble than the young -gazelles when taken in a similar manner. The natives can generally -procure the kids at the proper time of year, and sell them at a very -cheap rate. They seldom, however, can be reared, and even those who -live in the country experience the greatest difficulty in keeping the -young Beden alive until it attains maturity. - -Were it not for the curious habits of the Beden, the young could -scarcely ever be obtained alive, as they are so agile that they could -easily leap away from their slow two-legged pursuers. But the mother -Ibex has a habit of leading a very independent life, wandering to -considerable distances, and leaving her kid snugly hidden in some -rock-cleft. The hunters watch the mother as she starts off in the -morning, clamber up to the spot where the kid is concealed, and secure -it without difficulty. The Arabs say that there are always two kids at -a birth, but there is considerable discrepancy of evidence on this -point, which, after all, is of very little importance. - - [Illustration: ARABIAN IBEX, OR BEDEN; THE WILD GOAT OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats._"--PSALM cxiv. 18.] - -The flesh of the Beden is really excellent. It is far superior to that -of the gazelle, which is comparatively dry and hard, and it has been -happily suggested that the Beden was the animal in search of which -Esau was sent to hunt with his quiver and his bow, and which furnished -the "savoury meat" which Isaac loved. None but a true hunter can hope -to secure the Beden, and even all the knowledge, patience, and energy -of the best hunters are tried before they can kill their prey. It was -therefore no matter of wonder that Isaac should be surprised when he -thought that he heard Esau return so soon from the hunting-grounds. -"How is it that thou hast found it so quickly, my son?" - -There are few animals more wary than the Beden, and even the chamois -of the Alps does not exercise the finest qualities of a hunter more -than does the Beden of Palestine. It is gifted with very keen eyes, -which can discern the approach of an enemy long before its grey coat -and curved horns can be distinguished from the stones and gnarled -boughs of the mountain side. And, even if the enemy be not within -range of the animal's sight, its nostrils are so keen that it can -detect a man by scent alone at a considerable distance. Like all -gregarious animals, the Beden insures the safety of the flock by -stationing sentries, which are posted on places that command the whole -surrounding country, and to deceive the watchful senses of these wary -guardians tests all the qualities of the hunter. - -The dawn of day is the time that is generally chosen for approaching a -herd, because the animals are then feeding, and if the hunter can -manage to approach them against the wind, he may chance to come within -range. Should however the wind change its direction, he may quietly -walk home again, for at the first breath of the tainted gale the -sentinels utter their shrill whistle of alarm, and the whole party -dash off with a speed that renders pursuit useless. - -The horns of the Beden are of very great size, and from their bold -curves, with the large rings and ridges which cover their front, are -remarkably handsome objects. In their own country they are in great -request as handles to knives, and even in England they may be -occasionally seen serving as handles to carving-knives and forks. - -As to the word Ako, which occurs in Deut. xiv. 5, together with other -animals, and is rendered as "Wild Goat," there is so much doubt about -the correct translation that I can do no more than mention that the -Jewish Bible follows our authorized edition in translating Ako as Wild -Goat, but adds the doubtful mark to the word. - - - - -THE DEER. - - The Hart and Hind of Scripture--Species of Deer existing in - Palestine--Earliest mention of the Hind--The Hart classed among - the clean animals--Passages alluding to its speed--Care of the - mother for her young, and her custom of secreting it--Tameable - character of the Deer--The Rabbinical writers and their - theories--Shedding of the Deer's horns--Its fabled mode of - sleeping--The gall in the tail--Curious traditions of the enmity - between Deer and serpents--Virtues of a Deer-skin coat. - - -We now come to the DEER which are mentioned in Scripture. There are -not many passages in which they are mentioned, and one of them is -rather doubtful, as we shall see when we come to it. - -There is no doubt that the two words HART and HIND (in the Hebrew -_Ayzal_ and _Ayzalah_) represent Deer of some kind, and the question -is to find out what kind of Deer is signified by these words. I think -that we may safely determine that no particular species is meant, but -that under the word Ayzal are comprehended any kinds of Deer that -inhabit Palestine, and were likely to be known to those to whom the -earlier Scriptures were addressed. That some kind of Deer was -plentiful is evident from the references which are made to it, and -specially by the familiar word Ajala or Ayala, as it is pronounced, -which signifies the Deer-ground or pasture. But the attempt to -discriminate between one species and another is simply impossible, and -the more careful the search the more impracticable the task appears. - -As far as can be ascertained, at least two kinds of Deer inhabited -Palestine in the earlier days of the Jewish history, one belonging to -the division which is known by its branched horns, and the other to -that in which the horns are flat or palmated over the tips. Examples -of both kinds are familiar to us under the titles of the RED DEER and -the FALLOW DEER, and it is tolerably certain that both these animals -were formerly found in Palestine, or that at all events the Deer -which did exist there were so closely allied to them as to be mere -varieties occasioned by the different conditions in which they were -placed. - - -We will now proceed to the various passages in which the Hart and Hind -are mentioned in the Bible. - - [Illustration: FALLOW-DEER, OR HIND OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_I charge you ... by the hinds of the field._"--CANT. ii. 7.] - -As might be expected, we come upon it among the number of the beasts -which divided the hoof and chewed the cud, and were specially -indicated as fit for food; see Deut. xii. 15: "Notwithstanding thou -mayest kill and eat flesh in all thy gates, ... the unclean and the -clean may eat thereof, as of the roebuck, and as of the hart." - -There is, however, an earlier mention of the word in Gen. xlix. 21. It -occurs in that splendid series of imagery in which Jacob blesses his -sons, and prophesies their future, each image serving ever afterwards -as the emblem of the tribe: "Naphtali is a hind let loose: he giveth -goodly words;"--or, according to the Jewish Bible, "Naphtali is a hind -sent forth: he giveth sayings of pleasantness." Now, such an image as -this would never have been used, had not the spectacle of the "hind -let loose" been perfectly familiar to the eyes both of the dying -patriarch and his hearers, and equally so with the lion, the ass, the -vine, the serpent, and other objects used emblematically in the same -prophetic poem. - -The excellence of the Hart's flesh is shown by its occurrence among -the animals used for King Solomon's table; see 1 Kings iv. 23, a -passage which has been quoted several times, and therefore need only -be mentioned. - -Allusion is made to the speed and agility of the Deer in several -passages. See, for example, Isa. xxxv. 6: "Then shall the lame man -leap as an hart, and the tongue of the dumb sing." Again, in 2 Sam. -xxii. 33, 34: "God is my strength and power: and He maketh my way -perfect. - -"He maketh my feet like hinds' feet: and setteth me upon my high -places." - -Nearly four hundred years afterwards we find Habakkuk using precisely -the same image, evidently quoting David's Psalm of Thanksgiving:--"Yet -I will rejoice in the Lord, I will joy in the God of my salvation. - -"The Lord God is my strength, and He will make my feet like hinds' -feet, and He will make me to walk upon mine high places." (iii. 18, -19.) - -A passage of a similar character may be found in Solomon's Song, ii. -8, 9: "The voice of my beloved! behold, he cometh leaping upon the -mountains, skipping upon the hills. - -"My beloved is like a roe or a young hart." - -There is one passage in the Psalms which is familiar to us in many -ways, and not the least in that it has been chosen as the text for so -many well-known anthems. "As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, -so panteth my soul after Thee, O God. - -"My soul thirsteth for God, for the living God: when shall I come and -appear before God?" (Ps. xlii. 1, 2.) - -Beautiful as this passage is, it cannot be fully understood without -the context. - -David wrote this psalm before he had risen to royal power, and while -he was fleeing from his enemies from place to place, and seeking an -uncertain shelter in the rock-caves. In verse 6 he enumerates some of -the spots in which he has been forced to reside, far away from the -altar, the priests, and the sacrifice. He has been hunted about from -place to place by his enemies as a stag is hunted by the hounds, and -his very soul thirsted for the distant Tabernacle, in which the -Shekinah, the visible presence of God, rested on the mercy-seat -between the golden cherubim. - -Wild and unsettled as was the early life of David, this was ever the -reigning thought in his mind, and there is scarcely a psalm that he -wrote in which we do not find some allusion to the visible presence of -God among men. No matter what might be the troubles through which he -had to pass, even though he trod the valley of the shadow of death, -the thought of his God was soothing as water to the hunted stag, and -in that thought he ever found repose. Through all his many trials and -adversities, through his deep remorse for his sins, through his -wounded paternal affections, through his success and prosperity, that -one thought is the ruling power. He begins his career with it when he -opposed Goliath: "Thou comest to me with a sword, and with a spear, -and with a shield: but I come to thee in the name of the Lord of -hosts, the God of the armies of Israel." He closes his career with the -same thought, and, in the "last words" that are recorded, he charged -his son to keep the commandments of the Lord, that he might do wisely -all that he did. - -We now come to another point in the Deer's character; namely, the -watchful care of the mother over her young. She always retires to some -secret place when she instinctively knows that the birth is at hand, -and she hides it from all eyes until it is able to take care of -itself. By some strange instinct, the little one, almost as soon as it -is born, is able to comprehend the signals of its mother, and there is -an instance, well known to naturalists, where, a newly-born Deer, -hardly an hour old, crouched low to the earth in obedience to a light -tap on its shoulder from its mother's hoof. She, with the intense -watchfulness of her kind, had seen a possible danger, and so warned -her young one to hide itself. - -There is scarcely any animal so watchful as the female Deer, as all -hunters know by practical experience. It is comparatively easy to -deceive the stag who leads the herd, but to evade the eyes and ears of -the hinds is a very different business, and taxes all the resources of -a practised hunter. If they take such care of the herd in general, it -may be imagined that their watchfulness would be multiplied tenfold -when the object of their anxiety is their own young. - -It is in allusion to this well-known characteristic that a passage in -the Book of Job refers: "Knowest thou the time when the wild goats of -the rock bring forth? or canst thou mark when the hinds do calve?" -(xxxix. 1.) A similar image is used in Psa. xxix. 9. After enumerating -the wonders that are done by the voice of the Lord, the thunders and -rain torrents, the devastating tempests, the forked lightning, and the -earthquake "that shaketh the wilderness of Kadesh," the Psalmist -proceeds: "The voice of the Lord maketh the hinds to calve, and -discovereth the forests,"--this being as mysterious to the writer as -the more conspicuous wonders which he had previously mentioned. - -So familiar to the Hebrews was the watchful care which the female Deer -exercised over her young, that it forms the subject of a powerful -image in one of Jeremiah's mournful prophecies: "Yea, the hind also -calved in the field, and forsook it, because there was no grass." -(xiv. 5.) To those who understand the habits of the animal, this is a -most telling and picturesque image. In the first place, the Hind, a -wild animal that could find food where less active creatures would -starve, was reduced to such straits that she was obliged to remain in -the fields at the time when her young was born, instead of retiring to -some sheltered spot, according to her custom. And when it was born, -instead of nurturing it carefully, according to the natural maternal -instinct, she was forced from sheer hunger to abandon it in order to -find a sufficiency of food for herself. - -That the Deer could be tamed, and its naturally affectionate -disposition cultivated, is evident from a passage in the Proverbs (v. -18, 19): "Let thy fountain be blessed: and rejoice with the wife of -thy youth. Let her be as the loving hind and pleasant roe." - - [Illustration: THE RED DEER. - - "Canst thou mark when the hinds do calve?"--JOB xxxix. 1.] - -We might naturally expect that the Rabbinical writers would have -much to say on the subject of the Hart and Hind. Among much that -is irrelevant to the object of the present work there are a few -passages that deserve mention. Alluding to the annual shedding of -the Deer's horns, there is a proverb respecting one who ventures his -money too freely in trade, that "he has hung it on the stag's horns," -meaning thereby that he will never see it again. It is remarkable that -in Western Africa there is a proverb of a similar character, the -imprudent merchant being told to look for his money in the place where -Deer shed their horns. - -They firmly believed that goats and Deer associate freely with each -other, and that a mixed progeny was the result, but some of them -modify this statement by saying that this only holds good with the -smaller kinds of Deer, _i.e._ the gazelles and other antelopes. This -absurd notion has evidently taken its rise from the line of long -bristly hair that decorates the throat of the adult male, and which -these unscientific writers took to be derived from the beard of the -goat. - -On account of its watchfulness it was said always to sleep with one -eye open, "which is well known to be the case with the hare." The -ancient Jews used to catch it with nets, and then domesticate it, -feeding it principally with a plant which has a very long and straight -root, which was used by Joshua as a wand of office when he pointed out -to the Israelites the portion of ground on which each tribe had to -encamp. What the plant might have been they cannot precisely -ascertain, and the looseness of their natural history may be imagined -from the fact that some consider the plant in question to be the ivy -and others the sugar-cane. - -Some of the Deer, says these old writers, join the herds of cattle, -and even accompany them to their stalls for the night. The reason of -this gentleness of disposition seems to be found in the position of -the gall-bladder, which is said to be, not in the liver, but near the -tail. It is remarkable, by the way, that Aristotle places it actually -in the tail: "The Achaian harts have their gall in their tails;" while -Pliny thinks that the gall is placed in the ears. - -The curious superstitions respecting the enmity between the Deer and -the serpent are of very old date, and have travelled all over the -world. They probably took their rise from the esoteric teachings -which were hidden under the symbolism of animal life, and were -transmitted from country to country and from age to age, after the -manner of superstitions generally. According to one form of the -superstition, the Deer can draw serpents out of their holes by -breathing into them, and then devour them; while, according to another -form, there is such an enmity between the Deer and the serpent, that -if even a portion of the Deer's horns be burned, all snakes that come -within its influence are driven away. - -Topsell, in referring to this subject, although he feels himself bound -to believe the tradition, accounts for it in his own quaint fashion. -"A Hart by his nose draweth a Serpent out of her hole, and therefore -the grammarians derived _Elaphas_, or Hart, from _elaunein tous -opheis_, that is, of driving away serpents. - -"I cannot consent to the opinion of _Ælianus_, that affirmeth the -Serpents to follow the breath of a Hart like some philter, or amorous -cup: for, seeing that all authors hold a hostility in natures betwixt -them, it is not probable that the Serpent loveth the breath of a beast -unto whose whole body he is an enemy with a perpetual antipathy. And -if any reply that the warm breath of an Hart is acceptable to the cold -Serpent, and that therefore she followeth it as a dog creepeth to the -fire, or as other beasts to the beams of the sun, I will not greatly -gainsay it, seeing by that means it is most clear that the breath doth -not by any secret force or vertue extract and draw her out of the den, -but rather the concomitant quality of heat, which is not from the -secret fire in the bones of the Hart's throat (as _Pliny_ hath -taught), but rather from her ordinary expiration, inspiration, and -respiration. For it cannot be, that seeing all the parts of a Serpent -are opposite to a Hart, that there should be any love to that which -killeth her. - -"For my opinion, I think that the manner of the Hart's drawing the -Serpent out of her den is not, as _Ælianus_ and _Pliny_ affirmeth, by -sending into the cave a warm breath, which burneth and scorcheth the -beast out of her den, but rather, when the Hart hath found the -Serpent's nest, she draweth the air by secret and violent attraction -out from the Serpent, who, to save her life, followeth the air out of -her den. As where a vessel is broached or wrecked, the wine followeth -the flying air; and as a cupping-glass draweth blood out of a -scarified place of the body, so the Serpent is drawn unwillingly to -follow her destroyer, and not willingly, as _Ælianus_ affirmeth. The -Serpent being thus drawn forth, addeth greater force to her poyson, -whereupon the proverbial admonition did arise, 'Beware thou meet not -with a Serpent drawn out of her hole by the breath of a Hart, for at -that time, by reason of her wrath, her poyson is more vehement.' After -the self-same manner do the Sea-rams draw the Sea-calves hid in the -subterranean rocks, for by smelling they prevent the air that should -come into them for refrigeration." - -In consequence of this antipathy, travellers were accustomed to wear -dresses made of deer-skin, because no serpent would dare to bite any -one who wore such armour. The timidity of the Deer was attributed by -these strange old authors to the great size of its heart, in which -they thought was a bone shaped like a cross. - -At the beginning of this article, I mentioned that in one passage the -word which is translated as "Hart" is rendered differently in some -versions. This passage occurs in Lam. i. 6: "And from the daughter of -Zion all her beauty is departed: her princes are become like harts -that find no pasture, and they are gone without strength before the -pursuer." In some editions of the Hebrew Bible, the word Ayilim, -_i.e._ "rams," is used instead of Ayzalim, or "Harts," and this -reading is followed both by the Septuagint and the Vulgate. In two -editions of the Hebrew Bible, however, the word is Ayzalim; and, as -the Jewish Bible retains that reading, we cannot do wrong in accepting -it as the correct one. - - - - -THE CAMEL. - - -CHAPTER I. - - The two species of Camel, and the mode of distinguishing - them--Value of the Camel in the East--Camels mentioned as - elements of wealth--Uses of the Camel--The Jews forbidden to eat - its flesh--The milk of the Camel--Thirst-enduring - capability--The internal reservoir--The hump, and its use to the - animal--The Camel as a beast of draught and burden--How the - Camel is laden--Knowledge of its own powers--Camels for - riding--Difficulty of sitting a Camel--A rough-paced - steed--Method of guiding the Camel--The mesh'ab, or Camel-stick - of office--The women's saddle--Rachel's stratagem--Ornaments of - the Camel--The swift dromedary, Heirie, or Deloul--Its ungainly - aspect--Speed and endurance of the Deloul--The Camel-posts of - Bornu--Camel-drivers and their conduct--The driver's song--Young - Camels and their appearance--The deserted Camel. - -Before treating of the Scriptural references to the Camel, it will be -as well to clear the ground by noticing that two distinct species of -Camel are known to zoologists; namely, the common Camel (_Camelus -dromedarius_), which has one hump, and the Bactrian Camel (_Camelus -Bactrianus_), which has two of these curious projections. There is a -popular but erroneous idea that the dromedary and the Camel are two -distinct animals, the latter being distinguished by its huge hump, -whereas the fact is, that the dromedary is simply a lighter and more -valuable breed of the one-humped Camel of Arabia, the two-humped -Bactrian Camel being altogether a different animal, inhabiting Central -Asia, Thibet, and China. - - -The Camel is still one of the most valued animals that inhabit -Palestine, and in former times it played a part in Jewish history -scarcely inferior to that of the ox or sheep. We shall, therefore, -devote some space to it. - -In some parts of the land it even exceeded in value the sheep, and was -infinitely more useful than the goat. At the very beginning of Jewish -history we read of this animal, and it is mentioned in the New -Testament nearly two thousand years after we meet with it in the Book -of Genesis. The earliest mention of the Camel occurs in Gen. xii. 16, -where is related the journey of Abram: "He had sheep, and oxen, and -he-asses, and men-servants, and maid-servants, and she-asses, and -camels." - -Belonging, as he did, to the nomad race which lives almost wholly on -the produce of their herds, Abram needed Camels, not only for their -milk, and, for all we know, for their flesh, but for their extreme use -as beasts of burden, without which he could never have travelled over -that wild and pathless land. The whole of Abram's outer life was -exactly that of a Bedouin sheikh of the present day, in whom we find -reproduced the habits, the tone of thought, and the very verbiage of -the ancient Scriptures. - -Many years afterwards, when the son of his old age was desirous of -marrying a wife of his own kindred, we find that he sent his trusted -servants with ten of his Camels to Mesopotamia, and it was by the -offering of water to these Camels, that Rebekah was selected as -Isaac's wife (see Gen. xxiv. 10, 19). In after days, when Jacob was -about to leave Laban, these animals are mentioned as an important part -of his wealth: "And the man increased exceedingly, and had much -cattle, and maid-servants, and men-servants, and camels, and asses" -(Gen. xxx. 43). Then, in Exod. ix. 3, one of the severest plagues with -which Egypt was afflicted was the disease which fell upon the Camels -in common with the other cattle. - -It is thought worthy of mention in the sacred narrative that Job had -three thousand, and afterwards six thousand Camels (Job i. 3, and -xlii. 12); that the Midianites and Amalekites possessed "camels -without number, as the sand by the seaside for multitude" (Judg. vii. -12); and that the Reubenites, when making war against the Hagarites, -took from them fifty thousand camels--exactly the very object of such -wars in the same land at the present time. - -They were valuable enough to be sent as presents from one potentate to -another. For example, when Jacob went to meet Esau, he gave as his -present two hundred and twenty sheep, the same number of goats, fifty -oxen, thirty asses, and sixty camels, _i.e._ thirty mothers, each with -her calf. They were important enough to be guarded by men of position. -In 1 Chron. xxvii. 30, we find that the charge of David's Camels was -confided to one of his officers, Obil the Ishmaelite, who, from his -origin, might be supposed to be skilful in the management of these -animals. Bochart however, conjectures that the word Obil ought to be -read as Abal, _i.e._ the camel-keeper, and that the passage would -therefore read as follows: "Over the camels was an Ishmaelitish -camel-keeper." - - -We will now proceed to the uses of the Camel, and first take it in the -light of food. - -By the Mosaic law, the Camel was a forbidden animal, because it did -not divide the hoof, although it chewed the cud. Yet, although the -Jews might not eat its flesh, they probably used the milk for food, as -they do at the present day. No distinct Scriptural reference is made -to the milk of the Camel; but, as the Jews of the present day are -quite as fastidious as their ancestors in keeping the Mosaic law, we -are justified in concluding that, although they would not eat the -flesh of the animal, they drank its milk. At the present time, the -milk is used, like that of the sheep, goat, and cow, both in a fresh -and curdled state, the latter being generally preferred to the former. -A kind of cheese is made from it, but is not much to the taste of the -European traveller, on account of the quantity of salt which is put in -it. Butter is churned in a very simple manner, the fresh milk being -poured into a skin bag, and the bag beaten with a stick until the -butter makes its appearance. - -That it was really used in the patriarchal times is evident by the -passage which has already been mentioned, where Jacob is related to -have brought as a present to his brother Esau thirty milch Camels, -together with their young. So decided a stress would certainly not -have been laid upon the fact that the animals were milch Camels unless -the milk were intended for use. - -Perhaps the use of the Camel's milk might be justified by saying that -the prohibition extended only to eating and not to drinking, and that -therefore the milk might be used though the flesh was prohibited. - -There was another mode in which the Camel might be used by travellers -to sustain life. - -The reader is probably aware that, even in the burning climate in -which it dwells, the Camel is able to go for a long time without -drinking,--not that it requires less liquid nourishment than other -animals, but that it is able, by means of its internal construction, -to imbibe at one draught a quantity of water which will last for a -considerable time. It is furnished with a series of cells, into which -the water runs as fast as it is drunk, and in which it can be kept for -some time without losing its life-preserving qualities. As much as -twenty gallons have been imbibed by a Camel at one draught, and this -amount will serve it for several days, as it has the power of -consuming by degrees the water which it has drunk in a few minutes. - -This curious power of the Camel has often proved to be the salvation -of its owner. It has often happened that, when travellers have been -passing over the desert, their supply of water has been exhausted, -partly by the travellers and partly by the burning heat which causes -it to evaporate through the pores of the goat-skin bottle in which it -was carried. Then the next well, where they had intended to refill -their skins and refresh themselves, has proved dry, and the whole -party seemed doomed to die of thirst. - -Under these circumstances, only one chance of escape is left them. -They kill a Camel, and from its stomach they procure water enough to -sustain life for a little longer, and perhaps to enable them to reach -a well or fountain in which water still remains. The water which is -thus obtained is unaltered, except by a greenish hue, the result of -mixing with the remains of herbage in the cells. It is, of course, -very disagreeable, but those who are dying from thirst cannot afford -to be fastidious, and to them the water is a most delicious draught. - -It is rather curious that, if any of the water which is taken out of a -dead Camel can be kept for a few days, both the green hue and the -unpleasant flavour disappear, and the water becomes fresh, clear, and -limpid. So wonderfully well do the internal cells preserve the water, -that after a Camel has been dead for ten days--and in that hot climate -ten days after death are equal to a month in England--the water within -it has been quite pure and drinkable. - -Many persons believe in the popular though erroneous idea that the -Camel does not require as much water as ordinary animals. He will see, -however, from the foregoing account that it needs quite as much water -as the horse or the ox, but that it possesses the capability of taking -in at one time as much as either of these animals would drink in -several days. So far from being independent of water, there is no -animal that requires it more, or displays a stronger desire for it. A -thirsty Camel possesses the power of scenting water at a very great -distance, and, when it does so, its instincts conquer its education, -and it goes off at full speed towards the spot, wholly ignoring its -rider or driver. Many a desert spring has been discovered, and many a -life saved, by this wonderful instinct, the animal having scented the -distant water when its rider had lost all hope, and was resigning -himself to that terrible end, the death by thirst. The sacred Zemzem -fountain at Mecca was discovered by two thirsty Camels. - -Except by the Jews, the flesh of the Camel is eaten throughout -Palestine and the neighbouring countries, and is looked upon as a -great luxury. The Arab, for example, can scarcely have a greater treat -than a Camel-feast, and looks forward to it in a state of wonderful -excitement. He is so impatient, that scarcely is the animal dead -before it is skinned, cut up, and the various parts prepared for -cooking. - -To European palates the flesh of the Camel is rather unpleasant, being -tough, stringy, and without much flavour. The fatty hump is -universally considered as the best part of the animal, and is always -offered to the chief among the guests, just as the North American -Indian offers the hump of the bison to the most important man in the -assembly. The heart and the tongue, however, are always eatable, and, -however old a Camel may be, these parts can be cooked and eaten -without fear. - -The hump, or "bunch" as it is called in the Bible, has no connexion -with the spine, and is a supplementary growth, which varies in size, -not only in the species, but in the individual. It is analogous to the -hump upon the shoulders of the American bison and the Indian zebra, -and in the best-bred Camels it is the smallest though the finest and -most elastic. - -This hump, by the way, affords one of the points by which the value of -the Camel is decided. When it is well fed and properly cared for, the -hump projects boldly, and is firm and elastic to the touch. But if the -Camel be ill, or if it be badly fed or overworked, the hump becomes -soft and flaccid, and in bad cases hangs down on one side like a thick -flap of skin. Consequently, the dealers in Camels always try to -produce their animals in the market with their humps well developed; -and, if they find that this important part does not look satisfactory, -they use various means to give it the required fulness, inflating it -with air being the most common. In fact, there is as much deception -among Camel-dealers in Palestine as with dog or pigeon fanciers in -England. - -Here perhaps I may remark that the hump has given rise to some strange -but prevalent views respecting the Camel. Many persons think that the -dromedary has one hump and the Camel two--in fact, that they are two -totally distinct animals. Now the fact is that the Camel of Palestine -is of one species only, the dromedary being a lighter and swifter -breed, and differing from the ordinary Camel just as a hunter or racer -differs from a cart-horse. The two-humped Camel is a different species -altogether, which will be briefly described at the end of the present -article. - - -The Camel is also used as a beast of draught, and, as we find, not -only from the Scriptures, but from ancient monuments, was employed to -draw chariots and drag the plough. Thus in Isa. xxi. 7: "And he saw a -chariot with a couple of horsemen, a chariot of asses, and a chariot -of camels." It is evident that in this passage some chariots were -drawn by Camels and some by asses. It is, however, remarkable that in -Kennard's "Eastern Experiences," these two very useful animals are -mentioned as being yoked together: "We passed through a fertile -country, watching the fellaheen at their agricultural labours, and not -a little amused at sometimes remarking a very tall camel and a very -small donkey yoked together in double harness, dragging a plough -through the rich brown soil." Camels drawing chariots are still to be -seen in the Assyrian sculptures. In Palestine--at all events at the -present time--the Camel is seldom if ever used as a beast of draught, -being exclusively employed for bearing burdens and carrying riders. - -Taking it first as a beast of burden, we find several references in -different parts of the Scriptures. For example, see 2 Kings viii. 9: -"So Hazael went to meet him, and took a present with him, even of -every good thing of Damascus, forty camels' burden." Again, in 1 -Chron. xii. 40: "Moreover they that were nigh them, even unto Issachar -and Zebulun and Naphtali, brought bread on asses, and on camels, and -on mules, and on oxen." Another allusion to the same custom is made in -Isaiah: "They will carry their riches upon the shoulders of young -asses, and their treasures upon the bunches (or humps) of camels." - -The Camel can carry a considerable load, though not so much as is -generally fancied. A sort of a pack-saddle of a very simple -description is used, in order to keep the burden upon so -strangely-shaped an animal. A narrow bag about eight feet long is -made, and rather loosely stuffed with straw or similar material. It is -then doubled, and the ends firmly sewn together, so as to form a great -ring, which is placed over the hump, and forms a tolerably flat -surface. A wooden framework is tied on the pack-saddle, and is kept in -its place by a girth and a crupper. The packages which the Camel is to -carry are fastened together by cords, and slung over the saddle. They -are only connected by those semi-knots called "hitches," so that, when -the Camel is to be unloaded, all that is needed is to pull the lower -end of the rope, and the packages fall on either side of the animal. -So quickly is the operation of loading performed, that a couple of -experienced men can load a Camel in very little more than a minute. - -As is the case with the horse in England, the Camels that are used as -beasts of burden are of a heavier, slower, and altogether inferior -breed to those which are employed to carry riders, and all their -accoutrements are of a ruder and meaner order, devoid of the fantastic -ornaments with which Oriental riders are fond of decorating their -favourite animals. - - [Illustration: CAMEL. - - "They will carry their treasures upon the bunches of camels."--ISA. - xxx. 6.] - -In the large illustration are represented two of the ordinary Camels -of burden, as they appear when laden with boughs for the Feast of -Tabernacles. The branches are those of the Hebrew pine, and, as may be -seen, the animals are so heavily laden with them that their forms are -quite hidden under their leafy burdens. The weight which a Camel will -carry varies much, according to the strength of the individual, which -has given rise to the Oriental proverb, "As the camel, so the load." -But an animal of ordinary strength is supposed to be able to carry -from five to six hundred pounds for a short journey, and half as much -for a long one,--a quantity which, as the reader will see, is not so -very great when the bulk of the animal is taken into consideration. -It is remarkable that the Camel knows its own powers, and -instinctively refuses to move if its correct load be exceeded. But, -when it is properly loaded, it will carry its burden for hours -together at exactly the same pace, and without seeming more fatigued -than it was when it started. - -The riding Camels are always of a better breed than those which are -used for burden, and may be divided into two classes; namely, those -which are meant for ordinary purposes, and those which are specially -bred for speed and endurance. There is as much difference between the -ordinary riding Camel and the swift Camel as there is between the road -hack and the race-horse. We will first begin with the description of -the common riding Camel and its accoutrements. - -The saddle which is intended for a rider is very different from the -pack-saddle on which burdens are carried, and has a long upright -projection in front, to which the rider can hold if he wishes it. - -The art of riding the Camel is nearly as difficult of accomplishment -as that of riding the horse, and the preliminary operation of mounting -is not the least difficult portion of it. Of course, to mount a Camel -while the animal is standing is impossible, and accordingly it is -taught to kneel until the rider is seated. Kneeling is a natural -position with the Camel, which is furnished with large callosities or -warts on the legs and breast, which act as cushions on which it may -rest its great weight without abrading the skin. These callosities are -not formed, as some have imagined, by the constant kneeling to which -the Camel is subjected, but are born with it, though of course less -developed than they are after they have been hardened by frequent -pressure against the hot sand. - -When the Camel kneels, it first drops on its knees, and then on the -joints of the hind legs. Next it drops on its breast, and then again -on the bent hind legs. In rising it reverses the process, so that a -novice is first pitched forward, then backward, then forward, and then -backward again, to the very great disarrangement of his garments, and -the probable loss of his seat altogether. Then when the animal kneels -he is in danger of being thrown over its head by the first movement, -and jerked over its tail by the second; but after a time he learns to -keep his seat mechanically. - -As to the movement of the animal, it is at first almost as unpleasant -as can be conceived, and has been described by several travellers, -some of whose accounts will be here given. First comes Albert Smith, -who declares that any one who wants to practise Camel-riding in -England can do so by taking a music-stool, screwing it up as high as -possible, putting it into a cart without springs, sitting on the top -of it cross-legged, and having the cart driven at full speed -transversely over a newly ploughed field. - -There is, however, as great a difference in the gait of Camels as of -horses, some animals having a quiet, regular, easy movement, while -others are rough and high-stepping, harassing their riders grievously -in the saddle. Even the smooth-going Camel is, however, very trying at -first, on account of its long swinging strides, which are taken with -the legs of each side alternately, causing the body of the rider to -swing backwards and forwards as if he were rowing in a boat. - -Those who suffer from sea-sickness are generally attacked with the -same malady when they make their first attempts at Camel-riding, while -even those who are proof against this particular form of discomfort -soon begin to find that their backs are aching, and that the pain -becomes steadily worse. Change of attitude is but little use, and the -wretched traveller derives but scant comfort from the advice of his -guide, who tells him to allow his body to swing freely, and that in a -short time he will become used to it. Some days, however, are -generally consumed before he succeeds in training his spine to the -continual unaccustomed movement, and he finds that, when he wakes on -the morning that succeeds his first essay, his back is so stiff that -he can scarcely move without screaming with pain, and that the -prospect of mounting the Camel afresh is anything but a pleasant one. - -"I tried to sit erect without moving," writes Mr. Kennard, when -describing his experience of Camel-riding. "This proved a relief for a -few minutes, but, finding the effort too great to continue long in -this position, I attempted to recline with my head resting upon my -hand. This last manoeuvre I found would not do, for the motion of the -camel's hind legs was so utterly at variance with the motion of his -fore-legs that I was jerked upwards, and forwards, and sideways, and -finally ended in nearly rolling off altogether. - -"Without going into the details of all that I suffered for the next -two or three days--how that on several occasions I slid from the -camel's back to the ground, in despair of ever accustoming my -half-dislocated joints to the ceaseless jerking and swaying to and -fro, and how that I often determined to trudge on foot over the hot -desert sand all the way to Jerusalem rather than endure it longer--I -shall merely say that the day did at last arrive when I descended from -my camel, after many hours' riding, in as happy and comfortable a -state of mind as if I had been lolling in the easiest of arm-chairs." - -A very similar description of the transition from acute and constant -suffering to perfect ease is given by Albert Smith, who states that -more than once he has dozed on the back of his Camel, in spite of the -swaying backwards and forwards to which his body was subjected. - -If such be the discomfort of riding a smooth-going and good-tempered -Camel, it may be imagined that to ride a hard-going and cross-grained -animal must be a very severe trial to an inexperienced rider. A very -amusing account of a ride on such a Camel, and of a fall from its -back, is given by Mr. Hamilton in his "Sinai, the Hedjaz, and -Soudan:"-- - -"A dromedary I had obtained at Suk Abu Sin for my own riding did not -answer my expectations, or rather the saddle was badly put on--not an -easy thing to do well, by the way--and one of my servants, who saw how -out of patience I was at the many times I had had to dismount to have -it arranged, persuaded me to try the one he was riding, the Sheik's -present. I had my large saddle transferred to his beast, and, nothing -doubting, mounted it. - -"He had not only no nose-string, but was besides a vicious brute, -rising with a violent jerk before I was well in the saddle, and -anxious to gain the caravan, which was a little way ahead, he set off -at his roughest gallop. Carpets, kufieh, tarbush, all went off in the -jolting; at every step I was thrown a foot into the air, glad to come -down again, bump, bump, on the saddle, by dint of holding on to the -front pommel with the left hand, while the right was engaged with the -bridle, which in the violence of the exercise it was impossible to -change to its proper hand. I had almost reached the caravan, and had -no doubt my humpbacked Pegasus would relax his exertions, when a -camel-driver, one of the sons of iniquity, seeing me come up at full -speed, and evidently quite run away with, took it into his head to -come to my assistance. - -"I saw what he was at, and called out to him to get out of the way, -but instead of this he stuck himself straight before me, stretching -himself out like a St. Andrew's cross, with one hand armed with a huge -club, and making most diabolical grimaces. Of course the camel was -frightened, it was enough to frighten a much more reasonable being; -so, wheeling quickly round, it upset my unstable equilibrium. Down I -came head foremost to the ground, and when I looked up, my forehead -streaming with blood, the first thing I saw was my Arab with the -camel, which he seemed mightily pleased with himself for having so -cleverly captured, while the servant who had suggested the unlucky -experiment came ambling along on my easy-paced dromedary, and consoled -me by saying that he knew it was a runaway beast, which there was no -riding without a nose-string. - -"I now began to study the way of keeping one's seat in such an -emergency. An Arab, when he gallops his dromedary with one of these -saddles, holds hard on with the right hand to the back part of the -seat, not to the pommel, and grasps the bridle tightly in the other. -The movement of the camel in galloping throws one violently forward, -and without holding on, excepting on the naked back, when the rider -sits behind the hump, it is impossible to retain one's seat. I -afterwards thought myself lucky in not having studied this point -sooner, as, from the greater resistance I should have offered, my -tumble, since it was _fated_ I should have one, would probably have -been much more severe. It is true I might also have escaped it, but in -the chapter of probabilities I always think a mishap the most -probable." - -It may be imagined that a fall from a Camel's back is not a trifle, -and, even if the unskilful rider be fortunate enough to fall on soft -sand instead of hard rock, he receives a tolerably severe shock, and -runs no little risk of breaking a limb. For the average height of a -Camel's back is rather more than six feet, while some animals measure -seven feet from the ground to the top of the hump. Add to this a foot -or two caused by the saddle and its cushions, and a height is gained -equal to that of the ceiling of many rooms--say, eighteen inches above -the top of an ordinary door. - -This height, however, is of material advantage to the traveller. In -the first place it lifts him above the waves of heated air that are -continually rolling over the sand on which the burning rays of the sun -are poured throughout the day; and in the second place it brings him -within reach of the slightest breeze that passes above the stratum of -hot air, and which comes to the traveller like the breath of life. -Moreover, his elevated position enables him to see for a very great -distance, which is an invaluable advantage in a land where every -stranger may be a robber, and is probably a murderer besides. - -The best mode of avoiding a fall is to follow the Arab mode of -riding,--namely, to pass one leg over the upright pommel, which, as -has been mentioned, is a mere wooden peg or stake, and hitching the -other leg over the dangling foot. Perhaps the safest, though not the -most comfortable, mode of sitting is by crossing the legs in front, -and merely grasping the pommel with the hands. - -Yet, fatiguing as is the seat on the Camel's back to the beginner, it -is less so than that on the horse's saddle, inasmuch as in the latter -case one position is preserved, while in the former an infinite -variety of seat is attainable when the rider has fairly mastered the -art of riding. - -The Camel is not held by the bit and bridle like the horse, but by a -rope tied like a halter round the muzzle, and having a knot on the -left or "near" side. This is held in the left hand, and is used -chiefly for the purpose of stopping the animal. The Camel is guided -partly by the voice of its rider, and partly by a driving-stick, with -which the neck is lightly touched on the opposite side to that which -its rider wishes it to take. A pressure of the heel on the -shoulder-bone tells it to quicken its pace, and a little tap on the -head followed by a touch on the short ears are the signals for full -speed. - -There are three different kinds of stick with which the Camel is -driven; one of them, a mere almond branch with the bark, and an -oblique head, is the sceptre or emblem of sovereignty of the Prince of -Mecca. Mr. Hamilton suggests that this stick, called the "_mesh'ab_," -is the original of the jackal-headed stick with which so many of the -Egyptian deities are represented; and that Aaron's rod that "brought -forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and yielded almonds," was the -_mesh'ab_, the almond-branch sceptre, the emblem of his almost regal -rank and authority. - -The women mostly ride in a different manner from the men. Sometimes -they are hardy enough to sit the animal in the same way as their -husbands, but as a rule they are carried by the animal rather than -ride it, sitting in great basket-like appendages which are slung on -either side of the Camel. These constitute the "furniture" which is -mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 34. When Jacob left the house of Laban, to -lead an independent life, Rachel stole her father's images, or -"teraphim," and carried them away with her, true to her affectionate -though deceptive nature, which impelled her to incur the guilt of -robbery for the sake of enriching her husband with the cherished -teraphim of her father. From the most careful researches we learn that -these teraphim were used for divining the future, and that they were -made in the human form. That they were of considerable size is evident -from the fact that, when Saul was hunting after David, his wife Michal -contrived to convey him out of the house, and for a time to conceal -her fraud by putting an image (or teraph) into the bed as a -representative of her husband. Had not, therefore, the camel-furniture -been of considerable dimensions, images of such a size could not be -hidden, but they could well be stowed away in the great panniers, as -long as their mistress sat upon them, after the custom of Oriental -travellers, and declined to rise on the ready plea of indisposition. - -This sort of carriage is still used for the women and children. "The -wife and child came by in the string of camels, the former reclining -in an immense circular box, stuffed and padded, covered with red -cotton, and dressed with yellow worsted ornaments. This family nest -was mounted on a large camel. It seemed a most commodious and -well-arranged travelling carriage, and very superior as a mode of -camel-riding to that which our Sitteen rejoiced in (_i.e._ riding upon -a saddle). The Arab wife could change her position at pleasure, and -the child had room to walk about and could not fall out, the sides of -the box just reaching to its shoulders. Various jugs and skins and -articles of domestic use hung suspended about it, and trappings of -fringe and finery ornamented it." - -This last sentence brings us to another point which is several times -mentioned in the Bible; namely, the ornaments with which the -proprietors of Camels are fond of bedizening their favourite animals. - -Their leathern collars are covered with cowrie shells sewn on them in -various fantastic patterns. Crescent-shaped ornaments are made of -shells sewn on red cloth, and hung so abundantly upon the harness of -the animal that they jingle at every step which it takes. Sheiks and -other men of rank often have these ornaments made of silver, so that -the cost of the entire trappings is very great. Allusion is made to -these costly ornaments in Judges viii. When Gideon warred against -Succoth, he captured the two chiefs or kings of Midian, Zebah and -Zalmunna, and, after putting them to death, he "took away the -ornaments that were on their camels' necks,"--or, as the marginal -translation has it, their "ornaments like the moon," _i.e._ -crescent-shaped; this form having been retained unchanged for three -thousand years. (Judges viii. 21.) The value of such ornaments is -evident from the fact that they are mentioned so conspicuously in Holy -Writ; and, as if to show that the Camel trappings were of very -considerable value, a further reference is made to them in the -following passage. After the battle, Gideon made a request to his -soldiers "that ye would give me every man the earrings of his prey. -(For they had golden earrings, because they were Ishmaelites.) - -"And they answered, We will willingly give them. And they spread a -garment, and did cast therein every man the earrings of his prey. And -the weight of the golden earrings that he requested was a thousand and -seven hundred shekels of gold; beside ornaments, and collars, and -purple raiment that was on the kings of Midian, and beside the chains -that were about their camels' necks." Here we see that the ornaments -to the Camels were sufficiently costly to be classed with the golden -jewellery and the royal apparel that were worn by the kings of Midian. - - -We now come to the Swift Camel, sometimes called the Heirie, the -Maharik, or the Deloul, the last of these terms being that by which it -will be mentioned in these pages. - -The limbs of the Deloul are long and wiry, having not an ounce of -superfluous fat upon them, the shoulders are very broad, and the hump, -though firm and hard, is very small. - -A thoroughbred Deloul, in good travelling condition, is not at all a -pleasing animal to an ordinary eye, being a lank, gaunt, and -ungainly-looking creature, the very conformation which insures its -swiftness and endurance being that which detracts from its beauty. An -Arab of the desert, however, thinks a good Deloul one of the finest -sights in the world. As the talk of the pastoral tribes is of sheep -and oxen, so is the talk of the nomads about Camels. It is a subject -which is for ever on their lips, and a true Bedouin may be seen to -contemplate the beauties of one of these favourite animals for hours -at a time,--if his own, with the rapture of a possessor, or, if -another's, with the determination of stealing it when he can find an -opportunity. - -Instead of plodding along at the rate of three miles an hour, which is -the average speed of the common Camel, the Deloul can cover, if -lightly loaded, nine or ten miles an hour, and go on at the same pace -for a wonderful time, its long legs swinging, and its body swaying, as -if it were but an animated machine. Delouls have been reported to have -journeyed for nearly fifty hours without a single stop for rest, -during which time the animals must have traversed nearly five hundred -miles. Such examples must, however, be exceptional, implying, as they -do, an amount of endurance on the part of the rider equal to that of -the animal; and even a journey of half that distance is scarcely -possible to ordinary men on Delouls. - -For the movements of the Deloul are very rough, and the rider is -obliged to prepare himself for a long journey by belting himself -tightly with two leathern bands, one just under the arms, and the -other round the pit of the stomach. Without these precautions, the -rider would be likely to suffer serious injuries, and, even with them, -the exercise is so severe, that an Arab makes it a matter of special -boast that he can ride a Deloul for a whole day. - -A courier belonging to the Sherif of Mecca told Mr. Hamilton that he -often went on the same dromedary from Mecca to Medina in forty-eight -hours, the distance being two hundred and forty miles. And a -thoroughbred Deloul will travel for seven or eight weeks with only -four or five days of rest. - -Even at the present time, these Camels are used for the conveyance of -special messages, and in the remarkable Bornu kingdom a regular -service of these animals is established, two couriers always -travelling in company, so that if one rider or Camel should fail or -be captured by the Arabs, who are always on the alert for so valuable -a prey, the other may post on and carry the message to its -destination. - - [Illustration: THE CAMEL POST.] - -The swift dromedary, or Deloul, is mentioned several times in the Old -Testament. One of them occurs in Isa. lx. 6: "The multitude of camels -shall cover thee, the dromedaries of Midian and Ephah." In this -passage a distinction is drawn between the ordinary Camel and the -swift dromedary, the former being the word "gamel," and the latter the -word "beker," which is again used in Jer. ii. 23: "See thy way in the -valley, know what thou hast done: thou art a swift dromedary." - -There is a passage in the Book of Esther which looks as if it referred -to the ordinary Camel and the swift dromedary, but there is -considerable uncertainty about the proper rendering. It runs as -follows: "And he wrote in king Ahasuerus' name, and sealed it with the -king's ring, and sent letters and posts on horseback, and riders on -mules, camels, and young dromedaries." - -The Jewish Bible, however, translates this passage as follows: "And -sent letters by the runners on the horses, and riders on the racers, -mules, and young mares." Now, the word _rekesh_, which is translated -as "racer," is rendered by Buxtorf as "a swift horse or mule," and the -word _beni-rammachim_, which is translated as "young mares," literally -signifies "those born of mares." - -The Camel-drivers behave towards their animals with the curious -inconsistency which forms so large a part of the Oriental character. - -Prizing them above nearly all earthly things, proud of them, and -loving them after their own fashion, the drivers will talk to them, -cheer them, and sing interminable songs for their benefit. Towards the -afternoon the singing generally begins, and it goes on without -cessation in a sort of monotonous hum, as Dr. Bonar calls it. The same -traveller calls attention to a passage in Caussinus' "Polyhistor -Symbolicus," in which the learned and didactic author symbolizes the -maxim that more can be done by kindness than by blows. "The Camel is -greatly taken with music and melody. So much so, indeed, that if it -halts through weariness, the driver does not urge it with stripes and -blows, but soothes it by his songs." - -Several travellers have mentioned these songs. See, for example, Miss -Rogers' account of some Bedouins: "Their songs were already subdued to -harmonize with their monotonous swinging pace, and chimed softly and -plaintively with the tinkling of camel-bells, thus-- - - "'Dear unto me as the sight of mine eyes, - Art thou, O my Camel! - Precious to me as the health of my life, - Art thou, O my Camel! - Sweet to my ears is the sound - Of thy tinkling bells, O my Camel! - And sweet to thy listening ears - Is the sound of my evening song.' - -And so on, _ad libitum_." - -Sometimes a female Camel gives birth to a colt on the journey. In such -a case, a brief pause is made, and then the train proceeds on its -journey, the owner of the Camel carrying the young one in his arms -until the evening halt. He then gives it to its mother, and on the -following day it is able to follow her without further assistance. The -young Camels are almost pretty, their hair being paler than that of -the adult animal, and their limbs more slender. - -Although the young Camel is better-looking than its parents, it is not -one whit more playful. Unlike almost all other animals, the Camel -seems to have no idea of play, and even the young Camel of a month or -two old follows its mother with the same steady, regular pace which -she herself maintains. - -In spite of all the kindness with which a driver treats his Camels, he -can at times be exceedingly cruel to them, persisting in over-loading -and over-driving them, and then, if a Camel fall exhausted, removing -its load, and distributing it among the other Camels. As soon as this -is done, he gives the signal to proceed, and goes on his way, -abandoning the wretched animal to its fate--_i.e._ to thirst and the -vultures. He will not even have the humanity to kill it, but simply -leaves it on the ground, muttering that it is "his fate!" - - -THE CAMEL. - - -CHAPTER II. - - The Camel and its master--Occasional fury of the animal--A boy - killed by a Camel--Another instance of an infuriated - Camel--Theory respecting the Arab and his Camel--Apparent - stupidity of the Camel--Its hatred of a load, and mode of - expressing its disapprobation--Riding a Camel through the - streets--A narrow escape--Ceremony of weaning a young Camel--The - Camel's favourite food--Structure of the foot and adaptation to - locality--Difficulty in provisioning--Camel's hair and skin--Sal - ammoniac and Desert fuel--The Camel and the needle's - eye--Straining at a gnat and swallowing a Camel. - -We now come to the general characteristics of the Camel. - -The Camels know their master well, some of them being much more -affectionate than others. But they are liable to fits of strange -fury, in which case even their own masters are not safe from them. -They are also of a revengeful nature, and have an unpleasant faculty -of treasuring up an injury until they can find a time of repaying it. -Signor Pierotti gives a curious example of this trait of character. As -he was going to the Jordan, he found a dead Camel lying on the -roadside, the head nearly separated from the body. On inquiry he found -that the animal had a master who ill-treated it, and had several times -tried to bite him. One evening, after the Camels had been unloaded, -the drivers lay down to sleep as usual. - -The Camel made its way to its master, and stamped on him as he slept. -The man uttered one startled cry, but had no time for another. The -infuriated Camel followed up its attack by grasping his throat in its -powerful jaws, and shaking him to death. The whole scene passed so -rapidly, that before the other drivers could come to the man's -assistance he was hanging dead from the jaws of the Camel, who was -shaking him as a dog shakes a rat, and would not release its victim -until its head had been nearly severed from its body by sword-cuts. - -A similar anecdote is told by Mr. Palgrave, in his "Central and -Eastern Arabia:"-- - -"One passion alone he possesses, namely, revenge, of which he gives -many a hideous example; while, in carrying it out, he shows an -unexpected degree of forethoughted malice, united meanwhile with all -the cold stupidity of his usual character. One instance of this I well -remember--it occurred hard by a small town in the plain of Baalbec, -where I was at the time residing. - -"A lad of about fourteen had conducted a large camel, laden with wood, -from that very village to another at half an hour's distance or so. As -the animal loitered or turned out of the way, its conductor struck it -repeatedly, and harder than it seems to have thought he had a right to -do. But, not finding the occasion favourable for taking immediate -quits, it 'bided its time,' nor was that time long in coming. - -"A few days later, the same lad had to re-conduct the beast, but -unladen, to his own village. When they were about half way on the -road, and at some distance from any habitation, the camel suddenly -stopped, looked deliberately round in every direction to assure itself -that no one was in sight, and, finding the road clear of passers-by, -made a step forward, seized the unlucky boy's head in its monstrous -mouth, and, lifting him up in the air, flung him down again on the -earth, with the upper part of his head completely torn off, and his -brains scattered on the ground. Having thus satisfied its revenge, the -brute quietly resumed its pace towards the village, as though nothing -were the matter, till some men, who had observed the whole, though -unfortunately at too great a distance to be able to afford timely -help, came up and killed it. - -"Indeed, so marked is this unamiable propensity, that some -philosophers have ascribed the revengeful character of the Arabs to -the great share which the flesh and milk of the camel have in their -sustenance, and which are supposed to communicate, to those who -partake of them over-largely, the moral or immoral qualities of the -animal to which they belonged. I do not feel myself capable of -pronouncing an opinion on so intricate a question, but thus much I can -say, that the camel and its Bedouin master do afford so many and such -divers points of resemblance, that I do not think our Arab of Shomer -far in the wrong, when I once on a time heard him say, 'God created -the Bedouin for the camel, and the camel for the Bedouin.'" - -The reader will observe that Mr. Palgrave in this anecdote makes -reference to the stupidity of the Camel. There is no doubt that the -Camel is by no means an intellectual animal; but it is very possible -that its stupidity may in a great measure be owing to the fact that no -one has tried to cultivate its intellectual powers. The preceding -anecdotes show clearly that the Camel must possess a strong memory, -and be capable of exercising considerable ingenuity. - -Still it is not a clever animal. If its master should fall off its -back, it never dreams of stopping, as a well-trained horse would do, -but proceeds at the same plodding pace, leaving his master to catch it -if he can. Should it turn out of the way to crop some green -thorn-bush, it will go on in the same direction, never thinking of -turning back into the right road unless directed by its rider. Should -the Camel stray, "it is a thousand to one that he will never find his -way back to his accustomed home or pasture, and the first man who -picks him up will have no particular shyness to get over; ... and the -losing of his old master and of his former cameline companions gives -him no regret, and occasions no endeavour to find them again." - -He has the strongest objection to being laden at all, no matter how -light may be the burden, and expresses his disapprobation by growling -and groaning, and attempting to bite. So habitual is this conduct that -if a kneeling Camel be only approached, and a stone as large as a -walnut laid on its back, it begins to remonstrate in its usual manner, -groaning as if it were crushed to the earth with its load. - -The Camel never makes way for any one, its instinct leading it to plod -onward in its direct course. What may have been its habits in a state -of nature no one can tell, for such a phenomenon as a wild Camel has -never been known in the memory of man. There are wild oxen, wild -goats, wild sheep, wild horses, and wild asses, but there is no spot -on the face of the earth where the Camel is found except as the -servant of man. Through innate stupidity, according to Mr. Palgrave, -it goes straight forwards in the direction to which its head happens -to be pointed, and is too foolish even to think of stopping unless it -hears the signal for halt. - -As it passes through the narrow streets of an Oriental city, laden -with goods that project on either side, and nearly fill up the -thoroughfare, it causes singular inconvenience, forcing every one who -is in front of it to press himself closely to the wall, and to make -way for the enormous beast as it plods along. The driver or rider -generally gives notice by continually calling to the pedestrians to -get out of the way, but a laden Camel rarely passes through a long -street without having knocked down a man or two, or driven before it a -few riders on asses who cannot pass between the Camel and the wall. - -One source of danger to its rider is to be found in the low archways -which span so many of the streets. They are just high enough to permit -a laden Camel to pass under them, but are so low that they leave no -room for a rider. The natives, who are accustomed to this style of -architecture, are always ready for an archway, and, when the rider -sees an archway which will not allow him to retain his seat, he slips -to the ground, and remounts on the other side of the obstacle. - -Mr. Kennard had a very narrow escape with one of these archways. "I -had passed beneath one or two in perfect safety, without being obliged -to do more than just bend my head forward, and was in the act of -conversing with one of my companions behind, and was therefore in a -happy state of ignorance as to what was immediately before me, when -the shouting and running together of the people in the street on -either side made me turn my head quickly, but only just in time to -feel my breath thrown back on my face against the keystone of a -gateway, beneath which my camel, with too much way on him to be -stopped immediately, had already commenced to pass. - -"With a sort of feeling that it was all over with me, I threw myself -back as far as I could, and was carried through in an almost -breathless state, my shirt-studs actually scraping along against the -stonework. On emerging again into the open street, I could hardly -realize my escape, for if there had been a single projecting stone to -stop my progress, the camel would have struggled to get free, and my -chest must have been crushed in." - -It will be seen from these instances that the charge of stupidity is -not an undeserved one. Still the animal has enough intellect to -receive all the education which it needs for the service of man, and -which it receives at a very early age. The ordinary Camel of burden is -merely taught to follow its conductor, to obey the various words and -gestures of command, and to endure a load. The Deloul, however, is -more carefully trained. It is allowed to follow its mother for a whole -year in perfect liberty. Towards the expiration of that time the young -animal is gradually stinted in its supply of milk, and forced to -browse for its nourishment. On the anniversary of its birth, the young -Deloul is turned with its head towards Canopus, and its ears solemnly -boxed, its master saying at the same time, "Henceforth drinkest thou -no drop of milk." For this reason the newly-weaned Camel is called -Lathim, or the "ear-boxed." It is then prevented from sucking by a -simple though cruel experiment. A wooden peg is sharpened at both -ends, and one end thrust into the young animal's nose. When it tries -to suck, it pricks its mother with the projecting end, and at the same -time forces the other end more deeply into the wound, so that the -mother drives away her offspring, and the young soon ceases to make -the attempt. - -The food of the Camel is very simple, being, in fact, anything that it -can get. As it proceeds on its journey, it manages to browse as it -goes along, bending its long neck to the ground, and cropping the -scanty herbage without a pause. Camels have been known to travel for -twenty successive days, passing over some eight hundred miles of -ground, without receiving any food except that which they gathered for -themselves by the way. The favourite food of the Camel is a shrub -called the ghada, growing to six feet or so in height, and forming a -feathery tuft of innumerable little green twigs, very slender and -flexible. It is so fond of this shrub that a Camel can scarcely ever -pass a bush without turning aside to crop it; and even though it be -beaten severely for its misconduct, it will repeat the process at the -next shrub that comes in sight. - -It also feeds abundantly on the thorn-bushes which grow so plentifully -in that part of the world; and though the thorns are an inch or two in -length, very strong, and as sharp as needles, the hard, horny palate -of the animal enables it to devour them with perfect ease. - -There are several species of these thorn-shrubs, which are scattered -profusely over the ground, and are, in fact, the commonest growth of -the place. After they die, being under the fierce sun of that climate, -they dry up so completely, that if a light be set to them they blaze -up in a moment, with a sharp cracking sound and a roar of flame, and -in a moment or two are nothing but a heap of light ashes. No wonder -was it that when Moses saw the thorn-bush burning without being -consumed he was struck with awe at the miracle. These withered bushes -are the common fuel of the desert, giving out a fierce but brief heat, -and then suddenly sinking into ashes. "For as the crackling of thorns -under a pot, so is the laughter of the fool" (Eccl. vii. 6). - -The dried and withered twigs of these bushes are also eaten by the -Camel, which seems to have a power of extracting nutriment from every -sort of vegetable substance. It has been fed on charcoal, and, as has -been happily remarked, could thrive on the shavings of a carpenter's -workshop. - -Still, when food is plentiful, it is fed as regularly as can be -managed, and generally after a rather peculiar manner. "Our guide," -writes Mr. Hamilton, in the work which has already been mentioned, "is -an elderly man, the least uncouth of our camel-drivers. He has three -camels in the caravan, and it was amusing to see his preparations for -their evening's entertainment. The table-cloth, a circular piece of -leather, was duly spread on the ground; on this he poured the quantity -of dourrah destined for their meal, and calling his camels, they came -and took each its place at the feast. It is quaint to see how each in -his turn eats, so gravely and so quietly, stretching his long neck -into the middle of the heap, then raising his head to masticate each -mouthful; all so slowly and with such gusto, that we could swear it -was a party of epicures sitting in judgment on one of Vachette's -_chefs d'oeuvre_." - -The foregoing passages will show the reader how wonderfully adapted is -the constitution of the Camel for the country in which it lives, and -how indispensable it is to the inhabitants. It has been called "the -ship of the desert," for without the Camel the desert would be as -impassable as the sea without ships. No water being found for several -days' journey together, the animal is able to carry within itself a -supply of water which will last it for several days, and, as no green -thing grows far from the presence of water, the Camel is able to feed -upon the brief-lived thorn-shrubs which have sprung up and died, and -which, from their hard and sharp prickles, are safe from every animal -except the hard-mouthed Camel. - -But these advantages would be useless without another--i.e. the foot. -The mixed stones and sand of the desert would ruin the feet of almost -any animal, and it is necessary that the Camel should be furnished -with a foot that cannot be split by heat like the hoof of a horse, -that is broad enough to prevent the creature from sinking into the -sand, and is tough enough to withstand the action of the rough and -burning soil. - -Such a foot does the Camel possess. It consists of two long toes -resting upon a hard elastic cushion with a tough and horny sole. This -cushion is so soft that the tread of the huge animal is as noiseless -as that of a cat, and, owing to the division of the toes, it spreads -as the weight comes upon it, and thus gives a firm footing on loose -ground. The foot of the moose-deer has a similar property, in order to -enable the animal to walk upon the snow. - -In consequence of this structure, the Camel sinks less deeply into the -ground than any other animal; but yet it does sink in it, and dislikes -a deep and loose sand, groaning at every step, and being wearied by -the exertion of dragging its hard foot out of the holes into which -they sink. It is popularly thought that hills are impracticable to the -Camel; but it is able to climb even rocky ground from which a horse -would recoil. Mr. Marsh, an American traveller, was much surprised by -seeing a caravan of fifty camels pass over a long ascent in Arabia -Petræa. The rock was as smooth as polished marble, and the angle was -on an average fifteen degrees; but the whole caravan passed over it -without an accident. - -The soil that a Camel most hates is a wet and muddy ground, on which -it is nearly sure to slip. If the reader will look at a Camel from -behind, he will see that the hinder legs are close together until the -ankle-joint, when they separate so widely that the feet are set on the -ground at a considerable distance from each other. On dry ground this -structure increases the stability of the animal by increasing its -base; but on wet ground the effect is singularly unpleasant. The soft, -padded feet have no hold, and slip sideways at every step, often with -such violence as to dislocate a joint and cause the death of the -animal. When such ground has to be traversed, the driver generally -passes a bandage round the hind legs just below the ankle-joint, so as -to prevent them from diverging too far. - -It must be remarked, however, that the country in which the animal -lives is essentially a dry one, and that moist and muddy ground is so -exceptional that the generality of Camels never see it in their lives. -Camels do not object to mud an inch or two deep, provided that there -is firm ground below; and they have been seen to walk with confident -safety over pavements covered with mud and half-frozen snow. - -The animals can ford rivers well enough, provided that the bed be -stony or gravelly; but they are bad swimmers, their round bodies and -long necks being scarcely balanced by their legs, so that they are apt -to roll over on their sides, and in such a case they are sure to be -drowned. When swimming is a necessity, the head is generally tied to -the stern of a boat, or guided by the driver swimming in front, while -another often clings to the tail, so as to depress the rump and -elevate the head. It is rather curious that the Camels of the Sahara -cannot be safely entrusted to the water. They will swim the river -readily enough; but they are apt to be seized with illness afterwards, -and to die in a few hours. - -We now come to some other uses of the Camel. - -Its hair is of the greatest importance, as it is used for many -purposes. In this country, all that we know practically of the Camel's -hair is that it is employed in making brushes for painters; but in its -own land the hair plays a really important part. At the proper season -it is removed from the animal, usually by being pulled away in tufts, -but sometimes by being shorn like the wool of sheep, and it is then -spun by the women into strong thread. - -From this thread are made sundry fabrics where strength is required -and coarseness is not an objection. The "black tents" of the Bedouin -Arabs, similar to those in which Abraham lived, are made of Camel's -hair, and so are the rugs, carpets, and cordage used by the nomad -tribes. Even mantles for rainy or cold weather are made of Camel's -hair, and it was in a dress of this coarse and rough material that St. -John the Baptist was clad. The best part of the Camel's hair is that -which grows in tufts on the back and about the hump, the fibre being -much longer than that which covers the body. There is also a little -very fine under-wool which is carefully gathered, and, when a -sufficient quantity is procured, it is spun and woven into garments. -Shawls of this material are even now as valuable as those which are -made from the Cachmire goat. - -The skin of the Camel is made into a sort of leather. It is simply -tanned by being pegged out in the sun and rubbed with salt. - -Sandals and leggings are made of this leather, and in some places -water-bottles are manufactured from it, the leather being thicker and -less porous than that of the goat, and therefore wasting less of the -water by evaporation. The bones are utilized, being made into various -articles of commerce. - -So universally valuable is the Camel that even its dung is important -to its owners. Owing to the substances on which the animal feeds, it -consists of little but macerated fragments of aromatic shrubs. It is -much used as poultices in case of bruises or rheumatic pains, and is -even applied with some success to simple fractures. It is largely -employed for fuel, and the desert couriers use nothing else, their -Camels being furnished with a net, so that none of this useful -substance shall be lost. For this purpose it is carefully collected, -mixed with bits of straw, and made into little rolls, which are dried -in the sun, and can then be laid by for any time until they are -needed. - -Mixed with clay and straw, it is most valuable as a kind of mortar or -cement with which the walls of huts are rendered weather-proof, and -the same material is used in the better-class houses to make a sort of -terrace on the flat roof. This must be waterproof in order to -withstand the wet of the rainy season, and no material answers the -purpose so well as that which has been mentioned. So strangely hard -and firm is this composition, that stoves are made of it. These stoves -are made like jars, and have the faculty of resisting the power of the -inclosed fire. Even after it is burned it has its uses, the ashes -being employed in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac. - - -There are two passages in the New Testament which mention the Camel in -an allegorical sense. The first of these is the proverbial saying of -our Lord, "A rich man shall hardly enter into the kingdom of heaven. -Again I say unto you, It is easier for a camel to go through the eye -of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God" -(Matt. xix. 23, 24). - -Now, this well-known but scarcely understood passage requires some -little dissection. If the reader will refer to the context, he will -see that this saying was spoken in allusion to the young and wealthy -man who desired to be one of the disciples, but clung too tightly to -his wealth to accept the only conditions on which he could be -received. His possessions were a snare to him, as was proved by his -refusal to part with them at Christ's command. On his retiring, the -expression was used, "that a rich man shall hardly (or, with -difficulty) enter the kingdom of heaven," followed by the simile of -the Camel and the needle's eye. - -Now, if we are to take this passage literally, we can but draw one -conclusion from it, that a rich man can no more enter heaven than a -camel pass through the eye of a needle, _i.e._ that it is impossible -for him to do so. Whereas, in the previous sentence, Christ says not -that it is impossible, but difficult ([Greek: dyskolôs]) for him to do -so. It is difficult for a man to use his money for the service of God, -the only purpose for which it was given him, and the difficulty -increases in proportion to its amount. But wealth in itself is no more -a bar to heaven than intellect, health, strength, or any other gift, -and, if it be rightly used, is one of the most powerful tools that can -be used in the service of God. Our Lord did not condemn all wealthy -men alike. He knew many; but there was only one whom He advised to -sell his possessions and give them to the poor as the condition of -being admitted among the disciples. - - [Illustration: CAMEL GOING THROUGH A "NEEDLE'S EYE." - - "_It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for - a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God._"--MATT. xix. 24.] - -We will now turn to the metaphor of the Camel and the needle's eye. Of -course it can be taken merely as a very bold metaphor, but it may also -be understood in a simpler sense, the sense in which it was probably -understood by those who heard it. In Oriental cities, there are in the -large gates small and very low apertures called metaphorically -"needle's-eyes," just as we talk of certain windows as "bull's-eyes." -These entrances are too narrow for a Camel to pass through them in the -ordinary manner, or even if loaded. When a laden Camel has to pass -through one of these entrances, it kneels down, its load is removed, -and then it shuffles through on its knees. "Yesterday," writes Lady -Duff-Gordon from Cairo, "I saw a camel go through the eye of a needle, -_i.e._ the low-arched door of an enclosure. He must kneel, and bow his -head to creep through; and thus the rich man must humble himself." - -There is another passage in which the Camel is used by our Lord in a -metaphorical sense. This is the well-known sentence: "Ye blind guides, -which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel" (Matt. xxiii. 24). It is -remarkable that an accidental misprint has robbed this passage of its -true force. The real translation is: "which strain _out_ the gnat, and -swallow the camel." The Greek word is [Greek: diulizô], which -signifies to filter thoroughly; and the allusion is made to the -pharisaical custom of filtering liquids before drinking them, lest by -chance a gnat or some such insect which was forbidden as food might be -accidentally swallowed. - - - - -THE BACTRIAN CAMEL. - - General description of the animal--Its use in mountain - roads--Peculiar formation of the foot--Uses of a mixed - breed--Its power of enduring cold--Used chiefly as a beast of - draught--Unfitness for the plough--The cart and mode of - harnessing--The load which it can draw--Camel-skin ropes--A - Rabbinical legend. - - -The second kind of Camel--namely, the Bactrian species--was probably -unknown to the Jews until a comparatively late portion of their -history. This species was employed by the Assyrians, as we find by the -sculptures upon the ruins, and if in no other way the Jews would -become acquainted with them through the nation by whom they were -conquered, and in whose land they abode for so long. - -The Bactrian Camel is at once to be distinguished from that which has -already been described by the two humps and the clumsier and sturdier -form. Still the skeletons of the Bactrian and Arabian species are so -similar that none but a very skilful anatomist can distinguish between -them, and several learned zoologists have expressed an opinion, in -which I entirely coincide, that the Bactrian and Arabian Camels are -but simple varieties of one and the same species, not nearly so -dissimilar as the greyhound and the bulldog. - -Unlike the one-humped Camel, the Bactrian species is quite at home in -a cold climate, and walks over ice as easily as its congener does over -smooth stone. It is an admirable rock-climber, and is said even to -surpass the mule in the sureness of its tread. This quality is -probably occasioned by the peculiar structure of the foot, which has -an elongated toe projecting beyond the soft pad, and forming a sort of -claw. In the winter time the riders much prefer them to horses, -because their long legs enable them to walk easily through snow, in -which a horse could only plunge helplessly, and would in all -probability sink and perish. - -A mixed breed of the one-humped and the Bactrian animals is thought to -be the best for hill work in winter time, and General Harlan actually -took two thousand of these animals in winter time for a distance of -three hundred and sixty miles over the snowy tops of the Indian -Caucasus; and though the campaign lasted for seven months, he only -lost one Camel, and that was accidentally killed. Owing to its use -among the hills, the Bactrian species is sometimes called the Mountain -Camel. - -It very much dislikes the commencement of spring, because the warm -mid-day sun slightly melts the surface of the snow, and the frost of -night converts it into a thin plate of ice. When the Camel walks upon -this semi-frozen snow, its feet plunge into the soft substratum -through the icy crust, against which its legs are severely cut. The -beginning of the winter is liable to the same objection. - -The mixed breed which has just been mentioned must be procured from a -male Bactrian and a female Arabian Camel. If the parentage be -reversed, the offspring is useless, being weak, ill-tempered, and -disobedient. - -The Bactrian Camel is, as has been mentioned, tolerant of cold, and is -indeed so hardy an animal that it bears the severest winters without -seeming to suffer distress, and has been seen quietly feeding when the -thermometer has reached a temperature several degrees below zero. -Sometimes, when the cold is more than usually sharp, the owners sew a -thick cloth round its body, but even in such extreme cases the animal -is left to find its own food as it best can. And, however severe the -weather may be, the Bactrian Camel never sleeps under a roof. - -This Camel is sometimes employed as a beast of burden, but its general -use is for draught. It is not used for the plough, because it has an -uncertain and jerking mode of pulling, and does not possess the steady -dragging movement which is obtained by the use of the horse or ox. - - [Illustration: BACTRIAN CAMEL. - - "_He saw a chariot of camels._"--ISAIAH xxi. 7.] - -It is almost invariably harnessed to carts, and always in pairs. The -mode of yoking the animals is as simple as can well be conceived. A -pole runs between them from the front of the vehicle, and the Camels -are attached to it by means of a pole which passes over their necks. -Oxen were harnessed in a similar manner. It was probably one of these -cars or chariots that was mentioned by Isaiah in his prophecy -respecting Assyria:--"And he saw a chariot with a couple of horsemen, -a chariot of asses, and a chariot of camels" (Isa. xxi. 7). The cars -themselves are as simple as the mode of harnessing them, being almost -exactly like the ox carts which have already been described. - -The weight which can be drawn by a pair of these Camels is really -considerable. On a tolerably made road a good pair of Camels are -expected to draw from twenty-six to twenty-eight hundred weight, and -to continue their labours for twenty or thirty successive days, -traversing each day an average of thirty miles. It is much slower than -the Arabian Camel, seldom going at more than two and a half miles per -hour. If, however, the vehicle to which a pair of Bactrians are -harnessed were well made, the wheels truly circular, and the axles -kept greased so as to diminish the friction, there is no doubt that -the animals could draw a still greater load to longer distances, and -with less trouble to themselves. As it is, the wheels are wretchedly -fitted, and their ungreased axles keep up a continual creaking that is -most painful to an unaccustomed ear, and totally unheeded by the -drivers. - -The hair of the Bactrian Camel is long, coarse, and strong; and, like -that of the Arabian animal, is made into rough cloth. It is plucked -off by hand in the summer time, when it naturally becomes loose in -readiness for its annual renewal, and the weight of the entire crop of -hair ought to be about ten pounds. The skin is not much valued, and is -seldom used for any purpose except for making ropes, straps, and -thongs, and is not thought worth the trouble of tanning. The milk, -like that of the Arabian animal, is much used for food, but the -quantity is very trifling, barely two quarts per diem being procured -from each Camel. - -There is but little that is generally interesting in the Rabbinical -writers on the Camel. They have one proverbial saying upon the -shortness of its ears. When any one makes a request that is likely to -be refused, they quote the instance of the Camel, who, it seems, was -dissatisfied with its appearance, and asked for horns to match its -long ears. The result of the request was, that it was deprived of its -ears, and got no horns. - - - - -THE HORSE. - - The Hebrew words which signify the Horse--The Horse introduced - into Palestine from Egypt--Similarity of the war-horse of - Scripture and the Arab horse of the present day--Characteristics - of the Horse--Courage and endurance of the Horse--Hardness of - its unshod hoofs--Love of the Arab for his Horse--Difficulty of - purchasing the animal--The Horse prohibited to the - Israelites--Solomon's disregard of the edict--The war-chariot, - its form and use--Probable construction of the iron chariot--The - cavalry Horse--Lack of personal interest in the animal. - - -Several Hebrew words are used by the various Scriptural writers to -signify the Horse, and, like our own terms of horse, mare, pony, -charger, &c., are used to express the different qualities of the -animal. The chief distinction of the Horse seemed to lie in its use -for riding or driving, the larger and heavier animals being naturally -required for drawing the weighty springless chariots. The chariot -horse was represented by the word Sus, and the cavalry horse by the -word _Parash_, and in several passages both these words occur in bold -contrast to each other. See, for example, 1 Kings iv. 26, &c. - - -Among the many passages of Scripture in which the Horse is mentioned, -there are few which do not treat of it as an adjunct of war, and -therefore it is chiefly in that light that we must regard it. - -The Horse of the Scriptures was evidently a similar animal to the Arab -Horse of the present day, as we find not only from internal evidence, -but from the sculptures and paintings which still remain to tell us of -the vanished glories of Egypt and Assyria. It is remarkable, by the -way, that the first mention of the Horse in the Scriptures alludes to -it as an Egyptian animal. During the terrible famine which Joseph had -foretold, the Egyptians and the inhabitants of neighbouring countries -were unable to find food for themselves or fodder for their cattle, -and, accordingly, they sold all their beasts for bread. "And they -brought their cattle unto Joseph, and Joseph gave them bread in -exchange for horses and the flocks, and for the cattle of herds, and -for the asses, and he fed them with bread for all their cattle for -that year." - -This particular breed of Horses is peculiarly fitted for the purposes -of war, and is much less apt for peaceful duties than the heavier and -more powerful breeds, which are found in different parts of the world. -It is remarkable for the flexible agility of its movements, which -enable it to adapt itself to every movement of the rider, whose -intentions it seems to divine by a sort of instinct, and who guides it -not so much by the bridle as by the pressure of the knees and the -voice. Examples of a similar mode of guidance may be seen on the -well-known frieze of the Parthenon, where, in the Procession of -Horsemen, the riders may be seen directing their steeds by touching -the side of the neck with one finger, thus showing their own skill and -the well-trained quality of the animals which they ride. - -Its endurance is really wonderful, and a horse of the Kochlani breed -will go through an amount of work which is almost incredible. Even the -trial by which a Horse is tested is so severe, that any other animal -would be either killed on the spot or ruined for life. When a young -mare is tried for the first time, her owner rides her for some fifty -or sixty miles at full speed, always finishing by swimming her through -a river. After this trial she is expected to feed freely; and should -she refuse her food, she is rejected as an animal unworthy of the name -of Kochlani. - -Partly from native qualities, and partly from constant association -with mankind, the Arab Horse is a singularly intelligent animal. In -Europe we scarcely give the Horse credit for the sensitive -intelligence with which it is endowed, and look upon it rather as a -machine for draught and carriage than a companion to man. The Arab, -however, lives with his horse, and finds in it the docility and -intelligence which we are accustomed to associate with the dog rather -than the Horse. It will follow him about and come at his call. It will -stand for any length of time and await its rider without moving. -Should he fall from its back, it will stop and stand patiently by him -until he can remount; and there is a well-authenticated instance of an -Arab Horse whose master had been wounded in battle, taking him up by -his clothes and carrying him away to a place of safety. - -Even in the very heat and turmoil of the combat, the true Arab Horse -seems to be in his true element, and fully deserves the splendid -eulogium in the Book of Job (xxxix. 19-25): "Hast thou given the horse -strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? - -"Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? the glory of his -nostrils is terror. - -"He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength: he goeth on -to meet the armed men. - -"He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither turneth he back -from the sword. - -"The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. - -"He walketh the ground with fierceness and rage: neither believeth he -that it is the sound of the trumpet. - -"He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha; and he smelleth the battle afar -off, the thunder of the captains, and the shouting." - -In another passage an allusion is made to the courage of the Horse, -and its love for the battle. "I hearkened and heard, but they spake -not aright: no man repented him of his wickedness, saying, What have I -done? Every one turned to his course, as the horse rusheth into the -battle." (Jer. viii. 6.) Even in the mimic battle of the djereed the -Horse seems to exult in the conflict as much as his rider, and wheels -or halts almost without the slightest intimation. - -The hoofs of the Arab Horses are never shod, their owners thinking -that that act is not likely to improve nature, and even among the -burning sands and hard rocks the Horse treads with unbroken hoof. In -such a climate, indeed, an iron shoe would be worse than useless, as -it would only scorch the hoof by day, and in consequence of the rapid -change of temperature by day or night, the continual expansion and -contraction of the metal would soon work the nails loose, and cause -the shoe to fall off. - - [Illustration: WAR HORSE. - - "He saith among the trumpets, Ha, Ha; and he smelleth the battle afar - off, the thunder of the captains and the shouting."--JOB xxxix. 25.] - -A tender-footed Horse would be of little value, and so we often find -in the Scriptures that the hardness of the hoof is reckoned among one -of the best qualities of a Horse. See, for example, Isa. v. 28: -"Whose arrows are sharp, and all their bows bent, their horses' -hoofs shall be counted like flint, and their wheels like a -whirlwind." Again, in Micah iv. 13: "Arise and thresh, O daughter of -Zion: for I will make thine horn iron, and I will make thy hoofs -brass: and thou shalt beat in pieces many people." Allusion is here -made to one mode of threshing, in which a number of Horses were turned -into the threshing-floor, and driven about at random among the wheat, -instead of walking steadily like the oxen. - -In Judges v. 22 there is a curious allusion to the hoofs of the Horse. -It occurs in the Psalm of Thanksgiving sung by Deborah and Barak after -the death of Sisera: "Then were the horse-hoofs broken by the means of -the prancings, the prancings of their mighty ones." It is easy now to -see that these words infer a scornful allusion to the inferiority of -the enemy's Horses, inasmuch as the hoofs of the best Horses would be -"counted as flint," and would not be broken by the prancings. - -Horses possessed of the qualities of courage, endurance, and sureness -of foot are naturally invaluable; and even at the present day the Arab -warrior esteems above all things a Horse of the purest breed, and, -whether he buys or sells one, takes care to have its genealogy made -out and hung on the animal's neck. - -As to the mare, scarcely any inducement is strong enough to make an -Arab part with it, even to a countryman, and the sale of the animal is -hindered by a number of impediments which in point of fact are almost -prohibitory. Signor Pierotti, whose long residence in Palestine has -given him a deep insight into the character of the people, speaks in -the most glowing terms of the pure Arab Horse, and of its inestimable -value to its owner. Of the difficulties with which the sale of the -animal is surrounded, he gives a very amusing account:-- - -"After this enumeration of the merits of the horse, I will describe -the manner in which a sale is conducted, choosing the case of the -mare, as that is the more valuable animal. The price varies with the -purity of blood of the steed, and the fortunes of its owner. When he -is requested to fix a value, his first reply is, 'It is yours, and -belongs to you, I am your servant;' because, perhaps, he does not -think that the question is asked with any real design of purchasing; -when the demand is repeated, he either makes no answer or puts the -question by; at the third demand he generally responds rudely with a -sardonic smile, which is not a pleasant thing to see, as it is a sign -of anger; and then says that he would sooner sell his family than his -mare. This remark is not meant as a mere jest; for it is no uncommon -thing for a Bedawy to give his parents as hostages rather than -separate himself from his friend. - -"If, however, owing to some misfortune, he determines on selling his -mare, it is very doubtful whether he or his parents will allow her to -leave their country without taking the precaution to render her unfit -for breeding. - -"There are many methods of arranging the sale, all of which I should -like to describe particularly; however, I will confine myself to a -general statement. Before the purchaser enters upon the question of -the price to be paid, he must ascertain that the parents, friends, and -allies of the owners give their consent to the sale, without which -some difficulty or other may arise, or perhaps the mare may be stolen -from her new master. He must also obtain an unquestionable warranty -that she is fit for breeding purposes, and that no other has a prior -claim to any part of her body. This last precaution may seem rather -strange, but it arises from the following custom. It sometimes happens -that, when a Bedawy is greatly in want of money, he raises it most -easily by selling a member of his horse; so that very frequently a -horse belongs to a number of owners, one of whom has purchased the -right fore-leg, another the left, another the hind-leg, or the tail, -or an ear, or the like; and the proprietors have each a proportionate -interest in the profits of its labour or sale. - -"So also the offspring are sold in a similar manner; sometimes only -the first-born, sometimes the first three; and then it occasionally -happens that two or three members of the foal are, as it were, -mortgaged. Consequently, any one who is ignorant of this custom may -find that, after he has paid the price of the mare to her supposed -owner, a third person arises who demands to be paid the value of his -part; and, if the purchaser refuse to comply, he may find himself in a -very unpleasant situation, without any possibility of obtaining help -from the local government. Whoever sells his mare entirely, without -reserving to himself one or two parts, must be on good terms with the -confederate chiefs in the neighbourhood, and must have obtained their -formal sanction, otherwise they would universally despise him, and -perhaps lie in wait to kill him, so that his only hope of escape would -be a disgraceful flight, just as if he had committed some great -crime. It is an easier matter to purchase a stallion; but even in this -case the above formalities must be observed. - -"These remarks only apply to buying horses of the purest blood; those -of inferior race are obtained without difficulty, and at fair prices." - -For some reason, perhaps the total severance of the Israelites from -the people among whom they had lived so long in captivity, the use of -the Horse, or, at all events, the breeding of it, was forbidden to the -Israelites; see Deut. xvi. 16. After prophesying that the Israelites, -when they had settled themselves in the Promised Land, would want a -king, the inspired writer next ordains that the new king must be -chosen by Divine command, and must belong to one of the twelve tribes. -He then proceeds as follows:--"But he shall not multiply horses to -himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to the end that he -should multiply horses: forasmuch as the Lord hath said unto you, Ye -shall henceforth return no more that way." - -The foresight of this prophetical writer was afterwards shown by the -fact that many kings of Israel did send to Egypt for Horses, Egypt -being the chief source from which these animals were obtained. And, -judging from the monuments to which reference has been made, the Horse -of Egypt was precisely the same animal as the Arab Horse of the -present day, and was probably obtained from nomad breeders. - -In spite of the prohibitory edict, both David and Solomon used Horses -in battle, and the latter supplied himself largely from Egypt, -disregarding as utterly the interdict against plurality of Horses as -that against plurality of wives, which immediately follows. - -David seems to have been the first king who established a force of -chariots, and this he evidently did for the purpose of action on the -flat grounds of Palestine, where infantry were at a great disadvantage -when attacked by the dreaded chariots; yet he did not controvert the -law by multiplying to himself Horses, or even by importing them from -Egypt; and when he had an opportunity of adding to his army an -enormous force of chariots, he only employed as many as he thought -were sufficient for his purpose. After he defeated Hadadezer, and had -taken from him a thousand chariots with their Horses together with -seven hundred cavalry, he houghed all the Horses except those which -were needed for one hundred chariots. - -Solomon, however, was more lax, and systematically broke the ancient -law by multiplying Horses exceedingly, and sending to Egypt for them. -We learn from 1 Kings iv. 26 of the enormous establishment which he -kept up both for chariots and cavalry. Besides those which were given -to him as tribute, he purchased both chariots and their Horses from -Egypt and Syria, the chariots being delivered at the rate of six -hundred shekels of silver, and the Horses for an hundred and fifty -shekels. - -Chariots were far more valued in battle than horsemen, probably -because their weight made their onset irresistible against infantry, -who had no better weapons than bows and spears. The slingers -themselves could make little impression on the chariots; and even if -the driver, or the warrior who fought in the chariot, or his -attendant, happened to be killed, the weighty machine, with its two -Horses, still went on its destructive way. - -Of their use in battle we find very early mention. For example, in -Exod. xiv. 6 it is mentioned that Pharaoh made ready his chariot to -pursue the Israelites; and in a subsequent part of the same chapter we -find that six hundred of the Egyptian chariot force accompanied their -master in the pursuit, and that the whole army was delayed because the -loss of the chariot wheels made them drive heavily. - -Then in the familiar story of Sisera and Jael the vanquished general -is mentioned as alighting from his chariot, in which he would be -conspicuous, and taking flight on foot; and, after his death, his -mother is represented as awaiting his arrival, and saying to the women -of the household, "Why is his chariot so long in coming? Why tarry the -wheels of his chariot?" - -During the war of conquest which Joshua led, the chariot plays a -somewhat important part. As long as the war was carried on in the -rugged mountainous parts of the land, no mention of the chariot is -made; but when the battles had to be fought on level ground, the enemy -brought the dreaded chariots to bear upon the Israelites. In spite of -these adjuncts, Joshua won the battles, and, unlike David, destroyed -the whole of the Horses and burned the chariots. - -Many years afterwards, a still more dreadful weapon, the iron chariot, -was used against the Israelites by Jabin. This new instrument of war -seems to have cowed the people completely; for we find that by means -of his nine hundred chariots of iron Jabin "mightily oppressed the -children of Israel" for twenty years. It has been well suggested that -the possession of the war chariot gave rise to the saying of -Benhadad's councillors, that the gods of Israel were gods of the -hills, and so their army had been defeated; but that if the battle -were fought in the plain, where the chariots and Horses could act, -they would be victorious. - -So dreaded were these weapons, even by those who were familiar with -them and were accustomed to use them, that when the Syrians had -besieged Samaria, and had nearly reduced it by starvation, the fancied -sound of a host of chariots and Horses that they heard in the night -caused them all to flee and evacuate the camp, leaving their booty and -all their property in the hands of the Israelites. - -Whether the Jews ever employed the terrible scythe chariots is not -quite certain, though it is probable that they may have done so; and -this conjecture is strengthened by the fact that they were employed -against the Jews by Antiochus, who had "footmen an hundred and ten -thousand, and horsemen five thousand and three hundred, and elephants -two and twenty, and three hundred chariots armed with hooks" (2 Macc. -xiii. 2). Some commentators think that by the iron chariots mentioned -above were signified ordinary chariots armed with iron scythes -projecting from the sides. - -By degrees the chariot came to be one of the recognised forces in war, -and we find it mentioned throughout the books of the Scriptures, not -only in its literal sense, but as a metaphor which every one could -understand. In the Psalms, for example, are several allusions to the -war-chariot. "He maketh wars to cease unto the end of the earth; He -breaketh the bow, and cutteth the spear in sunder; He burneth the -chariot in the fire" (Ps. xlvi. 9). Again: "At Thy rebuke, O God of -Jacob, both the chariot and horse are cast into a dead sleep" (Ps. -lxxvi. 6). And: "Some trust in chariots, and some in horses: but we -will remember the name of the Lord our God" (Ps. xx. 7). Now, the -force of these passages cannot be properly appreciated unless we -realize to ourselves the dread in which the war-chariot was held by -the foot-soldiers. Even cavalry were much feared; but the chariots -were objects of almost superstitious fear, and the rushing sound of -their wheels, the noise of the Horses' hoofs, and the shaking of the -ground as the "prancing horses and jumping chariots" (Nab. iii. 2) -thundered along, are repeatedly mentioned. - -See, for example, Ezek. xxvi. 10: "By reason of the abundance of his -horses their dust shall cover thee: thy walls shall shake at the noise -of the horsemen, and of the wheels, and of the chariots." Also, Jer. -xlvii. 3: "At the noise of the stamping of the hoofs of his strong -horses, at the rushing of his chariots, and at the rumbling of his -wheels, the fathers shall not look back to their children for -feebleness of hands." See also Joel ii. 4, 5: "The appearance of them -is as the appearance of horses; and as horsemen, so shall they run. - -"Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall they leap, -like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble, as a -strong people set in battle array." - -In several passages the chariot and Horse are used in bold imagery as -expressions of Divine power: "The chariots of God are twenty thousand, -even thousands of angels: the Lord is among them, as in Sinai, in the -holy place" (Ps. lxviii. 17). A similar image is employed in Ps. civ. -3: "Who maketh the clouds His chariot: who walketh upon the wings of -the wind." In connexion with these passages, we cannot but call to -mind that wonderful day when the unseen power of the Almighty was made -manifest to the servant of Elisha, whose eyes were suddenly opened, -and he saw that the mountain was full of Horses and chariots of fire -round about Elisha. - -The chariot and horses of fire by which Elijah was taken from earth -are also familiar to us, and in connexion with the passage which -describes that wonderful event, we may mention one which occurs in the -splendid prayer of Habakkuk (iii. 8): "Was the Lord displeased against -the rivers? was Thine anger against the rivers? was Thy wrath against -the sea, that Thou didst ride upon Thine horses and Thy chariots of -salvation?" - -By degrees the chariot came to be used for peaceful purposes, and was -employed as our carriages of the present day, in carrying persons of -wealth. That this was the case in Egypt from very early times is -evident from Gen. xli. 43, in which we are told that after Pharaoh had -taken Joseph out of prison and raised him to be next in rank to -himself, the king caused him to ride in the second chariot which he -had, and so to be proclaimed ruler over Egypt. Many years afterwards -we find him travelling in his chariot to the land of Goshen, whither -he went to meet Jacob and to conduct him to the presence of Pharaoh. - -At first the chariot seems to have been too valuable to the Israelites -to have been used for any purpose except war, and it is not until a -comparatively late time that we find it employed as a carriage, and -even then it is only used by the noble and wealthy. Absalom had such -chariots, but it is evident that he used them for purposes of state, -and as appendages of his regal rank. Chariots or carriages were, -however, afterwards employed by the Israelites as freely as by the -Egyptians, from whom they were originally procured; and accordingly we -find Rehoboam mounting his chariot and fleeing to Jerusalem, Ahab -riding in his chariot from Samaria to Jezreel, with Elijah running -before him; and in the New Testament we read of the chariot in which -sat the chief eunuch of Ethiopia whom Philip baptized (Acts viii. 28). - -As to the precise form and character of these chariots, they are made -familiar to us by the sculptures and paintings of Egypt and Assyria, -from both of which countries the Jews procured the vehicles. Differing -very slightly in shape, the principle of the chariot was the same; and -it strikes us with some surprise that the Assyrians, the Egyptians, -and the Jews, the three wealthiest and most powerful nations of the -world, should not have invented a better carriage. They lavished the -costliest materials and the most artistic skill in decorating the -chariots, but had no idea of making them comfortable for the -occupants. - -They were nothing but semicircular boxes on wheels, and of very small -size. They were hung very low, so that the occupants could step in and -out without trouble, though they do not seem to have had the sloping -floor of the Greek or Roman chariot. They had no springs, but, in -order to render the jolting of the carriage less disagreeable, the -floor was made of a sort of network of leathern ropes, very tightly -stretched so as to be elastic. The wheels were always two in number, -and generally had six spokes. - -To the side of the chariot was attached the case which contained the -bow and quiver of arrows, and in the case of a rich man these -bow-cases were covered with gold and silver, and adorned with figures -of lions and other animals. Should the chariot be intended for two -persons, two bow-cases were fastened to it, the one crossing the -other. The spear had also its tubular case, in which it was kept -upright, like the whip of a modern carriage. - -Two Horses were generally used with each chariot, though three were -sometimes employed. They were harnessed very simply, having no traces, -and being attached to the central pole by a breast-band, a very slight -saddle, and a loose girth. On their heads were generally fixed -ornaments, such as tufts of feathers, and similar decorations, and -tassels hung to the harness served to drive away the flies. Round the -neck of each Horse passed a strap, to the end of which was attached a -bell. This ornament is mentioned in Zech. xiv. 20: "In that day shall -there be upon the bells of the horses, Holiness unto the Lord"--_i.e._ -the greeting of peace shall be on the bells of the animals once used -in war. - -Sometimes the owner drove his own chariot, even when going into -battle, but the usual plan was to have a driver, who managed the -Horses while the owner or occupant could fight with both his hands at -liberty. In case he drove his own Horse, the reins passed round his -waist, and the whip was fastened to the wrist by a thong, so that when -the charioteer used the bow, his principal weapon, he could do so -without danger of losing his whip. - -Thus much for the use of the chariot in war; we have now the Horse as -the animal ridden by the cavalry. - -As was the case with the chariot, the war-horse was not employed by -the Jews until a comparatively late period of their history. They had -been familiarized with cavalry during their long sojourn in Egypt, and -in the course of their war of conquest had often suffered defeat from -the horsemen of the enemy. But we do not find any mention of a mounted -force as forming part of the Jewish army until the days of David, -although after that time the successive kings possessed large forces -of cavalry. - -Many references to mounted soldiers are made by the prophets, -sometimes allegorically, sometimes metaphorically. See, for example, -Jer. vi. 23: "They shall lay hold on bow and spear; they are cruel, -and have no mercy; their voice roareth like the sea; and they ride -upon horses, set in array as men for war against thee, O daughter of -Zion." The same prophet has a similar passage in chap. l. 42, couched -in almost precisely the same words. And in chap. xlvi. 4, there is a -further reference to the cavalry, which is specially valuable as -mentioning the weapons used by them. The first call of the prophet is -to the infantry: "Order ye the buckler and shield, and draw near to -battle" (verse 3); and then follows the command to the cavalry, -"Harness the horses; and get up, ye horsemen, and stand forth with -your helmets; furbish the spears, and put on the brigandines." The -chief arms of the Jewish soldier were therefore the cuirass, the -helmet, and the lance, the weapons which in all ages, and in all -countries, have been found to be peculiarly suitable to the -horse-soldier. - - -Being desirous of affording the reader a pictorial representation of -the war and state chariots, I have selected Egypt as the typical -country of the former, and Assyria of the latter. Both drawings have -been executed with the greatest care in details, every one of which, -even to the harness of the Horses, the mode of holding the reins, the -form of the whip, and the offensive and defensive armour, has been -copied from the ancient records of Egypt and Nineveh. - -We will first take the war-chariot of Egypt. - -This form has been selected as the type of the war-chariot, because -the earliest account of such a force mentions the war-chariots of -Egypt, and because, after the Israelites had adopted chariots as an -acknowledged part of their army, the vehicles, as well as the trained -Horses, and probably their occupants, were procured from Egypt. - -The scene represents a battle between the imperial forces and a -revolted province, so that the reader may have the opportunity of -seeing the various kinds of weapons and armour which were in use in -Egypt at the time of Joseph. In the foreground is the chariot of the -general, driven at headlong speed, the Horses at full gallop, and the -springless chariot leaping off the ground as the Horses bound along. -The royal rank of the general in question is shown by the feather fan -which denotes his high birth, and which is fixed in a socket at the -back of his chariot, much as a coachman fixes his whip. The rank of -the rider is further shown by the feather plumes on the heads of his -Horses. - - [Illustration: EGYPTIAN WAR-CHARIOTS. - - "_Come up, ye horses; and rage, ye chariots; and let the mighty men - come forth._"--JER. xlvi. 9. - - "_The noise of a whip, and the noise of the rattling of the wheels, - and of the prancing horses, and of the jumping chariots._"--NAHUM iii. - 2. - - "_Like the noise of chariots ... shall they leap._"--JOEL ii. 5.] - -By the side of the chariot are seen the quiver and bow-case, the -former being covered with decorations, and having the figure of a -recumbent lion along its sides. The simple but effective harness of -the Horses is especially worthy of notice, as showing how the ancients -knew, better than the moderns, that to cover a Horse with a -complicated apparatus of straps and metal only deteriorates from the -powers of the animal, and that a Horse is more likely to behave well -if he can see freely on all sides, than if all lateral vision be cut -off by the use of blinkers. - -Just behind the general is the chariot of another officer, one of -whose Horses has been struck, and is lying struggling on the ground. -The general is hastily giving his orders as he dashes past the fallen -animal. On the ground are lying the bodies of some slain enemies, and -the Horses are snorting and shaking their heads, significative of -their unwillingness to trample on a human being. By the side of the -dead man are his shield, bow, and quiver, and it is worthy of notice -that the form of these weapons, as depicted upon the ancient Egyptian -monuments, is identical with that which is still found among several -half-savage tribes of Africa. - -In the background is seen the fight raging round the standards. One -chief has been killed, and while the infantry are pressing round the -body of the rebel leader and his banner on one side, on the other the -imperial chariots are thundering along to support the attack, and are -driving their enemies before them. In the distance are seen the clouds -of dust whirled into the air by the hoofs and wheels, and circling in -clouds by the eddies caused by the fierce rush of the vehicles, thus -illustrating the passage in Jer. iv. 13: "Behold, he shall come up as -clouds, and his chariots shall be as a whirlwind: his horses are -swifter than eagles. Woe unto us! for we are spoiled." The reader will -see, by reference to the illustration, how wonderfully true and -forcible is this statement, the writer evidently having been an -eye-witness of the scene which he so powerfully depicts. - - -The second scene is intentionally chosen as affording a strong -contrast to the former. Here, instead of the furious rush, the -galloping Horses, the chariots leaping off the ground, the archers -bending their bows, and all imbued with the fierce ardour of battle, -we have a scene of quiet grandeur, the Assyrian king making a solemn -progress in his chariot after a victory, accompanied by his -attendants, and surrounded by his troops, in all the placid splendour -of Eastern state. - -Chief object in the illustration stands the great king in his chariot, -wearing the regal crown, or mitre, and sheltered from the sun by the -umbrella, which in ancient Nineveh, as in more modern times, was the -emblem of royalty. By his side is his charioteer, evidently a man of -high rank, holding the reins in a business-like manner; and in front -marches the shield-bearer. In one of the sculptures from which this -Illustration was composed, the shield-bearer was clearly a man of -rank, fat, fussy, full of importance, and evidently a portrait of some -well-known individual. - - [Illustration: ASSYRIAN CHARIOT OF STATE. - - "_Then shall there enter into the gates of this city kings and princes - sitting upon the throne of David, riding in chariots._"--JER. xvii. - 25.] - -The Horses are harnessed with remarkable lightness, but they bear the -gorgeous trappings which befit the rank of the rider, their heads -being decorated with the curious successive plumes with which the -Assyrian princes distinguished their chariot Horses, and the -breast-straps being adorned with tassels, repeated in successive rows -like the plumes of the head. - -The reader will probably notice the peculiar high action of the -Horses. This accomplishment seems to have been even more valued among -the ancients than by ourselves, and some of the sculptures show the -Horses with their knees almost touching their noses. Of course the -artist exaggerated the effect that he wanted to produce; but the very -fact of the exaggeration shows the value that was set on a high and -showy action in a Horse that was attached to a chariot of state. The -old Assyrian sculptors knew the Horse well, and delineated it in a -most spirited and graphic style, though they treated it rather -conventionally. The variety of attitude is really wonderful, -considering that all the figures are profile views, as indeed seemed -to have been a law of the historical sculptures. - - -Before closing this account of the Horse, it may be as well to remark -the singular absence of detail in the Scriptural accounts. Of the -other domesticated animals many such details are given, but of the -Horse we hear but little, except in connexion with war. There are few -exceptions to this rule, and even the oft-quoted passage in Job, which -goes deeper into the character of the Horse than any other portion of -the Scriptures, only considers the Horse as an auxiliary in battle. We -miss the personal interest in the animal which distinguishes the many -references to the ox, the sheep, and the goat; and it is remarkable -that even in the Book of Proverbs, which is so rich in references to -various animals, very little is said of the Horse. - - - - -THE ASS. - - Importance of the Ass in the East--Its general use for the - saddle--Riding the Ass not a mark of humility--The triumphal - entry--White Asses--Character of the Scriptural Ass--Saddling - the Ass--The Ass used in agriculture--The Ass's millstone--The - water-wheel and the plough--Reminiscences of the Ass in the - Scriptural narrative--Its value as property--The flesh of the - Ass--The siege of Samaria and its horrors--Various legends - respecting the Ass--The impostor and his fate--Samson and - Balaam. - - -In the Scriptures we read of two breeds of Ass, namely, the -Domesticated and the Wild Ass. As the former is the more important of -the two, we will give it precedence. - - -In the East, the Ass has always played a much more important part than -among us Westerns, and on that account we find it so frequently -mentioned in the Bible. In the first place, it is the universal -saddle-animal of the East. Among us the Ass has ceased to be regularly -used for the purposes of the saddle, and is only casually employed by -holiday-makers and the like. Some persons certainly ride it -habitually, but they almost invariably belong to the lower orders, and -are content to ride without a saddle, balancing themselves in some -extraordinary manner just over the animal's tail. In the East, -however, it is ridden by persons of the highest rank, and is decorated -with saddle and harness as rich as those of the horse. - -In England we should be very much surprised to see a royal prince, a -judge, or a bishop travelling habitually on a donkey, but in Palestine -it is just the animal which would be considered most appropriate for -the purpose. For example, we find that Abraham, an exceptionally -wealthy man, and a chief of high position, made use of the Ass for the -saddle. It was on an Ass that he travelled when he made his three -days' journey from Beersheba to Moriah, when he was called to prove -his faith by sacrificing Isaac (see Gen. xxii. 3). - -Then in Judges x. 3, 4, we find that riding upon the Ass is actually -mentioned as a mark of high rank. - -"And after him arose Jair, a Gileadite, and judged Israel twenty and -two years. - -"And he had thirty sons that rode on thirty ass colts, and they had -thirty cities, which are called Havoth-jair unto this day, which are in -the land of Gilead." So here we have the curious fact, that the sacred -historian thinks it worth while to mention that great men, the sons of -the chief man of Israel, each of them being ruler over a city, rode upon -Ass colts. In the same book, xii. 13, 14, we have a similar record of -Abdon, the judge who preceded Samson. - -"After him Abdon the son of Hillel, a Pirathonite, judged Israel. - -"And he had forty sons and thirty nephews" (or grandsons according to -some translators) "that rode on threescore and ten ass colts: and he -judged Israel eight years." - -Thus we see that, so far from the use of the Ass as a saddle-animal -being a mark of humility, it ought to be viewed in precisely the -opposite light. In consequence of the very natural habit of reading, -according to Western ideas, the Scriptures, which are books -essentially Oriental in all their allusions and tone of thought, many -persons have entirely perverted the sense of one very familiar -passage, the prophecy of Zechariah concerning the future Messiah. -"Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: -behold, thy King cometh unto thee: He is just, and having salvation; -lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass" -(Zech. ix. 9). - -Now this passage, as well as the one which describes its fulfilment so -many years afterwards, has often been seized upon as a proof of the -meekness and lowliness of our Saviour, in riding upon so humble an -animal when He made His entry into Jerusalem. The fact is, that there -was no humility in the case, neither was the act so understood by the -people. He rode upon an Ass as any prince or ruler would have done who -was engaged on a peaceful journey, the horse being reserved for war -purposes. He rode on the Ass, and not on the horse, because He was the -Prince of Peace and not of war, as indeed is shown very clearly in the -context. For, after writing the words which have just been quoted, -Zechariah proceeds as follows (ver. 10): "And I will cut off the -chariot from Ephraim, and the horse from Jerusalem, and the battle bow -shall be cut off: and He shall speak peace unto the heathen: and His -dominion shall be from sea even to sea, and from the river even to the -ends of the earth." - -Meek and lowly was He, as became the new character, hitherto unknown -to the warlike and restless Jews, a Prince, not of war, as had been -all other celebrated kings, but of peace. Had He come as the Jews -expected--despite so many prophecies--their Messiah to come, as a -great king and conqueror, He might have ridden the war-horse, and been -surrounded with countless legions of armed men. But He came as the -herald of peace, and not of war; and, though meek and lowly, yet a -Prince, riding as became a prince, on an Ass colt which had borne no -inferior burden. - -That the act was not considered as one of lowliness is evident from -the manner in which it was received by the people, accepting Him as -the Son of David, coming in the name of the Highest, and greeting Him -with the cry of "Hosanna!" ("Save us now,") quoted from verses 25, 26 -of Ps. cxviii.: "Save now, I beseech Thee, O Lord: O Lord, I beseech -Thee, send now prosperity." - -"Blessed be He that cometh in the name of the Lord." - -The palm-branches which they strewed upon the road were not chosen by -the attendant crowd merely as a means of doing honour to Him whom they -acknowledged as the Son of David. They were necessarily connected with -the cry of "Hosanna!" At the Feast of Tabernacles, it was customary -for the people to assemble with branches of palms and willows in their -hands, and for one of the priests to recite the Great Hallel, i.e. Ps. -cxiii. and cxviii. At certain intervals, the people responded with the -cry of "Hosanna!" waving at the same time their palm-branches. For the -whole of the seven days through which the feast lasted they repeated -their Hosannas, always accompanying the shout with the waving of -palm-branches, and setting them towards the altar as they went in -procession round it. - -Every child who could hold a palm-branch was expected to take part in -the solemnity, just as did the children on the occasion of the -triumphal entry. By degrees, the name of Hosanna was transferred to -the palm-branches themselves, as well as to the feast, the last day -being called the Great Hosanna. - -The reader will now see the importance of this carrying of -palm-branches, accompanied with Hosannas, and that those who used -them in honour of Him whom they followed into Jerusalem had no idea -that He was acting any lowly part. - -Again, the action of the disciples in putting their mantles on the -Ass, and setting their Master upon them, was one that signified their -acknowledgment of Him as their Prince; and the same idea was typified -by the laying of the clothes upon the road, together with the -palm-branches. Compare also the passage in 2 Kings ix. 13. When Elisha -sent the young prophet to call Jehu from among the council, and to -anoint him King of Israel, the act of anointing was performed in a -private chamber. Jehu, scarcely realizing the import of the act, -seemed to think it a trick played upon him by some of his companions, -the commanding officers of the army. When, however, they heard his -account of the interview with the prophet, they at once accepted him -as their king, and, as token thereof, "they hasted, and took every man -his garment, and put it under him at the top of the stairs, and blew -with trumpets, saying, Jehu is king." - -White Asses were selected for persons of high rank, especially for -those who exercised the office of judges. See Judges v. 10: "Speak, ye -that ride on white asses, ye that sit in judgment, and walk by the -way." Such Asses are still in use for similar purposes, and are bred -expressly for the use of persons of rank. They are larger, and are -thought to be swifter, than the ordinary breeds; but they are by no -means hardy animals, and are said to be unsuitable for places near the -sea-coast. - -Both sexes used the Ass for riding, as they do now in the East. See -for example Judges i. 14, where we find that Achsah, the daughter of -Caleb, rode on an Ass when she went to ask her father to give her some -springs of water, in addition to the land which he had previously -given her as a dowry. Later in the Scriptural history we read that -Abigail, the wife of the wealthy churl Nabal, rode to meet David on an -Ass, when she went to deprecate his anger against her husband (1 Sam. -xxv. 23). And, still later, the woman of Shunem, who acted so -hospitably towards Elisha, rode on an Ass to meet him when her child -had died from sunstroke in the field (see 2 Kings iv. 24). - -Now all these women were of high rank, and certainly neither of them -would have considered that riding on an Ass was an act of humility. We -will cite them in succession, and begin with Achsah. She was the -daughter of one of the most illustrious of the Israelites, a man of -whom we read as being almost the equal of Joshua, one of the -illustrious two who were included in the special exemption from the -punishment of rebellion. Moreover, Caleb was a man of enormous -territorial possessions, as we find from several passages in the Old -Testament; a man who was able to give to his daughter not only a large -amount of land as a dowry, but also the wells or springs which -multiplied its value tenfold. - -Next we come to the case of Abigail, the wife of Nabal, who himself -belonged to the family of Caleb, and probably owed his wealth simply -to the accident of his birth. It is related of Nabal, that his -"possessions were in Carmel, and the man was very great, and he had -three thousand sheep, and a thousand goats." Yet his wife, who -undoubtedly ruled her household as a housewife should do, and who was -thought worthy of becoming David's wife after the death of her -cowardly husband, rode on an Ass when she went on a mission in which -life and death were involved. - -And lastly, the woman of Shunem, who rode on an Ass to meet Elisha, -engaged in a mission in which the life of her only child was involved, -was a woman of great wealth (2 Kings iv. 8), who was able not only to -receive the prophet, but to build a chamber, and furnish it for him. - -Not to multiply examples, we see from these passages that the Ass of -the East was held in comparatively high estimation, being used for the -purposes of the saddle, just as would a high-bred horse among -ourselves. - -Consequently, the Ass is really a different animal. In this country he -is repressed, and seldom has an opportunity for displaying the -intellectual powers which he possesses, and which are of a much higher -order than is generally imagined. It is rather remarkable, that when -we wish to speak slightingly of intellect we liken the individual to -an Ass or a goose, not knowing that we have selected just the -quadruped and the bird which are least worthy of such a distinction. - -Putting aside the bird, as being at present out of place, we shall -find that the Ass is one of the cleverest of our domesticated animals. -We are apt to speak of the horse with a sort of reverence, and of the -Ass with contemptuous pity, not knowing that, of the two animals, the -Ass is by far the superior in point of intellect. It has been well -remarked by a keen observer of nature, that if four or five horses are -in a field, together with one Ass, and there be an assailable point in -the fence, the Ass is sure to be the animal that discovers it, and -leads the way through it. - - [Illustration: SYRIAN ASSES. - - _"A bridle for the ass._"--PROV. xxvi.] - -Take even one of our own toil-worn animals, turned out in a common to -graze, and see the ingenuity which it displays when persecuted by the -idle boys who generally frequent such places, and who try to ride -every beast that is within their reach. It seems to divine at once the -object of the boy as he steals up to it, and he takes a pleasure in -baffling him just as he fancies that he has succeeded in his attempt. - -Should the Ass be kindly treated, there is not an animal that proves -more docile, or even affectionate. Stripes and kicks it resents, and -sets itself distinctly against them; and, being nothing but a slave, -it follows the slavish principle of doing no work that it can possibly -avoid. - -Now, in the East the Ass takes so much higher rank than our own -animal, that its whole demeanour and gait are different from those -displayed by the generality of its brethren in England. "Why, the very -slave of slaves," writes Mr. Lowth, in his "Wanderer in Arabia," "the -crushed and grief-stricken, is so no more in Egypt: the battered -drudge has become the willing servant. Is that active little fellow, -who, with race-horse coat and full flanks, moves under his rider with -the light step and the action of a pony--is he the same animal as that -starved and head-bowed object of the North, subject for all pity and -cruelty, and clothed with rags and insult? - -"Look at him now. On he goes, rapid and free, with his small head well -up, and as gay as a crimson saddle and a bridle of light chains and -red leather can make him. It was a gladdening sight to see the -unfortunate as a new animal in Egypt." - -Hardy animal as is the Ass, it is not well adapted for tolerance of -cold, and seems to degenerate in size, strength, speed, and spirit in -proportion as the climate becomes colder. Whether it might equal the -horse in its endurance of cold provided that it were as carefully -treated, is perhaps a doubtful point; but it is a well-known fact that -the horse does not necessarily degenerate by moving towards a colder -climate, though the Ass has always been found to do so. - -There is, of course, a variety in the treatment which the Ass receives -even in the East. Signor Pierotti, whose work on the customs and -traditions of Palestine has already been mentioned, writes in very -glowing terms of the animal. He states that he formed a very high -opinion of the Ass while he was in Egypt, not only from its spirited -aspect and its speed, but because it was employed even by the Viceroy -and the great Court officers, who may be said to use Asses of more or -less intelligence for every occasion. He even goes so far as to say -that, if all the Asses were taken away from Egypt, not a man would be -left. - -The same traveller gives an admirable summary of the character of the -Ass, as it exists in Egypt and Palestine. "What, then, are the -characteristics of the ass? Much the same as those which adorn it in -other parts of the East--namely, it is useful for riding and for -carrying burdens; it is sensible of kindness, and shows gratitude; it -is very steady, and is larger, stronger, and more tractable than its -European congener; its pace is easy and pleasant; and it will shrink -from no labour, if only its poor daily feed of straw and barley is -fairly given. - -"If well and liberally supplied, it is capable of any enterprise, and -wears an altered and dignified mien, apparently forgetful of its -extraction, except when undeservedly beaten by its masters, who, -however, are not so much to be blamed, because, having learned to live -among sticks, thongs, and rods, they follow the same system of -education with their miserable dependants. - -"The wealthy feed him well, deck him with fine harness and silver -trappings, and cover him, when his work is done, with rich Persian -carpets. The poor do the best they can for him, steal for his benefit, -give him a corner at their fireside, and in cold weather sleep with -him for more warmth. In Palestine, all the rich men, whether monarchs -or chiefs of villages, possess a number of asses, keeping them with -their flocks, like the patriarchs of old. No one can travel in that -country, and observe how the ass is employed for all purposes, without -being struck with the exactness with which the Arabs retain the Hebrew -customs." - -The result of this treatment is, that the Eastern Ass is an enduring -and tolerably swift animal, vying with the camel itself in its powers -of long-continued travel, its usual pace being a sort of easy canter. -On rough ground, or up an ascent, it is said even to gain on the -horse, probably because its little sharp hoofs give it a firm footing -where the larger hoof of the horse is liable to slip. - -The familiar term "saddling the Ass" requires some little explanation. - -The saddle is not in the least like the article which we know by that -name, but is very large and complicated in structure. Over the -animal's back is first spread a cloth, made of thick woollen stuff, -and folded several times. The saddle itself is a very thick pad of -straw, covered with carpet, and flat at the top, instead of being -rounded as is the case with our saddles. The pommel is very high, and -when the rider is seated on it, he is perched high above the back of -the animal. Over the saddle is thrown a cloth or carpet, always of -bright colours, and varying in costliness of material and ornament -according to the wealth of the possessor. It is mostly edged with a -fringe and tassels. - -The bridle is decorated, like that of the horse, with bells, -embroidery, tassels, shells, and other ornaments. An example of the -headstall worn by an Ass belonging to a wealthy man may be seen in the -illustration. - -As we may see from 2 Kings iv. 24, the Ass was generally guided by a -driver who ran behind it, just as is the custom with the hired Asses -in this country. Owing to the unchanging character of the East, there -is no doubt that the "riders on asses" of the Scriptures rode exactly -after the mode which is adopted at the present day. What that mode is, -we may learn from Mr. Bayard Taylor's amusing and vivid description of -a ride through the streets of Cairo:-- - -"To see Cairo thoroughly, one must first accustom himself to the ways -of these long-eared cabs, without the use of which I would advise no -one to trust himself in the bazaars. Donkey-riding is universal, and -no one thinks of going beyond the Frank quarters on foot. If he does, -he must submit to be followed by not less than six donkeys with their -drivers. A friend of mine who was attended by such a cavalcade for two -hours, was obliged to yield at last, and made no second attempt. When -we first appeared in the gateway of an hotel, equipped for an -excursion, the rush of men and animals was so great that we were -forced to retreat until our servant and the porter whipped us a path -through the yelling and braying mob. After one or two trials I found -an intelligent Arab boy named Kish, who for five piastres a day -furnished strong and ambitious donkeys, which he kept ready at the -door from morning till night. The other drivers respected Kish's -privilege, and henceforth I had no trouble. - -"The donkeys are so small that my feet nearly touched the ground, but -there is no end to their strength and endurance. Their gait, whether -in pace or in gallop, is so easy and light that fatigue is impossible. -The drivers take great pride in having high-cushioned red saddles, and -in hanging bits of jingling brass to the bridles. They keep their -donkeys close shorn, and frequently beautify them by painting them -various colours. The first animal I rode had legs barred like a -zebra's, and my friend's rejoiced in purple flanks and a yellow belly. -The drivers ran behind them with a short stick, punching them from -time to time, or giving them a sharp pinch on the rump. Very few of -them own their donkeys, and I understood their pertinacity when I -learned that they frequently received a beating on returning home -empty-handed. - -"The passage of the bazaars seems at first quite as hazardous on -donkey-back as on foot; but it is the difference between knocking -somebody down and being knocked down yourself, and one certainly -prefers the former alternative. There is no use in attempting to guide -the donkey, for he won't be guided. The driver shouts behind, and you -are dashed at full speed into a confusion of other donkeys, camels, -horses, carts, water-carriers, and footmen. In vain you cry out -'_Bess_' (enough), '_Piacco_,' and other desperate adjurations; the -driver's only reply is: 'Let the bridle hang loose!' You dodge your -head under a camel-load of planks; your leg brushes the wheel of a -dust-cart; you strike a fat Turk plump in the back; you miraculously -escape upsetting a fruit-stand; you scatter a company of spectral, -white-masked women; and at last reach some more quiet street, with the -sensations of a man who has stormed a battery. - -"At first this sort of riding made me very nervous, but presently I -let the donkey go his own way, and took a curious interest in seeing -how near a chance I ran of striking or being struck. Sometimes there -seemed no hope of avoiding a violent collision; but, by a series of -the most remarkable dodges, he generally carried you through in -safety. The cries of the driver running behind gave me no little -amusement. 'The hawadji comes! Take care on the right hand! Take care -on the left hand! O man, take care! O maiden, take care! O boy, get -out of the way! The hawadji comes!' Kish had strong lungs, and his -donkey would let nothing pass him; and so wherever we went we -contributed our full share to the universal noise and confusion." - -This description explains several allusions which are made in the -Scriptures to treading down the enemies in the streets, and to the -chariots raging and jostling against each other in the ways. - -The Ass was used in the olden time for carrying burdens, as it is at -present, and, in all probability, carried them in the same way. Sacks -and bundles are tied firmly to the pack-saddle; but poles, planks, and -objects of similar shape are tied in a sloping direction on the side -of the saddle, the longer ends trailing on the ground, and the shorter -projecting at either side of the animal's head. The North American -Indians carry the poles of their huts, or wigwams, in precisely the -same way, tying them on either side of their horses, and making them -into rude sledges, upon which are fastened the skins that form the -walls of their huts. The same system of carriage is also found among -the Esquimaux, and the hunters of the extreme North, who harness their -dogs in precisely the same manner. The Ass, thus laden, becomes a very -unpleasant passenger through the narrow and crowded streets of an -Oriental city; and many an unwary traveller has found reason to -remember the description of Issachar as the strong Ass between two -burdens. - -The Ass was also used for agriculture, and was employed in the plough, -as we find from many passages. See for example, "Blessed are ye that -sow beside all waters, that send forth thither the feet of the ox and -the ass" (Isa. xxxii. 20). Sowing beside the waters is a custom that -still prevails in all hot countries, the margins of rivers being -tilled, while outside this cultivated belt there is nothing but desert -ground. - -The ox and the Ass were used in the first place for irrigation, -turning the machines by which water was lifted from the river, and -poured into the trenches which conveyed it to all parts of the tilled -land. If, as is nearly certain, the rude machinery of the East is at -the present day identical with those which were used in the old -Scriptural times, they were yoked to the machine in rather an -ingenious manner. The machine consists of an upright pivot, and to it -is attached the horizontal pole to which the ox or Ass is harnessed. A -machine exactly similar in principle may be seen in almost any -brick-field in England; but the ingenious part of the Eastern -water-machine is the mode in which the animal is made to believe that -it is being driven by its keeper, whereas the man in question might be -at a distance, or fast asleep. - -The animal is first blindfolded, and then yoked to the end of the -horizontal bar. Fixed to the pivot, and rather in front of the bar, is -one end of a slight and elastic strip of wood. The projecting end, -being drawn forward and tied to the bridle of the animal, keeps up a -continual pull, and makes the blinded animal believe that it is being -drawn forward by the hand of a driver. Some ingenious but lazy -attendants have even invented a sort of self-acting whip, i.e. a stick -which is lifted and allowed to fall on the animal's back by the action -of the wheel once every round. - -The field being properly supplied with water, the Ass is used for -ploughing it. It is worthy of mention that at the present day the -prohibition against yoking an ox and an Ass together is often -disregarded. The practice, however, is not a judicious one, as the -slow and heavy ox does not act well with the lighter and more active -animal, and, moreover, is apt to butt at its companion with its horns -in order to stimulate it to do more than its fair proportion of the -work. - -That the Ass was put to a similar use in turning the large millstones -may be seen from Matt. xviii. 6. In the Authorized Version, the -passage is rendered thus: "But whoso shall offend one of these little -ones which believe in Me, it were better for him that a millstone were -hanged about his neck, and that he were drowned in the depth of the -sea." - -Now if we turn to the Greek Testament we find that the passage reads -rather differently, a force being giving to it which it does not -possess in the translation: "But whosoever shall scandalize [_i.e._ be -a stumbling-block to] one of these little ones that believe in Me, it -were better for him that an ass's millstone were hung about his neck, -and he were sunk in the depth of the sea." The chief force of this -saying lies in the word which is omitted in our translation. Our Lord -specially selected the Ass's millstone on account of its size and -weight, in contradistinction to the ordinary millstone, which was -turned backwards and forwards by the hands of women. - -There is a custom now in Palestine which probably existed in the days -of the Scriptures, though I have not been able to find any reference -to it. Whenever an Ass is disobedient and strays from its master, the -man who captures the trespasser on his grounds clips a piece out of -its ear before he returns it to its owner. Each time that the animal -is caught on forbidden grounds it receives a fresh clip of the ear. By -looking at the ears of an Ass, therefore, any one can tell whether it -has ever been a straggler; and if so, he knows the number of times -that it has strayed, by merely counting the clip-marks, which always -begin at the tip of the ear, and extend along the edges. Any Ass, no -matter how handsome it may be, that has many of those clips, is always -rejected by experienced travellers, as it is sure to be a dull as well -as a disobedient beast. - -Signor Pierotti remarks that if the owners of the Asses were treated -similarly for similar offences, the greater number would be marked as -soon as they begin to walk, and of the adults there would be scarcely -one who had any ear on his head. - -The Ass being so universally useful, we need not be surprised at the -prominence which it takes in the Scriptural narrative, and the -frequency with which its name occurs. The wealthy personages of the -olden time seemed to have esteemed the Ass as highly as the camel, the -ox, the sheep, or the goat. Abraham, for example, is described as -being a rich man, and possessing "sheep, and oxen, and he-asses, and -men-servants, and maid-servants, and she-asses, and camels" (Gen. xii. -16). In a succeeding chapter (xxx. 43) the prosperity of Jacob is -mentioned in almost exactly the same terms. - -So, before Job's trials came upon him, "his substance was seven -thousand sheep, and three thousand camels, and five hundred yoke of -oxen [_i.e._ 1,000], and five hundred she-asses, and a very great -household; so that this man was the greatest of all the men of the -east" (Job i. 3). And after his trials, when his wealth was restored -to him twofold, the thousand she-asses are mentioned as prominently as -the thousand yoke of oxen. - -That the care of the Asses was an honourable post we learn from -several passages. Take for example Gen. xxxvi. 24: "And these are the -children of Zibeon; both Ajah, and Anah: this was that Anah that found -the mules in the wilderness, as he fed the asses of Zibeon his -father." The charge of the Asses was, as the reader must see, a post -of sufficient honour and importance to be trusted to the son of the -owner. A similar case is recorded in the well-known instance of Saul, -whose father had lost his herd of Asses, and who at once sent his son -upon the important mission of recovering them. And it was during the -fulfilment of this mission that he was anointed the first king of -Israel. - -Later in the sacred history we find that when David consolidated his -power, and organized the affairs of his new kingdom, he divided the -people in general, the army, the land, the produce, and the cattle, -into departments, and appointed over each department some eminent man -whose name is carefully given. After mentioning that the people and -the army were divided into "courses," and that certain officers were -set over each course, the sacred historian proceeds to state that one -officer was appointed as overseer of the treasury, another of the -granaries, another of the field-labourers, another over the vineyards, -and so forth. He then mentions that even the cattle were divided into -their several departments, the care of the hill-cattle being given to -one man, and of the cattle of the plain to another, of the camels to a -third, and of the Asses to a fourth. - -It is scarcely necessary to mention that the flesh of the Ass was -forbidden to the Jews, because the animal neither chewed the cud nor -divided the hoof. How repulsive to them must have been the flesh of -the Ass we may infer from the terrible description of the siege of -Samaria by Benhadad. The sacred historian describes with painful -fidelity the horrors of the siege, and of the dreadful extremity to -which the people were reduced. No circumstance could be more terrible -than the quarrel between the two mothers, who had mutually agreed to -kill and eat their children, and yet on a par with that dreadful -statement is mentioned the fact that even the flesh of the Ass was -eaten, and that an Ass's head cost eighty pieces of silver. - -Whether the milk of the she Ass were used or not is rather a doubtful -point, but, in all probability, the milk was considered as lawful -food, though the flesh might not be eaten. - -As to the legends respecting the Ass, they are innumerable, and I -shall only mention one or two of them. - -The first is an old Rabbinical legend respecting the Flood and the -admission of the creatures into the ark. It appears that no being -could enter the ark unless specially invited to do so by Noah. Now -when the Flood came, and overwhelmed the world, the devil, who was at -that time wandering upon the earth, saw that he was about to be cut -off from contact from mankind, and that his dominion would be for ever -gone. The ark being at last completed, and the beasts called to enter -it in their proper order, the turn of the Ass came in due course. - -Unfortunately for the welfare of mankind, the Ass was taken with a fit -of obstinacy, and refused to enter the vessel according to orders. -After wasting much time over the obstinate animal, Noah at last lost -patience, and struck the Ass sharply, crying at the same time to it, -"Enter, thou devil!" Of course the invitation was at once accepted, -the devil entered the ark, and on the subsiding of the water issued -out to take his place in the newly begun world. - - -Since the Christian era, many curious legends have sprung up -respecting the Ass. One of the most familiar of these legends refers -to the black stripe along the spine and the cross-bar over the -shoulder. This black cross is really believed by many persons to have -been given to the animal in consequence of its connexion with our -Lord. I need hardly tell the reader that it is the remnant of the -stripes which in the zebra cover the animal from head to foot, which -in the quagga cover the head, body, and part of the limbs, and which -in one species of Wild Ass are not seen at all in the adult animal. - -There is another Christian legend respecting the Ass of Palestine, -which is thought to owe its superiority in size, swiftness, and -strength to the fact that it helped to warm the infant Saviour in the -manger, that it carried Him and His mother into Egypt and back again, -and that it was used by the Lord himself and His disciples. Any one -who ventures to hint that the Ass of Palestine owes its superiority -over its European brother to the warmer climate, is thought to be a -heretic by the pious but ignorant men who believe and disseminate such -legends. - -Signor Pierotti tells a story of a certain Russian monk who happened -to visit Palestine, and in the course of his travels found the -leg-bone of an Ass, which he took back with him and publicly exhibited -as part of the identical animal on which the Virgin Mary and infant -Saviour rode. (I need scarcely mention that there is no mention in the -Scriptures of the fact that the Holy Family rode upon an Ass; though -such a mode of travel was certainly the one which they would adopt.) -For some time, this deception drew for the impostor many gifts from -the superstitious but pious people, but the affair at last reached the -ears of his superiors, and he paid the deserved penalty of his -trickery. - -There are recorded in the Scriptures two remarkable circumstances -connected with the Ass, which, however, need but a few words. The -first is the journey of Balaam from Pethor to Moab, in the course of -which there occurred that singular incident of the Ass speaking in -human language (see Numb. xxii. 21, 35). The second is the well-known -episode in the story of Samson, where he is recorded as breaking the -cords with which his enemies had bound him, and killing a thousand -Philistines with the fresh jaw-bone of an Ass. - - - - -THE WILD ASS. - - The Arod and Pere of Scripture--Various allusions to the Wild - Ass--Its swiftness and wildness--The Wild Ass of Asia and - Africa--Knowledge of the animal displayed by the sacred - writers--How the Wild Ass is hunted--Excellence of its - flesh--Sir R. K. Porter's meeting with a Wild Ass--Origin of the - domestic Ass--The Wild Asses of Quito. - - -There are several passages of Scripture in which the Wild Ass is -distinguished from the domesticated animal, and in all of them there -is some reference made to its swiftness, its intractable nature, and -love of freedom. - -In the Hebrew Scriptures there are two words which are given in the -Authorized Translation as Wild Ass, namely, Arod and Pere, and it is -rather remarkable that both words occur in the same passage. If the -reader will refer to Job xxxix. 5, he will see the following passage: -"Who hath sent out the wild ass (Pere) free? or who hath loosed the -bands of the wild ass (Arod)?" Now there are only two places in the -whole Hebrew Scriptures in which the word Arod occurs, and there are -many doubts whether the word Arod is rightly translated. The first is -that which has just been quoted, and the second occurs in Dan. v. 21: -"And he was driven from the sons of men; and his heart was made like -the beasts, and his dwelling was with the wild asses." - -The Jewish Bible translates the word differently in the two passages. -That in Job it renders as follows: "Who hath sent forth the wild ass -free? or who hath loosed the bands of the untamed?" In the other -passage, however, it follows the rendering of the Authorized Version, -and gives the word as "wild asses." It is thought by several scholars -that the two words refer to two different species of Wild Ass. It may -be so, but as the ancient writers had the loosest possible ideas -regarding distinction of species, and as, moreover, it is very -doubtful whether there be any real distinction of species at all, we -may allow the subject to rest, merely remembering that the rendering -of the Jewish Bible, "the untamed," is a correct translation of the -word Arod, though the particular animal to which it is applied may be -doubtful. - -We will now pass to the word about which there is no doubt whatever, -namely, the Pere. This animal is clearly the species which is -scientifically known as _Asinus hemippus_. During the summer time it -has a distinct reddish tinge on the grey coat, which disappears in the -winter, and the cross-streak is black. There are several kinds of Wild -Ass known to science, all of which have different names. Some of our -best zoologists, however, have come to the conclusion that they all -really belong to the same species, differing only in slight points of -structure which are insufficient to constitute separate species. - -The habits of the Wild Ass are the same, whether it be the Asiatic or -the African animal, and a description of one will answer equally well -for the other. It is an astonishingly swift animal, so that on the -level ground even the best horse has scarcely a chance of overtaking -it. It is exceedingly wary, its sight, hearing, and sense of scent -being equally keen, so that to approach it by craft is a most -difficult task. - -Like many other wild animals, it has a custom of ascending hills or -rising grounds, and thence surveying the country, and even in the -plains it will generally contrive to discover some earth-mound or heap -of sand from which it may act as sentinel and give the alarm in case -of danger. It is a gregarious animal, always assembling in herds, -varying from two or three to several hundred in number, and has a -habit of partial migration in search of green food, traversing large -tracts of country in its passage. - -It has a curiously intractable disposition, and, even when captured -very young, can scarcely ever be brought to bear a burden or draw a -vehicle. Attempts have been often made to domesticate the young that -have been born in captivity, but with very slight success, the wild -nature of the animal constantly breaking out, even when it appears to -have become moderately tractable. - -Although the Wild Ass does not seem to have lived within the limits of -the Holy Land, it was common enough in the surrounding country, and, -from the frequent references made to it in Scriptures, was well known -to the ancient Jews. We will now look at the various passages in which -the Wild Ass is mentioned, and begin with the splendid description in -Job xxxix. 5-8: - -"Who hath sent out the wild ass free? or who hath loosed the bands of -the wild ass? - -"Whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren lands (or salt -places) his dwellings. - -"He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth he the -crying of the driver. - -"The range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth after -every green thing." - -Here we have the animal described with the minuteness and truth of -detail that can only be found in personal knowledge; its love of -freedom, its avoidance of mankind, and its migration in search of -pasture. Another allusion to the pasture-seeking habits of the animal -is to be found in chapter vi. of the same book, verse 5: "Doth the -wild ass bray when he hath grass?" or, according to the version of the -Jewish Bible, "over tender grass?" - -The same author has several other allusions to the Wild Ass. See, for -example, chap. xi. 12: "For vain man would be wise, though man be born -like a wild ass's colt." And in chap. xxiv. 5, in speaking of the -wicked and their doings, he uses the following metaphor: "Behold, as -wild asses in the desert, go they forth to their work; rising betimes -for a prey: the wilderness yieldeth food for them and their children," -or for the young, as the passage may be more literally rendered. The -same migratory habit is also mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah (chap. -xiv. 6): "And the wild asses did stand in the high places, they -snuffed up the wind like dragons; their eyes did fail, because there -was no grass." There is another allusion to it in Hosea viii. 9: "For -they are gone up to Assyria, a wild ass alone by himself." - -Even in the earliest times of Jewish history we find a reference to -the peculiar nature of this animal. In Gen. xvi. 12 it is prophesied -of Ishmael, that "he will be a wild man; his hand will be against -every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the -presence of all his brethren." Now the real force of this passage is -quite missed in the Authorized Version, the correct rendering being -given in the Jewish Bible: "And he will be a wild ass (Pere) among -men; his hand will be against all, and the hand of all against him, -and in the face of all his brethren he shall dwell." - -Allusion is made to the speed of the animal in Jer. ii. 24: "A wild -ass used to the wilderness, that snuffeth up the wind at her pleasure; -in her occasion who can turn her away? all they that seek her will not -weary themselves; in her month they shall find her." The fondness of -the Wild Ass for the desert is mentioned by the prophet Isaiah. -Foretelling the desolation that was to come upon the land, he uses -these words: "Because the palaces shall be forsaken, the multitude of -the city shall be left; the forts and towers shall be for dens (or -caves) for ever, and a joy of wild asses, a pasture of flocks." - -These various qualities of speed, wariness, and dread of man cause the -animal to be exceedingly prized by hunters, who find their utmost -skill taxed in approaching it. Men of the highest rank give whole days -to the hunt of the Wild Ass, and vie with each other for the honour of -inflicting the first wound on so fleet an animal. With the exception -of the Jews, the inhabitants of the countries where the Wild Ass lives -eat its flesh, and consider it as the greatest dainty which can be -found. - -A very vivid account of the appearance of the animal in its wild state -is given by Sir R. Kerr Porter, who was allowed by a Wild Ass to -approach within a moderate distance, the animal evidently seeing that -he was not one of the people to whom it was accustomed, and being -curious enough to allow the stranger to approach him. - - [Illustration: THE WILD ASS. - - "As wild asses in the desert go they forth."--JOB xxiv. 5.] - -"The sun was just rising over the summit of the eastern mountains, -when my greyhound started off in pursuit of an animal which, my -Persians said, from the glimpse they had of it, was an antelope. -I instantly put spurs to my horse, and with my attendants gave -chase. After an unrelaxed gallop of three miles, we came up with -the dog, who was then within a short stretch of the creature he -pursued; and to my surprise, and at first vexation, I saw it to be an -ass. - -"Upon reflection, however, judging from its fleetness that it must be -a wild one, a creature little known in Europe, but which the Persians -prize above all other animals as an object of chase, I determined to -approach as near to it as the very swift Arab I was on could carry me. -But the single instant of checking my horse to consider had given our -game such a head of us that, notwithstanding our speed, we could not -recover our ground on him. - -"I, however, happened to be considerably before my companions, when, -at a certain distance, the animal in its turn made a pause, and -allowed me to approach within pistol-shot of him. He then darted off -again with the quickness of thought, capering, kicking, and sporting -in his flight, as if he were not blown in the least, and the chase was -his pastime. When my followers of the country came up, they regretted -that I had not shot the creature when he was within my aim, telling me -that his flesh is one of the greatest delicacies in Persia. - -"The prodigious swiftness and the peculiar manner in which he fled -across the plain coincided exactly with the description that Xenophon -gives of the same animal in Arabia. But above all, it reminded me of -the striking portrait drawn by the author of the Book of Job. I was -informed by the Mehnander, who had been in the desert when making a -pilgrimage to the shrine of Ali, that the wild ass of Irak Arabi -differs in nothing from the one I had just seen. He had observed them -often for a short time in the possession of the Arabs, who told him -the creature was perfectly untameable. - -"A few days after this discussion, we saw another of these animals, -and, pursuing it determinately, had the good fortune to kill it." - - -It has been suggested by many zoologists that the Wild Ass is the -progenitor of the domesticated species. The origin of the domesticated -animal, however, is so very ancient, that we have no data whereon -even a theory can be built. It is true that the Wild and the -Domesticated Ass are exactly similar in appearance, and that an -_Asinus hemippus_, or Wild Ass, looks so like an Asiatic _Asinus -vulgaris_, or Domesticated Ass, that by the eye alone the two are -hardly distinguishable from each other. But with their appearance the -resemblance ends, the domestic animal being quiet, docile, and fond of -man, while the wild animal is savage, intractable, and has an -invincible repugnance to human beings. - -This diversity of spirit in similar forms is very curious, and is -strongly exemplified by the semi-wild Asses of Quito. They are the -descendants of the animals that were imported by the Spaniards, and -live in herds, just as do the horses. They combine the habits of the -Wild Ass with the disposition of the tame animal. They are as swift of -foot as the Wild Ass of Syria or Africa, and have the same habit of -frequenting lofty situations, leaping about among rocks and ravines, -which seem only fitted for the wild goat, and into which no horse can -follow them. - -Nominally, they are private property, but practically they may be -taken by any one who chooses to capture them. The lasso is employed -for the purpose, and when the animals are caught they bite, and kick, -and plunge, and behave exactly like their wild relations of the Old -World, giving their captors infinite trouble in avoiding the teeth and -hoofs which they wield so skilfully. But, as soon as a load has once -been bound on the back of one of these furious creatures, the wild -spirit dies out of it, the head droops, the gait becomes steady, and -the animal behaves as if it had led a domesticated life all its days. - - - - -THE MULE. - - Ancient use of the Mules--Various breeds of Mule--Supposed date - of its introduction into Palestine--Mule-breeding forbidden to - the Jews--The Mule as a saddle-animal--Its use on occasions of - state--The king's Mule--Mules brought from Babylon after the - captivity--Obstinacy of the Mule--The Mule as a beast of - burden--The "Mule's burden" of earth--Mules imported by the - Phoenicians--Legends respecting the Mule. - - -There are several references to the Mule in the Holy Scriptures, but -it is remarkable that the animal is not mentioned at all until the -time of David, and that in the New Testament the name does not occur -at all. - -The origin of the MULE is unknown, but that the mixed breed between -the horse and the ass has been employed in many countries from very -ancient times is a familiar fact. It is a very strange circumstance -that the offspring of these two animals should be, for some purposes, -far superior to either of the parents, a well-bred Mule having the -lightness, surefootedness, and hardy endurance of the ass, together -with the increased size and muscular development of the horse. Thus it -is peculiarly adapted either for the saddle or for the conveyance of -burdens over a rough or desert country. - -The Mules that are most generally serviceable are bred from the male -ass and the mare, those which have the horse as the father and the ass -as the mother being small, and comparatively valueless. At the present -day, Mules are largely employed in Spain and the Spanish dependencies, -and there are some breeds which are of very great size and singular -beauty, those of Andalusia being especially celebrated. In the Andes, -the Mule has actually superseded the llama as a beast of burden. - -Its appearance in the sacred narrative is quite sudden. In Gen. xxxvi. -24, there is a passage which seems as if it referred to the Mule: -"This was that Anah that found the mules in the wilderness." Now the -word which is here rendered as Mules is "Yemim," a word which is not -found elsewhere in the Hebrew Scriptures. The best Hebraists are -agreed that, whatever interpretation may be put upon the word, it -cannot possibly have the signification that is here assigned to it. -Some translate the word as "hot springs," while the editors of the -Jewish Bible prefer to leave it untranslated, thus signifying that -they are not satisfied with any rendering. - - [Illustration: MULES OF THE EAST - - "_Be ye not as the horse and mule, which have no under - standing._"--PSALM xxxii. 9.] - -The word which is properly translated as Mule is "Pered;" and the -first place where it occurs is 2 Sam. xiii. 29. Absalom had taken -advantage of a sheep-shearing feast to kill his brother Amnon in -revenge for the insult offered to Tamar: "And the servants of Absalom -did unto Amnon as Absalom had commanded. Then all the king's sons -arose, and every man gat him up upon his mule, and fled." It is -evident from this passage that the Mule must have been in use for a -considerable time, as the sacred writer mentions, as a matter of -course, that the king's sons had each his own riding mule. - -Farther on, chap. xviii. 9 records the event which led to the death of -Absalom by the hand of Joab. "And Absalom met the servants of David. -And Absalom rode upon a mule, and the mule went under the thick boughs -of a great oak, and his head caught hold of the oak, and he was taken -up between the heaven and the earth; and the mule that was under him -went away." - -We see by these passages that the Mule was held in such high -estimation that it was used by the royal princes for the saddle, and -had indeed superseded the ass. In another passage we shall find that -the Mule was ridden by the king himself when he travelled in state, -and that to ride upon the king's Mule was considered as equivalent to -sitting upon the king's throne. See, for example, 1 Kings i. in which -there are several passages illustrative of this curious fact. See -first, ver. 33, in which David gives to Zadok the priest, Nathan the -prophet, and Benaiah the captain of the hosts, instructions for -bringing his son Solomon to Gihon, and anointing him king in the stead -of his father: "Take with you the servants of your lord, and cause -Solomon my son to ride upon mine own mule, and bring him down to -Gihon." - -Then, in ver. 38, we are told that David's orders were obeyed, that -Solomon was set on the king's Mule, was anointed by Zadok, and -proclaimed as king to the people. In ver. 44 we are told how Adonijah, -who had attempted to usurp the throne, and was at the very time -holding a coronation feast, heard the sound of the trumpets and the -shouting in honour of Solomon, and on inquiring was told that Solomon -had been crowned king by Zadok, recognised by Nathan, accepted by -Benaiah, and had ridden on the king's Mule. These tidings alarmed him, -and caused him to flee for protection to the altar. Now it is very -remarkable that in each of these three passages the fact that Solomon -rode upon the king's Mule is brought prominently forward, and it was -adduced to Adonijah as a proof that Solomon had been made the new king -of Israel. - -That the Mule should have become so important an animal seems most -remarkable. In Levit. xix. 19 there is an express injunction against -the breeding of Mules, and it is unlikely, therefore, that they were -bred in Palestine. But, although the Jews were forbidden to breed -Mules, they evidently thought that the prohibition did not extend to -the use of these animals, and from the time of David we find that they -were very largely employed both for the saddle and as beasts of -burden. In all probability, the Mules were imported from Egypt and -other countries, and that such importation was one of the means for -furnishing Palestine with these animals we learn from 1 Kings x. 24, -25, in which the sacred writer enumerates the various tribute which -was paid to Solomon: "All the earth sought to Solomon, to hear the -wisdom which God had put in his heart. - -"And they brought every man his present, vessels of silver, and -vessels of gold, and garments, and armour, and spices, horses, and -mules, a rate year by year." The same fact is recorded in 2 Chron. ix. -24. - -In the time of Isaiah the Mule was evidently in common use as a riding -animal for persons of distinction. See chap. lxvi. 20: "And they shall -bring all your brethren for an offering unto the Lord, out of all -nations, upon horses, and in chariots, and in litters, and upon mules, -and upon swift beasts, to My holy mountain Jerusalem." Another -allusion to the Mule as one of the recognised domesticated animals is -found in Zech. xiv. 15: "So shall be the plague of the horse, of the -mule, of the camel, and of the ass, and of all the beasts that shall -be in these tents, as this plague." - -The value of these animals may be inferred from the anxiety of Ahab to -preserve his Mules during the long drought that had destroyed all the -pasturage. "Ahab said unto Obadiah, Go into the land, unto all -fountains of water, and unto all brooks: peradventure we may find -grass to save the horses and mules alive, that we lose not all the -beasts." - -Now this Obadiah was a very great man. He was governor of the king's -palace, an office which has been compared to that of our Lord High -Chamberlain. He possessed such influence that, although he was known -to be a worshipper of Jehovah, and to have saved a hundred prophets -during Jezebel's persecution, he retained his position, either because -no one dared to inform against him, or because he was too powerful to -be attacked. Yet to Obadiah was assigned the joint office of seeking -for pasturage for the Mules, the king himself sharing the task with -his chamberlain, thus showing the exceeding value which must have been -set on these appanages of royal state. - -Their importance may be gathered from a passage in the Book of Ezra, -in which, after enumerating with curious minuteness the number of the -Jews who returned home from their Babylonish captivity, the sacred -chronicler proceeds to remark that "their horses were seven hundred -thirty and six; their mules, two hundred forty and five; their camels, -four hundred thirty and five; their asses, six thousand seven hundred -and twenty" (Ezra ii. 66, 67). There is a parallel passage in Neh. -vii. 68, 69. - -Seeing that the Mule was in such constant use as a riding animal, it -is somewhat remarkable that we never find in the Scripture any mention -of the obstinate disposition which is proverbially associated with the -animal. There is only one passage which can be thought even to bear -upon such a subject, and that is the familiar sentence from Ps. xxxii. -9: "Be ye not as the horse, or as the mule, which have no -understanding: whose mouth must be held in with bit and bridle, lest -they come near unto thee;" and, as the reader will see, no particular -obstinacy or frowardness is attributed to the Mule which is not -ascribed to the horse also. - -Still, that the Mule was as obstinate and contentious an animal in -Palestine as it is in Europe is evident from the fact that the Eastern -mules of the present day are quite as troublesome as their European -brethren. They are very apt to shy at anything, or nothing at all; -they bite fiercely, and every now and then they indulge in a violent -kicking fit, flinging out their heels with wonderful force and -rapidity, and turning round and round on their fore-feet so quickly -that it is hardly possible to approach them. There is scarcely a -traveller in the Holy Land who has not some story to tell about the -Mule and its perverse disposition; but, as these anecdotes have but -very slight bearing on the subject of the Mule as mentioned in the -Scriptures, they will not be given in these pages. - -That the Mule was employed as a beast of burden as well as for riding, -we gather from several passages in the Old Testament. See, for -example, 1 Chron. xii. 40: "Moreover they that were nigh them, even -unto Issachar and Zebulun and Naphtali, brought bread on asses, and on -camels, and on mules, and on oxen." We have also the well-known -passage in which is recorded the reply of Naaman to Elisha after the -latter had cured him of his leprosy: "And Naaman said, Shall there not -then, I pray thee, be given to thy servant two mules' burden of -earth?" It does not necessarily follow that two of Naaman's Mules were -to be laden with earth, but the probability is, that Naaman used the -term "a Mule's burden" to express a certain quantity, just as we talk -of a "load" of hay or gravel. - -As Mules are animals of such value, we may feel some little surprise -that they were employed as beasts of burden. It is possible, however, -that a special and costly breed of large and handsome Mules, like -those of Andalusia, were reserved for the saddle, and that the smaller -and less showy animals were employed in the carriage of burdens. - -Before parting entirely with the Mule, it will be well to examine the -only remaining passage in which the animal is mentioned. It occurs in -Ezek. xxvii. 14: "They of the house of Togarmah traded in thy fairs -with horses and horsemen and mules." The chapter in which this passage -occurs is a sustained lamentation over Tyre, in which the writer first -enumerates the wealth and greatness of the city, and then bewails its -downfall. Beginning with the words, "O Tyrus, thou hast said, I am of -perfect beauty," the prophet proceeds to mention the various details -of its magnificence, the number and beauty of its ships built with -firs from Senir, having oars made of the oaks of Bashan, masts of the -cedars of Lebanon, benches of ivory, sails of "fine linen with -broidered work from Egypt," and coverings of purple and scarlet from -the isles of Elishah. The rowers were from Zidon and Arvad, while Tyre -itself furnished their pilots or steersmen. - -After a passing allusion to the magnificent army of Tyre, the sacred -writer proceeds to mention the extent of the merchandise that was -brought to this queen of ancient seaports: silver and other metals -were from Tarshish, slaves and brass from Meshech, ivory and ebony -from Dedan, jewellery and fine linen from Syria; wheat, honey, and oil -from Judæa; wine and white wool from Damascus, and so forth. And, -among all these riches, are prominently mentioned the horses and Mules -from Togarmah. Now, it has been settled by the best bibliographers -that the Togarmah of Ezekiel is Armenia, and so we have the fact that -the Phoenicians supplied themselves with Mules and horses by importing -them from Armenia instead of breeding those animals themselves, just -as Palestine imported its horses, and probably its Mules also, from -Egypt. - -It is rather remarkable that the Arabs of Palestine very seldom breed -the Mule for themselves, but, like the ancient Jews, import them from -adjacent countries, mostly from the Lebanon district. Those from -Cyprus are, however, much valued, as they are very strong, diligent, -and steady, their pace being nearly equal to that of the horse. Mules -are seldom used for agricultural purposes, though they are extensively -employed for riding and for carrying burdens, especially over rocky -districts. - -The Mule is not without its legend. One of the oddest of these -accounts for its obstinacy and its incapacity for breeding. - -When the Holy Family was about to travel into Egypt, St. Joseph chose -a Mule to carry them. He was in the act of saddling the animal, when -it kicked him after the fashion of Mules. Angry with it for such -misconduct, St. Joseph substituted an ass for the Mule, thus giving -the former the honour of conveying the family into Egypt, and laid a -curse upon it that it should never have parents nor descendants of its -own kind, and that it should be so disliked as never to be admitted -into its master's house, as is the case with the horse and other -domesticated animals. This is one of the multitudinous legends which -are told to the crowds of pilgrims who come annually to see the -miraculous kindling of the holy fire, and to visit the tree on which -Judas hanged himself. - - - - -SWINE. - - The Mosaic prohibition of the pig--Hatred of Swine by Jews and - Mahometans--A strange use of bacon--The prodigal son--Resistance - to the persecution of Antiochus--Swine hated by the early - Egyptians--Supposed connexion between Swine and diseases of the - skin--Destruction of the herd of Swine--The locality of the - event discovered--Pigs bred for the monasteries--The jewel of - gold in a Swine's snout--The wild boar of the woods, and the - beast of the reeds--The damage which it does to the - vines--General account of the wild boar of Palestine--Excellence - of its flesh. - - -Many are the animals which are specially mentioned in the Mosaic law -as unfit for food, beside those that come under the general head of -being unclean because they do not divide the hoof and chew the cud. -There is none, however, that excited such abhorrence as the hog, or -that was more utterly detested. - -It is utterly impossible for a European, especially one of the present -day, to form even an idea of the utter horror and loathing with which -the hog was regarded by the ancient Jews. Even at the present day, a -zealous Jew or Mahometan looks upon the hog, or anything that belongs -to the hog, with an abhorrence too deep for words. The older and -stricter Jews felt so deeply on this subject, that they would never -even mention the name of the hog, but always substituted for the -objectionable word the term "the abomination." - -Several references are made in the Scriptures to the exceeding disgust -felt by the Jews towards the Swine. The portion of the Mosaic law on -which a Jew would ground his antipathy to the flesh of Swine is that -passage which occurs in Lev. xi. 7: "And the swine, though he divide -the hoof, and be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is -unclean to you." But the very same paragraph, of which this passage -forms the termination, treats of other unclean beasts, such as the -coney (or hyrax) and the hare, neither of which animals are held in -such abhorrence as the Swine. - -This enactment could not therefore have produced the singular feeling -with which the Swine were regarded by the Jews, and in all probability -the antipathy was of far greater antiquity than the time of Moses. - -How hateful to the Jewish mind was the hog we may infer from many -passages, several of which occur in the Book of Isaiah. See, for -example, lxv. 3, 4: "A people that provoketh me to anger continually -to my face; that sacrificeth in gardens, and burneth incense upon -altars of brick; - -"Which remain among the graves, and lodge in the monuments, which eat -swine's flesh, and broth of abominable things is in their vessels." -Here we have the people heaping one abomination upon another--the -sacrifice to idols in the gardens, the burning of incense upon a -forbidden altar and with strange fire, the living among the tombs, -where none but madmen and evil spirits were supposed to reside, and, -as the culminating point of iniquity, eating Swine's flesh, and -drinking the broth in which it was boiled. - -In the next chapter, verse 3, we have another reference to the Swine. -Speaking of the wickedness of the people, and the uselessness of their -sacrifices, the prophet proceeds to say: "He that killeth an ox is as -if he slew a man; he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he had cut off a -dog's neck; he that offereth an oblation, as if he offered swine's -blood." We see here how the prophet proceeds from one image to -another: the murder of a man, the offering of a dog instead of a lamb, -and the pouring out of Swine's blood upon the altar instead of -wine--the last-mentioned crime being evidently held as the worst of -the three. Another reference to the Swine occurs in the same chapter, -verse 17: "They that sanctify themselves, and purify themselves in the -gardens behind one tree in the midst, eating swine's flesh, and the -abomination, and the mouse, shall be consumed together, saith the -Lord." - -Not only did the Jews refuse to eat the flesh of the hog, but they -held in utter abomination everything that belonged to it, and would -have thought themselves polluted had they been even touched with a -hog's bristle. Even at the present day this feeling has not -diminished, and both by Jews and Mahometans the hog is held in utter -abhorrence. - -Some recent travellers have made great use of this feeling. Signor -Pierotti, for example, during his long sojourn in Palestine, found the -flesh of the hog extremely beneficial to him. "How often has the flesh -of this animal supported me, especially during the earlier part of my -stay in Palestine, before I had learned to like the mutton and the -goats' flesh! I give the preference to this meat because it has often -saved me time by rendering a fire unnecessary, and freed me from -importunate, dirty, and unsavoury guests, who used their hands for -spoons, knives, and forks. - -"A little piece of bacon laid conspicuously upon the cloth that served -me for a table was always my best friend. Without this talisman I -should never have freed myself from unwelcome company, at least -without breaking all the laws of hospitality by not inviting the -chiefs of my escort or the guides to share my meal; a thing neither -prudent nor safe in the open country. Therefore, on the contrary, when -thus provided I pressed them with the utmost earnestness to eat with -me, but of course never succeeded in persuading them; and so dined in -peace, keeping on good terms with them, although they did call me -behind my back a 'dog of a Frank' for eating pork. - -"Besides, I had then no fear of my stores failing, as I always took -care to carry a stock large enough to supply the real wants of my -party. So a piece of bacon was more service to me than a revolver, a -rifle, or a sword; and I recommend all travellers in Palestine to -carry bacon rather than arms, for the latter are often stolen, the -former is never." - -Such being the feelings of the Jews, we may conceive the abject -degradation to which the Prodigal Son of the parable must have -descended, when he was compelled to become a swine-herd for a living, -and would have been glad even to have eaten the very husks on which -the Swine fed. These husks, by the way, were evidently the pods of the -locust-tree, or carob, of which we shall have more to say in a future -page. We have in our language no words to express the depths of -ignominy into which this young man must have fallen, nor can we -conceive any office which in our estimation would be so degrading as -would be that of swine-herd to a Jew. - -How deeply rooted was the abhorrence of the Swine's flesh we can see -from a passage in 2 Maccabees, in which is related a series of insults -offered to the religion of the Jews. The temple at Jerusalem was to be -called the Temple of Jupiter Olympus, and that on Gerizim was to be -dedicated to Jupiter, the defender of strangers. The altars were -defiled by forbidden things, and the celebration of the Sabbath, or of -any Jewish ceremony, was punishable with death. - -Severe as were all these afflictions, there was one which the Jews -seem, from the stress laid upon it, to have felt more keenly than any -other. This was the compulsory eating of Swine's flesh, an act which -was so abhorrent to the Jews that in attempting to enforce it, -Antiochus found that he was foiled by the passive resistance offered -to him. The Jews had allowed their temples to be dedicated to the -worship of heathen deities, they had submitted to the deprivation of -their sacred rites, they had even consented to walk in procession on -the Feast of Bacchus, carrying ivy like the rest of the worshippers in -that most licentious festival. It might be thought that any people who -submit to such degradation would suffer any similar indignity. But -even their forbearance had reached its limits, and nothing could -induce them to eat the flesh of Swine. - -Several examples of the resistance offered by them are recorded in the -book just mentioned. Eleazar, for example, a man ninety years old, -sternly refused to partake of the abominable food. Some of the -officials, in compassion for his great age, advised him to take lawful -meat with him and to exchange it for the Swine's flesh. This he -refused to do, saying that his age was only a reason for particular -care on his part, lest the young should be led away by his example. -His persecutors then forced the meat into his mouth, but he rejected -it, and died under the lash. - -Another example of similar, but far greater heroism, is given by the -same chronicler. A mother and her seven sons were urged with blows to -eat the forbidden food, and refused to do so. Thinking that the mother -would not be able to endure the sight of her sons' sufferings, the -officers took them in succession, and inflicted a series of horrible -tortures upon them, beginning by cutting off their tongues, hands, and -feet, and ending by roasting them while still alive. Their mother, far -from counselling her sons to yield, even though they were bribed by -promises of wealth and rank, only encouraged them to persevere, and, -when the last of her sons was dead, passed herself through the same -fiery trial. - -Even among the ancient Egyptians this repugnance to the Swine -prevailed, though there was a sort of Pariah caste among them who bred -the animal and ate its flesh. - -This we learn from Herodotus ("Euterpe," xlvii.):--"The Egyptians -consider the pig to be an impure animal, and if therefore a man in -passing near a pig should but touch it with his clothes, he goes at -once to the river and plunges into it. In the next place, swine-herds, -although they be native Egyptians, are the only men who are not -allowed to enter into any of their temples, neither will any man give -his daughter in marriage to one of them, nor take a wife from among -them, but the swine-herds only marry among themselves. - -"The Egyptians therefore do not think it right to sacrifice swine to -any other deities, but to the moon and Bacchus they sacrifice them at -the same time; that is to say, at the same full moon, and then they -eat the flesh.... This sacrifice of pigs to the moon is performed in -the following manner. When the sacrificer has killed the victims, he -puts the tip of the tail, the spleen, and the caul together, covers -them with the fat found in the belly of the animal, and then consumes -it with fire. The rest of the flesh they eat during the full moon in -which they offer the sacrifices, but on no other day would any man -ever taste it. The poor among them, through want of money, make pigs -out of dough; and, after baking them, offer them in sacrifice. - -"On the eve of the festival of Bacchus, every one slays a pig before -his door, and then restores it to the swine-herd that sold it, that he -may carry it away. The rest of this festival to Bacchus, except as -regards the pigs, the Egyptians celebrate much in the same manner as -the Greeks do." - -It has been conjectured, and with plausibility, that the pig was -prohibited by Moses on account of the unwholesomeness of its flesh in -a hot country, and that its almost universal repudiation in such lands -is a proof of its unfitness for food. In countries where diseases of -the skin are so common, and where the dreaded leprosy still maintains -its hold, the flesh of the pig is thought, whether rightly or wrongly, -to increase the tendency to such diseases, and on that account alone -would be avoided. - -It has, however, been shown that the flesh of Swine can be habitually -consumed in hot countries without producing any evil results; and, -moreover, that the prohibition of Moses was not confined to the Swine, -but included many other animals whose flesh is used without scruple by -those very persons who reject that of the pig. - -Knowing the deep hatred of the Jews towards this animal, we may -naturally wonder how we come to hear of herds of Swine kept in Jewish -lands. - -Of this custom there is a familiar example in the herd of Swine that -was drowned in the sea (Matt. viii. 28-34). It is an open question -whether those who possessed the Swine were Jews of lax principles, who -disregarded the Law for the sake of gain, or whether they were -Gentiles, who, of course, were not bound by the Law. The former seems -the likelier interpretation, the destruction of the Swine being a -fitting punishment for their owners. It must be here remarked, that -our Lord did not, as is often said, destroy the Swine, neither did He -send the devils into them, so that the death of these animals cannot -be reckoned as one of the divine miracles. Ejecting the evil spirits -from the maniacs was an exercise of His divine authority; the -destruction of the Swine was a manifestation of diabolical anger, -permitted, but not dictated. - -The scene of so remarkable an event is naturally of great interest, -especially as the statements of the Evangelists who mention it do not -precisely agree. This subject is so well treated by Mr. Tristram in -his "Land of Israel," that it must be given in his own words:-- - -"The field of the tombs at Gadara presents a vivid illustration of the -circumstances connected with the healing of the demoniac in the -country of the Gadarenes, or Gergesenes. With one exception, all the -concomitant events of the miracle are exactly illustrated. We have -beyond the city the field of tombs, these tombs suited for the refuge -of demoniac outcasts, occupied as dwellings to the present day. We -have a plain suited for the feeding of swine, with its roots and -acorns, and we have a steep place hard by, of several hundred feet -high, [Greek: krêmnon]. But then, it does not run down to the sea, but -to the little river. This objection is, I think, fatal to the -identification of Um Keis with the scene of the miracle. - -"St. Mark (v. 2) tells us that our Lord was met _immediately_ on His -coming out of the ship. This place is three and a half hours distant -from its shores. It is important also to observe that St. Matthew -(viii. 28) reads not Gadarenes, but Gergesenes, and St. Luke states -that the coast of the Gadarenes was over against Galilee (viii. 26). I -should feel thereupon disposed fully to endorse the suggestion of Dr. -Thomson, that St. Matthew, writing for those intimately acquainted -with the topography of the country in detail, names the obscure and -exact locality, _Gergesa_; while SS. Mark and Luke, writing for those -at a distance, simply name the country of Gadara, as being a place of -importance, and the acknowledged capital of the district. This is -borne out by the statement of Josephus ('Bell. Jud.' 1, viii. 35). - -"Dr. Thomson visited, at the mouth of the Wady Semakh, directly -opposite Gennesaret, some ruins called by his guide _Kerza_, or -_Gerza_, which he identifies with the Gergesa of St. Matthew. The -discovery is most interesting and important. I visited the place -myself from a boat, and observed the remains of a valley and a khan; -but, unfortunately, I was not aware at the time of the interest -attaching to the place, and did not ascertain, or at least note down, -the name given to it by my boatmen. - -"The statement of Origen exactly bears out the discovery of Dr. -Thomson. After stating that Gadara was not the scene of the miracle, -for these was thence no steep place into the sea, he states that -Gergesa is an ancient city on the shores of the lake, by which is a -steep place which runs down to it. In one important particular my -memory corroborates the statement of Dr. Thomson, viz. that while -there is here no precipice running sheer to the shore, but a narrow -belt of land, the cliff behind is steep, and the sea so narrow, that a -herd of swine, rushing frantically down, must certainly have been -overwhelmed in the sea before they could recover themselves. - -"While the tombs at Gadara are peculiarly interesting and remarkable, -yet the whole region is so perforated everywhere by rock-chambers of -the dead that we may be quite certain that a home for the demoniac -will not be wanting whatever locality be assigned for the events -recorded by the Evangelists." - -Although that part of the country is well suited for feeding Swine, -the animals are no longer kept. In the first place, there is a great -want of spirit in matters of commerce; and in the second, the country -is so unsettled that the merchants would probably be robbed. The -woods, moreover, furnish nowadays but a scanty supply of acorns, and -those are eaten by the Arabs instead of being given to pigs. - -These animals are at the present day much neglected, because the -Mahometans and Jews may not eat the flesh, and the Christians, as a -rule, abstain from it, so that they may not hurt the feelings of their -neighbours. Pigs are however reared in the various monasteries, and by -the Arabs attached to them; the former eating the hog, and the latter -only breeding it for sale. Signor Pierotti states that the pigs become -as part of the family, who live and grow fat together with them. -Though, he remarks, they are not so intelligent as those that listened -to St. Anthony preaching in the Thebaid, they play with the children, -understand the language of their masters, and do not disdain to play -with the fowls, dogs, cats, asses, and horses, and are much more -nimble than their European brethren, although they are smaller in size -and not so spirited. - -Although the pig was so detested by the Jews, they were evidently well -acquainted with it. St. Peter, for example, in his Second Epistle, -chap. ii. 22, refers to the habit of wallowing in the mire, a custom -which is common to all the pachydermatous animals, which, in spite of -their thick hide, are very sensitive to the attacks of flies, and -cover themselves with mud in order to defend themselves against their -tiny but dreaded enemies. - -In connexion with the Swine, there is a passage in the Proverbs which -requires a slight comment. It occurs in chap. xi. 22: "As a jewel (or -pendant) of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman which is -without discretion." The sacred writer refers here to the custom -adopted by Oriental women of wearing a ring in the nostril--a custom -which has existed to the present day, and is familiar to all those who -have travelled in the East. The plan which is generally adopted is -that of boring a hole through the nostril, passing a ring through it, -and, when the wound has healed, hanging various jewels and other -ornaments upon the ring, so as to constitute the "pendant of gold" -mentioned in the proverb. - -The image used by our Lord of casting pearls before Swine needs no -explanation. - -We now come to the wild animal. Their is only one passage in the -Scriptures in which the WILD BOAR is definitely mentioned, and another -in which a reference is made to it in a paraphrase. - -The former of these is the well-known verse of the Psalms: "Why hast -thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do -pluck her? - -"The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the -field doth devour it" (Ps. lxxx. 12, 13). The second passage is to be -found in Ps. lxviii. 30. In the Authorized Version it is thus -rendered: "Rebuke the company of spearmen, the multitude of bulls, -with the calves of the people." If the reader will refer to the -marginal translation (which, it must be remarked, is of equal -authority with the text), the passage runs thus: "Rebuke the beasts of -the reeds," &c. Now, this is undoubtedly the correct rendering, and is -accepted in the Jewish Bible. - -Having quoted these two passages, we will proceed to the description -and character of the animal. - -In the former times, the Wild Boar was necessarily much more plentiful -than is the case in these days, owing to the greater abundance of -woods, many of which have disappeared by degrees, and others been -greatly thinned by the encroachments of mankind. Woods and reed-beds -are always the habitations of the Wild Boar, which resides in these -fastnesses, and seems always to prefer the reed-bed to the wood, -probably because it can find plenty of mud, in which it wallows after -the fashion of its kind. There is no doubt whatever that the "beast of -the reeds" is simply a poetical phrase for the Wild Boar. - -If there should be any cultivated ground in the neighbourhood, the -Boar is sure to sally out and do enormous damage to the crops. It is -perhaps more dreaded in the vineyards than in any other ground, as it -not only devours the grapes, but tears down and destroys the vines, -trampling them under foot, and destroying a hundredfold as much as it -eats. - - [Illustration: WILD BOAR OF PALESTINE. - - "The Boar out of the wood doth waste it."--PS. lxxx. 13.] - -If the reader will refer again to Ps. lxxx. he will see that the -Jewish nation is described under the image of a vine: "Thou hast -brought a vine out of Egypt: Thou hast cast out the heathen and -planted it," &c. No image of a destructive enemy could therefore -be more appropriate than that which is used. We have read of -the little foxes that spoil the vines, but the Wild Boar is a much -more destructive enemy, breaking its way through the fences, rooting -up the ground, tearing down the vines themselves, and treading them -under its feet. A single party of these animals will sometimes destroy -an entire vineyard in a single night. - -We can well imagine the damage that would be done to a vineyard even -by the domesticated Swine, but the Wild Boar is infinitely more -destructive. It is of very great size, often resembling a donkey -rather than a boar, and is swift and active beyond conception. The -Wild Boar is scarcely recognisable as the very near relation of the -domestic species. It runs with such speed, that a high-bred horse -finds some difficulty in overtaking it, while an indifferent steed -would be left hopelessly behind. Even on level ground the hunter has -hard work to overtake it; and if it can get upon broken or hilly -ground, no horse can catch it. The Wild Boar can leap to a -considerable distance, and can wheel and turn when at full speed, with -an agility that makes it a singularly dangerous foe. Indeed, the -inhabitants of countries where the Wild Boar flourishes would as soon -face a lion as one of these animals, the stroke of whose razor-like -tusks is made with lightning swiftness, and which is sufficient to rip -up a horse, and cut a dog nearly asunder. - -Although the Wild Boar is not as plentiful in Palestine as used to be -the case, it is still found in considerable numbers. Whenever the -inhabitants can contrive to cut off the retreat of marauding parties -among the crops, they turn out for a general hunt, and kill as many as -they can manage to slay. After one of these hunts, the bodies are -mostly exposed for sale, but, as the demand for them is very small, -they can be purchased at a very cheap rate. Signor Pierotti bought one -in the plains of Jericho for five shillings. For the few who may eat -the hog, this is a fortunate circumstance, the flesh being very -excellent, and as superior to ordinary pork as is a pheasant to a -barn-door fowl, or venison to mutton. - - - - -THE ELEPHANT. - - The Elephant indirectly mentioned in the Authorized - Version--Solomon's ivory throne--Ivory used in Egypt--Horns of - ivory--The ivory palaces--Beds of ivory--The Tyrian ships--Ivory - mentioned by Homer--Vessels of ivory--The Elephant as an engine - of war--Antiochus and his Elephants--Oriental - exaggeration--Self-devotion of Eleazar--Attacking the Elephants, - and their gradual abandonment in war--The Talmudical writers on - the Elephant--A funeral and an omen. - - -Except indirectly, the Elephant is never mentioned in the Authorized -Version of the Canonical Scriptures, although frequent references are -made to ivory, the product of that animal. - -The earliest mention of ivory in the Scriptures is to be found in 1 -Kings x. 18: "Moreover the king (_i.e._ Solomon) made a great throne -of ivory, and overlaid it with the best gold." This passage forms a -portion of the description given by the sacred historian of the -glories of Solomon's palace, of which this celebrated throne, with the -six steps and the twelve lions on the steps, was the central and most -magnificent object. It is named together with the three hundred golden -shields, the golden vessel of the royal palace, and the wonderful -arched viaduct crossing the valley of the Tyropoeon, "the ascent by -which he went up unto the house of the Lord," all of which glories so -overcame the Queen of Sheba that "there was no more spirit in her." - -We see, therefore, that in the time of Solomon ivory was so precious -an article that it was named among the chief of the wonders to be seen -in the palace of Solomon, the wealthiest and most magnificent monarch -of sacred or profane history. - -That it should not have been previously mentioned is very singular. -Five hundred years had elapsed since the Israelites escaped from the -power of Egypt, and during the whole of that time, though gold and -silver and precious stones and costly raiment are repeatedly -mentioned, we do not find a single passage in which any allusion is -made to ivory. Had we not known that ivory was largely used among the -Egyptians, such an omission would cause no surprise. But the -researches of modern travellers have brought to light many articles of -ivory that were in actual use in Egypt, and we therefore cannot but -wonder that a material so valued and so beautiful does not seem to -have been reckoned among the treasures which were brought by the -Israelites from the land of their captivity, and which were so -abundant that the Tabernacle was entirely formed of them. - -In the various collections of Europe are many specimens of ivory used -by the ancient Egyptians, among the chief of which may be mentioned an -ivory box in the Louvre, having on its lid the name of the dynasty in -which it was carved, and the ivory-tipped lynch-pins of the splendid -war-chariot in Florence, from which the illustration on page 260 has -been drawn. - -The ivory used by the Egyptians was, of course, that of the African -Elephant; and was obtained chiefly from Ethiopia, as we find in -Herodotus ("Thalia," 114):--"Where the meridian declines towards the -setting sun, the Ethiopian territory reaches, being the extreme part -of the habitable world. It produces much gold, huge elephants, wild -trees of all kinds, ebony, and men of large stature, very handsome and -long-lived." - -Solomon may have procured from the same source part of the ivory which -he used so lavishly, but it is evident that he was also supplied from -India. In 1 Kings x. 22 we read: "For the king had at sea a navy of -Tharshish with the navy of Hiram: once in three years came the navy of -Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks." -The reader will remark that an opinion has already been expressed that -the country whence these articles were brought must be India, and this -conjecture is strengthened by the Hebrew names given to the apes, the -peacocks, and the ivory, which are almost identical with the words -employed in the Cingalese language of the present day. - -The usual Hebrew word for ivory is _shen_, i.e. a tooth, the -Israelites being perfectly aware that it was the product of a tooth, -and not of a horn. It is true that in one passage the word "horn" is -used in connexion with the term "ivory," or "tooth," in such a manner -that a reader of the English Version might imagine the sacred writers -to think that ivory was obtained from the horn of some animal. This -passage occurs in the prophet Ezekiel, xxvii. 15. Speaking of Tyre and -her greatness, the prophet uses the following terms: "The men of Dedan -were thy merchants; many isles were the merchandise of thine hand: -they brought thee for a present horns of ivory and ebony." - -If we refer to the Hebrew Bible, we shall find that the literal -translation of this passage runs as follows: "The men of Dedan were -thy traders; many maritime settlements were the merchandise of thine -hand: they offered thee as a price horns of teeth and ebony." It is -evident that the word _kerenoth_, or horns, is used to represent the -horn-like shape of the Elephant's tusk, as it appears when imported -into the country, the use of the term _shen_, or tooth, showing that -the shape and not material is to be implied by the term. - -Now if the reader will look at a passage which has already been quoted -(1 Kings x. 22), he will see that the marginal reading translates the -word "ivory" as "elephants' teeth." This rendering is undoubtedly the -correct one. The Hebrew word is _shen-habbim_, and there is little, if -any, doubt that the term _habbim_ is rightly translated as -"elephants." A similar word, _Habba_, is found in the Assyrian -inscriptions, and is thought by Sir H. Rawlinson to have the same -signification. - -It will be as well to mention here a curious version of Gen. 1. 1, in -which Joseph is said to have placed the body of his father upon a bier -of _shin-daphin_, or ivory. - -After the passage in 1 Kings, ivory is repeatedly mentioned, sometimes -in allusion to its smoothness and whiteness, and sometimes to its use -as a luxurious appendage of the palace. For its use in the former -sense, we may take the well-known passage in the Song of Solomon: "His -hands are as gold rings set with the beryl: his belly is as bright -ivory overlaid with sapphires" (Cant. v. 14). Also vii. 4, "Thy neck -is as a tower of ivory." - -For its use in the second of these senses we may take several -passages. See, for example, Ps. xlv. 8: "All thy garments smell of -myrrh, aloes, and cassia, out of the ivory palaces, whereby they have -made thee glad." It has been suggested that the words "ivory palaces" -may signify boxes or chests inlaid with ivory, in which were deposited -the royal garments, together with perfumes. Whether or not this be the -case, it is evident that the ivory is here mentioned as a costly -adjunct of royal luxury. - -There are, however, passages in which ivory is distinctly mentioned as -forming part of the adornment of houses. For example, see 1 Kings -xxii. 39: "Now the rest of the acts of Ahab, and all that he did, and -the ivory house which he made, are they not written in the book of the -chronicles of the kings of Israel?" The "ivory house" could not, of -course, be built wholly of ivory, and it is evident that by the term -is signified a palace, the rooms of which were inlaid with ivory. -Another mention of such houses is made in Amos iii. 15: "And I will -smite the winter house with the summer house; and the houses of ivory -shall perish, and the great houses shall have an end, saith the Lord." - -Chambers thus decorated are to be seen at the present day, and it is -remarkable that ivory is still used, together with ebony, in panelling -the walls of rooms--a combination which is mentioned in several of the -passages which have already been quoted. - -The use of ivory as an article of luxury is also mentioned in Amos vi. -4: "Woe to them ... that lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch -themselves upon their couches." And in Ezekiel xxvii. 6, the -overwhelming wealth and luxury of Tyre are pictured by the costly -materials of which the Assyrians built their ships--the planks of -Senir fir, the masts of cedar, the oars of Bashan oak, the sails of -fine linen, and the very benches on which the rowers sat, inlaid with -ivory. How accurate was the prophet in the details of his bodings, is -shown by the research of Mr. Layard, who found among the buried ruins -of Nineveh great quantities of ivory, some manufactured, and some in -its original state as imported--the uncut tusks, or "horns of ivory," -to which reference has already been made. - -The classical reader need scarcely be reminded of the parallel between -passages of Scripture and those of profane authors, in which ivory is -mentioned as a costly ornament. See, for example, the Iliad, book v. -484:-- - - "From his numbed hands the iv'ry studded reins, - Dropped in the dust, are trailed along the plains." - - (_Lines_ 712, 713, POPE'S _Version_.) - -In ancient Greece, as well as in Assyria, the beds of the wealthy were -adorned with ivory. Ulysses, for example (see Odyssey, book xxi.), -king as he was, made his own bridal bed of hide thongs interlaced, and -inlaid the posts with gold, ivory, and silver. And, in the beginning -of the same book, we find that the key of the royal armoury was made -of brass inlaid with ivory. - -There is only one passage in the New Testament in which ivory is -mentioned: "And the merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over -her, for no man buyeth their merchandise any more; the merchandise of -gold, and silver, and precious stones, ... and all manner vessels of -ivory." (Rev. xviii. 11, 12.) - - -Having now examined the passages in which ivory is mentioned, we turn -to those in which the Elephant itself is named. These are only to be -found in the Apocrypha, and in all of them the Elephant is described -as an engine of war. If the reader will refer to the First Book of the -Maccabees, he will find that the Elephant is mentioned at the very -commencement of the book. "Now when the kingdom was established before -Antiochus, he thought to reign over Egypt, that he might have the -dominion of two realms. - -"Wherefore he entered into Egypt with a great multitude, with -chariots, and elephants, and horsemen, and a great navy." (i. 16, 17.) - -Here we see that the Elephant was considered as a most potent engine -of war, and, as we may perceive by the context, the King of Egypt was -so alarmed by the invading force, that he ran away, and allowed -Antiochus to take possession of the country. - -After this, Antiochus Eupator marched against Jerusalem with a vast -army, which is thus described in detail:--"The number of his army was -one hundred thousand footmen, and twenty thousand horsemen, and two -and thirty elephants exercised in battle. - -"And to the end that they might provoke the elephants to fight, they -showed them the blood of grapes and mulberries. - -"Moreover, they divided the beasts among the armies, and for every -elephant they appointed a thousand men, armed with coats of mail, and -with helmets of brass on their heads; and, besides this, for every -beast were ordained five hundred horsemen of the best. - -"These were ready at every occasion wheresoever the beast was; and -whithersoever the beast went they went also, neither departed they -from him. - -"And upon the beasts were there strong towers of wood, which covered -every one of them, and were girt fast unto them with devices; there -were also upon every one two and thirty strong men that fought upon -them, beside the Indian that ruled him. - -"As for the remnant of the horsemen, they set them on this side and -that side at the two fronts of the host, giving them signs what to do, -and being harnessed all over amidst the ranks." (1 Macc. vi. 30, &c.) - -It is evident from this description that, in the opinion of the -writer, the Elephants formed the principal arms of the opposing force, -these animals being prominently mentioned, and the rest of the army -being reckoned as merely subsidiaries of the terrible beasts. The -thirty-two Elephants appear to have taken such a hold of the -narrator's mind, that he evidently looked upon them in the same light -that the ancient Jews regarded chariots of war, or as at the present -day savages regard artillery. According to his ideas, the thirty-two -Elephants constituted the real army, the hundred thousand infantry and -twenty thousand cavalry being only in attendance upon these animals. - -Taken as a whole, the description of the war Elephant is a good one, -though slightly exaggerated, and is evidently written by an -eye-witness. The mention of the native mahout, or "Indian that guided -him," is characteristic enough, as is the account of the howdah, or -wooden carriage on the back of the animal. - -The number of warriors, however, is evidently exaggerated, though not -to such an extent as the account of Julius Cæsar's Elephants, which -are said to have carried on their backs sixty soldiers, beside the -wooden tower in which they fought. It is evident that, in the first -place, no Elephant could carry a tower large enough to hold so many -fighting men, much less one which would afford space for them to use -their weapons. - -A good account of the fighting Elephant is given by Topsel (p. -157):--"There were certain officers and guides of the Elephants, who -were called _Elephantarchæ_, who were the governors of sixteen -Elephants, and they which did institute and teach them martial -discipline were called _Elephantagogi_. - -"The Military Elephant did carry four persons on his bare back, one -fighting on the right hand, another fighting on the left hand, a -third, which stood fighting backwards from the Elephant's head, and a -fourth in the middle of these, holding the rains, and guiding the -Beast to the discretion of the Souldiers, even as the Pilot in a ship -guideth the stem, wherein was required an equall knowledge and -dexterity; for when the Indian which ruled them said, Strike here on -the right hand, or else on the left, or refrain and stand still, no -reasonable man could yield readier obedience." - -This description is really a very accurate as well as spirited one, -and conveys a good idea of the fighting Elephant as it appeared when -brought into action. - -Strangely enough, after giving this temperate and really excellent -account of the war Elephant, the writer seems to have been unable to -resist the fascination of his theme, and proceeds to describe, with -great truth and spirit, the mode of fighting adopted by the animal, -intermixed with a considerable amount of the exaggeration from which -the former part of his account is free. - -"They did fasten iron chains, first of all, upon the Elephant that was -to bear ten, fifteen, twenty, or thirty men, on either side two -panniers of iron bound underneath their belly, and upon them the like -panniers of wood, hollow, wherein they placed their men at armes, and -covered them over with small boards (for the trunck of the Elephant -was covered with a mail for defence, and upon that a broadsword, two -cubits long); this (as also the wooden Castle, or pannier aforesaid) -were fastened first to the neck and then to the rump of the Elephant. - -"Being thus armed, they entered the battel, and they shewed unto the -Beasts, to make them more fierce, wine, liquor made of Rice, and white -cloth, for at the sight of any of these his courage and rage -increaseth above all measure. Then at the sound of the Trumpet, he -beginneth with teeth to strike, tear, beat, spoil, take up into the -air, cast down again, stamp upon men under feet, overthrow with his -trunck, and make way for his riders to pierce with Spear, Shield, and -Sword; so that his horrible voice, his wonderful body, his terrible -force, his admirable skill, his ready and inestimable obedience, and -his strange and seldom-seen shape, produced in a main battel no mean -accidents and overturns." - -In this account there is a curious mixture of truth and exaggeration. -As we have already seen, the number of soldiers which the animal was -supposed to carry is greatly exaggerated, and it is rather amusing to -note how the "towers" in which they fought are modified into -"panniers." Then the method by which the animal is incited to the -combat is partly true, and partly false. Of course an Elephant is not -angered by seeing a piece of white cloth, or by looking at wine, or a -liquor made of rice. - -But that the wine, or the "liquor made of rice," _i.e._ arrack, was -administered to the Elephant before it was brought into the -battle-field, is likely enough. Elephants are wonderfully fond of -strong drink. They can be incited to perform any task within their -powers by a provision of arrack, and when stimulated by a plentiful -supply of their favourite drink they would be in good fighting -condition. - -Next we find the writer describing the Elephant as being furnished -with a coating of mail armour on its proboscis, the end of which was -armed with a sword a yard in length. Now any one who is acquainted -with the Elephant will see at once that such offensive and defensive -armour would deprive the animal of the full use of the proboscis, and -would, therefore, only weaken, and not strengthen, its use in battle. -Accordingly we find that the writer, when describing with perfect -accuracy the mode in which the Elephant fights, utterly omits all -mention of the sword and the mailed proboscis, and describes the -animal, not as striking or thrusting with the sword, but as -overthrowing with the trunk, taking up into the air, and casting down -again--acts which could only be performed when the proboscis was -unencumbered by armour. The use of weapons was left to the soldiers -that fought upon its back, the principal object of the huge animal -being to trample its way through the opposing ranks, and to make a way -for the soldiers that followed. - -It may be easily imagined that, before soldiers become familiarized -with the appearance of the Elephant, they might be pardoned for being -panic-struck at the sight of so strange an animal. Not only was it -formidable for its vast size, and for the armed men which it carried, -but for the obedience which it rendered to its keeper, and the skill -with which it wielded the strange but powerful weapon with which -Nature had armed it. - -At first, the very approach of so terrible a foe struck consternation -into the soldiers, who knew of no mode by which they could oppose the -gigantic beast, which came on in its swift, swinging pace, crushing -its way by sheer weight through the ranks, and striking right and left -with its proboscis. No other method of checking the Elephant, except -by self-sacrifice, could be found; and in 1 Macc. vi. 43-46, we read -how Eleazar, the son of Mattathias, nobly devoted himself for his -country. - -"Eleazar also, surnamed Savaran, perceiving that one of the beasts, -armed with royal harness, was higher than all the rest, and supposing -that the king was upon him. - -"Put himself in jeopardy, to the end he might deliver his people, and -get him a perpetual name. - -"Whereupon he ran upon him courageously, through the midst of the -battle, slaying on the right hand and on the left, so that they were -divided from him on both sides. - -"Which done, he crept under the elephant, and thrust him under, and -slew him; whereupon the elephant fell down upon him, and he died." - -I may here mention that the surname of Savaran, or Avaran, as it ought -to be called, signifies one who pierces an animal from behind, and was -given to him after his death, in honour of his exploit. - -At first, then, Elephants were the most formidable engines of war that -could be brought into the battle-field, and the very sight of these -huge beasts, towering above even the helmets of the cavalry, -disheartened the enemy so much that victory became easy. - -After a while, however, when time for reflection had been allowed, the -more intellectual among the soldiers began to think that, after all, -the Elephant was not a mere engine, but a living animal, and, as such, -subject to the infirmities of the lower animals. So they invented -scheme after scheme, by which they baffled the attacks of these once -dreaded foes, and sometimes even succeeded in driving them back among -the ranks of their own soldiery, so maddened with pain and anger, -that they dealt destruction among the soldiers for whom they were -fighting, and so broke up their order of battle that the foe easily -overcame them. - -The vulnerable nature of the proboscis was soon discovered, and -soldiers were armed with very sharp swords, set on long handles, with -which they continually attacked the Elephants' trunks. Others were -mounted on swift horses, dashed past the Elephant, and hurled their -darts before the animal could strike them. Others, again, were placed -in chariots, and armed with very long and sharply-pointed spears. -Several of these chariots would be driven simultaneously against an -Elephant, and sometimes succeeded in killing the animal. Slingers also -were told off for the express purpose of clearing the "castles," or -howdahs, of the soldiers who fought on the Elephants' backs, and their -especial object was the native mahout, who sat on the animal's neck. - -Sometimes they made way for the Elephant as it pressed forward, and -then closed round it, so as to make it the central mark, on which -converged a hail of javelins, arrows, and stones on every side, until -the huge animal sank beneath its many wounds. By degrees, therefore, -the Elephant was found to be so uncertain an engine of war, that its -use was gradually discontinued, and finally abandoned altogether. - - -The Elephant which was employed in these wars was the Indian species, -_Elephas Indicus_, which is thought to be more susceptible of -education than the African Elephant. The latter, however, has been -tamed, and, in the days of Rome's greatest splendour, was taught to -perform a series of tricks that seem almost incredible. As, however, -the Indian species is that with which we have here to do, I have -selected it for the illustration. - -It may be at once distinguished from its African relative by the -comparatively small ears, those of the African Elephant reaching above -the back of the head, and drooping well below the neck. The shape of -the head, too, is different. In the Indian species, only the males -bear tusks, and even many of them are unarmed. In the African species, -however, both sexes bear tusks, those of the male furnishing the best -ivory, with its peculiar creamy colour and beautiful graining, and -those of the female being smaller in size, and producing ivory of a -much inferior quality. - - [Illustration: INDIAN ELEPHANT - - "They brought thee for a present horns of Ivory"--EZ. xxvii. 15.] - -The Talmudical writers have not much to say about the Elephant, and -what they do say is rather ludicrous than otherwise. The proboscis, -say they, gives the animal a very ugly look, so that to dream of the -trunk of an Elephant is a bad omen. Indeed, it is so odd a substitute -for a nose, that when people look at it they say, "Praised be He who -can thus transform His creatures." - -Largest and strongest of earth's inhabitants, the Elephant is yet -afraid of the smallest. The gnat attacks him, flies into the open end -of the proboscis, and sucks his blood at its ease. - -It is rather remarkable that there is an ironical adage respecting the -Elephant and the eye of the needle, exactly similar to the familiar -proverb of the camel and the needle's eye. - - - - -THE CONEY, OR HYRAX. - - The Shaphan of Scripture, and the correct meaning of the - word--Identification of the Shaphan with the Syrian - Hyrax--Description of the animal--Its feet, teeth, and apparent - rumination--Passages in which the Coney is mentioned--Habits of - the animal--Its activity and wariness--The South African Hyrax, - and its mode of life--Difficulty of procuring it--Similarity in - appearance and habits of the Syrian species--Three species of - Hyrax known to naturalists--The Talmudical writers on the - Shaphan--The jerboa and the rabbit--A curious speculation and a - judicious compromise. - - -Among the many animals mentioned in the Bible, there is one which is -evidently of some importance in the Jewish code, inasmuch as it is -twice named in the Mosaic law. - -That it was also familiar to the Jews is evident from other references -which are made to its habits. This animal is the Shaphan of the Hebrew -language, a word which has very wrongly been translated in the -Authorized Version as Coney, _i.e._ Rabbit, the creature in question -not being a rabbit, nor even a rodent. No rabbit has ever been -discovered in Palestine, and naturalists have agreed that the -true Coney or Rabbit has never inhabited the Holy Land. There -is no doubt that the Shaphan of the Hebrew Scripture, and the Coney of -the Vulgate, was the SYRIAN HYRAX (_Hyrax Syriacus_). This little -animal is rather larger than an ordinary rabbit, is not unlike it in -appearance, and has many of its habits. It is clothed with brown fur, -it is very active, it inhabits holes and clefts in rocks, and it has -in the front of its mouth long chisel-shaped teeth, very much like -those of the rabbit. Consequently, it was classed by naturalists among -the rodents for many years, under the name of Rock Rabbit. Yet, as I -have already mentioned, it is not even a rodent, but belongs to the -pachydermatous group of animals, and occupies an intermediate place -between the rhinoceros and the hippopotamus. - - [Illustration: THE HYRAX. - - "_The Conies are but a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in the - rocks._"--PROV. xxx. 26.] - -If it be examined carefully, the rodent-like teeth will be seen to -resemble exactly the long curved tusks of the hippopotamus, with -their sharp and chisel-edged tips; the little feet, on a close -inspection, are seen to be furnished with a set of tiny hoofs just -like those of the rhinoceros; and there are many other points in its -structure which, to the eye of a naturalist, point out its true place -in nature. - -In common with the rodents, and other animals which have -similarly-shaped teeth, the Hyrax, when at rest, is continually -working its jaws from side to side, a movement which it instinctively -performs, in order that the chiselled edges of the upper and lower -teeth may be preserved sharp by continually rubbing against each -other, and that they may not be suffered to grow too long, and so to -deprive the animal of the means whereby it gains its food. But for -this peculiar movement, which looks very like the action of -ruminating, the teeth would grow far beyond the mouth, as they rapidly -deposit dental material in their bases in order to supply the waste -caused at their tips by the continual friction of the edges against -each other. - -It may seem strange that an animal which is classed with the elephant, -the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, all bare-skinned animals, should -be clothed with a furry coat. The reader may perhaps remember that the -Hyrax does not afford a solitary instance of this structure, and that, -although the elephants of our day have only a few bristly hairs thinly -scattered over the body, those of former days were clad in a thick and -treble coat of fur and hair. - - -There are four passages of Scripture in which the Coney is -mentioned--two in which it is prohibited as food, and two in which -allusion is made to its manner of life. In order to understand the -subject better, we will take them in their order. - -The first mention of the Coney occurs in Leviticus xi. 5, among the -list of clean and unclean animals: "The coney, because he cheweth the -cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you." The second is -of a like nature, and is to be found in Deut. xiv. 7: "These ye shall -not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that divide the cloven -hoof; as the camel, and the hare, and the coney: for they chew the -cud, but divide not the hoof; therefore they are unclean unto you." - -The remaining passages, which describe the habits of the Coney, are as -follow. The first alludes to the rock-loving habits of the animal: -"The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats, and the rocks for the -conies." (Ps. civ. 18.) The second makes a similar mention of the -localities which the animal frequents, and in addition speaks of its -wariness, including it among the "four things which are little upon -the earth, but they are exceedingly wise." The four are the ants, the -locusts, the spiders, and the Conies, which "are but a feeble folk, -yet make they their houses in the rocks." - -We will take these passages in their order. - -It has already been mentioned that the Hyrax, a true pachyderm, does -not merely chew the cud, but that the peculiar and constant movement -of its jaws strongly resembles the act of rumination. The Jews, -ignorant as they were of scientific zoology, would naturally set down -the Hyrax as a ruminant, and would have been likely to eat it, as its -flesh is very good. It must be remembered that two conditions were -needful to render an animal fit to be eaten by a Jew, the one that it -must be a ruminant, and the second that it should have a divided hoof. -Granting, therefore, the presence of the former qualification, Moses -points out the absence of the latter, thereby prohibiting the animal -as effectually as if he had entered into a question of comparative -anatomy, and proved that the Hyrax was incapable of rumination. - -We now come to the habits of the animal. - -As we may gather from the passages of Scripture which have already -been mentioned, the Hyrax inhabits rocky places, and lives in the -clefts that are always found in such localities. It is an exceedingly -active creature, leaping from rock to rock with wonderful rapidity, -its little sharp hoofs giving it a firm hold of the hard and irregular -surface of the stony ground. Even in captivity it retains much of its -activity, and flies about its cage with a rapidity that seems more -suitable to a squirrel than to an animal allied to the rhinoceros and -hippopotamus. - -There are several species--perhaps only varieties--of the Hyrax, all -of them identical in habits, and almost precisely similar in -appearance. The best known of these animals is that which inhabits -Southern Africa (_Hyrax Capensis_), and which is familiar to the -colonists by its name of Klip-das, or Rock-rabbit. In situations which -suit it, the Hyrax is very plentiful, and is much hunted by the -natives, who esteem its flesh very highly. Small and insignificant as -it appears to be, even Europeans think that to kill the Hyrax is a -tolerable test of sportsmanship, the wariness of the animal being so -great that much hunter's craft is required to approach it. - -The following account of the Hyrax has been furnished to me by -Lt.-Col. A. W. Drayson, R.A.:--"In the Cape Colony, and over a great -portion of Southern Africa, this little creature is found. It is -never, as far as my experience goes, seen in great numbers, as we find -rabbits in England, though the caution of the animal is such as to -enable it to remain safe in districts from which other animals are -soon exterminated. - -"As its name implies, it is found among rocks, in the crevices and -holes of which it finds a retreat. When a natural cavity is not found, -the klip-das scratches a hole in the ground under the rocks, and -burrows like a common rabbit. In size it is about equal to a hare, -though it is much shorter in the legs, and has ears more like those of -a rat than a rabbit. Its skin is covered with fur, thick and woolly, -as though intended for a colder climate than that in which it is -usually found; and, when seen from a distance, it looks nearly black. - -"The rock-rabbit is a very watchful creature, and usually feeds on the -summit of any piece of rock near its home, always choosing one from -which it can obtain a good view of the surrounding country. When it -sees an enemy approaching, it sits rigidly on the rock and watches him -without moving, so that at a little distance it is almost impossible -to distinguish it from the rock on which it sits. When it does move, -it darts quickly out of sight, and disappears into its burrow with a -sudden leap. - -"In consequence of its activity and cunning, the rock-rabbit is seldom -killed by white men; and when a hunter does secure one, it is -generally by means of a long shot. The natives usually watch near its -burrow, or noiselessly stalk it. - -"I once killed one of these animals by a very long shot from a rifle, -as it was sitting watching us from the top of a large boulder, at a -distance of a hundred and fifty yards or thereabouts. The Dutch Boers -who were with me were delighted at the sight of it, as they said it -was good eating; and so it proved to be, the flesh being somewhat like -that of a hare, though in our rough field-cookery we could not do -justice to it." - -This short narrative excellently illustrates the character of the -animal, which is classed among the "four things which be exceeding -wise." It is so crafty that no trap or snare ever set has induced a -Hyrax to enter it, and so wary that it is with difficulty to be killed -even with the aid of fire-arms. "No animal," writes Mr. Tristram, -"ever gave us so much trouble to secure.... The only chance of -securing one is to be concealed, particularly about sunset or before -sunrise, on some overhanging cliff, taking care not to let the shadow -be cast below, and then to wait until the little creatures cautiously -peep forth from their holes. They are said to be common by those who -have not looked for them, but are certainly not abundant in Palestine, -and few writers have ever had more than a single glimpse of one. I had -the good fortune to see one feeding in the gorge of the Kedron, and -then to watch it as it sat at the mouth of its hole, ruminating, -metaphorically if not literally, while waiting for sunset." - -Should the Hyrax manage to catch a glimpse of the enemy, it utters a -shrill cry or squeal, and darts at once to its hole--an action which -is followed by all its companions as soon as they hear the warning -cry. It is a tolerably prolific animal, rearing four or five young at -a birth, and keeping them in a soft bed of hay and fur, in which they -are almost hidden. If surprised in its hole and seized, the Hyrax will -bite very sharply, its long chisel-edged teeth inflicting severe -wounds on the hand that attempts to grasp it. But it is of a tolerably -docile disposition, and in a short time learns to know its owner, and -to delight in receiving his caresses. - -Three species of Hyrax are known to naturalists. One is the Klip-das, -or Rock-rabbit, of Southern Africa; the second is the Ashkoko of -Abyssinia; and the third is the Syrian Hyrax, or the Coney of the -Bible. The two last species have often been confounded together, but -the Syrian animal may be known by the oblong pale spot on the middle -of its back. - -The Talmudical writers were greatly perplexed about the proper reading -of the word Shaphan, some of them thinking it to be a jerboa, and -others considering it as the rabbit. Lewysohn sums up the arguments -after a rather curious fashion. According to him, the strongest -argument against the translation of the Biblical word Shaphan as -"rabbit" is that the animal came from Spain, and was probably unknown -to the earlier Talmudists, though the later writers might have known -it. - -Then, struck with the resemblance of the Hebrew word [Hebrew: Sh'p'n] -and Spain, he proceeds to discuss the probability of the Shaphan -deriving its name from Spain, the country of its origin, or of Spain -being so called on account of the number of rabbits which inhabited -it. He comes at last to the conclusion that the jerboa was probably -the animal which was prohibited in the Mosaic law; but that, as the -rabbit answered in every respect to the Talmudical conditions, it may, -for all practical purposes, be accepted as the representative of the -Shaphan of Scripture. - - - - -BEHEMOTH. - - Literal translation of the word Behemoth--Various theories - respecting the identity of the animal--The Hippopotamus known to - the ancient Hebrews--Geographical range of the animal--"He - eateth grass like the ox"--Ravages of the Hippopotamus among the - crops--Structure of the mouth and teeth--The "sword or scythe" - of the Hippopotamus--Some strange theories--Haunts of the - Hippopotamus--The Egyptian hunter--A valuable painting--Strength - of the Hippopotamus--Rising of the Nile--Modern - hunters--Wariness of the Hippopotamus--The pitfall and the - drop-trap. - - -In the concluding part of that wonderful poem which is so familiar to -us as the Book of Job, the Lord is represented as reproving the -murmurs of Job, by showing that he could not even understand the -mysteries of the universe, much less the purposes of the Creator. By -presuming to bring a charge of injustice against his Maker, he in fact -inferred that the accuser was more competent to govern the world than -was the Creator, and thus laid himself open to the unanswerable irony -of the splendid passages contained in chapters xl. xli., which show -that man cannot even rule the animals, his fellow-creatures, much less -control the destinies of the human race. - -The passages with which we are at present concerned are to be found at -the end of the fortieth chapter, and contain a most powerful -description of some animal which is called by the name of Behemoth. -Now this word only occurs once in the whole of the Scriptures, _i.e._ -in Job xl. 15: "Behold now behemoth, which I made with thee," &c. Some -commentators, in consequence of the plural termination of the word, -which may be literally translated as "beasts," have thought that it -was a collective term for all the largest beasts of the world, such as -the elephant, the hippopotamus, the wild cattle, and their like. -Others have thought that the elephant was signified by the word -Behemoth; and some later writers, acquainted with palæontology, have -put forward a conjecture that the Behemoth must have been some extinct -pachydermatous animal, like the dinotherium, in which might be -combined many of the qualities of the elephant and hippopotamus. - -It is now, however, agreed by all Biblical scholars and naturalists, -that the hippopotamus, and no other animal, is the creature which was -signified by the word Behemoth, and this interpretation is followed in -the Jewish Bible. - -We will now take the whole of the passage, and afterwards examine it -by degrees, comparing the Authorized Version with the Jewish Bible, -and noting at the same time one or two variations in the rendering of -certain phrases. The passage is given as follows in the Jewish Bible, -and may be compared with our Authorized Version:-- - -"Behold now the river-horse, which I have made with thee: he eateth -grass like an ox. - -"Lo now, his strength is in his loins, and his vigour is in the -muscles of his body. - -"He moveth his tail like a cedar: the sinews of his thighs are wrapped -together. - -"His bones are pipes of copper; his bones are like bars of iron. - -"He is the chief of the ways of God: he that made him can alone reach -his sword. - -"That the mountains should bring forth food for him, and all the -beasts of the field play there. - -"He lieth under wild lotuses, in the covert of the reed, and fens. - -"Wild lotuses cover him with their shadow; willows of the brook -compass him about. - -"Behold, should a river overflow, he hasteth not: he feels secure -should Jordan burst forth up to his mouth. - -"He taketh it in with his eyes: his nose pierceth through snares." - -We will now take this description in detail, and see how far it -applies to the now familiar habits of the hippopotamus. A little -allowance must of course be made for poetical imagery, but we shall -find that in all important details the account of the Behemoth agrees -perfectly with the appearance and habits of the hippopotamus. - -In the first place, it is evident that we may dismiss from our minds -the idea that the Behemoth was an extinct pachyderm. The whole tenor -of the passage shows that it must have been an animal then existing, -and whose habits were familiar to Job and his friends. Now the date of -the Book of Job could not have been earlier than about 1500 B.C., and -in, consequence, the ideas of a palæozoic animal must be discarded. - -We may also dismiss the elephant, inasmuch as it was most unlikely -that Job should have known anything about the animal, and it is -certain that he could not have attained the familiarity with its -appearance and habits which is inferred by the context. Moreover, it -cannot be said of the elephant that "he eateth grass as an ox." The -elephant feeds chiefly on the leaves of trees, and when he does eat -grass, he cannot do so "like an ox," but plucks it with his proboscis, -and then puts the green tufts into his mouth. So characteristic a -gesture as this would never have passed unnoticed in a description so -full of detail. - -That the hippopotamus was known to the ancient Hebrews is certain. -After their sojourn in Egypt they had necessarily become familiarized -with it; and if, as most commentators believe, the date of the Book of -Job be subsequent to the liberation of the Israelites, there is no -difficulty in assuming that Job and his companions were well -acquainted with the animal. Even if the book be of an earlier date, it -is still possible that the hippopotamus may, in those days, have lived -in rivers where it is now as much extinct as it is in England. Mr. -Tristram remarks on this point: "No hippopotamus is found in Asia, but -there is no reason for asserting that it may not have had an eastern -range as far as Palestine, and wallowed in the Jordan; for its bones -are found in the _débris_ of the rivers of Algeria, flowing into the -Mediterranean, when tradition is quite silent as to its former -existence. - -"Several extinct species of hippopotamus have been found in the later -tertiary deposits, both of England and other countries of Europe, -embedded in gravel which contains shells of many existing species of -the locality, showing that the temperature has not much changed, and -that some of the fossil species were natives of cold and temperate -climes." - -There is no doubt that the hippopotamus and the urus were the two -largest animals known to the Jews, and it is probably on that account -that the former received the name of Behemoth. - -Assuming, therefore, that the Behemoth is identical with the -hippopotamus, we will proceed with the description. - -The words "whom I made with thee" have been variously translated. Some -Hebraists render them as, "whom I made near thee," _i.e._ near or in -the country in which Job lived. Others read the words, "like as thee," -_i.e._ that the Behemoth was the fellow-creature of Job. Others again -understand them as signifying that the man and the animal were -contemporaneous, and the passage should be read, "whom I made at the -same time with thee." Whichever interpretation we adopt, it is evident -that a parallel of some kind is drawn between the man and the beast. - -"He eateth grass like the ox." The word which is here rendered "grass" -is translated in Numb. xi. 5 as "leeks." It means, something that is -green, and is probably used to signify green herbage of any -description. Now it is perfectly true of the hippopotamus that it eats -grass like an ox, or like cattle, as the passage may be translated. In -order to supply its huge massive body with nourishment, it consumes -vast quantities of food, as indeed may be inferred from the structure -of its mouth and jaws. The mouth is enormously broad and -shovel-shaped, so as to take in a large quantity of food at once; and -the gape is so wide, that when the animal opens its jaws to their full -extent it seems to split its head into two nearly equal portions. This -great mobility of jaw is assisted by the peculiar form of the gape, -which takes a sudden turn upwards, and reaches almost to the eyes. - -Just as the mouth is formed to contain a vast quantity of food, so -the jaws and teeth are made to procure it. From the front of the lower -jaw the incisor teeth project horizontally, no longer performing the -ordinary duties of teeth, but being modified into tusks, which are in -all probability used as levers for prising up the vegetables on which -the animal lives. But the most singular portion of the jaw is the mode -in which the canine teeth are modified so as to resemble the incisor -teeth of rodents, and to perform a similar office. - -These teeth are very long, curved, and chisel-edged at their tips, -their shape being preserved by continual attrition, just as has been -mentioned of the hyrax. The material of the teeth is peculiarly hard, -so much so, indeed, that it is in great request for artificial teeth, -the "verniers" of philosophical instruments, and similar purposes. -Consequently, with these teeth the hippopotamus can cut through the -stems of thick and strong herbage as with shears, and the strength of -its jaws is so great that an angered hippopotamus has been known to -bite a man completely in two, and to crush a canoe to fragments with a -single movement of its enormous jaws. - -Keeping this description in our minds, we shall see how true is the -statement in verse 19. This passage is not adequately rendered in the -Authorized Version: the word which is translated as "sword" also -signifies a scythe, and evidently having that meaning in the text. The -passage is best translated thus: "His Maker hath furnished him with -his scythe." - -The havoc which such an animal can make among growing crops may be -easily imagined. It is fond of leaving the river, and forcing its way -into cultivated grounds, where it eats vast quantities of green food, -and destroys as much as it eats, by the trampling of its heavy feet. -Owing to the width of the animal, the feet are placed very far apart, -and the consequence is that the hippopotamus makes a double path, the -feet of each side trampling down the herbage, and causing the track to -look like a double rut, with an elevated ridge between them. - -Some little difficulty has been made respecting the passage in verse -20, "Surely the mountains bring him forth food." Commentators ignorant -of the habits of the hippopotamus, and not acquainted with the -character of the country where it lives, have thought that the animal -only lived in the rivers, and merely found its food along its banks, -or at most upon the marshes at the river-side. The hippopotamus, say -they, is not a dweller on the mountains, but an inhabitant of the -river, and therefore this passage cannot rightly be applied to the -animal. - -Now, in the first place, the word _harim_, which is translated as -"mountains" in the Authorized Version, is rendered as "hills" by many -Hebraists. Moreover, as we know from many passages of Scripture, the -word "mountain" is applied to any elevated spot, without reference to -its height. Such places are very common along the banks of the Nile, -and are employed for the culture of vegetables, which would not grow -properly upon the flat and marshy lands around them. These spots are -very attractive to the hippopotamus, who likes a change of diet, and -thus finds food upon the mountains. In many parts of Egypt the river -runs through a mountainous country, so that the hills are within a -very short distance of the water, and are easily reached by the -hippopotamus. - -The Talmudical writers exaggerated, after their custom, the -dimensions, voracity, and other attributes of the Behemoth. They said -that the animal devoured daily the herbage of a thousand hills, but -that, in order to prevent the devastation of the world which such -voracity would occasion, the herbage was miraculously renewed every -night. Only two of the Behemoth were ever created, and, lest they -should increase in numbers, and destroy every green thing on the face -of the earth, they were made incapable of propagating their kind. -There are other legends of the Behemoth too puerile to be narrated. - -We will now proceed to the next verse. After mentioning that the -Behemoth can eat grass like an ox, and finds its food upon the hills, -the sacred writer proceeds to show that in its moments of repose it is -an inhabitant of the rivers and marshy ground: "He lieth under the -shady trees, in the covert of the reed, and fens. - -"The shady trees cover him with their shadow; the willows of the brook -compass him about." - -Here I may remind the reader that the compound Hebrew word which is -rendered in the Authorized Version as "shady trees" is translated by -some persons as "wild lotuses"--a rendering which is followed by the -editor of the Jewish Bible. Apparently, however, the Authorized -Version gives a more correct meaning of the term. Judging from a -well-known Egyptian painting, which represents a hunter in the act of -harpooning the hippopotamus, the tall papyrus reeds are the plants -that are signified by this word, which occurs in no other place in the -Scriptures. - -Nothing can be more accurate than this description of the habits of -the animal. I have now before me a number of sketches by Mr. T. -Baines, representing various incidents in the life of the -hippopotamus; and in one or two of them, the little islands that stud -the river, as well as the banks themselves, are thickly clothed with -reeds mixed with papyrus, the whole being exactly similar to those -which are represented in the conventional style of Egyptian art. These -spots are the favourite haunts of the hippopotamus, which loves to lie -under their shadow, its whole body remaining concealed in the water, -and only the eyes, ears, and nostrils appearing above the surface. - -As reference will be made to this painting when we come to the -Leviathan, it will be as well to describe it in detail. In order that -the reader should fully understand it, I have had it translated, so to -speak, from the conventional outline of Egyptian art into perspective, -exactly as has been done with the Assyrian and Egyptian chariots. - -In the foreground is seen the hunter, standing on a boat that closely -resembles the raft-boat which is still in use in several parts of -Africa. It is made of the very light wood called ambatch, by cutting -down the requisite number of trees, laying them side by side so that -their bases form the stern and their points the bow of the -extemporized boat. They are then firmly lashed together, the pointed -ends turned upwards, and the simple vessel is complete. It is, in -fact, nothing more than a raft of triangular shape, but the wood is so -buoyant that it answers every purpose. - -In his hand the hunter grasps the harpoon which he is about to launch -at the hippopotamus. This is evidently the same weapon which is still -employed for that purpose. It consists of a long shaft, into the end -of which a barbed iron point is loosely inserted. To the iron point is -attached one end of a rope, and to the other end, which is held in the -left hand of the harpooner, a float of ambatch wood is fastened. - - [Illustration: THE HIPPOPOTAMUS, OR BEHEMOTH OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_Behold now behemoth, which I made with thee._"--JOB xl. 15.] - -When the weapon is thrown, the furious struggles of the wounded animal -disengage the shaft of the harpoon, which is regained by the -hunter; and as it dashes through the water, throwing up spray -as it goes, the ambatch float keeps the end of the rope at the -surface, so that it can be seen as soon as the animal becomes quieter. -Sometimes it dives to the bottom, and remains there as long as its -breath can hold out; and when it comes up to breathe, it only pushes -the nostrils out of the water under the shadow of the reeds, so that -but for the float it might manage to escape. - - [Illustration: THE EGYPTIAN HUNTER. - - "_He lieth under the shady trees, in the covert of the reed, and - fens._"--JOB xl. 21. - - (The attitude of the Hippopotamus is copied from the painting.)] - -In the meantime, guided by the float, the hunter follows the course of -the animal, and, as soon as it comes within reach of his weapon, -drives another spear into it, and so proceeds until the animal dies -from loss of blood. The modern hunters never throw a second harpoon -unless the one already fixed gives way, mainly employing a spear to -inflict the last wounds. But if we may judge from this painting, the -Egyptian hunter attached a new rope with every cast of his weapon, -and, when the hippopotamus became weak from its wounds, gathered up -the ropes and came to close quarters. - -In the bow of the boat is the hunter's assistant, armed with a rope -made lasso-wise into a noose, which he is throwing over the head of -the hippopotamus, whose attitude and expression show evidently, in -spite of the rudeness of the drawing, the impotent anger of the -weakened animal. - -Behind the hippopotamus are the tall and dense reeds and papyrus under -the shelter of which the animal loves to lie, and on the surface of -the water float the beautiful white flowers of the lotus. - -In the Egyptian painting, the artist, in spite of the -conventionalities to which he was bound, has depicted the whole scene -with skill and spirit. The head and open mouth of the hippopotamus are -remarkably fine, and show that the artist who drew the animal must -have seen it when half mad with pain, and half dead from loss of -blood. - -The enormous strength of the hippopotamus is shown in verses 16, 18, -the last of which passages requires a little explanation. Two -different words are used here to express the bones of the animal. The -first is derived from a word signifying strength, and means the -"strong bones," _i.e._ those of the legs. These are hollow, and are -therefore aptly compared to tubes or pipes of copper. The second term -is thought by some Hebraists to refer to the rib-bones, which are -solid, and therefore are not likened to tubes, but to bars of iron. - -The 23d verse has been translated rather variously. The Authorized -Version can be seen by reference to a Bible, and another translation, -that of the Jewish Bible, is given on page 319. A third, and perhaps -the best rendering of this passage is given by the Rev. W. Drake, in -Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible:" "Lo, the river swelleth proudly -against him, yet he is not alarmed; he is securely confident though a -Jordan burst forth against his mouth." - -In all probability reference is here made to the annual rising of the -Nile, and the inundations which it causes. In some years, when it -rises much above its usual height, the floods become most disastrous. -Whole villages are swept away, and scarcely a vestige of the mud-built -houses is left; the dead bodies of human beings are seen intermixed -with those of cattle, and the whole country is one scene of -desolation. Yet the almost amphibious hippopotamus cares nothing for -the floods, as long as it can find food, and so, "though the river -swelleth proudly against him," he is not alarmed. - -From the use of the word "Jordan" in the same verse, it might be -thought that the river of Palestine was intended. This, however, is -not the case. The word "Jordan" is simply used as a poetical term for -any river, and is derived from a Hebrew word which signifies -"descending quickly." - -We now come to the last verse of this noble description: "He taketh it -in with his eyes." These words have also been variously rendered, some -translating them as "He receiveth it (_i.e._ the river) up to his -eyes." But the translation which seems to suit the context best is, -"Who will take him when in his sight? His nose pierceth through -(_i.e._ detects) snares." Now, this faculty of detecting snares is one -of the chief characteristics of the hippopotamus, when it lives near -places inhabited by mankind, who are always doing their best to -destroy it. In the first place, its body gives them an almost -unlimited supply of flesh, the fat is very highly valued for many -purposes, the teeth are sold to the ivory-dealers, and the hide is cut -up into whips, or khoorbashes. - -There is now before me a khoorbash, purchased from a native Egyptian -who was beating a servant with it. The whip is identical with that -which was used by the ancient Egyptians in urging the Israelites to -their tasks, and the scene reminded the traveller so forcibly of the -old Scriptural times that he rescued the unfortunate servant, and -purchased the khoorbash, which is now in my collection. - -Not content with hunting the hippopotamus, the natives contrive -various traps, either pitfalls or drop-traps. The former are simply -pits dug in the path of the animal, covered with sticks and reeds, and -having at the bottom a sharp stake on which the victim is impaled, and -so effectually prevented from escaping or damaging the pit by its -struggles. - - [Illustration: HIPPOPOTAMUS AND TRAP. - - "_His nose pierceth through snares._"--JOB xl. 24.] - -The drop-trap is a log of wood, weighted with stones, and having at -one end an iron spike, which is sometimes poisoned. The path which the -animal takes is watched, a conveniently overhanging branch is -selected, and from that branch the cruel spear is suspended, by a -catch or trigger, exactly over the centre of the path. There is no -difficulty in finding the precise centre of the path, owing to the -peculiar gait of the animal, which has already been described. One end -of the trigger supports the spear, and to the other is attached a -rope, which is brought across the path in such a way that when touched -it relieves the spear, which is driven deeply into the animal's back. -If well hung, the spear-blade divides the spine, and the wounded -animal falls on the spot, but, even if it should miss a vital part, -the poison soon does its fatal work. - -In consequence of the continual persecution to which it is subjected, -the hippopotamus becomes exceedingly wary, and, huge, clumsy, and -blundering as it looks, is clever enough to detect either pitfall or -drop-trap that have not been contrived with especial care. An old and -experienced hippopotamus becomes so wary that he will be suspicious -even of a bent twig, and, rather than venture across it, he will leave -the path, force for himself a roundabout passage, and return to the -path beyond the object that alarmed him. - -Mr. T. Baines, to whose sketches I am indebted for the illustration, -told me that the hippopotamus is possessed of much more intellect than -might be expected from a creature of so dull, clumsy, and unpromising -aspect. Apathetic it generally is, and, as long as it is left -unmolested, does not care to molest even the human beings that intrude -upon its repose. - -It likes to lie in the shade of the reeds and rushes, and may be seen -floating in the water, with only the nostrils, the eyes, and the ears -above the surface, these organs being set in a line along the head, -evidently for the purpose of allowing the whole body to be hidden -under water while the three most important senses are capable of -acting. - -A canoe-man who knows the habits of the hippopotamus will fearlessly -take his fragile vessel through a herd of the animals, knowing that, -if he only avoids contact with them, they will not interfere with him. -The only danger is, that a hippopotamus may rise under the canoe, and -strike itself against the boat, in which case the animal is rather apt -to consider the intruding object as an enemy, and to attack it, -sometimes crushing the canoe between its teeth, and mostly upsetting -it, and throwing the crew into the water. In such a case, the men -always dive at once to the bottom of the river, and hold on to some -weed or rock as long as they can exist without breathing. The reason -for this proceeding is, that the hippopotamus always looks for its -enemy upon the surface of the water, and, if the men were to swim to -shore, they would be caught and killed before they had swum many -strokes. But, as it sees nothing but the damaged canoe, its -short-lived anger vanishes, and it sinks again into the river, -leaving the men at liberty to regain and repair their vessel. - -There is one passage in the description of the Behemoth which requires -a few words of explanation: "He moveth his tail like a cedar" (v. 17). - -Several commentators have imagined that this expression shows that the -Behemoth must have been an animal which had a very long and powerful -tail, and have adduced the passage as a proof that the crocodile was -the animal that was signified by the Behemoth. Others, again, have -shifted the position of the tail, and, by rendering it as the -"proboscis," have identified the Behemoth with the elephant. There is, -however, no necessity for straining the interpretation, the passage -evidently signifying that the member in question is stiff and -inflexible as the cedar-stem. - - - - -BIRDS. - - - - -THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE. - - Difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in - Scripture--The vultures of Palestine--The Lämmergeier, or - Ossifrage of Scripture--The Hebrew word Peres, and its - signification--The Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker--Appearance of the - Lämmergeier--Its flight and mode of feeding--How the Lämmergeier - kills snakes and tortoises, and breaks marrow-bones--Mode of - destroying the chamois and mountain sheep--Nest of the - Lämmergeier. - - -It has already been mentioned that even the best Biblical scholars -have found very great difficulties in identifying several of the -animals which are named in Scripture. This difficulty is greatly -increased when we come to the BIRDS, and in many instances it is -absolutely impossible to identify the Hebrew word with any precise -species. In all probability, however, the nomenclature of the birds is -a very loose one, several species being classed under the same title. - -Even at the present day, the English language presents many similar -instances of poverty, as is well known to all zoologists. Taking the -birds as our first examples, how often do we not find the same word -used to signify many distinct species, and, again, one species -designated by several dissimilar words? The word Vulture, for example, -is used to signify a great number of birds, including the Lämmergeier, -the Condors, the Griffons, the Caracaras, and others; while the term -Eagle has scarcely a less wide signification. Sometimes the name is -applied in such a manner as to mislead those who are not scientific -ornithologists, and we find such inappropriate titles as night-hawk, -fern-owl, hedge-sparrow, reed-wren, &c., the birds in question being -neither hawks, owls, sparrows, nor wrens. - -Keeping this difficulty in mind, I shall mention all the species which -are likely to have been classed under a single title, giving a general -description of the whole, and a detailed account of the particular -species which seems to answer most closely to the Hebrew word. - - - [Illustration: THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_These are they of which ye shall not eat: the eagle, and the - ossifrage, and the ospray._"--DEUT. xiv. 12] - -Following the arrangement which has been employed in this work, I -shall begin with the bird which has been placed by zoologists at the -head of its class, namely, the LÄMMERGEIER, the bird which may be -safely identified with the Ossifrage of Scripture. The Hebrew word is -"Peres," a term which only occurs twice when signifying a species of -bird; namely, in Lev. xi. 13, and the parallel passage in Deut. xiv. -12. The first of these passages runs as follows: "These ye shall have -in abomination among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an -abomination: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray." The -corresponding passage in Deuteronomy has precisely the same -signification, though rather differently worded: "These are they of -which ye shall not eat: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray." - -The reader will here notice that the sacred narrative gives no account -of the appearance or habits of the bird, but merely classed it with -the remainder of the predacious birds, all of which are declared to be -unfit for food. We must therefore look for some assistance in the -etymology of the word _peres_, which signifies one who breaks -anything. The same word occurs in several other passages of Scripture. - -For example, the word was much used by David in commemorating any -remarkable event. When David sent Uzzah and Ahio to fetch the ark from -Kirjath-jearim, the oxen which drew the cart stumbled and shook the -ark, so that it seemed likely to fall. Uzzah, who walked by the side -of the cart, while his brother marched in front of the oxen, -instinctively put out his hand to uphold it, and fell dead by the side -of the ark which he had touched without authority. In order to -commemorate this event, David called the spot whereon it occurred -Perez-Uzzah, or the Breaking of Uzzah, "because the LORD had made a -breach upon Uzzah." (See 2 Sam. vi. 8.) - -Reference to this event was afterwards made by David when he brought -the ark into Jerusalem. Having taken warning by the solemn event which -he had witnessed, he called together the priests and Levites, to whom -he gave the commission to bring the ark with due honour, and "said -unto them, Ye are the chief of the fathers of the Levites: sanctify -yourselves, both ye and your brethren, that ye may bring up the ark of -the Lord God of Israel unto the place that I have prepared for it. - -"For, because ye did it not at the first, the LORD our God made a -breach (_peres_) upon us, for that we sought Him not in due order" (1 -Chron. xv. 12, 13). David again employed the word to signify the -breaking up or destruction of the Philistines. "David smote them -there, and said, The Lord hath broken forth upon mine enemies before -me, as the breach of waters. Therefore he called the name of that -place Baal-perazim"--_i.e._ the Place of Breakings. The same word -occurs again in that dread message to Belshazzar, written by the hand -upon the wall, "Mene, mene, tekel, upharsin," or _peres_, the last -word signifying that the kingdom was broken up, and would be given -to other rulers. - -The word _peres_, then, signifies a breaker; and the Latin term -Ossifraga, or Bone-breaker, is a very good translation of the word. -How it applies to the Lämmergeier we shall presently see. - -The Lämmergeier belongs to the vultures, but has much more the -appearance of an eagle than a vulture, the neck being clothed with -feathers, instead of being naked or only covered with down. It may at -once be known by the tuft of long, hair-like feathers which depends -from the beak, and which has gained for the bird the title of Bearded -Vulture. The colour of the plumage is a mixture of different browns -and greys, tawny below and beautifully pencilled above, a line of pure -white running along the middle of each feather. When young it is -nearly black, and indeed has been treated as a separate species under -the name of Black Vulture. - -It is one of the largest of the flying birds, its length often -exceeding four feet, and the expanse of its wings being rather more -than ten feet. In consequence of this great spread of wing, it looks -when flying like a much larger bird than it really is, and its size -has often been variously misstated. Its flight, as may be imagined -from the possession of such wings, is equally grand and graceful, and -it sweeps through the air with great force, apparently unaccompanied -by effort. - -The Lämmergeier extends through a very large range of country, and is -found throughout many parts of Europe and Asia. It is spread over the -Holy Land, never congregating in numbers, like ordinary vultures, but -living in pairs, and scarcely any ravine being uninhabited by at least -one pair of Lämmergeiers. - -The food of the Lämmergeier is, like that of other vultures, the flesh -of dead animals, though it does not feed quite in the same manner that -they do. When the ordinary vultures have found a carcase they tear it -to pieces, and soon remove all the flesh. This having been done, the -Lämmergeier comes to the half-picked bones, eats the remaining flesh -from them, and finishes by breaking them and eating the marrow. That a -bird should be able to break a bone as thick and hard as the -thigh-bone of a horse or ox seems rather problematical, but the bird -achieves the feat in a simple and effectual manner. - -Seizing the bone in its claws, it rises to an immense height in the -air, and then, balancing itself over some piece of rock, it lets the -bone fall, and sweeps after it with scarce less rapidity than the bone -falls. Should the bone be broken by the fall, the bird picks the -marrow out of the fragments; and should it have escaped fracture by -reason of falling on a soft piece of ground instead of a hard rock, -the bird picks it up, and renews the process until it has attained its -object. It will be seen, therefore, that the name of Ossifrage, or -Bone-breaker, may very properly be given to this bird. - -Not only does it extract the marrow from bones in this peculiar -manner, but it procures other articles of food by employing precisely -the same system. If it sees a tortoise, many of which reptiles are -found in the countries which it inhabits, it does not waste time and -trouble by trying to peck the shell open, but carries its prey high in -the air, drops it on the ground, and so breaks its shell to pieces. -Tortoises are often very hard-shelled creatures, and the Lämmergeier -has been observed to raise one of them and drop it six or seven times -before the stubborn armour would yield. Snakes, too, are killed in a -similar manner, being seized by the neck, and then dropped from a -height upon rocks or hard ground. The reader may perhaps be aware that -the Hooded Crow of England breaks bones and the shells of bivalve -molluscs in a similar manner. - -Mr. Tristram suggests, with much probability, that the "eagle" which -mistook the bald head of the poet Æschylus for a white stone, and -killed him by dropping a tortoise upon it, was in all likelihood a -Lämmergeier, the bird being a denizen of the same country, and the act -of tortoise-dropping being its usual mode of killing those reptiles. - -We now see why the Lämmergeier is furnished with such enormous wings, -and so great a power of flight, these attributes being needful in -order to enable it to lift its prey to a sufficient height. The air, -as we all know, becomes more and more attenuated in exact proportion -to the height above the earth; and did not the bird possess such great -powers of flight, it would not be able to carry a heavy tortoise into -the thinner strata of air which are found at the height to which it -soars. - -The instinct of killing its prey by a fall is employed against other -animals besides snakes and tortoises, though exerted in a somewhat -different manner. The bird, as has already been mentioned, lives among -mountain ranges, and it may be seen floating about them for hours -together, watching each inch of ground in search of prey. Should it -see a goat or other inhabitant of the rocks standing near a precipice, -the Lämmergeier sweeps rapidly upon it, and with a blow of its wing -knocks the animal off the rock into the valley beneath, where it lies -helplessly maimed, even if not killed by the fall. - -Even hares and lambs are killed in this manner, and it is from the -havoc which the Lämmergeier makes among the sheep that it has obtained -the name of Lämmergeier, or Lamb-Vulture. So swift and noiseless is -the rush of the bird, that an animal which has once been marked by its -blood-red eye seldom escapes from the swoop; and even the Alpine -hunters, who spend their lives in pursuit of the chamois, have -occasionally been put in great jeopardy by the sudden attack of a -Lämmergeier, the bird having mistaken their crouching forms for the -chamois, and only turned aside at the last moment. - -The reason for employing so remarkable a mode of attack is to be found -in the structure of the feet, which, although belonging to so large -and powerful a bird, are comparatively feeble, and are unable, like -those of the eagle, to grasp the living animal in a deadly hold, and -to drive the sharp talons into its vitals. They are not well adapted -for holding prey, the talons not possessing the hook-like form or the -sharp points which characterise those of the eagle. The feet, by the -way, are feathered down to the toes. The beak, too, is weak when -compared with the rest of the body, and could not perform its work -were not the object which it tears previously shattered by the fall -from a height. - -The nest of the Lämmergeier is made of sticks and sods, and is of -enormous dimensions. It is almost always placed upon a lofty cliff, -and contains about a wagon-load or so of sticks rudely interwoven, and -supporting a nearly equal amount of sods and moss. - -An allied species lives in Northern Africa, where it is called by a -name which signifies Father Longbeard, in allusion to the beard-like -tufts of the bill. - - - - -THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE OR GIER-EAGLE. - - The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian Vulture--Its - appearance on the Egyptian monuments--Signification of the word - _Râchâm_--Various translations of the word--The shape, size, and - colour of the bird--Its value as a scavenger, and its general - habits--The Egyptian Vultures and the griffons--Its fondness for the - society of man--Nest of the Egyptian Vulture. - - -In the same list of unclean birds which has already been given, we -find the name of a bird which we can identify without much difficulty, -although there has been some little controversy about it. This is the -so-called Gier-Eagle, which is named with the cormorant and the -pelican as one of the birds which the Jews are forbidden to eat. The -word which is translated as Gier-Eagle is Râchâm, a name which is -almost identical with the Arabic name of the EGYPTIAN VULTURE, -sometimes called Pharaoh's Chicken, because it is so often sculptured -on the ancient monuments of Egypt. It is called by the Turks by a name -which signifies White Father, in allusion to the colour of its -plumage. - -Before proceeding to a description of the bird, we will examine the -other interpretations which have been given to the word _râchâm_. - -In the first place, the word signifies "love," and is used in that -sense in many passages of Scripture. According to Buxtorf, the bird in -question is the merops or bee-eater, "a bird so called from the love -and pity which is shown to its parents, because it nurtures them when -hidden in the most lofty caves." Some of the Talmudists take it to be -the woodpecker. - -Another rendering of the word which has received much favour is, that -the Râchâm is the hyacinthine gallinule, or sultana hen (_Pophyrio -veterum_). This bird is allied to the rails, and is remarkable for the -great length of its toes, by means of which it can walk on floating -herbage as it lies on the surface of the water. The colour of the bird -is a rich and variable blue, darker on the back and lighter on the -throat and breast. It is on account of this purple hue that the bird -has received the name of _Porphyrio_, or Purple Bird. It is spread -over many parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe. - - [Illustration: EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE. - - "_And the pelican, and the gier-eagle, and the cormorant._"--DEUT. - xiv. 17.] - -The reading of _râchâm_ as _porphyrio_ is followed in the Septuagint, -and the reading has been defended on the ground that the bird must -belong to the aquatic group, being placed between the pelican and -cormorant. The Jewish Bible follows our version, but affixes the mark -of doubt to the word. - -Although some of the Talmudists render the word as woodpecker, others -identify it with the Egyptian Vulture. In Lewysohn's "Zoologie des -Talmuds," there is a curious speculation on this subject. This bird, -according to the authors whom he quotes, is the Schirkrek, and -derives its name from its peculiar cry, which begins with a hiss -(Schirk) and ends with a shriek (Rek). The bird utters its cry when -the rising of the Nile is expected, and so has earned the name of -Râchâm, or Love, this word being frequently used in the Scriptures as -a metaphor for rain, dew, or any water that nourishes plants. - -Without adopting the process of reasoning employed in this case, we -may safely accept the conclusion, and consider the Râchâm as identical -with the Egyptian Vulture (_Neophron perenopterus_). - -This bird is not a very large one, being about equal to a raven in -size, though its enormously long wings give it an appearance of much -greater size. Its colour is white, with the exception of the quill -feathers of the wings, which are dark-brown. The bill and the naked -face and legs are bright ochreous yellow. It does not attain this -white plumage until its third year, its colour before reaching adult -age being brown, with a grey neck and dull yellow legs and face. - -The Egyptian Vulture, although not large, is a really handsome bird, -the bold contrast of pure white and dark brown being very conspicuous -when it is on the wing. In this plumage it has never been seen in -England, but one or two examples are known of the Egyptian Vulture -being killed in England while still in its dark-brown clothing. - -It inhabits a very wide range of country, being found throughout all -the warmer parts of the Old World. Although it is tolerably plentiful, -it is never seen in great numbers, as is the case with several of the -vultures, but is always to be found in pairs, the male and female -never separating, and invariably being seen close together. In fact, -in places where it is common it is hardly possible to travel more than -a mile or two without seeing a pair of Egyptian Vultures. Should more -than two of these birds be seen together, the spectator may be sure -that they have congregated over some food. It has been well suggested -that its Hebrew name of Râchâm, or Love, has been given to it in -consequence of this constant association of the male and female. - -The Egyptian Vulture is one of the best of scavengers, not only -devouring the carcases of dead animals, but feeding on every kind of -offal or garbage. Indeed, its teeth and claws are much too feeble to -enable it to cope with the true vultures in tearing up a large -carcase, and in consequence it never really associates with them, -although it may be seen hovering near them, and it never ventures to -feed in their company, keeping at a respectful distance while they -feed, and, when they retire, humbly making a meal on the scraps which -they have left. - -Mr. Tristram narrates an amusing instance of this trait of character. -"On a subsequent occasion, on the north side of Hermon, we observed -the griffons teaching a lesson of patience to the inferior scavengers. -A long row of Egyptian vultures were sitting on some rocks, so -intently watching a spot in a corn-field that they took no notice of -our approach. Creeping cautiously near, we watched a score of griffons -busily engaged in turning over a dead horse, one side of which they -had already reduced to a skeleton. - -"Their united efforts had just effected this, when we showed -ourselves, and they quickly retired. The inferior birds, who dreaded -us much less than them, at once darted to the repast, and, utterly -regardless of our presence within ten yards of them, began to gorge. -We had hardly retired two hundred yards, when the griffons came down -with a swoop, and the Egyptian vultures and a pair or two of eagles -hurriedly resumed their post of observation; while some black kites -remained, and contrived by their superior agility to filch a few -morsels from their lordly superiors." - -So useful is this bird as a scavenger, that it is protected in all -parts of the East by the most stringent laws, so that a naturalist who -wishes for specimens has some difficulty in procuring the bird, or -even its egg. It wanders about the streets of the villages, and may -generally be found investigating the heaps of refuse which are left to -be cleared away by the animals and birds which constitute the -scavengers of the East. - -It not only eats dead animal substances, but kills and devours great -quantities of rats, mice, lizards, and other pests that swarm in hot -countries. So tame is it, that it may even be observed, like the gull -and the rook of our own country, following the ploughman as he turns -up the ground, and examining the furrow for the purpose of picking up -the worms, grubs, and similar creatures that are disturbed by the -share. - -Being thus protected and encouraged by man, there is good reason why -it should have learned in course of time to fear him far less than its -own kind. Indeed, it is so utterly fearless with regard to human -beings, that it habitually follows the caravans as they pass from one -town to another, for the sake of feeding on the refuse food and other -offal which is thrown aside on the road. - -Two articles of diet which certainly do not seem to fall within the -ordinary range of vulture's food are said to be consumed by this bird. -The first is the egg of the ostrich, the shell of which is too hard to -be broken by the feeble beak of the Egyptian Vulture. The bird cannot, -like the lämmergeier, carry the egg into the air and drop it on the -ground, because its feet are not large enough to grasp it, and only -slip off its round and polished surface. Therefore, instead of raising -the egg into the air and dropping it upon a stone, it carries a stone -into the air and drops it upon the egg. So at least say the natives of -the country which it inhabits, and there is no reason why we should -doubt the truth of the statement. - -The other article of food is a sort of melon, very full of juice. This -melon is called "nara," and is devoured by various creatures, such as -lions, leopards, mice, ostriches, &c. and seems to serve them instead -of drink. - -The nest of the Egyptian Vulture is made in some rocky ledge, and the -bird does not trouble itself about selecting a spot inaccessible to -man, knowing well that it will not be disturbed. The nest is, like -that of other vultures, a large and rude mass of sticks, sods, bones, -and similar materials, to which are added any bits of rag, rope, skin, -and other village refuse which it can pick up as it traverses the -streets. There are two, and occasionally three, eggs, rather variously -mottled with red. In its breeding, as in its general life, it is not a -gregarious bird, never breeding in colonies, and, indeed, very seldom -choosing a spot for its nest near one which has already been selected -by another pair. - -The illustration on page 340 represents part of the nest of the -Egyptian Vulture, in which the curious mixture of bones and sticks is -well shown. The parent birds are drawn in two characteristic attitudes -taken from life, and well exhibit the feeble beak, the peculiar and -intelligent, almost cunning expression of the head, and the ruff of -feathers which surrounds the upper part of the neck. In the distance -another bird is drawn as it appears on the wing, in order to show the -contrast between the white plumage and the dark quill feathers of the -wings, the bird presenting a general appearance very similar to that -of the common English sea-gull. - - - - -THE - -GRIFFON VULTURE, OR EAGLE OF SCRIPTURE. - - The Griffon Vulture identified with the Eagle of Scripture--The word - _Nesher_ and its signification--Geographical range of the Griffon--Its - mode of flight and sociable habits--The featherless head and neck of - the bird--The Vulture used as an image of strength, swiftness, and - rapacity--Its powers of sight--How Vultures assemble round a - carcase--Nesting-places of the Griffon--Mr. Tristram's description of - the Griffon--Rock-caves of the Wady Hamâm--Care of the young, and - teaching them to fly--Strength of the Griffon--Its emblematical use in - Egypt and Assyria--The god Nisroch--Noble aspect of the Griffon--Its - longevity--Various attitudes assumed by the bird. - - -We now come to another word which will give us but little trouble in -identification. This is the word _Nesher_, which is invariably -translated in the Authorized Version of the Bible as Eagle, but which -was undoubtedly a different bird, and has satisfactorily been -identified with the GRIFFON VULTURE, or Great Vulture (_Gyps fulvus_). -The reasons for this conclusion are so inextricably interwoven with -the various passages in which the bird is mentioned, that I shall not -give them separately, but simply allude to them in the course of the -article. - -In the first place, the name Nesher is derived, according to many -Hebraists, from a word which signifies the power of sight, and is -given to the bird in consequence of its piercing vision. The -Talmudical writers mention a curious proverb concerning the sight of -the Vulture, namely, that a Vulture in Babylon can see a carcase in -Palestine. Other scholars derive it from a word which signifies its -longevity, while others again believe that the true derivation is to -be found in a word which signifies ripping up or tearing with the -beak. - - -The Griffon Vulture is found throughout a large portion of the Old -World, inhabiting nearly all the warmer portions of this hemisphere. -The colour of the adult bird is a sort of yellowish brown, diversified -by the black quill feathers and the ruff of white down that surrounds -the neck. The head and neck are without feathers, but are sparingly -covered with very short down of a similar character to that of the -ruff. - -It is really a large bird, being little short of five feet in total -length, and the expanse of wing measuring about eight feet. - -The Griffon Vulture is very plentiful in Palestine, and, unlike the -lesser though equally useful Egyptian Vulture, congregates together in -great numbers, feeding, flying, and herding in company. Large flocks -of them may be seen daily, soaring high in the air, and sweeping their -graceful way in the grand curves which distinguish the flight of the -large birds of prey. They are best to be seen in the early morning, -being in the habit of quitting their rocky homes at daybreak, and -indulging in a flight for two or three hours, after which they mostly -return to the rocks, and wait until evening, when they take another -short flight before retiring to rest. - -Allusion is made in the Scriptures to the gregarious habits of the -Vultures: "Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be -gathered together" (Matt xxiv. 28). That the Vulture, and not the -eagle, is here signified, is evident from the fact that the eagles do -not congregate like the Vultures, never being seen in greater numbers -than two or three together, while the Vultures assemble in hundreds. - -The featherless head of the Vulture is mentioned in the Book of Micah, -chap. i. ver. 16: "Make thee bald, and poll thee for thy delicate -children; enlarge thy baldness as the eagle; for they are gone into -captivity from thee." It is evident that in this passage reference is -made, not to the eagle, whose head is thickly covered with feathers, -but to the Vulture, whose head and neck are but scantily sprinkled -with white down. Some commentators, not aware that the word _nesher_ -should have been rendered as "vulture," have explained the passage by -saying that the prophet referred to the moulting-time of the eagle; -but the reader will see that such an explanation is at the best a -forced one, whereas the reference to the bald head of the Vulture is -both simple and natural. - -The voracity of the Vulture, and its capacity for discovering food, -are both mentioned in Job xxxix. 27-30: "Doth the eagle (_nesher_) -mount up at thy command, and make her nest on high? - -"She dwelleth and abideth on the rock, upon the crag of the rock, and -the strong place. - -"From thence she seeketh the prey, and her eyes behold afar off. - -"Her young ones also suck up blood: and where the slain are, there is -she." - -See also Hab. i. 6-8, in which the prophet speaks of the Chaldeans, -"that bitter and hasty nation, which shall march through the breadth -of the land, to possess the dwelling-places that are not theirs. - -"They are terrible and dreadful: ... and their horsemen shall spread -themselves, and their horsemen shall come from far; they shall fly as -the eagle that hasteth to eat." - -There is also a curious passage in the Book of Proverbs, chap. xxx. -ver. 17, which alludes to the carnivorous nature of the bird: "The eye -that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the -ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles shall eat -it." - -Allusion is made in several passages to the swiftness of the Vulture, -as well as its voracity. See, for example, a portion of David's -lamentation over the bodies of Saul and Jonathan, who, according to -the poet's metaphor, "were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in -their death they were not divided; they were swifter than eagles, they -were stronger than lions." - -The "bitter" people--namely, the Chaldeans--are again mentioned in a -very similar manner by the prophet Jeremiah: "Our persecutors are -swifter than the eagles of the heavens; they pursued us upon the -mountains, they laid wait for us in the wilderness" (Lam. iv. 19). - -There is something peculiarly appropriate in employing the Vulture as -an image of strength and swiftness when applied to warriors, the bird -being an invariable attendant on the battle, and flying to the field -of death with marvellous swiftness. All who had ever witnessed a -battle were familiar with the presence of the Vulture--the scene of -carnage, and the image which is employed, would be one which commended -itself at once to those for whom it was intended. And, as the earlier -history of the Jewish nation is essentially of a warlike character, we -cannot wonder that so powerful and familiar an image should have been -repeatedly introduced into the sacred writings. - -The wonderful powers of sight possessed by this bird are mentioned in -the passage from Job xxxix. which has already been quoted. - -Here it may be as well to say that, piercing as is the vision of the -Vulture, its visual powers have been much exaggerated. It certainly -does possess a vision of no ordinary capacity, which is able to assume -either a telescopic or a microscopic character, by means of a complex -and marvellous structure, which can alter the whole shape of the organ -at the will of the bird. - -Not only can the eye be thus altered, but it changes instantaneously, -so as to accommodate itself to the task which it is to perform. A -Vulture, for example, sees from a vast height the body of a dead -animal, and instantly swoops down upon it like an arrow from a bow. In -order to enable the bird to see so distant an object, the eye has been -exercising its telescopic powers, and yet, in a second or two, when -the Vulture is close to its prey, the whole form of the eye must be -changed, or the bird would mistake its distance, and dash itself to -pieces on the ground. - -To describe this beautiful piece of mechanism would be outside the -scope of the present work; but the reader can find it in every good -work on comparative anatomy, and is strongly advised to make himself -master of the means by which a result so apparently impossible is -secured. - -By means of its powerful eyes, the Vulture can see to an enormous -distance, and with great clearness, but neither so far nor so clearly -as is popularly supposed. It is true that, as soon as a carcase is -discovered, it will be covered with Vultures, who arrive from every -side, looking at first like tiny specks in the air, scarcely -perceptible even to practised eyes, and all directing their flight to -the same point. "Where the carcase is, there will the vultures be -gathered together." But, although they all fly towards the same spot, -it does not follow that they have all seen the same object. The fact -is, they see and understand each other's movements. - -A single Vulture, for example, sees a dead or dying sheep, and swoops -down upon it. The other Vultures which are flying about in search of -food, and from which the animal in question may be concealed, know -perfectly well that a Vulture soars high in the air when searching for -food, and only darts to the earth when it has found a suitable prey. -They immediately follow its example, and in their turn are followed by -other Vultures, which can see their fellows from a distance, and know -perfectly well why they are all converging to one spot. - -In this way all the Vultures of a neighbourhood will understand, by a -very intelligible telegraph, that a dead body of some animal has been -found, and, aided by their wonderful powers of flight, will assemble -over its body in an almost incredibly short space of time. - -The resting-place of the Griffon Vulture is always on some lofty spot. -The Arabian Vulture will build within easy reach, the eagle prefers -lofty situations, but nothing but the highest and most inaccessible -spots will satisfy the Vulture. To reach the nest of this bird is -therefore a very difficult task, only to be attempted by experienced -and intrepid cragsmen; and, in consequence, both the eggs and young of -the Griffon Vulture cannot be obtained except for a very high price. -The birds are fond of building in the rock-caves which are found in so -many parts of Palestine, and in some places they fill these places as -thickly as rooks fill a rookery. - -The fondness of the Vulture for such localities is more than once -mentioned in Holy Writ. One of these passages, which occurs in Job -xxxix. 29, has already been quoted, and another, and equally forcible -one, is to be found in the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah: "Thy -terribleness hath deceived thee, and the pride of thine heart, O thou -that dwellest in the clefts of the rock, that holdest the height of -the hill: though thou shouldest make thy nest as high as the eagle -(_nesher_), I will bring thee down from thence, saith the Lord" (Jer. -xlix. 16). - -In Mr. Tristram's "Land of Israel," there is a very graphic -description of the Griffon's nests, and of the difficulty experienced -in reaching them. "A narrow gorge, with limestone cliffs from five -hundred to six hundred feet high, into which the sun never penetrates, -walls the rapid brook on each side so closely that we often had to -ride in the bed of the stream. The cliffs are perforated with caves at -all heights, wholly inaccessible to man, the secure resting-place of -hundreds of noble griffons, some lämmergeiers, lanner falcons, and -several species of eagle.... One day in the ravine well repaid us, -though so terrific were the precipices, that it was quite impossible -to reach any of the nests with which it swarmed. - -"We were more successful in the Wady Hamâm, the southwest end of the -plain, the entrance from Hattin and the Buttauf, where we spent three -days in exploration. The cliffs, though reaching the height of fifteen -hundred feet, rise like terraces, with enormous masses of _débris_, -and the wood is half a mile wide. By the aid of Giacomo, who proved -himself an expert rope-climber, we reaped a good harvest of griffons' -eggs, some of the party being let down by ropes, while those above -were guided in working them by signals from others below in the -valley. It required the aid of a party of a dozen to capture these -nests. The idea of scaling the cliff with ropes was quite new to some -Arabs who were herding cattle above, and who could not, excepting one -little girl, be induced to render any assistance. She proved herself -most sensible and efficient in telegraphing. - -"While capturing the griffons' nests, we were re-enacting a celebrated -siege in Jewish history. Close to us, at the head of the cliffs which -form the limits of the celebrated Plain of Hattin, were the ruins of -Irbid, the ancient Arbela, marked principally by the remains of a -synagogue, of which some marble shafts and fragments of entablature, -like those of Tell Hûm, are still to be seen, and were afterwards -visited by us. - -"Hosea mentions the place apparently as a strong fortress: 'All thy -fortresses shall be spoiled, as Shalman spoiled Beth-arbel in the day -of battle' (Hos. x. 14). Perhaps the prophet here refers to the -refuges in the rocks below. - -"The long series of chambers and galleries in the face of the -precipice are called by the Arabs Kulat Ibn Maân, and are very fully -described by Josephus. These cliffs were the homes of a set of -bandits, who resided here with their families, and for years set the -power of Herod the Great at defiance. At length, when all other -attempts at scaling the fortress had failed, he let down soldiers at -this very spot in boxes, by chains, who attacked the robbers with long -hooks, and succeeded in rooting them all out. The exploit was familiar -to us by an engraving of the _Penny Magazine_ of old, and little did -we dream that we should one day storm those very caves in a similar -way ourselves. We could not but regret that Herod had neglected to -leave his chains and grappling-irons for our use. - -"The rock galleries, though now only tenanted by griffons, are very -complete and perfect, and beautifully built. Long galleries wind -backwards and forwards in the cliff side, their walls being built with -dressed stone, flush with the precipice, and often opening into -spacious chambers. Tier after tier rise one after another with -projecting windows, connected by narrow staircases, carried sometimes -upon arches, and in the upper portions rarely broken away. In many of -the upper chambers to which we were let down, the dust of ages had -accumulated, undisturbed by any foot save that of the birds of the -air; and here we rested during the heat of the day, with the plains -and lake set as in a frame before us. We obtained a full zoological -harvest, as in three days we captured fourteen nests of griffons." - -Although these caverns and rocky passages are much more accessible -than most of the places whereon the Griffons build, the natives never -venture to enter them, being deterred not so much by their height, as -by their superstitious fears. The Griffons instinctively found out -that man never entered these caverns, and so took possession of them. - -As the young Griffons are brought up in these lofty and precipitous -places, it is evident that their first flight must be a dangerous -experiment, requiring the aid of the parent birds. At first the young -are rather nervous at the task which lies before them, and shrink from -trusting themselves to the air. The parents, however, encourage them -to use their wings, take short flights in order to set them an -example, and, when they at last venture from the nest, accompany and -encourage them in their first journey. - -Even this habit has been noted by the sacred writers, and been -forcibly employed as an image of divine protection. See the Song of -Moses, in which the aged leader, whose forty years' work was at last -finished, recapitulates the mercies vouchsafed to the people of -Israel, and exhorts them against the sin of ingratitude: "For the -Lord's portion is His people; Jacob is the lot of His inheritance. - -"He found him in a desert land, and in the waste howling wilderness; -He led him about, He instructed him, He kept him as the apple of His -eye. - -"As an eagle stirreth up her nest, fluttereth over her young, -spreadeth abroad her wings, taketh them, beareth them on her wings; - -"So the Lord alone did lead him, and there was no strange god with -him" (Deut. xxxii. 9-12). - -The strength of flight of the Vulture is also noticed by the sacred -writers. See, for example, Exod. xix. 4: "Ye have seen what I did to -the Egyptians, and how I bare you on eagles' (_nesherim_) wings, and -brought you unto myself." - -This passage had a peculiar force when addressed to the Hebrews, the -Vulture being one of the chief emblems of Egyptian power, and its -outspread wings continually recurring on the grand monuments and -temples with which they must have been so familiar. - -Strangely enough, in their second captivity, the Jews met with the -same emblem among the Assyrians. For example, their god Nisroch, whom -we find mentioned as specially worshipped by Sennacherib, was a -vulture-headed deity, bearing not only the head of the bird, but also -its wings. The vast wings of the Vulture were by the Assyrians used as -types of Divine power, and were therefore added, not only to human -figures, but to those of beasts. The human-headed and vulture-winged -bulls of Nineveh, with which we are now so familiar, are good examples -of this peculiar imagery. - -The name Nisroch, by the way, is evidently the same word as _nesher_, -and bears even closer resemblance to the Arabic _niss'r_. This bird -was also the war standard of Assyria, just as the eagle is that of -France, and the metaphors used by Habbakuk and Jeremiah had therefore -a doubly forcible sense. - -We find the same bird employed as a visible emblem of Divine -omnipresence and omniscience in the visions seen by Ezekiel and St. -John: "And every one had four faces; the first face was the face of a -cherub, and the second face was the face of a man, and the third the -face of a lion, and the fourth the face of an eagle" (Ezek. x. 14). -Then, in the Revelation, chap. iv. ver. 6, 7, is the account of a -vision of very similar character: "In the midst of the throne, and -round about the throne, were four beasts full of eyes before and -behind. - -"And the first beast was like a lion, and the second was like a calf, -and the third beast had a face as a man, and the fourth beast was like -a flying eagle." - -From these passages we shall see that the Griffon Vulture was not held -by the Scriptural writers in the contempt with which we are apt to -regard it. Not having any Vultures resident in our country, for the -simple reason that there is not enough carrion in the whole of England -to feed a single Vulture for a month, we have no practical knowledge -of them, and are apt to confound, under the common title of Vulture, -birds of most dissimilar aspect. Some of them, especially those which -inhabit the West Indies, are mean-looking, slouching, sneaking, -obscene birds, which, even when brought to this country, and nourished -on fresh meat, cannot be regarded without inspiring a feeling of -disgust. - -But there are others which are really grand and noble birds, which -excite admiration instead of disgust, and one of the chief among these -is the Griffon Vulture. Scavenger though it be, it is not disgusting -in its habits, and may even be called a cleanly bird. It is -intelligent, after its way, and is quite as susceptible of human -teaching as the falcon or the cormorant. It is not quarrelsome, and, -even when feeding, does not try to drive away its neighbour, but feeds -alongside of him with perfect amity and quiet. - -In common with other birds of its order, the Griffon Vulture is a very -long-lived bird, and even this characteristic is noticed in the -well-known passage, "Bless the Lord, O my soul, and forget not all His -benefits: ... who satisfieth thy mouth with good things; so that thy -youth is renewed like the eagle's" (Ps. ciii. 1, 5). - - [Illustration: THE VULTURE, OR EAGLE OF SCRIPTURE. - - "Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered - together."--MATT. xxiv. 28.] - -This passage has often been absurdly misinterpreted by commentators -who have not appreciated the metaphorical style of all Oriental -poetry. Taking the passage in its exact literal sense, and not knowing -that reference is made to the Vulture and not to the eagle, -they have taken for granted that the eagle had some mode of -renewing its youth, and, in fact, after becoming old, went through -some process by which it shook off the decrepitude of old age, and -became young again. Others, seeing that such an interpretation was -both strained and far-fetched, have thought that reference was made to -the annual moult of the eagle, which they fancied to be of a very -severe character, the whole of the feathers being shed at once, so as -to leave the bird naked and helpless, and then being restored with -added strength and beauty. - -It is evident, however, that no such interpretation is needed, and -that the Psalmist, when using the expression "renewing the youth like -an eagle's," only employed a metaphorical expression significative of -longevity. - -If we recapitulate the various passages in which the Nesher is -mentioned in the Scriptures, we shall find that the sacred writers -were thoroughly acquainted with the bird, and that they wrote of it -with an occasional fulness and an invariable precision which shows how -familiar they were with a bird at once so plentiful and so -conspicuous. - -The illustration represents one of the rocky gorges so plentiful in -Palestine, inhabited by a number of Griffon Vultures. Some of them are -feeding upon the carcase of a dead animal, another is upon her nest, -and several Vultures, who have gorged themselves with food after their -fashion, are sitting listlessly on the rock, in some of the singular -positions which this bird affects. There is, perhaps, no bird which -has a more curious set of attitudes than the Griffon Vulture, or which -exhibits so different an aspect at various times. - -In flight it is one of the most magnificent birds that can be seen, -and even when perched it often retains a certain look of majesty and -grandeur. Sometimes, however, especially when basking in the sun, it -assumes a series of attitudes which are absolutely grotesque, and -convert the noble-looking bird into a positively ludicrous object. At -one moment it will sit all hunched up, its head sunk between its -shoulders, and one wing trailing behind it as if broken. At another it -will bend its legs and sit down on the ankle-joint, pushing its feet -out in front, and supporting itself by the stiff feathers of its tail. -Often it will crouch nearly flat on the ground, partly spread its -wings, and allow their tips to rest on the earth, and sometimes it -will support nearly all the weight of its body on the wings, which -rest, in a half doubled state, on the ground. I have before me a great -number of sketches, taken in a single day, of the attitudes assumed by -one of these birds, every one of which is strikingly different from -the others, and transforms the whole shape of the bird so much that it -is scarcely recognisable as the same individual. - - - - -THE EAGLE. - - Signification of the word _Asniyeh_--The Golden Eagle and its - habits--The Imperial Eagle--Its solitary mode of life--The - Short-toed Eagle--Its domestic habits and fondness for the - society of man--The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle--Its mode of - catching fish--Its distribution in Palestine. - - -As to the Eagle, rightly so called, there is little doubt that it is -one of the many birds of prey that seem to have been classed under the -general title of Asniyeh--the word which in the Authorized Version of -the Bible is rendered as Osprey. A similar confusion is observable in -the modern Arabic, one word, _ogab_, being applied indiscriminately to -all the Eagles and the large _falconidæ_. - -The chief of the true Eagles, namely, the Golden Eagle (_Aquila -chrysaëtos_), is one of the inhabitants of Palestine, and is seen -frequently, though never in great numbers. Indeed, its predacious -habits unfit it for associating with its kind. Any animal which lives -chiefly, if not wholly, by the chase, requires a large district in -order to enable it to live, and thus twenty or thirty eagles will be -scattered over a district of twice the number of miles. Like the lion -among the mammalia, the Eagle leads an almost solitary life, scarcely -ever associating with any of its kind except its mate and its young. - - [Illustration: THE EAGLE. - - "Though thou shouldest make thy nest as high as the eagle."--JER. xlix. - 16.] - -Although it lives principally by the chase, it has no objection to -carrion, and, as has already been mentioned on page 342, may be seen -feeding on a dead animal in company with the lesser vultures, -though it retires before the lordly griffon. Being so thinly -scattered, it would not be so conspicuous a bird as the griffon, which -is not only very much larger, but associates in great numbers, and -probably on that account no definite species of Eagle seems to be -mentioned in Holy Writ. - -Four or five species of Eagle are known to inhabit Palestine. There -is, for example, the Imperial Eagle (_Aquila mogilnik_), which may be -distinguished from the Golden Eagle by a white patch on the shoulders, -and the long, lancet-shaped feathers of the head and neck. These -feathers are of a fawn colour, and contrast beautifully with the deep -black-brown of the back and wings. It is not very often seen, being a -bird that loves the forest, and that does not care to leave the -shelter of the trees. It is tolerably common in Palestine. - -Then there are several of the allied species, of which the best -example is perhaps the Short-toed Eagle (_Circaëtus gallicus_), a bird -which is extremely plentiful in the Holy Land--so plentiful indeed -that, as Mr. Tristram remarks, there are probably twice as many of the -Short-toed Eagles in Palestine as of all the other species put -together. The genus to which this bird belongs does not take rank with -the true Eagles, but is supposed by systematic naturalists to hold an -intermediate place between the true Eagles and the ospreys. - -The Short-toed Eagle is seldom a carrion-eater, preferring to kill its -prey for itself. It feeds mostly on serpents and other reptiles, and -is especially fond of frogs. It is a large and somewhat heavily built -bird, lightness and swiftness being far less necessary than strength -in taking the animals on which it feeds. It is rather more than two -feet in length, and is a decidedly handsome bird, the back being dark -brown, and the under parts white, covered with crescent-shaped black -spots. - - - - -THE OSPREY. - - The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle--Its geographical range--Mode of - securing prey--Structure of its feet--Its power of balancing - itself in the air. - - -We now come to the Osprey itself (_Pandion haliaëtus_), which was -undoubtedly one of the birds grouped together under the collective -term Asniyeh. This word occurs only in the two passages in Deut. xiv. -and Lev. xi. which have been several times quoted already, and need -not be mentioned again. - -This fine bird is spread over a very large range of country, and is -found in the New World as well as the Old. In consequence of its -peculiar habits, it is often called the Fishing Eagle. - -The Osprey is essentially a fish-eater. It seems very strange that a -predacious bird allied to the eagles, none of which birds can swim, -much less dive, should obtain its living from the water. That the -cormorant and other diving birds should do so is no matter of -surprise, inasmuch as they are able to pursue the fish in their own -element, and catch them by superior speed. But any bird which cannot -dive, and which yet lives on fish, is forced to content itself with -those fish that come to the surface of the water, a mode of obtaining -a livelihood which does not appear to have much chance of success. Yet -the Osprey does on a large scale what the kingfisher does on a small -one, and contrives to find abundant food in the water. - -Its method of taking prey is almost exactly like that which is -employed by the kingfisher. When it goes out in search of food, it -soars into the air, and floats in circles over the water, watching -every inch of it as narrowly as a kestrel watches a stubble-field. No -sooner does a fish rise toward the surface to take a fly, or to leap -into the air for sport, than the Osprey darts downwards, grasps the -fish in its talons, drags the struggling prey from the water, and with -a scream of joy and triumph bears it away to shore, where it can be -devoured at leisure. - - [Illustration: THE OSPREY. - - "These are they of which ye shall not eat; the eagle, and the - ossifrage, and the osprey." - - DEUT. xiv. 12.] - -The bird never dives, neither does it seize the fish with its beak -like the kingfisher. It plunges but slightly into the water, as -otherwise it would not be able to use its strong wings and -carry off its prey. In order to enable the bird to seize the hard -and slippery body of the fish, it is furnished with long, very sharp, -and boldly-hooked talons, which force themselves into the sides of the -fish, and hold it as with grappling irons. - -In order to enable it to hover over the water, and to watch the -surface carefully, it is possessed of wonderful powers of flight, -being able to balance itself in one spot without seeming to move a -wing, and having the singular facility of doing so even when a -tolerably strong breeze is blowing. It has even been observed to -maintain its place unmoved when a sharp squall swept over the spot. - -Although not very plentiful in Palestine, nor indeed in any other -country, it is seen throughout the whole of that country where it can -find a sufficiency of water. It prefers the sea-shore and the rivers -of the coast, and is said to avoid the Sea of Galilee. - - - - -THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE. - - The word _Dayah_ and its signification--Dayah a collective term - for different species of Kites--The Common or Red Kite plentiful - in Palestine--Its piercing sight and habit of soaring--The Black - Kite of Palestine and its habits--The Egyptian Kite--The Raah or - Glede of Scripture--The Buzzards and their habits--The Peregrine - Falcon an inhabitant of Central Palestine, and the Lanner of the - eastern parts of the country. - - -In Lev. xi. 14 and Deut. xiv. 13, we find the Vulture among the list -of birds which the Jews were not permitted to eat. The word which is -translated as Vulture is _dayah_, and we find it occurring again in -Isaiah xxxiv. 15, "There shall the vultures also be gathered, every -one with her mate." There is no doubt, however, that this translation -of the word is an incorrect one, and that it ought to be rendered as -KITE. In Job xxviii. 7, there is a similar word, _ayah_, which is also -translated as Vulture, and which is acknowledged to be not a Vulture, -but one of the Kites: "There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and -which the vulture's eye hath not seen." Both these words are nearly -identical with modern Arabic terms which are employed rather loosely -to signify several species of Kite. Buxtorf, in his Hebrew Lexicon, -gives the correct rendering, translating _dayah_ as _Milvus_, and the -Vulgate in one or two places gives the same translation, though in -others it renders the word as Vulture. - - [Illustration: THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye - hath not seen._" - - JOB xxviii. 7.] - -Mr. Tristram, who has given much attention to this subject, is -inclined to refer the word _ayah_ to the Common Kite (_Milvus -regalis_), which was once so plentiful in this country, and is now -nearly extinct; and _dayah_ to the Black Kite (_Milvus atra_). He -founds this distinction on the different habits of the two species, -the Common or Red Kite being thinly scattered, and being in the habit -of soaring into the air at very great heights, and the latter being -very plentiful and gregarious. - -We will first take the Red Kite. - -This bird is scattered all over Palestine, feeding chiefly on the -smaller birds, mice, reptiles, and fish. In the capture of fish the -Kite is almost as expert as the osprey, darting from a great height -into the water, and bearing off the fish in its claws. The wings of -this bird are very long and powerful, and bear it through the air in a -peculiarly graceful flight. It is indeed in consequence of this flight -that it has been called the Glede, the word being derived from its -gliding movements. - -The sight of this bird is remarkably keen and piercing, and, from the -vast elevation to which it soars when in search of food, it is able to -survey the face of the country beneath, and to detect the partridge, -quail, chicken, or other creature that will serve it for food. This -piercing sight and habit of soaring render the passage in Job -peculiarly appropriate to this species of Kite, though it does not -express the habits of the other. Should the Kite suspect danger when -forced to leave its nest, it escapes by darting rapidly into the air, -and soaring at a vast height above the trees among which its home is -made. From that elevation it can act as a sentinel, and will not come -down again until it is assured of safety. - - -Of the habits of the BLACK KITE (_Milvus atra_), Mr. Tristram gives an -admirable description. "The habits of the bird bear out the allusion -in Isa. xxxiv. 15, for it is, excepting during the winter three -months, so numerous everywhere in Palestine as to be almost -gregarious. It returns about the beginning of March, and scatters -itself over the whole country, preferring especially the neighbourhood -of valleys, where it is a welcome and unmolested guest. It does not -appear to attack the poultry, among whom it may often be seen feeding -on garbage. It is very sociable, and the slaughter of a sheep at one -of the tents will soon attract a large party of black kites, which -swoop down regardless of man and guns, and enjoy a noisy scramble for -the refuse, chasing each other in a laughable fashion, and sometimes -enabling the wily raven to steal off with the coveted morsel during -their contentions. It is the butt of all the smaller scavengers, and -is evidently most unpopular with the crows and daws, and even rollers, -who enjoy the amusement of teasing it in their tumbling flight, which -is a manoeuvre most perplexing to the kite." - -The same writer proceeds to mention that the Black Kite, unlike the -red species, is very careless about the position of its nest, and -never even attempts to conceal it, sometimes building it in a tree, -sometimes on a rock-ledge, and sometimes in a bush growing on the -rocks. It seems indeed desirous of making the nest as conspicuous as -possible, and hangs it all over with bits of cloth, strips of bark, -wings of birds, and even the cast skins of serpents. - -Another species (_Milvus Ægyptiacus_) is sometimes called the Black -Kite from the dark hue of its plumage, but ought rather to retain the -title of Egyptian Kite. Unlike the black kite, this bird is a great -thief, and makes as much havoc among poultry as the red kite. It is -also a robber of other birds, and if it should happen to see a weaker -bird with food, it is sure to attack and rob it. Like the black kite, -it is fond of the society of man, and haunts the villages in great -numbers, for the purpose of eating the offal, which in Oriental towns -is simply flung into the streets to be devoured by the dogs, vultures, -kites, and other scavengers, without whom no village would be -habitable for a month. - - -Whether the word _raah_, which is translated as Glede in Deut. xiv. -13, among the list of birds which may not be eaten, is one of these -species of Kite, or a bird of a different group, is a very doubtful -point. This is the only passage in which the word occurs, and we have -but small grounds for definitely identifying it with any one species. -The Hebrew Bible retains the word Glede, but affixes a mark of doubt -to it, and several commentators are of opinion that the word is a -wrong reading of _dayah_, which occurs in the parallel passage in Lev. -xi. 14. The reading of the Septuagint follows this interpretation, and -renders it as Vulture in both cases. Buxtorf translates the word -_raah_ as Rook, but suggests that _dayah_ is the correct reading. - -Accepting, however, the word _raah_, we shall find that it is derived -from a root which signifies sight or vision, especially of some -particular object, so that a piercing sight would therefore be the -chief characteristic of the bird, which, as we know, is one of the -attributes of the Kites, together with other birds of prey, so that it -evidently must be classed among the group with which we are now -concerned. It has been suggested that, granting the _raah_ to be a -species distinct from the _dayah_, it is a collective term for the -larger falcons and buzzards, several species of which inhabit -Palestine, and are not distinctly mentioned in the Bible. - -Several species of buzzard inhabit the Holy Land, and there is no -particular reason why they should be mentioned except by a collective -name. Some of the buzzards are very large birds, and though their -wings are short when compared with those of the vultures and eagles, -the flight of the bird is both powerful and graceful. It is not, -however, remarkable for swiftness, and never was employed, like the -falcon, in catching other birds, being reckoned as one of the useless -and cowardly birds of prey. In consonance with this opinion, to -compare a man to a buzzard was thought a most cutting insult. - - [Illustration: THE PEREGRINE FALCON, OR GLEDE OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_And the Glede, and the kite, and the vulture after his - kind._"--DEUT. xiv. 13.] - -As a general rule, it does not chase its prey like the eagles or the -large-winged falcons, but perches on a rock or tree, watches for some -animal on which it can feed, pounces on it, and returns to its post, -the whole movements being very like those of the flycatcher. This -sluggishness of disposition, and the soft and almost owl-like plumage, -have been the means of bringing the bird into contempt among -falconers. - -As to the large falcons, which seem to be included in the term _raah_, -the chief of them is the Peregrine Falcon (_Falco peregrinus_), which -is tolerably common in the Holy Land. In his "Land of Israel," Mr. -Tristram gives several notices of this bird, from which we may take -the following picture from a description of a scene at Endor. "Dreary -and desolate looked the plain, though of exuberant fertility. Here and -there might be seen a small flock of sheep or herd of cattle, tended -by three or four mounted villagers, armed with their long firelocks, -and pistols and swords, on the watch against any small party of -marauding cattle-lifters. - -"Griffon vultures were wheeling in circles far over the rounded top of -Tabor; and here and there an eagle was soaring beneath them in search -of food, but at a most inconvenient distance from our guns. Hariers -were sweeping more rapidly and closely over the ground, where lambs -appeared to be their only prey; and a noble peregrine falcon, which in -Central Palestine does not give place to the more eastern lanner, was -perched on an isolated rock, calmly surveying the scene, and -permitting us to approach and scrutinize him at our leisure." - -The habit of perching on the rock, as mentioned above, is very -characteristic of the Peregrine Falcon, who loves the loftiest and -most craggy cliffs, and makes its nest in spots which can only be -reached by a bold and experienced climber. The nests of this bird are -never built in close proximity, the Peregrine preferring to have its -home at least a mile from the nest of any other of its kinsfolk. -Sometimes it makes a nest in lofty trees, taking possession of the -deserted home of some other bird; but it loves the cliff better than -the tree, and seldom builds in the latter when the former is -attainable. - -In the passage from the "Land of Israel" is mentioned the LANNER -FALCON (_Falco lanarius_), another of the larger falcons to which the -term _raah_ may have been applied. - -This bird is much larger than the Peregrine Falcon, and, indeed, is -very little less than the great gerfalcon itself. It is one of the -birds that were reckoned among the noble falcons; and the female, -which is much larger and stronger than the male, was employed for the -purpose of chasing the kite, whose long and powerful wings could not -always save it from such a foe. - -Although the Lanner has been frequently mentioned among the British -birds, and the name is therefore familiar to us, it is not even a -visitor of our island. The mistake has occurred by an error in -nomenclature, the young female Peregrine Falcon, which is much larger -and darker than the male bird, having been erroneously called by the -name of Lanner. - - [Illustration: THE LANNER FALCON.] - -In the illustration, a pair of Lanner Falcons are depicted as pursuing -some of the rock-pigeons which abound in Palestine, the attitudes of -both birds being taken from life. - - - - -THE HAWK. - - The Netz or Hawk--Number of species probably grouped under that - name--Rare occurrence of the word--The Sparrow-Hawk and its - general habits--Its place of nesting--The Kestrel, or - Wind-hover--Various names by which it is known in England--Its - mode of feeding and curious flight--The Hariers--Probable - derivation of the name--Species of Harier known to inhabit - Palestine--Falconry apparently unknown to the ancient Jews. - - -There is no doubt that a considerable number of species are grouped -together under the single title Netz, or Hawk, a word which is rightly -enough translated. That a great number of birds should have been thus -confounded together is not surprising, seeing that even in this -country and at the present time, the single word Hawk may signify any -one of at least twelve different species. The various falcons, the -hariers, the kestrel, the sparrow-hawk, and the hobbies, are one and -all called popularly by the name of Hawk, and it is therefore likely -that the Hebrew word Netz would signify as many species as the English -word Hawk. From them we will select one or two of the principal -species. - -In the first place, the word is of very rare occurrence. We only find -it three times. It first occurs in Lev. xi. 16, in which it is named, -together with the eagle, the ossifrage, and many other birds, as among -the unclean creatures, to eat which was an abomination. It is next -found in the parallel passage in Deut. xiv. 15, neither of which -portions of Scripture need be quoted at length. - -That the word _netz_ was used in its collective sense is very evident -from the addition which is made to it in both cases. The Hawk, "after -its kind," is forbidden, showing therefore that several kinds or -species of Hawk were meant. Indeed, any specific detail would be quite -needless, as the collective term was quite a sufficient indication, -and, having named the vultures, eagles, and larger birds of prey, the -simple word _netz_ was considered by the sacred writer as expressing -the rest of the birds of prey. - -We find the word once more in that part of the Bible to which we -usually look for any reference to natural history. In Job xxxix. 26, -we have the words, "Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and turn [or -stretch] her wings toward the south?" The precise signification of -this passage is rather doubtful, but it is generally considered to -refer to the migration of several of the Hawk tribe. That the bird in -question was distinguished for its power of flight is evident from the -fact that the sacred poet has selected that one attribute as the most -characteristic of the Netz. - -Taking first the typical example of the Hawks, we find that the -SPARROW-HAWK (_Accipiter nisus_) is plentiful in Palestine, finding -abundant food in the smaller birds of the country. It selects for its -nest just the spots which are so plentiful in the Holy Land, _i.e._ -the crannies of rocks, and the tops of tall trees. Sometimes it builds -in deserted ruins, but its favourite spot seems to be the lofty -tree-top, and, in default of that, the rock-crevice. It seldom builds -a nest of its own, but takes possession of that which has been made by -some other bird. Some ornithologists think that it looks out for a -convenient nest, say of the crow or magpie, and then ejects the -rightful owner. I am inclined to think, however, that it mostly takes -possession of a nest that is already deserted, without running the -risk of fighting such enemies as a pair of angry magpies. This opinion -is strengthened by the fact that the bird resorts to the same nest -year after year. - -It is a bold and dashing bird, though of no great size, and when wild -and free displays a courage which it seems to lose in captivity. As is -the case with so many of the birds, the female is much larger than her -mate, the latter weighing about six ounces, and measuring about a foot -in length, and the former weighing above nine ounces, and measuring -about fifteen inches in length. - - -The most plentiful of the smaller Hawks of Palestine is the COMMON -KESTREL (_Tinnunculus alaudarius_). This is the same species with -which we are so familiar in England under the names of Kestrel, -Wind-hover, and Stannel Hawk. - - [Illustration: KESTREL. - - "_Doth the Hawk fly by thy wisdom?_"--JOB xxxix. 26.] - -It derives its name of Wind-hover from its remarkable habit of -hovering, head to windward, over some spot for many minutes together. -This action is always performed at a moderate distance from the -ground; some naturalists saying that the Hawk in question never hovers -at an elevation exceeding forty feet, while others, myself included, -have seen the bird hovering at a height of twice as many yards. -Generally, however, it prefers a lower distance, and is able by -employing this manoeuvre to survey a tolerably large space beneath. As -its food consists in a very great measure of field-mice, the Kestrel -is thus able by means of its telescopic eyesight to see if a mouse -rises from its hole; and if it should do so, the bird drops on it and -secures it in its claws. - -Unlike the sparrow-hawk, the Kestrel is undoubtedly gregarious, and -will build its nest in close proximity to the habitations of other -birds, a number of nests being often found within a few yards of each -other. Mr. Tristram remarks that he has found its nest in the recesses -of the caverns occupied by the griffon vultures, and that the Kestrel -also builds close to the eagles, and is the only bird which is -permitted to do so. It also builds in company with the jackdaw. - -Several species of Kestrel are known, and of them at least two inhabit -the Holy Land, the second being a much smaller bird than the Common -Kestrel, and feeding almost entirely on insects, which it catches with -its claws, the common chafers forming its usual prey. Great numbers of -these birds live together, and as they rather affect the society of -mankind, they are fond of building their nests in convenient crannies -in the mosques or churches. Independently of its smaller size, it may -be distinguished from the Common Kestrel by the whiteness of its -claws. - -The illustration is drawn from a sketch taken from life. The bird -hovered so near a house, and remained so long in one place, that the -artist fixed a telescope and secured an exact sketch of the bird in -the peculiar attitude which it is so fond of assuming. After a while, -the Kestrel ascended to a higher elevation, and then resumed its -hovering, in the attitude which is shown in the upper figure. In -consequence of the great abundance of this species in Palestine, and -the peculiarly conspicuous mode of balancing itself in the air while -in search of prey, we may feel sure that the sacred writers had it -specially in their minds when they used the collective term Netz. - -The Kestrel has a very large geographical range, being plentiful not -only in England and Palestine, but in Northern and Southern Europe, -throughout the greater part of Asia, in Siberia, and in portions of -Africa. The bird, therefore, is capable of enduring both heat and -cold, and, as is often the case with those creatures that are useful -to man, is a perfect cosmopolitan. - -It is easily trained, and, although in the old hawking days it was -considered a bird which a noble could not carry, it can be trained to -chase the smaller birds as successfully as the falcons can be taught -to pursue the heron. The name Tinnunculus is supposed by some to have -been given to the bird in allusion to its peculiar cry, which is -clear, shrill, and consists of a single note several times repeated. - -On page 361 the reader may see a representation of a pair of HARIER -HAWKS flying below the rock on which the peregrine falcon has -perched, and engaged in pursuing one of the smaller birds. - -They have been introduced because several species of Harier are to be -found in Palestine, where they take, among the plains and lowlands, -the place which is occupied by the other hawks and falcons among the -rocks. - -The name of Harier appears to be given to these birds on account of -their habit of regularly quartering the ground over which they fly -when in search of prey, just like hounds when searching for hares. -This bird is essentially a haunter of flat and marshy lands, where it -finds frogs, mice, lizards, on which it usually feeds. It does not, -however, confine itself to such food, but will chase and kill most of -the smaller birds, and occasionally will catch even the leveret, the -rabbit, the partridge, and the curlew. - -When it chases winged prey, it seldom seizes the bird in the air, but -almost invariably keeps above it, and gradually drives it to the -ground. It will be seen, therefore, that its flight is mostly low, as -suits the localities in which it lives, and it seldom soars to any -great height, except when it amuses itself by rising and wheeling in -circles together with its mate. This proceeding generally takes place -before nest-building. The usual flight is a mixture of that of the -kestrel and the falcon, the Harier sometimes poising itself over some -particular spot, and at others shooting forwards through the air with -motionless wings. - -Unlike the falcons and most of the hawks, the Harier does not as a -rule perch on rocks, but prefers to sit very upright on the ground, -perching generally on a mole-hill, stone, or some similar elevation. -Even its nest is made on the ground, and is composed of reeds, sedges, -sticks, and similar matter, materials that can be procured from marshy -land. The nest is always elevated a foot or so from the ground, and -has occasionally been found on the top of a mound more than a yard in -height. It is, however, conjectured that in such cases the mound is -made by one nest being built upon the remains of another. The object -of the elevated nest is probably to preserve the eggs in case of a -flood. - -At least five species of Hariers are known to exist in the Holy Land, -two of which are among the British birds, namely, the Marsh Harier -(_Circus æruginosus_), sometimes called the Duck Hawk and the Moor -Buzzard, and the Hen Harier (_Circus cyaneus_), sometimes called the -White Hawk, Dove Hawk, or Blue Hawk, on account of the plumage of the -male, which differs greatly according to age; and the Ring-tailed -Hawk, on account of the dark bars which appear on the tail of the -female. All the Hariers are remarkable for the Circlet of feathers -that surrounds the eyes, and which resembles in a lesser degree the -bold feather-circle around the eye of the owl tribe. - - -Before taking leave of the Hawks, it is as well to notice the entire -absence in the Scriptures of any reference to falconry. Now, seeing -that the art of catching birds and animals by means of Hawks is a -favourite amusement among Orientals, as has already been mentioned -when treating of the gazelle (page 139), and knowing the unchanging -character of the East, we cannot but think it remarkable that no -reference should be made to this sport in the Scriptures. - -It is true that in Palestine itself there would be but little scope -for falconry, the rough hilly ground and abundance of cultivated soil -rendering such an amusement almost impossible. Besides, the use of the -falcon implies that of the horse, and, as we have already seen, the -horse was scarcely ever used except for military purposes. - -Had, therefore, the experience of the Israelites been confined to -Palestine, there would have been good reason for the silence of the -sacred writers on this subject. But when we remember that the -surrounding country is well adapted for falconry, that the amusement -is practised there at the present day, and that the Israelites passed -so many years as captives in other countries, we can but wonder that -the Hawks should never be mentioned as aids to bird-catching. We find -that other bird-catching implements are freely mentioned and employed -as familiar symbols, such as the gin, the net, the snare, the trap, -and so forth; but that there is not a single passage in which the -Hawks are mentioned as employed in falconry. - - - - -THE OWL. - - The words which have been translated as Owl--The Côs, or Little - Owl--Use made of the Little Owl in bird-catching--Habits of the - bird--The Barn, Screech, or White Owl a native of Palestine--The - Yanshûph, or Egyptian Eagle Owl--Its food and nest--The Lilith, - or Night Monster--Various interpretations of the word--The - Kippoz probably identical with the Scops Owl, or Marouf. - - -In various parts of the Old Testament there occur several words which -are translated as OWL in the Authorized Version, and in most cases the -rendering is acknowledged to be the correct one, while in one or two -instances there is a difference of opinion on the subject. - -In Lev. xi. 16, 17, we find the following birds reckoned among those -which are an abomination, and which might not be eaten by the -Israelites: "The owl, and the night-hawk, and the cuckoo, and the hawk -after his kind; - -"And the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl." - -Here, then, we have in close proximity the word Owl repeated three -times, and the same repetition occurs in the parallel passage in Deut. -xiv. Now the words which are here translated as Owl are totally -different words in the Hebrew, so that if we leave them untranslated, -the passages will run as follow: "And the Bath-haya'anah, and the -night-hawk, and the cuckoo, and the hawk after his kind; - -"And the Côs, and the cormorant, and the Yanshûph." - -Taking these words in order, we find in the first place that the -Jewish Bible accepts the translation of the words _côs_ and -_yanshûph_, merely affixing to them the mark of doubt. But it -translates the word _bath-haya'anah_ as Ostrich, without adding the -doubtful mark. Now the same word occurs in several other passages of -Scripture, the first being in Job xxx. 29: "I am a brother to dragons, -and a companion to owls." In the marginal reading of the Authorized -Version, which, as the reader must bear in mind, is of equal value -with the text, the rendering is the same as that of the Jewish Bible, -and in several other passages the same reading is followed. We -therefore accept the word _bath-haya'anah_ as the ostrich, and dismiss -it from among the owls. - - -Coming now to the other words, we find in the passages already quoted -the words _côs_ and _yanshûph_. Both those words occur in other parts -of Scripture, and evidently are the names of nocturnal birds that -haunt ruins and lonely places. Taking them in order, we find the word -_côs_ to occur again in Ps. cii. 6: "I am like a pelican of the -wilderness: I am like an owl of the desert." The Psalm in which this -passage occurs is a penitential prayer, in which the writer uses many -of the metaphors employed by Job when lamenting his afflictions, and -describes himself as left alone among men. - -The simile is equally just and feasible in this case, the Owl being -essentially a bird of night, and associated with solitude and gloom. -The particular species which is signified by the word _côs_ bears but -very slightly on the subject, inasmuch as in general habits all the -true Owls are very similar in hiding by day in their nests, and coming -out at night to hunt for prey, their melancholy hoot, or startling -shriek, breaking the silence of the night. - -Still it is necessary to identify, if we can, some species with the -word _côs_, and it is very likely that the Little Owl, or Boomah of -the Arabs (_Athene Persica_), is the bird which is signified by the -word _côs_. This species is probably identical with the Little Night -Owl of England (_Athene noctua_). Though rare in England, it is very -common in many parts of the Continent where it is much valued by -bird-catchers, who employ it as a means of attracting small birds to -their traps. They place it on the top of a long pole, and carry it -into the fields, where they plant the pole in the ground. This Owl has -a curious habit of swaying its body backwards and forwards, and is -sure to attract the notice of all the small birds in the -neighbourhood. It is well known that the smaller birds have a peculiar -hatred to the Owl, and never can pass it without mobbing it, -assembling in great numbers, and so intent on their occupation that -they seem to be incapable of perceiving anything but the object of -their hatred. Even rooks, magpies, and hawks are taken by this simple -device. - -Whether or not the Little Owl was used for this object by the ancient -inhabitants of Palestine is rather doubtful; but as they certainly did -so employ decoy birds for the purpose of attracting game, it is not -unlikely that the Little Owl was found to serve as a decoy. We shall -learn more about the system of decoy-birds when we come to the -partridge. - - [Illustration: THE LITTLE OWL - - "_I am like an owl of the desert._"--PS. cii. 6.] - -The Little Owl is to be found in almost every locality, caring little -whether it takes up its residence in cultivated grounds, in villages, -among deserted ruins, or in places where man has never lived. As, -however, it is protected by the natives, it prefers the neighbourhood -of villages, and may be seen quietly perched in some favourite spot, -not taking the trouble to move unless it be approached closely. And to -detect a perched Owl is not at all an easy matter, as the bird has a -way of selecting some spot where the colours of its plumage harmonize -so well with the surrounding objects that the large eyes are often the -first indication of its presence. Many a time I have gone to search -after Owls, and only been made aware of them by the sharp angry snap -that they make when startled. - -The name _Athene_, by the way, has been given to this Owl because it -is the species selected by the Greeks as the emblem of wisdom. - -The common BARN OWL of England (_Strix flammea_) also inhabits -Palestine, and if, as is likely to be the case, the word côs is a -collective term under which several species are grouped together, the -Barn or White Owl is likely to be one of them. - -Like the Little Owl, it affects the neighbourhood of man, though it -may be found in ruins and similar localities. An old ruined castle is -sure to be tenanted by the Barn Owl, whose nightly shrieks have so -often terrified the belated wanderer, and made him fancy that the -place was haunted by disturbed spirits. Such being the case in -England, it is likely that in the East, where popular superstition has -peopled every well with its jinn and every ruin with its spirit, the -nocturnal cry of this bird, which is often called the Screech Owl from -its note, should be exceedingly terrifying, and would impress itself -on the minds of sacred writers as a fit image of solitude, terror, and -desolation. - -The Screech Owl is scarcely less plentiful in Palestine than the -Little Owl, and, whether or not it be mentioned under a separate name, -is sure to be one of the birds to which allusion is made in the -Scriptures. - - -Another name now rises before us: this is the Yanshûph, translated as -the Great Owl, a word which occurs not only in the prohibitory -passages of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, but in the Book of Isaiah. In -that book, ch. xxxiv. ver. 10, 11, we find the following passage: -"From generation to generation it shall lie waste; none shall pass -through it for ever and ever. - -"But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl -(_yanshûph_) also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall -stretch out upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of -emptiness." The Jewish Bible follows the same reading. - -It is most probable that the Great Owl or Yanshûph is the EGYPTIAN -EAGLE OWL (_Bubo ascalaphus_), a bird which is closely allied to the -great Eagle Owl of Europe (_Bubo maximus_), and the Virginian Eared -Owl (_Bubo Virginianus_) of America. This fine bird measures some two -feet in length, and looks much larger than its real size, owing to the -thick coating of feathers which it wears in common with all true Owls, -and the ear-like feather tufts on the top of its head, which it can -raise or depress at pleasure. Its plumage is light tawny. - -This bird has a special predilection for deserted places and ruins, -and may at the present time be seen on the very spots of which the -prophet spoke in his prediction. It is very plentiful in Egypt, where -the vast ruins are the only relics of a creed long passed away or -modified into other forms of religion, and its presence only -intensifies rather than diminishes the feeling of loneliness that -oppresses the traveller as he passes among the ruins. - -The European Eagle Owl has all the habits of its Asiatic congener. It -dwells in places far from the neighbourhood of man, and during the day -is hidden in some deep and dark recess, its enormous eyes not being -able to endure the light of day. In the evening it issues from its -retreat, and begins its search after prey, which consists of various -birds, quadrupeds, reptiles, fish, and even insects when it can find -nothing better. - -On account of its comparatively large dimensions, it is able to -overcome even the full-grown hare and rabbit, while the lamb and the -young fawn occasionally fall victims to its voracity. It seems never -to chase any creature on the wing, but floats silently through the -air, its soft and downy plumage deadening the sound of its progress, -and suddenly drops on the unsuspecting prey while it is on the ground. - -The nest of this Owl is made in the crevices of rocks, or in ruins, -and is a very large one, composed of sticks and twigs, lined with a -tolerably large heap of dried herbage, the parent Owls returning to -the same spot year after year. Should it not be able to find either a -rock or a ruin, it contents itself with a hollow in the ground, and -there lays its eggs, which are generally two in number, though -occasionally a third egg is found. The Egyptian Eagle Owl does much -the same thing, burrowing in sand-banks, and retreating, if it fears -danger, into the hollow where its nest has been made. - -In the large illustration the two last-mentioned species are given. -The Egyptian Eagle Owl is seen with its back towards the spectator, -grasping in its talons a dead hare, and with ear-tufts erect is -looking towards the Barn Owl, which is contemplating in mingled anger -and fear the proceedings of the larger bird. Near them is perched a -raven, in order to carry out more fully the prophetic words, "the owl -also and the raven shall dwell in it." - - -Two more passages yet remain in which the word Owl is mentioned, and, -curiously enough, both of them are found in the Book of Isaiah, the -poet-prophet, who seized with a poet's intuition on the natural -objects around him, and converted the simplest and most familiar -incidents into glowing imagery and powerful metaphor. - -If the reader will refer to Isaiah xxxiv. 13-15, he will find the -following passages, which are, in fact, a continuation of the prophecy -against Idumea, which has already been quoted. "And thorns shall come -up in her palaces, nettles and brambles in the fortresses thereof: and -it shall be an habitation of dragons, and a court for owls. - -"The wild beasts of the desert shall also meet with the wild beasts of -the island, and the satyr shall cry to his fellow; the screech owl -also shall rest there, and find for herself a place of rest. - -"There shall the great owl make her nest, and lay, and hatch, and -gather under her shadow." - -It has been already mentioned that the word which is translated as -Owl, in the first of these passages, is _bath-haya'anah_, which is -generally considered to signify the ostrich. In verse 14 we come to a -new word, namely, _lilith_. In the marginal reading of the Authorized -Version, this word is rendered as "night monster," and the Jewish -Bible takes nearly the same view of the word by translating it as "a -nocturnal one," evidently basing this interpretation upon the -derivation of the word. Several Hebraists have thought that the word -_lilith_ merely represents some mythological being, like the dread -Lamia of the ancients, a mixture of the material and spiritual--too -ethereal to be seen by daylight, and too gross to be above the -requirements of human food. The blood of mankind was the food of these -fearful beings, and, according to old ideas, they could only live -among ruins and desert places, where they concealed themselves during -the day at the bottoms of wells or the recesses of rock-caverns, and -stole out at night to seize on some unlucky wanderer, and suck his -blood as he slept. - -The reader may remember that even our very imperfect version of the -"Arabian Nights" repeatedly alludes to this belief, the evil spirit -being almost invariably represented as dwelling in ruins, rocky -places, and the interiors of wells. - -Although it is very possible that the prophet may have referred to -some of the mythological beings which were so universally supposed to -inhabit deserted spots, and thus to have employed the word _lilith_ as -a term which he did not intend to be taken otherwise than -metaphorically, it is equally possible that some nocturnal bird may -have been meant, and in that case the bird in question must almost -certainly have been an Owl of some kind. As to the particular species -of Owl, that is a question which cannot be satisfactorily answered, -especially as so many scholars find reason to doubt whether the word -_lilith_ represents an Owl, or indeed any ordinary inhabitant of -earth. As, therefore, we have no data whereon to found a positive -opinion, the question will be allowed to remain an open one. - -The last word which is translated as Owl is _kippoz_, and occurs in -ch. xxxiv. 15: "There shall the great owl make her nest." - - [Illustration: THE OWL. - - "I am a companion to owls."--JOB. xxx. 29.] - -Many Hebraists think that in this case the word _kippoz_ is a mere -clerical error for _kippod_, or hedgehog, and have translated the -passage accordingly. The Septuagint and the Vulgate follow this -reading; Buxtorf, in his Hebrew Lexicon, translates _kippoz_ as -Thrush, deriving the name from the dipping character of its flight. -The Jewish Bible, following several other authorities, renders the -word as "arrow-snake," while several scholars translate it as "darting -serpent." This interpretation, however, is scarcely tenable, as the -description of the Kippoz as making its nest, laying its eggs, and -gathering them under its shadow, clearly points to a bird, and not a -reptile. It is very true that the boa or python snake has been seen to -coil itself round a heap of its eggs, but the sacred writer could -hardly have had many opportunities of seeing such an act, while the -custom of a bird gathering her young under the shadow of her wings -must have been perfectly familiar to him. There is, moreover, the -fact that the context speaks of the vultures, so that a bird -of some kind was evidently in the mind of the writer. Mr. -Tristram suggests that the Kippoz might be intended for the Scops Owl, -called Marouf by the Arabs, and which is very common about ruins, -caves, and the old walls of towns. Its note is well represented by the -word _kippoz_. - -"It is a migrant, returning to Palestine in spring. It is the smallest -owl in the country, being little more than seven inches in length, -with long ear-tufts, and its whole plumage most delicately mottled and -speckled with grey and light brown." - -This species is very plentiful on the continent of Europe, though it -is rare in the British Isles. It feeds, as might be presumed from its -diminutive size, on mice, small reptiles, and insects. Its scientific -name, according to the nomenclature of the British Museum, is -_Ephialtes Scops_. - - - - -THE NIGHT-HAWK. - - Different interpretations of the word Tachmâs--Probability that - it signifies the Nightjar--Various names of the bird--Its - remarkable jarring cry, and wheeling flight--Mode of - feeding--Boldness of the bird--Deceptive appearance of its size. - - -We next come to the vexed question of the word Tachmâs, which is -rendered in the Authorized Version as NIGHT-HAWK. - -This word only occurs among the list of prohibited birds (see Lev. xi. -16, and Deut. xiv. 15), and has caused great controversies among -commentators. Some Hebraists have thought that the male ostrich was -signified by _tachmâs_, the word _bath-haya'anah_ being supposed by -them to signify the female ostrich. It is hardly probable, however, -that the sacred writer should have mentioned separately the sexes of -the same species, and we must therefore look for some other -interpretation. - -Going to the opposite extreme of size, some scholars have translated -_tachmâs_ as Swallow. This again is not a very probable rendering, as -the swallow would be too small a bird to be specially named in the -prohibitory list. The balance of probability seems to lie between two -interpretations,--namely, that which considers the word _tachmâs_ to -signify the Night-hawk, and that which translates it as Owl. For both -of these interpretations much is to be said, and it cannot be denied -that of the two the latter is perhaps the preferable. If so, the White -or Barn Owl is probably the particular species to which reference is -made. - - [Illustration: THE NIGHT-HAWK. - - "_The owl, and the night-hawk, and the cuckoo._"--DEUT. xiv. 15.] - -Still, many commentators think that the Night-hawk or Nightjar is the -bird which is signified by the word _tachmâs_; and, as we have already -treated of the owls, we will accept the rendering of the Authorized -Version. Moreover, the Jewish Bible follows the same translation, and -renders _tachmâs_ as Night-hawk, but affixes the mark of doubt. - -It is not unlikely that the Jews may have reckoned this bird among the -owls, just as is the case with the uneducated among ourselves, who -popularly speak of the Nightjar as the Fern Owl, Churn Owl, or Jar -Owl, the two last names being given to it on account of its peculiar -cry. There are few birds, indeed, which have received a greater -variety of popular names, for, besides the Goatsucker and the five -which have already been mentioned, there are the Wheel-bird and -Dor-hawk, the former of these names having been given to the bird on -account of its wheeling round the trees while seeking for prey, and -the latter on account of the dor-beetles on which it largely feeds. - -This curious variety of names is probably due to the very conspicuous -character of the Nightjar, its strange, jarring, weird-like cry -forcing itself on the ear of the least attentive, as it breaks the -silence of night. It hardly seems like the cry of a bird, but rather -resembles the sound of a pallet falling on the cogs of a -rapidly-working wheel. It begins in the dusk of evening, the long, -jarring note being rolled out almost interminably, until the hearer -wonders how the bird can have breath enough for such a prolonged -sound. The hearer may hold his breath as long as he can, take a full -inspiration, hold his breath afresh, and repeat this process over and -over again, and yet the Nightjar continues to trill out its rapid -notes without a moment's cessation for breath, the sound now rising -shrill and clear, and now sinking as if the bird were far off, but -never ceasing for an instant. - -This remarkable cry has caused the uneducated rustics to look upon the -bird with superstitious dread, every one knowing its cry full well, -though to many the bird is unknown except by its voice. It is probable -that, in the days when Moses wrote the Law, so conspicuous a bird was -well known to the Jews, and we may therefore conjecture that it was -one of those birds which he would specially mention by name. - -The general habits of the Nightjar are quite as remarkable as its -note. It feeds on the wing, chasing and capturing the various moths, -beetles, and other insects that fly abroad by night. It may be seen -wheeling round the branches of some tree, the oak being a special -favourite, sometimes circling round it, and sometimes rising high in -the air, and the next moment skimming along the ground. Suddenly it -will disappear, and next moment its long trilling cry is heard from -among the branches of the tree round which it has been flying. To see -it while singing is almost impossible, for it has a habit of sitting -longitudinally on the branch, and not across it, like most birds, so -that the outline of its body cannot be distinguished from that of the -bough on which it is seated. As suddenly as it began, the sound -ceases, and simultaneously the bird may be seen wheeling again through -the air with its noiseless flight. - -Being a very bold bird, and not much afraid of man, it allows a -careful observer to watch its movements clearly. I have often stood -close to the tree round which several Nightjars were circling, and -seen them chase their prey to the ground within a yard or two of the -spot on which I was standing. The flight of the Nightjar is singularly -graceful. Swift as the swallow itself, it presents a command of wing -that is really wonderful, gliding through the air with consummate -ease, wheeling and doubling in pursuit of some active moth, whose -white wings glitter against the dark background, while the sober -plumage of its pursuer is scarcely visible, passing often within a few -feet of the spectator, and yet not a sound or a rustle will reach his -ears. Sometimes the bird is said to strike its wings together over its -back, so as to produce a sharp snapping sound, intended to express -anger at the presence of the intruder. I never, however, heard this -sound, though I have watched the bird so often. - -Owing to the soft plumage with which it is clad, this bird, like the -owls, looks larger than really is the case. It is between ten and -eleven inches in length, with an expanse of wing of twenty inches, and -yet weighs rather less than three ounces. Its large mouth, like that -of the swallow tribe, opens as far as the eyes, and is furnished with -a set of _vibrissæ_ or bristles, which remind the observer of the -"whale-bone" which is set on the jaw of the Greenland whale. The -scientific name of the bird is _Caprimulgus Europæus_. - - - - -THE SWALLOW. - - Identification of the smaller birds--Oriental indifference to - natural history--Use of collective terms--The - Swallow--Signification of the word _Deror_--The Bird of - Liberty--Swallows and Swifts--The Sunbirds and - Bee-eaters--Variety of small birds found in Palestine--The - Swallows of Palestine--Swallows protected by man in various - countries--Nesting of the Swallow--The Rufous Swallow and - Martin--The Sis or Swift--Various species of Swift inhabiting - the Holy Land--Talmudical notions of the Swift or Swallow--The - leper and his offering--The cooking pot and the sacrificial - vessel--Signification of the word _Tzippor-deror_. - - -Difficult as is the identification of the mammalia mentioned in the -Bible, that of the birds is much more intricate. - -Some of the larger birds can be identified with tolerable certainty, -but when we come to the smaller and less conspicuous species, we are -at once lost in uncertainty, and at the best can only offer -conjectures. The fact is, the Jews of old had no idea of -discriminating between the smaller birds, unless they happened to be -tolerably conspicuous by plumage or by voice. We need not be much -surprised at this. The Orientals of the present day do precisely the -same thing, and not only fail to discriminate between the smaller -birds, but absolutely have no names for them. - -By them, the shrikes, the swallows, the starlings, the thrushes, the -larks, the warblers, and all the smaller birds, are called by a common -title, derived from the twittering sound of their voices, only one or -two of them having any distinctive titles. They look upon the birds -much as persons ignorant of entomology look at a collection of moths. -There is not much difficulty in discriminating between the great -hawk-moths, and perhaps in giving a name to one or two of them which -are specially noticeable for any peculiarity of form or colour; but -when they come to the "Rustics," the "Carpets," the "Wainscots," and -similar groups, they are utterly lost; and, though they may be able to -see the characteristic marks when the moths are placed side by side, -they are incapable of distinguishing them separately, and, to their -uneducated eyes, twenty or thirty species appear absolutely alike. - -I believe that there is no country where a knowledge of practical -natural history is so widely extended as in England, and yet how few -educated persons are there who, if taken along a country lane, can -name the commonest weed or insect, or distinguish between a sparrow, a -linnet, a hedge-sparrow, and a chaffinch. Nay, how many are there who, -if challenged even to repeat the names of twelve little birds, would -be unable to do so without some consideration, much less to know them -if the birds were placed before them. - -Such being the case in this country, where the capability of -observation is more or less cultivated in every educated person, we -may well expect that a profound ignorance on the subject should exist -in countries where that faculty is absolutely neglected as a matter of -education. Moreover, in England we have a comparatively limited list -of birds, whereas in Palestine are found nearly all those which are -reckoned among British birds, and many other species besides. Those -which reside in England reside also for the most part in Palestine, -while the greater part of the migratory birds pass, as we might -expect, into the Holy Land and the neighbouring countries. - -If then we put together the two facts of an unobservant people and a -vastly extended fauna, we shall not wonder that so many collective -terms are used in the Scriptures, one word often doing duty for twenty -or thirty species. The only plan, therefore, which can be adopted, is -to mention generally the birds which were probably grouped under one -name, and to describe briefly one or two of the most prominent. - -It is, however, rather remarkable that the song of birds does not -appear to be noticed by the sacred writers. We might expect that -several of the prophets, especially Isaiah, the great sacred poet, who -drew so many of his images from natural objects, would have found in -the song of birds some metaphor expressive of sweetness or joy. We -might expect that in the Book of Job, in which so many creatures are -mentioned, the singing of birds would be brought as prominently -forward as the neck clothed with thunder of the horse, the tameless -freedom of the wild ass, the voracity of the vulture, and the -swiftness of the ostrich. We might expect the song of birds to be -mentioned by Amos, the herdman of Tekoa, who introduces into his -rugged poem the rear of the old lion and the wail of the cub, the -venom of the serpent hidden in the wattled wall of the herdman's hut, -and the ravages of the palmer-worm among the olives. Above all, we -might expect that in the Psalms there would be many allusions to the -notes of the various birds which have formed such fruitful themes for -the poets of later times. There are, however, in the whole of the -Scriptures but two passages in which the song of birds is mentioned, -and even in these only a passing allusion is made. - -One of them occurs in Psalm civ. 12: "By them (_i.e._ the springs of -water) shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation, which sing -among the branches." This passage is perhaps rendered more closely in -the Jewish Bible: "Over them dwell the fowls of the heaven; they let -their voices resound (or give their voice) from between the foliage." - -The other occurs in Eccles. xii. 4: "And the doors shall be shut in -the streets, when the sound of the grinding is low, and he shall rise -up at the voice of the bird, and all the daughters of music shall be -brought low." The word which is here translated as "bird," is that -which is rendered in some places as "sparrow," in others as "fowl," -and in others as "bird." Even in these passages, as the reader will -have noticed, no marks of appreciation are employed, and we hear -nothing of the sweetness, joyousness, or mournfulness of the bird's -song. - - -We will now proceed to the words which have been translated as Swallow -in the Authorized Version. - -These are two in number, namely, _derôr_ and _agar_. Hebraists are, -however, agreed that the latter word has been wrongly applied, the -translators having interchanged the signification of two contiguous -words. - -We will therefore first take the word _deror_. This word signifies -liberty, and is well applied to the Swallow, the bird of freedom. It -is remarkable, by the way, how some of the old commentators have -contrived to perplex themselves about a very simple matter. One of -them comments upon the bird as being "so called, because it has the -liberty of building in the houses of mankind." Another takes a -somewhat similar view of the case, but puts it in a catechetical -form: "Why is the swallow called the bird of liberty? Because it lives -both in the house and in the field." It is scarcely necessary to point -out to the reader that the "liberty" to which allusion is made is the -liberty of flight, the bird coming and going at its appointed times, -and not being capable of domestication. - -Several kinds of Swallow are known in Palestine, including the true -Swallows, the martins, and the swifts, and, as we shall presently see, -it is likely that one of these groups was distinguished by a separate -name. Whether of not the word _deror_ included other birds beside the -Swallows is rather doubtful, though not at all unlikely; and if so, it -is probable that any swift-winged insectivorous bird would be called -by the name of Deror, irrespective of its size or colour. - -The bee-eaters, for example, are probably among the number of the -birds grouped together under the word _deror_, and we may conjecture -that the same is the case with the sunbirds, those bright-plumed -little beings that take in the Old World the place occupied by the -humming-birds in the New, and often mistaken for them by travellers -who are not acquainted with ornithology. One of these birds, the -_Nectarinia Oseæ_, is described by Mr. Tristram as "a tiny little -creature of gorgeous plumage, rivalling the humming-birds of America -in the metallic lustre of its feathers--green and purple, with -brilliant red and orange plumes under its shoulders." - -In order to account for the singular variety of animal life which is -to be found in Palestine, and especially the exceeding diversity of -species among the birds, we must remember that Palestine is a sort of -microcosm in itself, comprising within its narrow boundaries the most -opposite conditions of temperature, climate, and soil. Some parts are -rocky, barren, and mountainous, chilly and cold at the top, and acting -as channels through which the winds blow almost continuously. The -cliffs are full of holes, rifts, and caverns, some natural, some -artificial, and some of a mixed kind, the original caverns having been -enlarged and improved by the hand of man. - -As a contrast to this rough and ragged region, there lie close at hand -large fertile plains, affording pasturage for unnumbered cattle, and -of a tolerably equable temperature, so that the animals which are -pastured in it can find food throughout the year. Through the centre -of Palestine runs the Jordan, fertilizing its banks with perpetual -verdure, and ending its course in the sulphurous and bituminous waters -of the Dead Sea, under whose waves the ruins of the wicked cities are -supposed to lie. Westward we have the shore of the Mediterranean with -its tideless waves of the salt sea, and on the eastward of the -mountain range that runs nearly parallel to the sea is the great Lake -of Tiberias, so large as to have earned the name of the Sea of -Galilee. - - [Illustration: THE RUFOUS SWALLOW AND GALILEAN SWIFT. - - "_The turtle, and the crane, and the swallow observe the time of their - coming._"--JER. viii. 7.] - -Under these favourable conditions, therefore, the number of species -which are found in Palestine is perhaps greater than can be seen in -any other part of the earth of the same dimensions, and it seems -probable that for this reason, among many others, Palestine was -selected to be the Holy Land. If, for example, the Christian Church -had been originated under the tropics, those who lived in a cold -climate could scarcely have understood the language in which the -Scriptures must necessarily have been couched. Had it, on the -contrary, taken its rise in the Arctic regions, the inhabitants of the -tropics and temperate regions could not have comprehended the imagery -in which the teachings of Scripture must have been conveyed. But the -small and geographically insignificant Land of Palestine combines in -itself many of the characteristics which belong respectively to the -cold, the temperate, and the hot regions of the world, so that the -terms in which the sacred writings are couched are intelligible to a -very great proportion of the world's inhabitants. - -This being the case, we naturally expect to find that several species -of the Swallow are inhabitants of Palestine, if indeed so migratory a -bird can be rightly said to be an inhabitant of any one country. - -The chief characteristic of the Swallow, the "bird of freedom," is -that it cannot endure captivity, but is forced by instinct to pass -from one country to another for the purpose of preserving itself in a -tolerably equable temperature, moving northwards as the spring ripens -into summer, and southwards as autumn begins to sink into winter. By -some marvellous instinct it traces its way over vast distances, -passing over hundreds of miles where nothing but the sea is beneath -it, and yet at the appointed season returning with unerring certainty -to the spot where it was hatched. How it is guided no one knows, but -the fact is certain, that Swallows, remarkable for some peculiarity by -which they could be at once identified, have been observed to leave -the country on their migration, and to return in the following year to -the identical nest whence they started. - -The habits of the Swallow are much the same in Palestine as they are -in England. Its habit of making its nest among the habitations of -mankind is mentioned in a well-known passage of the Psalms: "The -sparrow hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for herself, where -she may lay her young, even Thine altars, O Lord of Hosts, my King and -my God" (Ps. lxxxiv. 3). The Swallow seems in all countries to have -enjoyed the protection of man, and to have been suffered to build in -peace under his roof. We find the same idea prevalent in the New World -as well as the Old, and it is rather curious that the presence of the -bird should so generally he thought to bring luck to a house. - -In some parts of our country, a farmer would not dare to kill a -Swallow or break down its nest, simply because he thinks that if he -did so his cows would fail to give their due supply of milk. The -connexion between the milking of a cow in the field and the -destruction of a Swallow's nest in the house is not very easy to see, -but nevertheless such is the belief. This idea ranks with that which -asserts the robin and the wren to be the male and female of the same -species, and to be under some special divine protection. - -Whatever may be the origin of this superstition, whether it be derived -from some forgotten source, or whether it be the natural result of the -confiding nature of the bird, the Swallow enjoys at the present day -the protection of man, and builds freely in his houses, and even his -places of worship. The heathen temples, the Mahometan mosques, and the -Christian churches are alike inhabited by the Swallow, who seems to -know her security, and often places her nest where a child might reach -it. - -The bird does not, however, restrict itself to the habitations of man, -though it prefers them; and in those places where no houses are to be -found, and yet where insects are plentiful, it takes possession of the -clefts of rocks, and therein makes its nest. Many instances are known -where the Swallow has chosen the most extraordinary places for its -nest. It has been known to build year after year on the frame of a -picture, between the handles of a pair of shears hung on the wall, on -a lamp-bracket, in a table-drawer, on a door-knocker, and similar -strange localities. - -The swiftness of flight for which this bird is remarkable is noticed -by the sacred writers. "As the bird by wandering, as the swallow by -flying, so the curse causeless shall not come" (Prov. xxvi. 2). This -passage is given rather differently in the Jewish Bible, though the -general sense remains the same: "As the bird is ready to flee, as the -swallow to fly away; so a causeless execration, it shall not come." It -is possible, however, that this passage may allude rather to the -migration than the swiftness of the bird. - -Several species of Swallow inhabit the Holy Land. There is, for -example, our common SWALLOW, which is one of the migratory species, -while another, the Oriental Swallow (_Hirundo cahirica_), often -remains in the warmer parts of the country throughout the year. This -bird may be distinguished by the chestnut hue of the under parts. - -Perhaps the most characteristic species is the RUFOUS or RUSSET -SWALLOW (_Hirundo rufula_), a bird which is exceedingly rare even in -the warmer parts of Europe, but is plentiful in Palestine. It may be -easily known by the chestnut red of the back just above the tail, in -the spot where the white patch occurs in our house martin. The under -parts are differently coloured from those of the common Swallow, being -pink instead of white. - -Several Martins inhabit Palestine, among which are the two species -with which we are so familiar in England, namely, the HOUSE MARTIN -(_Chelidon urbica_) and the SAND MARTIN (_Cotyle riparia_). At least -two other species of Martin are known to inhabit the Holy Land, but -they do not call for any special notice. - - -Besides the word _deror_, which is acknowledged to signify the -Swallow, there is another word which, by a curious transposition, has -been translated as "crane," whereas there is little doubt that it -signifies one of the Swallow tribe, and most probably represents the -Swift. The word is _sis_, and occurs in two passages. The first occurs -in Isa. xxxviii. 13, 14, in the well-known prayer of Hezekiah during -his sickness: "From day even to night wilt thou make an end of me. -Like a crane [_sis_], or a swallow, so did I chatter: I did mourn as a -dove: mine eyes fail with looking upward." The Jewish Bible reads the -words, "Like a chattering swallow," affixing the mark of doubt; while -the Septuagint translates the word _sis_ as "Chelidon," or Swallow, -and this is probably the correct rendering of the word. - -Accepting this as the true interpretation, we find that the word _sis_ -is very expressive of the perpetual chattering of the Swift, whose -sharp, shrill cries often betray its presence while it is sailing in -the air almost beyond the ken of human eyes. There is a wailing, -melancholy sound about the bird's cry which makes Hezekiah's image -exceedingly appropriate, and he could hardly have selected a more -forcible metaphor. - -The second passage occurs in Jer. viii. 7: "Yea, the stork in the -heaven knoweth her appointed times; and the turtle, and the crane -[_sis_], and the swallow observe the time of their coming; but my -people know not the judgment of the Lord." With regard to this -passage, the Jewish Bible renders the word _sis_ as Swallow, though -with the mark of doubt. - -Allusion is here made to the migratory habits of the Swift. There is, -perhaps, no bird more conspicuous in this respect; for whereas the -other migratory birds seem to straggle, as it were, into the country, -the Swifts arrive almost simultaneously, so that on one day not a -Swift will be seen, and on the next the air is full of their dark, -glancing forms. - -Like the Swallow, the Swift haunts the neighbourhood of man, and loves -to build its simple nest in the roofs of houses. Almost any hole will -do for a Swift to build in, provided that it be tolerably deep; for -the bird loves darkness for its nest, though it is essentially in its -habits a bird of light. - -Perhaps the word "build" is scarcely the right one, inasmuch as the -nest is even more simple than that of the sand-martin. This latter -bird does indeed arrange with some regularity the feathers which -compose its nest, as may be seen by a beautiful specimen obtained by -Mr. Gould; whereas the Swift merely places together a quantity of hay, -straw, hair, feathers, and similar materials, all of which are -probably obtained from the ruins of a sparrow's nest which had -occupied the hole before the Swift took possession of it. - -Several species of Swift inhabit Palestine. The common Swift -(_Cypselus apus_), with which we are so familiar, is very plentiful, -and so is the ALPINE SWIFT (_Cypselus melba_), a bird which is rare in -England, though it occasionally visits our shores. It is much larger -than the common Swift, and is brown above and white below, instead of -being dusky black, like the common species. - -The most characteristic species is, however, the GALILEAN SWIFT -(_Cypselus affinis_). Of this kind, Mr. Tristram remarks that it is -"very like the house-martin in general appearance and size. It resides -all the year in the Jordan valley, where alone it is found, living in -large communities, and has a pleasing note, a gentle and melodious -wail, very different from the harsh scream of the other swifts. Its -nests are very peculiar, being composed generally of straw and -feathers, agglutinated together by the bird's saliva, like those of -the edible swallow of Eastern Asia. They are without any lining, -attached to the under side of an overhanging rock. It also sometimes -takes possession of the nest of the rufus swallow for its purposes. -The Galilean swift has a wide range, being found in India and -Abyssinia." - -It is possible that this may be the Sis mentioned by Hezekiah, its -soft wailing cry being used as the metaphor to express his own -complaining. - - -As might be expected, the Talmudical writers have much to say on this -bird. - -For example, the offering which a leper made at the cleansing of his -infirmity might be the Tzippor-deror, the rather quaint reason being -that it was a bird with sharp scratching claws, and was therefore very -appropriately offered in connexion with a disease of the skin. Here we -have rather a complication of terms, the word _tzippor_ being used, as -we shall presently see, to signify the sparrow in particular, or any -little bird in general. The particular species, therefore, which is -signified by the combination of the two words _tzippor-deror_ is -rather obscure, and the Talmudists themselves are rather uncertain -about it. The interpretation of this compound word seems, however, to -have been a difficulty, and the various renderings which have been -suggested seem at last to have varied between the wild pigeon, or -rock-dove, and the Swallow. An account of the various arguments is -given by Lewysohn in his "Zoologie des Talmuds," page 206, and may be -briefly epitomized, as follows, in favour of the Swallow, or, as we -shall soon see, the Swift. - -The reader may perhaps be acquainted with the legend respecting the -death of Titus, how a gnat made its way through his nostril into his -brain, and there grew and kept him in constant torture until he died, -when, according to some writers, it had reached the size of a -Tzippor-deror, and weighed two selaim. Others enlarged upon this -story, and said that it grew as large as a wild pigeon, and weighed -two pounds. Now, as twenty-five selaim are equal to one pound, it -follows that the Tzippor-deror must have been very much less than the -wild pigeon, and that therefore the two birds could not have been -identical. - -Another reason for believing the Tzippor-deror to be a much smaller -bird than the pigeon is found in a curious rule respecting the eating -of certain meats. The Jews were forbidden to eat date-shells with the -heathen, unless they were cooked in a vessel with an opening so small -that a Tzippor-deror could not have been introduced into the pot. The -reason of this curious proviso was, that if any unclean flesh, such as -that of the swine, or of any animal which had been offered to idols, -had been cooked in that vessel, even the date-shells would become -unclean. But, if the mouth of the pot were too small for a -Tzippor-deror to be passed through it, such a vessel could not have -been used in cooking meat, and might therefore be assumed to be clean. -Here, then, we have another proof of the small size of the bird. With -regard to this argument, I find myself perplexed as to the -"date-shells." Dates have no shells, and need no cooking, while the -stones are too hard and woody to be rendered edible by any amount of -cooking. Still, the word employed by Lewysohn is "dattelschalen." - -The leper's offering was not laid on the altar, but was submitted to a -peculiar manipulation on the part of the priest. Among other points of -ritual, the blood had to be mixed with a certain quantity of water, -which it barely discoloured, staining it of a very pale red. As the -amount of water was the fourth part of a "log," and is defined to be -equal to the contents of six hen's eggs, it was evident that the bird -whose blood would only discolour so small a volume of water must be a -little one. - -After giving all these details, the learned writer sums up his -arguments by saying that he believes the Tzippor-deror to be the White -Swallow, which is small, and has claws so sharp that by means of them -it can cling to the wall. Now this action is one of the -characteristics of the Swifts, who often cling to walls for a time, -and then resume their flight. They do so in preference to sitting on -the ground after the fashion of the Swallow, because the great length -of the wings causes the Swift to find some little difficulty in rising -from a level surface. After weighing all the various arguments that -have been urged on the subject, we may conclude that the Tzippor-deror -was the White, or Alpine Swift, which has been already described on -page 389. - - - - -THE HOOPOE, OR LAPWING OF SCRIPTURE. - - The "Dukiphath" of Scripture--Various interpretations of the - word--The Hoopoe--Its beauty and ill reputation--The unpleasant - odour of its nest--Food of the Hoopoe--Its beautiful nest, and - remarkable gestures--A curious legend of Solomon and the Hoopoe. - - -In the two parallel chapters, Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv., there occurs -the name of a bird which is translated in the Authorized Version, -Lapwing: "And the stork, the heron after her kind, the lapwing, and -the bat." - -The Hebrew word is _dukiphath_, and various interpretations have been -proposed for it, some taking it to be the common domestic fowl, others -the cock-of-the-woods, or capercailzie, while others have preferred to -translate it as Hoopoe. The Jewish Bible retains the word lapwing, but -adds the mark of doubt. Commentators are, however, agreed that of all -these interpretations, that which renders the word as HOOPOE (_Upupa -epops_) is the best. - -There would be no particular object in the prohibition of such a bird -as the lapwing, or any of its kin, while there would be very good -reasons for the same injunction with regard to the Hoopoe. - -In spite of the beauty of the bird, it has always had rather an ill -reputation, and, whether in Europe or Asia, its presence seems to be -regarded by the ignorant with a kind of superstitious aversion. This -universal distaste for the Hoopoe is probably occasioned by an -exceedingly pungent and disagreeable odour which fills the nest of the -bird, and which infects for a considerable time the hand which is -employed to take the eggs. - -The nest is, moreover, well calculated for retaining any unpleasant -smell, being generally made in the hollow of a tree, and having -therefore but little of that thorough ventilation which is found in -nearly all nests which are built on boughs and sprays. The odour in -question proceeds from a substance secreted from the tail-glands of -the Hoopoe, and is not due, as was long supposed, to the food which -was brought to the nest. - - [Illustration: THE HOOPOE.] - -There was good reason for supposing that this evil odour was caused by -the food, inasmuch as the Hoopoe is in the habit of raking about in -very unsavoury places in search of insects. But it does not therefore -follow that the insects which it finds are possessed of an evil smell. -On the contrary, some of the worst-smelling insects--notably the -lace-wing fly and many of the flower-haunting hemiptera--are -invariably found upon the leaves of trees and the petals of flowers; -while others which, like many of the scarab beetles, haunt the most -repulsive substances, are in themselves bright, and clean, and sweet. - -The food of the Hoopoe consists almost entirely of insects. They have -been said to feed on earth-worms; but this notion seems to be a -mistaken one, as in captivity they will not touch an earth-worm so -long as they can procure an insect. Beetles of various kinds seem to -be their favourite food, and when the beetles are tolerably -large--say, for example, as large as the common cockchafer and -dor-beetle--the bird beats them into a soft mass before it attempts to -eat them. Smaller beetles are swallowed without any ceremony. The -various boring insects which make their home in decaying wood are -favourite articles of diet with the Hoopoe, which digs them out of the -soft wood with its long curved beak. - -It has already been mentioned that the nest is usually made in the -hollow of a tree. In many parts of the country however, hollow trees -cannot be found, and in that case the Hoopoe resorts to clefts in the -rock, or even to holes in old ruins. - -The bird is a peculiarly conspicuous one, not only on account of its -boldly-barred plumage and its beautiful crest, but by its cry and its -gestures. It has a way of elevating and depressing its crest, and -bobbing its head up and down, in a manner which could not fail to -attract the attention even of the most incurious, the whole aspect and -expression of the bird varying with the raising and depressing of the -crest. - -Respecting this crest there is a curious old legend. As is the case -with most of the Oriental legends, it introduces the name of King -Solomon, who, according to Oriental notions, was a mighty wizard -rather than a wise king, and by means of his seal, on which was -engraven the mystic symbol of Divinity, held sway over the birds, the -beasts, the elements, and even over the Jinns and Afreets, _i.e._ the -good and evil spirits, which are too ethereal for the material world -and too gross for the spiritual, and therefore hold the middle place -between them. - -On one of his journeys across the desert, Solomon was perishing from -the heat of the sun, when the Hoopoes came to his aid, and flew in a -dense mass over his head, thus forming a shelter from the fiery -sunbeams. Grateful for this assistance, the monarch told the Hoopoes -to ask for a boon, and it should be granted to them. The birds, after -consulting together, agreed to ask that from that time every Hoopoe -should wear a crown of gold like Solomon himself. The request was -immediately granted, and each Hoopoe found itself adorned with a -royal crown. At first, while their honours were new, great was the joy -of the birds, who paused at every little puddle of water to -contemplate themselves, bowing their heads over the watery mirror so -as to display the crown to the best advantage. - -Soon, however, they found cause to repent of their ambition. The -golden crown became heavy and wearisome to them, and, besides, the -wealth bestowed on the birds rendered them the prey of every fowler. -The unfortunate Hoopoes were persecuted in all directions for the sake -of their golden crowns, which they could neither take off nor conceal. - -At last, the few survivors presented themselves before Solomon, and -begged him to rescind his fatal gift, which he did by substituting a -crest of feathers for the crown of gold. The Hoopoe, however, never -forgets its former grandeur, and is always bowing and bending itself -as it used to do when contemplating its golden crown in the water. - - - - -THE SPARROW. - - Signification of the word _Tzippor_--The bird used for the - leper's sacrifice--The Sparrow upon the house-top--Architecture - of the East--Proclamation from the house-tops--The Blue Thrush, - its appearance and habits--Little birds exposed for sale in the - market--The two Sparrows sold for a farthing--Bird-catching--The - net, the snare, and the trap--The Sparrow that builds her nest - in the Temple--The Tree-Sparrow--Various Sparrows that inhabit - Palestine--Birds kept in cages. - - -We have already discussed the signification of the compound word -_tzippor-deror_, and will now take the word _tzippor_ alone. - -Like many other Hebrew terms, the word is evidently used in a -collective sense, signifying any small bird that is not specially -designated. In several portions of Scripture it is translated as -Sparrow, and to that word we will at present restrict ourselves. - -Much difficulty has been found in identifying the bird which is -signified by this word, the various allusions not agreeing with each -other. For example, in the marginal reading in Lev. xiv. 4 it is -employed as a bird of sacrifice. When a leper had found that his -disease had passed away, he was ordered to present himself before the -priest, who would examine him, and decide whether the leprosy had -really passed away or not. If he found that the man was right, a -series of symbolic ceremonies had to be performed before the former -leper could be restored to his place in the congregation. - -These ceremonies lasted for eight days, and the first of them was the -sacrificing of the Sparrow. "Then shall the priest command to take for -him that shall be cleansed two birds [_tzipporim_ or sparrows] alive -and clean, and cedar-wood, and scarlet, and hyssop." One of these -birds was to be sacrificed over running water, and the other to be set -free, this sacrifice being analogous to that of the scape-goat. - -We see in this passage that the bird in question, whatever it might -be, must be one of those birds which were considered as clean and fit -for food. Indeed, the very use of the word "clean" shows that the -leper was not restricted to any particular species. Had this been the -case, there would have been no necessity for stipulating that the -Tzipporim must belong to the list of _clean_ birds--_i.e._ those which -were permitted as food to the Israelites. Had any definite species -been intended, there would have been no necessity for mentioning the -word "clean" in connexion with the bird. - -In the remaining ceremonies no such word is needed. There is no -stipulation that the lamb to be sacrificed should be clean, or, in -case the leper should be a poor man, that the doves which he offers -should be clean. That the lamb should be without blemish is especially -mentioned, because it would not be right to offer a maimed or diseased -animal--he who presented himself before the Lord might not offer a -sacrifice which cost him nothing, and therefore was no true sacrifice. -But the lamb and the dove were known to be "clean" animals, so it was -useless to use the word in connexion with them. If, therefore, the -words "clean birds" (_tzipporim_) be mentioned, it is evident that the -leper might select any of the Tzipporim, provided that it be one of -the species that was acknowledged to be dean. - -Here, then, we have an example that the Sparrow might be a bird of -sacrifice. We will now pass to Ps. cii. 5-7, in which we find that the -word is used as an emblem of solitude and misery: "By reason of the -voice of my groaning, my bones cleave to my skin. - -"I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the -desert. - -"I watch, and am as a sparrow alone upon the house-top." - -The word which is here translated as "Sparrow" is _tzippor_, the same -which is rendered as "bird" in Lev. xiv. 4. The Hebrew Bible more -consistently uses the collective term "bird" in both instances, and -renders the passage as, "I watch, and am as a lonely bird upon a -roof." - -Now, any one who knows the habits of the Sparrow is perfectly aware -that it is a peculiarly sociable bird. It is quarrelsome enough with -its fellows, and always ready to fight for a stray grain or morsel of -food; but it is exceedingly gregarious, assembling together in little -parties, enlivening the air with its merry though unmusical -twitterings. - -This cosmopolitan bird is plentiful in the coast towns of Palestine, -where it haunts the habitations of men with the same dauntless -confidence which it displays in England. It is often seen upon roofs -or house-tops, but is no more apt to sit alone in Palestine than it is -in England. On the contrary, the Sparrows collect in great numbers on -the house-tops, attracted by the abundant supply of food which it -finds there. This requires some little explanation. - -The house-tops of the East, instead of being gabled and tiled as among -ourselves, to allow the rain to run off, are quite flat, and serve as -terraces or promenades in the evening, or even for sleeping-places; -and from the house-tops proclamations were made. See, for example, 1 -Sam. ix. 25: "And when they were come down from the high place into -the city, Samuel communed with Saul upon the top of the house"--this -being the ordinary place which would be chosen for a conversation. In -order to keep out the heat of the mid-day sun, tents were sometimes -pitched upon these flat house-tops. (See 2 Sam. xvi. 22.) Reference to -the use of the house-tops as places for conversation are made in the -New Testament. See, for example, Matt. x. 27: "What I tell you in -darkness, that speak ye in light; and what ye hear in the ear, that -preach ye upon the house-tops." Another passage of a similar nature -occurs in Luke xii. 3: "Therefore whatsoever ye have spoken in -darkness shall be heard in the light, and that which ye have spoken in -the ear in closets shall be proclaimed on the house-tops." - -These roofs, instead of being built with sloping rafters like those to -which we are accustomed in this country, are made with great beams of -wood laid horizontally, and crossed by planks, poles, and brushwood -packed tightly together. As this roof would not keep out the rain, it -is covered with a thick layer of clay mixed with straw, and beaten -down as hard as possible. This covering has constantly to be renewed, -as, even in the best made roofs, the heavy rains are sure to wash away -some portion of the clay covering, which has to be patched up with a -fresh supply of earth. A stone roller is generally kept on the roof of -each house for the purpose of making a flat and even surface. - -The earth which is used for this purpose is brought from the -uncultivated ground, and is full of various seeds. As soon as the -rains fall, these seeds spring up, and afford food to the Sparrows and -other little birds, who assemble in thousands on the house-tops, and -then peck away just as they do in our own streets and farm-yards. - -It is now evident that the "sparrow alone and melancholy upon the -house-tops" cannot be the lively, gregarious Sparrow which assembles -in such numbers on these favourite feeding-places. We must therefore -look for some other bird, and naturalists are now agreed that we may -accept the BLUE THRUSH (_Petrocossyphus cyaneus_) as the particular -Tzippor, or small bird, which sits alone on the house-tops. The colour -of this bird is a dark blue, whence it derives its popular name. Its -habits exactly correspond with the idea of solitude and melancholy. -The Blue Thrushes never assemble in flocks, and it is very rare to see -more than a pair together. It is fond of sitting on the tops of -houses, uttering its note, which, however agreeable to itself, is -monotonous and melancholy to a human ear. - -In connexion with the passage already quoted, "What ye hear in the -ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops," I will take the opportunity -of explaining the passage itself, which scarcely seems relevant to the -occasion unless we understand its bearings. The context shows that our -Lord was speaking of the new doctrines which He had come to teach, -and the duty of spreading them, and alludes to a mode of religious -teaching which was then in vogue. - - [Illustration: THE BLUE THRUSH, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_I am as a sparrow alone upon the house-tops._"--PS. cii. 7.] - -The long captivity of the Jews in Babylon had caused the Hebrew -language to be disused among the common people, who had learned the -Chaldaic language from their captors. After their return to Palestine, -the custom of publicly reading the Scriptures was found to be -positively useless, the generality of the people being ignorant of the -Hebrew language. - -Accordingly, the following modification was adopted. The roll of the -Scriptures was brought out as usual, and the sacred words read, or -rather chanted. After each passage was read, a doctor of the law -whispered its meaning into the ear of a Targumista or interpreter, who -repeated to the people in the Chaldaic language the explanation which -the doctor had whispered in Hebrew. The reader will now see how -appropriate is the metaphor, the whispering in the ear and subsequent -proclamation being the customary mode of imparting religious -instruction. - -If the reader will now turn to Matt. x. 29, he will find that the word -"sparrow" is used in a passage which has become very familiar to us. -"Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing? and one of them shall not -fall on the ground without your Father. - -"But the very hairs of your head are all numbered. - -"Fear ye not therefore, ye are of more value than many sparrows." The -same sentences are given by St. Luke (xii. 6), in almost the same -words. - -Now the word which is translated as "Sparrow" is _strouthion_, a -collective word, signifying a bird of any kind. Without the addition -of some epithet, it was generally used to signify any kind of small -bird, though it is occasionally employed to signify even so large a -creature as an eagle, provided that the bird had been mentioned -beforehand. Conjoined with the word "great," it signifies the ostrich; -and when used in connexion with a word significative of running, it is -employed as a general term for all cursorial birds. - -In the passages above quoted it is used alone, and evidently signifies -any kind of little bird, whether it be a sparrow or not. Allusion is -made by our Lord to a custom, which has survived to the present day, -of exposing for sale in the markets the bodies of little birds. They -are stripped of their feathers, and spitted together in rows, just as -are larks in this country, and always have a large sale. Various birds -are sold in this manner, little if any distinction being made between -them, save perhaps in respect of size, the larger species commanding a -higher price than the small birds. In fact, they are arranged exactly -after the manner in which the Orientals sell their "kabobs," _i.e._ -little pieces of meat pierced by wooden skewers. - -It is evident that to supply such a market it is necessary that the -birds should be of a tolerably gregarious nature, so that a -considerable number can be caught at a time. Nets were employed for -this purpose, and we may safely infer that the forms of the nets and -the methods of using them were identical with those which are employed -in the same country at the present day. - -It is rather curious that the mode of bird-catching which is familiar -to us under the name of bat-fowling is employed in the East. The -fowlers supply themselves with a large net supported on two sticks, -and, taking a lantern with them fastened to the top of a pole, they -sally out at night to the places where the small birds sleep. - -Raising the net on its sticks, they lift it to the requisite height, -and hold the lantern exactly opposite to it, so as to place the net -between the birds and the lantern. The roosting-places are then beaten -with sticks or pelted with stones, so as to awaken the sleeping birds. -Startled by the sudden noise, they dash from their roosts, -instinctively make towards the light, and so fall into the net. -Bird-catching with nets is several times mentioned in the Old -Testament, but in the New the net is only alluded to as used for -taking fish. - -Beside the net, several other modes of bird-catching were used by the -ancient Jews, just as is the case at the present day. Boys, for -example, who catch birds for their own consumption, and not for the -market, can do so by means of various traps, most of which are made on -the principle of the noose, or snare. Sometimes a great number of -hair-nooses are set in places to which the birds are decoyed, so that -in hopping about many of them are sure to become entangled in the -snares. Sometimes the noose is ingeniously suspended in a narrow -passage which the birds are likely to traverse, and sometimes a simple -fall-trap is employed. - -To these nooses many allusions are made in the Scriptures. See, for -example, Ps. cxxiv. 7: "Our soul is escaped as a bird (_tzippor_) out -of the snare of the fowlers: the snare is broken, and we are escaped." -Also Prov. vii. 23: "He goeth after her straightway, as an ox goeth to -the slaughter ... as a bird hasteneth to the snare, and knoweth not -that it is for his life." There is one passage in Ecclesiastes, where -both the fishing-net and the snare are mentioned in connexion with -each other: "For man knoweth not his time: as the fishes that are -taken in an evil net, and as the birds that are caught in the snare; -so are the sons of men snared in an evil time, when it falleth -suddenly upon them" (ix. 12). - -Allusion is also made to the snare by the prophet Amos in one of the -passages where his rough, homely diction rises by successive steps -into sublimity: "Can a bird fall in a snare upon the earth, where no -gin is for him? shall one take up a snare from the earth, and have -taken nothing at all?" (iii. 5.) - -So common was the use of the snare that it was frequently used as a -familiar image by the sacred writers. "How long shall this man be a -snare to us?" said Pharaoh's servants of Moses, through whom the -waters of the sacred river had been polluted, and various other -plagues had come upon the Egyptians. Idols are called snares in many -parts of the Scriptures, and so is the society of the wicked. A -forcible use of this image was made by Saul when he found that his -daughter Michal loved David: "And Saul said, I will give him her, that -she may be a snare to him, and that the hand of the Philistines may be -against him" (1 Sam. xviii. 21). His device, or snare, not only -failed, but, as we learn in the succeeding chapter, verses 11-16, -David was "delivered from the snare of the fowler," by the very means -which had been employed for entrapping him. - - -We now pass to another division of the subject. In Ps. lxxxiv. 1-3, we -come upon a passage in which the Sparrow is again mentioned: "How -amiable are Thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts! - -"My soul longeth, yea, even fainteth for the courts of the Lord; my -heart and my flesh crieth out for the living God. - -"Yea, the sparrow hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for -herself, where she may lay her young, even Thine altars, O Lord of -hosts, my King, and my God." - -It is evident that we have in this passage a different bird from the -Sparrow that sitteth alone upon the house-tops; and though the same -word, _tzippor_, is used in both cases, it is clear that whereas the -former bird was mentioned as an emblem of sorrow, solitude, and -sadness, the latter is brought forward as an image of joy and -happiness. "Blessed are they," proceeds the Psalmist, "that dwell in -Thy house: they will be still praising Thee.... For a day in Thy -courts is better than a thousand. I had rather be a doorkeeper in the -house of my God, than to dwell in the tents of wickedness." - -According to Mr. Tristram, this is probably one of the species to -which allusion is made by the Psalmist. While inspecting the ruins in -the neighbourhood of the Temple, he came upon an old wall. "Near this -gate I climbed on to the top of the wall, and walked along for some -time, enjoying the fine view at the gorge of the Kedron, with its -harvest crop of little white tombs. In a chink I discovered a -sparrow's nest (_Passer cisalpinus_, var.) of a species so closely -allied to our own that it is difficult to distinguish it, one of the -very kind of which the Psalmist sung.... The swallows had departed for -the winter, but the sparrow has remained pertinaciously through all -the sieges and changes of Jerusalem." - - [Illustration: THE TREE-SPARROW, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_Yea, the sparrow hath found an house, where she may lay her - young._"--PS. lxxxiv. 3.] - -The same traveller thinks that the TREE SPARROW (_Passer montanus_) -may be the species to which the sacred writer refers, as it is even -now very plentiful about the neighbourhood of the Temple. In all -probability we may accept both these birds as representatives of the -Sparrow which found a home in the Temple. The swallow is separately -mentioned, possibly because its migratory habits rendered it a -peculiarly conspicuous bird; but it is probable that many species of -birds might make their nests in a place where they felt themselves -secure from disturbance, and that all these birds would be mentioned -under the collective and convenient term of Tzipporim. - -As we are engaged upon the word Sparrow, it may be mentioned that -several species of Sparrow inhabit Palestine. There is, for example, -the common House Sparrow, with which we are so familiar. Then, as has -just been described, there is the Tree Sparrow--a bird which is very -common in some parts of England, and never seen in others. - -Beside these, there is the MARSH SPARROW, or SPANISH SPARROW (_Passer -salicarius_), which haunts the banks of the Jordan, and is found there -in countless myriads. Mr. Tristram mentions that it builds so -plentifully in the thorn-bushes of the Jordan valley, that he has seen -the branches borne down by the weight of the nests. The same writer, -in remarking upon the difficulty, not to say impossibility, of -defining the precise bird which was signified by a Hebrew word, says -that, exclusive of the crow tribe, the swifts, cuckoos, rollers, -kingfishers, &c., nearly one hundred and fifty species of passerine -birds are known to inhabit the Holy Land, any or all of which may be -signified by the word _tzippor_. - -In curious contrast to the generally unobservant nature of the -Oriental, and to the almost entire absence in Scripture of any -allusion to the song of birds, we find that not only do the Orientals -of the present day keep singing-birds in cages, but that the custom -was in all probability prevalent during the days when the various -Scriptural books were written. Any of my readers who are familiar--as -they ought to be--with that store-house of Oriental manners, the -"Arabian Nights," will remember several allusions to birds kept in -cages, some for their song, some for their beauty of plumage, and some -for their powers of talking. The same custom is continued at the -present day; and not only in Palestine, but in other Eastern -countries, birds may be seen in cages hung outside the houses. - -In two passages of the Scriptures the word "cage" is mentioned, but in -one case the word evidently has another meaning, and in the other the -signification is open to doubt. - -The first of these passages occurs in Jer. v. 27: "For among my people -are found wicked men: they lay wait, as he that setteth snares; they -set a trap, they catch men. - -"As a cage is full of birds, so are their houses full of deceit." - -There is but little doubt that the word which is rendered here as -"cage" really signifies a trap, probably one of the basket-traps which -are still employed in the East in bird-catching. One marginal reading -gives the word as "coop." The whole of the context, however, shows -that reference is made, not to keeping birds in cages, but to -capturing them in traps, to which the houses of the wicked are -compared. - -The second mention of the word "cage" occurs in the Revelation, where -the sacred writer compares Babylon with "a cage of every unclean -bird." The word in this case signifies "prison," and we cannot -definitely say that it represents a cage such as we understand by the -word. There is, however, a passage in the Book of Job (xli. 5) which -unmistakeably alludes to the custom of domesticating birds. Speaking -of the leviathan and its strength, the sacred writer uses the -following metaphor:--"Wilt thou play with him as with a bird, or wilt -thou bind him for thy maidens?" - - - - -THE CUCKOO. - - The Cuckoo only twice mentioned in Scripture--Difficulty of - identifying the Shachaph--The common species, and the Great - Spotted Cuckoo--Depositing the egg--Conjectures respecting the - Shachaph--Etymology of the word--The various gulls, and other - sea-birds. - - -Only in two instances is the word CUCKOO found in the Authorized -Version of the Bible, and as they occur in parallel passages they are -practically reduced to one. In Lev. xi. 16 we find it mentioned among -the birds that might not be eaten, and the same prohibition is -repeated in Deut. xiv. 15, the Jews being ordered to hold the bird in -abomination. - -The Hebrew word is _shachaph_ (the vowels to be pronounced as in -"mat"), but as to the precise bird which is signified we can but -conjecture. The etymology of the word gives us but little assistance. -_Shachaph_ is derived from a root that signifies leanness or -slenderness; but it is not very easy to base an interpretation on such -grounds. In the Jewish Bible the word is rendered as "Cuckoo," but -with the addition of the doubtful mark. - -It is possible that the bird may be the Shachaph of the Pentateuch, -for several species of Cuckoo are known to inhabit the Holy Land. One -of them is the species with which we are so familiar in this country -by sound, if not by sight, and which possesses in Palestine the same -habits as in England. It is rather remarkable, by the way, that the -Arabic name for the bird is exactly the same as ours, the peculiar cry -having supplied the name. Its habit of laying its eggs in the nests of -other birds is well known, together with the curious fact, that -although so large a bird, measuring more than a foot in length, its -egg is not larger than that of the little birds, such as the -hedge-sparrow, robin, or redstart. - - [Illustration: THE GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO. - - "_And the owl, and the night-hawk, and the cuckoo, and the hawk after - his kind._"--LEV. xi. 16; DEUT. xiv. 15.] - -Besides this species, another Cuckoo inhabits Palestine, and is much -more common. This is the GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO (_Oxylophus -glandarius_). The birds belonging to this genus have been separated -from the other Cuckoos because the feathers on the head are formed -into a bold crest, in some species, such as Le Vaillant's Cuckoo, -reminding the observer of the crest of the cockatoo. This fine bird -measures nearly sixteen inches in length, and can be distinguished, -not only by the crested head, but by the reddish grey of the throat -and chest, and the white tips of the wing and tail feathers. - -This species lays its eggs in the nests of comparatively large birds, -such as the rooks, crows, and magpies; and it is a remarkable fact, -that just as the egg of the English Cuckoo is very small, so as to -suit the nests of the little birds in which it is placed, that of the -Great Spotted Cuckoo is as large as the average rook's egg, so as to -be in proportion to the nests of the larger birds. - - -Many commentators believe that by the word _shachaph_ was signified -some species of sea-gull, or at all events some marine bird. As such -birds live on fish, they would necessarily come into the class of -unclean birds, and there is on that account some probability that the -suggestion is a correct one. - -Dr. Lewysohn has a very elaborate disquisition on the subject, in -which he decides that the creature was one of the sea-birds, and -derives its name of Shachaph, or "attenuated," from the meagreness of -its proportions. Of the various sea-birds, he selects the petrel as -the species which he thinks to have been signified by the word. This -bird, as he says, is a very lean one, having many feathers, but very -little flesh, so that its limbs are no larger than olives, and no one -could make a meal of it. This last remark, however, tends to diminish -rather than to establish his theory, as, if the bird could not be -eaten, there would have been no object in prohibiting the Jews from -eating it. - -He further proceeds to observe that the bird is unable to scratch, and -may therefore be given to a child as a playfellow, and that it is -capable of being domesticated and living in a cage. There is, however, -no argument here, and the theory is not a tenable one. - -Mr. Tristram, with far more probability, suggests that if the bird be -not one of the Cuckoos, and be really a sea-bird, it may be one of the -shearwaters which live in such numbers on the sea-shore of Palestine. -He mentions especially two species, the Great Shearwater (_Puffinus -cinereus_) and the Manx Shearwater (_Puffinus anglorum_), both of -which are extremely plentiful on the coast, skimming continually over -the water, and being at the present day regarded by the Mahometans -with superstitious awe, being thought to be the ever-restless souls of -the condemned, who are doomed to fly backwards and forwards -continually until the end of the world, clad in sombre plumage, and -never permitted to rest. - -Besides the shearwater, many species of gull inhabit the same coast, -and it is not at all unlikely that the word _shachaph_ was used in a -collective sense, as we have seen to be the case with _tzippor_, and -signified any of the marine birds, without aiming at distinction of -species. - - - - -THE DOVE. - - Parallel between the lamb and the Dove--Derivation of the Hebrew - word _Yonâh_--The Dove and the olive branch--Abram's sacrifice, - and its acceptance--The sacrifice according to the law of - Moses--The Dove-sellers of the Temple--Talmudical zoology--The - story of Ilisch--The Dove and the raven--The Dove a type of - Israel--The Beni-yonâh, or Sons of Pigeons--Home-finding - instinct of the pigeon--The Oriental Dove-cotes--Voice of the - Dove--Its strength of wing--The Dove's dung of Samaria--Various - pigeons of Palestine--The Rock-Dove and its multitudes--The Dove - and the Griffon--The Turtle-Doves of Palestine, and their - appearance and habits. - - -In giving the Scriptural history of the Doves and Pigeons, we shall -find ourselves rather perplexed in compressing the needful information -into a reasonable space. There is no bird which plays a more important -part, both in the Old and the New Testaments, or which is employed so -largely in metaphor and symbol. - -The Doves and Pigeons were to the birds what were the sheep and lambs -to the animals, and, like them, derived their chief interest from -their use in sacrifice. Both the lamb and the young pigeon being -emblems of innocence, both were used on similar occasions, the latter -being in many instances permitted when the former were too expensive -for the means of the offerer. As to the rendering of the Hebrew words -which have been translated as Pigeon, Dove, and Turtle Dove, there has -never been any discussion. The Hebrew word _yonâh_ has always been -acknowledged to signify the Dove or Pigeon, and the word _tôr_ to -signify the Turtle Dove. Generally, the two words are used in -combination, so that _tor-yonâh_ signifies the Turtle Dove. - -Though the interpretation of the word _yonâh_ is universally accepted, -there is a little difficulty about its derivation, and its -signification apart from the bird. Some have thought that it is -derived from a root signifying warmth, in allusion to the warmth of -its affection, the Dove having from time immemorial been selected as -the type of conjugal love. Others, among whom is Buxtorf, derive it -from a word which signifies oppression, because the gentle nature of -the Dove, together with its inability to defend itself, cause it to be -oppressed, not only by man, but by many rapacious birds. - - -The first passage in which we hear of the Dove occurs in the earlier -part of Genesis. Indeed, the Dove and the raven are the first two -creatures that are mentioned by any definite names, the word -_nachosh_, which is translated as "serpent" in Gen. iii. 1, being a -collective word signifying any kind of serpent, whether venomous or -otherwise, and not used for the purpose of designating any particular -species. - -Turning to Gen. viii. 8, we come to the first mention of the Dove. The -whole passage is too familiar to need quoting, and it is only needful -to say that the Dove was sent out of the ark in order that Noah might -learn whether the floods had subsided, and that, after she had -returned once, he sent her out again seven days afterwards, and that -she returned, bearing an olive-branch (or leaf, in the Jewish Bible). -Seven days afterwards he sent the Dove for the third time, but she had -found rest on the earth, and returned no more. - -It is not within the province of this work to treat, except in the -most superficial manner, of the metaphorical signification of the -Scriptures. I shall, therefore, allude but very slightly to the -metaphorical sense of the passages which record the exit from the ark -and the sacrifice of Noah. Suffice it to say that, putting entirely -aside all metaphor, the characters of the raven and the Dove are well -contrasted. The one went out, and, though the trees were at that time -submerged, it trusted in its strong wings, and hovered above the -watery expanse until the flood had subsided. The Dove, on the -contrary, fond of the society of man, and having none of the wild, -predatorial habits which distinguish the raven, twice returned to its -place of refuge, before it was finally able to find a resting-place -for its foot. - -After this, we hear nothing of the Dove until the time of Abraham, -some four hundred years afterwards, when the covenant was made between -the Lord and Abram, when "he believed in the Lord, and it was counted -to him for righteousness." In order to ratify this covenant he was -ordered to offer a sacrifice, which consisted of a young heifer, a -she-goat, a ram, a turtle-dove, and a young dove or pigeon. The larger -animals were severed in two, but the birds were not divided, and -between the portions of the sacrifice there passed a lamp of fire as a -symbol of the Divine presence. - -In after days, when the promise that the seed of Abram should be as -the stars of heaven for multitude had been amply fulfilled, together -with the prophecy that they should be "strangers in a land that was -not theirs," and should be in slavery and under oppression for many -years, the Dove was specially mentioned in the new law as one of the -creatures that were to be sacrificed on certain defined occasions. - -Even the particular mode of offering the Dove was strictly defined. -See Lev. i. 14-17: "If the burnt sacrifice for his offering to the -Lord be of fowls, then he shall bring his offering of turtle-doves, or -of young pigeons. - -"And the priest shall bring it unto the altar, and wring off his head, -and burn it on the altar; and the blood thereof shall be wrung out at -the side of the altar. - -"And he shall pluck away his crop with his feathers, and cast it -beside the altar, on the east part, by the place of the ashes. - -"And he shall cleave it with the wings thereof, but shall not divide -it asunder: and the priest shall burn it upon the altar, upon the wood -that is upon the fire." - -Here we have a repetition not only of the sacrifice of Abram, but of -the mode in which it was offered, care being taken that the body of -the bird should not be divided. There is a slight, though not very -important variation in one or two portions of this passage. For -example, the wringing off the head of the bird is, literally, pinching -off, and had to be done with the thumb nail; and the passage which is -by some translators rendered as the crop and the feathers, is by -others translated as the crop and its contents--a reading which seems -to be more consonant with the usual ceremonial of sacrifice than the -other. - -As a general rule, the pigeon was only sanctioned as a sacrificial -animal in case one of more value could not be afforded; and so much -care was taken in this respect, that with the exception of the two -"sparrows" (_tzipporim_) that were enjoined as part of the sacrifice -by which the cleansed leper was received back among the people (Lev. -xiv. 4), no bird might be offered in sacrifice unless it belonged to -the tribe of pigeons. - -It was in consequence of the poverty of the family that the Virgin -Mary brought two young pigeons when she came to present her new-born -Son in the Temple. For those who were able to afford it, the required -sacrifice was a lamb of the first year for a burnt-offering, and a -young pigeon or Turtle Dove for a sin-offering. But "if she be not -able to bring a lamb, then she shall bring two turtles, or two young -pigeons, the one for the burnt-offering and the other for a -sin-offering." The extraordinary value which all Israelites set upon -the first-born son is well known, both parents even changing their own -names, and being called respectively the father and mother of Elias, -or Joseph, as the case may be. If the parents who had thus attained -the summit of their wishes possessed a lamb, or could have obtained -one, they would most certainly have offered it in the fulness of their -joy, particularly when, as in the case of Mary, there was such cause -for rejoicing; and the fact that they were forced to substitute a -second pigeon for the lamb is a proof of their extreme poverty. - -While the Israelites were comparatively a small and compact nation, -dwelling around their tabernacle, the worshippers could easily offer -their sacrifices, bringing them from their homes to the altar. But in -process of time, when the nation had become a large and scattered one, -its members residing at great distances, and only coming to the Temple -once or twice in the year to offer their sacrifices, they would have -found that for even the poor to carry their pigeons with them would -have greatly increased the trouble, and in many cases have been almost -impossible. - -For the sake of convenience, therefore, a number of dealers -established themselves in the outer courts of the Temple, for the -purpose of selling Doves to those who came to sacrifice. Sheep and -oxen were also sold for the same purpose, and, as offerings of money -could only be made in the Jewish coinage, money-changers established -themselves for the purpose of exchanging foreign money brought from a -distance for the legal Jewish shekel. That these people exceeded their -object, and endeavoured to overreach the foreign Jews who were -ignorant of the comparative value of money and goods, is evident from -the fact of their expulsion by our Lord, and the epithets which were -applied to them. - -As the Dove played so important a part in the Jewish worship, the -Talmudical writers have investigated the subject with a curious -minuteness. - -In the first place, they discuss the reasons for its selection as the -bird of sacrifice, and always endeavour to represent it as contrasted -with the raven--all birds of the raven kind, _i.e._ the rooks, crows, -magpies, and the like, being set down as cunning, deceptive, and -thieving; while all the pigeon kind are mild, true, and loving. There -is a curious story which illustrates this idea. A certain man named -Ilisch, who understood the language of birds, was "once upon a time" -in captivity, when he heard the cry of a raven, which called out to -him, "Ilisch! Ilisch! flee! flee!" But Ilisch said within himself, "I -believe not this lying bird." But next came a Dove, which said the -same words. Then said Ilisch, "I believe this bird, because Israel is -compared to a dove." - -Here this Ilisch, whoever he may be, referred to the Talmudical -writers on the subject of the Dove, which they delighted to compare -with Israel in a variety of ways, some of them being very obscure and -rather far-fetched. For example, of all birds the Dove is the most -persecuted, being gentle, meek, and unable to resist. She cannot fight -with her beak or her claws, and has only her wings, with which she -will flee away if she is able, or if not, will fight with them. Now, -as the wings are to the Dove, so is the law to Israel. - -The wings are the strength of the Dove. Upheld by them she can fly for -many hours, so that the birds of prey which are pursuing her cannot -take her. Then comes a strange notion of the Dove's flight. When other -birds are tired, they sit down and fold their wings to rest. But the -tired Dove never ceases her flight; but when one wing is fatigued, -she allows it to rest, and continues her flight with the other. So is -it with Israel, who, though persecuted by the Gentiles, and deprived -of half her strength, cannot be entirely crushed, but still survives -and asserts herself. - -One reason that is given for the gentle disposition of the Dove is -that the bird has no gall, the gall being considered by the -naturalists of old as the source and fountain of contention, the -bitterness of the gall being supposed to infuse itself into the -spirit. Probably on account of this anatomical peculiarity, the Dove -was considered as the very pattern for married people, and the emblem -of chastity, as it lives in the strictest monogamy, never desiring -another mate. Unfortunately for these writers, the Raven, which is -always mentioned by them in strong contrast with the Dove, is quite as -remarkable for its attachment to its mate and young, and for the -strictness of its monogamy, the same pair, when once mated, residing -together for the whole of their lives. - -Even the age of the Dove was made a matter of consideration by the -Talmudists, so that in great measure the original benevolence of the -Law was cramped by the restrictions which were laid upon it. As we are -told by St. Paul, in Heb. ix., even under the old dispensation, -without shedding of blood there was no remission of sins, and he who -desired to obtain that remission was obliged to shed the blood of the -sacrifice. Now, in order that poverty should be no restriction to the -attainment of the greatest spiritual privileges, it was ordained that -young pigeons or Turtle Doves might be substituted for the more costly -animals. - -These birds cost but very little. The peasant might take them from the -dove-cote, which was the appendage of most households, and he who was -too poor even to have a dove-cote of his own might go to the rocky -side of the ravines, and take as many young as he pleased from the -myriad nests which are placed in the clefts. Thus, at any time of the -year, the poorest man or woman could obtain the means of sacrifice. - -But the restrictive genius which was so sternly rebuked by our Lord -soon made itself felt. All these birds, in order to be fit for -sacrifice, must be Beni-yonâh, _i.e._ Sons of Doves. The definition of -this term is rather interesting, as it affords an excellent example of -the hair-splitting character of these interpreters of the Law. -According to them, a pigeon could only be ranked among the Beni-yonâh -for a short period of its life, and, if it were too young or too old, -it might not be offered as a sacrifice. - -The test of proper age lay in the feathers. If the bird were so young -that the feathers could be pulled out without drawing blood, it was -considered as being below age. If, on the contrary, blood followed the -feathers, but the plumage of the neck exhibited a metallic lustre, it -was reckoned as having passed the age of Beni-yonâh. It might be a -father, and not the son, of pigeons. When these feathers are visible, -the bird changes its name, and is called Tôr--a word which will be -presently explained. - -According to some of these old writers, the Dove was considered as -having a superiority over other birds in the instinctive certainty -with which it finds its way from one place to another. At the present -time, our familiarity with the variety of pigeon known as the Carrier -has taught us that the eye is the real means employed by the pigeon -for the direction of its flight. Those who fly pigeons for long -distances always take them several times over the same ground, -carrying them to an increasing distance at every journey, so that the -birds shall be able to note certain objects which serve them as -landmarks. - -Bees and wasps have recourse to a similar plan. When a young wasp -leaves its nest for the first time, it does not fly away at once, but -hovers in front of the entrance for some time, getting farther and -farther away from the nest until it has learned the aspect of -surrounding objects. The pigeon acts in precisely the same manner, and -so completely does it depend upon eyesight that, if a heavy fog should -come on, the best-trained pigeon will lose its way. - -The old writers, however, made up their minds that the pigeon found -its way by scent, which sense alone, according to their ideas, could -guide it across the sea. They were not aware of the power possessed by -birds of making their eyes telescopic at will, or of the enormous -increase of range which the sight obtains by elevation. A pigeon at -the elevation of several hundred yards can see to an astonishing -distance, and there is no need of imagining one sense to receive a -peculiar development when the ordinary powers of another are -sufficient to obtain the object. - -That dove-cotes were in use among the earlier Jews is well known. An -allusion to the custom of keeping pigeons in cotes is seen in Isa. lx. -8: "Who are these that fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their -windows?" or, as the Jewish Bible translates the passage, "as the -doves to their apertures?" In this passage the sacred writer utters a -prophecy concerning the coming of the world to the Messiah, the -Gentiles flocking to Him as the clouds of pigeons fly homeward to -their cotes. - -The practice of pigeon-keeping has survived to the present day, the -houses of wealthy men being furnished with separate pigeon-houses, -built up of a number of earthen jars, and roofed over. Each jar is the -habitation of a pair of pigeons, and the whole principle of this -dove-cote is exactly the same as that which was employed by the late -Mr. Waterton in erecting the starling-houses in his garden and -grounds. Poorer people, who cannot afford to build a separate house -for the pigeons, set up jars for them in their own houses, the pigeons -gaining access to their nests through the door. - -The Talmudical writers have even their regulations respecting the -keeping of tame pigeons. No one was allowed to do so who had not a -sufficiency of ground around his house to supply food for them. -According to their regulations, the pigeon-house must not be within -fifty paces of cultivated ground belonging to any one except the owner -of the pigeons. The reason for this prohibition was, that as the -pigeon was known to be an exceedingly voracious bird, it should not -feed at the expense of a neighbour. It was conventionally supposed to -feed by choice in the immediate vicinity of the house, and, when it -had filled its crop, to be unwilling to fly farther than was -absolutely necessary. - -Being so familiar with this bird, it was to be expected that the -writers of the Scriptures would make many references to it. The -plaintive, monotonous cooing of the pigeon is several times mentioned. -For example: "And Huzzab shall be led away captive, she shall be -brought up, and her maids shall lead her as with the voice of doves, -taboring upon their breasts" (Nah. ii. 7). The Jewish Bible gives this -passage in another and certainly a more forcible manner: "And Huzzab -shall be uncovered and brought up, and her maids shall sigh as the -voice of doves, drumming upon their breasts." Here the prophet alludes -to the ancient custom of beating the breast as a sign of sorrow (a -custom that survived even in this country until a very recent date), -accompanied with the moanings of distress. - -The prophet Isaiah makes use of a similar metaphor: "I did mourn as a -dove: mine eyes fail with looking upward" (xxxviii. 14). Also in chap. -lix. 11: "We roar all like bears, and mourn sore like doves." - - [Illustration: THE ROCK DOVE. - - "O my dove, that art in the clefts of the rocks."--CANT. ii. 14.] - -The beauty of the bird is mentioned in many passages, several of which -occur in the Song of Solomon. "Behold, thou art fair, my love; behold, -thou art fair; thou hast dove's eyes" (i. 15). "His eyes are the eyes -of doves by the rivers of waters, washed with milk, and fitly set" (v. -12). And in several other places the beloved is spoken of as a Dove, -as in the following passage: "My dove, my undefiled, is but one; she -is the only one of her mother, she is the choice one of her that bare -her" (vi. 9). - -Allusion is made to the peculiar metallic gleam of the Dove's plumage -in a well-known passage of the Psalms: "Though ye have lien among the -pots, yet shall ye be as the wings of a dove covered with silver, and -her feathers with yellow gold" (Ps. lxviii. 13). - -The strong flight of the Dove is also mentioned by the Psalmist in an -equally familiar passage: "And I said, Oh that I had wings like a -dove! for then would I fly away, and be at rest. Lo, then would I -wander far off, and remain in the wilderness" (Ps. lv. 6, 7). It is -scarcely necessary to advert to the well-known passages in which -reference is made to the gentleness of the Dove. - -That the pigeons which are not domesticated live in the rocks was -known to the Scripture writers, who make several references to the -fact. - -See, for example: "O ye that dwell in Moab, leave the cities, and -dwell in the rock, and be like the dove that maketh her nest in the -sides of the hole's mouth" (Jer. xlviii. 28). See also Ezek. vii. 16: -"But they that escape of them shall escape, and shall be on the -mountains like doves of the valleys, all of them mourning, every one -for his iniquity." - -This is an especially graphic image. The deep valleys that run between -the mountain ranges are literally crowded with pigeons who have made -their nests in the cavities. Several of these are so well known that -they go by the name of "Valleys of Pigeons." - -In the Song of Solomon (ii. 14) is another reference to the -rock-loving propensities of the Dove: "O my dove, that art in the -clefts of the rock, in the secret places of the stairs, let me see thy -countenance, let me hear thy voice." The Jewish Bible gives a slightly -different rendering, translating the word which is given as "stairs" -in the Authorized Version as "cliffs." - -That the Doves were caught in nets is evident from a passage in Hosea -(vii. 11, 12): "Ephraim also is like a silly dove without heart: they -call to Egypt, they go to Assyria. - -"When they shall go, I will spread my net upon them; I will bring them -down as the fowls of the heaven; I will chastise them, as their -congregation hath heard." - -There is one passage in the Old Testament about which great -controversy has taken place. It occurs in 2 Kings vi. 25. When -Ben-hadad besieged Samaria, and tried to reduce it by starvation, the -famine was so great in the city that "an ass's head was sold for -fourscore pieces of silver, and the fourth part of a cab of dove's -dung for five pieces of silver." - -Objection has been taken to this passage on the score of the exceeding -repulsiveness of the food. This objection, however, cannot hold good; -for, although such diet must have been most repulsive, it could not -have been more so than the flesh of the ass, an animal which was -strictly forbidden as food, and held as unclean. Moreover, as we see -in verse 29 that parents actually ate the flesh of their own children, -it is evident that the mere repulsiveness of the food cannot be taken -as an objection. - -A far stronger objection is to be found in the fact that even all the -dove-cotes of Samaria could not furnish a sufficient quantity for -food, especially as the Doves themselves must have been killed and -eaten long before the people were driven to such an extremity as to -eat the flesh of their own children. It is far more probable that the -"dove's-dung" was the name of a vegetable of some kind. We find a -similar nomenclature in the popular names of many of our own plants, -such as oxlip, cowslip, horse-tail, hart's-tongue, mouse-ear, -maidenhair, and the like. - - -We now come to the various species of Pigeons which inhabit Palestine. - -In the Holy Land are found all the species of Pigeons which inhabit -England, together with one or two others. First, there is the Rock -Pigeon, or Blue Rock Dove (_Columba livia_), which is acknowledged to -be the origin of our domestic breeds of Pigeons, with all their -infinite variety of colour and plumage. This species, though plentiful -in Palestine, is not spread over the whole of the land, but lives -chiefly on the coast and in the higher parts of the country. In these -places it multiplies in amazing numbers, its increase being almost -wholly unchecked by man, on account of the inaccessible cliffs in -which it lays its eggs and nurtures its young, its only enemies being -a few of the birds and beasts of prey, which can exercise but a -trifling influence on these prolific birds. - -In other parts of the country the Egyptian Rock Dove (_Columba -Schimperi_) takes the place of the more northern species. It is a -little smaller than our own Rock Dove, and has not the whitish plumage -on the lower part of the back. This species is quite as numerous as -the other, and builds in similar places. Mr. Tristram, while visiting -the Wady (or Valley) Seimûn, which lies near the Lake of Gennesaret, -witnessed an amusing example of the vast number of these Pigeons. - -"No description can give an adequate idea of the myriads of rock -pigeons. In absolute clouds they dashed to and fro in the ravine, -whirling round with a rush and a whirr that could be felt like a gust -of wind. It was amusing to watch them upset the dignity and the -equilibrium of the majestic griffon as they swept past him. This -enormous bird, quietly sailing along, was quite turned on his back by -the sudden rush of wings and wind." - -The writer of this description has been too modest. It is impossible -to convey a better idea of the vast multitude of birds than has been -given by this anecdote. We are all familiar with the clatter of -Pigeons' wings as they dart from their resting-place, and can well -imagine how great must have been the multitude of birds that would -fairly turn the powerful griffon-vulture on its back. This description -may be advantageously compared with the passage in Isa. lx. 8: "Who -are these that fly as a cloud?" the sacred writer well knowing the -force of his image when addressed to those who were familiar with the -habits of the bird, whether it was the semi-domesticated House Pigeon -or the wild Rock Dove. The Ring Dove (_Columba palumbus_) and the -Stock Dove (_Columba ænas_) are also found in Palestine. - -These birds are taken in nets, into which they are decoyed by a very -effective though cruel device. - -When one of these birds is trapped or snared, it is seized by its -capturers, who spare its life for the sake of using it as a decoy. -They blind it by sewing its eyelids together, and then fasten it to a -perch among trees. The miserable bird utters plaintive cries, and -continually flaps its wings, thus attracting others of its kind, who -settle on the surrounding branches and are easily taken, their whole -attention being occupied by the cries of their distressed companion. - -We now come to the Turtle Doves, several of which inhabit the Holy -Land; but, as they are similar in habits, we will confine ourselves to -the common species (_Turtur auritus_), with which we are so familiar -in this country. The Hebrew word which is translated as Turtle, is -_tôr_, a term which is usually employed in connexion with the word -_yônâh_, or Dove, thus, _tôr-yônâh_. The name is evidently derived -from the note of the bird. - -The reader may remember that on page 414, a curious tradition has been -mentioned respecting the word _tôr_; namely, that it represented the -age, and not the species of a Dove. There is but little doubt, -however, that the word really does represent a species, and that the -Turtle Dove is the bird signified by the word _tôr_. For example, its -migratory habits are noticed in the sacred writings. See the following -passage in the Song of Solomon. - - [Illustration: THE TURTLE DOVE. - - "_The voice of the turtle is heard in our land._"--CANT. ii. 12.] - -"Lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone; the flowers appear -on the earth; the time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice -of the turtle is heard in our land" (Cant. ii. 11, 12). The prophet -Jeremiah also refers to the migration of this bird: "Yea, the stork in -the heaven knoweth her appointed times; and the turtle, and the crane, -and the swallow observe the time of their coming: but my people know -not the judgment of the Lord" (viii. 7). - -Beside this species, there is the Collared Turtle Dove (_Turtur -risorius_), one variety of which is known in England as the Barbary -Dove. It is a large species, measuring more than a foot in length. -Another species is the Palm Turtle (_Turtur Senegalensis_), so called -from its habit of nesting on palm-trees, when it is obliged to build -at a distance from the habitations of man. It is a gregarious bird, -several nests being generally found on one tree, and even, when it -cannot find a palm, it will build among the thorns in multitudes. Like -the common Dove, it is fond of the society of man, and is sure to make -its nest among human habitations, secure in its knowledge that it will -not be disturbed. - -It is rather a small bird, being barely ten inches in length, and -having no "collar" on the neck, like the two preceding species. - - - - -POULTRY. - - Poultry plentiful in Palestine at the present day--The Domestic - Fowl unknown in the early times of Israel--The eating and - gathering of eggs--References to Poultry in the New - Testament--The egg and the scorpion--The fatted fowl of - Solomon--The hen brooding over her eggs--Poultry prohibited - within Jerusalem--The cock-crowing. - - -At the present day, poultry are plentiful both in Palestine and Syria, -and that they were bred in the time of the Apostles is evident from -one or two references which are made by our Lord. How long the -Domestic Fowl had been known to the Jews is extremely uncertain, and -we have very little to guide us in our search. - -That it was unknown to the Jews during the earlier period of their -history is evident from the utter silence of the Old Testament on the -subject. A bird so conspicuous and so plentiful would certainly have -been mentioned in the Law of Moses had it been known to the -Israelites; but, in all its minute and detailed provisions, the Law is -silent on the subject. - -Neither the bird itself nor its eggs are mentioned, although there are -a few references to eggs, without signifying the bird which laid -them. The humane provision in Deut. xxii. 6, 7, refers not to a -domesticated, but to a wild bird: "If a bird's nest chance to be -before thee in any tree, or on the ground, whether they be young ones, -or eggs, and the dams sitting upon the young, or upon the eggs, thou -shalt not take the dam with the young: but thou shalt in any wise let -the dam go, and take the young to thee; that it may be well with thee, -that thou mayest prolong thy days." - -That eggs were used for food, is seen from Job vi. 6: "Can that which -is unsavoury be eaten without salt? or is there any taste in the white -of an egg?" So in Isa. lix. 5: "They hatch cockatrice' eggs, and weave -the spider's web: he that eateth of their eggs dieth." - -There is another passage in the same book which refers to the -gathering of eggs as mentioned in Deut. xxii. "And my hand hath found -as a nest the riches of the people: and as one gathereth eggs that are -left, have I gathered all the earth" (Isa. x. 14). The well-known -passage in Luke xi. 11, 12, however, evidently refers to the ordinary -hen's egg, which was used then for food just as is the case at the -present day: "If a son shall ask bread of any of you that is a father, -will he give him a stone? or if he ask a fish, will he for a fish give -him a serpent? - -"Or if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?" - -There is but one passage in the Old Testament which has ever been -conjectured to refer to the Domestic Fowl. It occurs in 1 Kings iv. -22, 23, among the list of the daily provision of Solomon's household: -"And Solomon's provision for one day was thirty measures of fine -flour, and threescore measures of meal, - -"Ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and an hundred -sheep, beside harts, and roebucks, and fallow-deer, and fatted fowl." - -Now the word which is here rendered as "fatted fowl" is in the Hebrew, -_barberim_. Judging by the etymology of the word, which is derived -from a root that signifies whiteness, or purity, it has been thought -that the correct rendering would be "fattened white" (birds). Some -Hebraists have conjectured that the white birds in question were -geese, this term including various white birds, swans among the -number. - -Many persons think that the fatted fowl mentioned in the above-quoted -passage were really Domestic Fowl, which Solomon had introduced into -Palestine, together with various other birds and animals, by means of -his fleet. There may be truth in this conjecture, but, as there can be -no certainty, we will pass from the Old Testament to the New. - -THE DOMESTIC FOWL. - -"_As a hen doth gather her brood under her wings._"--LUKE xiii. 34. - -We are all familiar with the passages in which the Domestic Fowl is -mentioned in the New Testament. There is, for example, that touching -image employed by our Lord when lamenting over Jerusalem: "O -Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets, and stonest them -that are sent unto thee; how often would I have gathered thy children -together, as a hen doth gather her brood under her wings, and ye would -not!" The reference is evidently made to the Domesticated Fowl, which -in the time of our Lord was largely bred in the Holy Land. - -Some writers have taken objection to this statement in consequence of -a Rabbinical law which prohibited poultry from being kept within the -walls of Jerusalem, lest in their search for food they should scratch -up any impurity which had been buried, and so defile the holy city. -But it must be remembered that in the time of Christ Jerusalem -belonged practically to the Romans, who held it with a garrison, and -who, together with other foreigners, would not trouble themselves -about any such prohibition, which would seem to them, as it does to -us, exceedingly puerile, not to say unjustifiable. Whether the Jews -obeyed or disregarded the prohibition, it is evident that it would -have been binding on the Jews alone, and that all Gentiles were exempt -from it. Some commentators have even thought that the Domestic Fowl -was not known in Palestine until imported by the Romans. - -That the bird was common in the days of our Lord is evident from the -reference to the "cock-crowing" as a measure of time. - -Even on this subject there has been much controversy, some persons -thinking that the words are to be understood in their literal sense, -and others that they are merely metaphorical, and refer to the -divisions of time under the Romans, which were marked by the blowing -of trumpets, conventionally termed cock-crowings. There is, however, -no necessity to search for a metaphorical meaning when the literal -interpretation is clear and intelligible. At the present day, as in -all probability in the time of our Lord, the crowing of the cocks is -employed as a means of reckoning time during the night, the birds -crowing at certain hours with almost mechanical regularity. - - - - -THE PEACOCK. - - The foreign curiosities imported by Solomon--The word _Tucciyim_ - and its various interpretations--Identity of the word with the - Cingalese name of the Peacock--Reasons why the Peacock should - have been brought to Solomon--Its subsequent neglect and - extirpation. - - -Among the many foreign objects which were imported by Solomon into -Palestine, we find that the Peacock is specially mentioned. (See a -passage which has already been mentioned in connexion with ivory and -apes.) The sacred historian, after mentioning the ivory throne, the -golden shields and targets, that all the vessels in Solomon's house -were of gold, and that silver was so common as to be of no account, -proceeds to give the reason for this profuse magnificence. "For the -king had at sea a navy of Tharshish with the navy of Hiram: once in -three years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, -ivory, and apes, and peacocks" (1 Kings x. 22). - -The word which is here translated as Peacock is in the Hebrew -_tucciyim_, and has been rendered in various modes. The Jewish Bible -accepts the same translation as our own, and does not even affix the -mark of doubt. Some Hebraists have rendered the word as "parrots," -while others have tried to identify the Tucciyim with guinea-fowls. - -In the identification of any animal, much must necessarily depend on -the country in which it is found. Now, if the reader will refer to -page 2 of this work, he will see that India and Ceylon are identified -as the land visited by Solomon's ships. In the latter island are found -all the three valuables which are mentioned in the above-quoted -passage, and it is remarkable that the Cingalese name for the Peacock -is so similar to the Hebrew word, that we have every reason to believe -that the word _tucciyim_ or _tuyeyim_ is in reality a Hebraic form of -the Cingalese tokei. A similar resemblance of name occurs in the -Hebrew and Cingalese terms for ape and elephant. - -That this magnificent bird should have been one of those creatures -that were imported by Solomon is almost certain. It would be imported -for the same reason as the apes; namely, for the purpose of adding to -the glories of Solomon's house, and no bird could have been selected -which would have a more magnificent effect than the Peacock. Moreover, -although unknown in Palestine, it is extremely plentiful in its native -land, inhabiting the jungle by thousands, and, by a curious -coincidence, being invariably most plentiful in those spots which are -most frequented by tigers. In many parts of the country, great numbers -of Peacocks frequent the temples, and live amicably with the sacred -monkeys, passing their lives in absolute security, protected by the -sanctity of the place. - -Their numbers, therefore, would render them easily accessible to -Solomon's envoys, who would purchase them at a cheap rate from the -native dealers, while their surpassing beauty would render them sure -of a sale on their arrival in Jerusalem. Indeed, their beauty made so -great an impression that they are separately mentioned by the sacred -chronicler, the Peacock and the ape being the only two animals that -are thought worthy of enumeration. - -It seems that after Solomon's death the breed of Peafowl was not kept -up, owing in all probability to the troubles which beset the throne -after that magnificent monarch died. - - - - -THE PARTRIDGE. - - The word _Kore_ and its signification--The Partridge upon the - mountains--David's simile--The Desert Partridge and its - habits--Hunting the Partridge with sticks--Eggs of the - Partridge--A disputed reading, and probable signification of the - passage--Egg-hunting in Palestine--The various species of - Partridge--The Francolin and the Sand-grouse. - - -There is a bird mentioned in the Old Testament, which, although its -name is only given twice, is a very interesting bird to all students -of the Scriptures, both passages giving an insight into the -manners and customs of the scarcely changing East. This is -the bird called in the Hebrew Kore, a word which has been generally -accepted as signifying some kind of Partridge. There is no doubt that, -like most other Hebrew names of animated beings, the word is a -collective one, signifying a considerable number of species. - - [Illustration: THE PEACOCK. - - "Once in three years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and - silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks." 1 KINGS x. 22.] - -The first passage occurs in 1 Sam. xxvi. 20. When David was being -pursued by Saul, and had been forced to escape from the city and hide -himself in the rocky valleys, he compared himself to the Partridge, -which frequented exactly the same places: "The king of Israel is come -out to seek a flea, as when one doth hunt a partridge upon the -mountains." - -The appositeness of this simile is perfect. The bird to which David -alluded was in all probability the Desert Partridge (_Ammoperdix -Heyii_), a species which especially haunts rocky and desert places, -and even at the present day is exceedingly plentiful about the Cave of -Adullam. The males, when they think themselves unobserved, are fond of -challenging, or calling to each other in a loud ringing note, a -peculiarity that has earned for the bird the Hebrew name of Kore, or -"the caller." - -It is a very active bird, not taking to flight if it can escape by -means of its legs, and, when pursued or disturbed, running with great -swiftness to some rocky cleft in which it may hide itself, taking care -to interpose, as it runs, stones or other obstacles between itself and -the object of its alarm. Thus, then, it will be seen how close was the -parallel between this bird and David, who was forced, like the -Partridge, to seek for refuge in the rocky caves. - -But the parallel becomes even closer when we come to examine the full -meaning of the passage. The Partridge is at the present day hunted on -the mountains exactly as was the case in the time of David. The usual -hunters are boys, who provide themselves with a supply of stout sticks -about eighteen inches in length, and, armed with these, they chase the -birds, hurling the sticks one after the other along the ground, so as -to strike the Partridge as it runs. Generally, several hunters chase -the same bird, some of them throwing the sticks along the ground, -while others hurl them just above the bird, so that if it should take -to flight, it maybe struck as it rises into the air. By -pertinaciously chasing an individual bird, the hunters tire it, and -contrive to come so close that they are certain to strike it. - - [Illustration: THE GREEK PARTRIDGE. - - "_A partridge upon the mountains._"--1 SAM. xxvi. 20.] - -Rude as this mode of bird-hunting may seem, it is still employed in -some parts of England, and is effective even against birds far more -active on the wing than the Partridge. I have seen snipe killed in the -New Forest by being hunted down with sticks. Squirrels are chased and -killed in a similar manner, except that the "bolts," or the sticks for -squirrel-hunting, are weighted with lead at one end. - -The reader will now see how perfect is the image. Driven from the -city, David was forced to wander, together with the Desert Partridge, -upon the hill-sides, and, like that bird, his final refuge is the -rock. Then came the hunters and pursued him, driving him from place to -place, as the boys hunt the Partridge, until he was weary of his life, -and exclaimed in his despair, "I shall now perish one day by the hand -of Saul." - -The second passage in which the word _kore_ is found occurs in Jer. -xvii. 11: "As the partridge sitteth on eggs, and hatcheth them not; so -he that getteth riches, and not by right, shall leave them in the -midst of his days, and at his end shall be a fool." The marginal -reading of this passage gives the sense in a slightly different form, -and commences the verse as follows: "As the partridge gathereth -(young) which she hath not brought forth, so he," &c. The Jewish Bible -gives the whole passage rather differently from both these readings: -"A partridge hatching what it hath not laid (_or_ borne), is he that -getteth (_or_ maketh) riches, and not by right (_or_ judgment): he -shall leave them in the midst (_or_ half) of his days, and at his end -shall be base." - -Taking all these readings, and comparing them with the original, with -each other, and with the context, we can have but little doubt that -reference is made by the prophet to the number of unborn, _i.e._ -unhatched, eggs on which the Partridge sits, but which are so often -taken from her before they can be hatched. Just as hunting the -Partridge is an acknowledged sport among the inhabitants of the -uncultivated parts of Palestine, so is searching for the eggs of the -bird a regular business at the proper time of year. - -The Partridges of Palestine are, like those of our own land, -exceedingly prolific birds, laying a wonderful number of eggs, more -than twenty being sometimes found in a single nest. These eggs are -used for food, and the consumption of them is very great, so that many -a Partridge has been deprived of her expected family: she has sat upon -eggs, and hatched them not. - - -Of these birds several species inhabit Palestine. There is, for -example, the Desert Partridge, which has already been mentioned. It is -beautifully, though not brilliantly, coloured, and may be known by the -white spot behind the eye, the purple and chestnut streaks on the -sides, and the orange bill and legs. These, however, soon lose their -colour after death. - -Then there is the Greek Partridge (_Caccabis saxatilis_), which is -even more plentiful than the preceding species, and is more widely -spread. It is a large bird of its kind, being much larger than our -English species, and may be known by its size, the dark red legs and -beak, and the bold bars on the sides. - -Mr. Tristram suggests, with much probability, that the Francolin, or -Black Partridge of India, and the Sand-Grouse, may be included among -the number of the birds which are included under the common name of -Kore. The latter bird is extremely plentiful in Palestine, and, in all -probability, was classed by the unobservant Jews with the true -Partridge. - - - - -THE QUAIL. - - Signification of the word _Selâv_--Various passages in which the - word is mentioned--The locust, the stork, and the - sand-grouse--Spreading the birds around the camp--Migration of - the Quail--Drying the Quails for food--Modes of catching the - Quail in the East--The Quail-hunters of Northern - Africa--Quarrelsome nature of the bird--Quail-fighting in the - East--How the Quails were brought to the Israelites. - - -In one or two parts of the Old Testament is found a word which has -been translated in the Authorized Version of the Bible as QUAIL. - -The word is _selâv_, and in every case where it is mentioned it is -used with reference to the same occurrence; namely, the providing of -flesh-meat in the wilderness, where the people could find no food. As -the passages remarkably bear upon each other, it will be advisable to -quote them in the order in which they come. - -The first mention of the Selâv occurs in Exod. xvi. Only a few days -after the Israelites had passed the Red Sea, they began to complain of -the desert land into which Moses had led them, and openly said that -they wished they had never left the land of their slavery, where they -had plenty to eat. According to His custom, pitying their -narrow-minded and short-sighted folly, the natural result of the long -servitude to which they had been subject, the Lord promised to send -both bread and flesh-meat. - -"And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, - - [Illustration: THE QUAIL. - - "_The people asked, and He brought quails._"--PSALM cv. 40.] - -"I have heard the murmurings of the children of Israel: speak unto -them, saying, At even ye shall eat flesh, and in the morning ye shall -be filled with bread; and ye shall know that I am the Lord your God. - -"And it came to pass, that at even the quails came up, and covered the -camp" (ver. 11-13). - -The next passage records a similar circumstance, which occurred about -a year afterwards, when the Israelites were tired of eating nothing -but the manna, and again wished themselves back in Egypt. "And there -went forth a wind from the Lord, and brought quails from the sea, and -let them fall by the camp, as it were a day's journey on this side, -and as it were a day's journey on the other side, round about the -camp, and as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth. - -"And the people stood up all that day, and all that night, and all the -next day, and they gathered the quails: he that gathered least -gathered ten homers; and they spread them all abroad for themselves -round about the camp" (Numb. xi. 31, 32). - -The last passage in which Quails are mentioned occurs in the Psalms. -In Ps. cv. are enumerated the various wonders done on behalf of the -Israelites, and among them is specially mentioned this gift of the -Quails and manna. "The people asked, and He brought quails, and -satisfied them with the bread of heaven" (ver. 40). - -We now have to ask ourselves what the word _selâv_ really means. Some -commentators have thought that it signified a species of locust, -insects which travel in vast multitudes, and are always carried with -the wind, thus agreeing with the statement that the Selavim were -brought by the wind. Others have imagined that the Selavim were -flying-fish, blown on shore as they rose from the sea after their -fashion. Putting aside other reasons against these interpretations, -the Psalms contain a passage which effectually contradicts them, and -proves that the Selâv was a bird of some kind. - -"He had commanded the clouds from above, and opened the doors of -heaven, - -"And had rained down manna upon them to eat, and had given them of the -corn of heaven. - -"Man did eat angels' food: He sent them meat to the full. - -"He caused an east wind to blow in the heaven; and by His power He -brought in the south wind. - -"He rained flesh also upon them as dust, and feathered fowls like as -the sand of the sea" (Ps. lxxviii. 23-27). - -From this passage it is evident that the Selavim which were sent -together with the manna were birds of some kind--"fowls of wing," -according to the literal sense of the Hebrew; so that the theory that -they were insects or fish must be dismissed as untenable. The -question now remains, with what species of bird are we to identify the -Selâv? - -Respecting this question, there has been great discussion, chiefly -arising from the fact that the various commentators endeavoured to -show that the Selâv was not the Quail, but some other bird. Some, for -example, take it to be the white stork, which is very plentiful in -Palestine, and sometimes flies in such numbers that the sky is -darkened as the winged host passes by. They base this supposition on -the stature of the bird, which is so tall that it stands about "two -cubits high upon the face of the earth." So it does, but this is a -very insufficient reason for translating the word _selâv_ as "stork." - -In the first place, the words "as it were two cubits high upon the -face of the earth" certainly do not refer to the stature of the -individual birds. They are popularly taken to signify that the earth -was covered with the bodies of the Selavim to the depth of three feet. - -This, however, can hardly have been the fact, as in that case they -would have utterly overwhelmed the whole camp, and crushed the tents -by their weight. Moreover, there would have been no need of gathering -them up, as they would have lain so thickly on the ground that the -only trouble would have been to make a passage through them. It is not -very easy to force a passage through snow a yard in depth, while to do -so through the same depth of birds would have been almost impossible. - -Neither could the Israelites have "spread them all abroad for -themselves round about the camp." If the Selavim lay to the depth of a -yard "as it were a day's journey on this side, and a day's journey on -the other side of the camp," _i.e._ some eight or ten miles all round -it, there would have been no space whereon the birds could have been -spread. The sentence in question has a totally different -signification, and refers to the height from the ground at which the -birds fly. Taken in this sense, the whole passage falls into harmony, -whereas in any other it involves a difficulty. - -If the ordinary interpretation of _selâv_ by "Quail" be accepted, the -description is exactly correct. The Quails fly in vast flocks, and, -being weak-winged birds, never fly against the direction of the wind. -They will wait for days until the wind blows in the required -direction, and will then take wing in countless multitudes; so that in -an hour or two a spot on which not a Quail could be seen is covered -with them. - -On account of their short wings, they never rise to any great height, -even when crossing the sea, while on land they fly at a very low -elevation, merely skimming over the ground, barely a yard or "two -cubits high upon the face of the earth." We may now see how needless -it is to attribute the two cubits to the stature of the bird, or to -the depth at which they lay on the ground. - -There are other reasons why the Selâv could not be any species of -stork. In the first place, all the stork tribe are included among the -list of unclean birds, and it is not likely that the Almighty would -have neutralized His own edicts by providing food which the Israelites -were forbidden to eat. In the next place, even had the flesh of the -stork been lawful, it is of so unpleasant a nature that the people -could not have eaten it. For similar reasons we may dismiss the -theories which consider the Selâv to be a goose or water-fowl of any -kind. - -Some persons have thought that the sand-grouse is the Selâv. In the -first place, the flesh of this bird is hard, tasteless, and disliked -by those who have tried it; so that the Israelites would not have been -tempted to eat it. In the next, it is a strong-winged and swift-footed -bird, and would not have satisfied the required conditions. It flies -high in the air, instead of merely skimming over the ground, and when -it alights is fresh and active, and cannot easily be caught. The -Quail, on the contrary, after it has flown for any distance, is so -completely tired out that when it alights it crouches to the earth, -and will allow itself to be picked up by hand. It has even been -trodden to death under a horse's feet. - -Moreover, the flesh of the Quail is peculiarly excellent, and would be -a great temptation to men who had passed so long a time without eating -animal food. Another corroboration of the identity of the Quail and -the Selâv is to be found in the mode in which the flesh is prepared at -the present day. As soon as the birds have arrived, they are captured -in vast multitudes, on account of their weariness. Many are consumed -at once, but great numbers are preserved for future use by being split -and laid out to dry in the sun, precisely as the Israelites are said -to have spread out the Selavim "all abroad for themselves round about -the camp." - -It is rather remarkable that the Arabs of the present day use a word -almost exactly resembling _selâv_ to represent the Quail. The word is -_salwa_, given by one of the older writers on the subject as _selaw_. - -Accepting, therefore, the Selâv and Quail to be identical, we may -proceed to the description of the bird. - -It is small, plump, and round-bodied, with the head set closely on the -shoulders. Owing to this peculiarity of form, it has its Arab name, -which signifies plumpness or fatness. The wings are pressed closely to -the body, and the tail is pointed, very short, and directed downwards, -so that it almost appears to be absent, and the bird seems to be even -more plump than really is the case. - -Several modes of capturing these birds are still practised in the -East, and were probably employed, not only on the two occasions -mentioned in Exodus and Numbers, but on many others of which the -Scriptural narrative takes no notice. One very simple plan is, for the -hunters to select a spot on which the birds are assembled, and to ride -or walk round them in a large circle, or rather in a constantly -diminishing spiral. The birds are by this process driven closer and -closer together, until at the last they are packed in such masses that -a net can be thrown over them, and a great number captured in it. - -Sometimes a party of hunters unite to take the Quails, and employ a -similar manoeuvre, except that, instead of merely walking round the -Quails, they approach simultaneously from opposite points, and then -circle round them until the birds are supposed to be sufficiently -packed. At a given signal they all converge upon the terrified birds, -and take them by thousands at a time. - -In Northern Africa these birds are captured in a very similar fashion. -As soon as notice is given that a flight of Quails has settled, all -the men of the village turn out with their great burnouses or cloaks. -Making choice of some spot as a centre, where a quantity of brushwood -grows or is laid down, the men surround it on all sides, and move -slowly towards it, spreading their cloaks in their outstretched hands, -and flapping them like the wings of huge birds. Indeed, when a man is -seen from a little distance performing this act, he looks more like a -huge bat than a human being. - -As the men gradually converge upon the brushwood, the Quails naturally -run towards it for shelter, and at last they all creep under the -treacherous shade. Still holding their outspread cloaks in their -extended hands, the hunters suddenly run to the brushwood, fling their -cloaks over it, and so enclose the birds in a trap from which they -cannot escape. Much care is required in this method of hunting, lest -the birds should take to flight, and so escape. The circle is -therefore made of very great size, and the men who compose it advance -so slowly that the Quails prefer to use their legs rather than their -wings, and do not think of flight until their enemies are so close -upon them that their safest course appears to be to take refuge in the -brushwood. - -Boys catch the Quails in various traps and springes, the most -ingenious of which is a kind of trap, the door of which overbalances -itself by the weight of the bird. - -By reason of the colour of the Quail, and its inveterate habit of -keeping close to the ground, it easily escapes observation, and even -the most practised eye can scarcely distinguish a single bird, though -there may be hundreds within a very small compass. Fortunately for the -hunters, and unfortunately for itself, it betrays itself by its shrill -whistling note, which it frequently emits, and which is so peculiar -that it will at once direct the hunter to his prey. - -This note is at the same time the call of the male to the female and a -challenge to its own sex. Like all the birds of its group, the Quail -is very combative, and generally fights a battle for the possession of -each of its many mates. It is not gifted with such weapons of offence -as some of its kinsfolk, but it is none the less quarrelsome, and -fights in its own way as desperately as the game-cock of our own -country. - -Indeed, in the East, it is used for exactly the same purpose as the -game-cock. Battles between birds and beasts, not to say men, are the -common amusement with Oriental potentates, and, when they are tired of -watching the combats of the larger animals, they have Quail-fights in -their own chambers. The birds are selected for this purpose, and are -intentionally furnished with stimulating food, so as to render them -even more quarrelsome than they would be by nature. Partridges are -employed for the same cruel purpose; and as both these birds are -easily obtained, and are very pugnacious, they are especially suited -for the sport. - -Two passages occur in the Scriptures which exactly explain the mode in -which the Quails were sent to the Israelites. The first is in Ps. -lxxviii. 26. The Psalmist mentions that the Lord "caused an east wind -to blow in the heaven, and by His power He brought in the south wind." -Here, on examining the geographical position of the Israelites, we see -exactly how the south-east wind would bring the Quails. - -The Israelites had just passed the Red Sea, and had begun to -experience a foretaste of the privations which they were to expect in -the desert through which they had to pass. Passing northwards in their -usual migrations, the birds would come to the coast of the Red Sea, -and there would wait until a favourable wind enabled them to cross the -water. The south-east wind afforded them just the very assistance -which they needed, and they would naturally take advantage of it. - -It is remarkable how closely the Scriptural narrative agrees with the -habits of the Quail, the various passages, when compared together, -precisely coinciding with the character of the bird. In Exod. xvi. 13 -it is mentioned that "at even the quails came up and covered the -camp." Nocturnal flight is one of the characteristics of the Quail. -When possible, they invariably fly by night, and in this manner escape -many of the foes which would make great havoc among their helpless -columns if they were to fly by day. - -The identity of the Selâv with the common Quail is now seen to be -established. In the first place, we have the name still surviving in -the Arabic language. Next, the various details of the Scriptural -narrative point so conclusively to the bird, that even if we were to -put aside the etymological corroboration, we could have but little -doubt on the subject. There is not a detail which is not correct. The -gregarious instinct of the bird, which induces it to congregate in -vast numbers; its habit of migration; its inability to fly against the -wind, and the necessity for it to await a favourable breeze; its -practice of flying by night, and its custom of merely skimming over -the surface of the ground; the ease with which it is captured; the -mode of preserving by drying in the sun, and the proverbial delicacy -of its flesh, are characteristics which all unite in the Quail. - - -Before closing our account of the Quail, it will be as well to devote -a short space to the nature of the mode by which the Israelites were -twice fed. Commentators who were unacquainted with the natural history -of the bird have represented the whole occurrence as a miraculous one, -and have classed it with the division of the Red Sea and of the -Jordan, with the various plagues by which Pharaoh was induced to -release the Israelites, and with many other events which we are -accustomed to call miracles. - -In reality, there is scarcely anything of a miraculous character about -the event, and none seems to have been claimed for it. The Quails were -not created at the moment expressly for the purpose of supplying the -people with food, nor were they even brought from any great distance. -They were merely assisted in the business on which they were engaged, -namely, their migration or customary travel from south to north, and -waiting on the opposite side of the narrow sea for a south-east wind. -That such a wind should blow was no miracle. The Quails expected it to -blow, and without it they could not have crossed the sea. That it was -made to blow earlier than might have been the case is likely enough, -but that is the extent of the miraculous character of the event. -Taking the word in its ordinary sense, no miracle was wrought, simply -because none was wanted. Granting to the fullest extent that He who -arranged the course of the world can alter His arrangements as easily -as He made them, we cannot but see that in this case no alteration was -needed, and that, in consequence, none was made. - - - - -THE RAVEN. - - Signification of the word _Oreb_--The Raven tribe plentiful in - Palestine--The Raven and the Dove--Elijah and the - Ravens--Various explanations of the circumstance--Feeding the - young Ravens--Luis of Grenada's sermon--The white Raven of - ancient times--An old legend--Reference to the blackness of the - Raven's plumage--Desert-loving habits of the Raven--Its mode of - attacking the eye--Notions of the old commentators--Ceremonial - use of the Raven--Return of the Ravens--Cunning of the - bird--Nesting-places of the Raven--The magpie and its - character--The starling--Its introduction into Palestine--The - Rabbi perplexed--Solution of the difficulty. - - -It is more than probable that, while the Hebrew word _oreb_ primarily -signifies the bird which is so familiar to us under the name of RAVEN, -it was also used by the Jews in a much looser sense, and served to -designate any of the Corvidæ, or Crow tribe, such as the raven itself, -the crow, the rook, the jackdaw, and the like. We will first take the -word in its restricted sense, and then devote a brief space to its -more extended signification. - -As might be expected from the cosmopolitan nature of the Raven, it is -very plentiful in Palestine, and even at the present time is -apparently as firmly established as it was in the days when the -various Scriptural books were written. - -There are few birds which are more distinctly mentioned in the Holy -Scriptures than the Raven, though the passages in which its name -occurs are comparatively few. It is the first bird which is mentioned -in the Scriptures, its name occurring in Gen. viii. 7: "And it came to -pass at the end of forty days, that Noah opened the window of the ark -which he had made; - -"And he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro, until the -waters were dried up from off the earth." - -Here we have, at the very outset, a characteristic account of the -bird. It left the ark, and flew to and fro, evidently for the purpose -of seeking food. The dove, which immediately followed the Raven, acted -in a different manner. She flew from the ark in search of food, and, -finding none, was forced to return again. The Raven, on the contrary, -would find plenty of food in the bodies of the various animals that -had been drowned, and were floating on the surface of the waters, and, -therefore, needed not to enter again into the ark. The context shows -that it made the ark a resting-place, and that it "went forth to and -fro," or, as the Hebrew Bible renders the passage, "in going and -returning," until the waters had subsided. Here, then, is boldly drawn -the distinction between the two birds, the carrion-eater and the -feeder on vegetable substances--a distinction to which allusion has -already been made in the history of the dove. - - [Illustration: THE RAVEN. - - "_Who provideth for the raven his food?_"--JOB xxxviii. 41.] - -Passing over the declaration in Lev. xi. 15 and Deut. xiv. 14, that -every Raven (_i.e._ the Raven and all its tribe) is unclean, we come -to the next historical mention of the bird. This occurs in 1 Kings -xvii. When Elijah had excited the anger of Ahab by prophesying three -years of drought, he was divinely ordered to take refuge by the brook -Cherith, one of the tributaries of the Jordan. "And it shall be, that -thou shalt drink of the brook; and I have commanded the ravens -[_orebim_] to feed thee there. - -"So he went and did according unto the word of the Lord: for he went -and dwelt by the brook Cherith, that is before Jordan. - -"And the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning, and bread -and flesh in the evening, and he drank of the brook." - -In this passage we have a history of a purely miraculous character. It -is not one that can be explained away. Some have tried to do so by -saying that the banished prophet found the nests of the Ravens, and -took from them daily a supply of food for his sustenance. The -repetition of the words "bread and flesh" shows that the sacred writer -had no intention of signifying a mere casual finding of food which the -Ravens brought for their young, but that the prophet was furnished -with a constant and regular supply of bread and meat twice in the day. -It is a statement which, if it be not accepted as the account of a -miracle, must be rejected altogether. - -I may here mention that an explanation of the passage has been offered -by some commentators, who render the word _orebim_ as "Arabs," and so -arrive at the conclusion that the prophet was fed in his retirement by -the Arab tribes which came to the brook for water. Others have thought -that the Orebim were the inhabitants of a village called Orbo, near -the Cherith. There is, however, no need of any such explanations. The -account of the prophet's flight to the Cherith and of the daily supply -of food which he received has been accepted as a simple statement of -facts by all Jewish writers, and there is no alternative but either to -accept it in the same sense or to reject it. - -This part of the subject naturally leads to certain passages in which -the feeding of the young Ravens is mentioned. See, for example, Job -xxxviii. 41: "Who provideth for the raven his food? when his young -ones cry unto God, they wander for lack of meat." This passage is -rendered rather differently and more forcibly in the Jewish Bible. -"Who provideth for the raven his food, when his young ones cry unto -God, and wander for lack of meat?" A passage of similar import occurs -in Ps. cxlvii. 9: "He giveth to the beast his food, and to the young -ravens which cry." An evident reference is made to these passages in -Luke xii. 24: "Consider the ravens: for they neither sow nor reap; -which neither have storehouse nor barn; and God feedeth them: how much -more are ye better than the fowls?" - -In all these cases reference is made to a curious idea which prevailed -respecting the Raven. It was thought that the Raven was a cruel -parent, and that after the eggs were hatched it cared nothing for the -young until they were full fledged. As, moreover, the bird was thought -to be peculiarly late in attaining its plumage, the young Ravens must -all die of hunger, were they not fed in some remarkable manner. This -subject is treated at some length by Luis of Grenada in his Sermons. -As the passage in question is a very curious one, I give both the -original and a translation. For the latter I am indebted to the Rev. -C. J. Smith, author of "Synonyms and Antonyms," who has preserved, -with much success, the quaint structure of the language. - -"Dominica XIV. post Pent. Concio 1: - -"Nisi hæc enim omnia magnam nobis admirationis materiam divinæque -providentiæ notitiam præberent, nequaquam Dominus inter cetera -sapientiæ et providentiæ suæ argumenta hoc etiam commemoraret, cum ad -Job ait: 'Quis præparat corvo escam suam, quando pulli ejus clamant ad -Deum vagantes eò quòd non habeant cibos?'[1] Et in Psal.: 'Qui dat -jumentis escam ipsorum et pullis corvorum invocantibus eum.'[2] - - [1] Job xxxviii. - - [2] Ps. cxlvii. - -"Cur autem hoc in loco pullorum corvi præcipuè meminerit, in causa -est, quod in his miro modo singularis providentiæ cura elucet. Ait -enim interpres quidam corvorum pullos eum implumes adhuc sunt, -candorem præ se ferre: ideoque a parentibus ut nothos negligi, quod -eorum non referant colorem. Quo tempore divina providentia, quæ -nusquam dormit, eos ad se clamantes alit. Vermiculos enim quosdam in -nidulo nasci constituit, quorum esu sustentantur donec nono tandem die -nascentibus plumis parentum colorem referant, atque ita demum ab illis -nutriantur. - - -"Cum igitur divina providentia nulla in re neque animalculis istis -etiam si a patribus deserantur desit, quanta ilia diffidentia est, quæ -solis hominibus eam deesse profitetur? Si homo inter omnes inferioris -hujus mundi creaturas nobilissimum et pulcherrimum animal est, si -solus ipse Dei imagine insignitus, si ipse hujus magnæ familiæ -princeps ac dominus est, si ejus obsequio cuncta militant, si omnia -rerum conditor subiecit pedibus ejus oves et boves universas, insuper -et pecora campi, &c. qui fieri potest ut cum hujus mundi moderator Dñs -nullum neque animalculum neque vermiculum a providentiæ suæ cura -excludat, sed omnibus abunde omnia suppeditat, pium hominem (cujus -obsequio cuncta destinavit) fame et inedia confici patiatur. Si pater -aliquis filii sui familiam, servos, ancillas, et jumenta diligenter -curaret, illisque necessaria abunde provideret, quomodo filium fame -perire sineret, cujus familiam tanta cura fovet et alit? Quis enim hoc -in animum inducere possit? Hæc ijitur altera ratio est qua celestis -Magister diffidentiam nostram curare, et spem alere atque fulcire -studet." - -"Fourteenth Sunday after Pentecost, Sermon 1: - -"For if it were not that all these things afford to us great matter of -admiration and demonstration of the providence of God, it were in vain -that the Lord, among other tokens of His wisdom and providence, had -selected this also, when He saith in Job: 'Who provideth for the raven -his food? when his young ones cry unto God, wandering for lack of -meat.' And in the Psalms: 'Who giveth their own food to the cattle, -and to the young ravens that call upon Him.' - -"Now that in this place He hath been mainly mindful of the ravens' -young, is partly for this cause, that marvellously in them the -singular care of Providence doth show forth. For a certain annotator -saith, that the young ravens while as yet they are unfledged do appear -of whiteness, and therefore are neglected of their parents as if they -were bastards, seeing that they resemble not their colour. At which -time Divine Providence, who nowhere sleepeth, doth feed them who call -upon Himself. For He causeth certain vermicles (small worms) to be -bred in the little nest, by eating of which they are sustained, until -at length on the ninth day, the feathers beginning to grow, they -resemble the colour of their parents, and so come to be nourished by -them. - -"Seeing then that Divine Providence is never wanting in any matter, -not even to these little creatures, though they be deserted of their -parents, how great is that distrust which averreth that it is wanting -unto men alone! If man be among all the creatures of this lower world -the noblest and the fairest of things; if he alone be made illustrious -by God's image; if he himself be of this great family the leader and -lord; if in obedience to him all things serve; if the Constructor of -all things hath put under his feet 'all sheep and oxen, yea, and the -beasts of the field;' how shall it be that when the Lord, the Ruler of -this world, shutteth out none, neither insect nor worm, from the care -of His providence, but supplieth abundantly all things for all, He -should suffer the righteous man, for whose service He hath appointed -all things, to perish of hunger and lack of food? - -"If it be that every father would diligently care for his son's -household, and men-servants, and maid-servants, and cattle, and -provide them abundantly with all things needful, how should He suffer -His sons to perish whose families He cherisheth and feedeth with so -great care? Who, indeed, could harbour such a thought? This then is -another consideration whereby the heavenly Master seeks to cure our -distrust, and to feed and stay our hope." - -Some of the old writers improved on this legend by saying that the -worms crawled into the mouths of the young Ravens, so that the birds -had not even the trouble of picking them up. - -Some of the ancient Jewish writers had an idea that the Raven was -originally a white bird, and that its colour was changed by way of -punishment for its evil disposition and deceitful conduct. A similar -idea was held by the old mythological writers. They said that the -Raven was formerly the favourite bird of Apollo, and that it was -celebrated for its sweet song and snowy white plumage. Part of its -duty was to bring water for its master from the fountain Hippocrene. - -One day, instead of doing its duty, the bird amused itself in the -garden, and at last fell asleep. Fearful when it awoke that it should -be punished for its carelessness, the cunning Raven snatched up a -snake, killed it, and brought it to Apollo, saying that the serpent -had disputed the passage to the fountain, and that, after a long -fight, it had just been killed. Apollo, angry with the bird for having -told a lie, drove it from his presence, and as it fled its musical -voice turned into a harsh croak, and its white plumage became black. - - "'Liar!' exclaimed the god, - The Python-killer, as from his keen eye - The lightning darted, 'Me wouldst thou deceive - With such a wretched tale! Hence, hence! begone! - Black as thy falsehood fly through shuddering air, - A bird of lonely night! Dumb be thy voice - Of sweetest melody: henceforth thy cry - Tell but of woes and horrors, a wild shriek - Of darkness and dismay.'" - - _Knight's Quarterly Magazine_ - -Reference to the blackness of the Raven's plumage is made in the Song -of Solomon. "My beloved is white and ruddy, the chiefest among ten -thousand. - -"His beard is as the most fine gold, his locks are bushy and black as -a Raven." (Cant. v. 10, 11.) A similar expression is common among -ourselves. - -On account of its mode of life, the Raven cannot exist in a wild state -in cultivated ground. Hence it has disappeared from the greater part -of England, and is seldom to be seen except on wide moors or in large -forests. Cultivated ground affords it scarcely any food, and it is -therefore a bird of the wilderness rather than of the towns. - -Like all feeders on carrion, it is wonderfully quick in detecting a -dead or dying animal, and rivals the vulture itself in the sharpness -of its vision. If any one who is passing over a part of the country -where Ravens still survive, should wish to see one of the birds, he -has only to lie flat on the ground, and keep his eyes nearly shut, so -as only to see through the lashes. Should there be a Raven within many -miles, it is sure to discover the apparently dead body, and to alight -at no great distance, walking round and round, with its peculiar -sidelong gait, and, if it be not checked in time, will make a dash at -the eye of the prostrate individual, and probably blind him for life. - -This habit of pecking at the eye is inherent in all the crow tribe, -probably because they know instinctively that if the animal will allow -its eye to be pecked out it must be dead; and if it should still -possess life, it would be blinded for the moment, so as to allow its -assailant to escape. The Scriptures note this custom of the Raven, as -we see in Prov. xxx. 17: "The eye that mocketh at his father and -despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it -out, and the young eagles shall eat it." - -The desert-loving habit of the Raven is noticed in Isa. xxxiv. 11: -"The cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl also and the -raven shall dwell in it: and He shall stretch out upon it the line of -confusion, and the stones of emptiness." - - -We will now pass to the notices of the Raven as given by the writers -and commentators of the Talmud. - -Being an unclean bird, and one of ill omen, it was not permitted to -perch on the roof of the Temple. According to some writers, it was -kept off by means of scarecrows, and according to others, by long and -sharp iron spikes set so closely together that there was no room for -the bird to pass between them. The latter is by far the more probable -account, as the Raven is much too cunning a bird to be deceived by a -scarecrow for any length of time. It might be alarmed at the first -sight of a strange object, but in a very short time it would hold all -scarecrows in supreme contempt. - -Its carrion-eating propensities were well known to the ancient -writers, who must have had many opportunities of seeing the Raven -unite with the vultures in consuming the bodies, not only of dead -animals, but of warriors killed in battle. So fond was the Raven of -this food that, according to those writers, the very smell of human -blood attracted the bird; and, if a man accidentally cut himself, or -if he were bled for some illness, the odour of the blood would bring -round the spot all the Ravens of the place. - -The punctuality with which the Raven, in common with all its kin, -returns to its roosting-place, was also familiar to the Talmudists, -who made rather an ingenious use of this habit. The ceremonial law of -the Jews required the greatest care in observing certain hours, and it -was especially necessary to know the precise time which marked the -separation of one day from another. This was ascertained easily enough -as long as the day was clear, but in case of a dull, murky day, when -the course of the sun could not be traced, some other plan was needed. - -In the olden times, no artificial means of measuring time were known, -and the devout Jew was consequently fearful lest he might unwittingly -break the law by doing on one day an act which ought to have been done -on another. A convenient method for ascertaining the time was, -however, employed, and, as soon as the Ravens, rooks, and similar -birds were seen returning to their homes, the sun was supposed to be -setting. - -This habit of returning regularly at the same time is mentioned by Mr. -Tristram in his "Land of Israel:"-- - -"Of all the birds of Jerusalem, the raven is decidedly the most -characteristic and conspicuous. It is present everywhere to eye and -ear, and the odours that float around remind us of its use. On the -evening of our arrival we were perplexed by a call-note, quite new to -us, mingling with the old familiar croak, and soon ascertained that -there must be a second species of raven along with the common _Corvus -corax_. This was the African species (_Corvus umbrinus_, Hed.), the -ashy-necked raven, a little smaller than the world-wide raven, and -here more abundant in individuals. - -"Beside these, the rook (_Corvus agricola_, Trist.), the common grey, -or hooded crow (_Corvus cornix_, L.), and the jackdaw (_Corvus -monedula_, L.), roost by hundreds in the sanctuary. We used to watch -them in long lines passing over our tents every morning at daybreak, -and returning in the evening, the rooks in solid phalanx leading the -way, and the ravens in loose order bringing up the rear, generally far -out of shot. Before retiring for the night, popular assemblies of the -most uproarious character were held together in the trees of the -Kedron and Mount Olivet, and not until sunset did they withdraw in -silence, mingled indiscriminately, to their roosting-places on the -walls. - -"My companions were very anxious to obtain specimens of these -Jerusalem birds, which could only be approached as they settled for -the night; but we were warned by the Consul that shooting them so -close to the mosque might be deemed a sacrilege by the Moslems, and -provoke an attack by the guardians of the Haram and the boys of the -neighbourhood. They finally determined, nevertheless, to run the risk; -and stationing themselves just before sunset in convenient -hiding-places near the walls, at a given signal they fired -simultaneously, and, hastily gathering up the spoils, had retreated -out of reach, and were hurrying to the tents before an alarm could be -raised. The discharge of ten barrels had obtained fourteen specimens, -comprising five species. - -"The same manoeuvre was repeated with equal success on another -evening; but on the third occasion the ravens had learned wisdom by -experience, and, sweeping round Siloam, chose another route to their -dormitory." - -Those who have tried to come within gunshot of a Raven, even in this -country, can appreciate this anecdote, and can understand how the -Raven would ever afterwards keep clear of a spot where the flash and -smoke of fire-arms had twice appeared. - -An anecdote which authenticates this cautious turn of mind in the -Raven is given in Mr. Thompson's work on the "Natural History of -Ireland." There was a large yard in which the sparrows used to -congregate, and it was a custom of the owner to lay a train of corn -for the sparrows to eat, and then to rake the whole line with a -discharge from a gun concealed in an outhouse. A tame Raven lived -about the premises, and as soon as it saw any one carrying a gun -towards the fatal outhouse, it became much alarmed, and hurried off to -hide itself. As soon as the gun was fired, out came the Raven from its -place of concealment, pounced on one of the dead sparrows, carried it -off, and ate it in its private haunt. - -The nest to which the Raven returns with such punctuality is placed in -some spot where it is safe from ordinary intruders. The tops of lofty -trees are favoured localities for the nest, and so are old towers, the -interior of caves, and clefts in lofty precipices. The nest is large -and clumsy, and the bird, trusting in the inaccessible character of -the locality, troubles itself very little about concealment. The Raven -is a peculiarly domestic bird, and a pattern of conjugal affection. It -pairs for life, and both male and female take their share of sitting -on the eggs and nurturing the young. - - -The old writers of whom mention has been made admitted that all the -Corvidæ were signified by the word _oreb_. Sometimes they drew a -distinction between them, but, as a rule, the word _oreb_ might mean -any of those birds, from a Raven to a starling. - -The MAGPIE is one of those birds which is separately mentioned. Like -the Raven, it was thought to be harsh and cruel to its young, so that -whenever a man behaved badly to his children, either by neglect or by -absolute cruelty, he was called a Magpie-man by way of derision. -Similarly, a man of a morose or evil disposition was termed a -Raven-hearted man. As, however, the Magpie is not entirely black, but -has some white in its plumage, it was held to be rather a better bird -than the Raven. Moreover, it is fond of haunting the habitations of -men, so that it was held to be of a softer nature than the Raven, -which always kept itself as far from mankind as possible. - -Lastly, we come to the Starling, which, as I have already mentioned, -is considered as one of the Raven tribe, and is ranked under the name -of Oreb. The old writers had no very great opinion of this bird, which -they considered as exceptionally quarrelsome, probably on account of -its shrill, harsh cry. They had a curious proverb, "Two Starlings -cannot sleep in one bed," by which they meant that two quarrelsome -people ought not to associate together. - -There is a rather curious legend respecting the introduction of the -Starling into Palestine. - -Many years ago, a strange bird appeared in Jerusalem. It was caught, -and brought before a celebrated Rabbi for examination, in order that -he might decide whether it belonged to the clean or the unclean birds. -After examining it, he could not make up his mind to either side of -the question, and left the disputed point to be settled in a different -way. - -He ordered the bird to be placed on the roof of a house, and to be -carefully watched, in order that the birds which associated with it -might be noticed. For some time no birds of any kind would recognise -the stranger, until at last there came a Raven from Egypt, which -claimed acquaintance with it. In consequence of this, the Starling was -ever afterwards classed with the Raven, and considered as an unclean -bird. The Egyptian Raven which is here mentioned is described as being -a very small bird, scarcely larger, indeed, than the Starling itself. - - - - - -THE OSTRICH. - - Hebrew words designating the Ostrich--Description of the bird in - the Book of Job--Ancient use of Ostrich plumes--Supposed - heedlessness of eggs and young--Mode of depositing the - eggs--Hatching them in the sand--Natural enemies of the - Ostrich--Anecdote of Ostriches and their young--Alleged - stupidity of the Ostrich--Methods of hunting and snaring the - bird--The Ostrich in domestication--Speed of the Ostrich--The - flesh of the bird prohibited to the Jews--Ostrich eggs and their - uses--Food of the Ostrich--Mode of drinking--Cry of the Ostrich, - and reference made to it in Micah. - - -There is rather a peculiarity about the manner in which this bird is -mentioned in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures, and, unless we -go to the original Hebrew, we shall be greatly misled. In that version -the Ostrich is mentioned only three times, but in the Hebrew it occurs -eight times. If the reader will refer to page 370, he will see that -the Hebrew word _bath-haya'nah_, which is translated in the Authorized -Version as "owl," ought really to be rendered as "Ostrich." Taking -this to be the case, we find that there are several passages in the -Scriptures in which the word has been used in the wrong sense, and -that in those places, instead of rendering the word as "owl," we ought -to read it as "Ostrich." - -The first mention of this bird occurs in Lev. xi. 16, and the parallel -passage of Deut. xiv., in which the Ostrich is reckoned among the -unclean birds, without any notice being given of its appearance or -habits. - -In the Book of Job, however, we have the Ostrich mentioned with that -preciseness and fulness of description which is so often the case when -the writer of that wonderful poem treats of living creatures. - -"Gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks? or wings and feathers -unto the ostrich? - -"Who leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust, - -"And forgetteth that the foot may crush them, or that the wild beast -may break them. - -"She is hardened against her young ones, as though they were not hers: -her labour is in vain without fear; - -"Because God hath deprived her of wisdom, neither hath He imparted to -her understanding. - -"What time she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the horse and -his rider." (Job xxxix. 13-19.) - -There is rather a peculiarity in the translation of this passage, -wherein the word which has been translated as "peacock" is now allowed -to be properly rendered as "Ostrich," while the word which is -translated as "Ostrich" ought to have been given as "feathers." The -marginal translation gives the last words of ver. 13 in a rather -different manner, and renders it thus:--"Gavest thou the goodly wings -unto the peacocks, or the feathers of the stork and ostrich?" The -Hebrew Bible renders the next verses as follows:-- - -"She would yet leave her eggs on the earth, and warm them in dust; and -forget that the foot may crush them, or that the beast of the field -may break them. - -"She is hardened against her young ones, for those not hers; being -careless, her labour is in vain." - -In the same Book, chap. xxx., is another passage wherein this bird is -mentioned. "I went mourning without the sun: I stood up, and I cried -in the congregation. - -"I am a brother to dragons, and a companion to owls," or Ostriches, in -the marginal and correct reading. The Jewish Bible also translates the -word as Ostriches, but the word which the Authorized Version renders -as "dragons" it translates as "jackals." Of this point we shall have -something to say on a future page. A somewhat similar passage occurs -in Isa. xliii. 20: "The beast of the field shall honour me, the -dragons and the owls" (Ostriches in marginal reading), "because I give -waters in the wilderness, and rivers in the desert, to give drink to -My people, My chosen." The Jewish Bible retains the same reading, -except that the word "dragons" is given with the mark of doubt. - -Accepting, therefore, the rendering of the Hebrew as Ostriches, let us -see how far the passages of Scripture agree with the appearance and -habits of the bird. - -Here I may observe that, although in the Scriptures frequent allusions -are made to the habits of animals, we are not to look for scientific -exactness to the Scriptures. Among much that is strictly and -completely true, there are occasional errors, to which a most needless -attention has been drawn by a certain school of critics, who point to -them as invalidating the truth of Scripture in general. The real fact -is, that they have no bearing whatever on the truth or falsehood of -the Scriptural teachings. - -The Scriptures were written at various times, for instruction in -spiritual and not in temporal matters, and were never intended for -scientific treatises on astronomy, mathematics, zoology, or any such -branch of knowledge. The references which are made to the -last-mentioned subject are in no case of a scientific nature, but are -always employed by way of metaphor or simile, as the reader must have -seen in the previous pages. No point of doctrine is taught by them, -and none depends on them. - -The Spirit which conveyed religious instruction to the people could -only use the means that existed, and could no more employ the -scientific knowledge of the present time than use as metaphors the -dress, arms, and inventions of the present day. The Scriptures were -written in Eastern lands for Orientals by Orientals, and were -consequently adapted to Oriental ideas; and it would be as absurd to -look for scientific zoology in the writings of an ancient Oriental, as -for descriptions of the printing press, the steam-engine, the -photographic camera, or the electric telegraph. - -So, when we remember that only a few years ago the real history of the -Ostrich was unknown to those who had made zoology the study of their -lives, we cannot wonder that it was also unknown to those who lived -many centuries ago, and who had not the least idea of zoology, or any -kindred science. - -Still, even with these drawbacks, it is wonderful how accurate in many -instances were the writers of the Scriptures, and the more so when we -remember the character of the Oriental mind, with its love of -metaphor, its disregard of arithmetical precision, and its poetical -style of thought. - -We will now take the passage in Job xxxix. In ver. 13 reference is -made to the wings and feathers of the Ostrich. If the reader will -refer to page 260, he will see that the feathers of the Ostrich were -formerly used as the emblem of rank. In this case, they are shown as -fastened to the heads of the horses, and also in the form of a plume, -fixed to the end of a staff, and appended to a chariot, as -emblematical of the princely rank of the occupier. In the ancient -Egyptian monuments these Ostrich plumes are repeatedly shown, and in -every case denote very high rank. These plumes were therefore held in -high estimation at the time in which the Book of Job was written, and -it is evidently in allusion to this fact that the sacred writer has -mentioned so prominently the white plumes of the Ostrich. - -Passing the next portion of the description, we find that the Ostrich -is mentioned as a bird that is careless of its eggs, and leaves them -"in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust, and forgetteth that the -foot may crush them, or that the wild beast may break them." - -Now it is true that the Ostrich is often known to take the greatest -care of its eggs, the male collecting and sitting on them, and -watching them with loving assiduity, and by some persons this fact has -been brought forward as a proof that the writer of the Book of Job was -mistaken in his statements. A further acquaintance with the habits of -the bird tells us, however, that in those parts of the world which -were known to the writer of that book the Ostrich does behave in -precisely the manner which is described by the sacred writer. - -Several females lay their eggs in the same nest, if the title of nest -can be rightly applied to a mere hollow scooped in the sand, and, at -least during the daytime, when the sun is shining, they simply cover -the eggs with sand, so as to conceal them from ordinary enemies, and -leave them to be hatched by the warm sunbeams. They are buried to the -depth of about a foot, so that they receive the benefit of a tolerably -equable warmth. So much, then, for the assertion that the Ostrich -leaves her eggs "in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust." - -We next come to the statement that she forgets that "the foot may -crush them, or that the wild beast may break them." It is evident from -the preceding description that eggs which are buried a foot deep in -the sand could not be crushed by the foot, even were they of a fragile -character, instead of being defended by a shell as thick, and nearly -as hard, as an ordinary earthenware plate. Neither would the wild -beast be likely to discover much less to break them. - - [Illustration: OSTRICH AND NEST. - - "_Who leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the - dust._"--JOB xxxix. 14.] - -A more intimate acquaintance with the history of the Ostrich shows -that, even in this particular, the sacred writer was perfectly -correct. Besides the eggs which are intended to be hatched, and which -are hidden beneath the sand to be hatched, a number of supplementary -eggs are laid which are not meant to be hatched, and are evidently -intended as food for the young until they are able to forage for -themselves. These are left carelessly on the surface of the ground, -and may easily be crushed by the hoof of a horse, if not by the foot -of man. We meet, however, with another statement,--namely, that they -may be broken by the wild beasts. Here we have reference to another -fact in the history of the Ostrich. The scattered eggs, to which -allusion is made, are often eaten, not only by beasts, but also by -birds of prey; the former breaking the shells by knocking them against -each other, and the latter by picking up large stones in their claws, -rising above the eggs, and dropping the stones on them. The bird would -like to seize the egg, rise with it in the air, and drop it on a -stone, as mentioned on page 337, but the round, smooth surface of the -egg defies the grasp of talons, and, instead of dropping the egg upon -a stone, it is obliged to drop a stone upon the egg. - -Up to the present point, therefore, the writer of the Book of Job is -shown to be perfectly correct in his statements. We will now proceed -to verse 16: "She is hardened against her young ones, as though they -were not hers." Now in the Jewish Bible the passage is rendered rather -differently: "She is hardened against her young ones, for those not -hers;" and, as we shall presently see, the reading perfectly agrees -with the character of the Ostrich. - -There has long existed a belief that the Ostrich, contrary to the -character of all other birds, is careless of her young, neglects them, -and is even cruel to them. That this notion was shared by the writer -of the Book of Job is evident from the preceding passage. It also, -prevailed for at least a thousand years after the Book of Job was -written. See Lam. iv. 3: "Even the sea monsters draw out the breast, -they give suck to their young ones: the daughter of my people is -become cruel, like the ostriches in the wilderness." - -It is probable that this idea respecting the cruelty of the Ostrich -towards its young is derived from the fact that if a flock of -Ostriches be chased, and among them there be some very young birds, -the latter are left behind by their parents, and fall a prey to the -hunters. But, in reality, the Ostrich has no choice in the matter. The -wide sandy desert affords no place of concealment in which it might -hide its young. Nature has not furnished it with weapons by means of -which it can fight for them; and consequently it is forced to use the -only means of escape by which it can avoid sacrificing its own life, -as well as the lives of the young. - -It does not, however, leave the young until it has tried, by all means -in its power, to save them. For example, it sometimes has recourse to -the manoeuvre with which we are so familiar in the case of the -lapwing, and pretends to be wounded or lamed, in order to draw the -attention of its pursuers, while its young escape in another -direction. An instance of this practice is given by Mr. Andersson in -his "Lake Ngami." "When we had proceeded little more than half the -distance, and in a part of the plain entirely destitute of vegetation, -we discovered a male and female ostrich, with a brood of young ones, -about the size of ordinary barn-door fowls. We forthwith dismounted -from our oxen, and gave chase, which proved of no ordinary interest. - -"The moment the parent birds became aware of our intention, they set -off at full speed--the female leading the way, and the cock, though at -some little distance, bringing up the rear of the family party. It was -very touching to observe the anxiety the birds evinced for the safety -of their progeny. Finding that we were quickly gaining upon them, the -male at once slackened his pace and diverged somewhat from his course; -but, seeing that we were not to be diverted from our purpose, he again -increased his speed, and, with wings drooping so as almost to touch -the ground, he hovered round us, now in wide circles, and then -decreasing the circumference until he came almost within pistol-shot, -when he abruptly threw himself on the ground, and struggled -desperately to regain his legs, as it appeared, like a bird that has -been badly wounded. - -"Having previously fired at him, I really thought he was disabled, and -made quickly towards him. But this was only a ruse on his part, for, -on my nearer approach, he slowly rose, and began to run in a different -direction to that of the female, who by this time was considerably -ahead with her charge." Nor is this a solitary instance of the care -which the Ostrich will take of her young. Thunberg mentions that on -one occasion, when he happened to ride near a place where an Ostrich -was sitting on the eggs, the bird jumped up and pursued him, evidently -with the object of distracting his attention from the eggs. When he -faced her, she retreated; but as soon as he turned his horse, she -pursued him afresh. - -The care of the mother for the young is perhaps less needed with the -Ostrich than with most birds. The young are able to run with such -speed that ordinary animals are not able to overtake them, and, -besides, they are protected by their colour as long as they are -comparatively helpless. Their downy plumage harmonizes completely -with the sandy and stony ground, even when they run, and when they -crouch to the earth, as is their manner when alarmed, even the most -practised eye can scarcely see them. Mr. Andersson, an experienced -hunter, states that when the Ostrich chicks were crouching almost -under his feet, he had the greatest difficulty in distinguishing their -forms. - -Owing to the great number of the eggs that are laid, the young are -often very numerous, between thirty and forty chicks sometimes -belonging to one brood. In the Ostrich chase which has already been -described, the brood were eighteen in number, and so great was their -speed that, in spite of their youth and diminutive size, Mr. Andersson -only succeeded in capturing nine of them after an hour's severe chase. - -We find, therefore, that we must acquit the Ostrich of neglecting its -young, much more of cruelty towards them; and we will now turn to the -next charge against the bird, that of stupidity. - -In one sense, the bird certainly may be considered stupid. Like nearly -all wild creatures which live on large plains, it always runs against -the wind, so as to perceive by scent if any enemies are approaching. -Its nostrils are very sensitive, and can detect a human being at a -very great distance. So fastidious is it in this respect, that no -hunter who knows his business ever attempts to approach the Ostrich -except from leeward. If a nest is found, and the discoverer wishes the -birds to continue laying in it, he approaches on the leeward side, and -rakes out the eggs with a long stick. - -The little Bosjesman, who kills so many of these birds with his tiny -bow and arrow, makes use of this instinct when he goes to shoot the -Ostrich, disguised in a skin of one of the birds. Should an Ostrich -attack him, as is sometimes the case, he only shifts his position to -windward, so as to allow the birds to catch the scent of a human -being, when they instantly make off in terror. - -When, therefore, the Ostriches are alarmed, they always run to -windward, instinctively knowing that, if an enemy should approach in -that direction, their powers of scent will inform them of the danger. -Being aware of this habit, the hunters manage so that while one of -them goes round by a long detour to frighten the game, the others are -in waiting at a considerable distance to windward, but well on one -side, so that no indication of their presence may reach the sensitive -nostrils of the birds. As soon as the concealed hunters see the -Ostriches fairly settled down to their course, they dash off at right -angles to the line which the birds are taking, and in this way come -near enough to use their weapons. The antelopes of the same country -have a similar instinct, and are hunted in precisely the same manner. - -Thus, then, in one sense the Ostrich may be considered as open to the -charge of stupidity, inasmuch as it pursues a course which can be -anticipated by enemies who would otherwise be unable to overtake it. -But it must be remembered that instinct cannot be expected to prove a -match for reason, and that, although its human enemies are able to -overreach it, no others can do so, the instinct of running against the -wind serving to guard it from any foe which it is likely to meet in -the desert. - -When captured alive and tamed, it certainly displays no particular -amount of intellect. The Arabs often keep tame Ostriches about their -tents, the birds being as much accustomed to their quarters as the -horses. In all probability they did so in ancient times, and the -author of the Book of Job was likely to be familiar with tame -Ostriches, as well as with the wild bird. - -Stupidity is probably attributed to the tame bird in consequence of -the habit possessed by the Ostrich of picking up and eating substances -which cannot be used as food. For example, it will eat knives, bits of -bone or metal, and has even been known to swallow bullets hot from the -mould. On dissecting the digestive organs of an Ostrich, I have found -a large quantity of stones, pieces of brick, and scraps of wood. These -articles are, however, not intended to serve as food, but simply to -aid digestion, and the bird eats them just as domestic fowls pick up -gravel, and smaller birds grains of sand. In swallowing them, -therefore, the Ostrich does not display any stupidity, but merely -obeys a natural instinct. - -Lastly, we come to the speed of the Ostrich: "What time she lifteth up -herself on high, she scorneth the horse and his rider." - -This statement is literally true. When the Ostrich puts forth its full -speed, there is no horse that can catch it in a fair chase. It may be -killed by the ruse which has already been described, but an adult -Ostrich can run away from the swiftest horse. When it runs at full -speed, it moves its long legs with astonishing rapidity, covering at -each stride an average of twenty-four feet, a fact from which its rate -of speed may be deduced. In consequence of this width of stride, and -the small impression made in the sand by the two-toed foot, the track -of a running Ostrich is very obscure. Perhaps no better proof of the -swiftness of the bird can be given than the extreme value set upon it -by the Arabs. Although they are bred to the desert as much as the -Ostrich itself, and are mounted on horses whose swiftness and -endurance are proverbial, they set a very high value on the Ostrich, -and to have captured one of these birds establishes an Arab's fame as -a hunter. - -Sometimes the Arabs employ the plan of cutting across the course of -the bird, but at others they pursue it in fair chase, training their -horses and themselves specially for the occasion. They furnish -themselves with a supply of water, and then start in pursuit of the -first flock of Ostriches they find. They take care not to alarm the -birds, lest they should put out their full speed and run away out of -sight, but just keep sufficiently near to force the birds to be -continually on the move. They will sometimes continue this chase for -several days, not allowing their game time to eat or rest, until at -last it is so tired that it yields itself an easy prey. - -In Southern Africa, snares are used for taking the Ostrich. They are -in fact ordinary springes, but of strength suitable to the size of the -bird. The cord is made fast to a sapling, which is bent down by main -strength, and the other end is then formed into a noose and fastened -down with a trigger. Sometimes the bird is enticed towards the snare -by means of a bait, and sometimes it is driven over it by the -huntsmen. In either case, as soon as the Ostrich puts its foot within -the fatal noose, the trigger is loosed, the sapling is released, and, -with a violent jerk, the Ostrich is caught by the leg and suspended in -the air. - -Why the flesh of the Ostrich should have been prohibited to the Jews -is rather a mystery. It is much valued by most natives, though some of -the Arab tribes still adhere to the Jewish prohibition, and those -Europeans who have tried it pronounce it to be excellent when the bird -is young and tender, but to be unpleasantly tough when it is old. Mr. -Andersson says that its flesh resembles that of the zebra, and -mentions that the fat and blood are in great request, being mixed -together by cutting the throat of the bird, passing a ligature round -the neck just below the incision, and then shaking and dragging the -bird about for some time. Nearly twenty pounds of this substance are -obtained from a single Ostrich. - -The ancient Romans valued exceedingly the flesh of this bird. We are -told that Heliogabalus once had a dish served at his table containing -six hundred Ostrich brains, and that another emperor ate a whole -Ostrich at a meal. As an adult Ostrich weighs some twenty-five stone, -we may presume that the bird in question was a young one. - -The eggs are most valuable articles of food, both on account of their -excellent flavour and their enormous size. It is calculated that one -Ostrich egg contains as much as twenty-five ordinary hen's eggs. -Cooking the Ostrich egg is easily performed. A hole is made in the -upper part of the egg, and the lower end is set on the fire. A forked -stick is then introduced into the egg, and twirled between the hands, -so as to beat up the whole of the interior. Europeans usually add -pepper and salt, and say that this simple mode of cooking produces an -excellent omelette. - -The ordinary food of the Ostrich consists of the seeds, buds, and tops -of various plants. It seems strange, however, that in the deserts, -where there is so little vegetation, the bird should be able to -procure sufficient food to maintain its enormous body. Each of the -specimens which are kept at the Zoological Gardens eats on an average -a pint of barley, the same quantity of oats, four pounds' weight of -cabbage, and half a gallon of chaff, beside the buns, bread, and other -articles of food which are given to them by visitors. - -Although the Ostrich, like many other inhabitants of the desert, can -live for a long time without water, yet it is forced to drink, and -like the camel, which it resembles in so many of its ways, drinks -enormously, taking in the water by a succession of gulps. When the -weather has been exceptionally hot, the Ostrich visits the -water-springs daily, and is so occupied in quenching its thirst that -it will allow the hunter to come within a very short distance. It -appears, indeed, to be almost intoxicated with its draught, and, even -when it does take the alarm, it only retreats step by step, instead of -scudding off with its usually rapid strides. - -The camel-like appearance of the Ostrich has already been mentioned. -In the Arabic language the Ostrich is called by a name which signifies -camel-bird, and many of the people have an idea that it was originally -a cross between a bird and a camel. - -The cry of the Ostrich is a deep bellow, which, according to -travellers in Southern Africa, so resembles the roar of the lion that -even the practised ears of the natives can scarcely distinguish the -roar of the animal from the cry of the bird. The resemblance is -increased by the fact that both the lion and Ostrich utter their cry -by night. It is evidently to this cry that the prophet Micah alludes: -"Therefore I will wail and howl, I will go stripped and naked: I will -make a wailing like the dragons, and mourning as the owls" (Ostriches -in marginal reading). The cry of the variety of Ostrich which inhabits -Northern Africa is said to bear more resemblance to the lowing of an -ox than the roar of the lion; but as the bird is smaller than its -southern relative, the difference is probably accounted for. - -It has been mentioned that the Ostrich has no weapons wherewith to -fight for its young; still, though it be destitute of actual weapons, -such as the spur of the gamecock or the beak and talons of the eagle, -it is not entirely defenceless. Its long and powerful legs can be -employed as weapons, and it can kick with such force that a man would -go down before the blow, and probably, if struck on the leg or arm, -have the limb broken. The blow is never delivered backward, as is the -kick of the horse, but forward, like that of the kangaroo. The natives -of the countries where it resides say that it is able to kill by its -kick the jackal that comes to steal its eggs, and that even the hyæna -and the leopard are repelled by the gigantic bird. - - - - -THE BITTERN. - - Signification of the word _Kippod_--The Bittern and its general - appearance--The bird of solitude--Difficulty of detecting the - Bittern in its haunts--Mudie's description of the Bittern and - its home--The strange cry of the bird--Superstitions connected - with it--The Night-raven--Nest of the Bittern--Scarcity of the - bird at the present day--Food of the Bittern--The bird formerly - brought to table. - - -In the account of the hedgehog, page 80, it has been mentioned that -the Hebrew word _Kippod_, which has been rendered in the Authorized -Version as "Bittern," is in all probability the Syrian hedgehog, and -that the Jewish Bible accepts that rendering without even affixing the -mark of doubt to the word. As, however, some writers on the subject -still adhere to the more familiar rendering, a short account will be -given of the Bittern (_Botauris stellaris_). - -The Bittern belongs to the same family as the herons, the cranes, and -the storks, and has many of the habits common to them all. It is, -however, essentially a bird of solitude, hating the vicinity of man, -and living in the most retired spots of marshy ground. As it sits -among the reeds and rushes, though it is a large bird, it is scarcely -visible even to a practised eye, its mottled plumage harmonizing with -surrounding objects in such a way that the feathers of the bird can -scarcely be distinguished from the sticks, stones, and grass tufts -among which it sits. The ground colour of the plumage is dark buff, -upon which are sprinkled mottlings and streaks of black, chestnut, -grey, and brown. These mottled marks harmonize with the stones and -tufts of withered grass, while the longitudinal dashes of buff and -black on the neck and breast correspond with the sticks and reeds. - -In a similar manner the tiger, though so large an animal, can lie in a -very small covert of reeds without being detected, its striped fur -corresponding with the reeds themselves and the shadows thrown by -them; and the leopard can remain hidden among the boughs of a tree, -its spotted coat harmonizing with the broken light and shade of the -foliage. - - [Illustration: THE BITTERN. - - "_I will alto make it a possession for the bittern, and pools for - water._"--ISA. xiv. 23.] - -The following powerful description of the Bittern's home is given by -Mudie: "It is a bird of rude nature, where the land knows no character -save that which the untrained working of the elements impresses upon -it; so that when any locality is in the course of being won to -usefulness, the bittern is the first to depart, and when any one is -abandoned, it is the last to return. 'The bittern shall dwell there' -is the final curse, and implies that the place is to become -uninhabited and uninhabitable, it hears not the whistle of the -ploughman, nor the sound of the mattock; and the tinkle of the -sheep-bell, or the lowing of the ox (although the latter bears so much -resemblance to its own hollow and dismal voice, that it has given -foundation to the name), is a signal for it to be gone. - -"Extensive and dingy pools--if moderately upland, so much the -better--which lie in the hollows, catching, like so many traps, the -lighter and more fertile mould which the rains wash and the winds blow -from the naked heights around, and converting it into harsh and dingy -vegetation, and the pasture of those loathsome things which wriggle in -the ooze, or crawl and swim in the putrid and mantling waters, are the -habitation of the bittern. - -"Places which scatter blight and mildew over every herb which is more -delicate than a sedge, a carex, or a rush, and consume every wooded -plant that is taller than the sapless and tasteless cranberry or the -weeping upland willow; which shed murrain over the quadrupeds, chills -which eat the flesh off their bones, and which, if man ventures there, -consume him by putrid fever in the hot and dry season, and shake him -to pieces with ague when the weather is cold and humid. - -"Places from which the heath and the lichen stand aloof, and where -even the raven, lover of disease, and battener upon all that expires -miserably and exhausted, comes rarely and with more than wonted -caution, lest that death which he comes to seal and riot upon in -others should unawares come upon himself. The raven loves carrion on -the dry and unpoisoning moor, scents it from afar, and hastens to it -upon his best and boldest wing; but 'the reek o' the rotten fen' is -loathsome to the sense of even the raven, and it is hunger's last -pinch ere he come nigh to the chosen habitation, the only loved abode, -of the bittern." - -Secure in its retreat, the Bittern keeps its place even if a sportsman -should pass by the spot on which it crouches. It will not be tempted -to leave its retreat by noise, or even by stone throwing, for it knows -instinctively that the quaking bogland which it selects as its home is -unsafe for the step of man. - -The very cry of the Bittern adds to this atmosphere of desolation. By -day the bird is silent, but after the sun has gone down it utters its -strange wild cry, a sound which exactly suits the localities in which -it loves to make its habitation. During part of the year it only emits -a sharp, harsh cry as it rises on the wing, but during the breeding -season it utters the cry by which it summons its mate, one of the -strangest love-calls that can be imagined. It is something between -the neighing of a horse, the bellow of a bull, and a shriek of savage -laughter. It is very loud and deep, so that it seems to shake the -loose and marshy ground. There was formerly an idea that, when the -Bittern uttered this booming cry, it thrust its bill into the soft -ground, and so caused it to shake. In reality, the cry is uttered on -the wing, the bird wheeling in a spiral flight, and modulating its -voice in accordance with the curves which it describes in the air. -This strange sound is only uttered by the male bird. - -In every country inhabited by the Bittern we find that its deep -sepulchral cry, booming out through the darkness, and heard at an -immense distance, has been dreaded as the prophecy of some evil to -come. In some parts both of England and Ireland it is known as the -Night-raven, and under that title is held in the greatest fear. -Allusion is made to this belief in the well-known passage from -Middleton's "Witch":-- - - "At the Night-raven's dismal voice, - When others tremble, we rejoice; - And nimbly, nimbly, dance we still - To the echoes of a hollow hill." - -Under the same title Goldsmith writes of it in his "Animated Nature." -"I remember, in the place where I was a boy, with what terror the -bird's note affected the whole village,--they considered it as the -presage of some sad event, and generally found or made one to succeed -it. I do not speak ludicrously, but if any person in the neighbourhood -died, they supposed it could not be otherwise, for the night-raven had -foretold it; but if nobody happened to die, the death of a cow or a -sheep gave completion of the prophecy." - -In some parts of England the Bittern is known by the odd title of -Butter-bump, a fact which was mentioned in the _Zoologist_ many years -ago:-- - - "There'll either be rain, or else summat waur, - When Butter-bump sings upo' Potterie car." - -About Fermanagh, in Ireland, the Bittern is called Bog-bluiter, _i.e._ -Bog-bleater, just as the snipe is termed the Heather-bluiter. - -Like most of the long-legged wading birds, the Bittern is able to -change its shape, and apparently to alter its size, in an astonishing -manner. When it is walking over the ground, with head erect and eye -glanced vigilantly at surrounding objects, it looks a large, bold, -vigorous, and active bird. Next minute it will sink its head in its -shoulders, so that the long beak seems to project from them, and the -neck totally disappears, the feathers enveloping each other as -perfectly and smoothly as if it never had had a neck. In this attitude -it will stand for an hour at a time on one leg, with the other drawn -close to its body, looking as dull, inert, and sluggish a bird as can -well be imagined, and reduced apparently to one half of its former -size. The Bittern is represented in one of its extraordinary attitudes -on the plate which illustrates the cormorant. - -The nest of the Bittern is placed on the ground, and near the water, -though the bird always takes care to build it on an elevated spot -which will not be flooded if the water should rise by reason of a -severe rain. There is, however, but little reason for the Bittern to -fear a flood, as at the time of year which is chosen, for -nest-building the floods are generally out, and the water higher than -is likely to be the case for the rest of the year. The materials of -the nest are found in marshes, and consist of leaves, reeds, and -rushes. - -It will be seen from the foregoing account, that if the word _Kippod_ -be translated as "Bittern," the imagery connected with it holds good, -and that no more powerful figure could be imagined for the desolation -of Babylon than the prophecy, "I will make it a possession for the -bittern, and pools of water" (Isa. xiv. 23). - - [Illustration: THE CORMORANT. - - "But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it."--ISA. xxxiv. 11.] - -Though once plentiful in England, the Bittern is now very scarce, and -there are few who have seen it in its native haunts. Formerly, when -swamps and marshes abounded, the Bittern abounded in proportion, but -drainage and cultivation and railways have fairly driven the Bittern -out of the country, and in a few years it will be as completely -extinct in England as the bustard or the eagle. Even the great marshes -of Essex are being reclaimed and rendered unfit for the occupation of -the bird; and, from the upper part of the house where this account is -written, I can see with the aid of the telescope cornfields, and -pasture-lands, and barns, and ricks, and roads, diversifying the wide -expanses which were once covered with brackish water at every flow of -the tide, and at the ebb only left as quagmires through which the foot -of man could not pass, and on which grew the rough and scanty -herbage that flourishes under conditions that would kill almost -any other vegetation. - -No longer can the Bittern find a home there. Deep ditches intersect -each other at short intervals, into which the moisture of the really -rich soil is drained, and the water that once stood in stagnant pools -which the Bittern loved is conducted into them, and discharged into -the river at the ebb tide. By the abstraction of the moisture, the -whole country has been lowered more than a foot, and, together with -the stagnant pools, the Bittern has vanished never more to return. And -here it may be mentioned that, although the Bittern inhabits none but -desolate places, it only selects those which contain capabilities of -cultivation. So, if the boom of the Bittern be heard, it may be -accepted as deciding two things--firstly, that the ground is utterly -deserted by man, and uncultivated; and secondly, that it ought to be -occupied by him, and brought into cultivation. - -At the present day, the Bittern is very plentiful in the swampy -grounds which edge the Tigris, just as it used to be in the marshes -which border the Thames. Should the time come when London will have -passed away as completely as the great cities of old, and the banks of -the Thames lie as desolate as those of the Tigris, the Bittern will -reassume its sway, and its deep booming note will again be heard -through the stillness of night. - -As if to add to the general effect of its character, it is essentially -a solitary bird, and in this characteristic entirely unlike its -relatives the heron and the stork, which are peculiarly sociable, and -love to gather themselves together in multitudes. But the Bittern is -never found except alone, or at the most accompanied for a time by its -mate and one or two young ones. - -The localities in which it resides are sufficient evidence of the -nature of its food. Frogs appear to be its favourite diet, but it also -feeds on various fish, insects, molluscs, worms, and similar -creatures. Dull and apathetic as it appears to be, it can display -sufficient energy to capture tolerably large fish. Though the Bittern -is only about two feet in total length, one of these birds was killed, -in the stomach of which were found one perfect rudd eight inches in -length and two in depth, together with the remains of another fish, of -a full-grown frog, and of an aquatic insect. In another instance, a -Bittern had contrived to swallow an eel as long as itself; while in -many cases the remains of five or six full-grown frogs have been -found in the interior of the bird, some just swallowed, and others in -various stages of digestion. - -In former times the Bittern was used as food in England, and was -considered one of the delicacies of a rich man's table. Partly on -account of its scarcity, and partly on account of a popular prejudice, -it is never eaten at the present day, and those few specimens which -are occasionally exposed for sale are merely purchased for the sake of -their plumage. The flesh of the Bittern justifies the predilection -which was formerly exhibited for it, as it is tender, well-flavoured, -and fat. - - - - -THE HERON. - - The Heron mentioned as an unclean bird--The Heron used for food - in England, and considered as a delicacy--Sociable character of - the bird, and its mode of feeding--Its enormous appetite--How - the Heron fights--Ancient falconry--Nesting of the Heron--The - papyrus marshes and their dangers--Description of the - papyrus--Vessels of bulrushes--The Egret and its beautiful - plumage--Uses of the train feathers. - - -The name of the Heron is only mentioned twice in the -Scriptures--namely, in the two parallel passages of Lev. xi. 19 and -Deut. xiv. 18; in both of which places the Heron is ranked among the -unclean birds that might not be eaten. - -In some of the cases where beasts or birds are prohibited as food, the -prohibition seems scarcely needed. To us of the present day this seems -to be the case with the Heron, as it is never brought to table. The -reason for this disuse of the Heron as food is not that it is unfit -for the table, but that it has become so scarce by the spread of -cultivation and house-building, that it has been gradually abandoned -as a practically unattainable article of diet. The flesh of the Heron, -like that of the bittern, is remarkably excellent, and in the former -days, when it was comparatively plentiful, and falconry was the -ordinary amusement of the rich, the Heron formed a very important dish -at every great banquet. - - [Illustration: THE HERON. - - "_These are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls - ... the stork, the heron after her kind._"--DEUT. xi. 13, 19.] - -The bird, however, must be eaten when young. A gentleman who liked to -try experiments for himself in the matter of food, found that, if -young Herons were properly cooked, they formed a most excellent dish, -equal, in his opinion, to grouse. Wishing to have his own judgment -confirmed by that of others, he had several of them trussed and -dressed like wild geese, and served up at table under that name. The -guests approved greatly of the bird, and compared it to hare, the -resemblance being further increased by the dark colour of the flesh. -There was not the slightest fishy flavour about the bird. This, -however, is apt to be found in the older birds, but can be removed by -burying them in the earth for several days, just as is done with the -solan goose and one or two other sea-birds. - -Several species of Heron inhabit Palestine, of which the common Heron -(_Ardea cinerea_), with which we are so familiar in England, is -perhaps the most plentiful; and it is to this bird that the -prohibition chiefly extends. But there were several other species of -the bird, as is implied by the language of the law, which prohibited -the Heron "after her kind." The Egrets are probably included in this -category; and, if the word _kippod_ be really the hedgehog, it is -tolerably certain that the bittern was included under the general term -Anâphah, which is given in the Authorized Version as Heron. The Jewish -Bible follows the same reading, but affixes the mark of doubt to the -word. - -The abundance of birds belonging to the Heron tribe is well shown by -some of the paintings and carvings on Egyptian monuments, in which -various species of Herons and other water-birds are depicted as living -among the papyrus reeds, exactly the locality in which they are most -plentiful at the present day. - -Unlike the bittern, the Heron is a most sociable bird, and loves not -only to live, but even to feed, in company with others of its own -species. In Mr. Waterton's grounds, near Walton, I have watched the -Herons feeding in close proximity to each other. The birds were fond -of wading stealthily along the edge of the lake until they came to a -suitable spot, where they would stand immersed in the water up to the -thighs, waiting patiently for their prey. They stood as still as if -they were carved out of wood, the ripples of the lake reflected on -their plumage as the breeze ruffled the surface of the water. Suddenly -there would be a quick dive of the beak, either among the reeds or in -the water, and each stroke signified that the Heron had caught its -prey. - -Frogs and small fishes are the usual food of the Heron, though it -often grapples with larger prey, having been seen to capture an eel of -considerable size in its beak. Under such circumstances it leaves the -water, with the fish in its mouth, and beats it violently against a -stone so as to kill it. Now and then the bird is vanquished in the -struggle by the fish, several instances being known in which an eel, -in its endeavours to escape, has twisted itself so tightly round the -neck of the bird that both have been found lying dead on the shore. - -In one such case the Heron's beak had struck through the eyes of the -eel, so that the bird could not disengage itself. In another the Heron -had tried to swallow an eel which was much too large for it, and had -been nearly choked by its meal. The eel must necessarily have been a -very large one, as the Heron has a wonderful capacity for devouring -fish. Even when quite young, it can swallow a fish as large as a -herring, and when it is full grown it will eat four or five large -herrings at a meal. - -Now when we remember that an Englishman of average appetite finds one -herring to form a very sufficient breakfast, we can easily imagine -what must be the digestive power of a bird which, though very inferior -to man in point of bulk, can eat four times as much at a meal. Even -though the fish be much larger in diameter than the neck of the bird, -the Heron can swallow it as easily as a small snake swallows a large -frog. The neck merely seems to expand as if it were made of -Indiarubber, the fish slips down, and the bird is ready for another. - -Generally the Herons feed after sunset, but I have frequently seen -them busily engaged in catching their prey in full daylight, when the -sunbeams were playing in the water so as to produce the beautiful -rippling effect on the Heron's plumage which has already been -mentioned. - -The Heron does not restrict itself to fishes or reptiles, but, like -the bittern, feeds on almost any kind of aquatic animal which comes -within its reach. When it lives near tidal rivers, it feeds largely on -the shrimps, prawns, green crabs, and various other crustacea; and -when it lives far inland, it still makes prey of the fresh-water -shrimps, the water-beetles, and the boat-flies, and similar aquatic -creatures. In fact, it acts much after the fashion of the lions, -tigers, and leopards, which put up with locusts and beetles when they -can find no larger prey. - -The long beak of the Heron is not merely an instrument by which it can -obtain food, but is also a weapon of considerable power. When -attacked, it aims a blow at the eye of its opponent, and makes the -stroke with such rapidity that the foe is generally blinded before -perceiving the danger. When domesticated, it has been known to keep -possession of the enclosure in which it lived, and soon to drive away -dogs by the power of its beak. When it is young, it is quite helpless, -its very long legs being unable to support its body, which is entirely -bare of plumage, and has a very unprepossessing appearance. - -The flight of the Heron is very powerful, its wings being very large -in proportion to its slender body. Sometimes the bird takes to -ascending in a spiral line, and then the flight is as beautiful as it -is strong. When chased by the falcon it mostly ascends in this manner, -each of the two birds trying to rise above the other. - -The nest of the Heron is always made on the top of some lofty tree, -whenever the bird builds in places where trees can be found; and as -the bird is an eminently sociable one, a single nest is very seldom -found, the Heron being as fond of society as the rook. In England the -heronries are invariably found in clumps of trees, the nests of the -birds being quite close together. In some parts of Palestine, however, -where trees are very scarce, the Heron is obliged to choose some other -locality for its nest, and in that case prefers the great thickets of -papyrus reeds which are found in the marshes, and which are even more -inaccessible than the tops of trees. - -One of these marshes is well described by Mr. Tristram in his "Land of -Israel." "The whole marsh is marked in the map as impassable; and most -truly it is so. I never anywhere have met with a swamp so vast and -utterly impenetrable. First there is an ordinary bog, which takes one -up to one's knees in water; then, after half a mile, a belt of deeper -swamp, where the yellow water lily (_Nuphar lutea_) flourishes; then a -belt of tall reeds; the open water covered with white water-lily -(_Nymphæa alba_); and beyond again an impenetrable wilderness of -papyrus (_Papyrus antiquorum_), in the beautiful forest of which Dr. -Thomson has not recognised the celebrated material of Egypt, though he -has well described it under its Arabic name, 'babeer' ("Land and -Book," 259). - -"The papyrus extends right across to the east side. A false step off -its roots will take the intruder over head in suffocating peat-mud. We -spent a long time in attempting to effect an entrance, and at last -gave it up, satisfied that the marsh birds were not to be had. In -fact, the whole is simply a floating bog of several miles square; a -very thin crust of vegetation covers an unknown depth of water; and, -if the explorer breaks through this, suffocation is imminent. Some of -the Arabs, who were tilling the plain for cotton, assured us that even -a wild boar never got through it. We shot two bitterns, but in -endeavouring to retrieve them I slipped from the root on which I was -standing, and was drawn down in a moment, only saving myself from -drowning by my gun, which had providentially caught across a papyrus -stem." - -It may here be mentioned that the bulrush of Scripture is undoubtedly -the papyrus. The ark or basket of bulrushes, lined with slime and -pitch, in which Moses was laid, was made of the papyrus, which at the -present day is used for the manufacture of baskets, mats, sandals, and -for the thatching of houses. Many tribes which inhabit the banks of -the Nile make simple boats, or rather rafts, of the papyrus, which -they cut and tie in bundles; and it is worthy of notice that the -Australian native makes a reed boat in almost exactly the same manner. - -Compare Is. xviii. 1, 2: "Woe to the land shadowing with wings, which -is beyond the rivers of Ethiopia. - -"That sendeth ambassadors by the sea, even in vessels of bulrushes." -Did we not know that vessels are actually made of bulrushes at the -present day, a custom which has survived from very ancient times, we -might find a difficulty in understanding this passage, while the -meaning is intelligible enough when it is viewed by the light of the -knowledge that the Ethiopian of the present day takes gold, and ivory, -and other merchandise down the Nile in his boat of papyrus (or -bulrush) reeds tied together. - -The papyrus runs from ten to fifteen or sixteen feet in height, so -that the Herons are at no loss for suitable spots whereon to place -their nests. The name "papyrus," from which our word "paper" is -derived, is nothing more than a Latinized form of the old Arabic name -"babeer." It is never found except in muddy and swampy places such as -those which have already been mentioned. Thus we have in Job viii. 11 -a reference to this quality of the papyrus: "Can the rush grow up -without mire? can the flag grow without water?" - - -The Egrets, which are probably included under the generic title of -Anâphah, are birds of passage, and at the proper season are plentiful -in Palestine. These pretty birds much resemble the heron in general -form, and in general habits both birds are very much alike, haunting -the marshes and edges of lakes and streams, and feeding upon the frogs -and other inhabitants of the water. In countries where rice is -cultivated, the Egret may generally be seen in the artificial swamps -in which that plant is sown. The colour of the Egret is pure white, -with the exception of the train. This consists of a great number of -long slender feathers of a delicate straw colour. Like those which -form the train of the peacock, they fall over the feathers of the -tail, and entirely conceal them. The train of the Egret is highly -valued in the East, brushes being made of them wherewith flies can be -driven away, or delicate articles dusted. As the bird is a very shy -and wary one, these feathers cannot be easily procured, especially as -they do not make their appearance until the bird has reached its third -year, and had time to learn the signs of approaching danger. The Egret -is rather larger than the heron, a full-grown specimen measuring about -four feet in length, whereas the heron is scarcely more than a yard in -total length. The train-feathers of the Egret add, however, to the -apparent size of the bird. - - - - -THE CRANE. - - Various passages in which the Crane is mentioned--Its migratory - habits, and loud voice--Geographical range of the Crane--The - bird once plentiful in the fen districts of England--Its - favourite roosting-places--Size of the Crane, and measurement of - the wings--The Crane once used as food--Plumes of the Crane and - their use--Structure of the vocal organs--Nest and eggs of the - Crane. - - -In the description of the dove and the swallow two passages have been -quoted in which the name of the CRANE is mentioned, one referring to -its voice, and the other to its migratory instinct. The first passage -occurs in Isa. xxxviii. 14: "Like a crane or swallow, so did I -chatter;" and the other in Jer. viii. 7: "The turtle and the crane and -the swallow observe the time of their coming." - -It is rather remarkable that in both these cases the word "Crane" is -used in connexion with the swallow, or rather the swift, and that in -both instances the names of the birds should have been interchanged. -If we refer to the original of these passages, we shall find that the -former of them would run thus, "Like a _sis_ or an _agur_" and the -latter thus, "The turtle and the _sis_ and the _agur_." That in these -passages the interpretation of the words _sis_ and _agur_ have been -interchanged has already been mentioned, and, as the former has been -described under the name of swallow or swift, we shall now treat of -the latter under the title of Crane. - - [Illustration: THE CRANE. - - "_Like a crane ... so did I chatter._"--ISA. xxxviii. 14.] - -The species here mentioned is the common Crane (_Grus cinerea_), a -bird which has a very wide range, and has occasionally made its -appearance in one or two parts of Great Britain. In Ireland it is -thought to be common, but in that country the word Crane is simply a -popular misnomer for the heron. As is the case with many wild birds, -especially those of the larger kinds, the Crane appears to have been a -much more frequent visitor of our shores than can be the case in the -present day, when the land is thickly populated, and not a strange -bird can show itself without running the risk of being shot. - -As might be imagined, the Cranes favoured the great fen-districts of -England, especially those of Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire, where it -used to be found in large flocks. That in those days it bred in -England is evident from Acts of Parliament in the reigns of Henry -VIII. and Edward VI., in which reigns the taking of a Crane's egg was -punished with a fine of twenty pence, in those days a considerable -sum, being nearly four times the average daily wages of a working man. -A small flock of Cranes was seen in Zetland in 1807, but at the -present time drainage, cultivation, and house-building have as -effectually extirpated the gregarious Crane as the solitary bittern. - -The Crane performs its annual migrations in company, vast flocks of -many thousand individuals passing like great clouds at an immense -height, whence their trumpet-like cry is audible for a great distance -round, and attracts the ear if not the eye to them. Thus we have at a -glance both the characteristics to which reference is made in the -Scriptures, namely, the noisy cry and the habit of migration. - -It is a very gregarious bird, associating with its comrades in flocks, -just as do the starlings and rooks of our own country, and, like these -birds, has favourite roosting-places in which it passes the night. -When evening approaches, the Cranes may be seen in large flocks -passing to their roosting-places, and, on account of their great size, -having a very strange effect. A fair-sized Crane will measure seven -feet across the expanded wings, so that even a solitary bird has a -very imposing effect when flying, while that of a large flock of -Cranes on the wing is simply magnificent. - -The spots which the Crane selects for its roosting-places are -generally of the same character. Being in some respects a wary bird, -though it is curiously indifferent in others, it will not roost in any -place near bushes, rocks, or other spots which might serve to conceal -an enemy. The locality most favoured by the Crane is a large, smooth, -sloping bank, far from any spot wherein an enemy may be concealed. The -birds keep a careful watch during the night, and it is impossible for -any foe to approach them without being discovered. The Crane is noisy -on the wing, and, whether it be soaring high over head on its long -migratory journeys, or be merely flying at dusk to its roosting-place, -it continually utters its loud, clangorous cry. - -The food of the Crane is much like that of the heron, but in addition -to the frogs, fish, worms, and insects, it eats vegetable substances. -Sometimes it is apt to get into cultivated grounds, and then does much -damage to the crops, pecking up the ground with its long beak, partly -for the sake of the worms, grubs, and other creatures, and partly for -the sake of the sprouting seeds. - -Although by reason of its scarcity the Crane has been abandoned as -food, its flesh is really excellent, and in former days was valued -very highly, and was looked upon much in the same light as grouse or -blackcock by ourselves at the present day. The two facts, that it was -once comparatively plentiful and that it was highly valued for the -table, are shown by an old record of the banquet following the -enthronization of an Archbishop of Canterbury, at which two hundred -and four Cranes were served at table. Even in those days the bird was -a very valuable one, the average cost exceeding three shillings, so -that none but the wealthy could indulge in such a luxury. - -Like the egret, the Crane is remarkable for the flowing plumes of the -back, which fall over the tail feathers, and form a train. These -feathers are much used as plumes, both for purposes of dress and as -brushes or flappers wherewith to drive off the flies. By reason of -this conformation, some systematic zoologists have thought that it has -some affinity to the ostrich, the rhoea, and similar birds, and that -the resemblance is strengthened by the structure of the digestive -organs, which are suited to vegetable as well as animal substances, -the stomach being strong and muscular. - -The peculiar voice of the Crane, which it is so fond of using, and to -which reference is made in the Scriptures, is caused by a peculiar -structure of the windpipe, which is exceedingly long, and, instead of -going straight to the lungs, undergoes several convolutions about the -breast-bone, and then proceeds to the lungs. - -The Crane makes its nest on low ground, generally among osiers or -reeds, and it lays only two eggs, pale olive in colour, dashed -profusely with black and brown streaks. - - - - -THE STORK. - - Signification of the Hebrew word _Chasidah_--Various passages in - which it is mentioned--The Chasidah therefore a large, - wide-winged, migratory bird--Its identification with the - Stork--Derivation of its Hebrew name--The Stork always - protected--Uses of the tail--Its mode of quartering the ground - in search of food--Migratory habits of the Stork--Nesting of the - bird, and its favourite localities--The fir-trees of - Palestine--Love of the Stork for its young. - - -In the Old Testament there are several passages wherein is mentioned -the word _Chasidah_. We will take these passages in their order. In -the first place, we find that the Chasidah is enumerated in Lev. xi. -19 among the unclean creatures: "And the stork, the heron after her -kind, and the lapwing, and the bat." The parallel passage in Deut. -xiv. 18 has precisely the same words. Next we have the passage in Job -xxxix. 13: "Gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks? or the -feathers of the chasidah and ostrich?" (marginal reading.) Next we -come to Ps. civ. 16, 17: "The trees of the Lord are full of sap; the -cedars of Lebanon, which He hath planted. - -"Where the birds make their nests: as for the chasidah, the fir-trees -are her house." - -Passing to the prophets, we find that Jeremiah uses the same word -(viii. 7): "Yea, the chasidah in the heaven knoweth her appointed -times; and the turtle and the crane and the swallow observe the time -of their coming; but my people know not the judgment of the Lord." - -The last mention of the word occurs in Zech. v. 9: "Then lifted I up -mine eyes, and looked, and, behold, there came out two women, and the -wind was in their wings; (for they had wings like the wings of a -chasidah;) and they lifted up the ephah between the earth and the -heaven." - -We learn from these passages that, in the first place, the Chasidah -was certainly a bird, as it is mentioned in connexion with other -birds, and is said to have wings and feathers. Our next business is to -find out what particular bird is meant by the Chasidah. It is evident -from the passage in Jeremiah that it is a migratory bird; from that in -the Psalms, that it builds its nest upon a fir-tree; and from those in -Job and Zechariah, that it is a large-winged bird. These details very -much narrow the question, which is still further limited by the fact -that we have already identified the crane and the heron. - -The Authorized Version invariably renders the word Chasidah as -"Stork," and is undoubtedly right; though the Septuagint has no less -than four different translations, reading it as "heron" in one place, -"pelican" in another, "hoopoe" in another, and in the fourth instance -leaving the word untranslated, but Græcized into the form of _asida_. -It would have been better if the last-mentioned plan had been followed -throughout. - -There is, however, no doubt that the Authorized Version is perfectly -correct; and it is followed by the Jewish Bible, in which no mark of -doubt is affixed to the word. - -In Buxtorf's Lexicon there is a curious derivation of the word. He -says that the word _Chasidah_ is derived from _chesed_, a word that -signifies benevolence. This word is used in many familiar passages; -such as, "unworthy of all the _benefits_," "according to the multitude -of Thy _mercies_," "exercising _pity_," and so forth. - -According to some writers, the name was given to the Stork because it -was supposed to be a bird remarkable for its filial piety; "for the -storks in their turn support their parents in their old age: they -allow them to rest their necks on their bodies during migration, and, -if the elders are tired, the young ones take them on their backs." -According to others, the name is given to the Stork because it -exercises kindness towards its companions in bringing them food; but -in all cases the derivation of the word is acknowledged to be the -same. - -Partly in consequence of this idea, which is a very old and almost -universal one, and partly on account of the great services rendered by -the bird in clearing the ground of snakes, insects, and garbage, the -Stork has always been protected through the East, as it is to the -present day in several parts of Europe. The slaughter of a Stork, or -even the destruction of its eggs, would be punished with a heavy fine; -and in consequence of the immunity which it enjoys, it loves to haunt -the habitations of mankind. - -In many of the Continental towns, where sanitary regulations are not -enforced, the Stork serves the purpose of a scavenger, and may be seen -walking about the market-place, waiting for the offal of fish, fowls, -and the like, which are simply thrown on the ground for the Storks to -eat. In Eastern lands the Stork enjoys similar privileges, and we may -infer that the bird was perfectly familiar both to the writers of the -various Scriptural books in which it was mentioned, and to the people -for whom these books were intended. - -When they settle upon a tract of ground, the Storks divide it among -themselves in a manner that seems to have a sort of system in it, -spreading themselves over it with wonderful regularity, each bird -appearing to take possession of a definite amount of ground. By this -mode of proceeding, the ground is rapidly cleared of all vermin; the -Storks examining their allotted space with the keenest scrutiny, and -devouring every reptile, mouse, worm, grub, or insect that they can -find on it. Sometimes they will spread themselves in this manner over -a vast extent of country, arriving suddenly, remaining for several -months, and departing without giving any sign of their intention to -move. - -The wings of the Stork, which are mentioned in Holy Writ, are very -conspicuous, and are well calculated to strike an imaginative mind. -The general colour of the bird is white, while the quill feathers of -the wings are black; so that the effect of the spread wings is very -striking, an adult bird measuring about seven feet across, when -flying. As the body, large though it may be, is comparatively light -when compared with the extent of wing, the flight is both lofty and -sustained, the bird flying a very great height, and, when migrating, -is literally the "stork in the heavens." - -Next we come to the migratory habits of the Stork. - -Like the swallow, the Stork resorts year after year to the same -spots; and when it has once fixed on a locality for its nest, that -place will be assuredly taken as regularly as the breeding-season -comes round. The same pair are sure to return to their well-known -home, notwithstanding the vast distances over which they pass, and the -many lands in which they sojourn. Should one of the pair die, the -other finds a mate in a very short time, and thus the same home is -kept up by successive generations of Storks, much as among men one -ancestral mansion is inhabited by a series of members of the same -family. - -So well is this known, that when a pair of Storks have made their nest -in a human habitation their return is always expected, and when they -arrive the absentees are welcomed on all sides. In many countries -breeding-places are specially provided for the Storks; and when one of -them is occupied for the first time, the owner of the house looks upon -it as a fortunate omen. - -The localities chosen by the Stork for its nest vary according to the -surrounding conditions. The foundation which a Stork requires is a -firm platform, the more elevated the better, but the bird seems to -care little whether this platform be on rocks, buildings, or trees. -If, for example, it builds its nest in craggy places, far from the -habitations of man, it selects some flat ledge for the purpose, -preferring those that are at the extreme tops of the rocks. The summit -of a natural pinnacle is a favourite spot with the Stork. - -In many cases the Stork breeds among old ruins, and under such -circumstances it is fond of building its nest on the tops of pillars -or towers, the summits of arches, and similar localities. When it -takes up its abode among mankind, it generally selects the -breeding-places which have been built for it by those who know its -taste, but it frequently chooses the top of a chimney, or some such -locality. - -Sometimes, however, it is obliged to build in spots where it can find -neither rocks nor buildings, and in such cases it builds on trees, -and, like the heron, is sociable in its nesting, a whole community -residing in a clump of trees. It is not very particular about the kind -of tree, provided that it be tolerably tall, and strong enough to bear -the weight of its enormous nest; and the reader will at once see that -the fir-trees are peculiarly fitted to be the houses for the Stork. - -As is the case with so many zoological words, botanical names seem to -be frequently used in a collective sense by the scriptural writers, -several species being signified by a single name. Thus the word which -is in some cases translated as "fir," is in some rendered as -"pine-tree," in others as "juniper," and in others as "cypress." In -the present case it is undoubtedly translated rightly, though in the -Jewish Bible it is rendered as "cypress:" "The trees of the Eternal -satisfy themselves, the cedars of Lebanon which He hath planted; where -birds make their nests: as for the stork, cypresses are its house." - -The particular species of fir-tree to which the Psalmist alludes is -probably the Aleppo pine (_Pinus halepensis_), which comes next to the -great cedars of Lebanon in point of size. It was this tree that -furnished the timber and planks for Solomon's temple and palace, a -timber which was evidently held in the greatest estimation. This tree -fulfils all the conditions which a Stork would require in -nest-building. It is lofty, and its boughs are sufficiently horizontal -to form a platform for the nest, and strong enough to sustain it. On -account of its value, and the reckless manner in which it has been cut -down without new plantations being formed, the Aleppo pine has -vanished from many parts of Palestine wherein it was formerly common, -and would afford a dwelling-place for the Stork. - -There are, however, several other species of fir which are common in -various parts of the country, each species flourishing in the soil -best suited to it, so that the Stork would never be at a loss to find -a nesting-place in a country which furnished so many trees suitable to -its purposes. - -As may be expected from the localities chosen by the Stork for its -breeding-place, its nest is very large and heavy. It is constructed -with very little skill, and is scarcely more than a huge quantity of -sticks, reeds, and similar substances, heaped together, and having in -the middle a slight depression in which the eggs are laid. These eggs -are usually three, or perhaps four in number, and now and then a fifth -is seen, and are of a very pale buff or cream colour. - - [Illustration: THE STORK. - - "As for the stork, the fir-trees are her house."--PS. civ. 17.] - -As is the case with the heron, the young of the Stork are quite -helpless when hatched, and are most ungainly little beings, with their -long legs doubled under them, unable to sustain their round and almost -naked bodies, while their large beaks are ever gaping for food. -Those of my readers who have had young birds of any kind must -have noticed the extremely grotesque appearance which they -possess when they hold up their heads and cry for food, with their -bills open to an almost incredible extent. In such birds as the Stork, -the heron, and others of the tribe, the grotesque appearance is -exaggerated in proportion to the length and gape of the bill. - -The Stork is noted for being a peculiarly kind and loving parent to -its young, in that point fully deserving the derivation of its Hebrew -name, though its love manifests itself towards the young, and not -towards the parent. - -The Rev. H. B. Tristram mentions from personal experience an instance -of the watchful care exercised by the Stork over its young. "The -writer was once in camp near an old ruined tower in the plains of -Zana, south of the Atlas, where a pair of storks had their nest. The -four young might often be seen from a little distance, surveying the -prospect from their lonely height, but whenever any of the human party -happened to stroll near the tower, one of the old storks, invisible -before, would instantly appear, and, lighting on the nest, put its -feet gently on the necks of all the young, so as to hold them down out -of sight till the stranger had passed, snapping its bill meanwhile, -and assuming a grotesque air of indifference, as unconscious of there -being anything under its charge." (Smith's "Dict. Bible," vol. iii. p. -1384.) - -The snapping noise which is here mentioned is the only sound produced -by the Stork, which is an absolutely silent bird, as far as voice is -concerned. - - -There is another species of Stork found in Palestine, to which the -fir-trees are especially a home. This is the Black Stork (_Ciconia -nigra_), which in some parts of the country is even more plentiful -than its white relative, which it resembles in almost every -particular, except that it has a dark head and back, the feathers -being glossed with purple and green like those of the magpie. This -species, which is undoubtedly included in the Hebrew word _chasidah_, -always makes its nest on trees whenever it can find them, and in some -of the more densely wooded parts of Palestine is in consequence -plentiful, placing its nest in the deepest parts of the forests. When -it cannot obtain trees, it will build its nest on rocky ledges. It -lays two or three eggs of a greenish white colour. - -Like the preceding species, the Black Stork is easily domesticated. -Colonel Montague kept one which was very tame, and would follow its -keeper like a dog. Its tameness enabled its proceedings to be closely -watched, and its mode of feeding was thereby investigated. It was fond -of examining the rank grass and mud for food, and while doing so -always kept its bill a little open, so as to pounce down at once on -any insect or reptile that it might disturb. - -Eels were its favourite food, and it was such an adept at catching -them that it was never seen to miss one, no matter how small or quick -it might be. As soon as it had caught one of these active fish, it -went to some dry place, and then disabled its prey by shaking and -beating it against the ground before swallowing it, whereas many birds -that feed on fish swallow their prey as soon as it is caught. The -Stork was never seen to swim as the heron sometimes does, but it would -wade as long as it could place its feet on the bed of the stream, and -would strain its head and the whole of its neck under water in -searching for fish. - -It was of a mild and peaceable disposition, and, even if angered, did -not attempt to bite or strike with its beak, but only denoted its -displeasure by blowing the air sharply from its lungs, and nodding its -head repeatedly. After the manner of Storks, it always chose an -elevated spot on which to repose, and took its rest standing on one -leg, with its head so sunk among the feathers of its shoulders that -scarcely any part of it was visible, the hinder part of the head -resting on the back, and the bill lying on the fore-part of the neck. - -Though the bird is so capable of domestication, it does not of its own -accord haunt the dwellings of men, like the White Stork, but avoids -the neighbourhood of houses, and lives in the most retired places it -can find. It may generally be seen in marshy grounds, spending the -greater part of its time in procuring food, or in going to and from -its nest while engaged in the task of feeding its young. - - - - -THE SWAN. - - Signification of the word _Tinshemeth_--The Gallinule and the - Ibis--Appearance and habits of the Hyacinthine Gallinule--A - strange use for the bird--The White or Sacred Ibis--The bird - mentioned by Herodotus--The Glossy Ibis, or Black - Ibis--Veneration with which the bird was regarded. - - -In the two parallel chapters of Lev. xi. 18 and Deut. xiv. 16, the -Hebrew word _tinshemeth_ is found, and evidently signifies some kind -of bird which was forbidden as food. After stating (Lev. xi. 13) that -"these are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls; -they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination," the sacred lawgiver -proceeds to enumerate a number of birds, nearly all of which have -already been described. Among them occurs the name of _tinshemeth_, -between the great owl and the pelican. - -What was the precise species of bird which was signified by this name -it is impossible to say, but there is no doubt that it could not have -been the Swan, according to the rendering of the Authorized Version. -The Swan is far too rare a bird in Palestine to have been specially -mentioned in the law of Moses, and in all probability it was totally -unknown to the generality of the Israelites. Even had it been known to -them, and tolerably common, there seems to be no reason why it should -have been reckoned among the list of unclean birds. - -On turning to the Hebrew Bible, we find that the word is left -untranslated, and simply given in its Hebrew form, thereby signifying -that the translators could form no opinion whatever of the proper -rendering of the word. The Septuagint translates the Tinshemeth as the -Porphyrio or Ibis, and the Vulgate follows the same rendering. Later -naturalists have agreed that the Septuagint and Vulgate have the far -more probable reading; and, as two birds are there mentioned, they -will be both described. - - [Illustration: IBIS AND GALLINULE (SWAN OF SCRIPTURES). - - "_These are they of which ye shall not eat ... the little owl, and the - great owl, and the swan._" DEUT. xiv. 12, 16.] - -The first is the Porphyrio, by which we may understand the HYACINTHINE -GALLINULE (_Porphyrio veterum_). All the birds of this group are -remarkable for the enormous length of their toes, by means of which -they are enabled to walk upon the loose herbage that floats on the -surface of the water as firmly as if they were treading on land. Their -feet are also used, like those of the parrots, in conveying food to -the mouth. We have in England a very familiar example of the -Gallinules in the common water-hen, or moor-hen, the toes of which are -of great proportionate length, though not so long as those of the -Purple Gallinule, which almost rivals in this respect the jacanas of -South America and China. The water-rail, and corncrake or land-rail, -are also allied to the Gallinules. - -The Hyacinthine Gallinule derives its name from its colour, which is a -rich and variable blue, taking a turquoise hue on the head, neck, -throat, and breast, and deep indigo on the back. The large bill and -the legs are red. Like many other birds, however, it varies much in -colour according to age. - -It has a very wide geographical range, being found in many parts of -Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is common in the marshy districts of -Palestine, where its rich blue plumage and its large size, equalling -that of a duck, render it very conspicuous. The large and powerful -bill of this bird betokens the nature of its food, which consists -almost entirely of hard vegetable substances, the seeds of aquatic -herbage forming a large portion of its diet. When it searches for food -on the seashore, it eats the marine vegetation, mixing with this diet -other articles of an animal nature, such as molluscs and small -reptiles. - -Though apparently a clumsy bird, it moves with wonderful speed, -running not only swiftly but gracefully, its large feet being no -hindrance to the rapidity of its movements. It is mostly found in -shallow marshes, where the construction of its feet enables it to -traverse both the soft muddy ground and the patches of firm earth with -equal ease. Its wings, however, are by no means equal to its legs -either in power or activity; and, like most of the rail tribe, it -never takes to the air unless absolutely obliged to do so. - -The nest of the Hyacinthine Gallinule is made on the sedge-patches -which dot the marshes, much like that of the coot. The nest, too, -resembles that of the coot, being composed of reeds, sedges, and other -aquatic plants. The eggs are three or four in number, white in colour, -and nearly spherical in form. - -The ancients were well acquainted with the Hyacinthine Gallinule, and -were in the habit of keeping it tamed in their houses, in which case -it was prized by the men and hated by the women. There was a popular -idea about the bird that it always detected any infidelity on the part -of the female sex, and that when the master of the house came home the -bird acquainted him with the crime by making gestures as if it wished -to strangle itself. - -There are several species of Gallinule, but that which has just been -described is the most conspicuous, and therefore, if either of the -Gallinules be the Tinshemeth of the Jewish lawgiver, we may safely -conclude that the Hyacinthine Gallinule is the species. - - -As, however, the Ibis has an equal claim to the title of Tinshemeth, -we will devote a few lines to a description of the bird. The -particular species which would be signified by the word _tinshemeth_ -would undoubtedly be the WHITE or SACRED IBIS (_Ibis religiosa_), a -bird which derives its name of Sacred from the reverence with which it -was held by the ancient Egyptians, and the frequency with which its -figure occurs in the monumental sculptures. It was also thought worthy -of being embalmed, and many mummies of the Ibis have been found in the -old Egyptian burial-places, having been preserved for some three -thousand years. - -In his account of the various animals which were accounted sacred by -the Egyptians, Herodotus mentions the Ibis, mixing up a considerable -amount of truth with a few errors, and a good deal of superstition. -Having heard of the relics of some winged serpents near the city of -Buto, he went to see them. "When I arrived there I saw bones and -spines of serpents, in such quantities as it would be impossible to -describe: there were heaps of these spinal bones, some large, some -smaller, and some still less, and there were great numbers of them. - -"The place in which these spinal bones lie scattered is of the -following description:--It is a narrow pass between two mountains into -a spacious plain; this plain is contiguous to the plain of Egypt. It -is reported that, at the beginning of spring, winged serpents fly from -Arabia towards Egypt; but that the ibises, a sort of bird, meet them -at the pass, and do not allow the serpents to go by, but kill them. -For this service the Arabians say that the ibis is highly reverenced -by the Egyptians, and the Egyptians acknowledge that they reverence -these birds for this reason. - -"The ibis is of the following description. It is all over a deep -black, it has the legs of a crane, its beak is much curved, and it is -about the size of a _crex_. Such is the form of the black ones that -fight with the serpents. But those that are commonly conversant among -men (for there are two species) are bare on the head and the whole -neck; have white plumage, except on the head, the throat, and the tips -of the wings and extremity of the tail. In all these parts that I have -mentioned they are of a deep black; in their legs and back they are -like the other kind." (Herod. "Euterpe," 75, 76, Cary's translation.) - -Putting aside the mention of the winged serpents, of which he only -learned by hearsay, we find that Herodotus has given a very fair -account of two species of Ibis,--namely, the GLOSSY or GREEN IBIS -(_Ibis falcinellus_), and the White or Sacred Ibis, whose scientific -names have already been given. - -The Glossy Ibis has been known to come as far as the British shores, -but it requires a much warmer climate than that of England in order to -pass its life in a state of health. It has, however, a large -geographical range, being found both in Northern Africa and Southern -America. It derives its popular name from the rich glossy plumage, -which shines with a metallic or rather a silken lustre that is -singularly beautiful in life, and is with great difficulty preserved -in stuffed specimens. - -The principal hue of the bird is very deep green, but it is so "shot" -with reflections of rich purple, blue, and gold, that it alters its -hue with every change of light. At a little distance the deep green -plumage looks quite black, as does that of the magpie, and on this -account it has been called by Herodotus the Black Ibis. - -This species is popularly called Abou Menzel, or Father Sickle-bill, -on account of its slender curved beak, and in some places goes by the -name of Abou Hannes, or Father John, because it makes its appearance -upon or about St. John's Day. From all appearance, it does not feed -upon snakes, seeming to restrict itself to molluscs and similar food; -and, on account of this discrepancy with the account given by -Herodotus, many writers have doubted whether it could really be the -bird meant by that historian and traveller. But we must remember that, -though he saw both the black and the white Ibis, he did not see -either of them eat snakes; and as those who told him of their -serpent-devouring habits stated at the same time that the snakes had -wings like those of the bat, we may summarily dismiss their account -from the argument. - -The White Ibis, however, is the bird which was most highly venerated -by the Egyptians, and probably for that very reason was placed among -the list of prohibited birds in the ancient law. It is about as large -as an ordinary hen, and, as its name imports, has the greater part of -its plumage white, the ends of the wing-feathers and the coverts being -black, with violet reflections. The long neck is black and bare, and -has a most curious aspect, looking as if it were made of an old black -kid glove, very much crumpled, but still retaining its gloss. - -The reason for the extreme veneration with which the bird was regarded -by the ancient Egyptians seems rather obscure. It is probable, -however, that the partial migration of the bird was connected in their -minds with the rise of the Nile, a river as sacred to the old -Egyptians as the Ganges to the modern Hindoo. As soon as the water -begins to rise, the Ibis makes its appearance, sometimes alone, and -sometimes in small troops. It haunts the banks of the river, and -marshy places in general, diligently searching for food by the aid of -its long bill. It can fly well and strongly, and it utters at -intervals a rather loud cry, dipping its head at every utterance. -Specimens of these birds can be seen at the Zoological Gardens. - - - - -THE CORMORANT. - - The word _Shâlâk_ and its signification--The Greek - Catarrhactes--Habits of the Cormorant--The bird trained to catch - fish--Mode of securing its prey--Nests and eggs of the - Cormorant--Nesting in fir-trees--Flesh of the bird. - - -Although in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures the word -Cormorant occurs three times, there is no doubt that in two of the -passages the Hebrew word ought to have been rendered as Pelican, as we -shall see when we come presently to the description of that bird. - -In the two parallel passages, Lev. xi. 17 and Deut. xiv. 17, a -creature called the Shâlâk is mentioned in the list of prohibited -meats. That the Shâlâk must be a bird is evident from the context, and -we are therefore only left to discover what sort of bird it may be. On -looking at the etymology of the word we find that it is derived from -a root which signifies hurling or casting down, and we may therefore -presume that the bird is one which plunges or sweeps down upon its -prey. - -All Hebraists have agreed that it is one of the sea-birds, and this -view of the case seems to be taken in the Septuagint, where the word -is rendered by Catarrhactes, a term that has the same derivation in -Greek as the Shâlâk in Hebrew. It is indeed the same word from which -we form our term "cataract," to express the manner in which the water -plunges or is hurled down from a height. - -In consequence of this derivation, several writers have thought that -the Shâlâk might be the Solan goose, or gannet, a bird which lives on -fish, and always takes its prey by darting down upon it from a height. -This bird, however, although it certainly answers completely to the -sense of the word _shâlâk_, is not common enough on the shores of -Palestine to be specially mentioned among the unclean birds. Other -writers, seeing this difficulty, have thought that the Shâlâk might be -one of the terns, or sea-swallows, forgetful of the fact that these -are not plunging birds, although exceedingly swift of flight. - -Weighing, however, the opinions of the various Hebraists and -naturalists, we may safely determine that the word _shâlâk_ has been -rightly translated in the Authorized Version. The Hebrew Bible gives -the same reading, and does not affix the mark of doubt to the word, -though there are very few of the long list of animals in Lev. xi. and -Deut. xiv. which are not either distinguished by the mark of doubt, -or, like the Tinshemeth, are left untranslated. - -The Cormorant belongs to the family of the pelicans, the relationship -between them being evident to the most unpractised eye; and the whole -structure of the bird shows its admirable adaptation for the life -which it leads. - -Its long beak enables it to seize even a large fish, while the hook at -the end prevents the slippery prey from escaping. The long snake-like -neck gives the bird the power of darting its beak with great rapidity, -and at the same time allows it to seize prey immediately to the right -or left of its course. Its strong, closely-feathered wings enable it -to fly with tolerable speed, while at the same time they can be closed -so tightly to the body that they do not hinder the progress of the -bird through the water; while the tail serves equally when spread to -direct its course through the air, and when partially or entirely -closed to act as a rudder in the water. Lastly, its short powerful -legs, with their broadly-webbed feet, act as paddles, by which the -bird urges itself through the water with such wonderful speed that it -can overtake and secure the fishes even in their own element. Besides -these outward characteristics, we find that the bird is able to make a -very long stay under water, the lungs being adapted so as to contain a -wonderful amount of air. - -The method of catching prey which is practised by the Cormorant is -familiar to us from the fact that the Cormorant has been trained to -play the same part in the water as the falcon in the air, and has been -taught to catch fish, and bring them ashore for its master. So adroit -are they, that if one of them should catch a fish which is too heavy -for it another bird will come to its assistance, and the two together -will bring the struggling prey to land. Trained birds of this -description have been employed in China from time immemorial, and in -later years they have been re-introduced into England, where they have -often exhibited their really wonderful powers. - -In the days of Charles I. these birds were kept in training, and there -was attached to the Court a professed official, called the Kings -Master of the Cormorants. These birds were usually caught and trained -in Holland, and thence exported to England. The disturbed state of the -country during the civil wars, added to the sport-destroying character -of the Puritans, seems to have caused the sport to be abandoned in -this country, and it is only within the last few years that they have -been again employed. In order to prevent it from swallowing the fish -which it takes, each bird has a ring or ligature passed round its -neck. - -The Cormorant is a most voracious bird, swallowing a considerable -weight of fish at a meal, and digesting them so rapidly that it is -soon ready for another supply. Although it is essentially a marine -bird, hunger often takes it inland, especially to places where are -lakes or large rivers. Mr. Waterton mentions, in his "Essays on -Natural History," that the Cormorants often visited the lake at Walton -Hall, and that they soon became so familiar and fearless, that after -catching and eating their prey they would sit on the terrace and preen -their feathers under the windows of the drawing-room. - -The lake is by no means a large one, and it is probable that the birds -were attracted by the absolute security which was felt by every winged -creature within the domain. "His skill in diving," writes Mr. -Waterton, "is most admirable, and his success beyond belief. You may -know him at a distance, among a thousand water-fowl, by his upright -neck, by his body being apparently half immersed in the water, and by -his being perpetually in motion when not on land. - -"While the ducks and teal and widgeons are stationary on the pool, the -cormorant is seen swimming to and fro, as if in quest of something. -First raising his body nearly perpendicular, down he plunges into the -deep, and, after staying there a considerable time, he is sure to -bring up a fish, which he invariably swallows head foremost. Sometimes -half an hour elapses before he can manage to accommodate a large eel -quietly in his stomach. - -"You see him straining violently with repeated efforts to gulp it; and -when you fancy that the slippery mouthful is successfully disposed of, -all on a sudden the eel retrogrades upwards from its dismal sepulchre, -struggling violently to escape. The cormorant swallows it again, and -up again it comes, and shows its tail a foot or more out of its -destroyer's mouth. At length, worn out with ineffectual writhings and -slidings, the eel is gulped down into the cormorant's stomach for the -last time, there to meet its dreaded and inevitable fate." - -Mr. Fortune gives a somewhat similar account of the feeding of tame -Cormorants in China. The birds preferred eels to all other food, and, -in spite of the difficulty in swallowing the slippery and active -creature, would not touch another fish as long as an eel was left. The -bird is so completely at home in the water that it does not need, like -the heron and other aquatic birds, to bring its prey ashore in order -to swallow it, but can eat fish in the water as well as catch them. It -always seizes the fish crosswise, and is therefore obliged to turn it -before it can swallow the prey with the head downwards. Sometimes it -contrives to turn the fish while still under water, but, if it should -fail in so doing, it brings its prey to the surface, and shifts it -about in its bill, making a series of little snatches at it until the -head is in the right direction. When it seizes a very large fish, the -bird shakes its prey just as a dog shakes a rat, and so disables it. -It is said to eat its own weight of fish in a single day. - -Sometimes, when it has been very successful or exceptionally hungry, -it loads itself with food to such an extent that it becomes almost -insensible during the process of digestion, and, although naturally a -keen-eyed and wary bird, allows itself to be captured by hand. - -The nest of the Cormorant is always upon a rocky ledge, and generally -on a spot which is inaccessible except by practised climbers furnished -with ropes, poles, hooks, and other appurtenances. Mr. Waterton -mentions that when he descended the Raincliff, a precipice some four -hundred feet in height, he saw numbers of the nests and eggs, but -could not get at them except by swinging himself boldly off the face -of the cliff, so as to be brought by the return swing into the -recesses chosen by the birds. - -The nests are mostly placed in close proximity to each other, and are -made of sticks and seaweeds, and, as is usual with such nests, are -very inartificially constructed. The eggs are of a greenish white on -the outside, and green on the inside. When found in the nest, they are -covered with a sort of chalky crust, so that the true colour is not -perceptible until the crust is scraped off. Two to four eggs are -generally laid in, or rather on, each nest. As may be imagined from -the character of the birds' food, the odour of the nesting-place is -most horrible. - -Sometimes, when rocks cannot be found, the Cormorant is obliged to -select other spots for its nest. It is mentioned in the "Proceedings -of the Zoological Society," that upon an island in the midst of a -large lake there were a number of Scotch fir-trees, upon the branches -of which were about eighty nests of the Cormorant. - -The flesh of the Cormorant is very seldom eaten, as it has a fishy -flavour which is far from agreeable. To eat an old Cormorant is indeed -almost impossible, but the young birds may be rendered edible by -taking them as soon as killed, skinning them, removing the whole of -the interior, wrapping them in cloths, and burying them for some time -in the ground. - -From the account of this bird, the reader will see that it may well be -the Shâlâk of the Old Testament. Owing to its size and its peculiar -habits, it is a very conspicuous bird, and therefore likely to be -selected by name by the ancient lawgiver. And although its flesh is -not very agreeable, it can be eaten; and, as has been shown, can be -rendered tolerably palatable by a very simple process. The flesh of -the Solan goose is deprived in a similar manner of its naturally rank -and fishy flavour. - - - - -THE PELICAN. - - The Pelican of the wilderness--Attitudes of the bird--Its love - of solitude--Derivation of the Hebrew word--Fantastic - interpretation--Mode of feeding the young--Fables regarding the - Pelican--Breeding-places of the bird--The object of its wide - wings and large pouch--Colour of the Pelican. - - -On page 490 it has been mentioned that in two passages of Scripture, -the word which is translated in the Authorized Version as Cormorant, -ought to have been rendered as PELICAN. These, however, are not the -first passages in which we meet with the word _kaath_. The name occurs -in the two parallel passages of Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv. among the list -of birds which are proscribed as food. Passing over them, we next come -to Ps. cii. 6. In this passage, the sacred writer is lamenting his -misery: "By reason of the voice of my groaning my bones cleave to my -skin. - -"I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the -desert." - -In these sentences, we see that the Kaath was a bird of solitude that -was to be found in the "wilderness," _i.e._ far from the habitations -of man. This is one of the characteristics of the Pelican, which loves -not the neighbourhood of human beings, and is fond of resorting to -broad, uncultivated lands, where it will not be disturbed. - -In them it makes its nest and hatches its young, and to them it -retires after feeding, in order to digest in quiet the ample meal -which it has made. Mr. Tristram well suggests that the metaphor of the -Psalmist may allude to the habit common to the Pelican and its kin, of -sitting motionless for hours after it has gorged itself with food, its -head sunk on its shoulders, and its bill resting on its breast. - -This is but one of the singular, and often grotesque, attitudes in -which the Pelican is in the habit of indulging. - - [Illustration: THE PELICAN. - - "_I am like a pelican in the wilderness._"--PS. cii. 6.] - -There are before me a number of sketches made of the Pelicans at the -Zoological Gardens, and in no two cases does one attitude in the least -resemble another. In one sketch the bird is sitting in the attitude -which has just been described. In another it is walking, or rather -staggering, along, with its head on one side, and its beak so closed -that hardly a vestige of its enormous pouch can be seen. Another -sketch shows the same bird as it appeared when angry with a companion, -and scolding its foe in impotent rage; while another shows it basking -in the sun, with its magnificent wings spread and shaking in the warm -beams, and its pouch hanging in folds from its chin. - -One of the most curious of these sketches shows the bird squatting on -the ground, with its head drawn back as far as possible, and sunk so -far among the feathers of the back and shoulders that only a portion -of the head itself can be seen, while the long beak is hidden, except -an inch or two of the end. In this attitude it might easily be -mistaken at a little distance for an oval white stone. - -The derivation of the Hebrew word _kaath_ is a very curious one. It is -taken from a verb signifying "to vomit," and this derivation has been -explained in different ways. - -The early writers, who were comparatively ignorant of natural history, -thought that the Pelican lived chiefly on molluscs, and that, after -digesting the animals, it rejected their shells, just as the owl and -the hawk reject the bones, fur, and feathers of their prey. They -thought that the Pelican was a bird of a hot temperament, and that the -molluscs were quickly digested by the heat of the stomach: "conchas -enim, calore ventris coctas, rursus evomit, ut testis rejectis, -esculenta seligat." - -At the present day, however, knowing as we do the habits of the -Pelican, we find that, although the reasons just given are faulty, and -that the Pelican lives essentially on fish, and not on molluscs, the -derivation of the word is really a good one, and that those who gave -the bird the name of Kaath, or the vomiter, were well acquainted with -its habits. - -The bird certainly does eat molluscs, but the principal part of its -diet is composed of fish, which it catches dexterously by a sort of -sidelong snatch of its enormous bill. The skin under the lower part of -the beak is so modified that it can form, when distended, an enormous -pouch, capable of holding a great quantity of fish, though, as long as -it is not wanted, the pouch is so contracted into longitudinal folds -as to be scarcely perceptible. When it has filled the pouch, it -usually retires from the water, and flies to a retired spot, often -many miles inland, where it can sit and digest at its ease the -enormous meal which it has made. - -As it often chooses its breeding-places in similar spots, far from the -water, it has to carry the food with which it nourishes its young for -many miles. For this purpose it is furnished, not only with the pouch -which has been just mentioned, but with long, wide, and very powerful -wings, often measuring from twelve to thirteen feet from tip to tip. -No one, on looking at a Pelican as it waddles about or sits at rest, -would imagine the gigantic dimensions of the wings, which seem, as the -bird spreads them, to have almost as unlimited a power of expansion as -the pouch. - -In these two points the true Pelicans present a strong contrast to the -cormorants, though birds closely allied. The cormorant has its home -close by the sea, and therefore needs not to carry its food for any -distance. Consequently, it needs no pouch, and has none. Neither does -it require the great expanse of wing which is needful for the Pelican, -that has to carry such a weight of fish through the air. Accordingly, -the wings, though strong enough to enable the bird to carry for a -short distance a single fish of somewhat large size, are comparatively -short and closely feathered, and the flight of the cormorant possesses -neither the grace nor the power which distinguishes that of the -Pelican. - -When the Pelican feeds its young, it does so by pressing its beak -against its breast, so as to force out of it the enclosed fish. Now -the tip of the beak is armed, like that of the cormorant, with a -sharply-curved hook, only, in the case of the Pelican, the hook is of -a bright scarlet colour, looking, when the bird presses the beak -against the white feathers of the breast, like a large drop of blood. -Hence arose the curious legend respecting the Pelican, which -represented it as feeding its young with its own blood, and tearing -open its breast with its hooked bill. We find that this legend is -exemplified by the oft-recurring symbol of the "Pelican feeding its -young" in ecclesiastical art, as an emblem of Divine love. - -This is one of the many instances in which the inventive, poetical, -inaccurate Oriental mind has seized some peculiarity of form, and -based upon it a whole series of fabulous legends. As long as they -restricted themselves to the appearance and habits of the animals with -which they were familiarly acquainted, the old writers were curiously -full, exact, and precise in their details. But as soon as they came to -any creature of whose mode of life they were entirely or partially -ignorant, they allowed their inventive faculties full scope, and put -forward as zoological facts statements which were the mere creation of -their own fancy. We have already seen several examples of this -propensity, and shall find more as we proceed with the zoology of the -Scriptures. - -The fabulous legends of the Pelican are too numerous to be even -mentioned, but there is one which deserves notice, because it is made -the basis of an old Persian fable. - -The writer of the legend evidently had some partial knowledge of the -bird. He knew that it had a large pouch which could hold fish and -water; that it had large and powerful wings; and that it was in the -habit of flying far inland, either for the purpose of digesting its -food or nourishing its young. Knowing that the Pelican is in the habit -of choosing solitary spots in which it may bring up its young in -safety, but not knowing the precise mode of its nesting, the writer in -question has trusted to his imagination, and put forward his theories -as facts. - -Knowing that the bird dwells in "the wilderness," he has assumed that -the wilderness in question is a sandy, arid desert, far from water, -and consequently from vegetation. Such being the case, the nurture of -the Pelican's young is evidently a difficult question. Being aquatic -birds, the young must needs require water for drink and bathing, as -well as fish for food; and, though a supply of both these necessaries -could be brought in the ample pouches of the parents, they would be -wasted unless some mode of storing were employed. - -Accordingly, the parent birds were said to make their nest in a hollow -tree, and to line it with clay, or to build it altogether of clay, so -as to leave a deep basin. This basin the parent birds were said to use -as a sort of store-pond, bringing home supplies of fish and water in -their pouches, and pouring them into the pond. The wild beasts who -lived in the desert were said to be acquainted with these nests, and -to resort to them daily in order to quench their thirst, repaying -their entertainers by protecting their homes. - -In real fact, the Pelican mostly breeds near water, and is fond of -selecting little rocky islands where it cannot be approached without -danger. The nest is made on the ground, and is formed in a most -inartificial manner of reeds and grass, the general mass of the nest -being made of the reeds, and the lining being formed of grass. The -eggs are white, of nearly the same shape at both ends, and are from -two to five in number. On an average, however, each nest will contain -about two eggs. - -The parent birds are very energetic in defence of their eggs or young, -and, according to Le Vaillant, when approached they are "like furious -harpies let loose against us, and their cries rendered us almost deaf. -They often flew so near us that they flapped their wings in our faces, -and, though we fired our pieces repeatedly, we were not able to -frighten them." When the well-known naturalist Sonnerat tried to drive -a female Pelican from her nest, she appeared not to be frightened, but -angry. She would not move from her nest, and when he tried to push her -off, she struck at him with her long bill and uttered cries of rage. - -In order to aid the bird in carrying the heavy weights with which it -loads itself, the whole skeleton is permeated with air, and is -exceedingly light. Beside this, the whole cellular system of the bird -is honeycombed with air-cells, so that the bulk of the bird can be -greatly increased, while its weight remains practically unaltered, and -the Pelican becomes a sort of living balloon. - -The habit of conveying its food inland before eating it is so -characteristic of the Pelican that other birds take advantage of it. -In some countries there is a large hawk which robs the Pelican, just -as the bald-headed eagle of America robs the osprey. Knowing -instinctively that when a Pelican is flying inland slowly and heavily -and with a distended pouch it is carrying a supply of food to its -home, the hawk dashes at it, and frightens it so that the poor bird -opens its beak, and gives up to the assailant the fish which it was -bearing homewards. - -It is evident that the wings which are needed for supporting such -weights, and which, as we have seen, exceed twelve feet in length from -tip to tip, would be useless in the water, and would hinder rather -than aid the bird if it attempted to dive as the close-winged -cormorant does. Accordingly, we find that the Pelican is not a diver, -and, instead of chasing its finny prey under water, after the manner -of the cormorant, it contents itself with scooping up in its beak the -fishes which come to the surface of the water. The very buoyancy of -its body would prevent it from diving as does the cormorant, and, -although it often plunges into the water so fairly as to be for a -moment submerged, it almost immediately rises, and pursues its course -on the surface of the water, and not beneath it. Like the cormorant, -the Pelican can perch on trees, though it does not select such spots -for its roosting-places, and prefers rocks to branches. In one case, -however, when some young Pelicans had been captured and tied to a -stake, their mother used to bring them food during the day, and at -night was accustomed to roost in the branches of a tree above them. - -One of the two passages to which allusion has already been made in -which the word _kaath_ has been wrongly translated, occurs in Isa. -xxxiv. 10, 11: "From generation to generation it shall lie waste; none -shall pass through it for ever and ever. - -"But the cormorant [Pelican in margin] and the bittern shall possess -it; the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall stretch -out upon it the line of confusion and the stones of emptiness." - -These words form part of a prophecy concerning Idumæa or Edom, in -which the desolation that is to come upon the land is painted in the -most vivid colours. The streams are to be turned into pitch, and the -dust into brimstone; thorns are to come up in the palaces, and nettles -and brambles in the fortresses, and the land is to be washed with -blood. And so great is to be the desolation of the land, that even the -Pelican, which keeps itself far from the habitations of men, is to -possess it. - -A similar figure is employed by the prophet Zephaniah, when writing of -the utter destruction of Nineveh, that "rejoicing city, that dwelt -carelessly, that said in her heart, I am, and there is no more beside -me." In chap. ii. ver. 13, 14, the prophet writes as follows: "He will -stretch out His hand against the north, and destroy Assyria; and will -make Nineveh a desolation, and dry like a wilderness. - -"And flocks shall lie down in the midst of her, all the beasts of the -nations; both the cormorant [Pelican] and bittern shall lodge in the -upper lintels of it, their voices shall sing in the windows; -desolation shall be in the threshold: for He shall overcome the cedar -work." - -In both these passages the Jewish Bible renders the word _kaath_ as -Pelican. For a further explanation of them the reader is referred to -the article on the hedgehog. - -It will be now seen that, accepting the Kaath to be the Pelican, the -imagery of the scriptural writers is as accurate as it is forcible. -Though under some circumstances a thoroughly social bird, it is yet -fond of retiring to the most solitary spots in order to consume at -peace the prey that it has captured; and, as it sits motionless and -alone for hours, more like a white stone than, a bird, it may well be -accepted as a type of solitude and desolation. - -The colour of the common Pelican is white, with a very slight pinky -tinge, which is most conspicuous in the breeding season. The feathers -of the crest are yellow, and the quill feathers of the wings are jetty -black, contrasting well with the white plumage of the body. The pouch -is yellow, and the upper part of the beak bluish grey, with a red line -running across the middle, and a bright red hook at the tip. This -plumage belongs only to the adult bird, that of the young being ashen -grey, and four or five years are required before the bird puts on its -full beauty. There is no difference in the appearance of the sexes. -The illustration on page 496 represents a fine old male Crested -Pelican (_Pelecanus cristatus_). The general colour is greyish white, -with a slight yellowish tint on the breast. The pouch is bright -orange, and the crest is formed of curling feathers. - - - - -REPTILES. - - - - -THE TORTOISE. - - Reptiles in general--Looseness of the term "creeping - things"--The Tzab of the Scriptures, translated as - Tortoise--Flesh and eggs of the Tortoise--Its slow - movements--Hibernation dependent on temperature--The - "Water-Tortoises--Their food and voracity--Their eggs--Their - odour terrifying the horses--The Dhubb lizard and its - legends--Its armed tail, and the use made of it--Its food, and - localities which it prefers. - - -We now come to a different class of animated beings. We have already -found that the sacred writers were very loose in their nomenclature of -the mammalia and birds, and we may therefore expect to find that even -greater uncertainty prevails with regard to the REPTILES. It is -evident that the sacred writers classed together the "creeping things" -of the earth, without troubling themselves about zoological accuracy, -and that by them a lizard, a centipede, and a caterpillar would have -been alike classed as belonging to the "creeping things." For example, -we learn in Deut. xiv. 19 that "every creeping thing that flieth" is -unclean. On referring to Levit. xi. 21, we find that the same -prohibition is repeated, but with an addition that shows that the -sacred writer is treating of insects under the head of "creeping -things." "Yet these may ye eat of every flying creeping thing that -goeth upon all four, which have legs above their feet, to leap withal -upon the earth; - -"Even these of them may ye eat; the locust after his kind, and the -bald locust after his kind, and the beetle after his kind, and the -grasshopper after his kind. - -"But all other flying creeping things which have four feet shall be an -abomination unto you." - -As to the particular species signified by these different insects, the -reader is referred to that portion of the work which treats of -entomology; and it is sufficient to observe that in this passage the -term "creeping things" is employed to designate insects. - -If we pass to verse 42 of the same chapter, we find that among the -"creeping things" the centipedes, millepedes, and very probably the -caterpillars, are ranked. "Whatsoever hath more feet among all -creeping things that creep upon the earth, them ye shall not eat, for -they are an abomination. - -"Ye shall not make yourselves [or, your souls] abominable with any -creeping thing that creepeth, neither shall ye make yourselves unclean -with them, that ye should be defiled thereby." - -Again, in Ps. civ. 24, 25, different orders of animals are classed -under the name of creeping things: "0 Lord, how manifold are Thy -works! in wisdom hast Thou made them all: the earth is full of Thy -riches. - -"So is this great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping -innumerable, both small and great beasts." In this passage it is -probable that the sacred writer classed together all the inhabitants -of the sea that creep and that do not swim with fins, and that under -this term are first comprised the marine turtles, and perhaps snakes. -Indeed, from verses 10 and 11 of Levit. xi. it is almost certain that -marine and aquatic reptiles are signified: "All that have not fins and -scales in the seas and in the rivers, of all that move in the waters, -and of every living thing which is in the waters, they shall be an -abomination unto you: - -"They shall be even an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their -flesh, but ye shall have their carcases in abomination." - -This prohibition also includes the whole of the molluscs, and the -marine worms, or annelids. - -We will take these creatures in their order, and begin with those -which are classed as Reptiles by the zoologists of the present day, -and which are distinguished by having a bony skeleton, breathing by -means of lungs and not of gills, having a heart with two auricles and -one ventricle, and the skin being covered with horny plates or scales. -The first in order are those which are covered with plates, and which -are known as the Chelarians, including the Tortoises and Turtles. - - -In Levit. xi. 29, there occurs among the list of unclean beasts a word -which is translated in the Authorized Version as "tortoise." The word -is _Tzab_, and is rendered in the Hebrew Bible as "lizard," but with -the mark of doubt affixed to it. As the correct translation of the -word is very dubious, we shall examine it in both these senses. - - [Illustration: THE DHUBB AND TORTOISE. - - "_These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that - creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise - after his kind_."--LEVIT. xi. 29.] - -The common Tortoise (_Testudo Græca_) is very common in Palestine, and -is so plentiful that it would certainly have been used by the -Israelites as food, had it not been prohibited by law. At the present -day it is cooked and eaten by the inhabitants of the country who are -not Jews, and its eggs are in as great request as those of the fowl. - -These eggs are hard, nearly spherical, thick-shelled, and covered with -minute punctures, giving them a roughness like that of a file. In -captivity the Tortoise is very careless about the mode in which they -are deposited, and I have seen a large yard almost covered with eggs -laid by Tortoises and abandoned. The white or albumen of the egg is so -stiff and gelatinous that to empty one of them without breaking the -shell is a difficult task, and the yolk is very dark, and covered with -minute spots of black. When fresh the eggs are as good as those of the -fowl, and many persons even think them better; the only drawback being -that their small size and thick shell cause considerable trouble in -eating them. - -The flesh of the Tortoise is eaten, not only by human beings, but by -birds, such as the lämmergeier. In order to get at the flesh of the -Tortoise, they carry it high in the air and drop it on the ground so -as to break the shell to pieces, should the reptile fall on a stone or -rock. If, as is not often the case in such a rocky land as that of -Palestine, it should fall on a soft spot, the bird picks it up, soars -aloft, and drops it again. - -The Tortoises have no teeth, but yet are able to crop the herbage with -perfect ease. In lieu of teeth the edges of the jaws are sharp-edged -and very hard, so that they cut anything that comes between them like -a pair of shears. Leaves that are pulpy and crisp are bitten through -at once, but those that are thin, tough, and fibrous are rather torn -than bitten, the Tortoise placing its feet upon them, and dragging -them to pieces with its jaws. The carnivorous Tortoises have a similar -habit, as we shall presently see. - -This is the species from whose deliberate and slow movements the -familiar metaphor of "slow as a Tortoise" was derived, and it is this -species which is the hero of the popular fable of the "Hare and the -Tortoise." Many of the reptiles are very slow in some things and -astonishingly quick in others. Some of the lizards, for example, will -at one time remain motionless for many hours together, or creep about -with a slow and snail-like progress, while at others they dart from -spot to spot with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow their -movements. This however is not the case with the Tortoise, which is -always slow, and, but for the defensive armour in which it is encased, -would long ago have been extirpated. - -During the whole of the summer months it may be seen crawling -deliberately among the herbage, eating in the same deliberate style -which characterises all its movements, and occasionally resting in the -same spot for many hours together, apparently enjoying the warm beams -of the sunshine. - -As winter approaches, it slowly scrapes a deep hole in the ground, and -buries itself until the following spring awakes it once more to active -life. The depth of its burrow depends on the severity of the winter, -for, as the cold increases, the Tortoise sinks itself more deeply into -the earth. - - -MENTION has been made of a species of Tortoise that inhabits the -water. This is the CASPIAN EMYS (_Emys caspica_), a small species, -measuring about six inches in length. It belongs to the large family -of the Terrapins, several of which are so well known in America, and -has a long, retractile neck, very sharp jaws, and webbed feet, and a -well-developed tail. - -The body is flattish, and the colour is olive, with lines of yellow -edged with black, and the head is marked with longitudinal streaks of -bright yellow. After the death of the creature these yellow streaks -fade away gradually, and at last become nearly black. The skin of the -head is thin, but very hard. In general appearance it is not unlike -the chicken Tortoise of America, a species which is often brought to -England and kept in captivity, on account of its hardy nature and the -little trouble which is needed for keeping it in health. - -I have kept specimens of the Caspian Emys for some time, and found -them to be more interesting animals than they at first promised to be. -They were active, swimming with considerable speed, and snatching -quickly at anything which they fancied might be food. - -They were exceedingly voracious, consuming daily a quantity of meat -apparently disproportioned to their size, and eating it in a manner -that strongly reminded me of the mole when engaged on a piece of meat -or the body of a bird or mouse. The Tortoise would plant its fore-paws -firmly at each side of the meat, seize a mouthful in its jaws, and, by -retracting its head violently, would tear away the piece which it had -grasped. - -They are most destructive among fish, and are apt to rise quietly -underneath a fish as it basks near the surface of the water, grasp it -beneath with its sharp-edged jaws, and tear away the piece, leaving -the fish to die. It is rather remarkable that the Lepidosiren, or -mud-fish of the Gambia, destroys fish in a precisely similar manner, -though, as its jaws are much sharper than those of the Emys, it does -not need the aid of fore-paws in biting out its mouthful of flesh. - -Like the land Tortoise, it is one of the hibernators, and during the -winter months buries itself deeply in the earth, choosing for this -purpose the soft, muddy bed or bank of the pond in which it lives. Its -eggs are white, and hard-shelled, but are more oval than those of the -land Tortoise, and both ends are nearly alike. In fact, its egg might -well be mistaken for that of a small pigeon. The shell has a -porcelain-like look, and is very liable to crack, so that the -resemblance is increased. - -There is one drawback to these reptiles when kept as pets. They give -out a very unpleasant odour, which is disagreeable to human nostrils, -but is absolutely terrifying to many animals. The monkey tribe have -the strongest objection to these aquatic Tortoises. I once held one of -them towards a very tame chimpanzee, much to his discomfiture. He -muttered and remonstrated, and retreated as far as he could, pushing -out his lips in a funnel-like form, and showing his repugnance to the -reptile in a manner that could not be mistaken. - -Horses seem to be driven almost frantic with terror, not only by the -sight, but by the odour of these Tortoises. In Southern Africa there -are Tortoises closely allied to the Caspian Emys, and having the same -power of frightening horses. In "Land and Water" for February 22d, -1869, there is an account of an adventure with one of those Tortoises, -called in the catalogue of the British Museum the Reddish Pelamedusa. -It is of an olive colour, and, when adult, there is a slight -depression on either side of the vertebral line. - -"Some very awkward accidents have occurred to parties from the terror -caused by the fresh-water turtle (_Pelamedusa subrufa_). Carts have -been smashed to fragments, riders thrown, and the utmost confusion -caused by them. It is their smell, and it is certainly very -disagreeable. - -"My first acquaintance with the fact was in this wise. I was out -shooting with two young ladies who had volunteered as markers; and, as -you know, all our shooting is done from horseback. I had jumped off -for a shot at some francolins near a knill, or water-hole, and, after -picking up my birds, was coming round the knill to windward of the -horses. In my path scrambled a turtle. I called out to my young -friends, and told them of my find, on which one of them, in a hasty -voice, said, 'Oh, please, Mr. L., don't touch it; you will frighten -the horses!' - -"Of course I laughed at the idea, and picked up the reptile, which -instantly emitted its pungent odour--its means of defence. Though a -long way off, the moment the horses caught the scent, away they flew, -showing terror in every action. The girls, luckily splendid riders, -tugged in vain at the reins; away they went over the Veldt, leaving me -in mortal fear that the yawning 'aard-vark' holes (_Orycteropus -capensis_) would break their necks. My own horse, which I had hitched -to a bush, tore away his bridle, and with the ends streaming in the -wind and the stirrups clashing about him, sped off home at full -gallop, and was only recovered after a severe chase by my gallant -young Amazons, who, after a race of some miles, succeeded in checking -their affrighted steeds and in securing my runaway. But for some hours -after, if I ventured to windward, there were wild-looking eyes and -cocked ears--the smell of the reptile clung to me." - -Should any of my readers keep any of those water Tortoises, they will -do well to supply them plentifully with food, to give them an elevated -rocky perch on which they can scramble, and on which they will sit for -hours so motionless that at a little distance they can scarcely be -distinguished from the stone on which they rest. They should also be -weighed at regular intervals, as decrease of weight is a sure sign -that something is wrong, and, as a general rule, is an almost certain -precursor of death. - -This little reptile is not without its legends. According to the old -writers on natural history, it is of exceeding use to vine-growers in -the season when there is excess of rain or hail. Whenever the owner of -a vineyard sees a black cloud approaching, all he has to do is, to -take one of these Tortoises, lay it on its back, and carry it round -the vineyard. He must then go into the middle of the ground and lay -the reptile on the earth, still on its back; and the effect of this -proceeding would be that the cloud would pass aside from a place so -well protected. - -"But," proceeds the narrator, not wishing to be responsible for the -statement, "such diabolical and foolish observations were not so muche -to be remembered in this place, were it not for their sillinesse, that -by knowing them men might learn the weaknesse of human wisdom when it -erreth from the fountain of all science and true knowledge (which is -Divinity), and the most approved assertions of nature. And so I will -say no more in this place of the sweet-water tortoise." - - -THE DHUBB. - -We now come to the second animal, which may probably be the Tzab of -the Old Testament. - -This creature is one of the lizards, and is a very odd-looking -creature. It is certainly not so attractive in appearance that the -Jews might be supposed to desire it as food; but it often happens -that, as is the case with the turtle and iguana, from the most -ungainly, in the latter animal even repulsive, forms are produced the -most delicate meats. - -The DHUBB, or EGYPTIAN MASTIGURE, as the lizard is indifferently -called, grows to a considerable size, measuring when adult three feet -in length. Its colour is green, variegated with brown, and is slightly -changeable, though not to the extent that distinguishes the chameleon. -The chief peculiarity of this lizard consists in its tail, which is -covered with a series of whorls or circles of long, sharply-pointed, -hard-edged scales. The very appearance of this tail suggests its use -as a weapon of defence, and it is said that even the dreaded cerastes -is conquered by it, when the lizard and the snake happen to find -themselves occupants of the same hole. - -The ancients had a very amusing notion respecting the use of the spiny -tail possessed by the Dhubb and its kin. They had an idea that, -comparatively small though it was, it fed upon cattle, and that it was -able to take them from the herd and drive them to its home. For this -purpose, when it had selected an ox, it jumped on its back, and by the -pricking of its sharp claws drove the animal to gallop in hope of -ridding himself of his tormentor. In order to guide him in the -direction of its home, it made use of its tail, lashing the ox "to -make him go with his rider to the place of his most fit execution, -free from all rescue of his herdsman, or pastor, or the annoyance of -passengers, where, in most cruel and savage manner, he teareth the -limbs and parts one from another till he be devoured." - -This very absurd account is headed by an illustration, which, though -bad in drawing and rude in execution, is yet so bold and truthful that -there is no doubt that it was sketched from the living animal. - -As it haunts sandy downs, rocky spots, and similar localities, it is -well adapted for the Holy Land, which is the home of a vast number of -reptiles, especially of those belonging to the lizards. In the summer -time they have the full enjoyment of the hot sunbeams, in which they -delight, and which seem to rouse these cold-blooded creatures to -action, while they deprive the higher animals of all spirit and -energy. In the winter time these very spots afford localities wherein -the lizards can hibernate until the following spring, and in such a -case they furnish the reptiles with secure hiding-places. - -Although the Dhubb does not destroy and tear to pieces oxen and other -cattle, it is yet a rather bloodthirsty reptile, and will kill and -devour birds as large as the domestic fowl. Usually, however, its food -consists of beetles and other insects, which it takes deliberately. - -Whether or not the Dhubb be the same reptile as the Tzab of the Old -Testament, the resemblance between the Hebrew and Arabic words is very -remarkable. - - - - -THE LEVIATHAN OR CROCODILE. - - Signification of the word _Leviathan_--Description in the Book - of Job--Structure and general habits of the Crocodile--The - throat-valve and its use--Position of the nostrils--Worship of - the Crocodile--The reptile known in the Holy Land--Two legends - respecting its presence there--Mode of taking prey--Cunning of - the Crocodile--The baboons and the Crocodile--Speed of the - reptile--Eggs and young of the Crocodile, and their - enemies--Curious story of the ichneumon and ibis--Modes of - capturing the Crocodile--Analysis of Job's description--The - Crocodile also signified by the word _Tannin_. Aaron's rod - changed into a Tannin--Various passages in which the word - occurs--Use of the word by the prophet Jeremiah. - - -The word _Leviathan_ is used in a rather loose manner in the Old -Testament, in some places representing a mammalian of the sea, and in -others signifying a reptile inhabiting the rivers. As in the most -important of these passages the Crocodile is evidently signified, we -will accept that rendering, and consider the Crocodile as being the -Leviathan of Scripture. The Jewish Bible accepts the word Crocodile, -and does not add the mark of doubt. - -The fullest account of the Leviathan occurs in Job xli., the whole of -which chapter is given to the description of the terrible reptile. As -the translation of the Jewish Bible differs in some points from that -of the Authorized Version, I shall here give the former, so that the -reader may be able to compare them with each other. - -"Canst thou draw out a crocodile with a hook, or his tongue with a -cord which thou lettest down? - -"Canst thou put a reed into his nose, or bore his jaw through with a -thorn? - -"Will he make many supplications unto thee? will he speak soft words -unto thee? - -"Will he make a covenant with thee? wilt thou take him as a servant -for ever? - -"Wilt thou play with him as with a bird, or wilt thou bind him for thy -maidens? - -"Shall the companions make a banquet of him? shall they part him among -the merchants? - -"Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons, or his head with -fish-spears? - -"Lay thine hand upon him, thou wilt no more remember the battle. - -"Behold, the hope of him is in vain; shall not one be cast down at the -sight of him? - -"None is so fierce that dare stir him up; who then is able to stand -before Me? - -"Who hath forestalled Me that I should repay him? whatsoever is under -the whole heaven is Mine. - -"I will not be silent of his parts, nor of the matter of his power, -nor of his comely proportion. - -"Who can uncover the face of his garment? who would enter the double -row in his jaw? - -"Who can open the doors of his face? his teeth are terrible round -about. - -"The strength of his shields are his pride, shut up together as with a -close seal. - -"One is so near to another that no air can come between them. - -"They are joined one to another, they stick together that they cannot -be sundered. - -"His snortings make light to shine, and his eyes are like the eyelids -of the morning dawn. - -"Out of his nostrils goeth smoke, as out of a seething pot or caldron. - -"His breath kindleth live coals, and a flame goeth out of his mouth. - -"In his neck abideth strength, and before him danceth terror. - -"The flakes of his flesh are joined together, they are firm in -themselves; yea, as hard as nether millstone. - -"When he raiseth himself up, the mighty are afraid; by reason of -breakings they lose themselves. - -"The sword of him that layeth at him cannot hold: the spear, the dart, -nor the habergeon. - -"He esteemeth iron as straw, and copper as rotten wood. - -"The arrow cannot make him flee: sling-stones are turned with him into -stubble. - -"Clubs are counted as stubble; he laugheth at the shaking of a spear. - -"His under parts are like sharp points of potsherd; he speaketh sharp -points upon the mire. - -"He maketh the deep to boil like a pot; he maketh the sea like a pot -of ointment. - -"He maketh a path to shine after him; one would think the deep to be -hoary. - -"Upon earth there is not his like, who is made without fear. - -"He beholdeth all high things; he is a king over all the children of -pride." - -This splendid description points as clearly to the Crocodile as the -description of the Behemoth which immediately precedes it does to the -hippopotamus, and it is tolerably evident that the sacred poet who -wrote these passages must have been personally acquainted with both -the Crocodile and the hippopotamus. In both descriptions there are a -few exaggerations, or rather, poetical licences. For example, the -bones of the hippopotamus are said to be iron and copper, and the -Crocodile is said to kindle live coals with his breath. These, -however, are but the natural imagery of an Oriental poet, and, -considering the subject, we may rather wonder that the writer has not -introduced even more fanciful metaphors. - - -Before proceeding with the Biblical portion of the history of this -formidable reptile, I will mention a few points connected with the -Crocodile and its kin. There are several species of Crocodile in -different parts of the world, ten species at least being known to -science. Some inhabit India, some tropical America, some Asia, and -some Africa, so that the genus is represented in nearly all the warmer -parts of the world. - -They are all known by the formation of the teeth, the lower canines -fitting each into a notch on the side of the upper jaw. The feet are -webbed to the tips, and though the reptile mostly propels itself -through the water by means of its tail, it can also paddle itself -gently along by means of its feet. The teeth are all made for -snatching and tearing, but not for masticating, the Crocodile -swallowing its prey entire when possible; and when the animal is too -large to be eaten entire, the reptile tears it to pieces, and swallows -the fragments without attempting to masticate them. - -In order to enable it to open its mouth under water, the back of its -throat is furnished with a very simple but beautiful contrivance, -whereby the water is received on a membranous valve, and, in -proportion to its pressure, closes the orifice of the throat. As the -Crocodiles mostly seize their prey in their open jaws and hold it -under water until devoured, it is evident that without such a -structure as has been described the Crocodile would be as likely to -drown itself as its prey. But the throat-valve enables it to keep its -mouth open while the water is effectually prevented from running down -its throat, and the nostrils, placed at the end of the snout, enable -it to breathe at its ease, while the unfortunate animal which it has -captured is being drowned beneath the surface of the water. - -This position of the nostrils serves another purpose, and enables the -Crocodile to breathe while the whole of its body is under the water, -and only an inch or two of the very end of the snout is above the -surface. As, moreover, the Crocodile, as is the case with most -reptiles, is able to exist for a considerable time without breathing, -it only needs to protrude its nostrils for a few moments, and can then -sink entirely beneath the water. In this way the reptile is able to -conceal itself in case it should suspect danger; and as, in such -instances, it dives under the herbage of the river, and merely thrusts -its nose into the air among the reeds and rashes, it is evident that, -in spite of its enormous size, it baffles the observation of almost -every foe. - -The Crocodile is one of the many animals to which divine honours were -paid by the Egyptians. This we learn from several sources. Herodotus, -for example, in "Euterpe," chapter 69, writes as follows: "Those who -dwell about Thebes and Lake Moeris, consider them to be very sacred; -and they each of them train up a Crocodile, which is taught to be -quite tame; and they put crystal and gold ear-rings into their ears, -and bracelets on their fore-paws; and they give them appointed and -sacred food, and treat them as well as possible while alive, and when -dead, they embalm them, and bury them in sacred vaults. - -"But the people who dwell about the city of Elephantine eat them, not -considering them as sacred." - -The reasons for this worship are several. At the root of them all lies -the tendency of man to respect that which he fears rather than that -which he loves; and the nearer the man approaches the savage state, -the more is this feeling developed. By this tendency his worship is -regulated, and it will be found that when man is sufficiently advanced -to be capable of worship at all, his reverence is invariably paid to -the object which has the greatest terrors for him. The Crocodile, -therefore, being the animal that was most dreaded by the ancient -Egyptians, was accepted as the natural type of divinity. - -By degrees, though the worship of the Crocodile was retained, the -worshippers thought themselves obliged to find reasons for their -veneration, and some of them said that they considered the Crocodile a -type of divinity because it had no tongue, and was therefore an emblem -of divine power, which requires no tongue wherewith to speak. "For by -a mute and silent way it ascendeth, and bringeth all things mortal to -a vocal justice, which speaketh in action, though not in voyce, even -as all that is in the Crocodile is action and not voyce." - -Some said that they reverenced the Crocodile because it laid -threescore eggs and lived threescore years, this being the span of -human life. Others, and these give by far the best reason, say that -divine honours are paid to the Crocodile because the time of laying -the eggs and hatching the young foreshows the annual rising of the -Nile, on which depends the prosperity of the whole country. Still -there is no doubt that, whatever explanations may have been offered by -the advocates of Crocodile worship, the true reason for it was nothing -but the terror inspired by the animal. - - -Owing to the accuracy of the description in the Book of Job, which is -evidently written by one who was personally acquainted with the -Crocodile, it is thought by many commentators that the writer must -have been acquainted with the Nile, in which river both the Crocodile -and hippopotamus are found at the present day. - -It is possible, however, that the hippopotamus and the Crocodile have -had at one time a much wider range than they at present enjoy. Even -within the memory of man the hippopotamus has been driven further and -further up the Nile by the encroachments of man. It has long been said -that even at the present day the Crocodile exists in Palestine in the -river which is called "Nhar Zurka," which flows from Samaria through -the plains of Sharon. Several of the older writers have mentioned its -existence in this river, and, since this work was commenced, the -long-vexed question has been set at rest; a Crocodile, eight feet in -length, having been captured in the Nhar Zurka. - -In her "Domestic Life in Palestine," Miss Rogers gives an old legend -by which the people account for the presence of Crocodiles in this -river. Many ages ago there dwelt upon the bank of the river an old man -and his two sons, the elder of whom was idle and profligate, while the -younger was industrious and virtuous. - -The father died, and left them each an equal share of his wealth--the -flocks and herds which fed on the rich banks of the river. In process -of time, the elder brother wasted all his property by riotous living -and neglect, while the younger brother had greatly increased his -flocks and herds, and had become a wealthy man. The elder, being -jealous of his brothers prosperity, sought in his mind how to do him -an injury. Accordingly, he travelled to Egypt, brought some young -Crocodiles thence, and turned them into the river, hoping that they -would destroy his brother's flocks as they came to drink. - -Some time afterwards, he went down to the river, and, as he had been -accustomed to do, descended to the water to wash, when the Crocodiles -seized him, dragged him into the water, and devoured him. - -This is one legend. Another states that many years ago a colony of -Egyptians had settled on the bank of the Nhar Zurka, and that they, -being worshippers of the Crocodile, brought some of the young from the -Nile and established them in the river, which thenceforward bore the -name of Nhar Zurka, or the Crocodile River. The reader will doubtless -have noticed that in both these legends the Crocodile is said to be an -importation from the Nile, and is not held to be indigenous to the -river. - -Allusion is made in the former of these two legends to the mode in -which the Crocodile seizes its prey. It does not attack it openly, -neither, as some have said, does it go on shore for that purpose. It -watches to see whether any animal comes to drink, and then, sinking -beneath the surface of the water, dives rapidly, rises unexpectedly -beneath the unsuspecting victim, seizes it with a sudden snap of its -huge jaws, and drags it beneath the water. Should the intended prey be -too far from the water to be reached by the mouth, or so large that it -may offer a successful resistance, the Crocodile strikes it a -tremendous blow with its tail, and knocks it into the water. The -dwellers on the Nile bank say that a large Crocodile will with a -single blow of its tail break all the four legs of an ox or a horse. - -These cunning reptiles even contrive to catch birds as they come for -water. On the banks of the Nile the smaller birds drink in a very -peculiar manner. They settle in numbers on the flexible branches that -overhang the stream, and when, by their weight, the branch bends -downwards, they dip their beaks in the water. The Crocodile sees afar -off a branch thus loaded, swims as near as possible, and then dives -until it can see the birds immediately above it, when it rises -suddenly, and with a snap of its jaws secures a whole mouthful of the -unsuspecting birds. - -Sir S. Baker, in his travels on the Nile, gave much attention to the -Crocodile, and has collected a great amount of interesting information -about the reptile, much of which is peculiarly valuable, inasmuch as -it illustrates the Scriptural notices of the creature. He states that -it is a very crafty animal, and that its usual mode of attack is by -first showing itself, then swimming slowly away to a considerable -distance, so as to make its intended victim think that danger is over, -and then returning under water. It is by means of this manoeuvre that -it captures the little birds. It first makes a dash at them, -open-mouthed, causing them to take to flight in terror. It then sails -slowly away as if it were so baffled that it did not intend to renew -the attack. When it is at a considerable distance, the birds think -that their enemy has departed, and return to the branch, which they -crowd more than ever, and in a minute or two several dozen of them are -engulfed in the mouth of the Crocodile, which has swiftly dived under -them. - -On one occasion, Sir S. Baker was walking near the edge of the river, -when he heard a great shrieking of women on the opposite bank. It -turned out that a number of women had been filling their "gerbas" -(water-skins), when one of them was suddenly attacked by a large -Crocodile. She sprang back, and the reptile, mistaking the filled -gerba for a woman, seized it, and gave the owner time to escape. It -then dashed at the rest of the women, but only succeeded in seizing -another gerba. - - [Illustration: THE CROCODILE, THE LEVIATHAN OF SCRIPTURE. - - "Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons? or his head with fish - spears."--JOB xli. 7.] - -A short time previously a Crocodile, thought by the natives to be the -same individual, had seized a woman and carried her off; and another -had made an attack on a man in a very curious manner. A number -of men were swimming across the river, supported, after their -custom, on gerbas inflated with air, when one of them felt himself -seized by the leg by a Crocodile, which tried to drag him under water. -He, however, retained his hold on the skin, and his companions also -grasped his arms and hair with one hand, while with the other they -struck with their spears at the Crocodile. At last they succeeded in -driving the reptile away, and got their unfortunate companion to land, -where they found that the whole of the flesh was stripped from the leg -from the knee downwards. The poor man died shortly afterwards. - -These crafty reptiles also try to catch the baboons by lying in wait -for them at their drinking places; but the baboons are generally more -than a match for the Crocodile in point of cunning and quickness of -sight. Sir S. Baker witnessed an amusing example of such an attempt -and its failure. - -"The large tamarind-trees on the opposite bank are generally full of -the dog-faced baboons (_Cynocephalus_) at their drinking hour. I -watched a large Crocodile creep slily out of the water and lie in -waiting among the rocks at the usual drinking place before they -arrived, but the baboons were too wide awake to be taken in so easily. - -"A young fellow was the first to discover the enemy. He had -accompanied several wise and experienced old hands to the extremity of -a bough that at a considerable height overhung the river; from this -post they had a bird's eye view, and reconnoitred before one of the -numerous party descended to drink. The sharp eyes of the young one at -once detected the Crocodile, who matched in colour so well with the -rocks that most probably a man would not have noticed it until too -late. - -"At once the young one commenced shaking the bough and screaming with -all his might, to attract the attention of the Crocodile and to induce -it to move. In this he was immediately joined by the whole party, who -yelled in chorus, while the large old males bellowed defiance, and -descended to the lowest branches within eight or ten feet of the -Crocodile. It was of no use--the pretender never stirred, and I -watched it until dark. It remained still in the same place, waiting -for some unfortunate baboon whose thirst might provoke his fate, but -not one was sufficiently foolish, although the perpendicular bank -prevented them from drinking except at that particular spot." - -It may be imagined that if the Crocodile were to depend entirely for -its food upon the animals that it catches on the bank or in the river, -it would run a risk of starving. The fact is, that its principal food -consists of fish, which it can chase in the water. The great speed at -which the Crocodile darts through the water is not owing to its webbed -feet, but to its powerful tail, which is swept from side to side, and -thus propels the reptile after the manner of a man "sculling" a boat -with a single oar in the stern. The whales and the fishes have a -similar mode of propulsion. - -On land, the tail is the Crocodile's most formidable weapon. It is one -mass of muscle and sinew, and the force of its lateral stroke is -terrible, sweeping away every living thing that it may meet. -Fortunately for its antagonists, the Crocodile can turn but very -slowly, so that, although it can scramble along at a much faster pace -than its appearance indicates, there is no great difficulty in -escaping, provided that the sweep of its tail be avoided. As the -Crocodile of the Nile attains when adult a length of thirty feet, one -moiety of which is taken up by the tail, it may easily be imagined -that the power of this weapon can scarcely be exaggerated. - -As if to add to the terrors of the animal, its head, back, and tail -are shielded by a series of horny scales, which are set so closely -together that the sharpest spear can seldom find its way through them, -and even the rifle ball glances off, if it strikes them obliquely. -Like many other reptiles, the Crocodile is hatched from eggs which are -laid on shore and vivified by the warmth of the sun. - -These eggs are exceedingly small when compared with the gigantic -lizard which deposited them, scarcely equalling in dimensions those of -the goose. There is now before me an egg of the cayman of South -America, a fresh-water lizard but little smaller than the Crocodile of -the Nile, and this is barely equal in size to an ordinary hen's egg. -It is longer in proportion to its width, but the contents of the two -eggs would be as nearly as possible of the same bulk. On the exterior -it is very rough, having a granulated appearance, not unlike that of -dried sharkskin, and the shell is exceedingly thin and brittle. The -lining membrane, however, is singularly thick and tough, so that the -egg is tolerably well defended against fracture. - -When first hatched, the young Crocodile is scarcely larger than a -common newt, but it attains most formidable dimensions in a very short -time. Twenty or thirty eggs are laid in one spot, and, were they not -destroyed by sundry enemies, the Crocodiles would destroy every living -creature in the rivers. Fortunately, the eggs and young have many -enemies, chiefly among which is the well-known ichneumon, which -discovers the place where the eggs are laid and destroys them, and -eats any young Crocodiles that it can catch before they succeed in -making their way to the water. - -The old writers were aware of the services rendered by the ichneumon, -but, after their wont, exaggerated them by additions of their own, -saying that the ichneumon enters into the mouth of the Crocodile as it -lies asleep, and eats its way through the body, "putting the Crocodile -to exquisite and intolerable torment, while the Crocodile tumbleth to -and fro, sighing and weeping, now in the depth of water, now on the -land, never resting till strength of nature faileth. For the incessant -gnawing of the ichneumon so provoketh her to seek her rest in the -unrest of every part, herb, element, throws, throbs, rollings, but all -in vain, for the enemy within her breatheth through her breath, and -sporteth herself in the consumption of those vital parts which waste -and wear away by yielding to unpacificable teeth, one after another, -till she that crept in by stealth at the mouth, like a puny thief, -comes out at the belly like a conqueror, through a passage opened by -her own labour and industry." - -The author has in the long passage, a part of which is here quoted, -mentioned that the ichneumon takes its opportunity of entering the -jaws of the Crocodile as it lies with its mouth open against the beams -of the sun. It is very true that the Crocodile does sleep with its -mouth open; and, in all probability, the older observers, knowing that -the ichneumon did really destroy the eggs and young of the Crocodile, -only added a little amplification, and made up their minds that it -also destroyed the parents. The same writer who has lately been quoted -ranks the ibis among the enemies of the Crocodile, and says that the -bird affects the reptile with such terror that, if but an ibis's -feather be laid on its back, the Crocodile becomes rigid and unable -to move. The Arabs of the present time say that the water-tortoises -are enemies to the eggs, scratching them out of the sand and eating -them. - - -We will now pass to the description of the Crocodile in the Book of -Job. - -In the beginning of that description, Job is asked in irony whether he -can draw out Leviathan with a hook, or bore his jaw with a thorn. This -is probably in allusion, not so much to the size and strength of the -Crocodile, as to its cunning. At the present time the Arabs of the -Nile assert that to catch a Crocodile with a hook is impossible. Mr. -Lowth suggested to his boatmen that, if a large hook were baited with -meat, a Crocodile might be caught. Yusef eagerly denied the -possibility of such a capture: "Him too clever--crocodile looking out -of his eye so" (making a squint)--"he see everything like one man, as -crocodile like man--people thinking him was one man long time, very -long time." - -According to Herodotus, however, the Egyptians did take the Crocodile -with a hook, which they first baited with a small pig, and let into -the river, and then beat another pig so as to make it scream. The -Crocodile, hearing the cries of the pig, swims to seize its prey, and -swallows the baited hook instead of the living pig. As soon as it is -caught, the hunters draw it on shore, and when it tries to attack -them, they throw sand into its eyes so as to blind it. It is -remarkable that the Arab hunters of the Nile still employ sand as -their best defensive weapon when they have harpooned a hippopotamus -and dragged it to the bank. The animal, finding that it cannot -retreat, charges into the men, who repel it by throwing sand into its -eyes. - -The expression "boring his jaw with a thorn" probably refers to the -fishermen's universal custom of stringing together the captured fish -by a twig passed through the mouth. In the late Mr. Waterton's -"Wanderings" there is an account of the method employed by the natives -in catching the cayman, which is the Crocodile of tropical America. A -steel hook was tried and found useless, but one of the natives made in -a short time an ingenious hook, composed of four sharpened wooden -spikes, with which he succeeded in catching the reptile, thus -literally boring its jaw with a thorn. - -Allusion is made to the impenetrable character of the scale in verses -7, 15, 16, 17, and from verses 26 to 30. Verse 8 is given better in -the Jewish Bible than in the Authorized Version. "Lay thine hand upon -him, thou wilt no more remember the battle." The same may be said of -verse 22, which is thus rendered in the Authorized Version: "In his -neck remaineth strength, and sorrow is turned into joy before him." -The marginal reading gives the last verse as "sorrow rejoiceth." -Neither of these expressions is very intelligible, but the rendering -of the Jewish Bible is not only clear, but forcible. "In his neck -abideth strength, and before him danceth terror." - -In verse 13 the marginal translation is nearly the correct one: "Who -can come to him within his double bridle?" and the Jewish Bible gives -the real meaning of the passage, showing that allusion is made to the -double rows of teeth in both jaws, those of the upper interlacing into -those of the lower. "Who would enter the double (row) in his jaw?" -this reading being carried out by the following verse: "Who can open -the doors of his face? his teeth are terrible round about" (Jewish -Bible). - -The quick sight of the Crocodile is mentioned in verse 18, his eyelids -being compared to the "eyes of the morning," this metaphor being -further illustrated by the hieroglyphs, wherein the eye of the -Crocodile is employed as the emblem of day-dawn. The impossibility of -domesticating this terrible reptile is shown in verses 4 and 5: "Will -he make many supplications unto thee? Will he speak soft words unto -thee? - -"Wilt thou play with him as with a bird? or wilt thou bind him for thy -maidens?" - -Allusion is evidently made to the disagreeable nature of its flesh, -which is penetrated with a strong musky odour, in verse 6: "Shall the -companions make a banquet of him? Shall they part him among the -merchants?" - -And lastly, the foam raised by the lashing of the Crocodile's mighty -tail, and the wake that is left behind it as it urges itself through -the water, are mentioned in verses 31 and 32. - - -It is not unlikely that the word Leviathan also signified any of the -larger inhabitants of the waters, whether marine or reptile, and that -a whale or a Crocodile would be equally called by that name. In this -sense we must interpret the well-known passage, Ps. civ. 24-26: - -"O Lord, how manifold are Thy works! in wisdom hast Thou made them -all: the earth is full of Thy riches. - -"So is this great and wide sea" (_i.e._ the Mediterranean), "wherein -are things creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts. - -"There go the ships: there is that Leviathan, whom Thou hast made to -play therein." In this passage the writer points to some large -inhabitant of the Mediterranean, or the Great Sea, as it is called in -Scripture, to distinguish it from the Sea of Galilee, and the only -creature which would answer to the allusion must be one of the larger -cetacean. - - -We also find that the Crocodile must be signified by the Hebrew word -_tannin_, which occurs in several parts of Scripture, and which is -sometimes translated as "dragon," and sometimes as "serpent," and -sometimes as "whale." For example, in Exod. vii. 10, we find the -well-known passage which relates the changing of Aaron's rod into a -Tannin, or serpent, as the Authorized Version translates it. The -Jewish Bible, however, simply renders the word as "huge creature." -Next, we come to Deut. xxxii. 33: "Their wine is the poison of -dragons, and the cruel venom of asps." This passage is rendered in the -Jewish Bible as "Their wine is the fury of huge creatures, and the -cruel venom [or head] of asps." - -The same word occurs in Job vii. 12: "Am I a sea, or a whale -[_tannin_], that thou settest a watch over me?" We also find it in -Jer. ix. 11: "And I will make Jerusalem heaps, and a den of dragons -[_tannin_];" and the same image is repeated in x. 22: "Behold, the -noise of the bruit is come, and a great commotion out of the north -country, to make the cities of Judah desolate, and a den of dragons." -The same prophet again repeats the word in xiv. 6: "The wild asses did -stand in the high places, they snuffed up the wind like dragons." - -There is nothing in any of these passages which would give any clue as -to the creature that was signified by the word _tannin_, but we obtain -a clue to it in Ezek. xxix. 2-5: "Son of man, set thy face against -Pharaoh king of Egypt, and prophesy against him, and against all -Egypt: - -"Speak, and say, Thus saith the Lord God, Behold, I am against thee, -Pharaoh king of Egypt, the great dragon that lieth in the midst of his -rivers, which hath said, My river is mine own, and I have made it for -myself. - -"But I will put hooks in thy jaws, and T will cause the fish of thy -rivers to stick unto thy scales; and I will bring thee up out of the -midst of thy rivers, and all the fish of thy rivers shall stick unto -thy scales. - -"And I will leave thee thrown into the wilderness, thee and all the -fish of thy rivers: thou shalt fall upon the open fields; thou shalt -not be brought together nor gathered: I have given thee for meat to -the beasts of the field, and to the fowls of the heaven." - -See also xxxii. 2, 3: "Son of man, take up a lamentation for Pharaoh -king of Egypt, and say unto him, Thou art like a young lion of the -nations, and thou art as a whale [_tannin_] in the seas; and thou -camest forth with thy rivers, and troubledst the waters with thy feet, -and fouledst their rivers. - -"Thus saith the Lord God, I will therefore spread out my net over thee -with a company of many people; and they shall bring thee up in my -net." - -There is a peculiar significance in the comparison of Pharaoh to the -Crocodile. It is the master and terror of the Nile, of whom all -animals stand in fear. It is ravenous, crafty, fierce, and relentless, -keen-eyed to espy prey, and swift to devour it. Yet, in spite of all -these evil qualities, the Egyptians venerated it, pampered it, hung it -with costly jewels, and paid divine honours to it, exactly as they -considered their despotic sovereign as a demigod during his life, and -honoured him with an apotheosis after his death. - -Like the Crocodile, secure in his scaly armour, Pharaoh thought -himself invincible, but, though man could not conquer him, God could -do so. Man could not "put a hook into his nose, or bore his jaws -through with a thorn" (Job xli. 2); but the Lord could "put hooks in -his jaws, and bring him up out of the midst of his rivers, and give -him for meat to the beasts of the field and the fowls of the heaven." - -Taking also the Tannin of Exod. vii. to be the Crocodile, we see how -appropriate were all the circumstances. The miracle was performed in -the presence of Pharaoh, who is afterwards spoken of under the emblem -of the "dragon (_tannin_) that lieth in the midst of the river." The -rod of the future high priest of the Lord was changed into the -Crocodile, which was worshipped by the Egyptian priests and magicians; -and when they imitated the miracle, Aaron's rod swallowed up those of -the heathen in token that the Lord would destroy idolatry. - -It is worthy of mention here that, although in the Authorized Version -of the Scriptures, the rods of both Moses and Aaron are mentioned as -having been changed into serpents, the words which are translated as -serpents are different. The rod of Aaron, the priest, was turned into -a Tannin, _i.e._ Crocodile; that of Moses, the lawgiver, into a -Nachash or serpent. - -There is one passage which seems to imply that the word _tannin_ may -signify a cetacean. It occurs in Lam. iv. 3: "Even the sea-monsters -[_tannin_] draw out the breast, they give suck to their young ones." -If the sacred writers were aware that the cetaceans were mammals and -suckled their young, and that the Crocodile left its offspring to find -food for themselves, there would be no doubt on the subject. But it is -not at all likely that the Prophet Jeremiah, his soul torn by the -crimes of his country and the calamities which he foresaw, persecuted -by his own people, his life endangered by the forebodings that he was -compelled to utter, imprisoned, exiled, and at last dying in a strange -land, would have been versed in natural history, or would have -troubled himself to inquire as to the manner in which the young of the -Crocodile were fed. The sense of the passage is plain enough, and -contains a rebuke to the people in that they neglect their children, -and were worse than the ferocious inhabitants of the water, as we -shall see on reading the whole of the passage: "Even the sea-monster -draws out the breast; they give suck to their young ones: the daughter -of my people is become cruel, like the ostriches in the wilderness. - -"The tongue of the sucking child cleaveth to the roof of his mouth for -thirst; the young children ask bread, and no man breaketh it unto -them." - - - - -THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD. - - Difficulty of identifying the Letââh--Probability that it is a - collective and not a specific term--Various Lizards of - Palestine--The Green or Jersey Lizard--The Cyprius, its - appearance and habits--The Glass Snake or - Scheltopusic--Translation of the word _chomet_--Probability that - it signifies the Skink--Medicinal uses of the Lizard--The Seps - tribe--The common Cicigna, and the popular belief concerning its - habits--The Sphænops and its shallow tunnel. - - -In Leviticus xi. 30, the word Lizard is used as the rendering of the -Hebrew word _letââh_ (pronounced as L'tâh-âh). There are one or two -difficulties about the word, but, without going into the question of -etymology, which is beside the object of this work, it will be -sufficient to state that the best authorities accept the rendering, -and that in the Jewish Bible the word Lizard is retained, but with the -mark of doubt appended to it. - -In all probability, the sacred lawgiver employs the word _letââh_ as a -general term; so that, although he prohibits certain Lizards by name, -as having been used for food by the various nations with whom the -Israelites were necessarily brought in contact during their captivity, -their wanderings, and their final conquest of Palestine, he implies -that the whole of the Lizard tribe are to be considered as unfit to be -eaten by the chosen people. - -We shall presently examine some of those which are prohibited by name, -and it will be sufficient in the present case to glance at the Lizard -tribes of Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. - -These lands absolutely swarm with Lizards. Even in our own country, -Lizards are far more common than is generally known. I have caused the -greatest surprise in an agricultural county by catching and showing to -the field-labourers the common Scaly Lizard (_Zootoca vivipara_). The -little reptile was exceedingly plentiful, and yet not one of the -labourers, nor even their employers, had seen it. - -In warmer parts of the earth, the Lizards are so numerous and so -comparatively large that they force themselves upon the notice. For -example, the well-known GREEN or JERSEY LIZARD (_Lacerta viridis_) is -exceedingly plentiful, and may be seen darting among the leaves in -search of prey, after the erratic manner of Lizards generally, which -will remain absolutely motionless for hours together, then whisk about -so rapidly that the eye can scarcely follow their movements, and -subside into quiescence as suddenly as they started from it. - - [Illustration: THE CYPRIUS, OR LIZARD OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, - and the mole._"--LEVIT. xi. 30.] - -In many parts of the world, especially in France, where the terror -inspired by nearly all reptiles is really ludicrous, this beautiful -and harmless creature is feared as if it were a venomous serpent, and, -to judge from experience, I doubt whether a cobra or a rattlesnake -would excite more horror than a Green Lizard. - - -A very common species of Lizard, and therefore likely to be one of -those which are grouped under the common name of Letââh, is the -Cyprius (_Plestiodon auratum_). This handsome Lizard is golden-yellow -in colour, beautifully spotted with orange and scarlet, and may be -distinguished, even when the colours have fled after death, by the -curiously formed ears, which are strongly toothed in front. It is very -plentiful in Palestine, and, like others of its kin, avoids cultivated -tracts, and is generally found on rocky and sandy soil which cannot be -tilled. It is active, and, if alarmed, hides itself quickly in the -sand or under stones. - -It belongs to the great family of the Skinks, many of which, like the -familiar blind-worm of our own country, are without external legs, -and, though true Lizards, progress in a snake-like manner, and are -generally mistaken for snakes. One of these is the GLASS SNAKE or -SCHELTOPUSIC (_Pseudopus pallasii_), which has two very tiny hind -legs, but which is altogether so snake-like that it is considered by -the natives to be really a serpent. They may well be excused for their -error, as the only external indications of limbs are a pair of -slightly-projecting scales at the place where the hind legs would be -in a fully-developed Lizard. - -Though tolerably plentiful, the Scheltopusic is not very often seen, -as it is timid and wary, and, when it suspects danger, glides away -silently into some place of safety. When adult, the colour of this -Lizard is usually chestnut, profusely mottled with black or deep -brown, the edge of each scale being of the darker colour. It feeds -upon insects and small reptiles, and has been known to devour a nest -full of young birds. - - -In Levit. xi. 30 is a Hebrew word, _chomet_, which is given in the -Authorized Version as SNAIL. There is, however, no doubt that the word -is wrongly translated, and that by it some species of Lizard is -signified. The Jewish Bible follows the Authorized Version, but -affixes the mark of doubt to the word. There is another word, -_shablul_, which undoubtedly does signify the snail, and will be -mentioned in its proper place. - -It is most probable that the word _chomet_ includes, among other -Lizards, many of the smaller Skinks which inhabit Palestine. Among -them we may take as an example the COMMON SKINK (_Scincus -officinalis_), a reptile which derives its specific name from the fact -that it was formerly used in medicine, together with mummy, and the -other disgusting ingredients which formed the greater part of the old -Pharmacopoeia. - -Even at the present day, it is used for similar purposes in the East, -and is in consequence captured for the use of physicians, the body -being simply dried in the sun, and then sent to market for sale. It is -principally employed for the cure of sunstroke, nettle-rash, -sand-blindness, or fever, and both patient and physician have the -greatest confidence in its powers. It is said by some European -physicians that the flesh of the Skink really does possess medicinal -powers, and that it has fallen into disrepute chiefly because those -powers have been exaggerated. In former days, the head and feet were -thought to possess the greatest efficacy, and were valued accordingly. - -Like all its tribe, the Skink loves sandy localities, the soil exactly -suiting its peculiar habits. Although tolerably active, it does not -run so fast or so far as many other Lizards, and, when alarmed, it has -a peculiar faculty for sinking itself almost instantaneously under the -sand, much after the fashion of the shore-crabs of our own country. -Indeed, it is even more expeditious than the crab, which occupies some -little time in burrowing under the wet and yielding sand, whereas the -Skink slips beneath the dry and comparatively hard sand with such -rapidity that it seems rather to be diving into a nearly excavated -burrow than to be scooping a hollow for itself. - -The sand is therefore a place of safety to the Skink, which does not, -like the crab, content itself with merely burying its body just below -the surface, but continues to burrow, sinking itself in a few seconds -to the depth of nearly a yard. - -The length of the Skink is about eight inches, and its very variable -colour is generally yellowish brown, crossed with several dark bands. -Several specimens, however, are spotted instead of banded with brown, -while some are banded with white, and others are spotted with white. -In all, however, the under-surface is silver grey. - - -It has been thought by several zoologists, that several of the Lizards -belonging to the Seps family may be included in the general term of -Chomet. - -This theory is strengthened by the fact that those of the Sepsidæ -which have no visible feet, and which, after the custom of such -Lizards, burrow in the sand, are even at the present day eaten by -Arabs, under the convenient title of Sand-fishes. - -Several species of the Sepsidæ inhabit Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, -and of these we will take two as examples. - -The first is the COMMON SEPS or CICIGNA (_Seps tridactylis_), a nearly -legless Lizard, having a very long and snake-like body, and four legs, -so small and feeble as to be of scarcely any use in locomotion. - -It bears some resemblance to the blindworm of England, feeds on much -the same diet, and has similar habits. It is perfectly harmless, its -teeth being too small, and its jaws too feeble, to hurt any creature -larger than those on which it feeds; but, like the blindworm, it is -much dreaded by the ignorant, who believe that it steals upon horses -and other cattle by night, and bites them as they sleep. - -Like other Lizards of its kind, it is one of the sand-lovers, burying -itself when it suspects danger. - - -The second example of the Sepsidæ is one that has its chief home in -Egypt. This is the CAPISTRATED SPHÆNOPS (_Sphænops sepsoides_). This -reptile is also a burrower, but does not sink so deeply into the sand -as those Lizards which have just been noticed. Indeed, it scarcely -burrows deeply enough to cover it, so that with the foot the sand may -be scraped off, and the reptile discovered. - -Sometimes it has recourse to a substitute for a tunnel, and will crawl -along the deep rut made by a cart-wheel rather than take the trouble -of excavating a passage for itself. In consequence of this -peculiarity, it may generally be found in any ridged ground, such as -that which is employed in the cultivation of rice and other grain, -and, as it prefers to follow the course of the ridges rather than -leave them, it may be taken without much trouble. It is perfectly -harmless, and, although when taken it struggles violently to escape, -it never employs its teeth on the hand that holds it. The colour of -the Sphænops is pale brown, diversified with a black stripe on either -side of the muzzle, and a longitudinal series of black dots along the -body. The tail is conical and pointed. - - - - -THE CHAMELEON, MONITOR, AND GECKO. - - Translation of the word _Koach_--Signification of the word, and - its applicability to the Chameleon--Power of the reptile's - grasp--The prehensile tail--Demeanour of the Chameleon on the - ground--The independent eyes--Its frequent change of - colour--Mode of taking prey--Strange notions respecting the - Chameleon--The Monitor, or Land Crocodile--Its habits and use to - mankind--The Nilotic Monitor, and its habit of destroying the - eggs and young of the Crocodile--The Gecko or Ferret of - Scripture. - - -In Levit. xi. 30 there occurs a word which has caused great trouble to -commentators. The word is _koach_ (pronounced as a dissyllable thus, -ko-ach). Primarily, it signifies power and strength, but in this -passage it signifies the name of some creature which is included in -the list of unclean beasts. There is very little doubt that it -signifies some species of lizard, and in the Authorized Version it is -rendered as CHAMELEON. The Jewish Bible accepts the same translation, -but appends to it the mark of doubt. - -There are two lizards to which the term may possibly be -applied--namely, the Chameleon and the Monitor; and, as the Authorized -Version of the Scriptures accepts the former interpretation, we will -first describe the Chameleon. - - -This reptile is very plentiful in the Holy Land, as well as in Egypt, -so that the Israelites would be perfectly familiar with it, both -during their captivity and after their escape. It is but a small -reptile, and the reader may well ask why a name denoting strength -should be given to it. I think that we may find the reason for its -name in the extraordinary power of its grasp, as it is able, by means -of its peculiarly-formed feet and prehensile tail, to grasp the -branches so tightly that it can scarcely be removed without damage. - -I once saw six or seven Chameleons huddled up together, all having -clasped each other's legs and tails so firmly that they formed a -bundle that might be rolled along the ground without being broken up. -In order to show the extraordinary power of the Chameleon's grasp, I -have had a figure drawn from a sketch taken by myself from a specimen -which I kept for several months. - - [Illustration: GECKO AND CHAMELEON. - - "_And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, - and the mole._"--LEVIT. xi. 30.] - -When the Chameleon wished to pass from one branch to another, it used -to hold firmly to the branch by the tail and one hind-foot, and -stretch out its body nearly horizontally, feeling about with the other -three feet, as if in search of a convenient resting-place. In this -curious attitude it would remain for a considerable time, apparently -suffering no inconvenience, though even the spider-monkey would have -been unable to maintain such an attitude for half the length of time. - -The strength of the grasp is really astonishing when contrasted with -the size of the reptile, as any one will find who allows the Chameleon -to grasp his finger, or who tries to detach it from the branch to -which it is clinging. The feet are most curiously made. They are -furnished with five toes, which are arranged like those of parrots and -other climbing birds, so as to close upon each other like the thumb -and finger of a human hand. They are armed with little yellow claws, -slightly curved and very sharp, and when they grasp the skin of the -hand they give it an unpleasantly sharp pinch. - -The tail is as prehensile as that of the spider-monkey, to which the -Chameleon bears a curious resemblance in some of its attitudes, though -nothing can be more different than the volatile, inquisitive, restless -disposition of the spider-monkey and the staid, sober demeanour of the -Chameleon. The reptile has the power of guiding the tail to any object -as correctly as if there were an eye at the end of the tail. When it -has been travelling over the branches of trees, I have often seen it -direct its tail to a projecting bud, and grasp it as firmly as if the -bud had been before and not behind it. - -Sometimes, when it rests on a branch, it allows the tail to hang down -as a sort of balance, the tip coiling and uncoiling unceasingly. But, -as soon as the reptile wishes to move, the tail is tightened to the -branch, and at once coiled round it. There really seems to be almost a -separate vitality and consciousness on the part of the tail, which -glides round an object as if it were acting with entire independence -of its owner. - -On the ground the Chameleon fares but poorly. Its walk is absolutely -ludicrous, and an experienced person might easily fail to identify a -Chameleon when walking with the same animal on a branch. It certainly -scrambles along at a tolerable rate, but it is absurdly awkward, its -legs sprawling widely on either side, and its feet grasping futilely -at every step. The tail, which is usually so lithe and nimble, is then -held stiffly from the body, with a slight curve upwards. - -The eyes are strange objects, projecting far from the head, and each -acting quite independently of the other, so that one eye may often be -directed forwards, and the other backwards. The eyeballs are covered -with a thick wrinkled skin, except a small aperture at the tip, which -can be opened and closed like our own eyelids. - -The changing colour of the Chameleon has been long known, though there -are many mistaken ideas concerning it. - -The reptile does not necessarily assume the colour of any object on -which it is placed, but sometimes takes a totally different colour. -Thus, if my Chameleon happened to come upon any scarlet substance, the -colour immediately became black, covered with innumerable circular -spots of light yellow. The change was so instantaneous that, as it -crawled on the scarlet cloth, the colour would alter, and the -fore-part of the body would be covered with yellow spots, while the -hinder parts retained their dull black. Scarlet always annoyed the -Chameleon, and it tried to escape whenever it found itself near any -substance of the obnoxious hue. - -The normal colour was undoubtedly black, with a slight tinge of grey. -But in a short time the whole creature would become a vivid verdigris -green, and, while the spectator was watching it, the legs would become -banded with rings of bright yellow, and spots and streaks of the same -colour would appear on the head and body. - -When it was excited either by anger or by expectation--as, for -example, when it heard a large fly buzzing near it--the colours were -singularly beautiful, almost exactly resembling in hue and arrangement -those of the jaguar. Of all the colours, green seemed generally to -predominate, but the creature would pass so rapidly from one colour to -another that it was scarcely possible to follow the various gradations -of hue. - -Some persons have imagined that the variation of colour depends on the -wants and passions of the animal. This is not the case. The change is -often caused by mental emotion, but is not dependent on it; and I -believe that the animal has no control whatever over its colour. The -best proof of this assertion may be found in the fact that my own -Chameleon changed colour several times after its death; and, indeed, -as long as I had the dead body before me, changes of hue were taking -place. - -The food of the Chameleon consists of insects, mostly flies, which it -catches by means of its tongue, which can be protruded to an -astonishing distance. The tongue is nearly cylindrical, and is -furnished at the tip with a slight cavity, which is filled with a very -glutinous secretion. When the Chameleon sees a fly or other insect, it -gently protrudes the tongue once or twice, as if taking aim, like a -billiard-player with his cue, and then, with a moderately smart -stroke, carries off the insect on the glutinous tip of the tongue. The -force with which the Chameleon strikes is really wonderful. My own -specimen used to look for flies from my hand, and at first I was as -much surprised with the force of the blow struck by the tongue as I -was with the grasping power of the feet. - -Among the wild legends with which the earlier naturalists adorned -their accounts of all animals with which they were not personally -familiar, those of the Chameleon are not the least curious. -"Themselves," writes Topsel, an author of the sixteenth century, "are -very gentle, never exasperated but when they are about wilde -fig-trees. - -"They have for their enemies the serpent, the crow, and the hawk. When -the hungry serpent doth assault them, they defend themselves in this -manner, as Alexander Mindius writeth. They take in their mouths a -broad and strong stalk, under protection of which, as under a buckler, -they defend themselves against their enemy the serpent, by reason that -the stalk is broader than the serpent can gripe in his mouth, and the -other parts of the chamæleon so firm and hard as the serpent cannot -hurt them: he laboureth but in vain to get a prey, so long as the -stalk is in the chamæleon's mouth. - -"But if the chamæleon at any time see a serpent taking the air, and -sunning himself under some green tree, he climbeth up into that tree, -and setteth himself directly over the serpent; then out of his mouth -he casteth a thread, like a spider, at the end of which hangeth a drop -of poyson as bright as any pearl; by this string he letteth down the -poyson upon the serpent, which, lighting upon it, killeth it -immediately. - -"And Scaliger reporteth a greater wonder than this in the description -of the chamæleon; for he saith, if the boughs of the tree so grow as -the perpendicular line cannot fall directly upon the serpent, then he -so correcteth and guideth it with his fore-feet that it falleth upon -the serpent within the mark of a hair's breadth. - -"The raven and the crow are also at variance with the chamæleon, and -so great is the adverse nature betwixt these twain, that if the crow -eat of the chamæleon being slain by him, he dyeth for it except he -recover his life by a bay-leaf, even as the elephant, after he hath -devoured a chamæleon, saveth his life by eating of the wilde -olive-tree. - -"But the greatest wonder of all is the hostility which Pliny reporteth -to be betwixt the chamæleon and the hawk. For he writeth that when a -hawk flyeth over a chamæleon, she hath no power to resist the -chamæleon, but falleth down before it, yeelding both her life and her -limbs to be devoured by it, and thus that devourer that liveth upon -the prey and blood of others hath no power to save her own life from -this little beast." - -It may here be remarked that the frog was said to save itself from the -water-ducks by seizing a stick crosswise in its mouth, so that when -the duck came to seize its prey, the stick came across the angles of -the jaws, and prevented the frog from being swallowed. - - -So much for the Chameleon. We will now take the NILOTIC MONITOR -(_Hydrosaurus niloticus_) and the LAND MONITOR (_Psammosaurus -scincus_), the other reptiles which have been conjectured to be the -real representatives of the Koach. - -These lizards attain to some size, the former sometimes measuring six -feet in length, and the latter but a foot or so less. Of the two, the -Land Monitor, being the more common, both in Palestine and Egypt, has -perhaps the best claim to be considered as the Koach of Scripture. It -is sometimes called the Land Crocodile. It is a carnivorous animal, -feeding upon other reptiles and the smaller mammalia, and is very fond -of the eggs of the crocodile, which it destroys in great numbers, and -is in consequence much venerated by the inhabitants of the country -about the Nile. - -The theory that this reptile may be the Koach of Leviticus is -strengthened by the fact that even at the present day it is cooked and -eaten by the natives, whereas the chameleon is so small and bony that -scarcely any one would take the trouble of cooking it. - -The Nilotic Monitor shares the same habit of devouring crocodiles' -eggs, and consequently shares the respect of those who are endangered -by the crocodile. It even eats the young crocodiles after they are -hatched, chasing them through the water, and capturing them by means -of its superior swiftness. It may be distinguished from the Land -Monitor by the elevated keel which runs along the whole of the spine -from the neck to the very end of the long tail. The general colour of -the Nilotic Monitor is olive-grey, mottled with black. On the back of -the neck are a series of curved bands of a whitish yellow. - - -It is mentioned on page 69, that the word _anâkah_, which is -translated as "ferret" in Levit. xi. 30, is certainly a lizard, and in -all probability is one of the Geckos. I have therefore introduced into -the same illustration on page 535 the commonest species of Gecko found -in Palestine. The reader will observe the flat, fan-like expansions at -the ends of the toes, by which it is able to adhere to flat surfaces. - - - - -SERPENTS. - - Serpents in general--Signification of the Hebrew word - _Nachash_--Various passages in which the Nachash is - mentioned--The fiery Serpents of the wilderness--Explanation of - the words "flying" and "fiery" as applied to Serpents--Haunts of - the Serpent--The Cobra, or Asp of Scripture--Meaning of the word - _Pethen_--The deaf Adder that stoppeth her ear--Serpent-charming - in the East--Principle on which the charmers work--Sluggishness - of the Serpent nature--Ceremony of initiation into - Serpent-charming--Theories respecting the deaf Adder--Luis of - Grenada's sermon--The Cerastes, or Horned Serpent--Appearance - and habits of the reptile--The "Adder in the path." - - -As we have seen that so much looseness of nomenclature prevailed among -the Hebrews even with regard to the mammalia, birds, and lizards, we -can but expect that the names of the Serpents will be equally -difficult to identify. - -No less than seven names are employed in the Old Testament to denote -some species of Serpent; but there are only two which can be -identified with any certainty, four others being left to mere -conjecture, and one being clearly a word which, like our snake or -serpent, is a word not restricted to any particular species, but -signifying Serpents in general. This word is _nâchâsh_ (pronounced -nah-kahsh). It is unfortunate that the word is so variously translated -in different passages of Scripture, and we cannot do better than to -follow it through the Old Testament, so as to bring all the passages -under our glance. - -The first mention of the Nâchâsh occurs in Gen. iii., in the -well-known passage where the Serpent is said to be more subtle than -all the beasts of the field, the wisdom or subtlety of the Serpent -having evidently an allegorical and not a categorical signification. -We find the same symbolism employed in the New Testament, the -disciples of our Lord being told to be "wise as serpents, and harmless -as doves." - -Allusion is made to the gliding movement of the Serpent tribe in Prov. -xxx. 19. On this part of the subject little need be said, except that -the movements of the Serpent are owing to the mobility of the ribs, -which are pushed forward in succession and drawn back again, so as to -catch against any inequality of the ground. This power is increased by -the structure of the scales. Those of the upper part of the body, -which are not used for locomotion, are shaped something like the -scales of a fish; but those of the lower part of the body, which come -in contact with the ground, are broad belts, each overlapping the -other, and each connected with one pair of ribs. - -When, therefore, the Serpent pushes forward the ribs, the edges of the -scaly belts will catch against the slightest projection, and are able -to give a very powerful impetus to the body. It is scarcely possible -to drag a snake backwards over rough ground; while on a smooth -surface, such as glass, the Serpent would be totally unable to -proceed. This, however, was not likely to have been studied by the -ancient Hebrews, who were among the most unobservant of mankind with -regard to details of natural history: it is, therefore, no wonder that -the gliding of the Serpent should strike the writer of the proverb in -question as a mystery which he could not explain. - -The poisonous nature of some of the Serpents is mentioned in several -passages of Scripture; and it will be seen that the ancient Hebrews, -like many modern Europeans, believed that the poison lay in the forked -tongue. See, for example, Ps. lviii. 4: "Their poison is like the -poison of a serpent" (_nâchâsh_). Also Prov. xxiii. 32, in which the -sacred writer says of wine that it brings woe, sorrow, contentions, -wounds without cause, redness of eyes, and that "at the last it biteth -like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder." - - [Illustration: COBRA AND CERASTES, THE ASP AND ADDER OF SCRIPTURE. - - "_They are like the deaf asp_ (marginal translation) _that stoppeth - her ear, which will not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming - never so wisely._"--PS. lviii. 4, 5. - - "_Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path._"--GEN. - xlix. 17.] - -The idea that the poison of the Serpent lies in the tongue is seen in -several passages of Scripture. "They have sharpened their tongues like -a serpent; adders' poison is under their lips" (Ps. cxl. 3). Also in -Job xx. 16, the sacred writer says of the hypocrite, that "he shall -suck the poison of asps: the viper's tongue shall slay him." - -As to the fiery Serpents of the wilderness, it is scarcely needful to -mention that the epithet of "fiery" does not signify that the Serpents -in question produced real fire from their mouths, but that allusion is -made to the power and virulence of their poison, and to the pain -caused by their bite. We ourselves naturally employ a similar -metaphor, and speak of a "burning pain," of a "fiery trial," of "hot -anger," and the like. - -The epithet of "flying" which is applied to these Serpents is -explained by the earlier commentators as having reference to a Serpent -which they called the Dart Snake, and which they believed to lie in -wait for men and to spring at them from a distance. They thought that -this snake hid itself either in hollows of the ground or in trees, and -sprang through the air for thirty feet upon any man or beast that -happened to pass by. - -"And surely if it be lawful to conjecture what kinds of Serpents those -were which in the Scripture were called Fiery Serpents, and did sting -the Israelites to death in the Wildernesse, until the Brazen Serpent -was erected for their cure; among all the Serpents in the world, that -kind of death and pain can be ascribed to none more properly than to -these Cafezati, or Red-dart Serpents. - -"For first, the Wildernesse, which was the place wherein they annoyed -the people, doth very well agree to their habitation. Secondly, the -Fiery Serpents are so called by figure, not that they are fiery, but, -as all Writers do agree, either because they were red like fire; or -else because the pain which they inflicted did burn like fire, or -rather for both these causes together, which are joyntly and severally -found in these Red Serpents. And therefore I will conclude for my -opinion, that these Serpents (as the highest poyson in nature) were -sent by God to afflict the sinning Israelites, whose poyson was -uncurable, except by Divine miracle." - -The places in which the Serpent is accustomed to lie are mentioned in -various portions of the Old Testament. The habit of lying in hedges is -mentioned in Ecclesiastes. "He that diggeth a pit shall fall into it; -and whoso breaketh an hedge, a serpent shall bite him" (Eccles. x. 8). -The Prophet Amos alludes to its custom of haunting the walls of houses -(see v. 18, 19): "The day of the Lord is darkness, and not light. - -"As if a man did flee from a lion, and a bear met him; or went into -the house, and leaned his hand on the wall, and a serpent bit him." -This passage refers also to the ordinary architecture of the East, the -walls of common houses, such as those with which a herdman like Amos -would be most familiar, being little more than hurdles covered with -mud. Such walls would soon fall into disrepair, and would be full of -holes, in which spiders, centipedes, lizards, and serpents hide -themselves. - - -We will now take the various species of Serpents mentioned in the -Bible, as nearly as they can be identified. - -Of one species there is no doubt whatever. This is the COBRA (_Naja -haje_), a serpent which is evidently signified by the Hebrew word -_pethen_. - -There are several passages in which this word occurs, nearly all of -which contain some allusion to its poisonous nature, and one of them -mentioning a characteristic which settles its identity beyond doubt. - -In the very beginning of the Scriptural books we find a reference to -the Pethen. The first occurs in Deut. xxxii. 33: "Their vine is of the -vine of Sodom, and of the fields of Gomorrah: their grapes are grapes -of gall, their clusters are bitter: - -"Their wine is the poison of dragons, and the cruel venom of asps" -(_pethenim_). - -Next we come to the passage in Job xx. 14-16: "Yet his meat in his -bowels is turned, it is the gall of asps (_pethenim_) within him. - -"He hath swallowed down riches, and he shall vomit them up again: God -shall cast them out of his belly. - -"He shall suck the poison of asps (_pethenim_): the viper's (_epheh_) -tongue shall slay him." - -These passages clearly indicate the venomous nature of the Pethen, and -there is another which occurs in Isaiah, in which the same quality is -inferred though not directly stated. It occurs in chap. xi., which is -devoted to a prophecy of the spiritual reign of the Messiah, and in -which is found that allusion to Himself which our Lord quoted in the -Temple (see ver. 2). The passage with which we have now to do occurs -in verse 8: "And the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp -(_pethen_), and the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' -den." - -We may also find a passage in the Psalms, in which the Pethen is -classed with the lion as being equally to be dreaded by the traveller. -"Thou shalt tread upon the lion and adder (_pethen_), the young lion -and the dragon shalt thou trample under feet." - -All these passages agree in one point, namely, that the Pethen is a -creature the bite of which is exceedingly venomous, but there is -nothing in them to assist us in identifying it. The Pethen may be, as -far as these passages are concerned, any kind of venomous Serpent. But -there is just one allusion to the Pethen which enables us to decide at -once as to its identity. It occurs in Ps. lviii. 3-5: "The wicked are -estranged from the womb: they go astray as soon as they be born, -speaking lies. - -"Their poison is like the poison of a serpent: they are like the deaf -adder (_pethen_) that stoppeth her ear; - -"Which will not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming never so -wisely." The last verse is rendered rather differently in the Jewish -Bible: "Which will not hearken to the voice of whisperers, the cunning -master of charms." - -Here we have a clue to the identification of the Pethen. It is -evidently a Serpent that was accustomed to be subjected to the action -of charmers; and as we find that in the olden times and at the present -day the cobra, a most venomous Serpent, was and is tamed by -professional charmers, there is no doubt that the Egyptian cobra is -the Pethen of Scripture. I say the Egyptian cobra, because there is a -closely allied species, the cobra of India (_Naja tripudians_), which -very much resembles the Naja haje, and which is also tamed by -serpent-charmers. A passing allusion to this custom in taming Serpents -is made by St. James in his General Epistle, chap. iii. 7: "For every -kind of beasts, and of birds, and of serpents, and of things in the -sea, is tamed, and hath been tamed by mankind: - -"But the tongue can no man tame; it is an unruly evil, full of deadly -poison." - -How the serpent-charmers perform their feats is not very intelligible. -That they handle the most venomous Serpents with perfect impunity is -evident enough, and it is also clear that they are able to produce -certain effects upon the Serpents by means of musical (or unmusical) -sounds. But these two items are entirely distinct, and one does not -depend upon the other. - -In the first place, the handling of venomous snakes has been -performed by Englishmen without the least recourse to any arts except -that of acquaintance with the habits of Serpents. The late Mr. -Waterton, for example, would take up a rattlesnake in his bare hand -without feeling the least uneasy as to the behaviour of his prisoner. -He once took twenty-seven rattlesnakes out of a box, carried them into -another room, put them into a large glass case, and afterwards -replaced them in the box. He described to me the manner in which he -did it, using my wrist as the representative of the Serpent. - -The nature of all Serpents is rather peculiar, and is probably owing -to the mode in which the blood circulates. They are extremely -unwilling to move, except when urged by the wants of nature, and will -lie coiled up for many hours together when not pressed by hunger. -Consequently, when touched, their feeling is evidently like that of a -drowsy man, who only tries to shake off the object which may rouse -him, and composes himself afresh to sleep. - -A quick and sudden movement would, however, alarm the reptile, which -would strike in self-defence, and, sluggish as are its general -movements, its stroke is delivered with such lightning rapidity that -it would be sure to inflict its fatal wound before it was seized. If, -therefore, Mr. Waterton saw a Serpent which he desired to catch, he -would creep very quietly up to it, and with a gentle, slow movement -place his fingers round its neck just behind the head. If it happened -to be coiled up in such a manner that he could not get at its neck, he -had only to touch it gently until it moved sufficiently for his -purpose. - -When he had once placed his hand on the Serpent, it was in his power. -He would then grasp it very lightly indeed, and raise it gently from -the ground, trusting that the reptile would be more inclined to be -carried quietly than to summon up sufficient energy to bite. Even if -it had tried to use its fangs, it could not have done so as long as -its captor's fingers were round its neck. - -As a rule, a great amount of provocation is needed before a venomous -Serpent will use its teeth. One of my friends, when a boy, caught a -viper, mistaking it for a common snake. He tied it round his neck, -coiled it on his wrist by way of a bracelet, and so took it home, -playing many similar tricks with it as he went. After arrival in the -house, he produced the viper for the amusement of his brothers and -sisters, and, after repeating his performances, tried to tie the snake -in a double knot. This, however, was enough to provoke the most -pacific of creatures, and in consequence he received a bite on his -finger. - -There is no doubt that the snake-charmers trust chiefly to this -sluggish nature of the reptile, but they certainly go through some -ceremonies by which they believe themselves to be rendered impervious -to snake-bites. They will coil the cobra round their naked bodies, -they will irritate the reptile until it is in a state of fury; they -will even allow it to bite them, and yet be none the worse for the -wound. Then, as if to show that the venomous teeth have not been -abstracted, as is possibly supposed to be the case, they will make the -cobra bite a fowl, which speedily dies from the effects of the poison. - -Even if the fangs were extracted, the Serpents would lose little of -their venomous power. These reptiles are furnished with a whole series -of fangs in different stages of development, so that when the one in -use is broken or shed in the course of nature, another comes forward -and fills its place. There is now before me a row of four fangs, which -I took from the right upper jawbone of a viper caught in the New -Forest. - -In her interesting "Letters from Egypt," Lady Duff-Gordon gives an -amusing account of the manner in which she was formally initiated into -the mysteries of snake-charming, and made ever afterwards impervious -to the bite of venomous Serpents:-- - -"At Kóm Omboo, we met with a Rifáee darweesh with his basket of tame -snakes. After a little talk, he proposed to initiate me: and so we sat -down and held hands like people marrying. Omar [her attendant] sat -behind me, and repeated the words as my 'wakeel.' Then the Rifáee -twisted a cobra round our joined hands, and requested me to spit on -it; he did the same, and I was pronounced safe and enveloped in -snakes. My sailors groaned, and Omar shuddered as the snakes put out -their tongues; the darweesh and I smiled at each other like Roman -augurs." - -She believed that the snakes were toothless; and perhaps on this -occasion they may have been so. Extracting the teeth of the Serpent is -an easy business in experienced hands, and is conducted in two ways. -Those snake-charmers who are confident of their own powers merely -grasp the reptile by the neck, force open its jaws with a piece of -stick, and break off the fangs, which are but loosely attached to the -jaw. Those who are not so sure of themselves irritate the snake, and -offer it a piece of cloth, generally the corner of their mantle, to -bite. The snake darts at it, and, as it seizes the garment, the man -gives the cloth a sudden jerk, and so tears away the fangs. - -Still, although some of the performers employ mutilated snakes, there -is no doubt that others do not trouble themselves to remove the fangs -of the Serpents, but handle with impunity the cobra or the cerastes -with all its venomous apparatus in good order. - -We now come to the second branch of the subject, namely, the influence -of sound upon the cobra and other Serpents. The charmers are always -provided with musical instruments, of which a sort of flute with a -loud shrill sound is the one which is mostly used in the performances. -Having ascertained, from slight marks which their practised eyes -easily discover, that a Serpent is hidden in some crevice, the charmer -plays upon his flute, and in a short time the snake is sure to make -its appearance. - -As soon as it is fairly out, the man seizes it by the end of the tail, -and holds it up in the air at arm's length. In this position it is -helpless, having no leverage, and merely wriggles about in fruitless -struggles to escape. Having allowed it to exhaust its strength by its -efforts, the man lowers it into a basket, where it is only too glad to -find a refuge, and closes the lid. After a while, he raises the lid -and begins to play the flute. - -The Serpent tries to glide out of the basket, but, as soon as it does -so, the lid is shut down again, and in a very short time the reptile -finds that escape is impossible, and, as long as it hears the sound of -the flute, only raises its head in the air, supporting itself on the -lower portion of its tail, and continues to wave its head from side to -side as long as it hears the sound of the music. - -The rapidity with which a cobra learns this lesson is extraordinary, -the charmers being as willing to show their mastery over newly-caught -Serpents as over those which have been long in their possession. Some -persons have thought that all the snakes caught by the professional -charmers are tame reptiles, which have been previously placed in the -hole by the men, and which have been deprived of their fangs. Careful -investigations, however, have proved that the snake is really -attracted by the shrill notes of the flute, and that the charmers -handle with unconcern the snakes which are in full possession of their -fangs and poison-glands. - -The allusion to the "deaf adder, which stoppeth her ears." needs a -little explanation. Some species of Serpent are more susceptible to -sound than others, the cobra being the most sensitive of all the -tribe. Any of these which are comparatively insensible to the charmers -efforts may be considered as "deaf adders." But there has been from -time immemorial a belief in the East that some individual Serpents are -very obstinate and self-willed, refusing to hear the shrill sound of -the flute, or the magic song of the charmer, and pressing one ear into -the dust, while they stop the other with the tail. - -Louis of Grenada, one of whose quaint sermons has already been quoted, -alludes in another discourse to this curious belief, in which it is -evident that he fully concurred. - -"_Dominica XI. post Pent. Concio_ 1: - -"'Furor illis secundum similitudinem serpentis sicut aspidis et -obturantis aures suas; quæ non exaudit vocem incantantium, et venefici -incantantis sapienter.' - -"Vulgo enim ferunt aspidem cum incantatur ne lethali veneno homines -inficiat, alteram aurem terræ affigere, alteram vero cauda in eam -immissa obstruere ut ita demum veneni vis intus latentis illæsa -maneat. - -"Ad hoc igitur modum cum sapiens incantatur, hoc est, divini verbi -concionator obstinatos homines ad sanitatem perducere et lethale -venenum peccati, quod in eorum mentibus residet delere contendit; illi -contra (dæmone id operante) sic aures suas huic divinæ incantationi -claudunt ut nihil prorsus eorum quæ dicuntur advertant." - -"_Eleventh Sunday after Pentecost, Sermon_ 1: - -"'Their fury is after the likeness of the serpent, as the asp which -even stoppeth her ears--which heedeth not the voice of the charmers; -even of the wizard which charmeth wisely.' - -"For they say commonly, the asp while she is charmed, so that she -poisoneth not men with her deadly venom, layeth one of her ears to the -ground and stoppeth the other by thereinto putting her tail, that so -the strength of the poison which lurketh within may abide unhurt. - -"After this manner, therefore, when the wise charmer--that is, the -preacher of the Word of God--striveth to lead obstinate men to health, -and to destroy the deadly poison of sin which dwelleth in their minds, -they, on the other hand (the devil bringing this to pass), do so shut -their ears to this divine charming that they heed nothing at all of -these things which are said." - -In order to show how widely this idea of the snake stopping its ears -is spread, I insert the following extract from a commentary on the -Psalms by Richard Rolle (Hermit) of Hampole. It is taken from the MS. -in Eton College Library, No. 10, date 1450. R. Rolle died just a -hundred years before his commentary was translated into the Northern -dialect. - -"'Furor illis se[~c]d[~m] similitudin[~e] [~s]pentis: sicut aspidus -surde et obturantis aures suas.' ¶ Wodnes til Þase after Þe lykenying -of nedder: als of snake doumbe and stoppand hir erres. ¶ Rightly -calles he Þa[~i] wode for Þai haue na witt to se whider Þai ga for Þai -louke Þaire eghen and rennes til Þe fire Þaire wodnes es domested Þat -will not be [~t]ned als of Þe snake Þat festes Þe tane ere till Þe -erther and Þe toÞer stopis with hi[~r] tayle swa Þai do Þat here noght -godes worde Þai stoppe Þai[~r] erres with lufe of erthely thyng Þat -Þai delite Þa[~i] one and with Þaire tayle Þat es with aide synes Þat Þai -will noght amende." - -It may be as well to remark, before passing to another of the -Serpents, that snakes have no external ears, and that therefore the -notion of the serpent stopping its ears is zoologically a simple -absurdity. - - -THE CERASTES, OR SHEPHIPHON OF SCRIPTURE. - -The word _shephiphon_, which evidently signifies some species of -snake, only occurs once in the Scriptures, but fortunately that single -passage contains an allusion to the habits of the serpent which makes -identification nearly certain. The passage in question occurs in Gen. -xlix. 17, and forms part of the prophecy of Jacob respecting his -children: "Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path, -that biteth the horses heels, so that his rider shall fall backward." - -Putting aside the deeper meaning of this prophecy, there is here an -evident allusion to the habits of the CERASTES, or HORNED VIPER, a -species of venomous serpent, which is plentiful in Northern Africa, -and is found also in Palestine and Syria. It is a very conspicuous -reptile, and is easily recognised by the two horn-like projections -over the eyes. The name Cerastes, or horned, has been given to it on -account of these projections. - -This snake has a custom of lying half buried in the sand, awaiting the -approach of some animal on which it can feed. Its usual diet consists -of the jerboas and other small mammalia, and as they are exceedingly -active, while the Cerastes is slow and sluggish, its only chance of -obtaining food is to lie in wait. It will always take advantage of any -small depression, such as the print of a camel's foot, and, as it -finds many of these depressions in the line of the caravans, it is -literally "a serpent by the way, an adder in the path." - -According to the accounts of travellers, the Cerastes is much more -irritable than the cobra, and is very apt to strike at any object -which may disturb it. Therefore, whenever a horseman passes along the -usual route, his steed is very likely to disturb a Cerastes lying in -the path, and to be liable to the attack of the irritated reptile. -Horses are instinctively aware of the presence of the snake, and -mostly perceive it in time to avoid its stroke. Its small dimensions, -the snake rarely exceeding two feet in length, enable it to conceal -itself in a very small hollow, and its brownish-white colour, -diversified with darker spots, causes it to harmonize so thoroughly -with the loose sand in which it lies buried, that, even when it is -pointed out, an unpractised eye does not readily perceive it. - -Even the cobra is scarcely so dreaded as this little snake, whose bite -is so deadly, and whose habits are such as to cause travellers -considerable risk of being bitten. - - - - -THE VIPER, OR EPHEH. - - Passages in which the word _Epheh_ occurs--El-effah--The Sand - Viper, or Toxicoa--Its appearance and habits--The - Acshub--Adder's poison--The Spuugh-Slange--The Cockatrice, or - Tsepha--The Yellow Viper--Ancient ideas concerning the - Cockatrice--Power of its venom. - - -We now come to the species of snake which cannot be identified with -any certainty, and will first take the word _epheh_, which is -curiously like to the Greek _ophis_. From the context of the three -passages in which it occurs, it is evidently a specific, and not a -collective name, but we are left in much doubt as to the precise -species which is intended by it. The first of those passages occurs in -Job xx. 16: "The viper's (_epheh_) tongue shall slay him." The second -is found in Isa. xxx. 6: "The burden of the beasts of the south: into -the land of trouble and anguish, from whence come the young and old -lion, the viper (_epheh_) and fiery flying serpent." The last of these -passages occurs in ch. lix. 5 of the same book: "That which is crushed -breaketh out into a viper" (_epheh_). - -The reader will see that in neither of those passages have we the -least intimation as to the particular species which is signified by -the word _epheh_, and the only collateral evidence which we have on -the subject fails exactly in the most important point. We are told by -Shaw that in Northern Africa there is a small snake, the most -poisonous of its tribe, which is called by the name of _El-effah_, a -word which is absolutely identical with the Epheh of the Old -Testament. But, as he does not identify the _effah_, except by saying -that it rarely exceeds a foot in length, we gain little by its -discovery. - -Mr. Tristram believes that he has identified the Epheh of the Old -Testament with the Sand-Viper, or Toxicoa (_Echis arenicola_). This -reptile, though very small, and scarcely exceeding a foot in length, -is a dangerous one, though its bite is not so deadly as that of the -cobra or cerastes. It is variable in colour, but has angular white -streaks on its body, and a row of whitish spots along the back. The -top of the head is dark, and variegated with arrow-shaped white marks. - - [Illustration: THE TOXICOA. (Supposed to be the viper of Scripture.) - - "_The viper's tongue shall slay him._"--JOB xx. 16.] - -The Toxicoa is very plentiful in Northern Africa, Palestine, Syria, -and the neighbouring countries, and, as it is exceedingly active, is -held in some dread by the natives. The Toxicoa is closely allied to -the dreaded Horatta-pam snake of India (_Echis carinata_). - -The old Hebraists can make nothing of the word, but it is not unlikely -that a further and fuller investigation of the ophiology of Northern -Africa may succeed where mere scholarship, unallied with zoological -knowledge, has failed. - - -The next word is _acshub_ (pronounced [)a]k-shoob). It only occurs in -one passage, namely Ps. cxl. 3: "They have sharpened their tongues -like a serpent (_nachash_); adder's (_acshub_) poison is under their -lips." The precise species represented by this word is unknown. -Buxtorf, however, explains the word as the Spitter, "illud genus quod -venenum procul exspuit." Now, if we accept this derivation, we must -take the word _acshub_ as a synonym for _pethen_. We have already -identified the Pethen with the Naja haje, a snake which has the power -of expelling the poison to some distance, when it is out of reach of -its enemy. Whether the snake really intends to eject the poison, or -whether it is merely flung from the hollow fangs by the force of the -suddenly-checked stroke, is uncertain. That the Haje cobra can expel -its poison is an acknowledged fact, and the Dutch colonists of the -Cape have been so familiarly acquainted with this habit, that they -have called this reptile by the name of Spuugh-Slange, or Spitting -Snake, a name which, if we accept Buxtorf's etymology, is precisely -equivalent to the word _acshub_. - - -Another name of a poisonous snake occurs several times in the Old -Testament. The word is _tsepha_, or _tsiphôni_, and it is sometimes -translated as Adder, and sometimes as Cockatrice. The word is rendered -as Adder in Prov. xxiii. 32, where it is said that wine "biteth like a -serpent, and stingeth like an adder." Even in this case, however, the -word is rendered as Cockatrice in the marginal translation. - -It is found three times in the Book of Isaiah. Ch. xi. 8: "The weaned -child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den." Also, ch. xiv. 29: -"Rejoice not thou, whole Palestina, because the rod of him that smote -thee is broken: for out of the serpent's (_nachash_) nest shall come -forth a cockatrice (_tsepha_), and his fruit shall be a fiery flying -serpent." The same word occurs again in ch. lix. 5: "They hatch -cockatrice' eggs." In the prophet Jeremiah we again find the word: -"For, behold, I will send serpents, cockatrices among you, which will -not be charmed, and they shall bite you, saith the Lord." - -This last passage gives us a little, but not much, assistance in -identifying the Tsepha. We learn by it that the Tsepha was one of the -serpents that were not subject to charmers, and so we are able to say -that it was neither the cobra, which we have identified with the -Pethen of Scripture, nor the Cerastes or Horned Snake, which has been -shown to be the Shephiphon. Our evidence is therefore only of a -negative character, and the only positive evidence is that which may -be inferred from the passage in Isa. xiv. 29, where the Tsepha is -evidently thought to be more venomous than the ordinary serpent or -Nachash. - -Mr. Tristram suggests that the Tsepha of Scripture may possibly be the -Yellow Viper (_Daboia xanthica_), which is one of the largest and most -venomous of the poisonous serpents which are found in Palestine, and -which is the more dangerous on account of its nocturnal habits. This -snake is one of the Katukas, and is closely allied to the dreaded -Tic-polonga of Ceylon, a serpent which is so deadly, and so given to -infesting houses, that one of the judges was actually driven out of -his official residence by it. - -As to the old ideas respecting the origin of the Cockatrice, a very -few words will suffice for them. This serpent was thought to be -produced from an egg laid by a cock and hatched by a viper. "For they -say," writes Topsel, "that when a cock groweth old, he layeth a -certain egge without any shell, in stead whereof it is covered with a -very thick skin, which is able to withstand the greatest force of an -easie blow or fall. They say moreover that this Egge is laid only in -the summer time, about the beginning of Dog days, being not so long as -a Hen's Egge, but round and orbicular. Sometimes of a dirty, sometimes -of a boxy, and sometimes of yellowish muddy colour, which Egge, -afterwards sat upon by a Snake or a Toad, bringeth forth the -Cockatrice, being half a foot in length, the hinder part like a Snake, -the former part like a Cock, because of a treble combe on his -forehead. - -"But the vulgar opinion of _Europe_ is, that the Egge is nourished by -a Toad, and not by a Snake; howbeit in better experience it found that -the Cock doth sit on that Egge himself: whereof _Serianus Semnius_ in -his twelfth book of the Hidden Animals of Nature hath this discourse, -in the fourth chapter thereof. 'There happened,' saith he, 'within our -memory, in the city of Pirizæa, that there were two old Cocks which -had laid Egges, and the common people (because of opinion that those -Egges would engender Cockatrices) laboured by all meanes possible to -keep the same Cocks from sitting on those Egges, but they could not -with clubs and staves drive them from the Egges, until they were -forced to break the Egges in sunder, and strangle the Cocks." - -In this curious history it is easy to see the origin of the notion -respecting the birth of the Cockatrice. It is well known that hens, -after they have reached an advanced age, assume much of the plumage -and voice of the male bird. Still, that one of them should -occasionally lay an egg is no great matter of wonder, and, as the egg -would be naturally deposited in a retired and sheltered spot, such as -would be the favoured haunts of the warmth-loving snake, the ignorant -public might easily put together a legend which, absurd in itself, is -yet founded on facts. The small shell-less egg, so often laid by -poultry, is familiar to every one who has kept fowls. - -Around this reptile a wonderful variety of legends have been -accumulated. The Cockatrice was said to kill by its very look, -"because the beams of the Cockatrice's eyes do corrupt the visible -spirit of a man, which visible spirit corrupted all the other spirits -coming from the brain and life of the heart, are thereby corrupted, -and so the man dyeth." - -The subtle poison of the Cockatrice infected everything near it, so -that a man who killed a Cockatrice with a spear fell dead himself, by -reason of the poison darting up the shaft of the spear and passing -into his hand. Any living thing near which the Cockatrice passed was -instantly slain by the fiery heat of its venom, which was exhaled not -only from its mouth, but its sides. For the old writers, whose -statements are here summarized, contrived to jumble together a number -of miscellaneous facts in natural history, and so to produce a most -extraordinary series of legends. We have already seen the real origin -of the legend respecting the egg from which the Cockatrice was -supposed to spring, and we may here see that some one of these old -writers has in his mind some uncertain floating idea of the -respiratory orifices of the lamprey, and has engrafted them on the -Cockatrice. - -"To conclude," writes Topsel, "this poyson infecteth the air, and the -air so infected killeth all living things, and likewise all green -things, fruits, and plants of the earth: it burneth up the grasse -whereupon it goeth or creepeth, and the fowls of the air fall down -dead when they come near his den or lodging. Sometimes he biteth a Man -or a Beast, and by that wound the blood turneth into choler, and so -the whole body becometh yellow as gold, presently killing all who -touch it or come near it." - -I should not have given even this limited space to such puerile -legends, but for the fact that such stories as these were fully -believed in the days when the Authorized Version of the Bible was -translated. The ludicrous tales which have been occasionally mentioned -formed the staple of zoological knowledge, and an untravelled -Englishman had no possible means of learning the history of foreign -animals, except from such books which have been quoted, and which were -in those days the standard works on Natural History. The translators -of the Bible believed most heartily in the mysterious and baleful -reptile, and, as they saw that the Tsepha of Scripture was an -exceptionally venomous serpent, they naturally rendered it by the word -Cockatrice. - - - - -THE FROG. - - The Frog only mentioned in the Old Testament as connected with - the plagues of Egypt--The severity of this plague explained--The - Frog detestable to the Egyptians--The Edible Frog and its - numbers--Description of the species. - - -Plentiful as is the Frog throughout Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, it is -very remarkable that in the whole of the canonical books of the Old -Testament the word is only mentioned thrice, and each case in -connexion with the same event. - -In Exod. viii. we find that the second of the plagues which visited -Egypt came out of the Nile, the sacred river, in the form of -innumerable Frogs. The reader will probably remark, on perusing the -consecutive account of these plagues, that the two first plagues were -connected with that river, and that they were foreshadowed by the -transformation of Aaron's rod. - -When Moses and Aaron appeared before Pharaoh to ask him to let the -people go, Pharaoh demanded a miracle from them, as had been foretold. -Following the divine command, Aaron threw down his rod, which was -transformed into a crocodile--the most sacred inhabitant of the sacred -river--a river which was to the Egyptians what the Ganges is to the -Hindoos. - -Next, as was most appropriate, came a transformation wrought on the -river by means of the same rod which had been transformed into a -crocodile, the whole of the fresh-water throughout the land being -turned into blood, and the fish dying and polluting the venerated -river with their putrefying bodies. In Egypt, a partially rainless -country, such a calamity as this was doubly terrible, as it at the -same time desecrated the object of their worship, and menaced them -with perishing by thirst. - - [Illustration: THE FROG (_Rana esculenta_). - - "_And the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly._"--EXOD. viii. 3.] - -The next plague had also its origin in the river, but extended far -beyond the limits of its banks. The frogs, being unable to return to -the contaminated stream wherein they had lived, spread themselves in -all directions, so as to fulfil the words of the prediction: "If thou -refuse to let them go, behold, I will smite all thy borders with -frogs: - -"And the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly, which shall go up -and come into thine house, and into thy bed-chamber, and upon thy -bed, and into the house of thy servants, and upon thy people, and into -thine ovens, and into thy kneading-troughs" (or dough). - -Supposing that such a plague was to come upon us at the present day, -we should consider it to be a terrible annoyance, yet scarcely worthy -of the name of plague, and certainly not to be classed with the -turning of a river into blood, with the hail and lightning that -destroyed the crops and cattle, and with the simultaneous death of the -first-born. But the Egyptians suffered most keenly from the -infliction. They were a singularly fastidious people, and abhorred the -contact of anything that they held to be unclean. We may well realize, -therefore, the effect of a visitation of Frogs, which rendered their -houses unclean by entering them, and themselves unclean by leaping -upon them; which deprived them of rest by getting on their beds, and -of food by crawling into their ovens and upon the dough in the -kneading-troughs. - -And, as if to make the visitation still worse, when the plague was -removed, the Frogs died in the places into which they had intruded, so -that the Egyptians were obliged to clear their houses of the dead -carcases, and to pile them up in heaps, to be dried by the sun or -eaten by birds and other scavengers of the East. - -As to the species of Frog which thus invaded the houses of the -Egyptians, there is no doubt whatever. It can be but the GREEN, or -EDIBLE FROG (_Rana esculenta_), which is so well known for the -delicacy of its flesh. This is believed to be the only aquatic Frog of -Egypt, and therefore must be the species which came out of the river -into the houses. - -Both in Egypt and Palestine it exists in very great numbers, swarming -in every marshy place, and inhabiting the pools in such numbers that -the water can scarcely be seen for the Frogs. Thus the multitudes of -the Frogs which invaded the Egyptians was no matter of wonder, the -only miraculous element being that the reptiles were simultaneously -directed to the houses, and their simultaneous death when the plague -was taken away. - -It has, however, been suggested that, at the time of year at which the -event occurred, the young Frogs were in the tadpole stage of -existence, and therefore would not be able to pass over land. But, -even granting that to be the case, it does not follow that the adult -Frogs were not numerous enough to produce the visitation, and it -seems likely that those who were not yet developed were left to -reproduce the race after the full-grown Frogs had perished. - -The Green Frog is larger than our common English species, and is -prettily coloured, the back being green, spotted with black, and -having three black stripes upon it. The under parts are yellowish. At -night it keeps up a continued and very loud croaking, so that a pond -in which a number of these Frogs are kept is quite destructive of -sleep to any one who is not used to the noise. - -Frogs are also mentioned in Rev. xvi. 13: "And I saw three unclean -spirits like frogs come out of the mouth of the dragon, and out of the -mouth of the beast, and out of the mouth of the false prophet." With -the exception of this passage, which is a purely symbolical one, there -is no mention of Frogs in the New Testament. It is rather remarkable -that the Toad, which might be thought to afford an excellent symbol -for various forms of evil, is entirely ignored, both in the Old and -New Testaments. Probably the Frogs and Toads were all classed together -under the same title. - - - - -FISHES. - - - - -FISHES. - - Impossibility of distinguishing the different species of - Fishes--The fishermen Apostles--Fish used for food--The miracle - of the loaves and Fishes--The Fish broiled on the coals--Clean - and unclean Fishes--The scientific writings of Solomon--The - Sheat-fish, or Silurus--The Eel and the Muræna--The Long-headed - Barbel--Fish-ponds and preserves--The Fish-ponds of Heshbon--The - Sucking-fish--The Lump-sucker--The Tunny--The Coryphene. - - -We now come to the FISHES, a class of animals which are repeatedly -mentioned both in the Old and New Testaments, but only in general -terms, no one species being described so as to give the slightest -indication of its identity. - -This is the more remarkable because, although the Jews were, like all -Orientals, utterly unobservant of those characteristics by which the -various species are distinguished from each other, we might expect -that St. Peter and other of the fisher Apostles would have given the -names of some of the Fish which they were in the habit of catching, -and by the sale of which they gained their living. - -It is true that the Jews, as a nation, would not distinguish between -the various species of Fishes, except, perhaps, by comparative size. -But professional fishermen would be sure to distinguish one species -from another, if only for the fact that they would sell the -best-flavoured Fish at the highest price. - -We might have expected, for example, that the Apostles and disciples -who were present when the miraculous draught of Fishes took place -would have mentioned the technical names by which they were accustomed -to distinguish the different degrees of the saleable and unsaleable -kinds. - -Or we might have expected that on the occasion when St. Peter cast his -line and hook into the sea, and drew out a Fish holding the -tribute-money in his mouth, we might have learned the particular -species of Fish which was thus captured. We ourselves would assuredly -have done so. It would not have been thought sufficient merely to say -that a Fish was caught with money in its mouth, but it would have -been considered necessary to mention the particular fish as well as -the particular coin. - -But it must be remembered that the whole tone of thought differs in -Orientals and Europeans, and that the exactness required by the one -has no place in the mind of the other. The whole of the Scriptural -narratives are essentially Oriental in their character, bringing out -the salient points in strong relief, but entirely regardless of minute -detail. - - -We find from many passages both in the Old and New Testaments that -Fish were largely used as food by the Israelites, both when captives -in Egypt and after their arrival in the Promised Land. Take, for -example, Numb. xi. 4, 5: "And the children of Israel also wept again, -and said, Who shall give us flesh to eat? - -"We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely." Then, in the -Old Testament, although we do not find many such categorical -statements, there are many passages which allude to professional -fishermen, showing that there was a demand for the Fish which they -caught, sufficient to yield them a maintenance. - -In the New Testament, however, there are several passages in which the -Fishes are distinctly mentioned as articles of food. Take, for -example, the well-known miracle of multiplying the loaves and the -Fishes, and the scarcely less familiar passage in John xxi. 9: "As -soon then as they were come to land, they saw a fire of coals there, -and fish laid thereon, and bread. - -"Jesus saith unto them, Bring of the fish which ye have now caught. - -"Simon Peter went up, and drew the net to land full of great fishes, -an hundred and fifty and three: and for all there were so many, yet -was not the net broken. - -"Jesus saith unto them, Come and dine. And none of the disciples durst -ask Him, Who art Thou? knowing that it was the Lord. - -"Jesus then cometh, and taketh bread, and giveth them, and fish -likewise." - -We find in all these examples that bread and Fish were eaten together. -Indeed, Fish was eaten with bread just as we eat cheese or butter; and -St. John, in his account of the multiplication of the loaves and -Fishes, does not use the word "fish," but another word which rather -signifies sauce, and was generally employed to designate the little -Fish that were salted down and dried in the sunbeams for future use. - -As to the various species which were used for different purposes, we -know really nothing, the Jews merely dividing their Fish into clean -and unclean. - -Still, we find that Solomon treated of Fishes as well as of other -portions of the creation. "And he spake of trees, from the cedar tree -that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the -wall: he spake also of beasts, and of fowl, and of creeping things, -and of fishes." (1 Kings iv. 33.) - -Now it is evidently impossible that Solomon could have treated of -Fishes without distinguishing between their various species. -Comparatively young as he was, he had received such a measure of -divine inspiration, that "there came of all people to know the wisdom -of Solomon, from all kings of the earth, which had heard of his -wisdom." - -Yet, although some of his poetical and instructive writings have -survived to our time, the whole of his works on natural history have -so completely perished, that they have not even introduced into the -language the names of the various creatures of which he wrote. So, in -spite of all his labours, there is not a single word in the Hebrew -language, as now known, by which one species of Fish can be -distinguished from another, as to the distinction between the clean -and unclean Fishes. - -According to Levit. xi. the qualification for food lay simply in the -possession of fins and scales. "These shall ye eat of all that are in -the waters: whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the -seas, and in the rivers, them shall ye eat. - -"And all that have not fins and scales in the seas, and in the rivers, -of all that move in the waters, and of any living thing which is in -the waters, they shall be an abomination unto you: - -"They shall be even an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their -flesh, but ye shall have their carcases in abomination" (ver. 9-11). -There is a similar prohibition in Deut. xiv. 9. - -Some of the species to which this prohibition would extend are evident -enough. There are, for example, the Sheat-fishes, which have the body -naked, and which are therefore taken out of the list of permitted -Fishes. The Sheat-fishes inhabit rivers in many parts of the world, -and often grow to a very considerable size. They may be at once -recognised by their peculiar shape, and by the long, fleshy tentacles -that hang from the mouth. The object of these tentacles is rather -dubious, but as the fish have been seen to direct them at will to -various objects, it is likely that they may answer as organs of touch. - - [Illustration: 1. MURÆNA (Muræna helena). - - 2. LONG-HEADED BARBEL (Barbus longiceps). - - 3. SHEAT-FISH (Silurus macracanthus). - - "_All that have not fins and scales ... shall be an abomination unto - you._"--LEVIT. xi. 10.] - -As might be conjectured from its general appearance, it is one of the -Fishes that love muddy banks, in which it is fond of burrowing so -deeply that, although the river may swarm with Sheat-fishes, a -practised eye is required to see them. - -As far as the Sheat-fishes are concerned, there is little need for the -prohibition, inasmuch as the flesh is not at all agreeable in flavour, -and is difficult of digestion, being very fat and gelatinous. The -swimming-bladder of the Sheat-fish is used in some countries for -making a kind of isinglass, similar in character to that of the -sturgeon, but of coarser quality. - -The lowermost figure in the illustration on page 566 represents a -species which is exceedingly plentiful in the Sea of Galilee. - -On account of the mode in which their body is covered, the whole of -the sharks and rays are excluded from the list of permitted Fish, as, -although they have fins, they have no scales, their place being taken -by shields varying greatly in size. The same rule excludes the whole -of the lamprey tribe, although the excellence of their flesh is well -known. - -Moreover, the Jews almost universally declare that the Muræna and Eel -tribe are also unclean, because, although it has been proved that -these Fishes really possess scales as well as fins, and are therefore -legally permissible, the scales are hidden under a slimy covering, and -are so minute as to be practically absent. - -The uppermost figure in the illustration represents the celebrated -Muræna, one of the fishes of the Mediterranean, in which sea it is -tolerably plentiful. In the days of the old Roman empire, the Muræna -was very highly valued for the table. The wealthier citizens built -ponds in which the Murænæ were kept alive until they were wanted. This -Fish sometimes reaches four feet in length. - -The rest of the Fishes which are shown in the three illustrations -belong to the class of clean Fish, and were permitted as food. The -figure of the Fish between the Muræna and Sheat-fish is the -Long-headed Barbel, so called from its curious form. - -The Barbels are closely allied to the carps, and are easily known by -the barbs or beards which hang from their lips. Like the sheat-fishes, -the Barbels are fond of grubbing in the mud, for the purpose of -getting at the worms, grubs, and larvæ of aquatic insects that are -always to be found in such places. The Barbels are rather long in -proportion to their depth, a peculiarity which, owing to the length of -the head, is rather exaggerated in this species. - -The Long-headed Barbel is extremely common in Palestine, and may be -taken with the very simplest kind of net. Indeed, in some places, the -fish are so numerous that a common sack answers nearly as well as a -net. - -It has been mentioned that the ancient Romans were in the habit of -forming ponds in which the Murænæ were kept, and it is evident, from -several passages of Scripture, that the Jews were accustomed to -preserve fish in a similar manner, though they would not restrict -their tanks or ponds to one species. - -Allusion is made to this custom in the Song of Solomon: "Thy neck is -as a tower of ivory; thine eyes like the fish-pools in Heshbon, by the -gate of Bath-rabbim." The Hebrew Bible renders the passage in a -slightly different manner, not specifying the particular kind of pool. -"Thine eyes are as the pools in Heshbon by a gate of great concourse." - -Buxtorf, however, in his Hebrew Lexicon, translates the word as -"piscina," _i.e._ fish-pond. Now among the ruins of Heshbon may still -be seen the remains of a large tank, which in all probability was one -of the "fish-pools" which are mentioned by the sacred writer. - -If we accept the rendering of the Authorized Version, it is shown that -tanks or ponds were employed for this purpose, by a passage which -occurs in the prophecy of Isaiah: "The fishers also shall mourn, and -all they that cast angle into the brooks shall lament, and they that -spread nets upon the waters shall languish. - -"Moreover they that work in fine flax, and they that weave networks, -shall be confounded. - -"And they shall be broken in the purposes thereof, all that make -sluices and ponds for fish" (xix. 8-10). - -This passage, however, is rendered rather variously. The marginal -translation of verse 10 substitutes the word "foundations" for -"purposes," and the words "living things" for "fish." The Jewish Bible -takes an entirely different view of the passage, and renders it as -follows: "The fishers also shall groan, and all that cast angle into -the river shall mourn, and they that spread nets upon the waters shall -be languid. - -"Moreover, they that work in combed flax and they that weave networks -shall be confounded. - -"And the props thereof shall be crushed; all working for wages are -void of soul." - -However, the mark of doubt is affixed to this last phrase, and it -cannot be denied that the rendering of the Authorized Version is at -all events more consistent than that of the Jewish Bible. In the -former, we first find the fishers taking their prey with the hook and -line, then with different kinds of nets, and lastly, placing the fish -thus captured in sluices and ponds until they are wanted for -consumption. - - [Illustration: FISHES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. - - 1. SUCKING-FISH (Echeneis remora). - - 2. TUNNY (Thynnus thynnus). - - 3. CORYPHENE (Coryphæna hippuris). - - "_These shall ye eat of all that are in the waters._"--LEVIT. xi. 9.] - -The accompanying illustration represents Fishes of the Mediterranean -Sea, and it is probable that one of them may be identified, though the -passage in which it is mentioned is only an inferential one. In the -prophecy against Pharaoh, king of Egypt, the prophet Ezekiel writes as -follows: "I will put hooks in thy jaws, and I will cause the fish of -thy rivers to stick unto thy scales, and I will bring thee up out of -the midst of thy rivers, and all the fish of thy rivers shall stick -unto thy scales" (xxix. 4). - -Reference is here made to some inhabitant of the waters that has the -power of adhesion, and two suggestions have been made respecting the -precise signification of the passage. Some commentators think that the -"Fishes" here mentioned are the Cuttles, which, although they are not -Fishes at all, but belong to the molluscs, are called Fishes after the -loose nomenclature of the Hebrew language, just as, even in our -stricter and more copious language, we speak of the same creature as -the Cuttle-fish, and use the word "shell-fish" to denote both molluscs -and crustacea. - -Others believe that the prophet made allusion to the Sucking-fish, -which has the dorsal fins developed into a most curious apparatus of -adhesion, by means of which it can fasten itself at will to any smooth -object, and hold so tightly to it that it can scarcely be torn away -without injury. - -The common Sucking-fish (_Echeneis remora_) is shown in the upper part -of the illustration. - -There are, however, other fish which have powers of adhesion which, -although not so remarkable as those of the Sucking-fish, are yet very -strong. There is, for example, the well-known Lump-sucker, or -Lump-fish, which has the ventral fins modified into a sucker so -powerful that, when one of these fishes has been put into a pail of -water, it has attached itself so firmly to the bottom of the vessel -that when lifted by the tail it raised the pail, together with several -gallons of water. - -The Gobies, again, have their ventral fins united and modified into a -single sucker, by means of which the fish is able to secure itself to -a stone, rock, or indeed any tolerably smooth surface. These fishes -are popularly known as Bull-routs. - -The centre of the illustration is occupied by another of the -Mediterranean fishes. This is the well-known Tunny (_Thynnus -thynnus_), which furnishes food to the inhabitants of the coasts of -this inland sea, and indeed constitutes one of their principal sources -of wealth. This fine fish is on an average four or five feet in -length, and sometimes attains the length of six or seven feet. - -The flesh of the Tunny is excellent, and the fish is so conspicuous, -that the silence of the Scriptures concerning its existence shows the -utter indifference to specific accuracy that prevailed among the -various writers. - -The other figure represents the Coryphene (_Coryphæna hippuris_), -popularly, though very wrongly, called the Dolphin, and celebrated, -under that name, for the beautiful colours which fly over the surface -of the body as it dies. - -The flesh of the Coryphene is excellent, and in the times of classic -Rome the epicures were accustomed to keep these fish alive, and at the -beginning of a feast to lay them before the guests, so that they -might, in the first place, witness the magnificent colours of the -dying fish, and, in the second place, might be assured that when it -was cooked it was perfectly fresh. Even during life, the Coryphene is -a most lovely fish, and those who have witnessed it playing round a -ship, or dashing off in chase of a shoal of flying-fishes, can -scarcely find words to express their admiration of its beauty. - - -FISHES. - -CHAPTER II. - - Various modes of capturing Fish--The hook and line--Military use - of the hook--Putting a hook in the jaws--The fishing - spear--Different kinds of net--The casting-net--Prevalence of - this form--Technical words among fishermen--Fishing by - night--The draught of Fishes--The real force of the - miracle--Selecting the Fish--The Fish-gate and Fish-market--Fish - killed by a draught--Fishing in the Dead Sea--Dagon, the - fish-god of Philistina, Assyria, and Siam--Various Fishes of - Egypt and Palestine. - -As to the various methods of capturing Fish, we will first take the -simplest plan, that of the hook and line, as is mentioned in the -passage quoted above from Ezekiel. Sundry other references are made to -angling, both in the Old and New Testaments. See, for example, the -well-known passage respecting the leviathan, in Job xli. 1, 2: "Canst -thou draw out leviathan with an hook? or his tongue with a cord which -thou lettest down? - -"Canst thou put an hook into his nose? or bore his jaw through with a -thorn?" - -It is thought that the last clause of this passage refers, not to the -actual capture of the Fish, but to the mode in which they were kept in -the tanks, each being secured by a ring or hook and line, so that it -might be taken when wanted. - -On referring to the New Testament, we find that the fisher Apostles -used both the hook and the net. See Matt. xvii. 27: "Go thou to the -sea, and cast an hook, and take up the fish that first cometh up." Now -this passage explains one or two points. - -In the first place, it is one among others which shows that, although -the Apostles gave up all to follow Christ, they did not throw away -their means of livelihood, as some seem to fancy, nor exist ever -afterwards on the earnings of others. On the contrary, they retained -their fisher equipment, whether boats, nets, or hooks; and here we -find St. Peter, after the way of fishermen, carrying about with him -the more portable implements of his craft. - -Next, the phrase "casting" the hook into the sea is exactly expressive -of the mode in which angling is conducted in the sea and large pieces -of water, such as the Lake of Galilee. The fisherman does not require -a rod, but takes his line, which has a weight just above the hook, -coils it on his left arm in lasso fashion, baits the hook, and then, -with a peculiar swing, throws it into the water as far as it will -reach. The hook is allowed to sink for a short time, and is then drawn -towards the shore in a series of jerks, in order to attract the Fish, -so that, although the fisherman does not employ a rod, he manages his -line very much as does an angler of our own day when "spinning" for -pike or trout. - -Sometimes the fisherman has a number of lines to manage, and in this -case he acts in a slightly different manner. After throwing out the -loaded hook, as above mentioned, he takes a short stick, notched at -one end, and pointed at the other, thrusts the sharp end into the -ground at the margin of the water, and hitches the line on the notch. - -He then proceeds to do the same with all his lines in succession, and -when he has flung the last hook into the water, he sits down on a heap -of leaves and grass which he has gathered together, and watches the -lines to see if either of them is moved in the peculiar jerking manner -which is characteristic of a "bite." After a while, he hauls them in -successively, removes the Fish that may have been caught, and throws -the lines into the water afresh. - -This mode of fishing is mentioned in Habakkuk i. 15: "They take up all -of them with the angle." - -There are one or two passages which seem to refer to the custom of -angling, though they really bear on a different subject. One of these -is to be found in Ezek. xxxviii.: "And I will turn thee back, and put -hooks into thy jaws, and I will bring thee forth and all thine army, -horses and horsemen." There is another passage of a similar character -in Amos iv. 2: "The Lord God hath sworn by His holiness, that, lo, the -days shall come upon you, that He will take you away with hooks, and -your posterity with fish-hooks." - -The word which is here translated as "hook" may more properly be -rendered as "ring," and the prophet alludes to the cruel custom then -prevalent of passing a sharpened hook through the nose or cheek of a -prisoner taken in war, twisting it into a ring, tying a cord to it, -and so leading him just as a bull is led by the ring in the nose. - -There are several references in the Scriptures to the hook used for -this cruel purpose. See 2 Kings xix. 28: "Because thy rage against Me -and thy tumult is come up into Mine ears, therefore I will put My hook -in thy nose, and My bridle in thy lips, and I will turn thee back by -the way by which thou camest." - -The reader will perceive how much more forcible is this passage when -understood rightly than when the word "hook" is taken as signifying a -mere fish-hook, the sum of it being that the Assyrians should be made -captives and slaves, and driven back to the country whence they came. -The passage in Ezek. xxix. 4 must be taken in the same sense: "But I -will put hooks in thy jaws." - -That the spear was used in the old Scriptural times as it is at the -present is shown from several passages of Holy Writ. See, for example, -Job xli. 7: "Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons? or his head -with fish-spears? as also in the same chapter, "The sword of him that -layeth at him cannot hold: the spear, the dart, nor the habergeon. - -"He esteemeth iron as straw, and brass as rotten wood. - -"The arrow cannot make him flee: sling-stones are turned with him into -stubble. - -"Darts are counted as stubble: he laugheth at the shaking of a spear" -(ver. 26-29). - -Fishing with the spear is much used in the smaller tributary streams -of the Jordan, and the weapon, instead of being many-pointed and -barbed in trident fashion, has but one point, and is without barbs. -With these spears the people contrive to catch a considerable variety -of Fish. - -We now come to the practice of catching Fish by the net, a custom to -which the various Scriptural writers frequently refer, sometimes in -course of historical narrative, and sometimes by way of allegory or -metaphor. The reader will remember that the net was also used on land -for the purpose of catching wild animals, and that many of the -allusions to the net which occur in the Old Testament refer to the -land and not to the water. - -The commonest kind of net, which was used in the olden times as it is -now, was the casting-net. This kind of net is circular, and is loaded -all round its edge with weights, and suspended by the middle to a -cord. When the fisherman throws this net, he gathers it up in folds in -his arms, and, with a peculiar swing of the arms, only to be learned -by long practice, flings it so that it spreads out and falls in its -circular form upon the surface of the water. It rapidly sinks to the -bottom, the loaded circumference causing it to assume a cup-like form, -enclosing within its meshes all the Fish that happen to be under it as -it falls. When it has reached the bottom, the fisherman cautiously -hauls in the rope, so that the loaded edges gradually approach each -other, and by their own weight cling together and prevent the Fish -from escaping as the net is slowly drawn ashore. - -This kind of net is found, with certain modifications, in nearly all -parts of the world. The Chinese are perhaps supreme in their -management of it. They have a net of extraordinary size, and cast it -by flinging it over their backs, the huge circle spreading itself out -in the most perfect manner as it falls on the water. - -At the present day, when the fishermen use this net they wade into the -sea as far as they can, and then cast it. In consequence of this -custom, the fishermen are always naked while engaged in their work, -wearing nothing but a thick cap in order to save themselves from -sun-stroke. It is probable that on the memorable occasion mentioned by -St. John, in chap. xxi., all the fishermen were absolutely, and not -relatively naked--_i.e._ that they wore no clothes at all, not even -the ordinary tunic. - -That a great variety of nets was used by the ancient Jews is evident -from the fact that there are no less than ten words to signify -different kinds of net. At the present day we have very great -difficulty in deciding upon the exact interpretation of these -technical terms, especially as in very few cases are we assisted -either by the context or by the etymology of the words. It is the same -in all trades or pursuits, and we can easily understand how our own -names of drag-net, seine, trawl, and keer-drag would perplex any -commentator who happened to live some two thousand years after English -had ceased to be a living language. - -Four or five of the Hebrew words give no clue whatever, being simply -derived from a root that signifies weaving, and that therefore merely -indicates the fact that the articles in question are nets. Some of -them are derived from a word which signifies lying in wait, and -another from a word which signifies catching or seizing. - -The translators who rendered the Hebrew into the familiar form of the -Septuagint either were unable to distinguish between the various -Hebrew terms, or did not think that any discrimination was needed, -inasmuch as they sometimes render the same Hebrew word by several -Greek equivalents, and sometimes use the same Greek word to express -several Hebrew terms. - -When we come to the New Testament, we find a certain feeling of -relief, because the three words used to signify different kinds of -nets are easily understood. - -There is, for example, the _amphiblêstron_ ([Greek: amphiblêstrun]), -which is undoubtedly a casting net, as is signified by the etymology -of the word, which is derived from two Greek words signifying to cast -around. This word is used by Herodotus in a sort of parable related by -Cyrus to the Ionians and Æolians, who had refused to revolt from -Croesus when Cyrus asked them to do so; but, when they found he was -sure to be their master, they sent an embassy to ask to be admitted -among his subjects on the same terms which they had enjoyed when under -the rule of Croesus. - -When the embassy came before Cyrus, he only answered them with a -parable: "A piper, seeing some fishes in the sea, began to pipe, -expecting that they would come ashore; but, finding his hopes -disappointed, he took a casting-net, and enclosed a great number of -fishes, and drew them out. When he saw them leaping about, he said to -the fishes, 'Cease your dancing, since when I piped you would not come -out and dance.'" - -The reader will doubtless have noticed the singular analogy between -this parable and the saying of our Lord, "I have piped to you, and ye -have not danced." - -This is the net that is mentioned in Matt. iv. 18: "And Jesus, walking -by the Sea of Galilee, saw two brethren, Simon called Peter and Andrew -his brother, casting a net (_amphiblêstron_) into the sea." - -The second word, _diktuon_ ([Greek: dikton]), is derived from another -word signifying to throw; so that if we use the expression -"casting-net" for the word _amphiblêstron_, and "throwing-net" for the -word _diktuon_, we shall be tolerably accurate. Practically both words -are used for the same net, as we find by proceeding further with the -sacred narration. - -After mentioning that the future Apostles were casting a net -(_amphiblêstron_), St. Matthew proceeds as follows: "And He said unto -them, Follow Me, and I will make you fishers of men. - -"And they straightway left their nets (_diktua_), and followed Him" -(ver. 19, 20). In the following verse, where James and John are -mentioned as being occupied in mending their nets after the wont of -all practical fishermen, the word which is translated as "nets" is -_diktua_. - -If we turn to John xxi. we find the same word employed. - -After the Resurrection, the fisher Apostles were pursuing their craft -by night, as is still the custom, and had caught nothing--a very -serious loss to them. Then at daybreak they saw their risen Lord -standing on the seashore, and, as was several times the case after the -Resurrection, did not recognise Him. He then told them to cast the net -(_diktuon_) over the right hand of the boat, and as soon as that was -done the net was filled with Fishes. - -Now the knowledge of the real meaning of the word diktua gives to this -passage a signification which it would not otherwise possess. - -In ver. 11, St. John (who was one of the actors in the scene, and who -therefore writes with the precision of an eye-witness) states that the -number of large Fishes was a hundred and fifty-three, and yet the net -was not broken. Knowing that the casting-net is comparatively small, -we now see that a hundred and fifty-three _large_ Fishes would -completely fill a net which could be cast by one man, and that the -miraculous element was twofold. - -Firstly, the complete filling of the net with large Fishes, whereas -six or seven small Fishes are the usual complement of a casting-net; -and, secondly, the fact that the net which was held merely by a single -rope in the middle, and which retained its contents simply by the -weight of the leads round its margin, did not give way, and allow the -enclosed Fish to escape. - -Indeed, the very fact that a casting-net took such a multitude of -Fishes at once opened the eyes of St. John, who exclaimed to his -fellow Apostles, "It is the Lord." St. Peter, with the impetuous zeal -of his nature, acknowledged the truth of the exclamation, and, too -impatient to wait until the boats could land, girt his fisher's tunic -upon him, leaped into the sea, and swam ashore. - -The third Greek word which is translated as "net" is _sagênê_ ([Greek: -sagênê]), a word which still survives in our term "Seine." - -The Sagene, or seine-net, was made in lengths, any number of which -could be joined together, so as to enclose a large space of water. The -upper edge was kept at the surface of the water by floats, and the -lower edge sunk by weights. - -This net was always taken to sea in vessels, and when "shot" the -various lengths were joined together, and the net extended in a line, -with a boat at each end. The boats then gradually approached each -other, so as to bring the net into a semicircle, and finally met, -enclosing thereby a vast number of Fishes in their meshen walls. The -water was then beaten, so as to frighten the Fishes and drive them -into the meshes, and the net was then either taken ashore, or lifted -by degrees on board the boats, and the Fish removed from it. - -As in a net of this kind Fishes of all sorts are enclosed, the -contents are carefully examined, and those which are unfit for eating -are thrown away. Even at the present day much care is taken in the -selection, but in the ancient times the fishermen were still more -cautious, every Fish having to be separately examined in order that -the presence both of fins and scales might be assured before the -captors could send it to the market. - -It is to this custom that Christ alludes in the well-known parable of -the net: "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that was -cast into the sea, and gathered of every kind; - -"Which, when it was full, they drew to shore, and sat down, and -gathered the good into vessels, but cast the bad away." Compare also -Habakkuk i. 14-17. - - -The important part taken by Fish in the earlier scriptural days is -shown by the fact that in Jerusalem there was not only a fish-market, -but that the gate which opened upon that market was called the -Fish-gate. See 2 Chron. xxxiii. 14: "Now after this he built a wall -without the city of David, on the west side of Gihon, in the valley, -even to the entering in at the fish-gate." - -Afterwards, when Nehemiah obtained permission from Artaxerxes to -rebuild the burnt and broken-down walls of Jerusalem, he restored the -Fish-gate as it had been before: "But the fish-gate did the sons of -Hassenaah build, who also laid the beams thereof, and set up the doors -thereof, the locks thereof, and the bars thereof" (Neh. iii. 3). - -About ten years afterwards, when the city had been rebuilt and -repeopled, the fish-market was again established, the dealers being -chiefly men of Tyre, who took advantage of the neglect of the law -which had been the result of the captivity among idolaters, and sold -their goods on the Sabbath day: "There dwelt men of Tyre also therein, -which brought fish, and all manner of ware, and sold on the Sabbath -unto the children of Judah, and in Jerusalem" (Neh. xiii. 16). - -It is evident that the Fish which these traders brought must have been -dried and salted, or otherwise they would not have borne the journey -to Jerusalem from Tyre. Dried Fish were, according to Herodotus, -largely used in Egypt, and it is probable that the Jews learned the -art of drying and salting Fish for future use during their captivity -in that land. - -There are one or two passages in the Scriptures which relate to Fish, -though in a less direct manner than those which have been quoted. One -of them refers to the times of drought which occasionally visit -Palestine, and which always bring with them terrible privations, and -sometimes cause actual famine. See, for example, Isa. 1. 2: "Behold, -at My rebuke I dry up the sea, I make the rivers a wilderness: their -fish stinketh, because there is no water, and dieth for thirst." These -words exactly express the condition of the country after a long -drought. The springs are gradually exhausted from the absence of rain, -the large rivers sink lower and lower in their beds, and the little -streams and tributaries dry up altogether, leaving their inhabitants -to perish for want of water. - -By way of contrast to this passage, we will take another, which -speaks, not of death, but of life. It occurs in Ezek. xlvii. 10, and -forms part of the vision in which the future of the Church was -foretold: - -"And it shall come to pass, that everything that liveth, which moveth, -whithersoever the rivers shall come, shall live: and there shall be a -very great multitude of fish, because these waters shall come thither: -for they shall be healed; and everything shall live whither the river -cometh. - -"And it shall come to pass, that the fishers shall stand upon it from -En-gedi even unto En-eglaim; they shall be a place to spread forth -nets; their fish shall be according to their kinds, as the fish of the -great sea, exceeding many." - -Now this is one of the many passages which might be passed over -lightly, because its general signification is so evident, and yet -which requires to be understood before its full force can be -comprehended. Both these places, En-gedi and En-eglaim, are on the -shores of the Dead Sea, in which no creature can live. Thousands of -small Fishes are daily carried into the Dead Sea from the Jordan, and -as soon as the fresh water of the river mingles with the poisonous -waves of the Dead Sea the Fishes die. Putting aside as foreign to the -purpose of this work the metaphorical signification of the passage, we -find that the prophet foretold a complete regeneration of the waters, -so that, instead of destroying every creature that entered them, the -Fishes should multiply so that fishermen should ply their trade from -one part of the Dead Sea to another. - -Again, in Hosea iv: 3, where the destruction of Fish is mentioned -among the plagues that would follow the continual disobedience of the -Israelites: "Because there is no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of -God in the land, .... - -"Therefore shall the land mourn, and every one that dwelleth therein -shall languish, with the beasts of the field, and with the fowls of -heaven: yea, the fishes of the sea also shall be taken away." - - -Lastly, we come to the religious, or rather superstitious, part played -by Fish in the ancient times. That the Egyptians employed Fish as -material symbols of Divine attributes we learn from secular writers, -such as Herodotus and Strabo. - -The Jews, who seem to have had an irrepressible tendency to idolatry, -and to have adopted the idols of every people with whom they came in -contact, resuscitated the Fish-worship of Egypt as soon as they found -themselves among the Philistines. We might naturally imagine that as -the Israelites were bitterly opposed to their persistent enemy, who -trod them under foot and crushed every attempt at rebellion for more -than three hundred years, they would repudiate the worship as well as -the rule of their conquerors. But, on the contrary, they adopted the -worship of Dagon, the Fish-god, who was the principal deity of the -Philistines, and erected temples in his honour. - -Their tendency to this Fish-worship is specially noticed in the -commandment that they were not to worship "the likeness of anything -that creepeth on the ground" (i.e. serpent-worship), "the likeness of -any fish that is in the waters beneath the earth" (Deut. iv. 18). - -We learn from 1 Sam. v. 4 the form of this idol: "When they arose -early on the morrow morning, behold, Dagon was fallen upon his face to -the ground before the ark of the Lord; and the head of Dagon and both -the palms of his hands were cut off upon the threshold; only the stump -of Dagon was left to him." - -If the reader will refer to this passage, he will see that the latter -part is rendered in the marginal reading as "the fishy part was left -to him." The Jewish Bible has nearly the same reading, "only a -fish-stump had remained of him." - -It is evident, therefore, that Dagon had the head, body, and arms of -a man, and that the figure terminated in a Fish's tail. In fact, there -is little doubt that to the various figures of this deity is owing the -wide-spread belief in mermen. We find the same image among the -Assyrians, who not only represented the god as half man and half fish, -but who dressed his priest in a garment representing the skin of a -Fish, with the head worn as a helmet, and the rest of the skin flowing -down the back. - -We find precisely the same worship at the present day in Siam, where -Dagon has exactly the same form as among the Philistines of old. There -is now before me a photograph of a great temple at Ayutia, the -entrance to which is guarded by two huge images of the Fish-god. They -are about sixty feet in height, and have both legs and feet like man, -but in addition the lower part of the body is modified into the tail -of a Fish, which, in common with the whole of the body, is covered -with gilded scales. - -It is conjectured that the Fish was chosen as an emblem of fecundity, -on account of the wonderful fertility of the Fish tribes. That the -Israelites were familiarly acquainted with this fact is shown by a -passage in the benediction of Jacob. In speaking of Joseph, he uses -these words: "The Angel which redeemed me from all evil, bless the -lads; and let my name be named on them, and the name of my fathers -Abraham and Isaac; and let them grow into a multitude" ("as fishes do -increase," marg. trans.) "in the midst of the earth" (Gen. xlviii. -16). - - -In order that the reader may see examples of the typical Fish which -are to be found in Egypt and Palestine, I have added three more -species, which are represented in the following illustration. - -The uppermost figure represents the NILE PERCH (_Lates Niloticus_). -This Fish is plentiful in the Nile, and in the mouths of many Asiatic -rivers. It is brown above, silvery white below, and may be -distinguished by the armed gill-covers, and the three strong spines of -the anal fin. The tongue is smooth. - -Immediately below the Nile Perch is the _Star-gazer_ (_Uranoscopus -scaber_). - -This Fish is found in the Mediterranean, and derives its name from the -singular mode in which the eyes are set in the head, so that it looks -upwards instead of sideways. It is one of the mud-lovers, a fact which -accounts for the peculiar position of the eyes. It is said to feed -after the fashion of the fishing-frog--_i.e._ by burying itself in the -mud and attracting other Fishes by a worm-like appendage of its mouth, -and pouncing on them before they are aware of their danger. - - [Illustration: FISH OF EGYPT AND PALESTINE. - - 1. NILE PERCH. 2. SURMULLET. 3. STAR-GAZER. - - "_We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely._"--NUMB. xi. - 5.] - -This is not a pretty Fish, and as it is very spiny, is not pleasant to -the grasp, but its flesh is very good, and it is much valued by those -who can obtain it. - -The last Fish to be noticed is the SURMULLET (_Mullus Surmuletus_), a -Fish that is equally remarkable for the beauty of its colours and the -excellence of its flesh. - - - - -INVERTEBRATES. - - - - -MOLLUSCS. - - The purple of Scripture--Various Molluscs from which it is - obtained--The common Dog-Whelk of England--The sac containing - the purple dye--Curious change of colour--Mode of obtaining the - dye--The Tyrian purple--The king of the Ethiopians and the - purple robe--The professional purple dyers--Various words - expressive of different shades of purple--Care taken to keep the - preparation of the dye secret. - - -Leaving the higher forms of animal life, we now pass to the -Invertebrated Animals which are mentioned in Scripture. - -As may be inferred from the extreme looseness of nomenclature which -prevails among the higher animals, the species which can be identified -are comparatively few, and of them but a very few details are given in -the Scriptures. - -Taking them in their zoological order, we will begin with the -MOLLUSCS. - - -We are all familiar with the value which was set by the ancients upon -the peculiar dye which may be called by the name of Imperial Purple. -In the first place, it was exceedingly costly, not only for its -richness of hue, but from the great difficulty with which a sufficient -quantity could be procured for staining a dress. Purple was -exclusively a royal colour, which might not be worn by a subject. -Among the ancient Romans, during the times of the Cæsars, any one who -ventured to appear in a dress of purple would do so at the peril of -his life. In the consular days of Rome, the dress of the consuls was -white, striped with purple; but the Cæsars advanced another step in -luxury, and dyed the whole toga of this costly hue. - -The colour of the dye is scarcely what we understand by the term -"purple," _i.e._ a mixture of blue and red. It has but very little -blue in it, and has been compared by the ancients to the colour of -newly-clotted blood. It is obtained from several Molluscs belonging -to the great Whelk family, the chief of which is the _Murex -brandaris_. Another species is _Murex trunculus_, another is _Purpura -hæmastoma_, and we have a fourth on our own coast, the common -Dog-Whelk, or Dog-Periwinkle (_Purpura lapillus_). - -The shell is shaped something like that of a whelk, but is very smooth -and porcelain-like, and is generally white, ornamented with several -coloured bands. It is, however, one of the most variable of shells, -differing not only in colour but in form. It always inhabits the belt -of the shore between tide-marks, and preys upon other Molluscs, such -as the mussel and periwinkle, literally licking them to pieces with -its long riband tongue. - -This tongue is beset with rows of hooked teeth, exactly like the -shark-tooth weapons of the Samoan and Mangaian Islanders, and with it -the creature is enabled to bore through the shells of mussels and -similar Molluscs, and to eat the enclosed animal. It is very -destructive to periwinkles, thrusting its tongue through the mouth of -the shell, piercing easily the operculum by which the entrance is -closed, and gradually scooping out the unfortunate inmate. - -Even the bivalves, which can shut themselves up between two shells, -fare no better, the tongue of the Dog-Whelk rasping a hole in the hard -shell in eight-and-forty hours. - -Any of my readers who desire to obtain a very fair specimen of the old -imperial purple can do so without difficulty. - -Let him go down to the sea-shore, and collect a number of -Dog-Whelks--a task of no difficulty, as a bushel may be obtained in a -very short time. Let him provide himself with a piece of perfectly -clean linen, or pure white woollen fabric, and a pair of fine scissors -or a sharp knife. - -In order to procure the animal, the shell must be broken with a sharp -blow of a small hammer, and the receptacle of the colouring matter can -then be seen behind the head, and recognised by its lighter hue. - -When it is opened, a creamy sort of matter exudes. It is yellowish, -and gives no promise of its future richness of hue. There is only one -drop of this matter in each animal, and it is about sufficient in -quantity to stain a piece of linen the size of a sixpence. - -The best mode of seeing the full beauty of the purple is to take a -number of the Molluscs, and to stain as large a surface as possible. -The piece of linen should then be exposed to the rays of the sun, when -it will go through a most curious series of colours. The yellow begins -to turn green, and, after a while, the stained portions of the linen -will be entirely green, the yellow having been vanquished by the blue. -By degrees the blue predominates more and more over the yellow, until -the linen is no more green, but blue. Then, just as the yellow yielded -to the blue, the blue yields to red, and becomes first violet, then -purple, and lastly assumes the blood-red hue of royalty. - -The colour is very permanent, and, instead of fading by time, seems -rather to brighten. Some two hundred years ago there was an -established trade in this dye in Ireland; but it has long ago been -crushed by the cheaper, though less permanent, dyes which have since -been invented. - -In some cases the ancients appear not to have troubled themselves with -the complicated operation of taking the animal out of the shell, -opening the receptacle, and squeezing the contents on the fabric to be -dyed, but simply crushed the whole of the Mollusc, so as to set the -colouring matter free, and steeped the cloth in the pulp. Tyre was one -of the most celebrated spots for this manufacture, the "Tyrian dye" -being celebrated for its richness. Heaps of broken shells remain to -the present day as memorials of the long-perished manufacture. - -The value which the ancients set upon this dye is shown by many -passages in various books. Among others we may refer to Herodotus. - -Cambyses, it appears, had a design to make war upon three nations, the -Ammonians, the Carthaginians, and the Ethiopians. He determined to -invade the first by land, and the second by sea; but, being ignorant -of the best method of reaching the Ethiopians, he dispatched -messengers to them, nominally as ambassadors, but practically as -spies. He sent to the King of Ethiopia valuable presents--namely, a -purple mantle, a golden necklace and bracelet, an elaborate box of -perfumed ointment, and a cask of palm-wine, these evidently being -considered a proof of imperial magnificence. - -The Ethiopian king ridiculed the jewels, praised the wine, and asked -curiously concerning the dye with which the purple mantle was stained. -On being told the mode of preparation, he refused to believe the -visitors, and, referring to the changing hues of the mantle and to the -perfume of the ointment, he showed his appreciation of their real -character by saying that the goods were deceptive, and so were the -bearers. - -This curious narrative occurs in the third book, chaps. 19-22. - -The same historian has in another place a passing allusion to the -trade of catching the purple-producing whelks. In his fourth book, -chap. 151, he mentions a man who was a purple-dyer by trade, the word -signifying equally one who procures the Molluscs as one who dyes the -threads of which the purple fabrics are woven. - -The dye-producing power is not restricted to the whelks, but is shared -by other Molluscs. For example, the Diadem Staircase Shell (_Scalaria -diadema_) secretes a substance which produces a purple hue, and the -_Cerithium telescopium_ produces a dye which retains its green hue, -instead of passing into blue and red. - -The Hebrew word _argaman_, which signifies the regal purple, occurs -several times in Scripture, and takes a slightly different form -according to the Chaldaic or Hebraic idiom. - -For example, we find it in Exod. xxv. 4: "This is the offering which -ye shall take of them: gold, and silver, and brass, - -"And blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen," &c. &c. - -It occurs again in 2 Chron. ii. 7: "Send me now therefore a man -cunning to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in iron, and -in purple, and crimson, and blue." These words are repeated in ver. -14. - -A very important use of this word is found in Dan. v. 7: "And the king -spake, and said to the wise men of Babylon, Whosoever shall read this -writing, and show me the interpretation thereof, shall be clothed with -scarlet" ("purple" in margin), "and have a chain of gold about his -neck, and shall be the third ruler in the kingdom." Here we find that -the dye in question was a regal one, that the wearing it was a matter -of sumptuary law, and that the fact of being allowed to wear it was a -sign that the wearer was of the very highest rank. - -The Jewish Bible invariably translates the word as "red-purple." - -That the preparers of the precious purple colour took care to preserve -their art a secret, is evident from the writings of the Talmudists, -who had the very vaguest ideas respecting the dye. They knew that it -was obtained from a marine Mollusc, but thought that the creature only -made its appearance once in seventy years, and that this scarcity was -the cause of its costliness. They said that the dye obtained from one -sea was blackish, evidently referring to the ink of the cuttle; that -when it was obtained from another it was violet, and that the -Phoenician waters alone produced the true red-purple hue. - -They accounted for its colour by saying that the animal took the -colour of the sea which it inhabited: the sea was like the sky which -it reflected, the sky was like the throne of God, and the throne of -God was like the sapphire. Therefore, the dye was like the sapphire. -It is not impossible even that the dyers exhibited specimens of the -Violet Snail, or Janthina, which is of a rich blue colour, and which -would readily be accepted as the source of the Tyrian dye. - - - - -THE SNAIL. - - The Snail which melteth--Rendering of the Jewish Bible--Theory - respecting the track of the Snail--The Hebrew word - _Shablul_--Various Snails of Palestine. - - -There is a very remarkable and not very intelligible passage in Ps. -lviii. 8: "As a snail which melteth, let every one of them pass away." -The Jewish Bible renders the passage in a way which explains the idea -which evidently prevailed at the time when the Psalms were composed: -"As a snail let him melt as he passeth on." - -The ancients had an idea that the slimy track made by a Snail as it -crawled along was subtracted from the substance of its body, and that -in consequence the farther it crept, the smaller it became, until at -last it wasted entirely away. The commentators on the Talmud took this -view of the case. The Hebrew word _shablul_, which undoubtedly does -signify a Snail of some kind, is thus explained: "The Shablul is a -creeping thing: when it comes out of its shell, saliva pours from -itself, until it becomes liquid, and so dies." - -Other explanations of this passage have been offered, but there is no -doubt that the view taken by these commentators is the correct one, -and that the Psalmist, when he wrote the terrible series of -denunciations in which the passage in question occurs, had in his mind -the popular belief regarding the gradual wasting away of the Snail as -it "passeth on." - -It is needless to say that no particular species of Snail is -mentioned, and almost as needless to state that in Palestine there are -many species of Snails, to any or all of which these words are equally -applicable. - - - - -THE ONYCHA. - - Ingredients of the sacred incense--The Onyx, or - Onycha--Derivation of the word--The Arabic Dofr--The Doofu of - Abyssinia--Odour of the perfume. - - -In Exod. xxx. 34 there occurs a remarkable word, _shecheleth_, which -is used to describe one of the ingredients of the incense to be used -in Divine worship. The Jewish Bible renders the word rightly, -"onycha," while Buxtorf renders it by "onyx," a word which is likely -to mislead the reader, and to cause him to believe it to be a mineral, -and not an animal substance. - -The Onycha is the operculum of one of the Strombi or Wing-shells, and -derives its name from the resemblance which it bears in those shells -to a nail or claw. The Greek word _onyx_ primarily signifies a nail, -and is indeed the origin of our own word. Secondarily, it is used to -denote a precious stone, partly because the white bands of the -sardonyx bear some resemblance to the white semi-lunar marks at the -base of human nails. In consequence of the resemblance of the -operculum to a claw or nail, the Arabs call the Wing-shell -"Dofr-el-afrit," or Afrit's (_i.e._ demon's) claw. - -The operculum of the Wing-shells has a sharp and powerful scent when -burned, and, when mixed with substances more fragrant but less -powerful, it has the effect of adding to their potency if not to their -fragrance. - -A remarkable corroboration of this rendering occurs in Mr. Mansfield -Parkyns's valuable "Life in Abyssinia." In the Appendix to vol. i. in -which the commerce of Abyssinia and the Red Sea is described, the -following entry occurs:--"_October 5, 1848._ Sailed for Suakim in a -native boat. Cargo: muslins, marawdi, Surat tobacco, sandal-wood, and -doofu. This article is the operculum or horny substance with which -some species of shell-fish are furnished to protect the mouth of their -shells. These in some parts of Nubia are used for perfume, being burnt -with sandal-wood." - -Here we have one or two points worthy of notice. In the first place, -it is evident that the Doofu of the Abyssinians is identical with the -Dofr of the Arabs. In the second place we find that it is not used -alone as a perfume, but is burned together with the fragrant -sandal-wood. Lastly, we find that the materials of the incense which -were ordained for the special use of the Jewish worship were derived -from North-Eastern Africa, and were in all probability familiar to the -Jews from their long residence in Egypt. - -The opercula of all the Strombidæ possess this powerful, though not -very fragrant odour, which has been compared to that of spices, or -castoreum, and probably acts the part which is played in many modern -perfumes by materials which in themselves possess an odour the reverse -of fragrant. - -The mineral onyx is represented by a different Hebrew word, namely, -_shoham_. - - - - -THE PEARL. - - The Pearl of Scripture--Wisdom compared to Pearl--Different - renderings of the Hebrew word--Opinions of the - Talmudists--Structure of Pearls--The Pearls of the marine and - aquatic mussels--Pearl-fisheries of the Conway--Metaphorical - uses of the Pearl--The Pearl of great price--Casting Pearls - before swine--An ancient proverb. - - -There is only one passage in the Old Testament in which can be found -the word which is translated as PEARL, and it is certain that the word -in question may have another interpretation. - -The word in question is _gabish_, and occurs in Job xxviii. 18. -Treating of wisdom, in that magnificent passage beginning, "But where -shall Wisdom be found, and where is the place of understanding?" the -sacred writer uses these words, "No mention shall be made of coral, or -of pearls: for the price of wisdom is above rubies." This is the only -passage in the Bible which contains the word in its simple form, but -there are two others in which it is found with the addition of the -syllable _el_, connected with the word _abne_, or stone. In this form, -it is translated in the Authorized Version as "hailstones." - -See Ezek. xiii. 11: "Say unto them which daub it with untempered -morter, that it shall fall: there shall be an overflowing shower; and -ye, O great Hailstones, shall fall; and a stormy wind shall rend it." -Also xxxviii. 22: "And I will plead against him with pestilence and -with blood; and I will rain upon him, and upon his bands, and upon the -many people that are with him, an overflowing rain, and great -Hailstones, fire, and brimstone." - -The Jewish Bible accepts the rendering of "hailstones" in both these -passages, but affixes the mark of doubt to the word, whereas in Job -xxviii. 18 it translates the word _gabish_ as "pearls" without using -any mark of doubt. In Buxtorfs Hebrew Lexicon, the word is translated -as "_Unio, Margarita pretiosa._" It is not, however, difficult to see -that the word _gabish_ may primarily signify either ice or Pearl, and -that the one may have been used metaphorically for the other. - -The Talmudical writers had much to say on the subject of Pearls, but, -before proceeding to their curious disquisitions, it will be as well -to describe briefly the Pearl and its origin. - -We are all familiar with the shining inner coating or "nacre" -possessed by many bivalve molluscs, such as the common mussels and -oysters. This coating is sometimes found upon extraneous substances -deposited on the "mantle" of the animal, and then takes the name of -"Pearl." Sometimes these are found in the common oyster. - -For example, I have before me some Pearls about as large as No. 5 -shot, that I took out of a single plateful of oysters. They are dull -in colour and irregular in form, but they are perfect Pearls. - -Then the common edible mussel frequently contains Pearls, which, -however, are almost invariably small, and comparatively valueless. It -is mentioned by Pliny that Julius Cæsar obtained in Britain a -sufficient number of Pearls to cover a breastplate, which he dedicated -to Venus, and hung in her temple. It is evident from Pliny's account -that the Pearls in question were small and comparatively valueless, -and it has been shrewdly suggested that Cæsar only presented them to -the goddess because the Roman ladies would not have worn them. - -These Pearls were in all probability obtained from the common edible -mussel which grows so abundantly on our coasts, and not, as has been -generally thought, from the river Pearl-mussel, which really produces -Pearls of considerable value. The celebrated pearl-fishers of the -Conway employ the edible mussel, and sell the Pearls at a certain -price per ounce. - -The scientific name of the river Pearl-shell is _Unio margaritiferus_, -which is found in best condition in rapid mountain streams. It is -plentiful in many of the Irish rivers, from which Pearls of -considerable value have been procured. One of these Pearls, seen by -Sir R. Redding set in a necklace, was purchased for thirty pounds by -the owner, who had refused nearly three times the sum for it. - -Perhaps the most celebrated Pearl-mussel is that of the Chinese, -_Dipsas plicatus_. This species attains a considerable size, a -specimen in my possession being seven inches in length and five in -width. - - [Illustration: PEARL OYSTER. - - "_And the twelve gates were twelve pearls._"--REV. xxi. 21.] - -The Chinese make a singular use of this mussel. They string a number -of globular pellets, and introduce them between the valves of the -mussel, so that in course of time the creature deposits a coating of -pearly substance upon them, and forms a very good imitation of real -Pearls. They also stamp little images, popularly called josses, out of -metal, and force the animal to cover them with nacre in a similar -manner. Six such josses are in my specimen. Frequently, however, these -incorrigible imitators actually counterfeit the sham pearls, merely -taking the josses and pellets, laying them in shells from which the -animal has been removed, and washing them with a solution which, when -dry, looks so like nacre that it cannot be distinguished from that -substance without much difficulty. - -The best Pearls are those which are procured from the well-known PEARL -OYSTER (_Meleagrina margaritifera_), which is found in several parts -of the world, and which constitutes the principal source of wealth to -the localities where it most abounds. - - -The Talmudical commentators wrote rather copiously about the Pearl, -respecting the nature of which they were somewhat perplexed, as it was -a gem and yet not a mineral. They thought that it lay at the bottom of -the sea, under flat, slab-like stones some of which had Pearls beneath -them, but the greater part were without them. In consequence of the -difficulty of diving and the precariousness of the search, a number of -proverbs were current. For example, a person who persevered in some -fruitless search was said to be a diver who brought up stones without -Pearls. If one person laboured and another took the credit, it was -said that the one would not have found the Pearl if the other had not -brought up the stone. - -In consequence of the labour and research required for seeking wisdom, -it was proverbially likened to a Pearl, and in this sense we must -understand the warning of our Lord, not to cast Pearls before swine. -The "pearl of great price" is another form of the same metaphor. - -This metaphor holds good in almost all Oriental languages. - -There is also a proverb which bears a curious resemblance to the -well-known "painting the lily and gilding refined gold:" "Whoso -praises a priceless pearl undervalues it." - - - - -INSECTS. - - Insects--Beetles not mentioned in Scripture--The Locust--Various - species of the insect, and different words used to signify - it--The Arbeh of Scripture, and its derivation--The two - migratory Locusts at rest and on the wing--The Locust - swarms--Gordon Cumming's account--Progress of the insect - hosts--Vain attempts to check them--Tossed up and down as a - Locust--Effect of the winds on the insect--The east and the west - winds--Locusts used for food--Ancient and modern travellers--The - food of St. John. - - -Considering the vast variety of insects which are found in Egypt, -Syria, and Palestine, it is somewhat remarkable that so few should be -mentioned by name. Not one single coleopteran is mentioned; for, -although the Hebrew word _chargol_, which occurs in Lev. xi. 21, 22, -is rendered in the Authorized Version as "beetle," the context shows -that it could not have been a coleopterous insect at all, but must -have belonged to the locusts. We will therefore pass to the insect -next in order. - - -THE LOCUST. - -Of the LOCUSTS there are several species in Palestine, two of which -are represented in the accompanying plate. Those on the ground are the -common Migratory Locusts (_OEdipoda migratoria_), while those on the -wing, which have long heads, are a species of _Truxalis_. - -At least four species of Locust are mentioned in the Scriptures, one -of them being the beetle of the Authorized Version; and it is probable -that one or two words which are differently rendered in the Authorized -Version are either names of different species of Locusts, or are -synonyms for the same species. - -We will first take the different Hebrew words which are translated as -"Locust," and then proceed to the description of the insects -themselves. - -The first of those words is _arbeh_, about the rendering of which -there is no doubt whatever. It occurs many times in the Scriptures, -and, even if its signification were doubtful, the context would be -sufficient to denote the proper rendering of the word. Take, for -example, the account in Exod. x. of the threatened plague of Locusts. -Nothing can be more terse and graphic than the description of the -Arbeh, its vast multitudes, its sudden arrival, and its destructive -power. - -In Judges vi. 5 the word is translated as "grasshopper." "For they -came up with their cattle and their tents, and they came as -grasshoppers for multitude; for both they and their camels were -without number: and they entered into the land to destroy it." -Translating the word rightly as "Locust," we see the real force of -this passage. Grasshoppers may inhabit a spot, and do no great harm, -but the Locusts invade whole districts, coming like destructive armies -upon it, and causing utter destruction as long as they remain. - -In 1 Kings viii. 37, Solomon speaks of the presence of the Arbeh among -the most terrible calamities that can befall a country, and classes it -with famine, drought, pestilence, and siege. In Prov. xxx. 27 the same -writer remarks on the curious fact that these creatures are gregarious -and migratory, and yet have no leader, as is mostly the case with -gregarious animals. "The locusts have no king, yet go they forth all -of them by hands." - -Allusion is made to the vast number of the Arbeh in Jer. xlvi.: "They -shall cut down her forest, saith the Lord, though it cannot be -searched; because they are more than the grasshoppers, and are -innumerable." The voracity of the Arbeh is mentioned in Joel i. 4 and -ii. 25. These are but a few passages selected out of the many in which -the Arbeh is mentioned, in order to show how completely the word -corresponds with the character of the Locust. The word is derived from -a Hebrew root signifying multitudes, and is therefore appropriately -used for these insects, which singly are so feeble, and collectively -are so terrible. - -Next comes the word _chagab_, which evidently signifies some migratory -and gregarious Locust, though we cannot say precisely to which species -it refers. The word is mostly translated as "grasshopper," and, from -the context of several passages, it seems to have been less in size -than the Arbeh, inasmuch as it is used as a metaphor to express -smallness. See, for example, Numb. xiii. 31-33, where is recorded the -false report of the spies whom Moses sent to inspect the land. "The -men that went up said, We be not able to go up against the people; for -they are stronger than we. - -"And they brought up an evil report of the land which they had -searched unto the children of Israel, saying, The land, through which -we have gone to search it, is a land that eateth up the inhabitants -thereof; and all the people that we saw in it are men of a great -stature. - -"And there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak, which come of the -giants: and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers" (_chagabim_), -"and so we were in their sight." - -A similar metaphor is employed by the Prophet Isaiah: "It is He that -sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are -as grasshoppers" (xl. 22). And in Eccles. xii. 5 extreme weakness is -forcibly indicated by the words, "the grasshopper" (_chagab_) "shall -be a burden." - -Now the two principal species of Locust which travel in bands and -devastate the country are the common Migratory Locust (_OEdipoda -migratoria_) and the _Acridium peregrinum_. If, therefore, the word -_arbeh_ expresses one of these insects, it is probable that the word -_chagab_ signifies the other. - -The Bald Locust of Lev. xi. 22 is probably some species of _Truxalis_, -the insects belonging to this genus having long and smooth heads. The -Hebrew word is _sallom_, and the Jewish Bible leaves it untranslated. -The word _chargol_ which also occurs in the same passage, and is -translated in the Authorized Version as "beetle," is in all -probability a species of Locust, as it is classed with those insects -which have "legs above their feet to leap withal." - -Besides these words, we find that others translated as "caterpillar," -"palmerworm," and "cankerworm" may be synonyms for the Locust, either -different species, or as expressing the same species in its various -stages of development. (See Lepidoptera, page 632.) - -We will now pass on to the insect and its habits, taking the Migratory -Locust as the type of its family. - -The Locust belongs to the great order of Orthoptera, or -straight-winged insects. They have, when fully developed, four wings, -the two front being thick and membraneous, while the two hinder wings -are large, delicate, translucent, and folded longitudinally under the -front pair of wings when the insect is at rest. In the Locusts these -characteristics are admirably shown. The appearance of a Locust when -at rest and when flying is so different that the creature is at first -sight scarcely recognisable as the same creature. When at rest, it is -a compact and tolerably stout insect, with a dull though delicately -coloured body; but when it takes flight it appears to attain twice its -previous dimensions. - -The front pair of wings, which alone were seen before they were -expanded, became comparatively insignificant, while the hinder pair, -which were before invisible, became the most prominent part of the -insect, their translucent folds being coloured with the most brilliant -hues, according to the species. The body seems to have shrunk as the -wings have increased, and to have diminished to half its previous -size, while the long legs that previously were so conspicuous are -stretched out like the legs of a flying heron. - -All the Locusts are vegetable-feeders, and do great harm wherever they -happen to be plentiful, their powerful jaws severing even the thick -grass stems as if cut by scissors. But it is only when they invade a -country that their real power is felt. They come flying with the wind -in such vast multitudes that the sky is darkened as if by -thunder-clouds; and when they settle, every vestige of green -disappears off the face of the earth. - -Mr. Gordon Cumming once saw a flight of these Locusts. They flew about -three hundred feet from the ground, and came on in thick, solid -masses, forming one unbroken cloud. On all sides nothing was to be -seen but Locusts. The air was full of them, and the plain was covered -with them, and for more than an hour the insect army flew past him. -When the Locusts settle, they eat with such voracity that the sound -caused by their jaws cutting the leaves and grass can be heard at a -great distance; and even the young Locusts, which have no wings, and -are graphically termed by the Dutch colonists of Southern Africa -"voet-gangers," or foot-goers, are little inferior in power of jaw to -the fully-developed insect. - -As long as they have a favourable wind, nothing stops the progress of -the Locusts. They press forward just like the vast herds of antelopes -that cover the plains of Africa, or the bisons that blacken the -prairies of America, and the progress of even the wingless young is -as irresistible as that of the adult insects. Regiments of soldiers -have in vain attempted to stop them. Trenches have been dug across -their path, only to be filled up in a few minutes with the advancing -hosts, over whose bodies the millions of survivors continued their -march. When the trenches were filled with water, the result was the -same; and even when fire was substituted for water, the flames were -quenched by the masses of Locusts that fell into them. When they come -to a tree, they climb up it in swarms, and devour every particle of -foliage, not even sparing the bark of the smaller branches. They -ascend the walls of houses that come in the line of their march, -swarming in at the windows, and gnawing in their hunger the very -woodwork of the furniture. - -We shall now see how true to nature is the terrible prophecy of Joel. -"A day of darkness and of gloominess, a day of clouds and of thick -darkness, as the morning spread upon the mountains: a great people and -a strong; there hath not been ever the like, neither shall be any more -after it, even to the years of many generations. - -"A fire devoureth before them; and behind them a flame burneth: the -land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate -wilderness; yea, and nothing shall escape them. - -"The appearance of them is as the appearance of horses; and as -horsemen, so shall they run. - -"Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall they leap, -like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble, as a -strong people set in battle array.... - -"They shall run like mighty men; they shall climb the wall like men of -war; and they shall march every one on his ways, and they shall not -break their ranks: - -"Neither shall one thrust another; they shall walk every one in his -path: and when they fall upon the sword, they shall not be wounded. - -"They shall run to and fro in the city; they shall run upon the wall, -they shall climb up upon the houses; they shall enter in at the -windows like a thief. - -"The earth shall quake before them; the heavens shall tremble: the sun -and the moon shall be dark, and the stars shall withdraw their -shining: - -"And the Lord shall utter His voice before His army: for His camp is -very great".(Joel ii. 2-11). - - [Illustration: THE LOCUST. - - "All thy trees shall the locust consume."--DEUT. xxviii. 42.] - -Nothing can be more vividly accurate than this splendid description of -the Locust armies. First we have the darkness caused by them as they -fly like black clouds between the sun and the earth. Then comes the -contrast between the blooming and fertile aspect of the land before -they settle on it, and its utter desolation when they leave it. Then -the poet-prophet alludes to the rushing noise of their flight, which -he compares to the sound of chariots upon the mountains, and to the -compact masses in which they pass over the ground like soldiers on the -march. The impossibility of checking them is shown in verse 8, and -their climbing the walls of houses and entering the chambers in verse -9. - -There is one passage in the Scriptures which at first sight seems -rather obscure, but is clear enough when we understand the character -of the insect to which it refers: "I am gone like the shadow when it -declineth: I am tossed up and down as the locust" (Ps. cix. 23). - -Although the Locusts have sufficient strength of flight to remain on -the wing for a considerable period, and to pass over great distances, -they have little or no command over the direction of their flight, and -always travel with the wind, just as has been mentioned regarding the -quail. So entirely are they at the mercy of the wind, that if a sudden -gust arises the Locusts are tossed about in the most helpless manner; -and if they should happen to come across one of the circular -air-currents that are so frequently found in the countries which they -inhabit, they are whirled round and round without the least power of -extricating themselves. - -The course then of the Locust-swarms depends entirely on the direction -of the wind. They are brought by the wind, and they are taken away by -the wind, as is mentioned in the sacred narrative. In the account of -the great plague of Locusts, the wind is mentioned as the proximate -cause both of their arrival and their departure. See, for example, -Exod. x. 12, 13: - -"And the Lord said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over the land of -Egypt for the locusts, that they may come up upon the land of Egypt, -and eat every herb of the land, even all that the hail hath left. - -"And Moses stretched forth his rod over the land of Egypt, and the -Lord brought an east wind upon the land all that day, and all that -night; and when it was morning, the east wind brought the locusts." - -Afterwards, when Moses was brought before Pharaoh, and entreated to -remove the plague which had been brought upon the land, the west wind -was employed to take the Locusts away, just as the east wind had -brought them. - -"He went out from Pharaoh, and entreated the Lord. - -"And the Lord turned a mighty strong west wind, which took away the -locusts, and cast them into the Red Sea; there remained not one locust -in all the coasts of Egypt" (Exod. x. 18, 19). - -Modern travellers have given accounts of these Locust armies, which -exactly correspond with the sacred narrative. One traveller mentions -that, after a severe storm, the Locusts were destroyed in such -multitudes, that they were heaped in a sort of wall, varying from -three to four feet in height, fifty miles in length, and almost -unapproachable, on account of the odour of their decomposing bodies. - - -We now come to the use of Locusts as food. - -Very few insects have been recognised as fit for human food, even -among uncivilized nations, and it is rather singular that the -Israelites, whose dietary was so scrupulously limited, should have -been permitted the use of the Locust. These insects are, however, -eaten in all parts of the world which they frequent, and in some -places form an important article of diet, thus compensating in some -way for the amount of vegetable food which they consume. - -Herodotus, for example, when describing the various tribes of Libyans, -mentions the use of the Locust as an article of diet. "The Nasamones, -a very numerous people, adjoin these Auschisæ westward.... When they -have caught locusts, they dry them in the sun, reduce them to powder, -and, sprinkling them in milk, drink them." (Melpomene, ch. 172.) - -This is precisely the plan which is followed at the present day by the -Bosjesmans of Southern Africa. - -To them the Locusts are a blessing, and not a plague. They till no -ground, so that they care nothing for crops, and they breed no cattle, -so that they are indifferent about pasture land. - -When they see a cloud of Locusts in the distance they light great -fires, and heap plenty of green boughs upon them, so as to create a -thick smoke. The Locusts have no idea of avoiding these smoke columns, -but fly over the fires, and, stifled by the vapour, fall to the -ground, where they are caught in vast numbers by the Bosjesmans. - -When their captors have roasted and eaten as many as they can manage -to devour, they dry the rest over the fires, pulverize them between -two stones, and keep the meal for future use, mixing it with water, -or, if they can get it, with milk. - -We will now take a few accounts given by travellers of the present -day, selecting one or two from many. Mr. W. G. Palgrave, in his -"Central and Eastern Arabia," gives a description of the custom of -eating Locusts. "On a sloping bank, at a short distance in front, we -discerned certain large black patches, in strong contrast with the -white glisten of the soil around, and at the same time our attention -was attracted by a strange whizzing, like that of a flight of hornets, -close along the ground, while our dromedaries capered and started as -though struck with sudden insanity. - -"The cause of all this was a vast swarm of locusts, here alighted in -their northerly wanderings from their birthplace in the Dahna; their -camp extended far and wide, and we had already disturbed their -outposts. These insects are wont to settle on the ground after sunset, -and there, half-stupified by the night chill, await the morning rays, -which warm them once more into life and movement. - -"This time, the dromedaries did the work of the sun, and it would be -hard to say which of the two were the most frightened, they or the -locusts. It was truly laughable to see so huge a beast lose his wits -for fear at the flight of a harmless, stingless Insect, for, of all -timid creatures, none equal this 'ship of the desert' for cowardice. - -"But, if the beasts were frightened, not so their masters. I really -thought they would have gone mad for joy. Locusts are here an article -of food, nay, a dainty, and a good swarm of them is begged of Heaven -in Arabia.... - -"The locust, when boiled or fried, is said to be delicious, and boiled -and fried accordingly they are to an incredible extent. However, I -never could persuade myself to taste them, whatever invitations the -inhabitants of the land, smacking their lips over large dishes full of -entomological 'delicatesses,' would make me to join them. Barakàt -ventured on one for a trial. He pronounced it oily and disgusting, nor -added a second to the first: it is caviare to unaccustomed palates. - -"The swarm now before us was a thorough godsend for our Arabs, on no -account to be neglected. Thirst, weariness, all were forgotten, and -down the riders leaped from their starting camels. This one spread out -a cloak, that one a saddle-bag, a third his shirt, over the unlucky -creatures, destined for the morning meal. Some flew away, whizzing -across our feet; others were caught, and tied up in sacks." - -Mr. Mansfield Parkyns, in his "Life in Abyssinia," mentions that the -true Abyssinian will not eat the Locust, but that the negroes and -Arabs do so. He describes the flavour as being something between the -burnt end of a quill and a crumb of linseed cake. The flavour, -however, depends much on the mode of cooking, and, as some say, on the -nature of the Locusts' food. - -Signor Pierotti states, in his "Customs and Traditions of Palestine," -that Locusts are really excellent food, and that he was accustomed to -eat them, not from necessity, but from choice, and compares their -flavour to that of shrimps. - -Dr. Livingstone makes a similar comparison. In Palestine, Locusts are -eaten either roasted or boiled in salt and water, but, when preserved -for future use, they are dried in the sun, their heads, wings, and -legs picked off, and their bodies ground into dust. This dust has -naturally a rather bitter flavour, which is corrected by mixing it -with camel's milk or honey, the latter being the favourite substance. - -We may now see that the food of St. John the Baptist was, like his -dress, that of a people who lived at a distance from towns, and that -there was no more hardship in the one than in the other. Some -commentators have tried to prove that St. John fed on the fruit of the -locust or carob tree--the same that is used so much in this country -for feeding cattle; but there is not the least ground for such an -explanation. The account of his life, indeed, requires no explanation; -Locust-dust, mixed with honey, being an ordinary article of food even -at the present day. - - - - -HYMENOPTERA. - -THE BEE. - - The Hebrew word _Debôrah_--The Honey Bee of Palestine--Abundance - of Bees in the Holy Land--Habitations of the wild Bee--Hissing - for the Bee--Bees in dead carcases--The honey of - Scripture--Domesticated Bees and their hives--Stores of wild - honey--The story of Jonathan--The Crusaders and the - honey--Butter and honey--Oriental sweetmeats--The Dibs, or - grape-honey, and mode of preparation--Wax, its use as a - metaphor. - - -Passing for the moment the order of insects called Neuroptera, which -may possibly be represented in the Scriptural writings by the -Termites, which would be classed with the ants, we come to the vast -order of Hymenoptera, of which we find several representatives. -Beginning with that which is most familiar to us, we will take the -Bee, an insect which is frequently mentioned in the Scriptures, and to -which indirect allusion is made in many passages, such as those which -mention honey, honeycomb, and wax. - - -Fortunately, there is no doubt about the rendering of the Hebrew word -_debôrah_, which has always been acknowledged to be rightly translated -as "Bee." There has, however, been a difference of opinion as to the -derivation of the word, some Hebraists thinking that it is derived -from a word which signifies departure, or going forth, in allusion to -its habit of swarming, while others derive it from the Hebrew dabar, a -word which signifies speech, and is appropriate to the Bee on account -of the varied sounds of its hum, which were supposed to be the -language of the insect. - -The Honey Bee is exceedingly plentiful in Palestine, and in some parts -of the country multiplying to such an extent that the precipitous -ravines in which it takes up its residence are almost impassable by -human beings, so jealous are the Bees of their domains. Although the -Bee is not exactly the same species as that of our own country, being -the Banded Bee (_Apis fasciata_), and not the _Apis mellifica_, the -two insects very much resemble each other in shape, colour, and -habits. Both of them share the instinctive dislike of strangers and -jealousy of intrusion, and the Banded Bee of Palestine has as great an -objection to intrusion as its congener of England. - - [Illustration: THE BEE. - - "_They shall rest all of them in the desolate valleys and in the holes - of the rocks._"--ISA. vii. 19.] - -Several allusions are made in the Scriptures to this trait in the -character of the Bee. See, for example, Deut. i. 44: "And the -Amorites, which dwelt in that mountain, came out against you, and -chased you, as bees do, and destroyed you in Seir, even unto Hormah." -All those who have had the misfortune to offend Bees will recognise -the truth of this metaphor, the Amorites swarming out of the mountain -like wild Bees out of the rocky clefts which serve them as hives, and -chasing the intruder fairly out of their domains. - -A similar metaphor is employed in the Psalms: "They compassed me -about; yea, they compassed me about; but in the name of the Lord I -will destroy them. - -"They compassed me about like bees, they are quick as the fire of -thorns, but in the name of the Lord I will destroy them." - -There is another passage in which the Bee is mentioned in the light of -an enemy: "And it shall come to pass in that day, that the Lord shall -hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt, -and for the bee that is in the land of Assyria. - -"And they shall come, and shall rest all of them in the desolate -valleys, and in the holes of the rocks, and upon all thorns, and upon -all bushes" (Isa. vii. 18, 19). Some commentators have thought that -the word which is translated as "Bee" may in this case refer to some -noxious fly, which, although it is not a Bee, and does not even belong -to the same order of insects, has a sufficiently Bee-like appearance -to cause it to be classed among the Bees by the non-zoological -Orientals. The context, however, sets the question at rest; for the -allusions to the resting of the insect in the holes of the rock, upon -the thorns, and on the bushes, clearly refers to the mode in which the -Honey Bee throws off its swarms. - -The custom of swarming is mentioned in one of the earlier books of -Scripture. The reader will remember that, after Samson had killed the -lion which met him on the way, he left the carcase alone. The various -carnivorous beasts and birds at once discover such a banquet, and in a -very short time the body of a dead animal is reduced to a hollow -skeleton, partially or entirely covered with skin, the rays of the sun -drying and hardening the skin until it is like horn. - -In exceptionally hot weather, the same result occurs even in this -country. Some years before this account was written there was a very -hot and dry summer, and a great mortality took place among the sheep. -So many indeed died that at last their owners merely flayed them, and -left their bodies to perish. One of the dead sheep had been thrown -into a rather thick copse, and had fallen in a spot where it was -sheltered from the wind, and yet exposed to the fierce heat of the -summer's sun. The consequence was that in a few days it was reduced to -a mere shell. The heat hardened and dried the external layer of flesh -so that not even the carnivorous beetles could penetrate it, while the -whole of the interior dissolved into a semi-putrescent state, and was -rapidly devoured by myriads of blue-bottles and other larvæ. - -It was so thoroughly dried that scarcely any evil odour clung to it, -and as soon as I came across it the story of Samson received a simple -elucidation. In the hotter Eastern lands, the whole process would have -been more rapid and more complete, and the skeleton of the lion, with -the hard and horny skin strained over it, would afford exactly the -habitation of which a wandering swarm of Bees would take advantage. At -the present day swarms of wild Bees often make their habitations -within the desiccated bodies of dead camels that have perished on the -way. - -As to the expression "hissing" for the Bee, the reader must bear in -mind that a sharp, short hiss is the ordinary call in Palestine, when -one person desires to attract the attention of another. A similar -sound, which may perhaps be expressed by the letters _tst_, prevails -on the Continent at the present day. Signor Pierotti remarks that the -inhabitants of Palestine are even now accustomed to summon Bees by a -sort of hissing sound. - -Whether the honey spoken of in the Scriptures was obtained from wild -or domesticated Bees is not very certain, but, as the manners of the -East are much the same now as they were three thousand years ago, it -is probable that Bees were kept then as they are now. The hives are -not in the least like ours, but are cylindrical vases of coarse -earthenware, laid horizontally, much like the bark hives employed in -many parts of Southern Africa. - -In some places the hives are actually built into the walls of the -houses, the closed end of the cylinder projecting into the interior, -while an entrance is made for the Bees in the other end, so that the -insects have no business in the house. When the inhabitants wish to -take the honey, they resort to the operation which is technically -termed "driving" by bee-masters. - -They gently tap the end within the house, and continue the tapping -until the Bees, annoyed by the sound, have left the hive. They then -take out the circular door that closes the end of the hive, remove as -much comb as they want, carefully put back those portions which -contain grubs and bee-bread, and replace the door, when the Bees soon -return and fill up the gaps in the combs. As to the wasteful, cruel, -and foolish custom of "burning" the Bees, the Orientals never think of -practising it. - -In many places the culture of Bees is carried out to a very great -extent, numbers of the earthenware cylinders being piled on one -another, and a quantity of mud thrown over them in order to defend -them from the rays of the sun, which would soon melt the wax of the -combs. - -In consequence of the geographical characteristics of the Holy Land, -which supplies not only convenient receptacles for the Bees in the -rocks, but abundance of thyme and similar plants, vast stores of -bee-comb are to be found in the cliffs, and form no small part of the -wealth of the people. - -Reference to this kind of property is made by the Prophet Jeremiah. -When Ishmael, the son of Nethaniah, had treacherously killed Gedaliah -and others, ten men tried to propitiate him by a bribe: "Slay us not, -for we have treasures in the field, of wheat, of barley, and of oil, -and of _honey_" (chap. xli. 8). References to the wild honey are -frequent in the Scriptures. For example, in the magnificent song of -Moses the Lord is said to have made Israel to "suck honey out of the -rock" (Deut. xxxii. 13). See also Psalm lxxxi. 16: "He should have fed -them also with the finest of the wheat: and with honey out of the rock -should I have satisfied thee." - -The abundance of wild honey is shown by the memorable events recorded -in 1 Sam. xiv. Saul had prohibited all the people from eating until -the evening. Jonathan, who had not heard the prohibition, was faint -and weary, and, seeing honey dripping on the ground from the abundance -and weight of the comb, he took it up on the end of his staff, and ate -sufficient to restore his strength. - -Thus, if we refer again to the history of St. John the Baptist and his -food, we shall find that he was in no danger of starving for want of -nourishment, the Bees breeding abundantly in the desert places he -frequented, and affording him a plentiful supply of the very material -which was needed to correct the deficiencies of the dried locusts -which he used instead of bread. - -The expression "a land flowing with milk and honey" has become -proverbial as a metaphor expressive of plenty. Those to whom the words -were spoken understood it as something more than a metaphor. In the -work to which reference has already been made Signor Pierotti writes -as follows:--"Let us now see how far the land could be said to flow -with milk and honey during the latter part of its history and at the -present day. - -"We find that honey was abundant in the time of the Crusades, for the -English, who followed Edward I. to Palestine, died in great numbers -from the excessive heat, and from eating too much fruit and honey. -(See M. Sanutus, '_Liber secretorum fidelium Crucis_,' lib. iii. p. -xii.) - -"At the present day, after traversing the country in every direction, -I am able to affirm that in the south-east and north-east, where the -ancient customs of the patriarchs are most fully preserved, and the -effects of civilization have been felt least, milk and honey may still -be said to flow, as they form a portion of every meal, and may even be -more abundant than water, which fails occasionally in the heat of -summer.... I have often eaten of the comb, which I found very good and -of delicious fragrance." - -A reference to sickness occasioned by eating too much honey occurs in -Prov. xxv. 16: "Hast thou found honey? Eat so much as is sufficient -for thee, lest thou be filled therewith, and vomit it." A similar -warning is given in verse 27: "It is not good to eat much honey: so -for men to search their own glory is not glory." - -So plentiful indeed was the wild honey that it was exported to other -countries, and in the palmy days of Israel formed part of a regular -trade with Tyre. See Ezek. xxvii. 17: "Judah and the land of Israel, -they were thy merchants: they traded in thy market wheat of Minnith, -and Pannag, and honey, and oil, and balm." - -In one or two passages honey is mentioned as being eaten with butter. -(See, for example, 2 Sam. xvii. 29.) When David and his followers were -wearied at Mahanaim, the people brought presents to him, among which -are specially mentioned butter and honey. - -Then there is the familiar prophecy, "Behold a virgin shall conceive -and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel. Butter and honey -shall he eat, that he may know to refuse the evil and choose the -good." The same image is repeated in the same chapter: "And it shall -come to pass for the abundance of milk that they shall give he shall -eat butter: for butter and honey shall every one eat that is left in -the land" (ver. 22). - -This mixture is at the present day a favourite one. All Orientals are -fond of sweets, and in the composition of many of their favourite -sweetmeats use honey instead of sugar. But an extemporized sweetmeat -is often made by mixing together honey and butter, and eating it -without further preparation. - - -It is right to mention here that there is a substance which is -sometimes called honey, but which is not made by Bees. This is still -used in Palestine under the name of "dibs," a word which is almost -identical with the Hebrew _d'bash_. A very excellent account of this -preparation is given by Mr. Urquhart in his "Lebanon." "The dibs, the -honey of Scripture, which Jacob sent to Joseph, is the inspissated -juice of the grape. It is of two sorts: one dark and liquid, -resembling molasses--this is the _racon_; the other is thick, and of a -yellow brown, and is called dibs (_jibes_). In every village there is -an establishment for making it, some of them bearing marks of great -antiquity. There are vats for pressing, and troughs cut in the rock -for holding the juice, and a furnace for boiling it. - -"The grapes are not trodden by the feet, but laid in a heap and -pressed by a beam, of which one end is fixed in the wall, and a heavy -stone attached to the other, as the oil seems anciently to have been -expressed, judging from the relics I observed near Tyre. The juice is -then boiled in the iron pan for an hour, then poured back into the -trough. After it has cooled it is again returned into the pan and -boiled--if for the racon for three hours, if for the jibes four. - -"The process is thus complete for the first; the second is still -liquid, and is conveyed home, where, during a month, it is daily for -an hour turned or beaten with a fresh branch of fig-tree, or botun. -This property of the fig-tree is curious.... The racon takes four okes -of grapes to make one oke; the jibes five. The first is worth forty -paras, and the second sixty." - - -The Hebrew word _donag_, which has been rightly interpreted as wax, -occurs very seldom in the Old Testament. No mention is made of any use -to which it was put, and in every instance it is employed simply as a -metaphor. - -Three examples occur in the Psalms: "I am poured out like water, and -all my bones are out of joint: my heart is like wax; it is melted in -the midst of my bowels" (Psa. xxii. 14). - -The word occurs again in Psa. lxviii. 2: "As smoke is driven away, so -drive them away: as wax melteth before the fire, so let the wicked -perish at the presence of God." It occurs for the third time in Psa. -xcvii. 5: "The hills melted like wax at the presence of the Lord, at -the presence of the Lord of the whole earth." - -The Prophet Micah uses a similar image: "Behold the Lord cometh forth -out of His place, and will come down, and tread upon the high places -of the earth. - -"And the mountains shall be molten under him, and the valleys shall be -cleft, as wax before the fire, and as the waters that are poured down -a steep place." (i. 3, 4.) - -The Bee represented on page 606 is the common Bee of Palestine, _Apis -fasciata_. The lowest figure in the corner, with a long body and shut -wings, is the queen. The central figure represents the drone, -conspicuous by means of his large eyes, that almost join each other at -the top of the head, and for his thicker and stouter body, while the -third figure represents the worker Bee. Near them is shown the -entrance to one of the natural hives which are so plentiful in the -Holy Land, and are made in the "clefts of the rocks." A number of Bees -are shown issuing from the hole. - - - - -THE HORNET. - - The Tzirah or Hornet of Scripture--Travellers driven away by - Hornets--The Hornet used as metaphor--Oriental symbolism--The - Talmudical writers--Sting of the Hornet. - - -Still keeping to the hymenopterous insects, we come to the Hornet. -There are three passages in which occurs the word _tzirah_, which has -been translated as Hornet. In every case when the word is mentioned -the insect is employed in a metaphorical sense. See, for example, -Exod. xxiii. 27, 28: "I will send my fear before thee, and will -destroy all the people to whom thou shalt come; and I will make all -thine enemies turn their backs unto thee. - -"And I will send hornets before thee, which shall drive out the -Hivite, the Canaanite, and the Hittite, from before thee." - -A similar use of the word is made in Deut. vii. 20: "Moreover the Lord -thy God will send the hornet among them, until they that are left, and -hide themselves from thee, be destroyed." - -The fulfilment of this promise is recorded in Josh. xxiv. 11, 12: "And -ye went over Jordan, and came unto Jericho: and the men of Jericho -fought against you, the Amorites, and the Perizzites, and the -Canaanites, and the Hittites, and the Girgashites, the Hivites, and -the Jebusites; and I delivered them into your hand. - -"And I sent the hornet before you, which drave them out from before -you, even the two kings of the Amorites; but not with thy sword, nor -with thy bow." - -It is most probable that in these passages the word is used rather as -a metaphor than as the statement of a fact, and that under the symbol -of the Hornet was signified some means whereby the people should be -driven out of the land as men are driven when chased by angry Hornets. -The reader may remember that the word "bee" is more than once used in -a similar manner. This view of the case is corroborated by such -passages as Deut. ii. 25: "This day will I begin to put the dread of -thee, and the fear of thee, upon the nations that are under the whole -heaven, who shall hear report of thee, and shall tremble, and be in -anguish because of thee." Also Josh. ii. 9-11: "I know that the Lord -hath given you the land, and that your terror is fallen upon us, and -that all the inhabitants of the land faint because of you. - - [Illustration: THE HORNET. - - "_I will send hornets before thee_."--EXOD. xxiii. 28.] - -"For we have heard how the Lord dried up the water of the Red Sea for -you, when ye came out of Egypt; and what ye did unto the two kings of -the Amorites, that were on the other side Jordan, Sihon and Og, whom -ye utterly destroyed. - -"And as soon as we had heard these things, our hearts did melt, -neither did there remain any more courage in any man, because of you." - -The Hornet affords a most appropriate image for such a promise as was -made to the Israelites, and was one which they must have thoroughly -comprehended. The Hornets of Palestine and the neighbouring countries -are far more common than our own Hornets in England, and they -evidently infested some parts to such an extent that they gave their -name to those spots. Thus the word _Zoreah_, which is mentioned in -Josh. xv. 33, signifies the "place of Hornets." - -They make their nests in various ways; some species placing them -underground, and others disposing them as shown in the illustration, -and merely sheltering them from the elements by a paper cover. Such -nests as these would easily be disturbed by the animals which -accompanied the Israelites on their journeys, even if the people were -careful to avoid them. In such a case, the irritated insects rush out -at the intruders; and so great is the terror of their stings, that men -and beasts fly promiscuously in every direction, each only anxious to -escape from the winged foes. - -The recollection of such scenes would necessarily dwell in the memory -of those who had taken part in them, and cause the metaphor to impress -itself strongly upon them. - -It is needless to say that the passages in question might be literal -statements of facts, and that the various nations were actually driven -out of their countries by Hornets. Let the insects be brought upon the -land in sufficient numbers, and neither man nor beast could stay in -it. It is not likely, however, that such a series of miracles, far -exceeding the insect-plagues of Egypt, would have been worked without -frequent references to them in the subsequent books of the Scriptures; -and, moreover, the quick, short, and headlong flight of the attack of -Hornets is a very different thing from the emigration which is -mentioned in the Scriptures, and the long journeys which such a -proceeding involved. - -The Talmudical writers inclined to the literal view of the passage, -and dilated on the terrible power of the Hornet, four of which could -destroy a horse, and one kill a boy nine years of age, or a man, -provided he were stung in the forehead. The sting of the Hornet is -very severe indeed, exceeding in virulence that of the wasp, to which -it is closely allied; and it is possible that a boy, or even a man, -might be in so feeble a state of health, or be naturally so sensitive -to poison, that the sting of a Hornet would be fatal. As a rule, -however, the sting of the Hornet, although exceedingly painful, is -scarcely more injurious than that of a bee or wasp. The Talmudists -stated that the Hornets mentioned in Joshua killed the people by -stinging them in the eye. - -The species of Hornet represented in the illustration is _Vespa -orientalis_, the insect and nest being drawn from specimens in the -British Museum. - - - - -THE ANT. - - The Ant of Scripture--Solomon's allusion to the Ant--Habit of - laying up stores of food--A controversy respecting the Ant--The - Ants of Palestine, and their habits--The Agricultural or - Mound-making Ant--Preparing ground, sowing, tending, reaping, - and storing the crop--Different habits of Ants--Development of - the insect--The winged Ants--An Arab proverb. - - -There are two short passages in the Old Testament, around which an -animated controversy has long raged. They both occur in the Book of -Proverbs. - -The first is found in chap. vi. 6-8: "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; -consider her ways, and be wise: - -"Which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, - -"Provideth her meat in the summer, and gathereth her food in the -harvest." - -The Jewish Bible renders the passage in almost exactly the same -manner: "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; see her ways, and be wise: - -"Which having no captain, bailiff, or ruler, - -"Provideth her bread in the summer, and gathereth her food in the -harvest." - -The second passage is of a similar character: "There be four things -which are little upon the earth, but they are exceeding wise. - -"The ants are a people not strong, yet they prepare their meat in the -summer." - -It has been objected to these passages that the Ant is a carnivorous -insect, and therefore could not gather her food in the harvest, and -that the very nature of that food would prevent it from being laid up -in store. The objectors thought that the sacred writer had been -deceived by appearances, and had mistaken the white cocoon of the -ant-pupæ (popularly called ant-eggs among ourselves) for grains of -corn which they were storing away for future use. - -Those who took the other side of the question answered that, in the -first place, it was necessary to be sure of the real translation of -the word which is rendered as "ant" in the Authorized Version; and -that, in the second place, the Ants of a warm country like Palestine -might have different habits from those which inhabit the comparatively -cold and changeable climate of England. - -As to the first point, there is no doubt that the rendering is the -right one, and that the word _nemâlah_ is correctly translated as -"ant." The Jewish Bible employs the word "ant," and does not add the -mark of doubt. Buxtorf, in his "Hebrew Lexicon," translates it as -"formica," and derives it from a root which signifies "to eat," -because it eat the seeds which it conveys to its dwelling. The -lexicographer here alludes to a belief that when the Ant carries a -grain of corn into its home, it bites off the germ, so as to prevent -it from sprouting. - -In Palestine Ants abound, and the species are tolerably numerous. -Among them are found some species which do convey seeds into their -subterranean home; and if their stores should be wetted by the heavy -rains which sometimes prevail in that country, bring them to the outer -air, as soon as the weather clears up, and dry them in the sun. - -The writer of the Proverbs was therefore perfectly right when he -alluded to the vegetable stores within the nest, and only spoke the -truth when he wrote of the Ant that it was exceeding wise. Any one who -wishes to test the truth of his words can easily do so by watching the -first Ants' nest which he finds, the species of the Ant not being of -much consequence. The nests of the Wood-Ant are perhaps the best -suited for investigation, partly because the insect and its habitation -are comparatively large, and, secondly, because so much of the work is -done above-ground. - -The most wonderful Ant in the world is one which hitherto is only -known in some parts of America. Its scientific name is _Atta -malefaciens_, and it has been called by various popular names, such as -the Mound-making Ant and the Agricultural Ant on account of its -habits, and the Stinging Ant on account of the pungency of its venom. -This characteristic has gained for it the scientific name of -_malefaciens_, or villanous. - -The habits of this Ant were studied in Texas by Dr. Lincecum for the -space of twelve years, and the result of his investigations was -communicated to the Linnæan Society by C. Darwin, Esq. His abstract of -Dr. Lincecum's observations may be found in the "Journal of the -Linnæan Society," vol. vi. No. 21, page 29. It is so extraordinary an -account that it must be given in the narrator's own words:-- - -"The following is merely an abstract of Dr. Lincecum's communication, -containing only what appears to be most remarkable and novel in it in -the way of observation. - -"The species which I have named 'Agricultural' is a large brownish -ant. It dwells in what may be termed paved cities, and, like a -thrifty, diligent, provident farmer, makes suitable and timely -arrangements for the changing seasons. It is, in short, endowed with -skill, ingenuity, and untiring patience sufficient to enable it -successfully to contend with the varying exigencies which it may have -to encounter in the life-confiict. - -"When it has selected a situation for its habitation, if on ordinary -dry ground, it bores a hole, around which it raises the surface three -and sometimes six inches, forming a low circular mound having a very -gentle inclination from the centre to the outer border, which on an -average is three or four feet from the entrance. But if the location -is chosen on low, flat, wet land liable to inundation, though the -ground may be perfectly dry at the time the ant sets to work, it -nevertheless elevates the mound, in the form of a pretty sharp cone, -to the height of fifteen to twenty inches or more, and makes the -entrance near the summit. Around the mound in either case the ant -clears the ground of all obstructions, levels and smooths the surface -to the distance of three or four feet from the gate of the city, -giving the space the appearance of a handsome pavement, as it really -is. - -"Within this paved area not a blade of any green thing is allowed to -grow, except a single species of grain-bearing grass. Having planted -this crop in a circle around, and two or three feet from, the centre -of the mound, the insect tends and cultivates it with constant care, -cutting away all other grasses and weeds that may spring up amongst it -and all around outside of the farm-circle to the extent of one or two -feet more. - -"The cultivated grass grows luxuriantly, and produces a heavy crop of -small, white, flinty seeds, which under the microscope very closely -resemble ordinary rice. When ripe, it is carefully harvested, and -carried by the workers, chaff and all, into the granary cells, where -it is divested of the chaff and packed away. The chaff is taken out -and thrown beyond the limits of the paved area. - -"During protracted wet weather, it sometimes happens that the -provision stores become damp, and are liable to sprout and spoil. In -this case, on the first fine day the ants bring out the damp and -damaged grain, and expose it to the sun till it is dry, when they -carry it back and pack away all the sound seeds, leaving those that -had sprouted to waste. - -"In a peach-orchard not far from my house is a considerable elevation, -on which is an extensive bed of rock. In the sand-beds overlying -portions of this rock are fine cities of the Agricultural ants, -evidently very ancient. My observations on their manners and customs -have been limited to the last twelve years, during which time the -enclosure surrounding the orchard has prevented the approach of cattle -to the ant-farms. The cities which are outside of the enclosure as -well as those protected in it are, at the proper season, invariably -planted with the ant-rice. The crop may accordingly always be seen -springing up within the circle about the 1st of November every year. - -"Of late years, however, since the number of farms and cattle has -greatly increased, and the latter are eating off the grass much closer -than formerly, thus preventing the ripening of the seeds, I notice -that the Agricultural ant is placing its cities along the turn-rows in -the fields, walks in gardens, inside about the gates, &c., where they -can cultivate their farms without molestation from the cattle. - -"There can be no doubt of the fact, that the particular species of -grain-bearing grass mentioned above is intentionally planted. In -farmer-like manner the ground upon which it stands is carefully -divested of all other grasses and weeds during the time it is growing. -When it is ripe the grain is taken care of, the dry stubble cut away -and carried off, the paved area being left unencumbered until the -ensuing autumn, when the same 'ant-rice' reappears within the same -circle, and receives the same agricultural attention as was bestowed -upon the previous crop; and so on year after year, as I _know_ to be -the case, in all situations where the ants' settlements are protected -from graminivorous animals." - -In a second letter, Dr. Lincecum, in reply to an inquiry from Mr. -Darwin, whether he supposed that the Ants plant seeds for the ensuing -crop, says, "I have not the slightest doubt of it. And my conclusions -have not been arrived at from hasty or careless observation, nor from -seeing the ants do something that looked a little like it, and then -guessing at the results. I have at all seasons watched the same -ant-cities during the last twelve years, and I know that what I stated -in my former letter is true. I visited the same cities yesterday, and -found the crop of ant-rice growing finely, and exhibiting also the -signs of high cultivation, and not a blade of any other kind of grass -or weed was to be seen within twelve inches of the circular row of -ant-rice." - -The economical habits of this wonderful insect far surpass anything -that Solomon has written of the Ant, and it is not too much to say -that if any of the Scriptural writers had ventured to speak of an Ant -that not only laid up stores of grain, but actually prepared the soil -for the crop, planted the seed, kept the ground free from weeds, and -finally reaped the harvest, the statement would have been utterly -disbelieved, and the credibility not only of that particular writer -but of the rest of Scripture severely endangered. We all know that -Solomon's statement concerning the Ant has afforded one of the stock -arguments against the truth of Scripture; and here we have his -statements not only corroborated to the very letter by those who have -visited Palestine for the express purpose of investigating its -zoology, but far surpassed by the observations of a scientific man who -had watched the insects for a series of years. One of the Ants of -Palestine, shown on page 621, belongs to the same genus as the -Agricultural Ant. - -As may be inferred from the above description, the habits of Ants vary -greatly according to their species and the climate in which they live. -All, however, are wonderful creatures; and whether we look at their -varied architecture, their mode of procuring food, the system of -slave-catching adopted by some, the "milking" of aphides practised by -others, their astonishing mode of communicating thought to each other, -and their perfect system of discipline, we feel how true were the -words of the royal naturalist, that the Ants are "little upon earth, -but are exceeding wise." - - [Illustration: ANT OF PALESTINE (Atta barbara). - - "_Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be - wise._"--PROV. vi. 6.] - -There is one point of their economy in which all known species agree. -Only those which are destined to become perfectly developed males and -females attain the winged state. Before they assume the transitional -or pupal condition, each spins around itself a slight but tough silken -cocoon, in which it lies secure during the time which is consumed in -developing its full perfection of form. - -When it is ready to emerge, the labourer Ants aid in freeing it from -the cocoon, and in a short time it is ready to fly. Millions of these -winged ants rise into the air, seeking their mates, and, as they are -not strong on the wing, and are liable to be tossed about by every -gust of wind, vast numbers of them perish. Whole armies of them fall -into the water and are drowned or devoured by fish, while the -insectivorous birds hold great festival on so abundant a supply of -food. As soon as they are mated they bend their wings forward, snap -them off, and pass the rest of their lives on the ground. - -In consequence of the destruction that takes place among the winged -Ants, the Arabs have a proverb which is applied to those who are -over-ambitious: "If God purposes the destruction of an ant, He permits -wings to grow upon her." - - - - -HOMOPTERA. - -THE CRIMSON WORM. - - The scarlet or crimson of Scripture--Signification of the word - _Tolââth_--The Coccus or Cochineal of Palestine compared with - that of Mexico--Difference between the sexes--Mode of preparing - the insect--The Arabic word _Kermes_. - - -We now come to another order of insects. - -Just as the purple dye was obtained from a mollusc, the scarcely less -valuable crimson or scarlet was obtained from an insect. The Hebrew -word _tolââth_ is translated in the Authorized Version either as -"crimson" or "scarlet," but its full signification is the -Crimson-worm. This is an insect scientifically named _Coccus ilicis_ -on account of its food. It is closely allied to the well-known -cochineal of Mexico, which gives a more brilliant dye, and has at the -present day nearly superseded the native insect. It is, however, -still employed as a dye in some parts of the country. - -As its name imports, it feeds on the holm oak (_Quercus coccifera_), a -tree which is very plentiful in Palestine, and attains a large size. - - [Illustration: THE CRIMSON WORM. - - "_Though your sins be as red as crimson, they shall be white as - snow._"--ISA i. 13.] - -Like the cochineal insect of Mexico, the female is very much larger -than her mate, and it is only from her that the dye is procured. At -the proper season of year the females are gathered off the trees and -carefully dried, the mode of drying having some effect upon the -quality of the dye. During the process of drying the insect alters -greatly, both in colour and size, shrinking to less than half its -original dimensions, and assuming a greyish brown hue instead of a -deep red. When placed in water it soon gives out its colouring matter, -and communicates to the water the rich colour with which we are -familiar under the name of carmine, or crimson. This latter name, by -the way, is only a corruption of the Arabic _kermes_, which is the -name of the insect. - -The reader will remember that this was one of the three sacred -colours--scarlet, purple, and blue--used in the vestments of the -priests and the hangings of the tabernacle, the white not taking rank -as a colour. - -The Coccus belongs to the Homoptera in common with the cicadæ, the -lantern flies, the hoppers, and the aphides. - -On page 623 the large females are shown on the prickly pear, and near -them are the tiny males, some flying and some on the leaves. - - - - -LEPIDOPTERA. - -THE CLOTHES MOTH. - - The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth--The Sâs and - the 'Ash--Similitude between the Hebrew _sâs_ and the Greek - _sês_--Moths and garments--Accumulation of clothes in the - East--Various uses of the hoarded robes--The Moths, the rust, - and the thief. - - -Only one Lepidopterous insect is mentioned by name in the Scriptures. -This is the MOTH, by which we must always understand some species of -Clothes Moth--in fact, one of the Tineidæ, which are as plentiful and -destructive in Palestine as in this country. - -Two words are used in the Old Testament to express the Moth, one of -which, _sâs_, only occurs once, and then in connexion with the other -word _'ash_. The resemblance of the Hebrew _sâs_ and the Greek _sês_ -is to be noted, both of them denominating the same insect. See Is. li. -8: "For the moth (_'ash_) shall eat them up like garment, and the worm -(_sâs_) shall eat them like wool." Buxtorf translates _sâs_ as _tinea, -blatta_. - -Several references are made to the Moth in the Scriptures, and nearly -all have reference to its destructive habits. The solitary exceptions -occur in the Book of Job, "Behold, He put no trust in His servants; -and His angels He charged with folly: how much less in them that dwell -in houses of clay, whose foundation is in the dust, which are crushed -before the moth?" (Ch. iv. 18, 19.) A similar allusion to the Moth is -made in the same book: "He buildeth his house as a moth, and as a -booth that the keeper maketh" (xxvii. 18). - -The Moth is mentioned in one of the penitential passages of the -Psalms: "When Thou with rebukes dost correct man for iniquity, Thou -makest his beauty to consume away like a moth: surely every man is -vanity" (Ps. xxxix. 11). - -The prophets also make use of the same image. "Behold, the Lord God -will help me; who is he that shall condemn me? lo, they all shall wax -old as a garment; the moth shall eat them" (Isa. l. 9). The image is -repeated in the next chapter (ver. 8), in which the 'Ash and the Sâs -are both mentioned. Hosea employs the word as a metaphor expressive of -gradual destruction: "Therefore will I be unto Ephraim as a moth, and -to the house of Judah as rottenness" (v. 12). - -In the New Testament reference is made several times to the Moth. "Lay -not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth -corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal" (Matt. vi. 19). -St. James, in a kind of commentary on this passage, writes as follows: -"Go to now, ye rich men, weep and howl for your miseries that shall -come upon you. - -"Your riches are corrupted, and your garments are moth-eaten. - -"Your gold and silver is cankered; and the rust of them shall be a -witness against you, and shall eat your flesh as it were fire. Ye have -heaped treasures together for the last days." (v. 1-3.) - -Even to ourselves these passages are significant enough, but to the -Jews and the inhabitants of Palestine they possessed a force which we -can hardly realize in this country. In the East large stores of -clothing are kept by the wealthy, not only for their own use, but as -presents to others. At a marriage feast, for example, the host -presents each of the guests with a wedding garment. Clothes are also -given as marks of favour, and a present of "changes of raiment," -_i.e._ suits of clothing, is one of the most common gifts. As at the -present day, there was anciently no greater mark of favour than for -the giver to present the very robe which he was wearing, and when that -robe happened to be an official one, the gift included the rank which -it symbolized. Thus Joseph was invested with royal robes, as well as -with the royal ring (Gen. xli. 42). Mordecai was clothed in the -king's robes: "Let the royal apparel be brought which the king useth -to wear, and the horse the king rideth upon, and the crown royal which -is set upon his head. - -"And let this apparel and horse be delivered to the hand of one of the -king's most noble princes, that they may array the man withal whom the -king delighteth to honour, and bring him on horseback through the -street of the city, and proclaim before him, Thus shall it be done to -the man whom the king delighteth to honour." (Esther vi. 8, 9.) - -The loose clothing of the East requires no fitting, as is the case -with the tight garments of the West; any garment fits any man: so that -the powerful and wealthy could lay up great stores of clothing, -knowing that they would fit any person to whom they were given. An -allusion to this practice of keeping great stores of clothing is made -in Job xxvii. 26: "Though he heap up silver as the dust, and prepare -raiment as the clay; - -"He may prepare it, but the just shall put it on, and the innocent -shall divide the silver." - -So large was the supply of clothing in a wealthy man's house, that -special chambers were set apart for it, and a special officer, called -the "keeper of the garments" (2 Chron. xxxiv. 22), was appointed to -take charge of them. - -Thus, when a man was said to have clothing, the expression was a -synonym for wealth and power. See Isa. iii. 6: "When a man shall take -hold of his brother of the house of his father, saying, Thou hast -clothing, be thou our ruler." - -The reader will now see how forcible was the image of the Moth and the -garments, that is used so freely in the Scriptures. The Moth would not -meddle with garments actually in use, so that a poor man would not -be troubled with it. Only those who were rich enough to keep stores -of clothing in their houses need fear the Moth, which would be -as destructive to that portion of their wealth represented by -their clothes as the "rust,"--_i.e._ the Grain Moth (_Tinea -granella_)--which consumed their stores, or the thief who came by -night and stole their gold and silver. - - - - -THE SILKWORM MOTH. - - Various passages wherein Silk is mentioned--The virtuous woman - and her household--Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted - with Silk--Present cultivation of the Silkworm--The Silk-farms - of the Lebanon--Signification of the word _Meshi_--Silkworms and - thunder--Luis of Grenada's sermon--The Hebrew word _Gâzam_, and - its signification--The Palmer-worm of Scripture. - - -In the Authorized Version there are several passages wherein silk is -mentioned, but it is rather doubtful whether the translation be -correct or not, except in one passage of the Revelation: "And the -merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her; for no man -buyeth their merchandise any more: - -"The merchandise of gold, and silver, and precious stones, and of -pearls, and fine linen, and purple, and silk." (xviii. 11, 12.) - -In Prov. xxxi. 22 Solomon writes of the virtuous woman "that she -maketh herself coverings of tapestry; her clothing is silk and -purple." The word which is here given as "silk" is translated in the -Jewish Bible as "fine linen." - -In the other two passages, however, in which the word occurs it is -rendered as "silk:" "I clothed thee also with broidered work, and shod -thee with badger's skin, and I girded thee about with fine linen, and -I covered thee with silk" (Ezek. xvi. 10). See also verse 13 of the -same chapter: "Thus wast thou decked with gold and silver, and thy -raiment was of fine linen and broidered work." - -That the Hebrews were acquainted with silk from very early times is -nearly certain, but it is probable that until comparatively late years -they only knew the manufactured material, and were ignorant of the -source whence it was derived. As to the date at which silk was -introduced into Palestine, nothing certain is known; but it is most -likely that Solomon's fleets brought silk from India, together with -the other valuables which are mentioned in the history of that -monarch. - -At the present day silk is largely cultivated, and the silk-farmers of -the Lebanon are noted for the abundance of the crop which is annually -produced. The greatest care is taken in rearing the worms. An -excellent account of these farms is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud in -his "Druses of the Lebanon:"-- - -"Proceeding onward, and protected from the fierce heat of the sun's -rays by the pleasant shade of mountain pines, we were continually -encountering horseloads of cocoons, the fruit of the industry of the -Druse silk-rearer. The whole process, from hatching the silkworms' -eggs till the moment that the worm becomes a cocoon, is one series of -anxiety and labour to the peasant. The worms are so delicate that the -smallest change of temperature exposes them to destruction, and the -peasant can never confidently count upon reaping a harvest until the -cocoon is fairly set." - -After a long and interesting description of the multiplied and -ceaseless labours of the silk-grower in providing food for the armies -of caterpillars and sheltering them from the elements, the writer -proceeds as follows:-- - -"The peasant is unwilling to permit of our remaining and watching -operations. Traditional superstition has inculcated in him a dread of -the evil eye. If we stop and admire the wisdom displayed by the worm, -it will, in his opinion, be productive of evil results; either the -cocoon will be badly formed, or the silk will be worthless. So, first -clearing the place of all intruders, he puts a huge padlock on the -door, and, locking the _khlook_ (room in which the silkworms are -kept), deposits the key in his _zinnar_, or waistband. - -"Next week he will come and take out the cocoons, and, separating them -from the briars, choose out a sufficiency for breeding purposes, and -all the rest are handed over to the women of his family. These first -of all disentangle the cocoon from the rich and fibrous web with which -it is enveloped, and which constitutes an article of trade by itself. -The cocoons are then either reeled off by the peasant himself or else -sold to some of the silk factories of the neighbourhood, where they -are immediately reeled off, or are suffocated in an oven, and -afterwards, being well aired and dried, piled up in the magazines of -the factory. - -"Such is a brief account or history of these cocoons, of which we were -continually encountering horseload after horseload. - -"As you will perceive, unless suffering from a severe cold in the -head, the odour arising from these cocoons is not the most agreeable; -but this arises partly from the neglect and want of care of the -peasants themselves, who, reeling off basketful after basketful of -cocoons, suffer the dead insects within to be thrown about and -accumulate round the house, where they putrefy and emit noxious -vapours." - -The Hebrew word _meshi_, which is the one that occurs in Ezek. xvi., -is derived from a root which signifies "to draw out," probably in -allusion to the delicacy of the fibre. - -Although our limits will not permit the cultivation of the Silkworm to -be described more fully, it may here be added that all silk-growers -are full of superstition regarding the welfare of the caterpillars, -and imagine that they are so sensitive that they will die of fear. The -noise of a thunderclap is, in their estimation, fatal to Silkworms; -and the breeders were therefore accustomed to beat drums within the -hearing of the Silkworms, increasing the loudness of the sound, and -imitating as nearly as possible the crash and roll of thunder, so that -the caterpillars might be familiar with the sound if the thunderstorm -should happen to break near them. - -A quaint use of this superstition is made by Luis of Grenada in one of -his discourses:-- - -_Dominica IV. post Pent., Concio 1._ - -"Sunt rursus alii, quorum pectora sic generis humani hostis obsedit, -ut nullius divinæ vocis fulminibus perterreantur, vel parum animo -commoveantur. - -"Quâ autem ratione eorundem aures obstruat, proposito hoc exemplo -indicabo. - -"Bombyces, hoc est vermes illi qui serica fìla nectunt, ita tonitruum -sonitu gravantur, ut interduin moriantur. Quo fit, ut qui eos nutriunt -tympana frequenter pulsent, ut sonitui molliori assueti a graviori -tonitrui sono non lædantur. Tales mihi multi sacrarum concionum -auditores hâc ætate esse videntur, qui quotidianis concionibus -audiendis sine ullo animi motu assueti, si quis concionator, a Deo -actus, gravius aliquid et formidibilius intonet, non idem magis animo -permoveantur; utpote qui negligenter audiendi consuetudine pene -insensibiles ad verbi Dei tonitrua affecti sint." - - -_Fourth Sunday after Pentecost, Sermon 1._ - -"Again, others there are of whose breasts the enemy of mankind hath -taken such possession, that they be terrified by the thunderbolts of -no Divine voice, or are in mind only a little disturbed thereby. - -"Now after what sort he stoppeth the ears of these same men I will, by -this example, propound and set forth. - -"The Bombyxes--that is to say, those worms which do spin the silk -threads--are by peals of thunder so troubled that sometimes they die. -Wherefore it comes to pass that the keepers of them do ofttimes beat -drums, to the end that, being used to the softer noise, they may take -no hurt from that sound of the thunder which is heavier. Of such a -sort do seem to me to be nowadays many hearers of sacred discourses. -For inasmuch as they be used to the hearing of common discourses, by -which their minds are nothing moved, if a preacher, urged of God, do -sound forth something in any wise solemn and dreadful, they are not, -therefore, any the more moved in mind, seeing that by their custom of -careless hearing they have grown well-nigh hardened to the thunders of -God's Word." - - -About the correct reading of the Hebrew word _gâzam_, which is -translated in the Authorized Version "palmer-worm," there has always -been some difficulty. It only occurs in three passages of Scripture, -and in each case reference is made to its destructive powers. - -The first is in Joel i. 4: "That which the palmer-worm hath left, hath -the locust eaten." - -The second is in chap. ii. 25 of the same book: "I will restore to you -the years that the locust hath eaten, the canker-worm, and the -caterpillar, and the palmer-worm, my great army which I sent among -you." - -The third is in Amos iv. 9: "I have smitten you with blasting and -mildew: when your gardens, and your vineyards, and your fig-trees, and -your olive-trees increased, the palmer-worm devoured them: yet have -ye not returned unto me, saith the Lord." - - [Illustration: BUTTERFLIES OF PALESTINE. - - SYRIAN GRAYLING (Hipparchia Persephone). SYRIAN ORANGE-TIP (Antocharis - Glauce). - - SYRIAN SWALLOW-TAIL (Papilio Virgatus). - - "_That which the palmer-worm hath left hath the locust eaten._"--JOEL - i. 4.] - - -The Jewish Bible retains the reading of palmer-worm, but affixes the -mark of doubt, as it does to the canker-worm. Some Hebraists have -thought that the word _gâzam_ is one of the names to designate the -locust, either some distinct species, or the same species in its -undeveloped condition. Others have thought that, as the Jews were very -loose in their nomenclature, they would not have made so great an -exception in favour of an insect as to apply two different names to -it. - -Buxtorf derives the word from a root signifying "to shave," or "to -shear," in allusion to the havoc which the _gâzam_ makes among the -vegetation. The reader will see that it is impossible to decide with -any certainty upon the precise species of insect signified by the word -_gâzam_; but there can be no harm in following the translation of the -Septuagint and Vulgate, both of which render it as "caterpillar." -Assuming, therefore, that it is a caterpillar of some kind, I have -inserted figures of some butterflies found in Palestine, together with -the caterpillar and chrysalis of one of them, namely the Papilio. - - - - -DIPTERA. - -FLIES. - - Flies of Scripture--Dead Flies and the apothecary's - ointment--Gadflies and their attacks--Annoyance caused by the - House-fly--Flies and ophthalmia--Signor Pierotti's account of - the Flies--The sovereign remedy against Flies--Causes of their - prevalence. - - -Next we come to the Dipterous or two-winged insects, which are very -sparingly mentioned in the Scriptures, and only one species is -definitely named. - -There are two Hebrew words which are translated as "fly." One is -_zebub_, so familiar in the compound word _Baal-zebub_--_i.e._ "Lord -of Flies." This word only occurs in two passages, one being the -well-known proverb, "Dead flies cause the ointment of the apothecary -to send forth a stinking savour" (Eccles. x. 1). - -This passage requires a little explanation. By the word "apothecary" -we must not understand a medical man, nor by the word "ointment" the -mollifying substance used as an application for wounds. The ointment -of Scripture signifies the various perfumed unguents used as scents -and cosmetics for the living, as part of the preparation of the dead -for the grave, and as an essential accessory to Jewish ritual. - -These ointments were most carefully made, and the person who prepared -and sold them was called the apothecary. If, therefore, the unguents -were carelessly stored, and the Flies permitted to enter, the perfume -would be destroyed by the odour of their dead bodies. - -The second passage is Isa. vii. 18: "The Lord shall hiss for the fly -that is in the uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt." No particular -species of fly is here indicated; but it is evident that some -peculiarly irritating and troublesome, not to say dangerous, insect is -signified. - -Many species of gadfly would produce that effect, and inflict direful -torments on those whom they assail. Even in England the gadflies are -more than troublesome to human beings. In the New Forest I have been -fairly driven back by the attack of the gadflies, which wounded me -through a thick woollen coat, while they attacked the uncovered -portions of the skin so fiercely that, before reaching shelter, my -neck was bathed in blood. - -Another word is _arôb_, which is applied to the flies which were -brought upon Egypt in the great plague. It is probable that some -different species is here signified, but there is no certainty in the -matter. Any species, however, would be a sufficient plague if they -exceeded the usual number which infest Egypt, and which at first make -the life of a foreigner a burden to him. They swarm in such myriads, -that he eats flies, drinks flies, and breathes flies. - -Not the least part of the nuisance is, that they cluster in the eyes -of those who are affected with the prevalent ophthalmia, which is so -fertile a cause of blindness, and so convey the infection with them. A -stranger is always struck with the appearance of the children, who -have quantities of these pests upon and about their eyes, and yet seem -perfectly unaffected by a visitation which would wellnigh drive a -European mad. - -Signor Pierotti writes feelingly on the subject:-- - -"These insects sometimes cause no slight suffering in Palestine, as I -can vouch from my own experience. However large or however small they -may be, a rabid and restless foe, they attack alike, and make -themselves insufferable in a thousand ways, in every season and place, -in the house and in the field, by day and by night. - -"Frequently in 1857 and 1860, while I was encamped near the tents of -the Bedawîn, in the neighbourhood of the Jordan, and to the south of -Hebron, flies were brought in such numbers by the east wind that all, -beasts and men, were in danger of being choked by them, as they crept -into our ears, noses, and mouths, and all over our bodies. My servant -and I were the first to fly from the pest, as we were spotted all over -like lepers with the eruption caused by their bites: the Bedawîn -themselves were not slow to follow our example. - -"I am not the only person who has experienced this nuisance, for -Eugene Roger, who travelled in Palestine during the seventeenth -century, informs us that during his stay at Nazareth a swarm of small -black flies, called _bargash_, invaded the plain of Esdraelon, where a -tribe of Bedawîn, to the number of six hundred tents, were encamped, -who suffered greatly from them. - -"The flies, therefore, still infest Palestine as they did of old, -except that they are not now so numerous as to compel the chiefs of -the villages or tribes (answering to the kings of the Pentateuch and -Joshua) to evacuate the country before them. - -"The Philistines had a special deity whom they invoked against these -pests, Baalzebub, the God of Flies, whose temple was at Ekron. The -reason of this is evident at the present day, for the ancient country -of the Philistines is infested with insect plagues, as I experienced -together with his Excellency Surraya Pasha in the summer of 1859. - -"As, however, we had no faith in Baalzebub, we were obliged to arm -ourselves with fly-traps and stoical patience. Many travellers bring -with them a perfect druggist's shop from Europe as a protection -against these nuisances, and leave behind them this only efficacious -remedy, patience. This I strongly recommend; it is very portable, very -cheap, and equally useful in all climates. - -"It is especially valuable in the case of the insects, as they are -found everywhere in greater or less numbers; especially in the -dwellings, where they are nourished by the carrion that lies about, -the heaps of rubbish, the filth of the streets, the leakage of -cesspools and sewers, the dirt in the houses, the filthy clothing worn -by the people, and the kind of food they eat. Though the country of -Baalzebub is deserted and enslaved, the flies are still abundant and -free, self-invited guests at the table, unasked assistants in the -kitchen, tasting everything, immolating themselves in their -gastronomic ardour, and forming an undesired seasoning in every dish." - - - - - -GNATS. - - The Gnat of Scripture--Straining out the Gnat and swallowing the - camel, a typographical error--Probable identity of the Gnat and - the mosquito. - - -It has already been stated that only one species of fly is mentioned -by name in the Scriptures. This is the Gnat, the name of which occurs -in the familiar passage, "Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat and -swallow a camel" (Matt. xxiii. 24). - - [Illustration: NOXIOUS FLIES OF PALESTINE. - - MOSQUITO (Culex). CAMEL FLY (Tabanus marocanus). - - "_He sent divers sorts of flies among them which devoured them._"--PSA - xxviii. 45.] - -I may again mention here that the words "strain at" ought to have been -printed "strain out," the substitution of the one for the other being -only a typographical error. The allusion is made to a custom which is -explained by reference to the preceding article on the fly. In order -to avoid taking flies and other insects into the mouth while drinking, -a piece of thin linen stuff was placed over the cup, so that if any -insects, as was usually the case, had got into the liquid, they would -be "strained out" by the linen. - -Whether or not any particular species of insect was signified by the -word "gnat" is very doubtful, and in all probability the word is only -used to express the contrast between the smallest known insects and -the largest known beasts. Gnats, especially those species which are -popularly known by the word "mosquito," are very plentiful in many -parts of Palestine, especially those which are near water, and are as -annoying there as in other lands which they inhabit. - - - - -APTERA AND APANIPTERA. - -THE LOUSE. - - Insect parasites--The plague of Lice--Its effect on the - magicians or priests--The Hebrew word _Chinnim_--Probability - that it may be represented by "tick"--Habits of the ticks, their - dwellings in dust, and their effects on man and beast. - - -We close the history of insects mentioned in Scripture with two -parasites of a singularly disagreeable character. - -With respect to the former of them, we find it mentioned in the -account of the great plagues of Egypt. After the two plagues of the -waters and the frogs, both of which were imitated by the magicians, -_i.e._ the priests, a third was brought upon Egypt, which affected the -magicians even more than the people, for a reason which we shall -presently see:-- - -"And the Lord said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch out thy rod, -and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice, throughout -all the land of Egypt. - -"And they did so; for Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod, and -smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man and in beast; -all the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land of Egypt. - -"And the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring forth lice, -but they could not: so there were lice upon man and upon beast." - -Now it is hardly possible to conceive a calamity which would have told -with greater effect upon the magicians, by whose advice Pharoah had -resisted the requests of Moses and Aaron. - -Living in a land where all, from the highest to the lowest, were -infested with parasites, the priests were so much in advance of the -laity that they were held polluted if they harboured one single -noxious insect upon their persons, or in their clothing. The clothing, -being linen, could be kept clean by frequent washing, while the -possibility of the body being infested by parasites was prevented by -the custom of shaving the whole of the body, from the crown of the -head to the sole of the foot, at least once in every three days. - -It may easily be imagined, therefore, how terrible this visitation -must have been to such men. As swine to the Pharisee, as the flesh of -cattle to the Brahmin, so was the touch of a parasite to the Egyptian -priest. He was degraded in his own estimation and in that of his -fellows. He could perform no sacred offices: so that, in fact, all the -idolatrous worship of Egypt ceased until this particular plague had -been withdrawn. - -We now come to a consideration of the insect which is signified by the -Hebrew word _chinnim_. Sir Samuel Baker is of opinion that the word -ought to have been translated as "ticks," and for the following -reasons:-- - -After quoting the passage which relates to the stretching of Aaron's -rod over the dust, and the consequence of that action, he proceeds as -follows: "Now the louse that infests the human body and hair has no -connexion whatever with dust, and, if subjected to a few hours' -exposure to the dry heat of the burning sand, it would shrivel and -die. But a tick is an inhabitant of the dust, a dry horny insect, -without any apparent moisture in its composition. It lives in hot sand -and dust, where it cannot possibly obtain nourishment until some -wretched animal should lie down upon the spot, and become covered with -these horrible vermin. - -"I have frequently seen dry desert places so infested with ticks that -the ground was perfectly alive with them, and it would have been -impossible to have rested upon the earth. In such spots, the passage -in Exodus has frequently seemed to me as bearing reference to these -vermin, which are the greatest enemy to man and beast. It is well -known that from the size of a grain of sand, in their natural state, -they will distend to the size of a hazel nut after having preyed for -some days on the body of an animal." ("Nile Tributaries," p. 122.) - -Granting that this suggestion be the correct one, as it certainly is -the most consistent both with actual facts and with the words of Holy -Writ, the plague would lose none of its intensity, but would, if -anything, be more horrible. Only those who have suffered from them can -appreciate the miseries caused by the attack of these ticks, which -cling so tightly that they can scarcely be removed without being torn -in pieces, and without leaving some portion of their head beneath the -skin of their victim. Man and beast suffer equally from them, as is -implied in the words of Scripture, and, unless they are very -cautiously removed, painful and obstinate is the result of their -bites. - - - - -THE FLEA. - - Prevalence of the Flea in the East, and the annoyance caused by - them to travellers--Fleas of the Lebanon--The Bey's - bedfellows--The Pasha at the bath--Use of the word in Scripture. - - -This active little pest absolutely swarms in the East. The inhabitants -are so used to the Fleas that either the insects do not touch them, or -by long custom they become so inured to their attack that the bites -are not felt. - -But every traveller in Eastern lands has a tale to tell about the -Fleas, which seem to be accepted as one of the institutions of the -country, and to be contemplated with perfect equanimity. Miss Rogers, -for example, in her "Domestic Life in Palestine," mentions how she was -obliged to stand upon a box in order to be out of the reach of a -large company of Fleas that were hopping about on the floor! - -Mr. Urquhart, experienced Orientalist as he was, found on one occasion -that the Fleas were too strong for him. He had forgotten his curtain, -and was invaded by armies of Fleas, that marched steadily up the bed -and took possession of their prey. The people were quite amused at his -complaints, and said that their Bey could not sleep without a couple -of hundred of them in his bosom. Mr. Urquhart suggests that these -little creatures act as a wholesome irritant to the skin, and says -that the last two mouthfuls of every meal are for the benefit of the -Fleas. - -In order to show the perfect indifference with which the presence of -these little pests is regarded, I quote a passage from Mr. Farley's -"Druses of the Lebanon." He was in a Turkish bath, and was much amused -at a scene which presented itself. - -"A man, whose skin resembled old discoloured vellum, was occupying -himself with the somewhat undignified pursuit of pursuing with great -eagerness something that, from the movement of his hands, seemed -continually to elude him, jumping about and taking refuge in the -creases and folds of his shirt, that was spread out over his lap as he -sat cross-legged on his bedstead like a tailor on his board. This -oddity was no less a dignitary than a Pasha." - -This extract also serves to illustrate the two passages in Scripture -wherein the word "flea" is mentioned, and in both of which it is used -as a metaphor to express weakness on the one side and power on the -other. - -The first occurs in 1 Sam. xxiv. 14:--"After whom is the king of -Israel come out? After whom dost thou pursue? After a dead dog, after -a flea?" The second is in chap. xxvi. of the same book, ver. 20: "Now -therefore ... the king of Israel is come out to seek a flea, as when -one doth hunt a partridge in the mountains." The reader will see how -completely the anecdote of the Pasha in the bath illustrates this -passage. - - - - -ARACHNIDA. - -THE SCORPION. - - The Scorpions of Palestine--Signification of the word - _Akrabbim_--Habits of the Scorpion--Dangers of mud walls--Venom - of the Scorpion--Scorpions at sea--The Scorpion whip, and its - use--The Scorpion Pass. - - -The Arachnida are represented in Scripture by the Scorpion and Spider. - -Scorpions are exceedingly common in Palestine, and to a novice are a -constant source of terror until he learns to be accustomed to them. -The appearance of the Scorpion is too well known to need description, -every one being aware that it is in reality a kind of spider that has -the venom claw at the end of its body, and not in its jaw. As to the -rendering of the word _akrabbim_ as "Scorpions," there has never been -any doubt. - -These unpleasant creatures always manage to insinuate themselves in -some crevice, and an experienced traveller is cautious where the -Scorpions are plentiful, and will never seat himself in the country -until he has ascertained that no Scorpions are beneath the stones on -or near which he is sitting. Holes in walls are favourite places of -refuge for the Scorpion, and are very plentiful, the mud walls always -tumbling down in parts, and affording homes for Scorpions, spiders, -snakes, and other visitors. - -The venom of the Scorpion varies much in potency according to the -species and size of the creature, some of the larger Scorpions being -able to render a man ill for a considerable time, and even to kill him -if he should be a sensitive subject. So much feared were the Scorpions -that one of the chief privileges of the Apostles and their immediate -followers was their immunity from the stings of Scorpions and the bite -of venomous serpents. - -It is said, however, that after a person has been stung once by a -Scorpion, he suffers comparatively little the second time, and that if -he be stung three or four times, the only pain that he suffers arises -from the puncture. Sailors also say that after a week at sea the -poison of the Scorpion loses its power, and that they care nothing for -the Scorpions which are sure to come on board inside the bundles of -firewood. - - [Illustration: THE SCORPION. - - "_And they had tails like unto scorpions: and there were stings in - their tails._"--REV. ix. 10.] - -We will now take a few of the Scriptural passages which allude to the -Scorpion. As may be expected, most of them refer to the poisonous -quality of its sting, though one or two allude to its habit of -dwelling in desert places. See, for example, Deut. viii. 15, which -forms part of the address that Moses delivered to the Israelites: -"Lest ... thou forget the Lord thy God, which brought thee forth out -of the land of Egypt, from the house of bondage; - -"Who led thee through that great and terrible wilderness, wherein were -fiery serpents, and scorpions, and drought, where there was no water." - -A similar image of desolation is found in Ezek. ii. 6: "And thou, son -of man, be not afraid of them, neither be afraid of their words, -though briars and thorns be with thee, and thou dost dwell among -scorpions." - -Those passages which mention the venom of the Scorpion are numerous, -though most, if not all, of them occur in the New Testament. See Rev. -ix. 5: "And to them it was given that they should not kill them, but -that they should be tormented five months, and their torment was as -the torment of a scorpion, when he striketh a man." Also ver. 10 of -the same chapter: "And they had tails like unto scorpions: and there -were stings in their tails: and their power was to hurt men five -months." - -The venom of the Scorpion is indirectly mentioned in other passages. -There is, for example, the well-known saying of our Lord, "If a son -shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?" (Luke xi. 12.) And in -the preceding chapter of the same Evangelist Scorpions are classed -with serpents in their power of injury: "Behold, I give unto you power -to tread on serpents and scorpions, and over all the power of the -enemy; and nothing shall by any means hurt you." - - -There is another reference to the Scorpion in the Old Testament, which -requires an explanation. It forms part of the rash counsel given to -Rehoboam by his friends: "My father made your yoke heavy, and I will -add to your yoke; my father also chastised you with whips, but I will -chastise you with scorpions." - -The general tenor of this passage is evident enough, namely, that he -intended to be far more severe than his father had been. But his words -assume a new force when we remember that there was a kind of whip -called a Scorpion. This terrible instrument was made for the express -purpose of punishing slaves, so that the mere mention of it was an -insult. It consisted of several thongs, each of which was loaded with -knobs of metal, and tipped with a metal hook, so that it resembled the -jointed and hooked tail of the Scorpion. This dreadful instrument of -torture could kill a man by a few blows, and it was even used in -combats in the amphitheatre, a gladiator armed with a Scorpion being -matched against one armed with a spear. - -The prevalence of the Scorpion in Palestine and its neighbourhood may -be inferred from the fact that a wady or pass between the south end of -the Dead Sea and Zion was named after it. The southern boundary of -Judah is said to be at Maaleh Akrabbim (Josh. xv. 3). Now the literal -translation of these words is "The Ascent of Scorpions," or The -Scorpion Pass. - - - - -THE SPIDER. - - Signification of the word _Semamith_--Various interpretations of - a Scriptural passage--Talmudical opinions respecting the - creature--The 'Akkabish and its web--Spiders of Palestine. - - -Although the word "spider" is mentioned three times in the Authorized -Version of the Bible, one of them must be excluded, namely Prov. xxx. -28: "The spider taketh hold with her hands, and is in kings' palaces." -There is much doubt whether the word _semamith_, which is here -translated a "spider," does not rather allude to the Gecko, a lizard -which has already been described. Moreover, the passage is rendered -very differently in the Jewish Bible: "A spider thou mayest catch with -the hands, and is in kings' palaces." - -Buxtorf mentions some curious Talmudical opinions regarding the Semam. -For example, there is a kind of proverb--"Dreaded as a Semam by a -scorpion," founded on the belief that the Semam, whatever it might be, -crept into the ears of the scorpion. Another proverb is, "A Semam -against a scorpion," the idea being that if a Semam was crushed on the -wound made by a scorpion, it would destroy the effect of the poison. - -He further mentions that the word has been translated as _araneus_ or -_aranea_, _i.e._ Spider, as _simia_, _i.e._ an ape, as _calamotes_, -which signifies a kind of fish, or as _kalabotes_ and _askalabotes_, -which is a kind of lizard. The Septuagint employs this rendering, to -which Buxtorf himself leans. - -The same word _'akkabish_ occurs twice, and certainly does signify -some kind of Spider. The Prophet Isaiah writes of the wicked that they -"weave the spider's web" (lix. 5), and there is a similar image in Job -viii. 14: "So are the paths of all that forget God; and the -hypocrite's hope shall perish. Whose hope shall be cut off, and whose -hope shall be a spider's web" (or house). In both instances reference -is made to the fragility of the Spider's web as a metaphor to express -the futility of evil devices. - -The reader will see that in neither of these passages is there -anything that indicates the species of Spider. There are very many -species of Spider in Palestine; some which spin webs, like the common -Garden Spider, some which dig subterranean cells and make doors in -them, like the well-known Trap-door Spider of Southern Europe, and -some which have no webs, but chase their prey upon the ground, like -the Wolf and Hunting Spiders. Notice is, however, only taken of those -which spin webs. - - - - -ANNELIDA. - -THE WORM. - - Various words translated as "Worm"--Probable confusion of the - words--The Rimmah and the Tole'ah--The Worm which destroyed - Jonah's gourd--The Earthworm. - - -The word "worm" occurs many times in the Authorized Version, and is a -rendering of three Hebrew words. One is _sâs_, which has been already -explained under the article Moth; the second is _rimmah_; and the -third _tole'ah_. There is very great difficulty in ascertaining the -real signification of these words, unless we assume that the Hebrews -were not aware of the distinction between actual Annelida and the -larvæ of various insects. - -Even at the present day we commit a similar error. We speak of the -wire-worm, which is the larva of one kind of beetle. We say that wood -is worm-eaten, signifying that it has been attacked by the larva of -another kind of beetle. Then we use the word "palmer-worm" to signify -the larva of a moth, "glow-worm" to signify a beetle, "tape-worm" to -signify an entozoon, and--strangest of all--"blindworm" to signify a -lizard which can see perfectly well. We therefore need not wonder that -the Hebrew language produces similar confusion of nomenclature. - -The other words are frequently used in connexion with each other. The -Rimmah is the "worm" that was bred in the manna when it had been kept -beyond the specified time, and it is evident that the larva of some -insect, such as the blow-fly, is signified. - -The word is evidently used in the same sense by Job. The "worm shall -feed sweetly on him" (xxiv. 20). "They shall lie down alike in the -dust, and the worms shall cover them" (xxi. 26). The same word is -employed in his lamentation over his evil case: "My flesh is clothed -with worms and clods of dust; my skin is broken, and become loathsome" -(vii. 5). In xxv. 6 he uses both words: "Man that is a worm, and the -son of man that is a worm." This passage is more correctly rendered in -the Hebrew Bible: "Man that is a worm (_rimmah_), and the son of man -which is a maggot" (_tole'ah_). Both words are also used in connexion -with each other by Isaiah: "The worm (_rimmah_) is spread under thee, -and the worms (_tola'im_) cover thee" (xiv. 11). - -The well-known passage in Job xix. 26 is altogether wrongly rendered -in the text, the marginal translation being much more correct. The -Worm is not mentioned at all in that passage, which the Jewish Bible -renders as follows: "Even after my skin shall have been stripped off -this [body] and flesh, I shall see God." - -The Worm which destroyed the gourd of Jonah was a Tolaeth (another -form of _tole'ah_). See Jonah iv. 7. - -The passage in Micah probably refers to the earthworm: "They shall -lick the dust like a serpent, they shall move out of their holes like -worms of the earth" (vii. 17). In this case, however, the expression -is a general one, and, as may be seen by reference to the marginal -translation, is more correctly rendered not as "worms," but as -"creeping things." - - - - -THE HORSE LEECH. - - Signification of the word Alukah--The Arabic word--Leeches in - Palestine--The horse and the Leech--Leeches in England. - - -In Prov. xxx. 15 there is a word which only occurs once in the -Scriptures. This is _alukah_, which is translated as horse-leech. "The -horseleech hath two daughters, crying, Give, give." - -The Hebrew Bible does not translate the word at all. There is, -however, no doubt that the translation is a correct one. Buxtorf -renders the word as _sanguisuga hirudo_, and it is worthy of remark -that the Arabic name for the Leech, Aluk, is identical with the Hebrew -Alukah. - -The Leeches are very common in Palestine, and infest the rivers to -such an extent that they enter the nostrils of animals who come to -drink, and cause great annoyance and even danger. The following -anecdote, related by Mr. H. Dixon in his "Holy Land," gives us a good -idea of the prevalence of the Leeches, and the tenacity with which -they retain their hold:-- - -"At Beit-Dejan, on a slight twist in the road, we find the wheel and -well, and hear a delicious plash and rustle in the troughs. To slip -from my seat to dip Sabeah's nose into the fluid is the work of a -second; but no sooner has she lapped up a mouthful of water, than one -sees that the refuse falling back from her lips into the tank is -dabbled and red. Opening her mouth, I find a gorged leech dangling -from her gum. But the reptile being swept off, and the mare's nose -dipt into the cooling stream, the blood still flows from between her -teeth, and, forcing them open, I find two other leeches lodged in the -roof of her mouth. - -"Poor little beast! how grateful and relieved she seems, how gay, how -gentle, when I have torn these suckers from her flesh, and soused the -water about her wounds; and how my hunting-whip yearns to descend upon -the shoulders of that laughing and careless Nubian slave!" - -Persons passing through the river are also attacked by them, and, if -they have a delicate skin, suffer greatly. Even in England this will -happen. While bathing in a Kentish stream, I have found, when coming -out of the water, that numbers of Leeches were adhering to me, and -have had considerable trouble in removing them. - - - - -PROTOZOA AND RADIATA. - - - - -SPONGE AND CORAL. - - Use of the Sponge in Scripture--Probability that the ancient - Jews were acquainted with it--Sponges of the Mediterranean--The - Coral, and its value--Signification of the word _Ramoth_. - - -There is little to be said on either of these subjects. - -Sponge is only mentioned with reference to the events of the -Crucifixion, where it is related that a soldier placed a sponge upon -hyssop, dipped it in vinegar (_i.e._ the acid wine issued to the Roman -soldiers), and held it to the Lord's lips. There is little doubt that -the ancient Hebrews were fully aware of the value of the Sponge, which -they could obtain from the Mediterranean which skirted all their -western coasts. - - -The Coral is mentioned in two passages of Scripture: "No mention shall -be made of coral, or of pearls" (Job xxviii. 18). The second -occurrence of the word is in Ezek. xxvii. 16: "They occupied in thy -fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and fine linen, and -coral, and agate." - -This Coral, which is described as being brought from Syria, was -probably that of the Red Sea, where the Coral abounds, and where it -attains the greatest perfection. The Hebrew word, _ramoth_, is -expressive of the peculiar growth of the Coral, and signifies high, or -lofty. - - [Illustration: CORAL. - - "_No mention shall be made of coral._"--REV. xviii. 18.] - - - - - - -INDEX. - - - A. - - Abou Hannes, 489. - Menzel, 489. - - _Accipiter nisus_, 365. - - _Acridium peregrinum_, 598. - - Acronotus bubalis, 144. - - Adas, 143. - - Addax, 141. - - Adder, 554. - - African Elephant, 311. - - _Akas_, 143. - - _Akbar_, 91. - - Ako, 207. - - Alpine ibex, 204. - - _Ammoperdix Heyii_, 427. - - Ammotragus, 186. - - Anakah, 69. - - Annelida, 644. - - Ant, 616. - Agricultural, 618. - Mound-making, 618. - Stinging, 618. - - Aoudad, 186. - - Ape, 1. - - Aphaniptera, 636. - - _Apis fasciata_, 612. - _mellifica_, 606. - - Aptera, 636. - - _Aquila chrysaëtos_, 354. - _mogilnik_, 355. - - Arachnida, 640. - - _Ardea cinerea_, 470. - - Ariel, 136. - - Arnebeth, 97. - - _Arvicola arvalis_, 93. - - _Asinus hemippus_, 280. - - Ashkoko, 316. - - Ass, 264. - Domesticated, 264. - Wild, 279. - - _Athene noctua_, 371. - _Persica_, 371. - - _Atta barbara_, 621. - _malefaciens_, 618. - - _Ayzal_, 208. - - _Ayzalah_, 208. - - Azel, 203. - - - B. - - Bactrian Camel, 244. - - Badger, 70. - - Barbel, 567. - Long-headed, 567. - - _Barbus longiceps_, 566. - - Bat, 11. - - Bear, 75. - - Beden, 203. - - Bee, 605. - Banded, 606. - Honey, 605. - - Behemoth, 318. - - Bhunder, 3. - - Bison, 131. - - Bittern, 80, 462. - - Black Vulture, 336. - - Blue Thrush, 398. - - Bog-bleater, 464. - - Bonasus, 131. - - Bonnet Monkey, 10. - - Boomah, 371. - - _Botaurus stellaris_, 462. - - Bubale, 143. - - _Bubalus buffelus_, 114. - - _Bubo ascalaphus_, 373. - _maximus_, 374. - _Virginianus_, 374. - - Buffalo, 114. - - Bull, 101. - Wild, 119. - - Butter, 203. - bump, 464. - - - C. - - _Caccabis saxatilis_, 429. - - Calf, 101. - - Camel, 216. - Arabian, 244. - - _Camelus Bactrianus_, 216. - _dromedarius_, 216. - - Capistrated Sphænops, 533. - - _Capra Angorensis_, 202. - _Mambrica_, 202. - _Nubiana_, 203. - _Syriaca_, 202. - - _Caprovis Musimon_, 188. - - Caspian Emys, 569. - - Cat, 36. - - Cattle, 101. - - Cerastes, 559. - - Chameleon, 534. - - Chamois, 185. - - Chasidah, 478. - - _Chephor-peroth_, 88. - - Chetah, 29. - - Choled, 68. - - Cicigna, 533. - - _Ciconia nigra_, 483. - - _Circaëtus gallicus_, 355. - - _Circus æruginosus_, 368. - _cyaneus_ 369. - - Climber, 203. - - Cobra, 544. - - Cockatrice, 554. - - _Columba ænas_, 419. - _livia_, 418. - _palumbus_, 419. - _Schimperi_, 418. - - Coney, 312. - - Cora, 136. - - Coral, 647. - - Corine Antelope, 135. - - Corinna, 135. - - Cormorant, 490. - - _Corvus agricola_, 447. - _corax_, 447. - _monedula_, 447. - _umbrinus_, 447. - - _Coryphæna hippurus_, 571. - - Corvphene, 571. - - Cow, 101. - - Crane, 474. - - _Cricetus frumentarius_, 94. - - Crocodile, 514. - - Crow, Hooded, 447. - - Cuckoo, 405. - - Culex, 635. - Great Spotted, 405. - - _Cyprinus_, 531. - - _Cypselus affinis_, 389. - _melba_, 389. - - - D. - - _Daboia xanthica_, 555. - - _Dasypus_, 97. - - Deer, 208. - - Deloul, 229. - - Deror, 384. - - Dhubb, 512. - - Diadem Staircase Shell, 588. - - Dibs, 611. - - _Dipsas plicatus_, 593. - - Diptera, 632. - - _Dipus_, 95. - - Dishon, 141. - - _Dôb_, 76. - - Dog, 39. - Periwinkle, 586. - Whelk, 586. - - Dor-hawk, 379. - - Dormouse, 96. - - Dove, 408. - Barbary, 421. - Blue Rock, 418. - Egyptian Rock, 418. - Ring, 419. - Stock, 419. - Wild Rock, 419. - - Duck, Hawk, 369. - - - E. - - Eagle, 354. - Fishing, 356. - Golden, 354. - Imperial, 355. - Short-toed, 355. - - _Echis arenicola_, 552. - _carinata_, 553. - - _Echeneis remora_, 570. - - Egyptian Mastigure, 512. - - Elephant, 302. - - _Elephas Indicus_, 311. - - _Emys caspica_, 509. - - _Entellus_, 3, 4. - - Epheh, 552. - - _Ephialtes Scops_, 377. - - _Erinaceus_, 83. - - - F. - - _Falco lanarius_, 362. - _peregrinus_, 362. - - Fallow-Deer, 143, 208. - - Fan-foot, 69. - - Father John, 489. - Sickle-bill, 489. - - _Felis maniculatus_, 37. - - Fern Owl, 378. - - Ferret, 69. - - Fichtall, 186. - - Field-mouse, 92. - - Fish, Sucking, 570. - - Fishes, 563. - - Flea, 638. - - Fly, 632. - Camel, 635. - - Fowl, Domestic, 421. - - Fox, 55. - - Francolin, 430. - - Frog, 557. - Edible, 559. - Green, 559. - - - G. - - _Gazella Dorcas_, 133. - - Gazelle, 133. - - Gecko, 534. - - Gier-Eagle, 339. - - Glass Snake, 531. - - Glede, 361. - - Gnat, 635. - - Goat, 189. - - Goatsucker, 379. - - Grayling, Syrian, 631. - - Great Shearwater, 407. - - Greyhound, 49. - - Griffon Vulture, 345. - - Groaner, 69. - - _Grus cinerea_, 476. - - _Gyps fulvus_, 345. - - - H. - - _Halicore hemprichii_, 72. - - Hamster, 94. - - Hare, 96. - - Harier Hawk, 367. - Hen, 369. - Marsh, 368. - - Hart, 208. - - Hawk, 364. - Blue, 369. - Dove, 369. - Ring-tailed, 369. - White, 369. - - Hedgehog, 80. - - Heifer, 101. - - Heirie, 229 - - Heron, 468 - - _Herpestes_, 68. - - Hind, 208. - - _Hircus ægragus_, 202. - - _Hirundo cahirica_, 388. - _rufula_, 388. - - Homoptera, 622. - - Honey, 609. - - Hoonuman, 3. - - Hoopoe, 392. - - Hornet, 613. - - Horse, 248. - - Hunting Leopard, 29. - - Hyacinthine Gallinule, 486. - - Hyæna, 62. - - _Hydrosaurus niloticus_, 539. - - Hymenoptera, 605. - - Hyrax, 312. - - _Hystrix_, 86. - - - I. - - Ibex, Arabian, 203. - - Ibis, 488. - _falcinellus_, 489. - Glossy or Green, 489. - _religiosa_, 488. - White or Sacred, 488. - - Insects, 596. - - Izab, 506. - - - J. - - Jachmur, 143. - - Jackal, 55. - - Jackdaw, 447. - - Jaela, 186, 204. - - Jar-Owl, 378. - - Jerboa, 95. - - - K. - - Kaath, 497. - - Kalong, 12. - - Kestrel, 365. - - Kevel, 136. - - Kevella Antelope, 135. - - Khopash, 15. - - Kippôd, 80. - - Kite, 357. - Black, 359. - Common, 358. - Egyptian, 360. - Red, 358. - - Klip-das, 315. - - _Kophim_, 2. - - - L. - - _Lacerta viridis_, 530. - - Lämmergeier, 334. - - Lanner Falcon, 362. - - Lapwing, 392. - - Leech, Horse, 646. - - Leopard, 29. - - Lepidoptera, 624. - - Lerwea, 186. - - Letââh, 529. - - Leviathan, 514. - - Lion, 18. - - Lizard, 529. - Green, 530. - Jersey, 530. - Scaly, 529. - - Locust, 596. - Migratory, 596. - - Long-horned Gazelle, 136. - - Louse, 636. - - - M. - - _Macacus Rhesus_, 3. - - Macaques, 3. - - Magpie, 448. - - Maharik, 229. - - Makur, 3. - - Manx Shearwater, 407. - - Martin, 388. - House, 388. - Sand, 388. - - _Meleagrina margaritifera_, 595. - - _Milvus atra_, 358. - _Egyptiacus_, 360. - _regalis_, 358. - - Mohair Goat, 200. - - Mole, 86. - - Molluscs, 585. - - Monitor, 534. - Land, 539. - Nilotic, 539. - - Monoceros, 123. - - Moor Buzzard, 369. - - Mosquito, 635. - - Moth, Clothes, 624. - Grain, 626. - Silkworm, 627. - - Mouflon, 188. - - Mouse, 91. - - Mule, 285. - - _Mullus sur muletus_, 552. - - Muræna, 567. - - _Muræna helena_, 566. - - _Murex brandaris_, 586. - _trunculus_, 586. - - _Mygale_, 69. - - - N. - - _Naja haje_, 544. - _tripudians_, 545. - - _Nates niloticus_, 581. - - _Nectarinia Oseæ_, 384. - - _Neophron percuopterus_, 341. - - Netz, 364. - - Night-hawk, 377. - -jar, 379. - - Nil-Bhunder, 6. - - Nile Perch, 581. - - Nubian Wild Goat, 204. - - - O. - - _OEdipoda migratoria_, 596. - - Onycha, 590. - - Orange-tip, Syrian, 631. - - Oreb, 449. - - Oryx, 120. - - Ospray, 356. - - Ossifrage, 334. - - Ostrich, 450. - - Ounce, 29. - - _Ovis Capensis_, 160. - _cauda obesa_, 160. - _laticaudatus_, 160. - _laticauda platycerus_, 160. - _steatopyga_, 160. - - Owl, 370. - Barn, 373. - Churn, 378. - Eagle, 374. - Egyptian Eagle, 373. - European Eagle, 374. - Great, 373. - Little, 371. - Little Night, 371. - Scops, 377. - Screech, 373. - Virginian Eared, 374. - White, 373. - - Ox, 101. - - _Oxylophus glandarius_, 406. - - - P. - - _Pandion haliaëtus_, 356. - - Parash, 245. - - Partridge, 426. - Black, 430. - Desert, 427. - Greek, 429. - - _Passer Cisalpinus_, 402. - _montanus_, 403. - _salicarius_, 404. - - Peacock, 425. - - Pearl, 592. - Mussel, 593. - Oyster, 595. - - Pelican, 495. - Crested, 502. - - _Pelicanus cristatus_, 502. - - _Petrocossyphus cyaneus_, 398. - - Pigeon, 418. - House, 419. - Rock, 418. - - _Plestiodon auratum_, 531. - - Porcupine, 85. - - _Porphyrio veterum_, 339, 486. - - Poultry, 421. - - _Presbytes entellus_, 4. - - Protozoa, 647. - - _Psammosaurus scincus_, 539. - - _Pseudopus pallasii_, 531. - - Pteropus, 16. - - _Puffinus Anglorum_, 407. - _cinereus_, 407. - - _Purpura hæmastoma_, 586. - _lapillus_, 586. - - Pygarg, 141. - - - Q. - - Quail, 430. - - _Quercus coccifera_, 623. - - - R. - - Radiata, 647. - - _Rana esculenta_, 559. - - Raven, 439. - Ashy-necked, 447. - World-wide, 447. - - Red Deer, 208. - - Reêm, 121. - - _Rhinopoma microphylla_, 18. - - _Rhesus_, 3. - - Rock Rabbit, 315. - - Roe, 133. - - Rook, 447. - - - S. - - Sand-rat, 96. - - Satyr, 10. - - _Scalaria diadema_, 588. - - Scheltopusic, 531. - - _Scincus officinalis_, 531. - - Scorpion, 640. - - Selâv, 534. - - Seps, 533. - - Serpents, 540. - - Shâlâk, 490. - - Sheat-fishes, 565. - - Sheep, 146. - - Shephiphon, 554. - - Shrew-mouse, 69. - - _Silenus veter_, 6. - - _Silurus macracanthus_, 566. - - Skink, 531. - - Snail, 589. - - Snake, Dart, 543. - Horatta-pam, 553. - - Solomon's fleet, 1. - - _Spalax_, 88. - - Sparrow, 395. - -hawk, 365. - House, 404. - - _Sphænops sepsoides_, 543. - - Spider, 443. - - Sponge, 647. - - Stannel Hawk, 365. - - Star-gazer, 581. - - Starling, 449. - - Steinbok, 203. - - Stork, 478. - Black, 483. - - _Strix flammea_, 373. - - Surmullet, 582. - - _Sus_, 248. - - Swallow, 381. - Oriental, 388. - Rufous or Russet, 388. - -tail, Syrian, 631. - White, 391. - - Swan, 485. - - Swine, 292. - - Swift, 388. - Alpine, 389. - Galilean, 389. - Marsh, 404. - Spanish, 404. - Tree, 403. - - Syrian Goat, 200. - Grayling, 631. - Orange-tip, 631. - Swallow-tail, 631. - - - T. - - _Tabanus marocanus_, 635. - - _Tachash_, 70. - - _Testudo Græca_, 507. - - _Thynnus thynnus_, 570. - - _Tinea granella_, 626. - - _Tinnunculus alaudarius_, 365. - - _Tinshemeth_, 87, 488. - - _Tô_, 116. - - Tones, Sacred, 175. - - Tortoise, 505. - - Toxicoa, 552. - - Trumpet, Ram's-horn, 175. - - _Truxalis_, 598. - - Tsebi, 133. - - Tunny, 570. - - Turtle Dove, 419. - Collared, 421. - Palm, 421. - - _Turtur risorius_, 421. - _Senegalensis_, 421. - - Tzippor-deror, 391. - - Tzirah, 612. - - - U. - - Unicorn, 121. - - _Unio margaritiferus_, 593. - - _Upupa epops_, 392. - - _Uranoscopus-scaber_, 581. - - _Ursus Isabellinus_, 76. - - Urus, 127. - - - V. - - _Vespa orientalis_, 616. - - Viper, 552. - Horned, 551. - Sand, 552. - Yellow, 555. - - Vulture, Arabian, 348. - Bearded, 36. - Egyptian, 339. - of Scripture, 357. - - - W. - - Wall-lizard, 69. - - Wanderoo, 6. - - Weasel, 68. - - Wheel-bird, 379. - - Wild Bull, 116. - Goat, 203. - Ox, 116. - - Wind-hover, 365. - - Wing-shell, 590. - - Wolf, 50. - - Worm, 644. - Canker, 630. - Crimson, 622. - Palmer, 630. - - - X. - - _Xantharpya ægyptiaca_, 16. - - - Y. - - Yanshûph, 373. - - - Z. - - Zamar, 186. - - _Zeëb_, 50. - - _Zootoca vivipara_, 529. - - - - -LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS - - - -Transcriber's note: - In the Chapter titled "Serpents" there are words with diacritical - marks not available in the Latin-1 character set: - se[~c]d[~m],--[~c] c with a tilde above it and [~m] m with - a tilde above it, - similitudin[~e].--[~e] e with a tilde above it, - [~s]pentis,--[~s] s with a tilde above it, - Þa[~i],--[~i] i with a tilde above it, - [~t]ned,--[~t] t with a tilde above it, - hi[~r],--[~r] r with a tilde above it, - Þai[~i]r,--[~r] r with a tilde above it, and - Þa[~i],--[~i] I with a tilde above it. - - In the Chapter titled "The Viper, or Epheh." is the word - [)a]k-shoob. The [)a] is an a with a breve accent above it. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Bible Animals;, by J. G. 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