diff options
Diffstat (limited to '42964-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 42964-0.txt | 26974 |
1 files changed, 26974 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/42964-0.txt b/42964-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..13a016a --- /dev/null +++ b/42964-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,26974 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42964 *** + +Transcriber's note: + Spelling and punctuation inconsistencies have been harmonized. + The original hyphenation and use of accented words has been + retained. Obvious printer errors have been repaired. Italic text + has been marked with _underscores_. Please see the end of this + book for further notes. Bible references are as they are in the + original book. + + + + + [Illustration: THE OSTRICH. + + "What time she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the horse and + his rider."--JOB xxxix. 18.] + + + + + BIBLE ANIMALS; + + BEING A DESCRIPTION OF + EVERY LIVING CREATURE MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES, + FROM THE APE TO THE CORAL. + + BY THE + + REV. J. G. WOOD, M.A., F.L.S. ETC., + + AUTHOR OF "HOMES WITHOUT HANDS," + "COMMON OBJECTS OF THE SEA-SHORE AND COUNTRY," ETC. + + _WITH ONE HUNDRED NEW DESIGNS + BY W. F. KEYL, T. W. WOOD, AND E. A. SMITH._ + + ENGRAVED BY G. PEARSON. + + _NEW EDITION._ + + LONDON: + LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. + 1883. + + + + + LONDON: + + R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, + + BREAD STREET HILL. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Owing to the conditions of time, language, country, and race under +which the various books of the Holy Scriptures were written, it is +impossible that they should be rightly understood at the present day, +and in this land, without the aid of many departments of knowledge. +Contemporary history, philology, geography, and ethnology must all be +pressed into the service of the true Biblical scholar; and there is +yet another science which is to the full as important as either of the +others. This is Natural History, in its widest sense. + +The Oriental character of the Scriptural books causes them to abound +with metaphors and symbols, taken from the common life of the time. +They embrace the barren precipitous rocks alternating with the green +and fertile valleys, the trees, flowers, and herbage, the creeping +things of the earth, the fishes of the sea, the birds of the air, and +the beasts which abode with man or dwelt in the deserts and forests. +Unless, therefore, we understand these writings as those understood +them for whom they were written, it is evident that we shall +misinterpret instead of rightly comprehending them. Even with secular +books of equally ancient date, the right understanding of them would +be important, but in the case of the Holy Scriptures it is more than +important, and becomes a duty. The field which is laid open to us is +so large that only one department of Natural History, namely Zoology, +can be treated in this work, although it is illustrated by many +references to other branches of Natural History, to the physical +geography of Palestine, Egypt, and Syria, the race-character of the +inhabitants, and historical parallels. The importance of Zoology in +elucidating the Scriptures cannot be overrated, and without its aid we +shall not only miss the point of innumerable passages of the Old and +New Testament, but the words of our Lord Himself will either be +totally misinterpreted, or at least lose the greater part of their +significance. + +The object of the present work is therefore to take, in its proper +succession, every creature whose name is given in the Scriptures, and +to supply so much of its history as will enable the reader to +understand all the passages in which it is mentioned. A general +account of each animal will be first given, followed by special +explanations (wherever required) of those texts in which pointed +reference is made to it, but of which the full force cannot be +gathered without a knowledge of Natural History. + +The illustrations are all taken from the living animals, while the +accessory details have been obtained either from the Egyptian or +Assyrian monuments, from actual specimens, or from the photographs and +drawings of the latest travellers. They have been selected and +arranged so that each illustration explains one or more passages of +Scripture, and it is hoped that the work will possess equal interest +for the natural historian and the Biblical student. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +MAMMALIA. + +THE APE. + + The Monkey tribe rarely mentioned in Scripture--Why the Ape was + introduced into Palestine--Solomon's ships, and their cargo of + Apes, peacocks, ivory, and gold--Various species of Monkey that + might have been imported--The Rhesus Monkey--The Hoonuman, or + Entellus--Habits of the Monkey, and reverence in which it is + held by the natives--The Egyptians and their Baboon + worship--Idols and memorials--The Wanderoo--Its singular + aspect--Reasons why it should be introduced into + Palestine--General habits of the Wanderoo--Its love of + curiosities--Probability that Solomon had a menagerie--Various + species of Monkey that may be included in the term _Kophim_--The + Satyr of Scripture--Babylon in its glory and fall--Fulfilment of + prophecy--Judaic ideas of the Satyrs, or Seirim 1 + +THE BAT. + + The Bat mentioned always with abhorrence--Meaning of the Hebrew + name--The prohibition against eating Bats--The edible species, + their food and mode of life--The noisome character of the Bat, + and the nature of its dwelling-place--Its hatred of + light--Baruch and his prophecy--Appropriateness of the + prophecy--Singular Mahommedan legend respecting the original + creation of the Bat--The legend compared with the apocryphal + gospels--The Bats of Palestine--Mr. Tristram's discoveries--Bats + found in the quarries from which the stone of the Temple was + hewn--Edible Bats in a cave near the centre of + Palestine--Another species of long-tailed Bat captured in the + rock caves where hermits had been buried--Other species which + probably inhabit Palestine 11 + +THE LION. + + Frequent mention of the Lion in the Scriptures--Probability that + it was once a common animal, though now extinct--Reasons for its + disappearance--The Lion employed as an emblem in the + Bible--Similarity of the African and Asiatic species--The chief + characteristics of the Lion--Its strength, activity, and mode + of seizing its prey--Various names of the Lion--Its courage when + roused--Its roar, and peculiar mode of utterance--Invisibility + of the Lion at dusk--The Lion lying in wait--The dwelling-place + of the Lion--Its restlessness at night--Passages illustrative of + these characteristics--Modes of capturing the Lion--The pitfall + and the net--Lions kept as curiosities--The Lion-hunt as + depicted on the buildings of ancient Nineveh 18 + +THE LEOPARD. + + The Leopard not often mentioned in the Scriptures--Its + attributes exactly described--Probability that several animals + were classed under the name--How the Leopard takes its + prey--Craft of the Leopard--Its ravages among the flocks--The + empire of man over the beast--The Leopard at bay--Localities + wherein the Leopard lives--The skin of the Leopard--Various + passages of Scripture explained 29 + +THE CAT. + + The Cat never mentioned by name in the canonical Scriptures, and + only once in the Apocrypha--The Cat domesticated among the + Egyptians, and trained in bird-catching--Neglected capabilities + of the Cat--Anecdote of an English Cat that caught fish for her + master--Presumed reason why the Scriptures are silent about the + Cat--The Cat mentioned by Baruch 36 + +THE DOG. + + Antipathy displayed by Orientals towards the Dog, and manifested + throughout the Scriptures--Contrast between European and + Oriental Dogs--Habits of the Dogs of Palestine--The city Dogs + and their singular organization--The herdsman's Dog--Various + passages of Scripture--Dogs and the crumbs--Their + numbers--Signor Pierotti's experience of the Dogs--Possibility + of their perfect domestication--The peculiar humiliation of + Lazarus--Voracity of the Wild Dogs--The fate of Ahab and + Jezebel--Anecdote of a volunteer Watch-dog--Innate affection of + the Dog towards mankind--Peculiar local instinct of the Oriental + Dog--Albert Smith's account of the Dogs at Constantinople--The + Dervish and his Dogs--The Greyhound--Uncertainty of the word 39 + +THE WOLF. + + Identity of the animal indisputable--Its numbers, past and + present--The Wolf never mentioned directly--Its general + habits--References in Scripture--Its mingled ferocity and + cowardice--Its association into packs--The Wolf's bite--How it + takes its prey--Its ravages among the flocks--Allusions to this + habit--The shepherd and his nightly enemies--Mr. Tristram and + the Wolf--A semi-tamed Wolf at Marsaba 50 + +THE FOX, OR JACKAL. + + The two animals comprehended under one name--The Jackal--Its + numbers in ancient and modern Palestine--General habits of the + Jackal--Localities where the Jackal is found--Samson, and the + three hundred "foxes"--Popular objections to the narrative--The + required number easily obtained--Signor Pierotti's remarks upon + the Jackal--An unpleasant position--How the fields were set on + fire--The dread of fire inherent in wild beasts--The truth of + the narrative proved--The Fox and Jackal destructive among + grapes--Allusions to the Fox in the New Testament--Partially + tamed Foxes 55 + +THE HYÆNA. + + The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded + to--Signification of the word _Zabua_--Translated in the + Septuagint as "Hyæna"--A scene described by the Prophet + Isaiah--The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the present day--Its + well-known cowardice and fear of man--The uses of the Hyæna, and + the services which it renders--The particular species of + Hyæna--The Hyæna in the burial-grounds--Hunting the + Hyæna--Curious superstition respecting the talismanic properties + of its skin--Precautions adopted in flaying it--Popular legends + of the Hyæna and its magical powers--The cavern home of the + Hyæna--The Valley of Zeboim 62 + +THE WEASEL. + + Difficulty of identifying the Weasel of Scripture--The Weasel of + Palestine--Suggested identity with the Ichneumon 68 + +THE FERRET. + + Translation of the Hebrew word _Anakah_--The Shrew-mouse of + Palestine--Etymology of the word--The Gecko or Fan-foot, its + habits and peculiar cry--Repugnance felt by the Arabs of the + present day towards the Gecko 69 + +THE BADGER. + + Difficulty of identifying the _Tachash_ of Scripture--References + to "badgers' skins"--The Dugong thought to be the Badger--The + Bedouin sandals--Nature of the materials for the + Tabernacle--Habits of the Badger--The species found in + Palestine--Uses of the Badgers' skins--Looseness of zoological + terms 70 + +THE BEAR. + + The Syrian Bear--Identity of the Hebrew and Arabic titles--Its + colour variable according to age--Bears once numerous in + Palestine, and now only occasionally seen--Reason for their + diminution--Present localities of the Bear, and its favourite + haunts--Food of the Bear--Its general habits--Its ravages among + the flocks--The Bear dangerous to mankind--The Bear robbed of + her whelps--Illustrative passages--Its mode of fighting--Various + references to the Bear, from the time of Samuel to that of St. + John 75 + +THE HEDGEHOG, OR BITTERN. + + Various readings of the word _Kippôd_--The Jewish Bible and its + object--The Syrian Hedgehog and its appearance--Its fondness for + dry spots--The prophecies of Isaiah and Zephaniah, and their + bearing on the subject--The Porcupine supposed to be the + Kippôd--The Hedgehog and Porcupine called by the same name in + Greek and Arabic--Habits of the Porcupine--Its quills, and the + manner of their shedding 80 + +THE PORCUPINE. + + Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine--The same + Greek name applied to the Porcupine and Hedgehog--Habits of the + Porcupine--The common Porcupine found plentifully in Palestine + 85 + +THE MOLE. + + The two Hebrew words which are translated as "Mole"--Obscurity + of the former name--A parallel case in our own language--The + second name--The Moles and the Bats, why associated + together--The real Mole of Scripture, its different names, and + its place in zoology--Description of the Mole-rat and its + general habits--Curious superstition--Discovery of the species + by Mr. Tristram--Scripture and science--How the Mole-rat finds + its food--Distinction between the Mole and the present animal 86 + +THE MOUSE. + + Conjectures as to the right translation of the Hebrew word + _Akbar_--Signification of the word--The Mice which marred the + land--Miracles, and their economy of power--The Field-mouse--Its + destructive habits and prolific nature--The insidious nature of + its attacks, and its power of escaping observation--The Hamster, + and its habits--Its custom of storing up provisions for the + winter--Its fertility and unsociable nature--The Jerboa, its + activity and destructiveness--Jerboas and Hamsters eaten by + Arabs and Syrians--Various species of Dormice and Sand-rats 91 + +THE HARE. + + The prohibitions of the Mosaic law--The chewing of the cud and + division of the hoof--Identity of the Hare of + Scripture--Rumination described--The Hare a rodent and not a + ruminant--Cowper and his Hares--Structure of the rodent + tooth--The Mosaic law accommodated to its recipients--The Hares + of Palestine and their habits 96 + +CATTLE. + + The cattle of Palestine, and their decadence at the present + day--Ox-flesh not used for food in modern times--Oxen of the + stall, and oxen of the pasture--The use of the ox in + agriculture--The yoke and its structure--The plough and the + goad--The latter capable of being used as a weapon--Treading out + the corn--The cart and its wheels--The ox used as a beast of + burden--Cattle turned loose to graze--The bulls of + Bashan--Curiosity of the ox tribe--A season of drought--Branding + the cattle--An Egyptian field scene--Cattle-keeping an + honourable post--The ox as used for sacrifice--Ox-worship--The + bull Apis, and his history--Persistency of the + bull-worship--Jeroboam's sin--Various names of cattle--The + Indian buffalo 101 + +THE WILD BULL. + + The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament--Passages in which it is + mentioned--The Wild Bull in the net--Hunting with nets in the + East--The Oryx supposed to be the Tô of Scripture--Description + of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, and habits--The points in + which the Oryx agrees with the Tô--The "snare" in which the foot + is taken, as distinguished from the net 116 + +THE REÊM, OR "UNICORN" OF SCRIPTURE. + + The Reêm evidently known to the Jews--Various theories + concerning the Unicorn--Supposed identity with the Indian + Rhinoceros--Passages of Scripture alluding to the strength, + violent and intractable temper of the Reêm--The Reêm a + two-horned animal--Its evident connexion with the Ox tribe--Its + presumed identity with the now extinct Urus--Mr. Dawkins' + treatise on the Urus--Enormous size and dangerous character of + the Urus--Rabbinical legend of the Reêm--Identity of the Urus + with the modern varieties of cattle--The Bull-hunts of Nineveh + 121 + +THE BISON. + + The Bison tribe and its distinguishing marks--Its former + existence in Palestine--Its general habits--Origin of its + name--Its musky odour--Size and speed of the Bison--Its + dangerous character when brought to bay--Its defence against the + Wolf--Its untameable disposition 131 + +THE GAZELLE, OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE. + + The Gazelle identified with the _Tsebi_, i.e. the Roe or Roebuck + of Scripture--Various passages relating to the Tsebi--Its + swiftness, its capabilities as a beast of chase, its beauty, and + the quality of its flesh--The Tsebiyah rendered in Greek as + Tabitha, and translated as Dorcas, or Gazelle--Different + varieties of the Gazelle--How the Gazelle defends itself against + wild beasts--Chase of the Gazelle--The net, the battue, and the + pitfall--Coursing the Gazelle with greyhounds and falcons--Mr. + Chasseaud's account of a hunting party--Gentleness of the + Gazelle 133 + +THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX. + + The Dishon or Dyshon--Signification of the word + _Pygarg_--Certainty that the Dishon is an antelope, and that it + must be one of a few species--Former and present range of the + Addax--Description of the Addax--The Strepsiceros of Pliny 141 + +THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE. + + The word _Jachmur_ evidently represents a species of + antelope--Probability that the Jachmur is identical with the + Bubale, or Bekk'r-el-Wash--Resemblance of the animal to the ox + tribe--Its ox-like horns and mode of attack--Its capability of + domestication--Former and present range of the Bubale--Its + representation on the monuments of ancient Egypt--Delicacy of + its flesh--Size and general appearance of the animal 143 + +THE SHEEP. + + Importance of Sheep in the Bible--The Sheep the chief wealth of + the pastoral tribes--Tenure of land--Value of good + pasture-land--Arab shepherds of the present day--Difference + between the shepherds of Palestine and England--Wanderings of + the flocks in search of food--Value of the wells--How the Sheep + are watered--Duties of the shepherd--The shepherd a kind of + irregular soldier--His use of the sling--Sheep following their + shepherd--Calling the Sheep by name--The shepherd usually a part + owner of the flocks--Structure of the sheepfolds--The rock + caverns of Palestine--David's adventure with Saul--Penning of + the Sheep by night--Use of the dogs--Sheep sometimes brought up + by hand--How Sheep are fattened in the Lebanon district--The two + breeds of Sheep in Palestine--The broad-tailed Sheep, and its + peculiarities--Reference to this peculiarity in the Bible--The + Talmudical writers, and their directions to sheep-owners 146 + +THE CHAMOIS. + + The Zemer or Chamois only once mentioned in the + Bible--Signification of the word _Zemer_--Probability that the + Zemer is the Aoudad--Appearance of the Aoudad--Its strength and + activity--Fierce temper of the adult male--Horns of the + Aoudad--Their probable use as musical instruments--Habits of the + Aoudad--The Mouflon probably classed with the Aoudad under the + name of Zemer--Appearance and habits of the Mouflon 185 + +THE GOAT. + + Value of the Goat--Its use in furnishing food--The male kid the + usual animal of slaughter--Excellence of the flesh, and + deception of Isaac--Milk of the Goat--An Oriental milking + scene--The hair of the Goat, and the uses to which it is + put--The Goat's skin used for leather--The "bottle" of + Scripture--Mode of making and repairing the bottles--Ruse of the + Gibeonites--The "bottle in the smoke"--The sacks and the + kneading-troughs--The Goat as used for sacrifice--General habits + of the Goat--Separation of the Goats from the sheep--Performing + Goats--Different breeds of Goats in Palestine 189 + +THE WILD GOAT. + + The Azelim or Wild Goats of Scripture identical with the Beden + or Arabian Ibex--Different names of the Beden--Its appearance + and general habits--En-gedi, or Goats' Fountain--The Beden + formerly very plentiful in Palestine, and now tolerably + common--Its agility--Difficulty of catching or killing it--How + the young are captured--Flesh of the Beden--Use of the horns at + the present day--The Ako of Deuteronomy 203 + +THE DEER. + + The Hart and Hind of Scripture--Species of Deer existing in + Palestine--Earliest mention of the Hind--The Hart classed among + the clean animals--Passages alluding to its speed--Care of the + mother for her young, and her custom of secreting it--Tameable + character of the Deer--The Rabbinical writers and their + theories--Shedding of the Deer's horns--Its fabled mode of + sleeping--The gall in the tail--Curious traditions of the enmity + between Deer and serpents--Virtues of a Deer-skin coat 208 + +THE CAMEL. + +CHAPTER I. + + The two species of Camel, and the mode of distinguishing + them--Value of the Camel in the East--Camels mentioned as + elements of wealth--Uses of the Camel--The Jews forbidden to eat + its flesh--The milk of the Camel--Thirst-enduring + capability--The internal reservoir--The hump, and its uses to + the animal--The Camel as a beast of draught and burden--How the + Camel is laden--Knowledge of its own powers--Camels for + riding--Difficulty of sitting a Camel--A rough-paced + steed--Method of guiding the Camel--The mesh'ab, or Camel-stick + of office--The women's saddle--Rachel's stratagem--Ornaments of + the Camel--The swift dromedary, Heirie, or Deloul--Its ungainly + aspect--Speed and endurance of the Deloul--The Camel-posts of + Bornu--Camel-drivers and their conduct--The driver's song--Young + Camels and their appearance--The deserted Camel 216 + +CHAPTER II. + + The Camel and its master--Occasional fury of the animal--A boy + killed by a Camel--Another instance of an infuriated + Camel--Theory respecting the Arab and his Camel--Apparent + stupidity of the Camel--Its hatred of a load, and mode of + expressing its disapprobation--Riding a Camel through the + streets--A narrow escape--Ceremony of weaning a young Camel--The + Camel's favourite food--Structure of the foot and adaptation to + locality--Difficulty in provisioning--Camel's hair and + skin--Sal-ammoniac and desert fuel--The Camel and the needle's + eye--Straining at a gnat and swallowing a Camel 233 + +THE BACTRIAN CAMEL. + + General description of the animal--Its use in mountain + roads--Peculiar formation of the foot--Uses of a mixed + breed--Its power of enduring cold--Used chiefly as a beast of + draught--Unfitness for the plough--The cart and mode of + harnessing--The load which it can draw--Camel-skin ropes--A + Rabbinical legend 244 + +THE HORSE. + + The Hebrew words which signify the Horse--The Horse introduced + into Palestine from Egypt--Similarity of the war-horse of + Scripture and the Arab horse of the present day--Characteristics + of the Horse--Courage and endurance of the Horse--Hardness of + its unshod hoofs--Love of the Arab for his Horse--Difficulty of + purchasing the animal--The Horse prohibited to the + Israelites--Solomon's disregard of the edict--The war-chariot, + its form and use--Probable construction of the iron chariot--The + cavalry Horse--Lack of personal interest in the animal 248 + +THE ASS. + + Importance of the Ass in the East--Its general use for the + saddle--Riding the Ass not a mark of humility--The triumphal + entry--White Asses--Character of the Scriptural Ass--Saddling + the Ass--The Ass used in agriculture--The Ass's millstone--The + water-wheel and the plough--Reminiscences of the Ass in the + Scriptural narrative--Its value as property--The flesh of the + Ass--The siege of Samaria and its horrors--Various legends + respecting the Ass--The impostor and his fate--Samson and Balaam + 264 + +THE WILD ASS. + + The Arod and Pere of Scripture--Various allusions to the Wild + Ass--Its swiftness and wildness--The Wild Ass of Asia and + Africa--Knowledge of the animal displayed by the sacred + writers--How the Wild Ass is hunted--Excellence of its + flesh--Sir R. K. Porter's meeting with a Wild Ass--Origin of the + domestic Ass--The Wild Asses of Quito 279 + +THE MULE. + + Ancient use of the Mule--Various breeds of Mule--Supposed date + of its introduction into Palestine--Mule-breeding forbidden to + the Jews--The Mule as a saddle-animal--Its use on occasions of + state--The king's Mule--Mules brought from Babylon after the + captivity--Obstinacy of the Mule--The Mule as a beast of + burden--The "Mule's burden" of earth--Mules imported by the + Phoenicians--Legends respecting the Mule 285 + +SWINE. + + The Mosaic prohibition of the pig--Hatred of Swine by Jews and + Mahometans--A strange use of bacon--The prodigal son--Resistance + to the prosecution of Antiochus--Swine hated by the early + Egyptians--Supposed connexion between Swine and diseases of the + skin--Destruction of the herd of Swine--The locality of the + event discovered--Pigs bred for the monasteries--The jewel of + gold in a Swine's snout--The wild boar of the woods, and the + beast of the reeds--The damage which it does to the + vines--General account of the wild boar of Palestine--Excellence + of its flesh 292 + +THE ELEPHANT. + + The Elephant indirectly mentioned in the Authorized + Version--Solomon's ivory throne--Ivory used in Egypt--Horns of + ivory--The ivory palaces--Beds of ivory--The Tyrian ships--Ivory + mentioned by Homer--Vessels of ivory--The Elephant as an engine + of war--Antiochus and his Elephants--Oriental + exaggeration--Self-devotion of Eleazar--Attacking the Elephants, + and their gradual abandonment in war--The Talmudical writers on + the Elephant--A funeral and an omen 302 + +THE CONEY, OR HYRAX. + + The Shaphan of Scripture, and the correct meaning of the + word--Identification of the Shaphan with the Syrian + Hyrax--Description of the animal--Its feet, teeth, and apparent + rumination--Passages in which the Coney is mentioned--Habits of + the animal--Its activity and wariness--The South African Hyrax, + and its mode of life--Difficulty of procuring it--Similarity in + appearance and habits of the Syrian species--Three species of + Hyrax known to naturalists--The Talmudical writers on the + Shaphan--The jerboa and the rabbit--A curious speculation and a + judicious compromise 312 + +BEHEMOTH. + + Literal translation of the word _Behemoth_--Various theories + respecting the identity of the animal--The Hippopotamus known to + the ancient Hebrews--Geographical range of the animal--"He + eateth grass like the ox"--Ravages of the Hippopotamus among the + crops--Structure of the mouth and teeth--The "sword or scythe" + of the Hippopotamus--Some strange theories--Haunts of the + Hippopotamus--The Egyptian hunter--A valuable painting--Strength + of the Hippopotamus--Rising of the Nile--Modern + hunters--Wariness of the Hippopotamus--The pitfall and the + drop-trap 318 + + +BIRDS. + +THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE. + + Difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in + Scripture--The Vultures of Palestine--The Lämmergeier, or + Ossifrage of Scripture--The Hebrew word _Peres_, and its + signification--The Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker--Appearance of the + Lämmergeier--Its flight and mode of feeding--How the Lämmergeier + kills snakes and tortoises, and breaks marrow-bones--Mode of + destroying the chamois and mountain sheep--Nest of the + Lämmergeier 333 + +THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE. + + The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian + Vulture--Its appearance on the Egyptian monuments--Signification + of the word _Râchâm_--Various translations of the word--The + shape, size, and colour of the bird--Its value as a scavenger, + and its general habits--The Egyptian Vultures and the + griffons--Its fondness for the society of man--Nest of the + Egyptian Vulture 339 + +THE GRIFFON VULTURE, OR EAGLE OF SCRIPTURE. + + The Griffon Vulture identified with the Eagle of Scripture--The + word _Nesher_ and its signification--Geographical range of the + Griffon--Its mode of flight and sociable habits--The featherless + head and neck of the bird--The Vulture used as an image of + strength, swiftness, and rapacity--Its powers of sight--How + Vultures assemble round a carcase--Nesting-places of the + Griffon--Mr. Tristram's description of the Griffon--Rock caves + of the Wady Hamâm--Care of the young, and teaching them to + fly--Strength of the Griffon--Its emblematical use in Egypt and + Assyria--The god Nisroch--Noble aspect of the Griffon--Its + longevity--Various attitudes assumed by the bird 344 + +THE EAGLE. + + Signification of the word _Asniych_--The Golden Eagle and its + habits--The Imperial Eagle--Its solitary mode of life--The + Short-toed Eagle common in Palestine--Its zoological + position--Food of the Short-toed Eagle--Its form and colour 354 + +THE OSPREY. + + The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle--Its geographical range--Mode of + securing prey--Structure of its feet--Its power of balancing + itself in the air 356 + +THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE. + + The word _Dayah_ and its signification--Dayah a collective term + for different species of Kites--The Common or Red Kite plentiful + in Palestine--Its piercing sight and habit of soaring--The Black + Kite of Palestine and its habits--The Egyptian Kite--The Raah or + Glede of Scripture--The Buzzards and their habits--The Peregrine + Falcon an inhabitant of Central Palestine, and the Lanner of the + eastern parts of the country 357 + +THE HAWK. + + The Netz or Hawk--Number of species probably grouped under that + name--Rare occurrence of the word--The Sparrow-Hawk and its + general habits--Its place of nesting--The Kestrel, or + Wind-hover--Various names by which it is known in England--Its + mode of feeding and curious flight--The Hariers--Probable + derivation of the name--Species of Hariers known to inhabit + Palestine--Falconry apparently unknown to the ancient Jews 364 + +THE OWL. + + The words which have been translated as "Owl"--The Côs, or + Little Owl--Use made of the Little Owl in bird-catching--Habits + of the bird--The Barn, Screech, or White Owl a native of + Palestine--The Yanshûph, or Egyptian Eagle Owl--Its food and + nest--The Lilith, or Night Monster--Various interpretations of + the word--The Kippoz probably identical with the Scops Owl, or + Marouf 37 + +THE NIGHT-HAWK. + + Different interpretations of the word _Tachmâs_--Probability + that it signifies the Nightjar--Various names of the bird--Its + remarkable jarring cry, and wheeling flight--Mode of + feeding--Boldness of the bird--Deceptive appearance of its size + 377 + +THE SWALLOW. + + Identification of the smaller birds--Oriental indifference to + natural history--Use of collective terms--The + Swallow--Signification of the word _Deror_--The Bird of + Liberty--Swallows and Swifts--The Sunbirds and + Bee-eaters--Variety of small birds found in Palestine--The + Swallows of Palestine--Swallows protected by man in various + countries--Nesting of the Swallow--The Rufous Swallow and + Martin--The Sis or Swift--Various species of Swift inhabiting + the Holy Land--Talmudical notions of the Swift or Swallow--The + leper and his offering--The cooking pot and the sacrificial + vessel--Signification of the word _Tzippor-deror_ 381 + +THE HOOPOE, OR LAPWING OF SCRIPTURE. + + The Dukiphath of Scripture--Various interpretations of the + word--The Hoopoe--Its beauty and ill reputation--The unpleasant + odour of its nest--Food of the Hoopoe--Its beautiful nest, and + remarkable gestures--A curious legend of Solomon and the Hoopoe + 392 + +THE SPARROW. + + Signification of the word _Tzippor_--The bird used for the + leper's sacrifice--The Sparrow upon the house-top--Architecture + of the East--Proclamation from the house-tops--The Blue Thrush, + its appearance and habits--Little birds exposed for sale in the + market--The two Sparrows sold for a farthing--Bird-catching--The + net, the snare, and the trap--The Sparrow that builds her nest + in the Temple--The Tree Sparrow--Various Sparrows that inhabit + Palestine--Birds kept in cages 395 + +THE CUCKOO. + + The Cuckoo only twice mentioned in Scripture--Difficulty of + identifying the Shachaph--The common species, and the Great + Spotted Cuckoo--Depositing the egg--Conjectures respecting the + Shachaph--Etymology of the word--The various gulls, and other + sea-birds 405 + +THE DOVE. + + Parallel between the lamb and the Dove--Derivation of the Hebrew + word _Yonâh_--The Dove and the olive branch--Abram's sacrifice, + and its acceptance--The sacrifice according to the law of + Moses--The Dove-sellers of the Temple--Talmudical zoology--The + story of Ilisch--The Dove and the raven--The Dove a type of + Israel--The Beni-yonâh, or Sons of Pigeons--Home-finding + instinct of the pigeon--The Oriental Dove-cotes--Voice of the + Dove--Its strength of wing--The Dove's dung of Samaria--Various + pigeons of Palestine--The Rock Dove and its multitudes--The Dove + and the Griffon--The Turtle Doves of Palestine, and their + appearance and habits 408 + +POULTRY. + + Poultry plentiful in Palestine at the present day--The Domestic + Fowl unknown in the early times of Israel--The eating and + gathering of eggs--References to Poultry in the New + Testament--The egg and the scorpion--The fatted fowl of + Solomon--The hen brooding over her eggs--Poultry prohibited + within Jerusalem--The cock-crowing 421 + +THE PEACOCK. + + The foreign curiosities imported by Solomon--The word _Tucciyim_ + and its various interpretations--Identity of the word with the + Cingalese name of the Peacock--Reasons why the Peacock should + have been brought to Solomon--Its subsequent neglect and + extirpation 425 + +THE PARTRIDGE. + + The word _Kore_ and its signification--The Partridge upon the + mountains--David's simile--The Desert Partridge and its + habits--Hunting the Partridge with sticks--Eggs of the + Partridge--A disputed reading, and probable signification of the + passage--Egg-hunting in Palestine--The various species of + Partridge--The Francolin and the Sand-grouse 426 + +THE QUAIL. + + Signification of the word _Selâv_--Various passages in which the + word is mentioned--The locust, the stork, and the + sand-grouse--Spreading the birds around the camp--Migration of + the Quail--Drying the Quails for food--Modes of catching the + Quail in the East--The Quail-hunters of Northern + Africa--Quarrelsome nature of the bird--Quail-fighting in the + East--How the Quails were brought to the Israelites 430 + +THE RAVEN. + + Signification of the word _Oreb_--The Haven tribe plentiful in + Palestine--The Raven and the dove--Elijah and the + Ravens--Various explanations of the circumstance--Feeding the + young Ravens--Luis of Grenada's sermon--The white Raven of + ancient times--An old legend--Reference to the blackness of the + Raven's plumage--Desert-loving habits of the Raven--Its mode of + attacking the eye--Notions of the old commentators--Ceremonial + use of the Raven--Return of the Ravens--Cunning of the + bird--Nesting-places of the Raven--The magpie and its + character--The starling--Its introduction into Palestine--The + Rabbi perplexed--Solution of the difficulty 439 + +THE OSTRICH. + + Hebrew words designating the Ostrich--Description of the bird in + the Book of Job--Ancient use of Ostrich plumes--Supposed + heedlessness of eggs and young--Mode of depositing the + eggs--Hatching them in the sand--Natural enemies of the + Ostrich--Anecdote of Ostriches and their young--Alleged + stupidity of the Ostrich--Methods of hunting and snaring the + bird--The Ostrich in domestication--Speed of the Ostrich--The + flesh of the bird prohibited to the Jews--Ostrich eggs and their + uses--Food of the Ostrich--Mode of drinking--Cry of the Ostrich, + and reference made to it in Micah 450 + +THE BITTERN. + + Signification of the word _Kippod_--The Bittern and its general + appearance--The bird of solitude--Difficulty of detecting the + Bittern in its haunts--Mudie's description of the Bittern and + its home--The strange cry of the bird--Superstitions connected + with it--The Night-raven--Nest of the Bittern--Scarcity of the + bird at the present day--Food of the Bittern--The bird formerly + brought to table 462 + +THE HERON. + + The Heron mentioned as an unclean bird--The Heron used for food + in England, and considered as a delicacy--Sociable character of + the bird, and its mode of feeding--Its enormous appetite--How + the Heron fights--Ancient falconry--Nesting of the Heron--The + papyrus marshes and their dangers--Description of the + papyrus--Vessels of bulrushes--The Egret and its beautiful + plumage--Uses of the train feathers 468 + +THE CRANE. + + Various passages in which the Crane is mentioned--Its migratory + habits and loud voice--Geographical range of the Crane--The bird + once plentiful in the fen districts of England--Its favourite + roosting-places--Size of the Crane, and measurement of the + wings--The Crane once used as food--Plumes of the Crane and + their use--Structure of the vocal organs--Nest and eggs of the + Crane. 474 + +THE STORK. + + Signification of the Hebrew word _Chasidah_--Various passages in + which it is mentioned--The Chasidah therefore a large, + wide-winged, migratory bird--Its identification with the + Stork--Derivation of its Hebrew name--The Stork always + protected--Uses of the tail--Its mode of quartering the ground + in search of food--Migratory habits of the Stork--Nesting of the + bird, and its favourite localities--The fir-trees of + Palestine--Love of the Stork for its young 478 + +THE SWAN. + + Signification of the word _Tinshemeth_--The Gallinule and the + Ibis--Appearance and habits of the Hyacinthine Gallinule--A + strange use for the bird--The White or Sacred Ibis--The bird + mentioned by Herodotus--The Glossy Ibis, or Black + Ibis--Veneration with which the bird was regarded 485 + +THE CORMORANT. + + The word _Shâlâk_ and its signification--The Greek + Catarrhactes--Habits of the Cormorant--The bird trained to catch + fish--Mode of securing its prey--Nests and eggs of the + Cormorant--Nesting in fir-trees--Flesh of the bird 490 + +THE PELICAN. + + The Pelican of the wilderness--Attitudes of the bird--Its love + of solitude--Derivation of the Hebrew word--Fantastic + interpretation--Mode of feeding the young--Fables regarding the + Pelican--Breeding-places of the bird--The object of its wide + wings and large pouch--Colour of the Pelican 495 + + +REPTILES. + +THE TORTOISE. + + Reptiles in general--Looseness of the term "creeping + things"--The Tzab of the Scriptures, translated as + Tortoise--Flesh and eggs of the Tortoise--Its slow + movements--Hibernation dependent on temperature--The + Water-Tortoises--Their food and voracity--Their eggs--Their + odour terrifying the horses--The Dhubb lizard and its + legends--Its armed tail, and the use made of it--Its food, and + localities which it prefers 505 + +THE LEVIATHAN, OR CROCODILE. + + Signification of the word _Leviathan_--Description in the Book + of Job--Structure and general habits of the Crocodile--The + throat-valve and its use--Position of the nostrils--Worship of + the Crocodile--The reptile known in the Holy Land--Two legends + respecting its presence there--Mode of taking prey--Cunning of + the Crocodile--The baboons and the Crocodile--Speed of the + reptile--Eggs and young of the Crocodile, and their + enemies--Curious story of the ichneumon and ibis--Modes of + capturing the Crocodile--Analysis of Job's description--The + Crocodile also signified by the word _Tannin_. Aaron's rod + changed into a Tannin--Various passages in which the word + occurs--Use of the word by the Prophet Jeremiah 514 + +THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD. + + Difficulty of identifying the Letââh--Probability that it is a + collective and not a specific term--Various Lizards of + Palestine--The Green or Jersey Lizard--The Cyprius, its + appearance and habits--The Glass Snake or + Scheltopusic--Translation of the word _Chomet_--Probability that + it signifies the Skink--Medicinal uses of the Lizard--The Seps + tribe--The common Cicigna, and the popular belief concerning its + habits--The Sphænops and its shallow tunnel 529 + +THE CHAMELEON, MONITOR, AND GECKO. + + Translation of the word _Koach_--Signification of the word, and + its applicability to the Chameleon--Power of the reptile's + grasp--The prehensile tail--Demeanour of the Chameleon on the + ground--The independent eyes--Its frequent change of + colour--Mode of taking prey--Strange notions respecting the + Chameleon--The Monitor, or Land Crocodile--Its habits and use to + mankind--The Nilotic Monitor, and its habit of destroying the + eggs and young of the Crocodile--The Gecko or Ferret of + Scripture 534 + +SERPENTS. + + Serpents in general--Signification of the Hebrew word + _Nachash_--Various passages in which the Nachash is + mentioned--The fiery Serpents of the wilderness--Explanation of + the words "flying" and "fiery" as applied to Serpents--Haunts of + the Serpent--The Cobra, or Asp of Scripture--Meaning of the word + _Pethen_--The deaf Adder that stoppeth her ear--Serpent-charming + in the East--Principle on which the charmers work--Sluggishness + of the Serpent nature--Ceremony of initiation into + Serpent-charming--Theories respecting the deaf Adder--Luis of + Grenada's sermon--The Cerastes, or Horned Serpent--Appearance + and habits of the reptile--The "Adder in the path" 540 + +THE VIPER, OR EPHEH. + + Passages in which the word _Epheh_ occurs--El-effah--The Sand + Viper, or Toxicon--Its appearance and habits--The + Acshub--Adder's poison--The Spuugh-Slange--The Cockatrice, or + Tsepha--The Yellow Viper--Ancient ideas concerning the + Cockatrice--Power of its venom 552 + +THE FROG. + + The Frog only mentioned in the Old Testament as connected with + the plagues of Egypt--The severity of this plague explained--The + Frog detestable to the Egyptians--The Edible Frog and its + numbers--Description of the Species. 557 + + +FISHES. + +CHAPTER I. + + Impossibility of distinguishing the different species of + fishes--The fishermen Apostles--Fish used for food--The miracle + of the loaves and Fishes--The Fish broiled on the coals--Clean + and unclean Fishes--The scientific writings of Solomon--The + Sheat-fish, or Silurus--The Eel and the Muræna--The Long-headed + Barbel--Fish-ponds and preserves--The Fish-ponds of Heshbon--The + Sucking-fish--The Lump-sucker--The Tunny--The Coryphene 563 + +CHAPTER II. + + Various modes of capturing Fish--The hook and line--Military use + of the hook--Putting a hook in the jaws--The fishing + spear--Different kinds of net--The casting-net--Prevalence of + this form--Technical words among fishermen--Fishing by + night--The draught of Fishes--The real force of the + miracle--Selecting the Fish--The Fish-gate and Fish-market--Fish + killed by a draught--Fishing in the Dead Sea--Dagon, the + fish-god of Philistina, Assyria, and Siam--Various Fishes of + Egypt and Palestine 571 + + +INVERTEBRATES. + +MOLLUSCS. + + The purple of Scripture--Various Molluscs from which it is + obtained--The common Dog whelk of England--The sac containing + the purple dye--Curious change of colour--Mode of obtaining the + dye--The Tyrian purple--The king of the Ethiopians and the + purple robe--The professional purple dyers--Various words + expressive of different shades of purple--Care taken to keep the + preparation of the dye secret 586 + +THE SNAIL. + + The Snail which melteth--Rendering of the Jewish Bible--Theory + respecting the track of the Snail--The Hebrew word + _Shablul_--Various Snails of Palestine 589 + +THE ONYCHA. + + Ingredients of the sacred incense--The Onyx, or + Onycha--Derivation of the word--The Arabic Dofr--The Doofu of + Abyssinia--Odour of the perfume 590 + +THE PEARL. + + The Pearl of Scripture--Wisdom compared to Pearl--Different + renderings of the Hebrew word--Opinions of the + Talmudists--Structure of Pearls--The Pearls of the marine and + aquatic mussels--Pearl-fisheries of the Conway--Metaphorical + uses of the Pearl--The Pearl of great price--Casting Pearls + before swine--An ancient proverb 592 + +INSECTS. + + Insects--Beetles not mentioned in Scripture--The Locust--Various + species of the insect, and different words used to signify + it--The Arbeh of Scripture, and its derivation--The two + migratory Locusts at rest and on the wing--The Locust + swarms--Gordon Cumming's account--Progress of the insect + hosts--Vain attempts to check them--Tossed up and down as a + Locust--Effect of the winds on the insect--The east and the west + winds--Locusts used for food--Ancient and modern travellers--The + food of St. John 596 + +THE BEE. + + The Hebrew word _Debôrah_-The Honey Bee of Palestine--Abundance + of Bees in the Holy Land--Habitations of the wild Bee--Hissing + for the Bee--Bees in dead carcases--The honey of + Scripture--Domesticated Bees and their hives--Stores of wild + honey--The story of Jonathan--The Crusaders and the + honey--Butter and honey--Oriental sweetmeats--The Dibs, or + grape-honey, and mode of preparation--Wax, its use as a metaphor + 605 + +THE HORNET. + + The Tzirah or Hornet of Scripture--Travellers driven away by + Hornets--The Hornet used as a metaphor--Oriental symbolism--The + Talmudical writers--Sting of the Hornet 613 + +THE ANT. + + The Ant of Scripture--Solomon's allusion to the Ant--Habit of + laying up stores of food--A controversy respecting the Ant--The + Ants of Palestine, and their habits--The Agricultural or + Mound-making Ant--Preparing ground, sowing, tending, reaping, + and storing the crop--Different habits of Ants--Development of + the insect--The winged Ants--An Arab proverb 616 + +THE CRIMSON WORM. + + The scarlet or crimson of Scripture--Signification of the word + _Tolââth_--The Coccus or Cochineal of Palestine compared with + that of Mexico--Difference between the sexes--Mode of preparing + the insect--The Arabic word _Kermes_ 622 + +THE CLOTHES MOTH. + + The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth--The Sâs and + the 'Ash--Similitude between the Hebrew _sâs_ and the Greek + _sês_--Moths and garments--Accumulation of clothes in the + East--Various uses of the hoarded robes--The Moths, the rust, + and the thief 624 + +THE SILKWORM MOTH. + + Various passages wherein Silk is mentioned--The virtuous woman + and her household--Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted + with Silk--Present cultivation of the Silkworm--The Silk-farms + of the Lebanon--Signification of the word _Meshi_--Silkworms and + thunder--Luis of Grenada's sermon--The Hebrew word _Gâzam_, and + its signification--The Palmer-worm of Scripture 627 + +FLIES. + + Flies of Scripture--Dead Flies and the apothecary's + ointment--Gadflies and their attacks--Annoyance caused by the + House-fly--Flies and ophthalmia--Signor Pierotti's account of + the Flies--The sovereign remedy against Flies--Causes of their + prevalence 632 + +GNATS. + + The Gnat of Scripture--Straining out the Gnat and swallowing the + camel, a typographical error--Probable identity of the Gnat and + the mosquito 635 + +THE LOUSE. + + Insect parasites--The plague of Lice--Its effect on the + magicians or priests--The Hebrew word _Chinnim_--Probability + that it may be represented by "tick"--Habits of the ticks, their + dwellings in dust, and their effects on man and beast 636 + +THE FLEA. + + Prevalence of the Flea in the East, and the annoyance caused by + them to travellers--Fleas of the Lebanon--The Bey's + bedfellows--The Pasha at the bath--Use of the word in Scripture + 638 + +THE SCORPION. + + The Scorpions of Palestine--Signification of the word + _Akrabbim_--Habits of the Scorpion--Dangers of mud walls--Venom + of the Scorpion--Scorpions at sea--The Scorpion whip, and its + use--The Scorpion Pass 640 + +THE SPIDER. + + Signification of the word _Semamith_--Various interpretations of + a Scriptural passage--Talmudical opinions respecting the + creature--The 'Akkabish and its web--Spiders of Palestine 643 + +THE WORM. + + Various words translated as "Worm"--Probable confusion of the + words--The Rimmah and the Tole'ah--The Worm which destroyed + Jonah's gourd--The Earthworm 644 + +THE HORSE LEECH. + + Signification of the word _Alukah_--The Arabic word--Leeches in + Palestine--The horse and the Leech--Leeches in England 646 + +SPONGE AND CORAL. + + Use of the Sponge in Scripture--Probability that the ancient + Jews were acquainted with it--Sponges of the Mediterranean--The + Coral, and its value--Signification of the word _Ramoth_ 647 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. + + PAGE + + THE OSTRICH AND ITS HUNTERS. (Job xxxix. 19) _Frontispiece._ + + THE LION AND HIS DEN. (Ezek. xix. 2) _to face_ 26 + + DOGS PROWLING AT NIGHT. (Psa. lix. 14) " 48 + + THE BADGER AND ITS HOME. (Exod. xxvi. 14) " 72 + + BEARS DESCENDING FROM THE HILLS. + (Prov. xxviii. 15) " 76 + + OXEN BEARING THE YOKE. (Lam. iii. 27) " 104 + + SHEEP AND THEIR SHEPHERD AND FOLD. + (Psa. xxiii. 2) " 156 + + GOATS WOUNDED BY LION. (Amos iii. 12) " 202 + + THE HIND AND HER YOUNG. (Job xxxix. 1) " 212 + + CAMELS AND THEIR BURDENS. (Isa. xxx. 6) " 222 + + THE WAR HORSE GOING TO BATTLE. (Job xxxix. 25) " 250 + + WILD ASSES AND THE HUNTERS. (Job xxxix. 5-8) " 282 + + THE WILD BOAR IN THE VINEYARD. (Psa. lxxx. 13) " 300 + + ELEPHANTS IN A FOREST. (Ezek. xxvii. 15) " 312 + + THE HIPPOPOTAMUS OR BEHEMOTH. (Job xl. 21) " 324 + + VULTURES AND THEIR PREY. (Matt. xxiv. 28) " 352 + + THE EAGLE AND ITS NEST. (Job xxxix. 27) " 354 + + THE OSPREY AND ITS HAUNTS. (Deut. xiv. 12) " 356 + + THE OWL AMONG RUINS. (Job xxx. 29) " 376 + + PEACOCKS. (1 Kings x. 22) " 426 + + THE BITTERN AND ITS HOME. (Isa. xiv. 23) " 466 + + THE STORK IN THE FIR-TREES. (Psa. civ. 17) " 482 + + THE CROCODILE OR LEVIATHAN. (Job xli. 7) " 520 + + LOCUSTS ON THE MARCH. (Exod. x. 5) " 600 + + +ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. + + PAGE + + THE RHESUS AND ENTELLUS. (1 Kings x. 22) 3 + + THE WANDEROO 6 + + BATS IN THEIR CAVE. (Levit. xi. 19) 17 + + THE LEOPARD BY THE WAY. (Hos. xiii. 7) 30 + + THE WOLF AMONG THE SHEEP. (John x. 12) 51 + + JACKALS AND THE SCAPEGOAT. (Psa. lxiii. 10) 56 + + HYÆNAS AND VULTURES. (Ezek. xxix. 5) 65 + + THE HEDGEHOG. (Isa. xxxiv. 11) 81 + + THE MOLE-RAT. (Levit. xi. 30) 87 + + FIELD-MICE AMONG CORN. (1 Sam. vi. 5) 93 + + SYRIAN HARES. (Deut. xiv. 7) 97 + + OXEN TREADING OUT CORN. (Deut. xxv. 4) 107 + + THE BUFFALO. (Amos vi. 12) 114 + + THE WILD BULL, OR ORYX. (Isa. li. 21) 119 + + THE UNICORN, OR BISON. (Job xxxix. 9) 132 + + GAZELLES UPON THE MOUNTAINS. (Cant. ii. 8) 136 + + THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX. (Deut. xiv. 4) 142 + + THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE. (1 Kings iv. 23) 145 + + SHEEP LED TO PASTURE. (John x. 3) 154 + + THE RAM'S HORN TRUMPET. (Josh. vi. 4) 175 + + THE PLACE OF SACRIFICE ON MOUNT GERIZIM 181 + + THE CHAMOIS, OR AOUDAD. (Deut. xiv. 4, 5) 187 + + GOATS DIVIDED FROM SHEEP. (Matt. xxv. 52) 199 + + THE WILD GOAT, OR IBEX. (Psa. cxiv. 18) 206 + + THE HIND, OR FALLOW-DEER. (Cant. ii. 7) 209 + + THE DROMEDARY AND ITS RIDER. (Jer. ii. 23) 231 + + THE CAMEL AND THE "NEEDLE'S EYE." (Matt. xix. 24) 243 + + BACTRIAN CAMELS HARNESSED. (Isa. xxi. 7) 246 + + THE WAR CHARIOT OF EGYPT. (Jer. xlvi. 9) 261 + + THE STATE CHARIOT OF ASSYRIA. (Jer. xvii. 25) 262 + + SYRIAN ASSES. (Prov. xxvi. 3) 269 + + MULES AND THEIR DRIVER. (Psa. xxxii. 9) 287 + + CONIES AMONG THE ROCKS. (Prov. xxx. 26) 313 + + THE HIPPOPOTAMUS IN THE RIVER. (Job xl. 21) 325 + + THE HIPPOPOTAMUS AND TRAP. (Job xl. 24) 328 + + THE OSSIFRAGE, OR LÄMMERGEIER. (Deut. xiv. 12) 334 + + THE GIER-EAGLE, OR EGYPTIAN VULTURE. (Deut. xiv. 17) 340 + + THE VULTURE, OR KITE. (JOB xxviii. 7) 358 + + THE GLEDE, OR PEREGRINE FALCON. (Deut. xiv. 13) 361 + + THE LANNER FALCON 363 + + THE HAWK, OR KESTREL. (Job xxxix. 26) 366 + + THE LITTLE OWL. (Psa. cii. 6) 372 + + THE NIGHT-HAWK. (Deut. xiv. 15) 378 + + THE SWALLOW AND SWIFT. (Jer. viii. 7) 385 + + THE LAPWING, OR HOOPOE. (Levit. xi. 19) 393 + + THE SPARROW, OR BLUE THRUSH. (Psa. cii. 7) 399 + + THE SPARROW, OR TREE SPARROW. (Psa. lxxxiv. 3) 403 + + THE CUCKOO. (Levit. xi. 16) 406 + + THE ROCK DOVE. (Cant. ii. 14) 416 + + THE TURTLE DOVE. (Cant. ii. 12) 420 + + POULTRY. (Luke xiii. 34) 423 + + THE PARTRIDGE ON THE MOUNTAINS. (1 Sam. xxvi. 20) 428 + + THE QUAIL. (Psa. cv. 40) 431 + + THE RAVEN. (Job xxxviii. 41) 441 + + THE OSTRICH AND ITS EGGS. (Job xxxix. 14) 454 + + THE BITTERN. (Isa. xiv. 23) 463 + + THE HERON. (Deut. xi. 19) 469 + + THE CRANE. (Isa. xxxviii. 14) 475 + + THE SWAN OR IBIS, OR GALLINULE. (Deut. xiv. 16) 486 + + THE PELICAN OF THE WILDERNESS. (Psa. cii. 6) 496 + + THE TORTOISE AND DHUBB. (Levit. xi. 29) 507 + + THE LIZARD, OR CYPRIUS. (Levit. xi. 30) 530 + + THE CHAMELEON AND THE GECKO. (Levit. xi. 30) 535 + + THE ASP AND THE ADDER, OR THE COBRA AND THE CERASTES. + (Psa. lviii. 4; Gen. xlix. 17) 542 + + THE VIPER, OR TOXICOA. (Job xx. 16) 553 + + THE FROG. (Exod. viii. 3) 558 + + FISHES--MURÆNA, BARBEL, AND SHEAT-FISH. (Levit. xi. 10) 566 + + FISHES--SUCKING-FISH, TUNNY, AND CORYPHENE. (Levit. x. 9) 569 + + FISHES--LATES, MULLUS, AND URANOSCOPUS. (Numb. xi. 5) 582 + + THE PEARL OYSTER. (Matt. xiii. 45) 594 + + THE BEE. (Isa. vii 19) 606 + + THE HORNET. (Exod. xxiii. 28) 614 + + THE ANT. (Prov. vi. 6) 621 + + THE CRIMSON WORM, OR COCHINEAL. (Isa. i. 18) 623 + + BUTTERFLIES AND CATERPILLARS OF PALESTINE. (Joel i. 4) 631 + + FLIES. (Isa. vii. 18) 635 + + THE SCORPION. (Rev. ix. 10) 641 + + THE CORAL. (Job xxviii. 18) 648 + + + + +MAMMALIA. + + +BIBLE ANIMALS. + + + + +THE APE. + + The Monkey tribe rarely mentioned in Scripture--Why the Ape was + introduced into Palestine--Solomon's ships, and their cargo of + Apes, peacocks, ivory and gold--Various species of Monkey that + might have been imported--The Rhesus Monkey--The Hoonuman or + Entellus--Habits of the Monkey, and reverence in which it is + held by the natives--The Egyptians and their Baboon + worship--Idols and memorials--The Wanderoo--its singular + aspect--Reasons why it should be introduced into + Palestine--General habits of the Wanderoo--its love of + curiosities--Probability that Solomon had a menagerie--Various + species of Monkey that maybe included in the term "Kophim"--The + Satyr of Scripture--Babylon in its glory and fall--Fulfilment of + prophecy--Judaic ideas of the Satyrs, or Seirim. + + +Animals belonging to the monkey tribe are but sparingly mentioned in +Holy Writ. If, as is possible, the Satyr of Scripture signifies some +species of baboon, there are but three passages either in the Old or +New Testament where these animals are mentioned. In 1 Kings x. 22, and +the parallel passage 2 Chron. ix. 21, the sacred historian makes a +passing allusion to apes as forming part of the valuable cargoes which +were brought by Solomon's fleet to Tharshish, the remaining articles +being gold, ivory, and peacocks. The remaining passage occurs in Is. +xiii. 21, where the prophet foretells that on the site of Babylon +satyrs shall dance. + +The reason for this reticence is simple enough. No monkey was +indigenous to Palestine when the various writers of the Bible lived, +and all their knowledge of such animals must have been derived either +from the description of sailors, or from the sight of the few +specimens that were brought as curiosities from foreign lands. Such +specimens must have been extremely rare, or they would not have been +mentioned as adjuncts to the wealth of Solomon, the wealthiest, as +well as the wisest monarch of his time. To the mass of the people they +must have been practically unknown, and therefore hold but a very +inferior place in the Scriptures, which were addressed to all mankind. + +There is scarcely any familiar animal, bird, reptile or insect, which +is not used in some metaphorical sense in the imagery which pervades +the whole of the Scriptures. For example, the various carnivorous +animals, such as the lion, wolf, and bear, are used as emblems of +destruction in various ways; while the carnivorous birds, such as the +eagle and hawk, and the destructive insects, such as the locust and +the caterpillar, are all similarly employed in strengthening and +illustrating the words of Holy Writ. + +But we never find any animal of the monkey tribe mentioned +metaphorically, possibly because any monkeys that were imported into +Palestine must only have been intended as objects of curiosity, just +as the peacocks which accompanied them were objects of beauty, and the +gold and ivory objects of value--all being employed in the decoration +of the king's palace. + +The question that now comes before us is the species of monkey that is +signified by the Hebrew word Kophim. In modern days, we distinguish +this tribe of animals into three great sections, namely, the apes, the +baboons, and the monkey; and according to this arrangement the ape, +being without tails, must have been either the chimpanzee of Africa, +the orang-outan of Sumatra, or one of the Gibbons. But there is no +reason to imagine that the word Kophim was intended to represent any +one of these animals, and it seems evident that the word was applied +to any species of monkey, whether it had a tail or not. + +Perhaps the best method of ascertaining approximately the particular +species of monkey, is to notice the land from which the animals came. +Accordingly, we find that the ships of Solomon brought gold, ivory, +apes, and peacocks, and that they evidently brought their cargoes from +the same country. Consequently, the country in question must produce +gold, and must be inhabited by the monkey tribe, by the elephant, and +by the peacock. If the peacock had not been thus casually mentioned, +we should have been at a loss to identify the particular country to +which reference is made; but the mention of that bird shows that some +part of Asia must be signified. It is most probable that the vessels +in question visited both India and Ceylon, although, owing to the very +imperfect geographical knowledge of the period, it is not possible to +assert absolutely that this is the case. In India, however, and the +large island of Ceylon, gold, elephants, peacocks, and monkeys exist; +and therefore we will endeavour to identify the animals which are +mentioned under the general term Apes, or Kophim. + + [Illustration: THE RHESUS AND ENTELLUS. + + "_Bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes._"--1 KINGS x. 22.] + +We are quite safe in suggesting that some of the apes in question must +have belonged to the Macaques, and it is most likely that one of them +was the RHESUS, or BHUNDER, scientifically named _Macacus Rhesus_. + +This animal is very plentiful in India, and is one of the many +creatures which are held sacred by the natives. Consequently, it takes +up its quarters near human habitations, feeling sure that it will not +be injured, and knowing that plenty of food is at hand. It is said +that in some parts of India the natives always leave one-tenth of +their grain-crops for the monkeys, and thus the animals content +themselves with this offering, and refrain from devastating the +fields, as they would otherwise do. This story may be true or not. It +is certainly possible that in a long series of years the monkeys of +that neighbourhood have come to look upon their tithe as a matter +belonging to the ordinary course of things; but whether it be true or +not, it illustrates the reverence entertained by the Hindoos for their +monkeys. + +In many places where grain and fruit crops are cultivated, the monkeys +get rather more than their share, plundering without scruple, and +finding no hindrance from the rightful owners, who dare not drive them +away, lest they should injure any of these sacred beings. However, +being unmindful of the maxim, "qui facit per alium, facit per se," +they are only too glad to avail themselves of the assistance of +Europeans, who have no scruples on the subject. Still, although they +are pleased to see the monkeys driven off, and their crops saved, they +would rather lose all their harvest than allow a single monkey to be +killed, and in the earlier years of our Indian colony, several riots +took place between the natives and the English, because the latter had +killed a monkey through ignorance of the reverence in which it was +held. + +Another monkey which may probably have been brought to Palestine from +India is the HOONUMAN, ENTELLUS, or MAKUR, which is more reverenced by +the Hindoos than any other species. Its scientific title is _Presbytes +entellus_. In some parts of India it is worshipped as a form of +divinity, and in all it is reverenced and protected to such an extent +that it becomes a positive nuisance to Europeans who are not +influenced by the same superstitious ideas as those which are so +prevalent in India. Being a very common species, it could easily be +captured, especially if, as is likely to be the case, it was fearless +of man through long immunity from harm. The sailors who manned +Solomon's navy would not trouble themselves about the sacred character +of the monkeys, but would take them without the least scruple wherever +they could be found. + +The Hoonuman would also be valued by them on account of its docility +when taken young, and the amusing tricks which it is fond of +displaying in captivity as well as in a state of freedom. Moreover, it +is rather a pretty creature, the general colour being yellowish, and +the face black. + +Perfectly aware of the impunity with which they are permitted to act, +these monkeys prefer human habitations to the forests which form the +natural home of their race, and crowd into the villages and temples, +the latter being always swarming with the long-tailed host. As is the +case with the Rhesus, the Hoonuman monkeys are much too fond of +helping themselves from the shops and stalls, and if they can find a +convenient roof, will sit there and watch for the arrival of the most +dainty fruits. + +However, the natives, superstitious as they are, and unwilling to +inflict personal injury on a monkey, have no scruple in making +arrangements by which a monkey that trespasses on forbidden spots will +inflict injury on itself. They may not shoot or wound in any way the +monkeys which cluster on their roofs, and the animals are so perfectly +aware of the fact, that they refuse to be driven away by shouts and +menacing gestures. But, they contrive to make the roofs so +uncomfortable by covering them with thorns, that the monkeys are +obliged to quit their points of vantage, and to choose some spot where +they can sit down without fear of hurting themselves. + +That the Hindoos should pay homage almost divine to a monkey, does +seem equally absurd and contemptible. But, strange as this +superstition may be, and the more strange because the intellectual +powers of the educated Hindoos are peculiarly subtle and penetrating, +it was shared by a greater, a mightier, and a still more intellectual +race, now extinct as a nation. The ancient Egyptians worshipped the +baboon, and ranked it among the most potent of their deities; and it +can but strike us with wonder when we reflect that a people who could +erect buildings perfectly unique in the history of the world, who held +the foremost place in civilization, who perfected arts which we, at a +distance of three thousand years, have only just learned, should pay +divine honours to monkeys, bulls, and snakes. Such, however, was the +case; and we find that the modern Hindoo shows as great reverence for +the identical animals as did the Egyptian when Pharaoh was king, and +Joseph his prime minister. + +It is said by some, that neither the Egyptian of the ancient times, +nor the Hindoo of the present day, actually worshipped those +creatures, but that they reverenced them as external signs of some +attribute of God. Precisely the same remarks have been made as to the +worship of idols, and it is likely enough that the highly educated +among the worshippers did look upon a serpent merely as an emblem of +divine wisdom, a bull as an image of divine strength, and a monkey as +an external memorial of the promised incarnation of divinity. So with +idols, which to the man of educated and enlarged mind were nothing but +visible symbols employed for the purpose of directing the mind in +worship. But, though this was the case with the educated and +intellectual, the ignorant and uncultivated, who compose the great +mass of a nation, did undoubtedly believe that both the living animal +and the lifeless idol were themselves divine, and did worship them +accordingly. + + [Illustration: THE WANDEROO.] + +There is one species of monkey, which is extremely likely to have been +brought to Palestine, and used for the adornment of a luxurious +monarch's palace. This is the WANDEROO, or NIL-BHUNDER (_Silenus +veter_). The Wanderoo, or Ouanderoo, as the name is sometimes spelled, +is a very conspicuous animal, on account of the curious mane that +covers its neck and head, and the peculiarly formed tail, which is +rather long and tufted, like that of a baboon, and has caused it to be +ranked among those animals by several writers, under the name of the +Lion-tailed Baboon. That part of the hairy mass which rolls over the +head is nearly black, but as it descends over the shoulders, it +assumes a greyer tinge, and in some specimens is nearly white, +reminding the observer of the huge wigs which were so prevalent in the +time of Charles II, or of the scarcely less enormous head-dresses with +which our judges are decorated. As is the case with many animals, the +mane is not seen in the young specimens, and increases in size with +age, only reaching its full dimensions when the animal has attained +adult age. Moreover, the grey hue belongs exclusively to the elder +monkeys, and only in the oldest specimens is the full, white, +venerable, wig-like mane to be seen in perfection. + +In captivity, the general demeanour of this monkey corresponds with +its grave and dignified aspect. It seems to be more sedate than the +ordinary monkeys, to judge from the specimens which have lived in the +Zoological Gardens, and sits peering with its shiny brown eyes out of +the enormous mane, with as much gravity as if it were really a judge +deciding an important case in law. Not that it will not condescend to +the little tricks and playful sallies for which the monkeys are so +celebrated; but it soon loses the vivacity of youth, and when +full-grown, presents as great a contrast to its former vivacity, as +does a staid full-grown cat sitting by the fire, to the restless, +lively, playful kitten of three months old. During its growth, it can +be taught to go through several amusing performances, but it has +little of the quick, mercurial manner, which is generally found among +the monkey tribe. + +The docility of the Wanderoo often vanishes together with its youth. +The same animal may be gentle, tractable, and teachable when young, +and yet, when a few years have passed over its head and whitened its +mane, may be totally obstinate and dull, refusing to perform the feats +which it accomplished in its youth, or to learn others more suitable +to its years. Consistent kind treatment will, however, have its effect +upon the creature, but as a general rule, an old Wanderoo is apt to be +a treacherous and spiteful animal. + +The natives of the country in which the Wanderoo lives, attribute to +it the wisdom which its venerable aspect seems to imply, much as the +ancient Athenians venerated the owl as the bird of wisdom, and the +chosen companion of the learned Minerva. In many places, the Wanderoo +is thought to be a sort of king among monkeys, and to enjoy the same +supremacy over its maneless kinsfolk, that the king-vulture maintains +over the other vultures which are destitute of the brilliant crest +that marks its rank. + +I am induced to believe that the Wanderoo must have been one of the +monkeys which were brought to Solomon, for two reasons. + +In the first place, it is a native both of India and Ceylon, and +therefore might have formed an article of merchandise, together with +the peacock, gold, and ivory. And if, as is extremely probable, the +Tharshish of the Scripture is identical with Ceylon, it is almost +certain that the Wanderoo would have been brought to Solomon, in order +to increase the glories of his palace. Sir Emerson Tennant points out +very forcibly, that in the Tamil language, the words for apes, ivory, +and peacocks, are identical with the Hebrew names for the same +objects, and thus gives a very strong reason for supposing that Ceylon +was the country from which Solomon's fleet drew its supplies. + +Another reason for conjecturing that the Wanderoo would have been one +of the animals sent to grace the palace of Solomon is this. In the +days when that mighty sovereign lived, as indeed has been the case in +all partially civilized countries, the kings and rulers have felt a +pride in collecting together the rarest objects which they could +purchase, giving the preference to those which were in any way +conspicuous, whether for intrinsic value, for size, for beauty, or for +ugliness. Thus, giants, dwarfs, and deformed persons of either sex, +and even idiots, were seen as regular attendants at the court, a +custom which extended even into the modern history of this country, +the "Fool" being an indispensable appendage to the train of every +person of rank. Animals from foreign lands were also prized, and value +was set upon them, not only for their variety, but for any external +characteristic which would make them especially conspicuous. + +Ordinary sovereigns would make collections of such objects, simply +because they were rare, and in accordance with the general custom; +and in importing the "apes" and peacocks together with the gold and +ivory, Solomon but followed the usual custom. He, however, on whom the +gift of wisdom had been especially bestowed, would have another motive +besides ostentation or curiosity. He was learned in the study of that +science which we now call Natural History. It is, therefore, extremely +probable, that he would not neglect any opportunities of procuring +animals from distant lands, in order that he might study the products +of countries which he had not personally visited, and it is not likely +that so conspicuous an animal as the Wanderoo would have escaped the +notice of those who provided the cargo for which so wealthy a king +could pay, and for which they would demand a price proportionate to +its variety. + +There is perhaps no monkey which is so conspicuous among its kin as +the Wanderoo, and certainly no monkey or ape inhabiting those parts of +the world to which the fleet of Solomon would have access. Its staid, +sedate manners, its black body, lion-like tail, and huge white-edged +mane, would distinguish it so boldly from its kinsfolk, that the +sailors would use all their efforts to capture an animal for which +they would be likely to obtain a high price. + +The peculiar and unique character of Solomon affords good reason for +conjecture that, not only were several species of the monkey tribe +included under the general word Kophim, but that the number of species +must have been very large. An ordinary monarch would have been content +with one or two species, and would probably have been perfectly +satisfied if a number of monkeys had been brought from beyond seas, +irrespective of distinction of species. But, if we consider the +character of Solomon, we shall find that he would not have been +content with such imperfect knowledge. We are told that he wrote +largely of the various productions of the earth, and, to judge him by +ourselves, it is certain that with such magnificent means at his +command, he would have ransacked every country that his ships could +visit, for the purpose of collecting materials for his works. It is +therefore almost certain that under the word Kophim may be included +all the most plentiful species of monkey which inhabit the countries +to which his fleet had access, and that in his palace were collected +together specimens of each monkey which has here been mentioned, +besides many others of which no special notice need be taken, such as +the Bonnet Monkeys, and other Macaques. + +We now come to the vexed question of the SATYRS, respecting which word +great controversies have been raised. The Hebrew word Seirim merely +signifies "hairy beings," and does not seem to be applied to any +definite species of animal. Several scholars, therefore, translate the +word by "wild goats," and instead of reading the passages (Is. xiii. +21, and xxxiv. 14) "Satyrs shall dance there," they read them, "The +he-goats shall skip there." This is certainly an easier interpretation +than that which is accepted in our translation, but whether it is more +correct may be doubted. Moreover, the word "goat" would not convey the +idea of utter desolation which the prophecy implied, and which has +been so signally fulfilled in the Babylon of the present day. The vast +palaces and temples have sunk into shapeless heaps of ruins, affording +scarcely a trace by which the buildings can be identified. The many +massive gates, for which the city was famous, have disappeared. The +double lines of fortification are only to be distinguished by a few +scattered mounds, while the wonderful palace of Nebuchadnezzar has +left but a few shattered walls as relics of an edifice whose fame +spread over the world. + +What precise animal was meant by the word Seirim cannot be +ascertained, nor is it even certain whether the word signified any +particular species at all. The ancient commentators identified Seirim +with the semi-human creatures of mythology, known as Satyrs, and +strengthened this opinion by a reference to Lev. xvii. 7, where the +Israelites are warned against worshipping Seirim, or "devils" +according to our translation. In common with all the civilized world, +they fully believed that Satyrs were veritable inhabitants of the +woods and deserts, with forms half man half goat, with powers more +than human, and with passions below humanity. Of course we cannot now +accept such an interpretation, but must grant, either that a mere +metaphor of desolation was intended, or that the prophecy alluded to +various wild animals that inhabit deserted places. Accept which +interpretation we will, it is impossible to identify any particular +animal with the "Satyr" of Isaiah, and therefore it will be better to +decline giving any opinion on a subject which cannot be definitely +explained. + + + + +THE BAT. + + The Bat mentioned always with abhorrence--Meaning of the Hebrew + name--The prohibition against eating Bats--The edible species, + their food and mode of life--The noisome character of the Bat, + and the nature of its dwelling-place--Its hatred of + light--Baruch and his prophecy--Appropriateness of the + prophecy--Singular Mahommedan legend respecting the original + creation of the Bat--The legend compared with the apocryphal + gospels--The Bats of Palestine--Mr. Tristram's discoveries--Bats + found in the quarries from which the stone of the Temple was + hewn--Edible Bats in a cave near the centre of + Palestine--Another species of long-tailed Bat captured in the + rock caves where hermits had been buried--Other species which + probably inhabit Palestine. + + +Among the animals that are forbidden to be eaten by the Israelites we +find the BAT prominently mentioned, and in one or two parts of +Scripture the same creature is alluded to with evident abhorrence. In +Isaiah ii. 20, for example, it is prophesied that when the day of the +Lord comes, the worshippers of idols will try to hide themselves from +the presence of the Lord, and will cast their false gods to the bats +and the moles, both animals being evidently used as emblems of +darkness and ignorance, and associated together for a reason which +will be given when treating of the mole. The Hebrew name of the Bat is +expressive of its nocturnal habits, and literally signifies some being +that flies by night, and it is a notable fact that the Greek and Latin +names for the bat have also a similar derivation. + +In Lev. xi. 20, the words, "All fowls that creep, going upon all four, +shall be an abomination unto you," are evidently intended to apply to +the bat, which, as is now well known, is not a bird with wings, but a +mammal with very long toes, and a well developed membrane between +them. Like other mammals, the Bat crawls, or walks, on all four legs, +though the movement is but a clumsy one, and greatly different from +the graceful ease with which the creature urges its course through the +evening air in search of food. + +Perhaps the prohibition to eat so unsightly an animal may seem almost +needless; but it must be remembered that in several parts of the +earth, certain species of Bat are used as food. These are chiefly the +large species, that are called Kalongs, and which feed almost entirely +on fruit, thus being to their insectivorous relatives what the +fruit-loving bear is among the larger carnivora. These edible Bats +have other habits not shared by the generality of their kin. Some of +the species do not retire to caves and hollow trees for shelter during +their hours of sleep, but suspend themselves by their hind legs from +the topmost branches of the trees whose fruit affords them +nourishment. In this position they have a most singular aspect, +looking much as if they themselves were large bunches of fruit hanging +from the boughs. Thus, they are cleanly animals, and are as little +repulsive as bats can be expected to be. + +But the ordinary bats, such as are signified by the "night-fliers" of +the Scriptures, are, when in a state of nature, exceedingly unpleasant +creatures. Almost all animals are infested with parasitic insects, but +the Bat absolutely swarms with them, so that it is impossible to +handle a Bat recently dead without finding some of them on the hands. +Also, the bats are in the habit of resorting to caverns, clefts in the +rocks, deserted ruins, and similar dark places, wherein they pass the +hours of daylight, and will frequent the same spots for a long series +of years. In consequence of this habit, the spots which they select +for their resting place become inconceivably noisome, and can scarcely +be entered by human beings, so powerful is the odour with which they +are imbued. + +Sometimes, when travellers have been exploring the chambers of ruined +buildings, or have endeavoured to penetrate into the recesses of rocky +caves, they have been repelled by the bats which had taken up their +habitation therein. No sooner does the light of the torch or lamp +shine upon the walls, than the clusters of bats detach themselves from +the spots to which they had been clinging, and fly to the light like +moths to a candle. No torch can withstand the multitude of wings that +come flapping about it, sounding like the rushing of a strong wind, +while the bats that do not crowd around the light, dash against the +explorers, beating their leathery wings against their faces, and +clinging in numbers to their dress. They would even settle on the +face unless kept off by the hands, and sometimes they force the +intruders to beat a retreat. They do not intend to attack, for they +are quite incapable of doing any real damage; and, in point of fact, +they are much more alarmed than those whom they annoy. Nocturnal in +their habits, they cannot endure the light, which completely dazzles +them, so that they dash about at random, and fly blindly towards the +torches in their endeavours to escape. + +If, then, we keep in mind the habits of the bats, we shall comprehend +that their habitations must be inexpressibly revolting to human +beings, and shall the better understand the force of the prophecy that +the idols shall be cast to the bats and the moles. + +There is another, and a very forcible passage, in which the Bat is +mentioned. In the apocryphal book of Baruch, the Bat is used as a +lively image of something peculiarly repulsive and hateful. Baruch was +the secretary and faithful friend of Jeremiah the prophet, and Chapter +VI. of the book of Baruch purports to be an epistle of Jeremiah to the +captive Jews about to be led away to Babylon. After showing that they +had brought their fate upon themselves by neglecting the worship of +the true God, and prophesying that they would remain in captivity for +seven generations, the writer proceeds, in a strain of scathing and +sustained satire, to deride the idols which they had adored, and to +censure the infamous ceremonies that formed part of the worship. + +After describing the idols, made splendid with silver and gold, whose +hands hold sceptres, and axes, and wands, and yet cannot save +themselves from robbers; whose tongues are polished by the workman and +yet cannot speak a word; whose eyes are covered with dust which they +cannot wipe off for themselves; he proceeds as follows: "Their hearts +are gnawed upon by things creeping out of the earth; and when they eat +them and their clothes they feel it not. Their faces are blacked +through the smoke that cometh out of the Temple. Upon their bodies and +heads sit bats, swallows and birds, and the cats also. By this ye may +know that they are no gods; therefore fear them not." + +It is not to be expected that so strange looking an animal as the Bat +would escape mention in the legends which are so plentiful in the +East. + +Signor Pierotti, who has done such signal service in the investigation +of the Holy Land, gives a most remarkable semi-Mahommedan and +semi-Christian legend respecting the origin of the Bat. The +Mahommedans, unlike the generality of Jews, have always respected the +memory of our Lord Christ--the Prophet Isa, as they call Him--ranking +Him as one of the greatest of God's prophets, though they deny His +actual divinity. In this curious legend, they have confused the forty +days fast in the wilderness with the enforced Mahommedan fast called +Ramadhan, much as the writers of the apocryphal gospels attributed to +the holy family and the apostles certain phrases and acts of worship +which were not in existence until several centuries after the +Christian era. + +Towards the west of Jericho, there is a mountain which is identified +both by Christians and Mahommedans as being the spot to which our Lord +retired during his passion, and which, in consequence of this +supposition, is called Kuruntun, or Quarantine. + +The reader, while perusing the following legend, must bear in mind +that the fast of Ramadhan lasts for a month, and that from sunrise to +sunset an entire abstinence from all kinds of nourishment is +imperative upon all good Mussulmans. Even such luxuries as smoking or +inhaling perfumes are forbidden, and although washing is permitted, +the head must not be plunged under water, lest a few drops might find +their way through the nostrils. In consequence of this strict +prohibition, the moments of daybreak and sunset are noted with the +most scrupulous care, the tables being set, pipes lighted, coffee +prepared, and every luxury being made ready just before sunset, so +that as the orb disappears beneath the horizon, the fasting multitudes +may not lose a moment in satisfying their wants. A similar anxiety +marks the approach of daybreak, because, as the first beams of the sun +break through the darkness, neither food nor drink may pass their +lips. + +We will now proceed to the Mahommedan legend, as it is given by S. +Pierotti: "In this wild spot the great prophet Isa retired with his +disciples to keep the holy month of the Ramadhan, afar from the +tumults of the world. As the view westward was obstructed by the +mountains of Jerusalem, and, consequently, the sunset could not be +seen, he made, by the permission of God, an image in clay +representing a winged creature; and, after invoking the aid of the +Eternal, breathed upon it. Immediately it flapped its large wings, and +fled into one of the dark caverns in the mountains. This creature was +the Khopash (bat), which lies hid so long as the sun shines upon the +world, and comes forth from its retreat when it sets. Every night, at +the Moghreb, _i.e._ at the moment of breaking the fast, this bat +fluttered round Isa, who then prepared himself with his disciples for +prayer. + +"As soon as they had performed this sacred duty, the Merciful caused +to descend from heaven a silver table, covered with a cloth whose +brilliancy illumined the darkness, on which were placed a large +roasted fish, five loaves, salt, vinegar, oil, pomegranates, dates, +and fresh salad, gathered in the gardens of heaven. On these the +Prophet supped, and the angels of heaven ministered at table." + +This curious legend bears a great resemblance to the tales which are +told of our Lord's childhood in some of the spurious gospels. It shows +that both emanated from the same class of mind. In both is seen a +strange mixture of vivid imagination contrasted with unexpected and +almost puerile lack of invention; and, in both is exhibited a total +failure in apprehension of cause and effect. Indeed, it is evident +that this legend was the work of a comparatively modern Mahommedan +story-teller, who appropriated the forty days' fast of our Lord from +the true gospels, and the making of a flying creature of clay from the +false, and modified them both to suit the purposes of his tale. + +No particular species of Bat seems to be indicated by the Hebrew word +Hatalleph, which is evidently used in a comprehensive sense, and +signifies all and any species of Bat. Until very lately, the exact +species of Bats which inhabit Palestine were not definitely +ascertained, and could only be conjectured. But, Mr. Tristram, who +travelled in the Holy Land for the express purpose of investigating +its physical history, has set this point at rest, in his invaluable +work, "The Land of Israel," to which frequent reference will be made +in the course of the following pages. + +Almost every cavern which he entered was tenanted by bats, and he +procured several species of these repulsive but interesting animals. +While exploring the vast prairies in which the stone for the Temple +was worked beneath the earth, so that no sound of tool was heard +during the building, numbers of bats were disturbed by the lights, and +fluttered over the heads of the exploring party. + +On another occasion, he was exploring a cave near the centre of +Palestine, when he succeeded in procuring some specimens, and +therefore in identifying at least one species. "In climbing the rocks +soon afterwards, to examine a cave, I heard a singular whining chatter +within, and on creeping into its recesses, a stone thrown up roused +from their roosting-places a colony of large bats, the soft waving +flap of whose wings I could hear in the darkness. How to obtain one I +knew not; but on vigorously plying my signal whistle, all the party +soon gathered to my help. B. suggested smoking them, so a fire of +brushwood was kindled, and soon two or three rushed out. Two fell to +our shot, and I was delighted to find myself the possessor of a couple +of large fox-headed bats of the genus Pteropus (_Xantharpya +ægyptiaca_), and extending twenty and a half inches from wing to wing. +As none of the bats of Palestine are yet known, this was a great +prize, and another instance of the extension westward of the Indian +fauna." These Bats belong to the fruit-eating tribe, and are closely +allied to the Flying Foxes of Java, Australia, and Southern Africa. +Therefore, this would be one of the species commonly used for food, +and hence the necessity for the prohibition. The present species +extends over the greater part of Northern Africa and into parts of +Asia. + +The same traveller subsequently discovered several more species of +bats. On one occasion, he was exploring some caves, near the site of +the ancient Jericho. On the eastern face of the cliffs are a number of +caves, arranged in regular tiers, and originally approached by steps +cut out of the face of the rock. These staircases are, however, washed +away by time and the rains, and in consequence the upper tiers were +almost inaccessible. In some of these caves the walls were covered +with brilliant, but mutilated frescoes; and in others, hermits had +lived and died and been buried. Mr. Tristram and his companions had +penetrated to the second tier, and there made a curious discovery. + + [Illustration: THE BAT. + + "_The Lapwing and the Bat are unclean._"--LEV. xi. 19.] + +"In the roof of this was a small hole, athwart which lay a stick. +After many efforts, we got a string across it, and so hauled up a +rope, by which, finding the stick strong enough, we climbed, and with +a short exercise of the chimney-sweeper's art, we found ourselves in a +third tier of cells, similar to the lower ones, and covered with the +undisturbed dust of ages. Behind the chapel was a dark cave, with an +entrance eighteen inches high. Having lighted our lantern, we crept in +on our faces, and found the place full of human bones and skulls; with +dust several inches deep. We were in the burying-place of the +Anchorites. Their bones lay heaped, but in undisturbed order, probably +as the corpses had been stretched soon after death, and as in the +campo-santo of some Italian monasteries, had been desiccated, and in +the dry atmosphere had gradually pulverized. The skeletons were laid +west and east, awaiting the resurrection. After capturing two or three +long-tailed bats, of a species new to us (_Rhinopoma microphylla_), +the only living occupants, we crept out, with a feeling of religious +awe, from this strange sepulchral cave." This bat is called the +Egyptian Rhinopome, and the same species of Bat was found in +considerable numbers in the cave at Es Sumrah. Three more species were +found in the tombs of the kings, and it is probable that many other +species inhabit Palestine. It is certain, at all events, that +representatives of three more families of Bats inhabit Egypt, and +therefore are most probably to be found in Palestine. + + + + +THE LION. + + Frequent mention of the Lion in the Scriptures--Probability that + it was once a common animal, though now extinct--Reasons for its + disappearance--The Lion employed as an emblem in the + Bible--Similarity of the African and Asiatic species--The chief + characteristics of the Lion--its strength, activity, and mode of + seizing its prey--Various names of the Lion--its courage when + roused--its roar and peculiar mode of utterance--Invisibility of + the Lion at dusk--The Lion lying in wait--The dwelling-place of + the Lion--Its restlessness at night--Passages illustrative of + these characteristics--Modes of capturing the Lion--The pitfall + and the net--Lions kept as curiosities--The Lion hunt as + depicted, on the buildings of ancient Nineveh. + + +Of all the undomesticated animals of Palestine, none is mentioned so +frequently as the LION. This may appear the more remarkable, because +for many years the Lion has been extinct in Palestine. The leopard, +the wolf, the jackal, and the hyæna, still retain their place in the +land, although their numbers are comparatively few; but the Lion has +vanished completely out of the land. The reason for this disappearance +is twofold, first, the thicker population; and second, the +introduction of firearms. + +No animal is less tolerant of human society than the Lion. In the +first place, it dreads the very face of man, and as a rule, whenever +it sees a man will slink away and hide itself. There are, of course, +exceptional cases to this rule. Sometimes a Lion becomes so old and +stiff, his teeth are so worn, and his endurance so slight, that he is +unable to chase his usual prey, and is obliged to seek for other means +of subsistence. In an unpopulated district, he would simply be starved +to death, but when his lot is cast in the neighbourhood of human +beings, he is perforce obliged to become a "man-eater." Even in that +case, a Lion will seldom attack a man, unless he should be able to do +so unseen, but will hang about the villages, pouncing on the women as +they come to the wells for water, or upon the little children as they +stray from their parents, and continually shifting his quarters lest +he should be assailed during his sleep. The Lion requires a very large +tract of country for his maintenance, and the consequence is, that in +proportion as the land is populated does the number of Lions decrease. + +Firearms are the special dread of the Lion. In the first place, the +Lion, like all wild beasts, cannot endure fire, and the flash of the +gun terrifies him greatly. Then, there is the report, surpassing even +his roar in resonance; and lastly, there is the unseen bullet, which +seldom kills him at once, but mostly drives him to furious anger by +the pain of his wound, yet which he does not dread nearly so much as +the harmless flash and report. There is another cause of the Lions +banishment from the Holy Land. It is well known that to attract any +wild beast or bird to some definite spot, all that is required is to +provide them with a suitable and undisturbed home, and a certainty of +food. Consequently, the surest method of driving them away is to +deprive them of both these essentials. Then the Lion used to live in +forests, which formerly stretched over large tracts of ground, but +which have long since been cut down, thus depriving the Lion of its +home, while the thick population and the general use of firearms have +deprived him of his food. In fact, the Lion has been driven out of +Palestine, just as the wolf has been extirpated from England. + +But, in the olden times, Lions must have been very plentiful. There is +scarcely a book in the Bible, whether of the Old or New Testaments, +whether historical or prophetical, that does not contain some mention +of this terrible animal; sometimes describing the actions of +individual Lions, but mostly using the word as an emblem of strength +and force, whether used for a good purpose or abused for a bad one. + +There are several varieties of Lion, which may be reduced to two, +namely, the African and the Asiatic Lion. It is almost certain, +however, that these animals really are one and the same species, and +that the trifling differences which exist between an African and an +Asiatic Lion, are not sufficient to justify a naturalist in +considering them to be distinct species. The habits of both are +identical, modified, as is sure to be the case, by the difference of +locality; but then, such variations in habit are continually seen in +animals confessedly of the same species, which happen to be placed in +different conditions of climate and locality. + +That it was once exceedingly plentiful in Palestine is evident, from a +very cursory knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. It is every where +mentioned as a well-known animal, equally familiar and dreaded. When +the disobedient prophet was killed by the Lion near Bethel, the fact +seemed not to have caused any surprise in the neighbourhood. When the +people came out to rescue the body of the prophet, they wondered much +because the Lion was standing by the fallen man, but had not torn him, +and had left the ass unhurt. But that a Lion should have killed a man +seems to have been an event which was not sufficiently rare to be +surprising. + +We will now proceed to those characteristics of the Lion which bear +especial reference to the Scriptures. + +In the first place, size for size, the Lion is one of the strongest of +beasts. Perhaps it is surpassed in point of sheer strength by the +mole, but it possesses infinitely more activity than that animal. +Moreover, the strength of the mole is concentrated in its +fore-quarters, the hind limbs being comparatively feeble; whereas, the +strength of the Lion is equally distributed over the body and limbs, +giving to the animal an easy grace of movement which is rare except +with such a structure. A full-grown Lion cannot only knock down and +kill, but can carry away in its mouth, an ordinary ox; and one of +these terrible animals has been known to pick up a heifer in its +mouth, and to leap over a wide ditch still carrying its burden. +Another Lion carried a two-year old heifer, and was chased for five +hours by mounted farmers, so that it must have traversed a very +considerable distance. Yet, in the whole of this long journey, the +legs of the heifer had only two or three times touched the ground. + +It kills man, and comparatively small animals, such as deer and +antelopes, with a blow of its terrible paw; and often needs to give no +second blow to cause the death of its victim. The sharp talons are not +needed to cause death, for the weight of the blow is sufficient for +that purpose. + +When the hunter pursues it with dogs, after the usual fashion, there +is often a great slaughter among them, especially among those that are +inexperienced in the chase of the Lion. Urged by their instinctive +antipathy, the dogs rush forward to the spot where the Lion awaits +them, and old hounds bay at him from a safe distance, while the young +and inexperienced among them are apt to convert the sham attack into a +real one. Their valour meets with a poor reward, for a few blows from +the Lion's terrible paws send his assailants flying in all directions, +their bodies streaming with blood, and in most cases a fatal damage +inflicted, while more than one unfortunate dog lies fairly crushed by +the weight of a paw laid with apparent carelessness upon its body. +There is before me a Lion's skin, a spoil of one of these animals shot +by the celebrated sportsman, Gordon Cumming. Although the skin lies +flat upon the floor, and the paws are nothing but the skin and talons, +the weight of each paw is very considerable, and always surprises +those who hear it fall on the floor. + +There are several Hebrew words which are used for the Lion, but that +which signifies the animal in its adult state is derived from an +Arabic word signifying strength; and therefore the Lion is called the +Strong-one, just as the Bat is called the Night-flier. No epithet +could be better deserved, for the Lion seems to be a very incarnation +of strength, and, even when dead, gives as vivid an idea of +concentrated power as when it was living. And, when the skin is +stripped from the body, the tremendous muscular development never +fails to create a sensation of awe. The muscles of the limbs, +themselves so hard as to blunt the keen-edged knives employed by a +dissecter, are enveloped in their glittering sheaths, playing upon +each other like well-oiled machinery, and terminating in tendons +seemingly strong as steel, and nearly as impervious to the knife. Not +until the skin is removed can any one form a conception of the +enormously powerful muscles of the neck, which enable the Lion to lift +the weighty prey which it kills, and to convey it to a place of +security. + +Although usually unwilling to attack an armed man, it is one of the +most courageous animals in existence when it is driven to fight, and +if its anger is excited, it cares little for the number of its foes, +or the weapons with which they are armed. Even the dreaded firearms +lose their terrors to an angry Lion, while a Lioness, who fears for +the safety of her young, is simply the most terrible animal in +existence. We know how even a hen will fight for her chickens, and how +she has been known to beat off the fox and the hawk by the reckless +fury of her attack. It may be easily imagined, therefore, that a +Lioness actuated by equal courage, and possessed of the terrible +weapons given to her by her Creator, would be an animal almost too +formidable for the conception of those who have not actually witnessed +the scene of a Lioness defending her little ones. + +The roar of the Lion is another of the characteristics for which it is +celebrated. There is no beast that can produce a sound that could for +a moment be mistaken for the roar of the Lion. The Lion has a habit of +stooping his head towards the ground when he roars, so that the +terrible sound rolls along like thunder, and reverberates in many an +echo in the far distance. Owing to this curious habit, the roar can be +heard at a very great distance, but its locality is rendered +uncertain, and it is often difficult to be quite sure whether the Lion +is to the right or the left of the hearer. + +There are few sounds which strike more awe than the Lion's roar. Even +at the Zoological Gardens, where the hearer knows that he is in +perfect safety, and where the Lion is enclosed in a small cage faced +with strong iron bars, the sound of the terrible roar always has a +curious effect upon the nerves. It is not exactly fear, because the +hearer knows that he is safe; but it is somewhat akin to the feeling +of mixed awe and admiration with which one listens to the crashing +thunder after the lightning has sped its course. If such be the case +when the Lion is safely housed in a cage, and is moreover so tame that +even if he did escape, he would be led back by the keeper without +doing any harm, the effect of the roar must indeed be terrific when +the Lion is at liberty, when he is in his own country, and when the +shades of evening prevent him from being seen even at a short +distance. + +In the dark, there is no animal so invisible as a Lion. Almost every +hunter has told a similar story--of the Lion's approach at night, of +the terror displayed by dogs and cattle as he drew near, and of the +utter inability to see him, though he was so close that they could +hear his breathing. Sometimes, when he has crept near an encampment, +or close to a cattle inclosure, he does not proceed any farther lest +he should venture within the radius illumined by the rays of the fire. +So he crouches closely to the ground, and, in the semi-darkness, looks +so like a large stone, or a little hillock, that any one might pass +close to it without perceiving its real nature. This gives the +opportunity for which the Lion has been watching, and in a moment he +strikes down the careless straggler, and carries off his prey to the +den. Sometimes, when very much excited, he accompanies the charge with +a roar, but, as a general fact, he secures his prey in silence. + +The roar of the Lion is very peculiar. It is not a mere outburst of +sound, but a curiously graduated performance. No description of the +Lion's roar is so vivid, so true, and so graphic as that of Gordon +Cumming: "One of the most striking things connected with the Lion is +his voice, which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It +consists at times of a low, deep moaning, repeated five or six times, +ending in faintly audible sighs. At other times he startles the forest +with loud, deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated five or six times in +quick succession, each increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, +when his voice dies away in five or six low, muffled sounds, very much +resembling distant thunder. As a general rule, Lions roar during the +night, their sighing moans commencing as the shades of evening envelop +the forest, and continuing at intervals throughout the night. In +distant and secluded regions, however, I have constantly heard them +roaring loudly as late as nine or ten o'clock on a bright sunny +morning. In hazy and rainy weather they are to be heard at every hour +in the day, but their roar is subdued." + +Lastly, we come to the dwelling-place of the Lion. This animal always +fixes its residence in the depths of some forest, through which it +threads its stealthy way with admirable certainty. No fox knows every +hedgerow, ditch, drain, and covert better than the Lion knows the +whole country around his den. Each Lion seems to have his peculiar +district, in which only himself and his family will be found. These +animals seem to parcel out the neighbourhood among themselves by a +tacit law like that which the dogs of eastern countries have imposed +upon themselves, and which forbids them to go out of the district in +which they were born. During the night he traverses his dominions; +and, as a rule, he retires to his den as soon as the sun is fairly +above the horizon. Sometimes he will be in wait for prey in the +broadest daylight, but his ordinary habits are nocturnal, and in the +daytime he is usually asleep in his secret dwelling-place. + +We will now glance at a few of the passages in which the Lion is +mentioned in the Holy Scriptures, selecting those which treat of its +various characteristics. + +The terrible strength of the Lion is the subject of repeated +reference. In the magnificent series of prophecies uttered by Jacob on +his deathbed, the power of the princely tribe of Judah is predicted +under the metaphor of a Lion--the beginning of its power as a Lion's +whelp, the fulness of its strength as an adult Lion, and its matured +establishment in power as the old Lion that couches himself and none +dares to disturb him. Then Solomon, in the Proverbs, speaks of the +Lion as the "strongest among beasts, and that turneth not away for +any." + +Solomon also alludes to its courage in the same book, Prov. xxviii. 1, +in the well-known passage, "The wicked fleeth when no man pursueth: +but the righteous are bold as a lion." And, in 2 Sam. xxiii. 20, the +courage of Benaiah, one of the mighty three of David's army, is +specially honoured, because he fought and killed a Lion single-handed, +and because he conquered "two lion-like men of Moab." David, their +leader, had also distinguished himself, when a mere keeper of cattle, +by pursuing and killing a Lion that had come to plunder his herd. In +the same book of Samuel which has just been quoted (xvii. 10), the +valiant men are metaphorically described as having the hearts of +Lions. + +The ferocity of this terrible beast of prey is repeatedly mentioned, +and the Psalms are full of such allusions, the fury and anger of +enemies being compared to the attacks of the Lion. + +Many passages refer to the Lion's roar, and it is remarkable that the +Hebrew language contains several words by which the different kind of +roar is described. One word, for example, represents the low, deep, +thunder-like roar of the Lion seeking its prey, and which has already +been mentioned. This is the word which is used in Amos iii. 4, "Will a +lion roar in the forest when he hath no prey?" and in this passage the +word which is translated as Lion signifies the animal when full grown +and in the prime of life. Another word is used to signify the sudden +exulting cry of the Lion as it leaps upon its victim. A third is used +for the angry growl with which a Lion resents any endeavour to deprive +it of its prey, a sound with which we are all familiar, on a miniature +scale, when we hear a cat growling over a mouse which she has just +caught. The fourth term signifies the peculiar roar uttered by the +young Lion after it has ceased to be a cub and before it has attained +maturity. This last term is employed in Jer. li. 38, "They shall +_roar_ together like lions; they shall _yell_ as lions' whelps," in +which passage two distinct words are used, one signifying the roar of +the Lion when searching after prey, and the other the cry of the young +Lions. + +The prophet Amos, who in his capacity of herdsman was familiar with +the wild beasts, from which he had to guard his cattle, makes frequent +mention of the Lion, and does so with a force and vigour that betoken +practical experience. How powerful is this imagery, "The lion hath +roared; who will not fear? The Lord God hath spoken; who can but +prophesy?" Here we have the picture of the man himself, the herdsman +and prophet, who had trembled many a night, as the Lions drew nearer +and nearer; and who heard the voice of the Lord, and his lips poured +out prophecy. Nothing can be more complete than the parallel which he +has drawn. It breathes the very spirit of piety, and may bear +comparison even with the prophecies of Isaiah for its simple grandeur. + +It is remarkable how the sacred writers have entered into the spirit +of the world around them, and how closely they observed the minutest +details even in the lives of the brute beasts. There is a powerful +passage in the book of Job, iv. 11, "The old lion perisheth for lack +of prey," in which the writer betrays his thorough knowledge of the +habits of the animal, and is aware that the usual mode of a Lion's +death is through hunger, in consequence of his increasing inability to +catch prey. + +The nocturnal habits of the Lion and its custom of lying in wait for +prey are often mentioned in the Scriptures. The former habit is spoken +of in that familiar and beautiful passage in the Psalms (civ. 20), +"Thou makest darkness, and it is night; wherein all the beasts of the +forest do creep forth. The young Lions roar after their prey; and seek +their meat from God. The sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, +and lay them down in their dens." + +Its custom of lying in wait is frequently alluded to. See Psalm x. 9, +where it is said of the wicked man, that "He lieth in wait secretly, +as a lion in his den." Also, Lam. iii. 10, "He was unto me as a bear +lying in wait, and as a lion in secret places." Also, Ps. xvii. 11, +wherein the peculiar gait and demeanour of the Lion is admirably +depicted, "They have now compassed us in our steps; they have set +their eyes bowing down to the earth; like as a lion that is greedy of +his prey, and as it were a young lion lurking in secret places." + +The retired spots, deep in the forest, where the Lion makes his den, +are repeatedly mentioned. See for example, Cant. iv. 8, "Look from the +top of Amana, from the top of Shenir and Hermon, from the lions' +dens." Also, Jer. iv. 7, "The lion is come up from his thicket, and +the destroyer of the Gentiles is on his way." The same Prophet +contains several passages illustrative of the Lion's habitation; see +ch. v. 6, "Wherefore a lion out of the forest shall slay them;" xii. +8, "Mine heritage is unto me as a lion in the forest;" and lastly, +xxv. 38, "He hath forsaken his covert as the lion." + +An animal so destructive among the flocks and herds could not be +allowed to carry out its depredations unchecked, and as we have +already seen, the warfare waged against it has been so successful, +that the Lions have long ago been fairly extirpated in Palestine. The +usual method of capturing or killing the Lion was by pitfalls or nets, +to both of which there are many references in the Scriptures. + + [Illustration: THE LION. + + "The lion is come up from his thicket."--JER.. iv. 7. + + "She lay down among lions, she nourished her whelps among young + lions."--EZEKIEL. xix. 2.] + +The mode of hunting the Lion with nets was identical with that which +is practised in India at the present time. The precise locality of the +Lion's dwelling-place having been discovered, a circular wall of net +is arranged round it, or if only a few nets can be obtained, they are +set in a curved form, the concave side being towards the Lion. They +then send dogs into the thicket, hurl stones and sticks at the +den, shoot arrows into it, fling burning torches at it, and so +irritate and alarm the animal that it rushes against the net, which +is so made that it falls down and envelopes the animal in its folds. +If the nets be few, the drivers go to the opposite side of the den, +and induce the Lion to escape in the direction where he sees no foes, +but where he is sure to run against the treacherous net. Other large +and dangerous animals were also captured by the same means. + +Allusions to this sort of hunting are familiar to all students of the +Bible. In the book of Job, xix. 6, the writer laments that "God hath +compassed me with his net," in allusion to the custom of surrounding +the den of the animal. The Psalms make frequent mention of the net as +used in hunting. See Ps. ix. 15, "In the net they hid is their foot +taken." Ps. xxxv. 8, "Let his net that he hath hid catch himself," +together with other passages. Then, the prophet Isaiah alludes to the +utter helplessness of a wild animal when thus taken. Isaiah li. 20, +"Thy sons have fainted, they lie at the head of all the streets, as a +wild bull in a net." + +Another and more common, because an easier and a cheaper method was, +by digging a deep pit, covering the mouth with a slight covering of +sticks and earth, and driving the animal upon the treacherous +covering. It is an easier method than the net, because after the pit +is once dug, the only trouble lies in throwing the covering over its +mouth. But, it is not so well adapted for taking beasts alive, as they +are likely to be damaged, either by the fall into the pit, or by the +means used in getting them out again. Animals, therefore, that are +caught in pits are generally, though not always, killed before they +are taken out. The net, however, envelops the animal so perfectly, and +renders it so helpless, that it can be easily bound and taken away. +The hunting net is very expensive, and requires a large staff of men +to work it, so that none but a rich man could use the net in hunting. + +The passages in which allusion is made to the use of the pitfall in +hunting are too numerous to be quoted, and it will be sufficient to +mention one or two passages, such as those wherein the Psalmist +laments that his enemies have hidden for him their net in a pit, and +that the proud have digged pits for him. + +Lions that were taken in nets seem to have been kept alive in dens, +either as mere curiosities, or as instruments of royal vengeance. +Such seems to have been the object of the Lions which were kept by +Darius, into whose den Daniel was thrown, by royal command, and which +afterwards killed his accusers when thrown into the same den. It is +plain that the Lions kept by Darius must have been exceedingly +numerous, because they killed at once the accusers of Daniel, who were +many in number, together with their wives and children, who, in +accordance with the cruel custom of that age and country, were +partakers of the same punishment with the real culprits. The whole of +the first part of Ezek. xix. alludes to the custom of taking Lions +alive and keeping them in durance afterwards. + +Sometimes the Lion was hunted as a sport, but this amusement seems to +have been restricted to the great men, on account of its expensive +nature. Such hunting scenes are graphically depicted in the famous +Nineveh sculptures, which represent the hunters pursuing their mighty +game in chariots, and destroying them with arrows. Rude, and even +conventional as are these sculptures, they have a spirit, a force, and +a truthfulness, that prove them to have been designed by artists to +whom the scene was a familiar one. Nothing can be better than the +attitudes of the Lions; and, whether they are shown in the act of +striking a blow, with all the talons thrust out and the toes spread as +widely as possible; whether they are springing on the chariot of the +hunter, or sinking lifeless beneath his arrows, every attitude is +marvellously true to nature, and makes the spectator regret that the +artist should have been trammelled by the exigencies of the work on +which he was engaged. + + + + +THE LEOPARD. + + The Leopard not often mentioned in the Scriptures--its + attributes exactly described--Probability that several animals + were classed under the name--How the Leopard takes its + prey--Craft of the Leopard--its ravages among the flocks--The + empire of man over the beast--The Leopard at Bay--Localities + wherein the Leopard lives--The skin of the Leopard--Various + passages of Scripture explained. + + +Of the Leopard but little is said in the Holy Scriptures. + +In the New Testament this animal is only mentioned once, and then in a +metaphorical rather than a literal sense. In the Old Testament it is +casually mentioned seven times, and only in two places is the word +Leopard used in the strictly literal sense. Yet, in those brief +passages of Holy Writ, the various attributes of the animal are +delineated with such fidelity, that no one could doubt that the +Leopard was familiarly known in Palestine. Its colour, its swiftness, +its craft, its ferocity, and the nature of its dwelling-place, are all +touched upon in a few short sentences scattered throughout the Old +Testament, and even its peculiar habits are alluded to in a manner +that proves it to have been well known at the time when the words were +written. + +It is my purpose in the following pages to give a brief account of the +Leopard of the Scriptures, laying most stress on the qualities to +which allusion is made, and then to explain the passages in which the +name of the animal occurs. + +In the first place, it is probable that under the word Leopard are +comprehended three animals, two of which, at least, were thought to be +one species until the time of Cuvier. These three animals are the +LEOPARD proper (_Leopardus varius_), the OUNCE (_Leopardus uncia_), +and the CHETAH, or HUNTING LEOPARD (_Gueparda jubata_). All these +three species belong to the same family of animals; all are spotted +and similar in colour, all are nearly alike in shape, and all are +inhabitants of Asia, while two of them, the Leopard and the Chetah, +are also found in Africa. + +It is scarcely necessary to mention that the Leopard is a beast of +prey belonging to the cat tribe, that its colour is tawny, variegated +with rich black spots, and that it is a fierce and voracious animal, +almost equally dreaded by man and beast. It inhabits many parts of +Africa and Asia, and in those portions of the country which are +untenanted by mankind, it derives all its sustenance from the +herb-eating animals of the same tracts. + + [Illustration: THE LEOPARD. + + "_As a Leopard by the way will I observe them._"--HOS. xiii. 7.] + +To deer and antelopes it is a terrible enemy, and in spite of their +active limbs, seldom fails in obtaining its prey. Swift as is the +Leopard, for a short distance, and wonderful as its spring, it has not +the enduring speed of the deer or antelope, animals which are +specially formed for running, and which, if a limb is shattered, can +run nearly as fast and quite as far on three legs as they can when all +four limbs are uninjured. Instinctively knowing its inferiority in the +race, the Leopard supplies by cunning the want of enduring speed. + +It conceals itself in some spot whence it can see far around without +being seen, and thence surveys the country. A tree is the usual spot +selected for this purpose, and the Leopard, after climbing the trunk +by means of its curved talons, settles itself in the fork of the +branches, so that its body is hidden by the boughs, and only its head +is shown between them. With such scrupulous care does it conceal +itself, that none but a practised hunter can discover it, while any +one who is unaccustomed to the woods cannot see the animal even when +the tree is pointed out to him. + +As soon as the Leopard sees the deer feeding at a distance, he slips +down the tree and stealthily glides off in their direction. He has +many difficulties to overcome, because the deer are among the most +watchful of animals, and if the Leopard were to approach to the +windward, they would scent him while he was yet a mile away from them. +If he were to show himself but for one moment in the open ground he +would be seen, and if he were but to shake a branch or snap a dry twig +he would be heard. So, he is obliged to approach them against the +wind, to keep himself under cover, and yet to glide so carefully along +that the heavy foliage of the underwood shall not be shaken, and the +dry sticks and leaves which strew the ground shall not be broken. He +has also to escape the observation of certain birds and beasts which +inhabit the woods, and which would certainly set up their alarm-cry as +soon as they saw him, and so give warning to the wary deer, which can +perfectly understand a cry of alarm, from whatever animal it may +happen to proceed. + +Still, he proceeds steadily on his course, gliding from one covert to +another, and often expending several hours before he can proceed for a +mile. By degrees he contrives to come tolerably close to them, and +generally manages to conceal himself in some spot towards which the +deer are gradually feeding their way. As soon as they are near enough, +he collects himself for a spring, just as a cat does when she leaps on +a bird, and dashes towards the deer in a series of mighty bounds. For +a moment or two they are startled and paralysed with fear at the +sudden appearance of their enemy, and thus give him time to get among +them. Singling out some particular animal, he leaps upon it, strikes +it down with one blow of his paw, and then, crouching on the fallen +animal, he tears open its throat, and laps the flowing blood. + +In this manner does it obtain its prey when it lives in the desert, +but when it happens to be in the neighbourhood of human habitations, +it acts in a different manner. Whenever man settles himself in any +place, his presence is a signal for the beasts of the desert and +forest to fly. The more timid, such as the deer and antelope, are +afraid of him, and betake themselves as far away as possible. The more +savage inhabitants of the land, such as the lion, leopard, and other +animals, wage an unequal war against him for a time, but are +continually driven farther and farther away, until at last they are +completely expelled from the country. The predaceous beasts are, +however, loth to retire, and do so by very slow degrees. They can no +longer support themselves on the deer and antelopes, but find a simple +substitute for them in the flocks and herds which man introduces, and +in the seizing of which there is as much craft required as in the +catching of the fleeter and wilder animals. Sheep and goats cannot run +away like the antelopes, but they are penned so carefully within +inclosures, and guarded so watchfully by herdsmen and dogs, that the +Leopard is obliged to exert no small amount of cunning before it can +obtain a meal. + +Sometimes it creeps quietly to the fold, and escapes the notice of the +dogs, seizes upon a sheep, and makes off with it before the alarm is +given. Sometimes it hides by the wayside, and as the flock pass by it +dashes into the midst of them, snatches up a sheep, and disappears +among the underwood on the opposite side of the road. Sometimes it is +crafty enough to deprive the fold of its watchful guardian. Dogs which +are used to Leopard-hunting never attack the animal, though they are +rendered furious by the sound of its voice. They dash at it as if they +meant to devour it, but take very good care to keep out of reach of +its terrible paws. By continually keeping the animal at bay, they give +time for their master to come up, and generally contrive to drive it +into a tree, where it can be shot. + +But instances have been known where the Leopard has taken advantage of +the dogs, and carried them off in a very cunning manner. It hides +itself tolerably near the fold, and then begins to growl in a low +voice. The dogs think that they hear a Leopard at a distance, and dash +towards the sound with furious barks and yells. In so doing, they are +sure to pass by the hiding-place of the Leopard, which springs upon +them unawares, knocks one of them over, and bounds away to its den in +the woods. It does not content itself with taking sheep or goats from +the fold, but is also a terrible despoiler of the hen-roosts, +destroying great numbers in a single night when once it contrives to +find its way into the house. + +As an instance of the cunning which seems innate in the Leopard, I may +mention that whenever it takes up its abode near a village, it does +not meddle with the flocks and herds of its neighbours, but prefers to +go to some other village at a distance for food, thus remaining +unsuspected almost at the very doors of the houses. + +In general, it does not willingly attack mankind, and at all events +seems rather to fear the presence of a full-grown man. But, when +wounded or irritated, all sense of fear is lost in an overpowering +rush of fury, and it then becomes as terrible a foe as the lion +himself. It is not so large nor so strong, but it is more agile and +quicker in its movements; and when it is seized with one of these +paroxysms of anger, the eye can scarcely follow it as it darts here +and there, striking with lightning rapidity, and dashing at any foe +within reach. Its whole shape seems to be transformed, and absolutely +to swell with anger; its eyes flash with fiery lustre, its ears are +thrown back on the head, and it continually utters alternate snarls +and yells of rage. It is hardly possible to recognise the graceful, +lithe glossy creature, whose walk is so noiseless, and whose every +movement is so easy, in the furious passion-swollen animal that flies +at every foe with blind fury, and pours out sounds so fierce and +menacing that few men, however well armed, will care to face it. + +As is the case with most of the cat tribe, the Leopard is an excellent +climber, and can ascend trees and traverse their boughs without the +least difficulty. It is so fond of trees, that it is seldom to be seen +except in a well-wooded district. Its favourite residence is a forest +where there is plenty of underwood, at least six or seven feet in +height, among which trees are sparingly interspersed. When crouched in +this cover it is practically invisible, even though its body may be +within arm's length of a passenger. The spotted body harmonizes so +perfectly with the broken lights and deep shadows of the foliage that +even a practised hunter will not enter a covert in search of a Leopard +unless he is accompanied by dogs. The instinct which teaches the +Leopard to choose such localities is truly wonderful, and may be +compared with that of the tiger, which cares little for underwood, but +haunts the grass jungles, where the long, narrow blades harmonize with +the stripes which decorate its body. + +The skin of the Leopard has always been highly valued on account of +its beauty, and in Africa, at the present day, a robe made of its +spotted skin is as much an adjunct of royalty as is the ermine the +emblem of judicial dignity in England. In more ancient times, a +leopard skin was the official costume of a priest, the skin being +sometimes shaped into a garment, and sometimes thrown over the +shoulders and the paws crossed over the breast. + +Such is a general history of the Leopard. We will now proceed to the +various passages in which it is mentioned, beginning with its outward +aspect. + +In the first place, the Hebrew word Namer signifies "spotted," and is +given to the animal in allusion to its colours. The reader will now +see how forcible is the lament of Jeremiah, "Can the Ethiopian change +his skin, or the Leopard his spots?" Literally, "Can the Ethiopian +change his skin, or the spotted one his spots?" + +The agility and swiftness of the Leopard are alluded to in the +prediction by the prophet Habakkuk of the vengeance that would come +upon Israel through the Chaldeans. In chap. i. 5, we read: "I will +work a work in your days, which ye will not believe though it be told +you. For, lo, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation, +which shall march through the breadth of the land, to possess the +dwelling-places that are not theirs. They are terrible and dreadful; +their judgment and their dignity shall proceed of themselves. Their +horses also are swifter than the Leopards, and are more fierce than +the evening wolves." + +The craftiness of the Leopard, and the manner in which it lies in wait +for its prey, are alluded to in more than one passage of Holy Writ. +Hosea the prophet alludes to the Leopard, in a few simple words which +display an intimate acquaintance with the habits of this formidable +animal, and in this part of his prophecies he displays that peculiar +local tone which distinguishes his writings. Speaking of the +Israelites under the metaphor of a flock, or a herd, he proceeds to +say: "According to their pasture so were they filled; they were +filled, and their heart was exalted; therefore have they forgotten me. +Therefore I will be unto them as a lion, as a Leopard by the way will +I observe them." The reader will note the peculiar force of this +sentence, whereby God signifies that He will destroy them openly, as a +lion rushes on its prey, and that he will chastise them unexpectedly, +as if it were a Leopard crouching by the wayside, and watching for the +flock to pass, that it may spring on its prey unexpectedly. The same +habit of the Leopard is also alluded to by Jeremiah, who employs +precisely the same imagery as is used by Habakkuk. See Jer. v. 5, 6, +"These have altogether broken the yoke, and burst the bonds. Wherefore +a lion out of the forest shall slay them, and a wolf of the evenings +shall spoil them, a leopard shall watch over their cities." It is +evident from the employment of this image by two prophets, the one +being nearly a hundred years before the other, that the crafty, +insidious habits of the Leopard were well known in Palestine, and that +the metaphor would tell with full force among those to whom it was +addressed. + +The havoc which the Leopard makes among the sheep and goats is alluded +to by the prophet Isaiah, chap. xi. 6: "The wolf also shall dwell with +the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid, and the calf +and the young lion together, and a little child shall lead them." Here +again we find the same imagery employed, the people being signified +under the metaphor of flocks and herds, and their enemies symbolised +by lions, wolves, and Leopards. And herein the Prophet speaks as from +accurate knowledge of the habits of the three predaceous animals. The +wolf, as a rule, devastates the sheepfolds; the Leopard will steal +upon and carry off the straggling goat or kid, because it can follow +them upon the precipices where no wolf would dare to tread; while the +lion, being the strongest and more daring of the three, attacks the +herds, and carries away to its lair the oxen which neither Leopard nor +wolf could move. + +There is of course a deeper meaning than has been mentioned but any +commentary on that subject would be out of place in a work like the +present, and, however tempting the subject may be to the writer, it is +better that the reader should be left to investigate it for himself. + +Lastly, the peculiar localities which the Leopard loves are mentioned +in the Song of Solomon, chap. iv. 8: "Come with me from Lebanon, my +spouse, with me from Lebanon: look from the top of Amana, from the top +of Shenir and Hermon, from the lions' dens, from the mountains of the +leopards." Formerly, large forests of pine, oak, and cedar covered +Lebanon, and in those days the wild beasts of the forest would be +extremely plentiful. Even at the present day they are not extinct, and +a recent traveller, the Rev. J. L. Porter, states that considerable +numbers of wild beasts still inhabit the retired glens of the range of +Lebanon, and that he himself has seen jackals, hyænas, wolves, bears, +and Leopards. + +The remaining passages, in which a beast formed like a Leopard was +seen in a vision by the prophet Daniel and St. John the Evangelist, +are purely allegorical, and have nothing to do with the actual animal. + + + + +THE CAT. + + The Cat never mentioned by name in the canonical Scriptures, and + only once in the Apocrypha--The Cat domesticated among the + Egyptians, and trained in bird-catching--Neglected capabilities + of the Cat--Anecdote of an English Cat that caught fish for her + master--Presumed reason why the Scriptures are silent about the + Cat--The Cat mentioned by Baruch. + + +It is a very remarkable circumstance that the word CAT is not once +mentioned in the whole of the canonical Scriptures, and only once in +the Apocrypha. + +The Egyptians, as is well known, kept Cats domesticated in their +houses, a fact which is mentioned by Herodotus, in his second book, +and the 66th and 67th chapters. After describing the various animals +which were kept and fed by this nation, he proceeds to narrate the +habits of the Cat, and writes as follows: + +"When a fire takes place, a supernatural impulse seizes the cats. For +the Egyptians, standing at a distance, take care of the cats and +neglect to quench the fire; but the cats make their escape, and +leaping over the men, cast themselves into the fire, and when this +occurs, great lamentations are made among the Egyptians. In whatever +house a cat dies of a natural death, all the family shave their +eyebrows. All cats that die are carried to certain sacred houses, +where, after being embalmed, they are buried in the city of Bubastis." + +Now, as many of those cat-mummies have been discovered in good +preservation, the species has been identified with the Egyptian Cat of +the present day, which is scientifically termed _Felis maniculatus_. +Not only did the Egyptians keep Cats at their houses, but, as is shown +by certain sculptures, took the animals with them when they went +bird-catching, and employed them in securing their prey. Some persons +have doubted this statement, saying, that in the first place, the Cat +is not possessed of sufficient intelligence for the purpose; and that +in the second place, as the hunter is represented as catching wild +fowl, the Cat would not be able to assist him, because it would not +enter the water. Neither objection is valid, nor would have been made +by a naturalist. + +There are no grounds whatever for assuming that the Cat has not +sufficient intelligence to aid its master in hunting. On the contrary, +there are many familiar instances where the animal has been trained, +even in this country, to catch birds and other game, and bring its +prey home. By nature the Cat is an accomplished hunter, and, like +other animals of the same disposition, can be taught to use its powers +for mankind. We all know that the chetah, a member of the same tribe, +is in constant use at the present day, and we learn from ancient +sculptures that the lion was employed for the same purpose. Passing +from land to water, mankind has succeeded in teaching the seal and the +otter to plunge into the water, catch their finny prey, and deliver it +to their owners. Among predaceous birds, we have trained the eagle, +the falcon, and various hawks, to assist us in hunting the finned and +feathered tribes, while we have succeeded in teaching the cormorant to +catch fish for its master, and not for itself. Why, then, should the +Cat be excepted from a rule so general? The fact is, the Cat has +been, although domesticated for so many centuries, a comparatively +neglected animal; and it is the fashion to heap upon it the +contumacious epithets of sullen, treacherous, selfish, spiteful, and +intractable, just as we take as our emblems of stupidity the ass and +the goose, which are really among the most cunning of the lower +animals. We have never tried to teach the Cat the art of hunting for +her owners, but that is no reason for asserting that the animal could +not be taught. + +As to entering the water, every one who is familiar with the habits of +the Cat knows perfectly well that the Cat will voluntarily enter water +in chase of prey. A Cat does not like to wet her feet, and will not +enter the water without a very powerful reason, but when that motive +is supplied, she has no hesitation about it. A curious and valuable +confirmation of this fact appeared some time ago in "The Field" +newspaper, in which was recorded the history of an old fisherman, +whose Cat invariably went to sea with him, and as invariably used to +leap overboard, seize fish in her mouth, and bring them to the side of +the boat, where her kindly owner could lift her out, together with the +captured fish. + +The Cat, then, having been the favoured companion of the Egyptians, +among whom the Israelites lived while they multiplied from a family +into a nation, it does seem very remarkable that the sacred writers +should not even mention it. There is no prohibition of the animal, +even indirectly, in the Mosaic law; but it may be the case that the +Israelites repudiated the Cat simply because it was so favoured by +their former masters. + +The only passage in the Apocrypha is a passing allusion in Baruch (vi. +22), where it is said of the idols, that bats and birds shall sit on +their bodies, and the cats also. That the word is rightly translated +admits of no doubt, because it is the same that is employed by +Herodotus in the passage already quoted. + + + + +THE DOG. + + Antipathy displayed by Orientals towards the Dog, and manifested + throughout the Scriptures--Contrast between European and + Oriental Dogs--Habits of the Dogs of Palestine--The City Dogs + and their singular organization--The herdsman's Dog--Various + passages of Scripture--Dogs and the crumbs--their + numbers--Signor Pierotti's experience of the Dogs--Possibility + of their perfect domestication--The peculiar humiliation of + Lazarus--Voracity of the Wild Dogs--The fate of Ahab and + Jezebel--Anecdote of a volunteer Watch-dog--Innate affection of + the Dog towards mankind--Peculiar local Instinct of the Oriental + Dog--Albert Smith's account of the Dogs at Constantinople--The + Dervish and his Dogs--The Greyhound--Uncertainty of the word. + + +Scarcely changed by the lapse of centuries, the Oriental of the +present day retains most of the peculiarities which distinguished him +throughout the long series of years during which the books of sacred +Scripture were given to the world.. In many of these characteristics +he differs essentially from Europeans of the present day, and exhibits +a tone of mind which seems to be not merely owing to education, but to +be innate and inherent in the race. + +One of these remarkable characteristics is the strange loathing with +which he regards the Dog. In all other parts of the world, the Dog is +one of the most cherished and valued of animals, but among those +people whom we popularly class under the name of Orientals, the Dog is +detested and despised. As the sacred books were given to the world +through the mediumship of Orientals, we find that this feeling towards +the Dog is manifested whenever the animal is mentioned; and whether we +turn to the books of the Law, the splendid poetry of the Psalms and +the book of Job, the prophetical or the historical portions of the Old +Testament, we find the name of the Dog repeatedly mentioned; and in +every case in connexion with some repulsive idea. If we turn from the +Old to the New Testament, we find the same idea manifested, whether in +the Gospels, the Epistles, or the Revelation. + +To the mind of the true Oriental the very name of the Dog carries with +it an idea of something utterly repugnant to his nature, and he does +not particularly like even the thought of the animal coming across his +mind. And this is the more extraordinary, because at the commencement +and termination of their history the Dog was esteemed by their +masters. The Egyptians, under whose rule they grew to be a nation, +knew the value of the Dog, and showed their appreciation in the many +works of art which have survived to our time. Then the Romans, under +whose iron grasp the last vestiges of nationality crumbled away, +honoured and respected the Dog, made it their companion, and +introduced its portrait into their houses. But, true to their early +traditions, the Jews of the East have ever held the Dog in the same +abhorrence as is manifested by their present masters, the followers of +Mahommed. + +Owing to the prevalence of this feeling, the Dogs of Oriental towns +are so unlike their more fortunate European relatives, that they can +hardly be recognised as belonging to the same species. In those lands +the traveller finds that there is none of the wonderful variety which +so distinguishes the Dog of Europe. There he will never see the bluff, +sturdy, surly, faithful mastiff, the slight gazelle-like greyhound, +the sharp, intelligent terrier, the silent, courageous bulldog, the +deep-voiced, tawny bloodhound, the noble Newfoundland, the clever, +vivacious poodle, or the gentle, silken-haired spaniel. + +As he traverses the streets, he finds that all the dogs are alike, and +that all are gaunt, hungry, half starved, savage, and cowardly, more +like wolves than dogs, and quite as ready as wolves to attack when +they fancy they can do so with safety. They prowl about the streets in +great numbers, living, as they best can, on any scraps of food that +they may happen to find. They have no particular masters, and no +particular homes. Charitable persons will sometimes feed them, but +will never make companions of them, feeling that the very contact of a +dog would be a pollution. They are certainly useful animals, because +they act as scavengers, and will eat almost any animal substance that +comes in their way. + +The strangest part of their character is the organization which +prevails among them. By some extraordinary means they divide the town +into districts, and not one dog ever ventures out of that particular +district to which it is attached. The boundaries, although invisible, +are as effectual as the loftiest walls, and not even the daintiest +morsel will tempt a dog to pass the mysterious line which forms the +boundary of his district. Generally, these bands of dogs are so savage +that any one who is obliged to walk in a district where the dogs do +not know him is forced to carry a stout stick for his protection. Like +their European relatives, they have great dislike towards persons who +are dressed after a fashion to which they are unaccustomed, and +therefore are sure to harass any one who comes from Europe and wears +the costume of his own country. As is customary among animals which +unite themselves in troops, each band is under the command of a single +leader, whose position is recognised and his authority acknowledged by +all the members. + +These peculiarities are to be seen almost exclusively in the dogs +which run wild about the towns, because there is abundant evidence in +the Scriptures that the animal was used in a partially domesticated +state, certainly for the protection of their herds, and possibly for +the guardianship of their houses. That the Dog was employed for the +first of these purposes is shown in Job xxx. 1: "But now they that are +younger than I have me in derision, whose fathers I would have +disdained to have set with the dogs of my flock." And that the animal +was used for the protection of houses is thought by some commentators +to be shown by the well-known passage in Is. lvi. 10: "His watchmen +are blind: they are all ignorant, they are all dumb dogs, they cannot +bark; sleeping, lying down, loving to slumber." Still, it is very +probable that in this passage the reference is not made to houses, but +to the flocks and herds which these watchmen ought to have guarded. + +The rooted dislike and contempt felt by the Israelites towards the Dog +is seen in numerous passages. Even in that sentence from Job which has +just been quoted, wherein the writer passionately deplores the low +condition into which he has fallen, and contrasts it with his former +high estate, he complains that he is despised by those whose fathers +he held even in less esteem than the dogs which guarded his herds. +There are several references to the Dog in the books of Samuel, in all +of which the name of the animal is mentioned contemptuously. For +example, when David accepted the challenge of Goliath, and went to +meet his gigantic enemy without the ordinary protection of mail, and +armed only with a sling and his shepherd's staff, Goliath said to him, +"Am I a dog, that thou comest to me with staves?" (1 Sam. xvii. 43.) +And in the same book, chapter xxiv. 14, David remonstrates with Saul +for pursuing so insignificant a person as himself, and said, "After +whom is the King of Israel come out? after a dead dog, after a flea." + +The same metaphor is recorded in the second book of the same writer. +Once it was employed by Mephibosheth, the lame son of Jonathan, when +extolling the generosity of David, then King of Israel in the place of +his grandfather Saul: "And he bowed himself, and said, 'What is thy +servant, that thou shouldest look upon such a dead dog as I am?" (2 +Sam. ix. 8.) In the same book, chapter xvi. 9, Abishai applies this +contemptuous epithet to Shimei, who was exulting over the troubled +monarch with all the insolence of a cowardly nature, "Why should this +dead dog curse my lord the king?" Abner also makes use of a similar +expression, "Am I a dog's head?" And we may also refer to the familiar +passage in 2 Kings viii. 13. Elisha had prophesied to Hazael that he +would become king on the death of Ben-hadad, and that he would work +terrible mischief in the land. Horrified at these predictions, or at +all events pretending to be so, he replied, "But what, is thy servant +a dog, that he should do this great thing?" + +If we turn from the Old to the New Testament, we find the same +contemptuous feeling displayed towards the Dog. It is mentioned as an +intolerable aggravation of the sufferings endured by Lazarus the +beggar as he lay at the rich man's gate, that the dogs came and licked +his sores. In several passages, the word Dog is employed as a metaphor +for scoffers, or unclean persons, or sometimes for those who did not +belong to the Church, whether Jewish or Christian. In the Sermon on +the Mount our Lord himself uses this image, "Give not that which is +holy unto dogs" (Matt. vii. 6.) In the same book, chapter xv. 26, +Jesus employs the same metaphor when speaking to the Canaanitish woman +who had come to ask him to heal her daughter: "It is not meet to take +the children's bread and cast it to dogs." And that she understood the +meaning of the words is evident from her answer, in which faith and +humility are so admirably blended. Both St. Paul and St. John employ +the word Dog in the same sense. In his epistle to the Philippians, +chapter iii. 2, St. Paul writes, "Beware of dogs, beware of evil +workers." And in the Revelation, chapter xxii. 14, these words occur: +"Blessed are they that do his commandments, that they may have right +to the tree of life, and may enter in through the gates to the city; +for without are dogs, and sorcerers, and whoremongers, and murderers, +and idolaters, and whomsoever loveth and maketh a lie." + +That the dogs of ancient times formed themselves into bands just as +they do at present is evident from many passages of Scripture, among +which may be mentioned those sentences from the Psalms, wherein David +is comparing the assaults of his enemies to the attacks of the dogs +which infested the city. "Thou hast brought me into the dust of death; +for dogs have compassed me, the assembly of the wicked have enclosed +me." This passage will be better appreciated when the reader has +perused the following extract from a recent work by Signor Pierotti. +After giving a general account of the Dogs of Palestine and their +customs, he proceeds as follows:-- + +"In Jerusalem, and in the other towns, the dogs have an organization +of their own. They are divided into families and districts, especially +in the night time, and no one of them ventures to quit his proper +quarter; for if he does, he is immediately attacked by all the +denizens of that into which he intrudes, and is driven back, with +several bites as a reminder. Therefore, when an European is walking +through Jerusalem by night, he is always followed by a number of +canine attendants, and greeted at every step with growls and howls. +These tokens of dislike, however, are not intended for him, but for +his followers, who are availing themselves of his escort to pass +unmolested from one quarter to another. + +"During the hard winter of 1859, I fed many of the dogs, who +frequented the road which I traversed almost every evening, and +afterwards, each time that I passed, I received the homage not only of +the individuals, but of the whole band to which they belonged, for +they accompanied me to the limits of their respective jurisdictions +and were ready to follow me to my own house, if I did but give them a +sign of encouragement, coming at my beck from any distance. They even +recollected the signal in 1861, though it was but little that I had +given them." + +The account which this experienced writer gives of the animal presents +a singular mixture of repulsive and pleasing traits, the latter being +attributable to the true nature of the Dog, and the former to the +utter neglect with which it is treated. He remarks that the dogs which +run wild in the cities of Palestine are ill-favoured, ill-scented, and +ill-conditioned beasts, more like jackals or wolves than dogs, and +covered with scars, which betoken their quarelsome nature. Yet, the +same animals lose their wild, savage disposition, as soon as any human +being endeavours to establish that relationship which was evidently +intended to exist between man and the dog. How readily even these +despised and neglected animals respond to the slightest advance, has +been already shown by Sig. Pierotti's experience, and there is no +doubt that these tawny, short-haired, wolf-like animals, could be +trained as perfectly as their more favoured brethren of the western +world. + +As in the olden times, so at the present day, the dogs lie about in +the streets, dependent for their livelihood upon the offal that is +flung into the roads, or upon the chance morsels that may be thrown to +them. An allusion to this custom is made in the well-known passage in +Matt. xv. The reader will remember the circumstance that a woman of +Canaan, and therefore not an Israelite, came to Jesus, and begged him +to heal her daughter, who was vexed with a devil. Then, to try her +faith, He said, "It is not meet to take the children's bread, and to +cast it to dogs." And she said, "Truth, Lord: yet the dogs eat of the +crumbs which fall from their master's table." Now, the "crumbs" which +are here mentioned are the broken pieces of bread which were used at +table, much as bread is sometimes used in eating fish. The form of the +"loaves" being flat, and much like that of the oat-cake of this +country, adapted them well to the purpose. The same use of broken +bread is alluded to in the parable of Lazarus, who desired to be fed +with the crumbs that fell from the rich man's table, _i.e._ to partake +of the same food as the dogs which swarmed round him and licked his +sores. Thus we see that Lazarus was supposed to have undergone the +very worst indignities to which poverty could bring a man, and the +contrast between himself and the other personage of the parable +receives additional strength. + +The "crumbs," however liberally distributed, would not nearly suffice +for the subsistence of the canine armies, and their chief support +consists of the offal, which is rather too plentifully flung into the +streets. The Dogs of Palestine are, indeed, much like hyænas of +certain African towns, and act as scavengers, devouring any animal +substance that may fall in their way. If the body of any animal, not +excluding their own kind, be found lying in the streets, the dogs will +assemble round it, and tear it to pieces, and they have no scruples +even in devouring a human body. Of course, owing to the peculiar +feeling entertained by the Orientals towards the Dog, no fate can be +imagined more repulsive to the feelings of humanity than to be eaten +by dogs; and therein lies the terror of the fate which was prophesied +of Ahab and Jezebel. Moreover, the blood, even of the lower animals, +was held in great sanctity, and it was in those days hardly possible +to invoke a more dreadful fate upon any one than that his blood should +be lapped by dogs. + +We lose much of the real force of the Scriptures, if we do not possess +some notion of the manners and customs of Palestine and the +neighbouring countries, as well as of the tone of mind prevalent among +the inhabitants. In our own country, that any one should be eaten by +dogs would be a fate so contrary to usage, that we can hardly conceive +its possibility, and such a fate would be out of the ordinary course +of events. But, if such a fate should happen to befall any one, we +should have no stronger feeling of pity than the natural regret that +the dead person was not buried with Christian rites. + +But, with the inhabitants of Palestine, such an event was by no means +unlikely. It was, and is still, the custom to bury the corpse almost +as soon as life has departed, and such would ordinarily have been the +case with the dead body of Jezebel. But, through fear of the merciless +Jehu, by whose command she had been flung from the window of her own +palace, no one dared to remove her mangled body. The dogs, therefore, +seized upon their prey; and, even before Jehu had risen from the +banquet with which he celebrated his deed, nothing was left of the +body but the skull, the feet, and the hands. + +In Mr. Tristram's work, the author has recognised the true dog nature, +though concealed behind an uninviting form: "Our watch-dog, Beirût, +attached himself instinctively to Wilhelm, though his canine instinct +soon taught him to recognise every one of our party of fourteen, and +to cling to the tents, whether in motion or at rest, as his home. Poor +Beirût! though the veriest pariah in appearance, thy plebeian form +encased as noble a dog-heart as ever beat at the sound of a stealthy +step." + +The same author records a very remarkable example of the sagacity of +the native Dog, and the fidelity with which it will keep guard over +the property of its master. "The guard-house provided us, unasked, +with an invaluable and vigilant sentry, who was never relieved, nor +ever quitted the post of duty. The poor Turkish conscript, like every +other soldier in the world, is fond of pets, and in front of the grim +turret that served for a guard-house was a collection of old +orange-boxes and crates, thickly peopled with a garrison of dogs of +low degree, whose attachment to the spot was certainly not purchased +by the loaves and fishes which fell to their lot. + +"One of the family must indeed have had hard times, for she had a +family of no less than five dependent on her exertions, and on the +superfluities of the sentries' mess. With a sagacity almost more than +canine, the poor gaunt creature had scarcely seen our tents pitched +before she came over with all her litter and deposited them in front +of our tent. At once she scanned the features of every member of the +encampment, and introduced herself to our notice. During the week of +our stay, she never quitted her post, or attempted any depredation on +our kitchen-tent, which might have led to her banishment. Night and +day she proved a faithful and vigilant sentry, permitting no stranger, +human or canine, European or Oriental, to approach the tents without +permission, but keeping on the most familiar terms with ourselves and +our servants. + +"On the morning of our departure, no sooner had she seen our camp +struck, than she conveyed her puppies back to their old quarters in +the orange-box, and no intreaties or bribes could induce her to +accompany us. On three subsequent visits to Jerusalem, the same dog +acted in a similar way, though no longer embarrassed by family cares, +and would on no account permit any strange dog, nor even her +companions at the guard-house, to approach within the tent ropes." + +After perusing this account of the Dog of Palestine, two points strike +the reader. The first is the manner in which the Dog, in spite of all +the social disadvantages under which it labours, displays one of the +chief characteristics of canine nature, namely, the yearning after +human society. The animal in question had already attached herself to +the guard-house, where she could meet with some sort of human +converse, though the inborn prejudices of the Moslem would prevent the +soldiers from inviting her to associate with them, as would certainly +have been done by European soldiers. She nestled undisturbed in the +orange-box, and, safe under the protection of the guard, brought up +her young family in their immediate neighbourhood. But, as soon as +Europeans arrived, her instinct told her that they would be closer +associates than the Turkish soldiers who were quartered in the +guard-house, and accordingly she removed herself and her family to the +shelter of their tents. + +Herein she carried out the leading principle of a dog's nature. A dog +_must_ have a master, or at all events a mistress, and just in +proportion as he is free from human control, does he become less +dog-like and more wolf-like. In fact, familiar intercourse with +mankind is an essential part of a dogs true character, and the animal +seems to be so well aware of this fact, that he will always contrive +to find a master of some sort, and will endure a life of cruel +treatment at the hands of a brutal owner rather than have no master at +all. + +The second point in this account is the singular local instinct which +characterises the Dogs of Palestine and other eastern countries, and +which is as much inbred in them as the faculty of marking game in the +pointer, the combative nature in the bulldog, the exquisite scent in +the bloodhound, and the love of water in the Newfoundland dog. In +England, we fancy that the love of locality belongs especially to the +cat, and that the Dog cares little for place, and much for man. But, +in this case, we find that the local instinct overpowered the yearning +for human society. Fond as was this dog of her newly-found friends, +and faithful as she was in her self-imposed service, she would not +follow them away from the spot where she had been born, and where she +had produced her own young. + +This curious love for locality has evidently been derived from the +traditional custom of successive generations, which has passed from +the realm of reason into that of instinct. The reader will remember +that Sig. Pierotti mentions an instance where the dogs which he had +been accustomed to feed would follow him as far as the limits of +their particular district, but would go no farther. The late Albert +Smith, in his "Month at Constantinople," gives a similar example of +this characteristic. He first describes the general habits of the +dogs. + +On the first night of his arrival, he could not sleep, and went to the +window to look out in the night. "The noise I heard then I shall never +forget. To say that if all the sheep-dogs, in going to Smithfield on a +market-day, had been kept on the constant bark, and pitted against the +yelping curs upon all the carts in London, they could have given any +idea of the canine uproar that now first astonished me, would be to +make the feeblest of images. The whole city rang with one vast riot. +Down below me, at Tophané--over-about Stamboul--far away at +Scutari--the whole sixty thousand dogs that are said to overrun +Constantinople appeared engaged in the most active extermination of +each other, without a moment's cessation. The yelping, howling, +barking, growling, and snarling, were all merged into one uniform and +continuous even sound, as the noise of frogs becomes when heard at a +distance. For hours there was no lull. I went to sleep, and woke +again, and still, with my windows open, I heard the same tumult going +on; nor was it until daybreak that anything like tranquillity was +restored. + +"Going out in the daytime, it is not difficult to find traces of the +fights of the night about the limbs of all the street dogs. There is +not one, among their vast number, in the possession of a perfect skin. +Some have their ears gnawed away or pulled off; others have their eyes +taken out; from the backs and haunches of others perfect steaks of +flesh had been torn away; and all bear the scars of desperate combats. + + [Illustration: "At evening let them return; and let them make a noise + like a dog, and go round about the city. Let them wander up and down + for meat, and grudge if they be not satisfied"--PSALM lix. 14, 15.] + +"Wild and desperate as is their nature, these poor animals are +susceptible of kindness. If a scrap of bread is thrown to one of them +now and then, he does not forget it; for they have, at times, a hard +matter to live--not the dogs amongst the shops of Galata or Stamboul, +but those whose 'parish' lies in the large burying-grounds and desert +places without the city; for each keeps, or rather is kept, to his +district, and if he chanced to venture into a strange one, the odds +against his return would be very large. One battered old animal, to +whom I used occasionally to toss a scrap of food, always followed +me from the hotel to the cross street in Pera, where the two +soldiers stood on guard, but would never come beyond this point. +He knew the fate that awaited him had he done so; and therefore, +when I left him, he would lie down in the road, and go to sleep +until I came back. + +"When a horse or camel dies, and is left about the roads near the +city, the bones are soon picked very clean by these dogs, and they +will carry the skulls or pelves to great distances. I was told that +they will eat their dead fellows--a curious fact, I believe, in canine +economy. They are always troublesome, not to say dangerous, at night; +and are especially irritated by Europeans, whom they will single out +amongst a crowd of Levantines." + +In the same work there is a short description of a solitary dervish, +who had made his home in the hollow of a large plane-tree, in front of +which he sat, surrounded by a small fence of stakes only a foot or so +in height. Around him, but not venturing within the fence, were a +number of gaunt, half-starved dogs, who prowled about him in hopes of +having an occasional morsel of food thrown to them. Solitary as he +was, and scanty as must have been the nourishment which he could +afford to them, the innate trustfulness of the dog-nature induced them +to attach themselves to human society of some sort, though their +master was one, and they were many--he was poor, and they were hungry. + +Once in the Scriptures the word Greyhound occurs, namely, in Prov. +xxx. 29-31: "There be three things which go well, yea, four are comely +in going: a lion, which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not +away for any; a greyhound; an he-goat also; and a king, against whom +there is no rising up." But the word "Greyhound" is only employed +conjecturally, inasmuch as the signification of the Hebrew word +_Zarzir-mathnâim_ is "one girt about the loins." Some commentators +have thought that the horse might be signified by this word, and that +the girding about the loins referred to the trappings with which all +Easterns love to decorate their steeds. Probably, however, the word in +question refers neither to a horse nor a dog, but to a human athlete, +or wrestler, stripped, and girt about the loins ready for the contest. + + + + + +THE WOLF. + + Identity of the animal indisputable--its numbers, past and + present--The Wolf never mentioned directly--its general + habits--References in Scripture--its mingled ferocity and + cowardice--its association into packs--The Wolf's bite--How it + takes its prey--its ravages among the flocks--Allusions to this + habit--The shepherd and his nightly enemies--Mr. Tristram and + the Wolf--A semi-tamed Wolf at Marsaba. + + +There is no doubt that the Hebrew word _Zeëb_, which occurs in a few +passages of the Old Testament, is rightly translated as WOLF, and +signifies the same animal as is frequently mentioned in the New +Testament. + +This fierce and dangerous animal was formerly very plentiful in +Palestine, but is now much less common, owing to the same causes which +have extirpated the lion from the country. It is a rather remarkable +fact, that in no passage of Holy Writ is the Wolf directly mentioned. +Its name is used as a symbol of a fierce and treacherous enemy, but +neither in the Old nor New Testament does any sacred writer mention +any act as performed by the Wolf. We have already heard of the lion +which attacked Samson and was killed by him, of the lion which slew +the disobedient prophet, and of the lions which spared Daniel when +thrown into their den. We also read of the dogs which licked Ahab's +blood, and ate the body of Jezebel, also of the bears which tore the +mocking children. + +But in no case is the Wolf mentioned, except in a metaphorical sense; +and this fact is the more remarkable, because the animals were so +numerous that they were very likely to have exercised some influence +on a history extending over such a lengthened range of years, and +limited to so small a portion of the earth. Yet we never hear of the +Wolf attacking any of the personages mentioned in Scripture; and +although we are told of the exploit of David, who pursued a lion and a +bear that had taken a lamb out of his fold, we are never told of any +similar deed in connexion with the Wolf. + + [Illustration: THE WOLF. + + "_The wolf catcheth and scattereth the sheep_"--JOHN x. 12.] + +This animal was then what it is now. Seldom seen by day, it lies +hidden in its covert as long as the light lasts, and steals out in +search of prey in the evening. This custom of the Wolf is mentioned in +several passages of Holy Scripture, such as that in Jer. v. 5, 6: +"These have altogether broken the yoke, and burst the bonds. Wherefore +a lion out of the forest shall slay them, and a wolf of the evenings +shall spoil them." In this passage the reader will see that the +rebellious Israelites are compared to restive draught cattle which +have broken away from their harness and run loose, so that they are +deprived of the protection of their owners, and exposed to the fury of +wild beasts. A similar reference is made in Hab. i. 8: "Their horses +also are swifter than the leopards, and are more fierce than the +evening wolves." The same habit of the Wolf is alluded to in Zeph. +iii. 3: "Her princes within her are roaring lions; her judges are +evening wolves." + +Individually, the Wolf is rather a timid animal. It will avoid a man +rather than meet him. It prefers to steal upon its prey and take it +unawares, rather than to seize it openly and boldly. It is ever +suspicious of treachery, and is always imagining that a trap is laid +for it. Even the shallow device of a few yards of rope trailing from +any object, or a strip of cloth fluttering in the breeze, is quite +sufficient to keep the Wolf at bay for a considerable time. This fact +is well known to hunters, who are accustomed to secure the body of a +slain deer by simply tying a strip of cloth to its horn. If taken in a +trap of any kind, or even if it fancies itself in an enclosure from +which it can find no egress, it loses all courage, and will submit to +be killed without offering the least resistance. It will occasionally +endeavour to effect its escape by feigning death, and has more than +once been known to succeed in this device. + +But, collectively, the Wolf is one of the most dangerous animals that +can be found. Herding together in droves when pressed by hunger, the +wolves will openly hunt prey, performing this task as perfectly as a +pack of trained hounds. Full of wiles themselves, they are craftily +wise in anticipating the wiles of the animals which they pursue; and +even in full chase, while the body of the pack is following on the +footsteps of the flying animal, one or two are detached on the flanks, +so as to cut it off if it should attempt to escape by doubling on its +pursuers. + +There is no animal which a herd of wolves will not attack, and very +few which they will not ultimately secure. Strength avails nothing +against the numbers of these savage foes, which give no moment of +rest, but incessantly assail their antagonist, dashing by instinct at +those parts of the body which can be least protected, and lacerating +with their peculiar short, snapping bite. Should several of their +number be killed or disabled, it makes no difference to the wolves, +except that a minute or two are wasted in devouring their slain or +wounded brethren, and they only return to the attack the more excited +by the taste of blood. Swiftness of foot avails nothing against the +tireless perseverance of the wolves, who press on in their peculiar, +long, slinging gallop, and in the end are sure to tire out the swifter +footed but less enduring animal that flees before them. The stately +buffalo is conquered by the ceaseless assaults of the wolves; the bear +has been forced to succumb to them, and the fleet-footed stag finds +his swift limbs powerless to escape the pursuing band, and his +branching horns unable to resist their furious onset when once they +overtake him. + +In the passage from Habakkuk which has already been quoted, allusion +is made to the ferocity of the Wolf, and the same characteristic is +mentioned in several other parts of Scripture. Take, for example, Gen. +xlix. 27: "Benjamin shall ravin as a wolf: in the morning he shall +devour the prey, and at night he shall divide the spoil." Or the +passage in Ezekiel xxii. 27: "Her princes in the midst thereof are +like wolves ravening the prey, to shed blood." Or the well-known +metaphor of our Lord in Matt. vii. 15: "Beware of false prophets, +which come to you in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening +wolves." + +That the Wolf is a special enemy to the sheep-fold is shown in many +parts of the Scriptures, both in the Old and New Testaments, +especially in the latter. In John x. 1-16, Jesus compares himself to a +good shepherd, who watches over the fold, and, if the wolves should +come to take the sheep, would rather give up His life than they should +succeed. But the false teachers are compared to bad shepherds, hired +for money, but having no interest in the sheep, and who therefore will +not expose themselves to danger in defence of their charge. + +This metaphor was far more effective in Palestine, and at that time, +than it is in this country and at the present day. In this land, the +shepherd has no anxiety about the inroads of wild beasts, but in +Palestine one of his chief cares was to keep watch at night lest the +wolves should attack the fold, and to drive them away himself in case +they should do so. Therefore the shepherd's life was one which +involved no small danger as well as anxiety, and the metaphor used by +our Lord gains additional force from the knowledge of this fact. + +A similar metaphor is used when Jesus wished to express in forcible +terms the dangers to which the chosen seventy would oft be subjected, +and the impossibility that they should be able to overcome the many +perils with which they would be surrounded. "Go your ways: behold, I +send you forth as lambs among wolves" (Luke x. 3). + +The well-known fact of the ravages of wolves among sheep has been +employed by the prophet Isaiah in two passages, wherein he foretells +the peaceful state of the world when the kingdom of the Messiah shall +have been established: "The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and +the leopard shall lie down with the kid; and the calf and the young +lion and the fatling together; and a little child shall lead them" +(Is. xi. 6). The second passage occurs in chapter lxv. 23-25, and is +of a similar character: "They shall not labour in vain, nor bring +forth for trouble; for they are the seed of the blessed of the Lord, +and their offspring with them. And it shall come to pass, that before +they call, I will answer; and while they are yet speaking, I will +hear. The wolf and the lamb shall feed together, and the lion shall +eat straw like the bullock: and dust shall be the serpent's meat. They +shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain, saith the Lord." + +Mr. Tristram several times met wolves while he was engaged in his +travels, and mostly saw solitary specimens. One such encounter took +place in the wilderness of Judah: "On my way back, I met a fine +solitary wolf, who watched me very coolly, at the distance of sixty +yards, while I drew my charge and dropped a bullet down the barrel. +Though I sent the ball into a rock between his legs as he stood +looking at me in the wady, he was not sufficiently alarmed to do more +than move on a little more quickly, ever and anon turning to look at +me, while gradually increasing his distance. Darkness compelled me to +desist from the chase, when he quietly turned and followed me at a +respectful distance. He was a magnificent animal, larger than any +European wolf, and of a much lighter colour." + +Those who are acquainted with the character of the animal will +appreciate the truthfulness of this description. The cautious prowl at +a distance, the slow trot away when he fancied he might be attacked, +the reverted look, and the final turning back and following at a +respectful distance, are all characteristic traits of the Wolf, no +matter to what species it may belong, nor what country it may inhabit. + +On another occasion, while riding in the open plain of Gennesaret, the +horse leaped over the bank of a little ditch, barely three feet in +depth. After the horse had passed, and not until then, a Wolf started +out of the ditch, literally from under the horse's hoofs, and ran off. +The animal had been crouching under the little bank, evidently +watching for some cows and calves which were grazing at a short +distance, under the charge of a Bedouin boy. The same author mentions +that one of the monks belonging to the monastery at Marsaba had +contrived to render a Wolf almost tame. Every evening at six o'clock +the Wolf came regularly across the ravine, had a piece of bread, and +then went back again. With the peculiar jealousy of all tamed animals, +the Wolf would not suffer any of his companions to partake of his good +fortune. Several of them would sometimes accompany him, but as soon as +they came under the wall of the monastery he always drove them away. + +The inhabitants of Palestine say that the Wolves of that country are +not gregarious, and that they hunt singly, or at most in little packs +of few in number. Still they dread the animal exceedingly, and say +that one Wolf will do more damage in a flock of sheep than a whole +pack of jackals. + +As a general rule, the Syrian wolf, like the Syrian bear, is of a +lighter colour than its European relatives, and appears to be a larger +and stronger animal. + + + + +THE FOX OR JACKAL. + + The two animals comprehended under one name--The Jackal--its + numbers in ancient and modern Palestine--General habits of the + Jackal--Localities where the Jackal is found--Samson, and the + three hundred "foxes"--Popular objections to the narrative--The + required number easily obtained--Signor Pierotti's remarks upon + the Jackal--An unpleasant position--How the fields were set on + fire--The dread of fire inherent in wild beasts--The truth of + the narrative proved--The Fox and Jackal destructive among + grapes--Allusions to the Fox in the New Testament--Partially + tamed Foxes. + + +There are several passages in the Old Testament in which the word FOX +occurs, and it is almost certain that the Hebrew word _Shuâl_, which +is rendered in our translation as Fox, is used rather loosely, and +refers in some places to the Jackal, and in others to the Fox. We +will first take those passages in which the former rendering of the +word is evidently the right one, and will begin by examining those +characteristics of the animal which afford grounds for such an +assertion. + + [Illustration: THE FOX OR JACKAL. + + "_They shall be a portion for foxes._"--PSALM ixiii. 10. _The end of + the Scape Goat._] + +Even at the present time, the Jackal is extremely plentiful in +Palestine; and as the numbers of wild beasts have much decreased in +modern days, the animals must have been even more numerous than they +are at present. It is an essentially nocturnal and gregarious animal. +During the whole of the day the Jackals lie concealed in their holes +or hiding-places, which are usually cavities in the rocks, in tombs, +or among ruins. At nightfall they issue from their dens, and form +themselves into packs, often consisting of several hundred +individuals, and prowl about in search of food. Carrion of various +kinds forms their chief subsistence, and they perform in the country +much the same task as is fulfilled by the dogs in the cities. + +If any animal should be killed, or even severely wounded, the Jackals +are sure to find it out and to devour it before the daybreak. They +will scent out the track of the hunter, and feed upon the offal of the +beasts which he has slain. If the body of a human being were to be +left on the ground, the Jackals would certainly leave but little +traces of it; and in the olden times of warfare, they must have held +high revelry in the battle-field after the armies had retired. It is +to this propensity of the Jackal that David refers--himself a man of +war, who had fought on many a battle-field, and must have seen the +carcases of the slain mangled by these nocturnal prowlers: "Those that +seek my soul, to destroy it, shall go into the lower parts of the +earth. They shall fall by the sword; they shall be a portion for +foxes" (Ps. lxiii. 9, 10). Being wild beasts, afraid of man, and too +cowardly to attack him even when rendered furious by hunger, and +powerful by force of numbers, they keep aloof from towns and cities, +and live in the uninhabited parts of the country. Therefore the +prophet Jeremiah, in his Book of Lamentations, makes use of the +following forcible image, when deploring the pitiful state into which +Judæa had fallen: "For this our heart is faint; for these things our +eyes are dim: because of the mountain of Zion, which is desolate, the +foxes walk upon it" (Lam. v. 17). And Ezekiel makes use of a similar +image: "O Israel, thy prophets are like foxes in the desert." + +But, by far the most important passage in which the Fox is mentioned, +is that wherein is recorded the grotesque vengeance of Samson upon the +Philistines: "And Samson went and caught three hundred foxes, and took +firebrands, and turned tail to tail, and put a firebrand in the midst +between two tails. And when he had set the brands on fire, he let them +go into the standing corn of the Philistines, and burnt up both the +shocks and also the standing corn, with the vineyards and olives" +(Judges xv. 4, 5). Now, as this is one of the passages of Holy Writ to +which great objections have been taken, it will be as well to examine +these objections, and see whether they have any real force. The first +of these objections is, that the number of foxes is far too great to +have been caught at one time, and to this objection two answers have +been given. The first answer is, that they need not have been caught +at once, but by degrees, and kept until wanted. But the general tenor +of the narrative is undoubtedly in favour of the supposition that this +act of Samson was unpremeditated, and that it was carried into +operation at once, before his anger had cooled. The second answer is, +that the requisite number of Foxes might have been miraculously sent +to Samson for this special purpose. This theory is really so foolish +and utterly untenable, that I only mention it because it has been put +forward. It fails on two grounds: the first being that a miracle would +hardly have been wrought to enable Samson to revenge himself in so +cruel and unjustifiable a manner; and the second, that there was not +the least necessity for any miracle at all. + +If we put out of our minds the idea of the English Fox, an animal +comparatively scarce in this country, and solitary in its habits, and +substitute the extremely plentiful and gregarious Jackal, wandering in +troops by night, and easily decoyed by hunger into a trap, we shall +see that double the number might have been taken, if needful. +Moreover, it is not to be imagined that Samson caught them all with +his own hand. He was at the head of his people, and had many +subordinates at his command, so that a large number of hunters might +have been employed simultaneously in the capture. In corroboration of +this point, I insert an extremely valuable extract from Signor +Pierotti's work, in which he makes reference to this very portion of +the sacred history:-- + +"It is still very abundant near Gaza, Askalon, Ashdod, Ekron, and +Ramleh. I have frequently met with it during my wanderings by night, +and on one occasion had an excellent opportunity of appreciating their +number and their noise. + +"One evening in the month of January 1857, while it was raining a +perfect deluge, I was obliged, owing to the dangerous illness of a +friend, to return from Jerusalem to Jaffa. The depth of snow on the +road over a great part of the mountain, the clayey mud in the plain, +and the darkness of the night, prevented my advancing quickly; so that +about half-past three in the morning I arrived on the bank of a small +torrent, about half an hour's journey to the east of Ramleh. I wished +to cross: my horse at first refused, but, on my spurring it, advanced +and at once sank up to the breast, followed of course by my legs, +thus teaching me to respect the instinct of an Arab horse for the +future. + +"There I stuck, without the possibility of escape, and consoled my +horse and myself with some provisions that I had in my saddle-bags, +shouting and singing at intervals, in the hope of obtaining succour, +and of preventing accidents, as I knew that the year before a mule in +the same position had been mistaken for a wild beast, and killed. The +darkness was profound, and the wind very high; but, happily, it was +not cold; for the only things attracted by my calls were numbers of +jackals, who remained at a certain distance from me, and responded to +my cries, especially when I tried to imitate them, as though they took +me for their music-master. + +"About five o'clock, one of the guards of the English consulate at +Jerusalem came from Ramleh and discovered my state. He charitably +returned thither, and brought some men, who extricated me and my horse +from our unpleasant bath, which, as may be supposed, was not +beneficial to our legs. + +"During this most uncomfortable night, I had good opportunity of +ascertaining that, if another Samson had wished to burn again the +crops in the country of the Philistines, he would have had no +difficulty in finding more than three hundred jackals, and catching as +many as he wanted in springs, traps, or pitfalls. (See Ps. cxl. 5.)" + +The reader will now see that there was not the least difficulty in +procuring the requisite number of animals, and that consequently the +first objection to the truth of the story is disposed of. + +We will now proceed to the second objection, which is, that if the +animals were tied tail to tail, they would remain on or near the same +spot, because they would pull in different directions, and that, +rather than run about, they would turn round and fight each other. +Now, in the first place, we are nowhere told that the tails of the +foxes, or jackals, were placed in contact with each other, and it is +probable that some little space was left between them. That animals so +tied would not run in a straight line is evident enough, and this was +exactly the effect which Samson wished to produce. Had they been at +liberty, and the fiery brand fastened to their tails, they would have +run straight to their dens, and produced but little effect. But their +captor, with cruel ingenuity, had foreseen this contingency, and, by +the method of securing them which he adopted, forced them to pursue a +devious course, each animal trying to escape from the dreaded +firebrand, and struggling in vain endeavours to drag its companion +towards its own particular den. + +All wild animals have an instinctive dread of fire; and there is none, +not even the fierce and courageous lion, that dares enter within the +glare of the bivouac fire. A lion has even been struck in the face +with a burning brand, and has not ventured to attack the man that +wielded so dreadful a weapon. Consequently it may be imagined that the +unfortunate animals that were used by Samson for his vindictive +purpose, must have been filled with terror at the burning brands which +they dragged after them, and the blaze of the fire which was kindled +wherever they went. They would have no leisure to fight, and would +only think of escaping from the dread and unintelligible enemy which +pursued them. + +When a prairie takes fire, all the wild inhabitants flee in terror, +and never think of attacking each other, so that the bear, the wolf, +the cougar, the deer, and the wild swine, may all be seen huddled +together, their natural antagonism quelled in the presence of a common +foe. So it must have been with the miserable animals which were made +the unconscious instruments of destruction. That they would stand +still when a burning brand was between them, and when flames sprang up +around them, is absurd. That they would pull in exactly opposite +directions with precisely balanced force is equally improbable, and it +is therefore evident that they would pursue a devious path, the +stronger of the two dragging the weaker, but being jerked out of a +straight course and impeded by the resistance which it would offer. +That they would stand on the same spot and fight has been shown to be +contrary to the custom of animals under similar circumstances. + +Thus it will be seen that every objection not only falls to the +ground, but carries its own refutation, thus vindicating this episode +in sacred history, and showing, that not only were the circumstances +possible, but that they were highly probable. Of course every one of +the wretched animals must have been ultimately burned to death, after +suffering a prolonged torture from the firebrand that was attached to +it. Such a consideration would, however, have had no effect for +deterring Samson from employing them. The Orientals are never sparing +of pain, even when inflicted upon human beings, and in too many cases +they seem utterly unable even to comprehend the cruelty of which they +are guilty. And Samson was by no means a favourable specimen of his +countrymen. He was the very incarnation of strength, but was as +morally weak as he was corporeally powerful; and to that weakness he +owed his fall. Neither does he seem to possess the least trace of +forbearance any more than of self-control, but he yields to his own +undisciplined nature, places himself, and through him the whole +Israelitish nation, in jeopardy, and then, with a grim humour, +scatters destruction on every side in revenge for the troubles which +he has brought upon himself by his own acts. + +There is a passage in the Old Testament which is tolerably familiar to +most students of the Scriptures: "Take us the foxes, the little foxes, +that spoil the vines, for our vines have tender grapes" (Solomon's +Song, ii. 15). In this passage allusion is made to the peculiar +fondness for grapes and several other fruits which exist both in the +Fox and the Jackal. Even the domesticated dog is often fond of ripe +fruits, and will make great havoc among the gooseberry bushes and the +strawberry beds. But both the Fox and the Jackal display a wonderful +predilection for the grape above all other fruit, and even when +confined and partly tamed, it is scarcely possible to please them +better than by offering them a bunch of perfectly ripe grapes. The +well-known fable of the fox and the grapes will occur to the mind of +every one who reads the passage which has just been quoted. + +There are two instances in the New Testament where the Fox is +mentioned, and in both cases the allusion is made by the Lord himself. +The first of these passages is the touching and well-known reproach, +"The foxes have holes, and the birds of the air have nests, but the +Son of Man hath not where to lay his head" (Matt. viii. 20). The +second passage is that in which He speaks of Herod as "that fox," +selecting a term which well expressed the character of the cruel and +cunning ruler to whom it was applied. + +The reader will remember that, in the history of the last-mentioned +animal an anecdote is told of a semi-tamed wolf that used to come +every evening for the purpose of receiving a piece of bread. At the +same monastery, three foxes used to enjoy a similar privilege. They +came regularly to the appointed place, which was not that which the +wolf frequented, and used to howl until their expected meal was given +to them. Several companions generally accompanied them, but were +always jealously driven away before the monks appeared with the bread. + + + + +THE HYÆNA. + + The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded + to--Signification of the word Zabua--Translated in the + Septuagint as Hyæna--A scene described by the Prophet + Isaiah--The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the present day--its + well-known cowardice and fear of man--The uses of the Hyæna and + the services which it renders--The particular species of + Hyæna--The Hyæna in the burial-grounds--Hunting the + Hyæna--Curious superstition respecting the talismanic properties + of its skin--Precautions adopted in flaying it--Popular legends + of the Hyæna and its magical powers--The cavern home of the + Hyæna--The Valley of Zeboim. + + +Although in our version of the Scriptures the Hyæna is not mentioned +by that name, there are two passages in the Old Testament which +evidently refer to that animal, and therefore it is described in these +pages. If the reader will refer to the prophet Jeremiah, xii. 7-9, he +will find these words: "I have forsaken mine house, I have left mine +heritage; I have given the dearly beloved of my soul into the hand of +her enemies. Mine heritage is unto me as a lion in the forest; it +crieth out against me: therefore have I hated it. Mine heritage is +unto me as a speckled bird; the birds round about are against her: +come ye, assemble all the beasts of the field, come to devour." Now, +the word _zabua_ signifies something that is streaked, and in the +Authorized Version it is rendered as a speckled bird. But in the +Septuagint it is rendered as Hyæna, and this translation is thought by +many critical writers to be the true one. It is certain that the word +_zabua_ is one of the four names by which the Talmudical writers +mention the Hyæna, when treating of its character; and it is equally +certain that such a rendering makes the passage more forcible, and is +in perfect accordance with the habits of predacious animals. + +The whole scene which the Prophet thus describes was evidently +familiar to him. First, we have the image of a deserted country, +allowed to be overrun with wild beasts. Then we have the lion, which +has struck down its prey, roaring with exultation, and defying any +adversary to take it from him. Then, the lion having eaten his fill +and gone away, we have the Hyænas, vultures, and other carrion-eating +creatures, assembling around the carcase, and hastening to devour it. +This is a scene which has been witnessed by many hunters who have +pursued their sport in lands where lions, hyænas, and vultures are +found; and all these creatures were inhabitants of Palestine at the +time when Jeremiah wrote. + +At the present day, the Hyæna is still plentiful in Palestine, though +in the course of the last few years its numbers have sensibly +diminished. The solitary traveller, when passing by night from one +town to another, often falls in with the Hyæna, but need suffer no +fear, as it will not attack a human being, and prefers to slink out of +his way. But dead, and dying, or wounded animals are the objects for +which it searches; and when it finds them, it devours the whole of its +prey. The lion will strike down an antelope, an ox, or a goat--will +tear off its flesh with its long fangs, and lick the bones with its +rough tongue until they are quite cleaned. The wolves and jackals will +follow the lion, and eat every soft portion of the dead animal, while +the vultures will fight with them for the coveted morsels. But the +Hyæna is a more accomplished scavenger than lion, wolf, jackal, or +vulture; for it will eat the very bones themselves, its +tremendously-powerful jaws and firmly-set teeth enabling it to crush +even the leg-bone of an ox, and its unparalleled digestive powers +enabling it to assimilate the sharp and hard fragments which would +kill any creature not constituted like itself. + +In a wild, or even a partially-inhabited country, the Hyæna is, +therefore, a most useful animal. It may occasionally kill a crippled +or weakly ox, and sometimes carry off a sheep; but, even in that case, +no very great harm is done, for it does not meddle with any animal +that can resist. But these few delinquencies are more than compensated +by the great services which it renders as scavenger, consuming those +substances which even the lion cannot eat, and thus acting as a +scavenger in removing objects which would be offensive to sight and +injurious to health. + +The species which is mentioned in the Scriptures is the Striped Hyæna +(_Hyæna striata_); but the habits of all the species are almost +exactly similar. We are told by travellers of certain towns in +different parts of Africa which would be unendurable but for the +Hyænas. With the disregard for human life which prevails throughout +all savage portions of that country, the rulers of these towns order +executions almost daily, the bodies of the victims being allowed to +lie where they happened to fall. No one chooses to touch them, lest +they should also be added to the list of victims, and the decomposing +bodies would soon cause a pestilence but for the Hyænas, who assemble +at night round the bodies, and by the next morning have left scarcely +a trace of the murdered men. + +Even in Palestine, and in the present day, the Hyæna will endeavour to +rifle the grave, and to drag out the interred corpse. The bodies of +the rich are buried in rocky caves, whose entrances are closed with +heavy stones, which the Hyæna cannot move; but those of the poor, +which are buried in the ground, must be defended by stones heaped over +them. Even when this precaution is taken, the Hyæna will sometimes +find out a weak spot, drag out the body, and devour it. + +In consequence of this propensity, the inhabitants have an utter +detestation of the animal. They catch it whenever they can, in +pitfalls or snares, using precisely the same means as were employed +two thousand years ago; or they hunt it to its den, and then kill it, +stripping off the hide, and carrying it about still wet, receiving a +small sum of money from those to whom they show it. Afterwards the +skin is dressed, by rubbing it with lime and salt, and steeping it in +the waters of the Dead Sea. It is then made into sandals and leggings, +which are thought to be powerful charms, and to defend the wearer from +the Hyæna's bite. + + [Illustration: THE HYÆNA. + + "_I have given thee for meat to the beasts of the field and to the + fowls of the heaven._"--EZEK. xxix. 5.] + +They always observe certain superstitious precautions in flaying the +dead animal. Believing that the scent of the flesh would corrupt the +air, they invariably take the carcase to the leeward of the tents +before they strip off the skin. Even in the animal which has been kept +for years in a cage, and has eaten nothing but fresh meat, the odour +is too powerful to be agreeable, as I can testify from practical +experience when dissecting a Hyæna that had died in the Zoological +Gardens; and it is evident that the scent of an animal that has lived +all its life on carrion must be almost unbearable. The skin being +removed, the carcase is burnt, because the hunters think that by this +process the other Hyænas are prevented from finding the body of their +comrade, and either avenging its death or taking warning by its fate. + +Superstitions seem to be singularly prevalent concerning the Hyæna. In +Palestine, there is a prevalent idea that if a Hyæna meets a solitary +man at night, it can enchant him in such a manner as to make him +follow it through thickets and over rocks, until he is quite +exhausted, and falls an unresisting prey; but that over two persons he +has no such influence, and therefore a solitary traveller is gravely +advised to call for help as soon as he sees a Hyæna, because the +fascination of the beast would be neutralized by the presence of a +second person. So firmly is this idea rooted in the minds of the +inhabitants, that they will never travel by night, unless they can +find at least one companion in their journey. + +In Northern Africa there are many strange superstitions connected with +this animal, one of the most curious of which is founded on its +well-known cowardice. The Arabs fancy that any weapon which has killed +a Hyæna, whether it be gun, sword, spear, or dagger, is thenceforth +unfit to be used in warfare. "Throw away that sword," said an Arab to +a French officer, who had killed a Hyæna, "it has slain the Hyæna, and +it will be treacherous to you." + +At the present day, its numbers are not nearly so great in Palestine +as they used to be, and are decreasing annually. The cause of this +diminution lies, according to Signor Pierotti, more in the destruction +of forests than in the increase of population and the use of +fire-arms, though the two latter causes have undoubtedly considerable +influence. + +There is a very interesting account by Mr. Tristram of the haunt of +these animals. While exploring the deserted quarries of Es Sumrah, +between Beth-arabah and Bethel, he came upon a wonderful mass of +hyænine relics. The quarries in which were lying the half-hewn blocks, +scored with the marks of wedges, had evidently formed the resort of +Hyænas for a long series of years. "Vast heaps of bones of camels, +oxen, and sheep had been collected by these animals, in some places to +the depth of two or three feet, and on one spot I counted the skulls +of seven camels. There were no traces whatever of any human remains. +We had here a beautiful recent illustration of the mode of foundation +of the old bone caverns, so valuable to the geologist. These bones +must all have been brought in by the Hyænas, as no camel or sheep +could possibly have entered the caverns alive, nor could any floods +have washed them in. Near the entrance where the water percolates, +they were already forming a soft breccia." + +The second allusion to the Hyæna is made in 1 Sam. xiii. 18, "Another +company turned to the way of the border that looketh to the Valley of +Zeboim towards the wilderness," _i.e._ to the Valley of Hyænas. + +The colour of the Striped Hyæna varies according to its age. When +young, as is the case with many creatures, birds as well as mammals, +the stripes from which it derives its name are much more strongly +marked than in the adult specimen. The general hue of the fur is a +pale grey-brown, over which are drawn a number of dark stripes, +extending along the ribs and across the limbs. + +In the young animal these stripes are nearly twice as dark and twice +as wide as in the adult, and they likewise appear on the face and on +other parts of the body, whence they afterwards vanish. The fur is +always rough; and along the spine, and especially over the neck and +shoulders, it is developed into a kind of mane, which gives a very +fierce aspect to the animal. The illustration shows a group of Hyænas +coming to feed on the relics of a dead animal. The jackals and +vultures have eaten as much of the flesh as they can manage, and the +vultures are sitting, gorged, round the stripped bones. The Hyænas are +now coming up to play their part as scavengers, and have already begun +to break up the bones in their crushing-mills of jaws. + + + + +THE WEASEL. + + Difficulty of identifying the Weasel of Scripture--The Weasel of + Palestine--Suggested identity with the Ichneumon. + + +The word Weasel occurs once in the Holy Scriptures, and therefore it +is necessary that the animal should be mentioned. There is a great +controversy respecting the identification of the animal, inasmuch as +there is nothing in the context which gives the slightest indication +of its appearance or habits. + +The passage in question is that which prohibits the Weasel and the +mouse as unclean animals (see Lev. xi. 29). Now the word which is here +translated Weasel is _Choled_, or _Chol'd_; and, I believe, never +occurs again in the whole of the Old Testament. Mr. W. Houghton +conjectures that the Hebrew word Choled is identical with the Arabic +_Chuld_ and the Syriac _Chuldo_, both words signifying a mole; and +therefore infers that the unclean animal in question is not a Weasel, +but a kind of mole. + +The Weasel does exist in Palestine, and seems to be as plentiful there +as in our own country. Indeed, the whole tribe of Weasels is well +represented, and the polecat is seen there as well as the Weasel. + +It has been suggested with much probability, that, as is clearly the +case in many instances, several animals have been included in the +general term Weasel, and that among them may be reckoned the common +ichneumon (_Herpestes_), which is one of the most plentiful of animals +in Palestine, and which may be met daily. + +The Septuagint favours the interpretation of Weasel, and, as there is +no evidence on either side, there we may allow the question to rest. +As, however, the word only occurs once, and as the animal, whatever it +may be, is evidently of no particular importance, we may reserve our +space for the animals which have more important bearings upon the Holy +Scriptures. The subject will be again mentioned in the account of the +Mole of the Old Testament. + + + + +THE FERRET. + + Translation of the Hebrew word _Anakah_--The Shrew-mouse of + Palestine--Etymology of the word--The Gecko or Fan-foot, its + habits and peculiar cry--Repugnance felt by the Arabs of the + present day towards the Gecko. + + +Why the Hebrew word _Anakah_ should have been translated in our +version as Ferret there is little ground for conjecture. + +The name occurs among the various creeping things that were reckoned +as unclean, and were prohibited as food (see Lev. xi. 29, 30): "These +also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that creepeth +upon the earth: the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his +kind, and the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the +snail, and the mole." Now the word in question is translated in the +Septuagint as the Mygale, or Shrew-mouse, and it is probable that this +animal was accepted by the Jews as the Anakah. But, whether or not it +was the Shrew-mouse, it is certain that it is not the animal which we +call the Ferret. Mr. Tristram suggests that the etymology of the name, +_i.e._ Anâkah, the Groaner, or Sigher, points to some creature which +utters a mournful cry. And as the animal in question is classed among +the creeping things, he offers a conjecture that the Gecko, +Wall-lizard, or Fan-foot, may be the true interpretation of the word. + +Being one of the lizards, it belongs to the "creeping things," and +frequently utters a mournful sound like the word "geck-o." It is +exceedingly plentiful, and inhabits the interior of houses, where it +can find the flies and other insects on which it lives. On account of +the structure of the toes, each of which is flattened into a disk-like +form, and furnished on the under surface with a series of plates like +those on the back of the sucking-fish, it can walk up a smooth, +perpendicular wall with perfect ease, and can even cling to the +ceiling like the flies on which it feeds. + +The structure of the feet enables it to move about without the least +sound, and at first an observer is apt to be rather startled at the +mournful cry, and at the silent rapidity with which it darts from +place to place. + +The Arabs of the present day are horribly afraid of the Gecko, +thinking that it poisons everything that it touches, and are even more +terrified than are ignorant people in England when they see a toad. +Both creatures are equally repulsive in aspect, and equally harmless +towards the human race. + + + + +THE BADGER. + + Difficulty in identifying the _Tachash_ of Scripture--References + to "Badgers' skins"--The Dugong thought to be the Badger--The + Bedouin sandals--Nature of the materials for the + Tabernacle--Habits of the Badger--The species found in + Palestine--Uses of the Badgers' skins--Looseness of zoological + terms. + + +Until very lately, there was much difficulty in ascertaining whether +the word _Tachash_ has been rightly translated as Badger. It occurs in +several parts of the Scriptures, and almost invariably is used in +relation to a skin or fur of some sort. We will first examine the +passages in which the Badger is mentioned, and then proceed to +identify the animal. + +Nearly all the references to the Badger occur in the book of Exodus, +and form part of the directions for constructing the Tabernacle and +its contents. The first notice of the word occurs in Exodus xxv. 5, +where the people of Israel are ordered to bring their offerings for +the sanctuary, among which offerings are gold, silver, and brass, +blue, purple, and scarlet, fine linen, goats' hair, rams' skins dyed +red, badgers' skins, and shittim wood--all these to be used in the +construction of the Tabernacle. Then a little farther on, in chapter +xxvi. 14, we find one of the special uses to which the badgers' skins +were to be put, namely, to make the outer covering or roof of the +tabernacle. Another use for the badgers' skins was to form an outer +covering for the ark, table of shewbread, and other furniture of the +Tabernacle, when the people were on the march. + +In all these cases the badger-skin is used as a covering to defend a +building or costly furniture, but there is one example where it is +employed for a different purpose. This passage occurs in the book of +Ezekiel, chapter xvi. 10. The prophet is speaking of Jerusalem under +the image of a woman, and uses these words, "I anointed thee with oil; +I clothed thee also with broidered work, and shod thee with badger's +skin, and I girded thee about with fine linen, and I covered thee with +silk. I decked thee also with ornaments, and I put bracelets upon thy +hands, and a chain upon thy neck, and I put a jewel on thy forehead, +and earrings in thine ears, and a beautiful crown upon thine head." + +So we have here the fact, that the same material which was used for +the covering of the Tabernacle, and of the sacred furniture, could +also be used for the manufacture of shoes. This passage is the more +valuable because of an inference which may be drawn from it. The +reader will see that the badger-skin, whatever it may have been, must +have been something of considerable value, and therefore, in all +probability, something of much rarity. + +In the present instance, it is classed with the most luxurious robes +that were known in those days, and it is worthy of special mention +among the bracelet, earrings, necklace, and coronal with which the +symbolized city was adorned. If the reader will now refer to the +passage in which the children of Israel were commanded to bring their +offerings, he will see that in those cases also the badger-skins were +ranked with the costliest articles of apparel that could be found, and +had evidently been brought from Egypt, the peculiar home of all the +arts; together with the vast quantity of gold and jewels which were +used for the same sacred purpose. + +Now we find that the badger-skins in question must possess three +qualities: they must be costly, they must be capable of forming a +defence against the weather, and they must be strong enough to be +employed in the manufacture of shoes. If we accept the word Tachash as +signifying a Badger, we shall find that these conditions have been +fulfilled. + +But many commentators have thought that badger-skins could not have +been procured in sufficient numbers for the purpose, and have +therefore conjectured that some other animal must be signified by the +word Tachash. + +A species of dugong (_Halicore hemprichii_) is the animal that has +been selected as the Badger of the Scriptures. It is one of the marine +mammalia, and always lives near the shore, where it can find the +various algæ on which it feeds. It is a gregarious animal, and, as it +frequently ascends rivers for some distance, it may be captured in +sufficient numbers to make both its flesh and skin useful. Moreover, +it is of considerable size, fourteen or fifteen feet in length being +its usual dimensions, so that a comparatively small number of the +skins would be required for the covering of the Tabernacle. + +That shoes can be made of it is evident from the fact that at the +present day shoes, or rather sandals, are made from its hide, and are +commonly used by the Bedouins. But the very qualities and +peculiarities which render it a fit material for the sandal of a +half-naked Bedouin Arab, who has to walk continually over hard, hot, +sandy, and rough ground, would surely make it unsuitable for the +delicate shoes worn by a woman of rank who spends her time in the +house, and the rest of whose clothing is of fine linen and silk, +embroidered with gold and jewels. In our own country, the hobnailed +shoes of the ploughman and the slight shoe of a lady are made of very +different materials, and it is reasonable to conjecture that such was +the case when the passage in question was written. + + [Illustration: THE BADGER. + + "Thou shalt make a covering above of badgers' skins."--EX. xxvi. 14.] + +Then Dr. Robinson, who admits that the hide of the dugong could hardly +have been used as the material for a lady's shoe, thinks that it would +have answered very well for the roof of the Tabernacle, because it was +large, clumsy, and coarse. It seems strange that he did not also +perceive that the two latter qualities would completely disqualify +such skins for that service. Everything clumsy and coarse was +studiously prohibited, and nothing but the very best was considered +fit for the Tabernacle of the Lord. By special revelation, Moses was +instructed to procure, not merely the ordinary timber of the country +for the framework--not only the fabrics which would keep out rain and +wind--not simply the metals in common use, from which to make the +lamps and other furniture--not the ordinary oils for supplying the +lamps; but, on the contrary, the finest linen, the most elaborate +embroidery, the rarest woods, the purest gold, the costliest +gems, were demanded, and nothing common or inferior was accepted. +The commonest material that was permitted was the long, soft +fleece of rams' wool; but, even in that case, the wool had to be dyed +of the regal scarlet--a dye so rare and so costly that none but the +wealthiest rulers could use it. Even the very oil that burned in the +lamps must be the purest olive-oil, prepared expressly for that +purpose. + +The very fact, therefore, that any article was plentiful and could +easily be obtained, would be a proof that such article was not used +for so sacred a purpose; while it is impossible that anything coarse +and clumsy could have been accepted for the construction of that +Tabernacle within which the Shekinah ever burned over the +Mercy-seat--over which the cloud rested by day, and the fire shone by +night, visible external proofs of the Divine glory within. + +We therefore dismiss from our minds the possibility of accepting any +material for it which was not exceptionably valuable, and which would +be employed in the uses of ordinary life. The great object of the +minutely-elaborate directions which were given through Moses to the +Israelites was evidently to keep continually before their eyes the +great truth that they owed all to God, and that their costliest +offerings were but acknowledgments of their dependence. + +We will now presume that the Tachash of the Pentateuch and Ezekiel is +really the animal which we know by the name of Badger. It exists +throughout the whole of the district traversed by the Israelites, +though it is not very plentiful, nor is it easily taken. Had such been +the case, its fur would not have been employed in the service of the +sanctuary. + +It is nocturnal in its habits, and very seldom is seen during the +hours of daylight, so that it cannot be captured by chase. It is not +gregarious, so that it cannot be taken in great numbers, as is the +case with certain wild animals which have been thought to be the +Tachash of Scripture. It is not a careless animal, so that it cannot +be captured or killed without the exercise of considerable ingenuity, +and the expenditure of much time and trouble. It is one of the +burrowing animals, digging for itself a deep subterranean home, and +always ready whenever it is alarmed to escape into the dark recesses +of its dwelling, from which it can scarcely be dislodged. It is not a +large animal, so that a considerable number of skins would be required +in order to make a covering which should overlap a structure +forty-five feet in length and fifteen in breadth. Were it a solitary +animal, there might be a difficulty in procuring a sufficient number +of skins. But it is partly gregarious in its habits, living together +in small families, seven or eight being sometimes found to inhabit a +single dwelling-place. It is, therefore, sufficiently rare to make its +skin valuable, and sufficiently plentiful to furnish the requisite +number of skins. All these facts tend to show that the cost of such a +covering must have been very great, even though it was the outermost, +and, consequently, the least valuable of the four. It has been +suggested that these skins were only used to lay over the lines where +the different sets of coverings overlapped each other, and that, in +consequence, they need not have been very numerous. + +But we find that these same skins, which were evidently those which +formed the external roof, were used, when the Tabernacle was taken +down, for the purpose of forming distinct coverings for the ark of the +testimony, the table of shewbread, the seven-branched candlestick, the +golden altar, the various vessels used in the ministrations, and +lastly, the altar of sacrifice itself. Thus, when we recollect the +dimensions of the ark, the table, the candlestick, and the two altars, +we shall see that, in order to make separate covers for them, a +quantity of material would be used which would be amply sufficient to +cover the whole roof of the Tabernacle, even if it had, as was most +probably the case, a ridged, and not a flat roof. + +We now come to our next point, namely, the aptitude of the Badger's +skin to resist weather. Any one who has handled the skin of the Badger +will acknowledge that a better material could hardly be found. The fur +is long, thick, and, though light, is moderately stiff, the hairs +falling over each other in such a manner as to throw off rain or snow +as off a penthouse. And, as to the third point, namely, its possible +use as a material for the manufacture of shoes, we may call to mind +that the skin of the Badger is proverbially tough, and that this very +quality has caused the animal to be subjected to most cruel treatment +by a class of sporting men which is now almost extinct. + +The Septuagint gives little assistance in determining the precise +nature of the Tachash, and rather seems to consider the word as +expressive of the colour with which the fur was dyed than that of the +animal from which it was taken. Still, it must be remembered that not +only are zoological terms used very loosely in the Scriptures, but +that in Hebrew, as in all other languages, the same combination of +letters often expresses two different ideas, so that the word Tachash +may equally signify a colour and an animal. Moreover, it has been well +pointed out that the repeated use of the word in the plural number +shows that it cannot refer to colour; while its almost invariable +combination with the Hebrew word that signifies a skin implies that it +does not refer to colour, but to an animal. + +What that animal may be, is, as I have already mentioned, conjectural. +But, as the authorized translation renders the word as Badger, and as +this reading fulfils the conditions necessary to its identification, +and as no other reading does fulfil them, we cannot be very far wrong +if we accept that translation as the correct one, and assume the +Tachash of the Scriptures to be the animal which we call by the name +of Badger. + + + + +THE BEAR. + + The Syrian Bear--Identity of the Hebrew and Arabic titles--Its + colour variable according to age--Bears once numerous in + Palestine, and now only occasionally seen--Reason for their + diminution--Present localities of the Bear, and its favourite + haunts--Food of the Bear--Its general habits--Its ravages among + the flocks--The Bear dangerous to mankind--The Bear robbed of + her whelps--Illustrative passages--Its mode of fighting--Various + references to the Bear, from the time of Samuel to that of St. + John. + + +Whatever doubt may exist as to the precise identity of various animals +mentioned in the Scriptures, there is none whatever as to the creature +which is frequently alluded to under the name of Bear. + +The Hebrew word is _Dôb_, and it is a remarkable fact that the name of +this animal in the Arabic language is almost identical with the Hebrew +term, namely, _Dubh_. The peculiar species of Bear which inhabits +Palestine is the Syrian Bear (_Ursus Isabellinus_), and, though it has +been variously described by different eye-witnesses, there is no doubt +that the same species was seen by them all. As is the case with many +animals, the Syrian Bear changes its colour as it grows older. When a +cub, it is of a darkish brown, which becomes a light brown as it +approaches maturity. But, when it has attained its full growth, it +becomes cream-coloured, and each succeeding year seems to lighten its +coat, so that a very old Bear is nearly as white as its relative of +the Arctic regions. Travellers, therefore, who have met the younger +specimens, have described them as brown in hue, while those who have +seen more aged individuals have stated that the colour of the Syrian +Bear is white. + +Owing to the destruction of forests, the Bear, which is essentially a +lover of the woods, has decreased considerably in number. Yet, even at +the present time, specimens may be seen by the watchful traveller, +mostly about the range of Lebanon, but sometimes at a considerable +distance from that locality. Mr. Tristram, for example, saw it close +to the Lake of Gennesaret. "We never met with so many wild animals as +on one of those days. First of all, a wild boar got out of some scrub +close to us, as we were ascending the valley. Then a deer was started +below, ran up the cliff, and wound along the ledge, passing close to +us. Then a large ichneumon almost crossed my feet and ran into a +cleft; and, while endeavouring to trace him, I was amazed to see a +brown Syrian Bear clumsily but rapidly clamber down the rocks and +cross the ravine. He was, however, far too cautious to get within +hailing distance of any of the riflemen." + + [Illustration: "As a roaring lion and a ranging bear, so is a wicked + ruler over the poor people."--PROV. xxviii. 15.] + +The same author mentions that some of the chief strongholds of this +Bear are certain clefts in the face of a precipitous chasm through +which the river Leontes flows. This river runs into the sea a few +miles northward of Tyre, and assists in carrying off the melted snows +from the Lebanon range of mountains. His description is so +picturesque, that it must be given in his own words. "The channel, +though a thousand feet deep, was so narrow that the opposite ridge was +within gunshot. Looking down the giddy abyss, we could see the cliff +on our side partially covered with myrtle, bay, and caper +hanging from the fissures, while the opposite side was perforated +with many shallow caves, the inaccessible eyries of vultures, +eagles, and lanner falcons, which were sailing in multitudes +around. The lower part had many ledges clad with shrubs, the +strongholds of the Syrian Bear, though inaccessible even to goats. Far +beneath dashed the milk-white river, a silver line in a ruby setting +of oleanders, roaring doubtless fiercely, but too distant to be heard +at the height on which we stood. This _cleft_ of the Leontes was the +only true Alpine scenery we had met with in Palestine, and in any +country, and amidst any mountains, it would attract admiration." + +On those elevated spots the Bear loves to dwell, and throughout the +summer-time generally remains in such localities. For the Bear is one +of the omnivorous animals, and is able to feed on vegetable as well as +animal substances, preferring the former when they can be found. There +is nothing that a Bear likes better than strawberries and similar +fruits, among which it will revel throughout the whole fruit season, +daintily picking the ripest berries, and becoming wonderfully fat by +the constant banquet. Sometimes, when the fruits fail, it makes +incursions among the cultivated grounds, and is noted for the ravages +which it makes among a sort of vetch which is much grown in the Holy +Land. + +But during the colder months of the year the Bear changes its diet, +and becomes carnivorous. Sometimes it contents itself with the various +wild animals which it can secure, but sometimes it descends to the +lower plains, and seizes upon the goats and sheep in their pastures. +This habit is referred to by David, in his well-known speech to Saul, +when the king was trying to dissuade him from matching himself against +the gigantic Philistine. "And Saul said to David, Thou art not able to +go against this Philistine to fight with him: for thou art but a +youth, and he a man of war from his youth.... Thy servant kept his +father's sheep, and there came a lion and a bear, and took a lamb out +of the flock: and I went out after him, and smote him, and delivered +it out of his hand; and when he arose against me, I caught him by the +beard, and smote him, and slew him. Thy servant slew both the lion and +the bear: and this uncircumcised Philistine shall be as one of them, +seeing he hath defied the armies of the living God."--1 Sam. xvii. +33-36. + +Though not generally apt to attack mankind, it will do so if first +attacked, and then becomes a most dangerous enemy. See, for example, +that most graphic passage in the book of the prophet Amos, whose +business as a herdsman must have made him conversant with the habits, +not only of the flocks and herds which he kept, but of the wild beasts +which might devour them:--"Woe unto you that desire the day of the +Lord! to what end is it for you? the day of the Lord is darkness, and +not light. As if a man did flee from a lion, and a bear met him; or +went into a house, and leaned his hand on the wall, and a serpent bit +him." (v. 19.) + +Another reference to the dangerous character of the Bear is made in 2 +Kings ii. 23, 24, in which is recorded that two she-bears came out of +the wood near Bethel, and killed forty-two of the children that mocked +at Elisha. + +As the Bear is not swift of foot, but rather clumsy in its movements, +it cannot hope to take the nimbler animals in open chase. It prefers +to lie in wait for them in the bushes, and to strike them down with a +sudden blow of its paw, a terrible weapon, which it can wield as +effectively as the lion uses its claws. An allusion to this habit is +made in the Lamentations of Jeremiah (iii. 10), "He was unto me as a +bear lying in wait, and as a lion in secret places." + +Harmless to man as it generally is, there are occasions on which it +becomes a terrible and relentless foe, not seeking to avoid his +presence, but even searching for him, and attacking him as soon as +seen. In the proper season of the year, hunters, or those who are +travelling through those parts of the country infested by the Bear, +will sometimes find the cubs, generally two in number, their mother +having left them in the den while she has gone to search for food. +Although they would not venture to take the initiative in an attack +upon either of the parents, they are glad of an opportunity which +enables them to destroy one or two Bears without danger to themselves. +The young Bears are easily killed or carried off, because at a very +early age they are as confident as they are weak, and do not try to +escape when they see the hunters approaching. + +The only danger lies in the possibility that their deed may be +discovered by the mother before they can escape from the locality, +and, if she should happen to return while the robbers are still in +the neighbourhood, a severe conflict is sure to follow. At any time an +angry Bear is a terrible antagonist, especially if it be wounded with +sufficient severity to cause pain, and not severely enough to cripple +its movements. But, when to this easily-roused ferocity is added the +fury of maternal feelings, it may be imagined that the hunters have +good reason to fear its attack. + +To all animals that rear their young is given a sublime and almost +supernatural courage in defending their offspring, and from the +lioness, that charges a host of armed men when her cubs are in danger, +to the hen, which defies the soaring kite or prowling fox, or to the +spider, that will give up her life rather than abandon her yet +unhatched brood, the same self-sacrificing spirit actuates them all. +Most terrible therefore is the wrath of a creature which possesses, as +is the case of the Bear, the strongest maternal affections, added to +great size, tremendous weapons, and gigantic strength. That the sight +of a Bear bereaved of her young was well known to both writers and +contemporary readers of the Old Testament, is evident from the fact +that it is mentioned by several writers, and always as a familiar +illustration of furious anger. See for example 2 Sam. xvii. 8, when +Hushai is dissuading Absalom from following the cautious counsel of +Ahithophel, "For thou knowest thy father and his men, that they be +mighty men of war, and they be chafed in their minds as a bear robbed +of her whelps in the field." Solomon also, in the Proverbs (xvii. 12), +uses the same image, "Let a bear robbed of her whelps meet a man, +rather than a fool in his folly." + +When the Bear fights, it delivers rapid strokes with its armed paw, +tearing and rending away everything that it strikes. A blow from a +bear's paw has been several times known to strip the entire skin, +together with the hair, from a man's head, and, when fighting with +dogs, to tear its enemies open as if each claw were a chisel. This +mode of fighting is clearly alluded to by the prophet Hosea, who +seems, from the graphic force of his sentences, to have been an actual +spectator of some such combat, "I will meet them as a bear that is +bereaved of her whelps, and will rend the caul of their heart" (Hos. +xiii. 8). + +That the Bear was a well-known animal both in the earlier and later +times of the Scripture is also evident from the fact that it was +twice used as a symbol exhibited to a seer in a vision. The first of +these passages occurs in the book of Daniel (vii. 5), when the prophet +is describing the wonderful vision of the four beasts:--"And behold +another beast, a second, like to a bear, and it raised up itself on +one side, and it had three ribs in the mouth of it, between the teeth +of it, and they said thus unto it, Arise, devour much flesh." The +second allusion occurs in the Revelation, the seven-headed and +ten-crowned beast having a form like that of a leopard, but feet like +those of a Bear. + + + + +THE HEDGEHOG, OR BITTERN. + + Various readings of the word _Kippôd_--The Jewish Bible and its + object--The Syrian Hedgehog and its appearance--Its fondness for + dry spots--The prophecies of Isaiah and Zephaniah, and their + bearing on the subject--The Porcupine supposed to be the + Kippôd--The Hedgehog and Porcupine called by the same name in + Greek and Arabic--Habits of the Porcupine--Its quills, and the + manner of their shedding. + + +In our Authorized Bible, there are one or two passages where the +Hebrew word _Kippôd_ is translated as BITTERN. For example, there is +Isaiah xiv. 22, 23, "I will cut off from Babylon the name, and +remnant, and son and nephew, saith the Lord. I will also make it a +possession for the bittern, and pools of water, and I will sweep it +with the besom of destruction, saith the Lord of hosts." + +Then there is another passage of the same prophet (xxxiv. 11), "But +the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it (_i.e._ Idumea), the +owl also and the raven shall dwell in it." The last mention of this +creature occurs in Zephaniah ii. 14, "And flocks shall lie down in the +midst of her (_i.e._ Nineveh), all the beasts of the nations: both the +bittern and the cormorant shall lodge in the upper lintels of it; +their voice shall sing in the windows; desolation shall be in the +thresholds; for he shall uncover the cedar-work." + +Now, in the "Jewish School and Family Bible," a new literal +translation by Dr. A. Benisch, under the superintendence of the Chief +Rabbi, the word Kippôd is translated, not as Bittern, but Hedgehog. As +I shall have to refer to this translation repeatedly in the course of +the present work, I will give a few remarks made by the translator in +the preface. + + [Illustration: SYRIAN HEDGEHOG. + + "_Pelican and hedgehog shall possess it._"--ISA. xxxiv. 11. (Jewish + Bible).] + +After premising that both Christian and Jew agree in considering the +Old Testament as emanating from God, and reverencing it as such, he +proceeds to say that the former, as holding himself absolved from the +ceremonial law of the Mosaic dispensation, has not the interest in the +exact signification of every letter of the law which necessarily +attaches itself to the Jew, who considers himself bound by that law, +although some ceremonies, "by their special reference to the Temple in +Jerusalem and the actual existence of Israel in the Holy Land, are at +present not practicable." + +He then observes that the translators of the authorized Anglican +version, whose many excellences he fully admits, could not be +considered as free agents, as they were bound by the positive +injunctions of their monarch, as well as by the less obvious, but more +powerful influence of Christian authorities, to alter the original +translation as little as possible, and to keep the ecclesiastical +words. Retaining, therefore, the renderings of the Anglican +translation whenever it can be done without infringing upon absolute +accuracy, the translator has marked with great care various passages +where he has felt himself obliged to give a different rendering to the +Hebrew. Whenever words, especially such as are evidently the names of +animals, cannot be rendered with any amount of probability, they have +not been translated at all, and to those about which there are good +grounds of doubt a distinctive mark is affixed. + +Now to the word Hedgehog, by which the Hebrew Kippôd is rendered, no +such marking is attached in either of the three quoted passages, and +it is evident therefore that the rendering is satisfactory to the +highest authorities on the Hebrew language. And we have the greater +assurance of this accuracy, because, in the mere translation of the +name of an animal, no doctrinal point is involved, and so there can be +no temptation to the translator to be carried away by preconceived +ideas, and to give to the word that rendering which may tend to +establish his peculiar doctrinal ideas. + +The Septuagint also translates Kippôd as [Greek: echinos] (_echinus_) +_i.e._ the Hedgehog, and this rendering is advocated by the eminent +scholar Gesenius, who considers it to be formed from the Hebrew word +_kaped_, _i.e._ contracted; reference being of course made to the +Hedgehog's habit of rolling itself up when alarmed, and presenting +only an array of bristles to the enemy. This derivation of the word is +certainly more convincing than a suggestion which has been made, that +the Hebrew Kippôd may signify the Hedgehog, because it resembles the +Arabic name of the same animal, viz. Kunfod. + +As therefore the word Kippôd is translated as Hedgehog in the +Septuagint and Jewish Bible, and as Bittern in the authorized version, +we very naturally ask ourselves whether either or both of these +animals inhabit Palestine and the neighbouring countries. We find that +both are plentiful even at the present day, and that more than one +species of Hedgehog and Bittern are known in the Holy Land. About the +Bittern we shall treat in good time, and will now take up the +rendering of Hedgehog. + +There are at least two species of Hedgehog known in Palestine, that of +the north being identical with our own well-known animal (_Erinaceus +Europoeus_), and the other being a distinct species (_Erinaceus +Syriacus_). The latter animal is the species which has been chosen for +illustration. It is smaller than its northern relative, lighter in +colour, and, as may be seen from the illustration, is rather different +in general aspect. + +Its habits are identical with those of the European Hedgehog. Like +that animal it is carnivorous, feeding on worms, snails, frogs, +lizards, snakes, and similar creatures, and occasionally devouring the +eggs and young of birds that make their nest on the ground. + +Small as is the Hedgehog, it can devour all such animals with perfect +ease, its jaws and teeth being much stronger than might be anticipated +from the size of their owner. + +One or two objections that have been made to the translation of the +Kippôd as Hedgehog must be mentioned, so that the reader may see what +is said on both sides in dubious cases. One objection is, that the +Kippôd is (in Isaiah xiv. 23) mentioned in connexion with pools of +water, and that, as the Hedgehog prefers dry places to wet, whereas +the Bittern is essentially a marsh-dweller, the latter rendering of +the word is preferable to the former. Again, as the Kippôd is said by +Zephaniah to "lodge in the upper lintels," and its "voice to sing in +the windows," it must be a bird, and not a quadruped. We will examine +these passages separately, and see how they bear upon the subject. As +to Zephaniah ii. 13, the Jewish Bible treats the passage as +follows:--"And he will stretch out his hand against the north, and +destroy Assyria; and will make Nineveh a desolation, and arid like the +desert. And droves shall crouch in the midst of her, all the animals +of nations: both pelican and hedgehog (Kippôd) shall lodge nightly in +the knobs of it, a voice shall sing in the windows; drought shall be +in the thresholds, for he shall uncover the cedar-work." + +Now the reader will see that, so far from the notion of marsh-land +being connected with the Kippôd, the whole imagery of the prophecy +turns upon the opposite characteristics of desolation, aridity, and +drought. The same imagery is used in Isaiah xxxiv. 7-12, which the +Jewish Bible reads as follows, "For it is the day of the vengeance of +the Eternal, and the year of recompenses for the quarrel of Zion. And +the brooks thereof shall be turned into pitch, and the dust thereof +into brimstone, and the land thereof shall become burning pitch. It +shall not go out night nor day; the smoke of it shall go up for ever; +from generation to generation it shall lie waste; none shall pass +through it for ever and ever. Pelican and hedgehog (Kippôd) shall +possess it; owls also and ravens shall dwell in it; and he shall +stretch over it the line of desolation, and the stones of emptiness." +And to the end of the chapter the same idea of drought, desolation, +and solitude is carried out. + +Thus, even putting the question in the simplest manner, we have two +long passages which directly connect the Kippôd with drought, aridity, +and desolation, in opposition to one in which the Kippôd and "pools of +water" are mentioned in proximity to each other. Now the fact is, that +the sites of Nineveh and Babylon fulfil both prophecies, being both +dry and marshy--dry away from the river, and marshy among the +reed-swamps that now exist on its banks. + +So much for the question of locality. + +As to the second objection, namely, that the Kippôd was to lodge in +the upper lintels, and therefore must be a bird, and not a quadruped, +it is sufficient to say that the allusion is evidently made to ruins +that are thrown down, and not to buildings that are standing upright. + +As to the words, "their voices shall sing in the windows," the reader +may see, on reference to the English Bible, that the word "their" is +printed in italics, showing that it does not exist in the original, +and has been supplied by the translator. Taking the passage as it +really stands, "Both the cormorant and the bittern (Kippôd) shall +lodge in the upper lintels of it; a voice shall sing in the windows," +it is evident that the voice or sound which sings in the windows does +not necessarily refer to the cormorant and Bittern at all. Dr. Harris +remarks that "the phrase is elliptical, and implies 'the voice of +birds.'" + + + + +THE PORCUPINE. + + Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine--The same + Greek name applied to the Porcupine and Hedgehog--Habits of the + Porcupine--the common Porcupine found plentifully in Palestine. + + +Although, like the hedgehog, the Porcupine is not mentioned by name in +the Scriptures, many commentators think that the word Kippôd signifies +both the hedgehog and Porcupine. + +That the two animals should be thought to be merely two varieties of +one species is not astonishing, when we remember the character of the +people among whom the Porcupine lives. Not having the least idea of +scientific geology, they look only to the most conspicuous +characteristics, and because the Porcupine and hedgehog are both +covered with an armature of quills, and the quills are far more +conspicuous than the teeth, the inhabitants of Palestine naturally +class the two animals together. In reality, they belong to two very +different orders, the hedgehog being classed with the shrew-mice and +moles, while the Porcupine is a rodent animal, and is classed with the +rats, rabbits, beavers, marmots, and other rodents. + +At the present day the inhabitants of the Holy Land believe the +Porcupine to be only a large species of hedgehog, and the same name is +applied to both animals. Such is the case even in the Greek language, +the word Hystrix ([Greek: hystrinx] or [Greek: hysthrix]) being +employed indifferently in either sense. + +Its food is different from that of the hedgehog, for whereas the +hedgehog lives entirely on animal food, as has been already mentioned, +the Porcupine is as exclusively a vegetable eater, feeding chiefly on +roots and bark. + +It is quite as common in Palestine as the hedgehog, a fact which +increases the probability that the two animals may have been mentioned +under a common title. Being a nocturnal animal, it retires during the +day-time to some crevice in a rock or burrow in the ground, and there +lies sleeping until the sunset awakens it and calls it to action. And +as the hedgehog is also a nocturnal animal, the similarity of habit +serves to strengthen the mutual resemblance. + +The Porcupine is peculiarly fitted for living in dry and unwatered +spots, as, like many other animals, of which our common rabbit is a +familiar example, it can exist without water, obtaining the needful +moisture from the succulent roots on which it feeds. + +The sharply pointed quills with which its body is covered are solid, +and strengthened in a most beautiful manner by internal ribs, that run +longitudinally along its length, exactly like those of the hollow iron +masts, which are now coming so much into use. As they are, in fact, +greatly developed hairs, they are continually shed and replaced, and +when they are about to fall are so loosely attached that they fall off +if pulled slightly, or even if the animal shakes itself. Consequently +the shed quills that lie about the localities inhabited by the +Porcupine indicate its whereabouts, and so plentiful are these quills +in some places that quite a bundle can be collected in a short time. + +There are many species of Porcupines which inhabit different parts of +the world, but that which has been mentioned is the common Porcupine +of Europe, Asia, and Africa (_Hystrix cristata_). + + + + +THE MOLE. + + The two Hebrew words which are translated as Mole--Obscurity of + the former name--A parallel case in our own language--The second + name--The Moles and the Bats, why associated together--The real + Mole of Scripture, its different names, and its place in + zoology--Description of the Mole-rat and its general + habits--Curious superstition--Discovery of the species by Mr. + Tristram--Scripture and science--How the Mole-rat finds its + food--Distinction between the Mole and the present animal. + + +There are two words which are translated as Mole in our authorized +version of the Bible. One of them is so obscure that there seems no +possibility of deciding the creature that is represented by it. We +cannot even tell to what class of the animal kingdom it refers, +because in more than one place it is mentioned as one of the unclean +birds that might not be eaten (translated as _swan_ in our version), +whereas, in another place, it is enumerated among the unclean creeping +things. + + [Illustration: THE MOLE-RAT. + + "_These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that + creep upon the earth ... the lizard, the snail, and the mole._"--LEV. + xi. 29, 30.] + +We may conjecture that the same word might be used to designate two +distinct animals, though we have no clue to their identification. It +is rather a strange coincidence, in corroboration of this theory, that +our word Mole signifies three distinct objects--firstly, an animal; +secondly, a cutaneous growth; and thirdly, a bank of earth. Now, +supposing English to be a dead language, like the Hebrew, it may well +be imagined that a translator of an English book would feel extremely +perplexed when he saw the word Mole used in such widely different +senses. + +The best Hebraists can do no more than offer a conjecture founded on +the structure of the word _Tinshemeth_, which is thought by some to be +the chameleon. Some think that it is the Mole, some the ibis, some the +salamander, while others consider it to be the centipede; and in +neither case have any decisive arguments been adduced. + +We will therefore leave the former of these two names, and proceed to +the second, _Chephor-peroth_. + +This word occurs in that passage of Isaiah which has already been +quoted when treating of the bat. "In that day a man shall cast his +idols of silver and his idols of gold, which they made each one to +himself to worship, to the moles and to the bats; to go into the +clefts of the rocks and into the tops of the ragged rocks, for fear of +the Lord and for the glory of his majesty, when he ariseth to shake +terribly the earth." + +It is highly probable that the animal in question is the Mole of +Palestine, which is not the same as our European species, but is much +larger in size, and belongs to a different order of mammalia. The true +Mole is one of the insectivorous and carnivorous animals, and is +allied to the shrews and the hedgehogs; whereas the Mole of Palestine +(_Spalax typhlus_) is one of the rodents, and allied to the rabbits, +mice, marmots, and jerboas. A better term for it is the Mole-rat, by +which name it is familiar to zoologists. It is also known by the names +of Slepez and Nenni. + +In length it is about eight inches, and its colour is a pale slate. As +is the case with the true Moles, the eyes are of very minute +dimensions, and are not visible through the thick soft fur with which +the whole head and body are covered. Neither are there any visible +external ears, although the ear is really very large, and extremely +sensitive to sound. This apparent privation of both ears and eyes +gives to the animal a most singular and featureless appearance, its +head being hardly recognisable as such but for the mouth, and the +enormous projecting teeth, which not only look formidable, but really +are so. There is a curious superstition in the Ukraine, that if a man +will dare to grasp a Mole-rat in his bare hand, allow it to bite him, +and then squeeze it to death, the hand that did the deed will ever +afterwards possess the virtue of healing goitre or scrofula. + +This animal is spread over a very large tract of country, and is very +common in Palestine. Mr. Tristram gives an interesting account of its +discovery. "We had long tried in vain to capture the Mole of +Palestine. Its mines and its mounds we had seen everywhere, and +reproached ourselves with having omitted the mole-trap among the +items of our outfit. From the size of the mounds and the shallowness +of the subterranean passages, we felt satisfied it could not be the +European species, and our hopes of solving the question were raised +when we found that one of them had taken up its quarters close to our +camp. After several vain attempts to trap it, an Arab one night +brought a live Mole in a jar to the tent. It was no Mole properly so +called, but the Mole-rat, which takes its place throughout Western +Asia. The man, having observed our anxiety to possess a specimen, +refused to part with it for less than a hundred piastres, and +scornfully rejected the twenty piastres I offered. Ultimately, Dr. +Chaplin purchased it for five piastres after our departure, and I kept +it alive for some time in a box, feeding it on sliced onions." + +The same gentleman afterwards caught many of the Mole-rats, and kept +them in earthen vessels, as they soon gnawed their way through wood. +They fed chiefly on bulbs, but also ate sopped bread. Like many other +animals, they reposed during the day, and were active throughout the +night. + +The author then proceeds to remark on the peculiarly appropriate +character of the prophecy that the idols should be cast to the Moles +and the bats. Had the European Mole been the animal to which reference +was made, there would have been comparatively little significance in +the connexion of the two names, because, although both animals are +lovers of darkness, they do not inhabit similar localities. But the +Mole-rat is fond of frequenting deserted ruins and burial-places, so +that the Moles and the bats are really companions, and as such are +associated together in the sacred narrative. Here, as in many other +instances, we find that closer study of the Scriptures united to more +extended knowledge are by no means the enemies of religion, as some +well-meaning, but narrow-minded persons think. On the contrary, the +Scriptures were never so well understood, and their truth and force so +well recognised, as at the present day; and science has proved to be, +not the destroyer of the Bible, but its interpreter. We shall soon +cease to hear of "Science _versus_ the Bible," and shall substitute +"Science and the Bible _versus_ Ignorance and Prejudice." + +The Mole-rat needs not to dig such deep tunnels as the true Moles, +because its food does not lie so deep. The Moles live chiefly upon +earthworms, and are obliged to procure them in the varying depths to +which they burrow. But the Mole-rat lives mostly upon roots, +preferring those of a bulbous nature. Now bulbous roots are, as a +rule, situated near the surface of the ground, and, therefore, any +animal which feeds upon them must be careful not to burrow too deeply, +lest it should pass beneath them. The shallowness of the burrows is +thus accounted for. Gardens are often damaged by this animal, the +root-crops, such as carrots and onions, affording plenty of food +without needing much exertion. + +The Mole-rat does not keep itself quite so jealously secluded as does +our common Mole, but occasionally will come out of the burrow and lie +on the ground, enjoying the warm sunshine. Still it is not easily to +be approached; for though its eyes are almost useless, the ears are so +sharp, and the animal is so wary, that at the sound of a footstep it +instantly seeks the protection of its burrow, where it may bid +defiance to its foes. + +How it obtains its food is a mystery. There seems to be absolutely no +method of guiding itself to the precise spot where a bulb may be +growing. It is not difficult to conjecture the method by which the +Mole discovers its prey. Its sensitive ears may direct it to the spot +where a worm is driving its way through the earth, and should it come +upon its prey, the very touch of the worm, writhing in terror at the +approach of its enemy, would be sufficient to act as a guide. I have +kept several Moles, and always noticed that, though they would pass +close to a worm without seeming to detect its presence, either by +sight or scent, at the slightest touch they would spring round, dart +on the worm, and in a moment seize it between their jaws. But with the +Mole-rat the case is different. The root can utter no sound, and can +make no movement, nor is it likely that the odour of the bulb should +penetrate through the earth to a very great distance. + + + + +THE MOUSE. + + Conjectures as to the right translation of the Hebrew word + _Akbar_--Signification of the word--The Mice which marred the + land--Miracles, and their economy of power--The Field-mouse--Its + destructive habits and prolific nature--The insidious nature of + its attacks, and its power of escaping observation--The Hamster, + and its habits--Its custom of storing up provisions for the + winter--Its fertility and unsociable nature--The Jerboa, its + activity and destructiveness--Jerboas and Hamsters eaten by + Arabs and Syrians--Various species of Dormice and Sand-rats. + + +That the Mouse mentioned in the Old Testament was some species of +rodent animal is tolerably clear, though it is impossible to state any +particular species as being signified by the Hebrew word _Akbar_. The +probable derivation of this name is from two words which signify +"destruction of corn," and it is therefore evident that allusion is +made to some animal which devours the produce of the fields, and which +exists in sufficient numbers to make its voracity formidable. + +Some commentators on the Old Testament translate the word Akbar as +jerboa. Now, although the jerboa is common in Syria, it is not nearly +so plentiful as other rodent animals, and would scarcely be selected +as the means by which a terrible disaster is made to befall a whole +country. The student of Scripture is well aware that, in those +exceptional occurrences which are called miracles, a needless +development of the wonder-working power is never employed. We are not +to suppose, for example, that the clouds of locusts that devoured the +harvests of the Egyptians were created for this express purpose, but +that their already existing hosts were concentrated upon a limited +area, instead of being spread over a large surface. Nor need we fancy +that the frogs which rendered their habitations unclean, and +contaminated their food, were brought into existence simply to inflict +a severe punishment on the fastidious and superstitious Egyptians. + +Of course, had such an exercise of creative power been needed, it +would have been used, but we can all see that a needless miracle is +never worked. He who would not suffer even a crumb of the miraculously +multiplied bread to be wasted, is not likely to waste that power by +which the miracle was wrought. + +If we refer to the early history of the Israelitish nation, as told in +1 Sam. iv.--vi., we shall find that the Israelites made an +unwarrantable use of the ark, by taking it into battle, and that it +was captured and carried off into the country of the Philistines. Then +various signs were sent to warn the captors to send the ark back to +its rightful possessors. Dagon, the great fish-god, was prostrated +before it, painful diseases attacked them, so that many died, and +scarcely any seem to have escaped, while their harvests were ravaged +by numbers of "mice that marred the land." + +The question is now simple enough. If the ordinary translation is +accepted, and the word Akbar rendered as Mouse, would the necessary +conditions be fulfilled, _i.e._ would the creature be destructive, and +would it exist in very great numbers? Now we shall find that both +these conditions are fulfilled by the common Field-mouse (_Arvicola +arvalis_). + +This little creature is, in proportion to its size, one of the most +destructive animals in the world. Let its numbers be increased from +any cause whatever, and it will most effectually "mar the land." It +will devour every cereal that is sown, and kill almost any sapling +that is planted. It does not even wait for the corn to spring up, but +will burrow beneath the surface, and dig out the seed before it has +had time to sprout. In the early part of the year, it will eat the +green blade as soon as it springs out of the ground, and is an adept +at climbing the stalks of corn, and plundering the ripe ears in the +autumn. + +When stacked or laid up in barns, the harvest is by no means safe, for +the Mice will penetrate into any ordinary barn, and find their way +into any carelessly-built stack, from which they can scarcely be +ejected. The rat itself is not so dire a foe to the farmer, as the +less obtrusive, but equally mischievous Field-mouse. The ferret will +drive the rats out of their holes, and if they have taken possession +of a wheat-stack they can be ejected by depriving them of access to +water. But the burrows of the Field-mouse are so small that a ferret +cannot make its way through them, and the nightly dew that falls on +the stack affords an ample supply of water. + + [Illustration: THE FIELD-MOUSE. + + "_Wherefore ye shall make images of your mice that mar the land._"--1 + SAM. vi. 5.] + +When the Field-mouse is deprived of the food which it loves best, it +finds a subsistence among the trees. Whenever mice can discover a +newly-planted sapling, they hold great revel upon it, eating away the +tender young bark as high as they can reach, and consequently +destroying the tree as effectually as if it were cut down. Even when +the young trees fail them, and no tender bark is to be had, the +Field-mice can still exert their destructive powers. They will then +betake themselves to the earth, burrow beneath its surface, and devour +the young rootlets of the forest trees. All botanists know that a +healthy tree is continually pushing forward fresh roots below the +ground, in order to gain sufficient nourishment to supply the +increasing growth above. If, therefore, these young roots are +destroyed, the least harm that can happen to the tree is that its +further growth is arrested; while, in many cases, the tree, which +cannot repair the injuries it has received, droops gradually, and +finally dies. Even in this country, the Field-mouse has proved itself +a terrible enemy to the agriculturist, and has devastated considerable +tracts of land. + +So much for the destructive powers of the Field-mouse, and the next +point to be considered is its abundance. + +Nearly all the rats and mice are singularly prolific animals, +producing a considerable number at a brood, and having several broods +in a season. The Field-mouse is by no means an exception to the +general rule, but produces as many young in a season as any of the +Mice. + +Not only is it formidable from its numbers, but from the insidious +nature of its attacks. Any one can see a rabbit, a hare, or even a +rat; but to see a Field-mouse is not easy, even when the little +creatures are present in thousands. A Field-mouse never shows itself +except from necessity, its instinct teaching it to escape the +observation of its many furred and feathered enemies. Short-legged and +soft-furred, it threads its noiseless way among the herbage with such +gentle suppleness that scarcely a grass-blade is stirred, while, if it +should be forced to pass over a spot of bare ground, the red-brown hue +of its fur prevents it from being detected by an inexperienced eye. +Generally the Field-mouse is safe from human foes, and has only to +dread the piercing eye and swift wings of the hawk, or the silent +flight and sharp talons of the owl. + +Although there can be no doubt that the Field-mouse is one of the +animals to which the name of Akbar is given, it is probable that many +species were grouped under this one name. Small rodents of various +kinds are very plentiful in Palestine, and there are several species +closely allied to the Field-mouse itself. + +Among them is the Hamster (_Cricetus frumentarius_), so widely known +for the ravages which it makes among the crops. This terribly +destructive animal not only steals the crops for immediate +subsistence, but lays up a large stock of provisions for the winter, +seeming to be actuated by a sort of miserly passion for collecting and +storing away. There seems to be no bounds to the quantity of food +which a Hamster will carry into its subterranean store-house, from +seventy to one hundred pounds' weight being sometimes taken out of +the burrow of a single animal. The fact of the existence of these +large stores shows that the animal must need them, and accordingly we +find that the Hamster is only a partial hibernator, as it is awake +during a considerable portion of the winter months, and is +consequently obliged to live on the stores which it has collected. + +It is an exceedingly prolific animal, each pair producing on an +average twenty-five young in the course of a year. The families are +unsociable, and, as soon as they are strong enough to feed themselves, +the young Hamsters leave their home, and make separate burrows for +themselves. Thus we see that the Hamster, as well as the Field-mouse, +fulfils the conditions which are needed in order to class it under the +general title of Akbar. + +I have already stated that some translators of the Bible use the word +Jerboa as a rendering of the Hebrew Akbar. As the Jerboa certainly is +found in Palestine, there is some foundation for this idea, and we may +safely conjecture that it also is one of the smaller rodents which are +grouped together under the appellation of Mouse. + +The Common Jerboa (_Dipus Ægyptiacus_) is plentiful in Palestine, and +several other species inhabit the same country, known at once by their +long and slender legs, which give them so curious a resemblance to the +kangaroos of Australia. The Jerboas pass over the ground with +astonishing rapidity. Instead of creeping stealthily among the +grass-blades, like the short-limbed field-mouse, the Jerboa flies +along with a succession of wonderful leaps, darting here and there +with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow its wayward +movements. When quiet and undisturbed, it hops along gently enough, +but as soon as it takes alarm, it darts off in its peculiar manner, +which is to the ordinary walk of quadrupeds what the devious course of +a frightened snipe is to the steady flight of birds in general. + +It prefers hot and dry situations, its feet being defended by a thick +coating of stiff hairs, which serve the double purpose of protecting +it from the heat, and giving it a firm hold on the ground. It is +rather a destructive animal, its sharp and powerful teeth enabling it +to bite its way through obstacles which would effectually stop an +ordinary Mouse. That the Jerboa may be one of the Akbarim is rendered +likely by the prohibition in Lev. xi. 29, forbidding the Mouse to be +eaten. It would be scarcely probable that such a command need have +been issued against eating the common Mouse, whereas the Jerboa, a +much larger and palatable animal, is always eaten by the Arabs. The +Hamster is at the present day eaten in Northern Syria. + +Beside these creatures there are the Dormice, several species of which +animal inhabit Palestine at the present day. There are also the +Sand-rats, one species of which is larger than our ordinary rats. The +Sand-rats live more in the deserts than the cultivated lands, making +their burrows at the foot of hills, and among the roots of bushes. + + + + +THE HARE. + + The prohibitions of the Mosaic law--The chewing of the cud, and + division of the hoof--Identity of the Hare of + Scripture--Rumination described--The Hare a rodent and not a + ruminant--Cowper and his Hares--Structure of the rodent + tooth--The Mosaic law accommodated to its recipients--The Hares + of Palestine and their habits. + + +Among the many provisions of the Mosaic law are several which refer to +the diet of the Israelites, and which prohibit certain kinds of food. +Special stress is laid upon the flesh of animals, and the list of +those which may be lawfully eaten is a singularly restricted one, all +being excluded except those which "divide the hoof and chew the cud." +And, lest there should be any mistake about the matter, examples are +given both of those animals which may and those which may not be +eaten. + +The ox, sheep, goat, and antelopes generally are permitted as lawful +food, because they fulfil both conditions; whereas there is a special +prohibition of the swine, because it divides the hoof but does not +chew the cud, and of the camel, coney, and hare because they chew the +cud, but do not divide the hoof. Our business at present is with the +last of these animals. + +Considerable discussion has been raised concerning this animal, +because, as is well known to naturalists, the Hare is not one of the +ruminant animals, but belongs to the same order as the rat, rabbit, +beaver, and other rodents. Neither its teeth nor its stomach are +constructed for the purpose of enabling it to ruminate, i.e. to return +into the mouth the partially-digested food, and then to masticate it +afresh; and therefore it has been thought that either there is some +mistake in the sacred narrative, or that the Hebrew word has been +mistranslated. + + [Illustration: THE SYRIAN HARE. + + "_Nevertheless, these ye shall not eat of them that chew the cud, or + of them that divide the cloven hoof: as the camel, and the hare, and + the coney._"--DEUT. xiv. 7.] + +Taking the latter point first, as being the simplest of the two, we +find that the Hebrew word which is rendered as Hare is Arnebeth, and +that it is rendered in the Septuagint as Dasypus, or the Hare,--a +rendering which the Jewish Bible adopts. That the Arnebeth is really +the Hare may also be conjectured from the fact that the Arabic name +for that animal is Arneb. In consequence of the rather wide sense to +which the Greek word Dasypus (_i.e._ hairy-foot) is used, some +commentators have suggested that the rabbit may have been included in +the same title. This, however, is not at all likely, inasmuch as the +Hare is very plentiful in Palestine, and the rabbit is believed not +to be indigenous to that part of the world. And, even if the two +animals had been classed under the same title, the physiological +difficulty would not be removed. + +Before proceeding further, it will be as well to give a brief +description of the curious act called rumination, or "chewing the +cud." + +There are certain animals, such as the oxen, antelopes, deer, sheep, +goats, camels, &c. which have teeth unfitted for the rapid mastication +of food, and which therefore are supplied with a remarkable apparatus +by which the food can be returned into the mouth when the animal has +leisure, and be re-masticated before it passes into the true digestive +organs. + +For this purpose they are furnished with four stomachs, which are +arranged in the following order. First comes the paunch or "rumen" +(whence the word "ruminating"), into which passes the food in a very +rough state, just as it is torn, rather than bitten, from the herbage, +and which is analogous to the crop in birds. It thence passes into the +second stomach, or "honeycomb," the walls of which are covered with +small angular cells. Into those cells the food is received from the +first stomach, and compressed into little balls, which can be +voluntarily returned into the mouth for mastication. + +After the second mastication has been completed, the food passes at +once into the third stomach, and thence into the fourth, which is the +true digesting cavity. By a peculiar structure of these organs, the +animal is able to convey its food either into the first or third +stomach, at will, _i.e._ into the first when the grass is eaten, and +into the third after rumination. Thus it will be seen that an animal +which chews the cud must have teeth of a certain character, and be +possessed of the fourfold stomach which has just been described. + +Two points are conceded which seem to be utterly irreconcilable with +each other. The first is that the Mosaic law distinctly states that +the Hare chews the cud; the second is, that in point of fact the Hare +is not, and cannot be, a ruminating animal, possessing neither the +teeth nor the digestive organs which are indispensable for that +process. Yet, totally opposed as these statements appear to be, they +are in fact, not so irreconcilable as they seem. + +Why the flesh of certain animals was prohibited, we do not at the +present time know. That the flesh of swine should be forbidden food is +likely enough, considering the effects which the habitual eating of +swine's flesh is said to produce in hot countries. But it does seem +very strange that the Israelites should have been forbidden to eat the +flesh of the camel, the coney (or hyrax), and the Hare, and that these +animals should have been specified is a proof that the eating or +refraining from their flesh was not a mere sanitary regulation, but +was a matter of importance. The flesh of all these three animals is +quite as good and nutritious as that of the oxen, or goats, which are +eaten in Palestine, and that of the Hare is far superior to them. +Therefore, the people of Israel, who were always apt to take liberties +with the restrictive laws, and were crafty enough to evade them on so +many occasions, would have been likely to pronounce that the flesh of +the Hare was lawful meat, because the animal chewed the cud, or +appeared to do so, and they would discreetly have omitted the passage +which alluded to the division of the hoof. + +To a non-scientific observer the Hare really does appear to chew the +cud. When it is reposing at its ease, it continually moves its jaws +about as if eating something, an action which may readily be mistaken +for true rumination. Even Cowper, the poet, who kept some hares for +several years, and had them always before his eyes, was deceived by +this mumbling movement of the jaws. Speaking of his favourite hare, +"Puss," he proceeds as follows: "Finding him exceedingly tractable, I +made it my custom to carry him always after breakfast into the garden, +where he hid himself generally under the leaves of a cucumber vine, +sleeping, _or chewing the cud_, till evening." + +The real object of this continual grinding or mumbling movement is +simple enough. The chisel-like incisor teeth of the rodent animals +need to be rubbed against each other, in order to preserve their edge +and shape, and if perchance such friction should be wanting to a +tooth, as, for example, by the breaking of the opposite tooth, it +becomes greatly elongated, and sometimes grows to such a length as to +prevent the animal from eating. Instinctively, therefore, the Hare, as +well as the rabbit and other rodents, always likes to be nibbling at +something, as any one knows who has kept rabbits in wooden hutches, +the object of this nibbling not being to eat the wood, but to keep +the teeth in order. + +But we may naturally ask ourselves, why the Mosaic law, an emanation +from heaven, should mention an animal as being a ruminant, when its +very structure shows that such an act was utterly impossible? The +answer is clear enough. The law was suited to the capacity of those +for whom it was intended, and was never meant to be a handbook of +science, as well as a code of religious duties and maxims. The Jews, +like other Orientals, were indifferent to that branch of knowledge +which we designate by the name of physical science, and it was +necessary that the language in which the law was conveyed to them +should be accommodated to their capabilities of receiving it. + +It would have been worse than useless to have interrupted the solemn +revelation of Divine will with a lesson in comparative anatomy; the +object of the passage in question being, not to teach the Jews the +distinctive characteristics of a rodent and a ruminant, but to guard +against their mistaking the Hare for one of the ruminants which were +permitted as food. That they would in all probability have fallen into +that mistake is evident from the fact that the Arabs are exceedingly +fond of the flesh of the Hare, and accept it, as well as the camel, as +lawful food, because it chews the cud, the division of the hoof not +being considered by them as an essential. + +Hares are very plentiful in Palestine, and at least two species are +found in that country. One of them, which inhabits the more northern +and hilly portion of Palestine, closely resembles our own species, but +has not ears quite so long in proportion, while the head is broader. +The second species, which lives in the south, and in the valley of the +Jordan, is very small, is of a light dun colour, and has very long +ears. In their general habits, these Hares resemble the Hare of +England. + + + + +CATTLE. + + The cattle of Palestine, and their decadence at the present + day--Ox-flesh not used for food in modern times--Oxen of the + stall, and oxen of the pasture--The use of the ox in + agriculture--The yoke and its structure--The plough and the + goad--The latter capable of being used as a weapon--Treading out + the corn--The cart and its wheels--The ox used as a beast of + burden--Cattle turned loose to graze--The bulls of + Bashan--Curiosity of the ox-tribe--A season of drought--Branding + the cattle--An Egyptian field scene--Cattle-keeping an + honourable post--The ox as used for sacrifice--Ox-worship--The + bull Apis, and his history--Persistency of the + bull-worship--Jeroboam's sin--Various names of cattle--The + Indian buffalo. + + +Under this head we shall treat of the domesticated oxen of Scripture, +whether mentioned as Bull, Cow, Ox, Calf, Heifer, &c. + +Two distinct species of cattle are found in Palestine, namely, the +ordinary domesticated ox, and the Indian buffalo, which lives in the +low-lying and marshy valley of the Jordan. Of this species we shall +treat presently. + +The domesticated cattle are very much like our own, but there is not +among them that diversity of breed for which this country is famous; +nor is there even any distinction of long and short horned cattle. +There are some places where the animals are larger than in others, but +this difference is occasioned simply by the better quality and greater +quantity of the food. + +As is the case in most parts of the world where civilization has made +any progress, Domesticated Cattle were, and still are, plentiful in +Palestine. Even at the present time the cattle are in common use, +though it is evident, from many passages of Holy Writ, that in the +days of Judæa's prosperity cattle were far more numerous than they are +now, and were treated in a better fashion. + +To take their most sacred use first, a constant supply of cattle was +needed for the sacrifices, and, as it was necessary that every animal +which was brought to the altar should be absolutely perfect, it is +evident that great care was required in order that the breed should +not deteriorate, a skill which has long been rendered useless by the +abandonment of the sacrifices. + +Another reason for their better nurture in the times of old is that in +those days the ox was largely fed and fatted for the table, just as is +done with ourselves. At the present day, the flesh of the cattle is +practically unused as food, that of the sheep or goat being always +employed, even when a man gives a feast to his friends. But, in the +old times, stalled oxen, _i.e._ oxen kept asunder from those which +were used for agricultural purposes, and expressly fatted for the +table, were in constant use. See for example the well-known passage in +the Prov. xv. 17, "Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a +stalled ox and hatred therewith." Again, the Prophet Jeremiah makes +use of a curious simile, "Egypt is like a very fair heifer, but +destruction cometh; it cometh out of the north. Also her hired men are +in the midst of her like fatted bullocks [or, bullocks of the stall], +for they also are turned back, and are fled away together." (Jer. +xlvi. 20.) And in 1 Kings iv. 22, 23, when describing the glories of +Solomon's household, the sacred writer draws a distinction between the +oxen which were especially fattened for the table of the king and the +superior officers, and those which were consumed by the lower orders +of his household: "And Solomon's provision for one day was thirty +measures of fine flour, and threescore measures of meal, ten fat oxen, +and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and an hundred sheep, beside +harts, and roebucks, and fallow-deer, and fatted fowl." Again, in the +well-known parable of the king's marriage, there is an allusion to +fatted animals, and a distinction is made between the oxen of the +pasture and those of the stall. "Again, he sent forth other servants, +saying, Tell them which are bidden, Behold, I have prepared my dinner, +my oxen and my fatlings are killed, and all things are ready." + +Calves--mostly, if not always, bull-calves--were largely used for food +in Palestine, and in the households of the wealthy were fatted for the +table. See, for example, the familiar parable of the prodigal son, in +which the rejoicing father is mentioned as preparing a great feast in +honour of his son's return, and ordering the fatted calf to be +killed--the calf in question being evidently one of the animals that +were kept in good condition against any festive occasion. And, even in +the earliest history of the Bible, the custom of keeping a fatted calf +evidently prevailed, as is shown by the conduct of Abraham, who, when +he was visited by the three heavenly guests, "ran unto the herd, and +fetched a calf, tender and good," and had it killed and dressed at +once, after the still existing fashion of the East. + +But, even in the times of Israel's greatest prosperity, the chief use +of the ox was as an agricultural labourer, thus reversing the custom +of this country, where the horse has taken the place of the ox as a +beast of draught, and where cattle are principally fed for food. +Ploughing was, and is, always performed by oxen, and allusions to this +office are scattered plentifully through the Old and New Testaments. + +When understood in this sense, oxen are almost always spoken of in +connexion with the word "yoke," and as each yoke comprised two oxen, +it is evident that the word is used as we employ the term "brace," or +pair. The yoke, which is the chief part of the harness, is a very +simple affair. A tolerably stout beam of wood is cut of a sufficient +length to rest upon the necks of the oxen standing side by side, and a +couple of hollows are scooped out to receive the crest of the neck. In +order to hold it in its place, two flexible sticks are bent under +their necks, and the ends fixed into the beam of the yoke. In the +middle of this yoke is fastened the pole of the plough or cart, and +this is all the harness that is used, not even traces being required. + +It will be seen that so rude an implement as this would be very likely +to gall the necks of the animals, unless the hollows were carefully +smoothed, and the heavy beam adapted to the necks of the animals. This +galling nature of the yoke, so familiar to the Israelites, is used +repeatedly as a metaphor in many passages of the Old and New +Testaments. These passages are too numerous to be quoted, but I will +give one or two of the most conspicuous among them. The earliest +mention of the yoke in the Scriptures is a metaphor. + +After Jacob had deceived his father, in procuring for himself the +blessing which was intended for his elder brother, Isaac comforts Esau +by the prophecy that, although he must serve his brother, yet "it +shall come to pass when thou shalt have the dominion, that thou shalt +break his yoke from off thy neck." Again, in the next passage where +the yoke is mentioned, namely, Lev. xxvi. 13, the word is employed in +the metaphorical sense: "I am the Lord your God, which brought you +forth out of the land of Egypt, that ye should not be their bondmen, +and I have broken the bands of your yoke, and made you go upright." + +Then, in Deut. xxviii. 48, the word yoke is not only used +metaphorically, but with an addition that forcibly expresses its +weight and galling character: "Therefore shalt thou serve thine +enemies, which the Lord shall send against thee, in hunger, and in +thirst, and in nakedness, and in want of all things, and He shall put +a yoke of iron upon thy neck, until He have destroyed thee." + +The word yoke is also used as a metaphor for servitude, even of a +domestic character, as we may see in 1 Tim. vi. 1: "Let as many +servants as are under the yoke count their own masters worthy of all +honour." In the Acts of the Apostles, we find St. Peter using the same +metaphor: "Why tempt ye God, to put a yoke on the neck of the +disciples, which neither our fathers nor we were able to bear?" And +the Lord Himself uses the same metaphor in the well-known passage, +"Take my yoke upon you, for my yoke is easy and my burden light." + +The plough was equally simple, and consisted essentially of a bent +branch, one end of which was armed with an iron point by way of a +share, while the other formed the pole or beam, and was fastened to +the middle of the yoke. It was guided by a handle, which was usually a +smaller branch that grew from the principal one. A nearly similar +instrument is used in Asia Minor to the present day, and is a curious +relic of the most ancient times of history, for we find on the +Egyptian monuments figures of the various agricultural processes, in +which the plough is made after this simple manner. + + [Illustration: "It is good for a man to bear the yoke in his + youth."--LAM. iii. 27. + + "He maketh them also to skip like a calf."--PSALM xxix. 6.] + +Of course such an instrument is a very ineffective one, and can but +scratch, rather than plough the ground, the warmth of the climate and +fertility of the land rendering needless the deep ploughing of our own +country, where the object is to turn up the earth to the greatest +possible depth. One yoke of oxen was generally sufficient to draw a +plough, but occasionally a much greater number were required. We read, +for example, of Elisha, who, when he received his call from Elijah, +was ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen, i.e. twenty-four. It has been +suggested, that the twelve yoke of oxen were not all attached to the +same plough, but that there were twelve ploughs, each with its single +yoke of oxen. This, however, was scarcely likely to be the case, +as it is definitely stated that Elisha "was ploughing with +twelve yoke of oxen before him, and he with the twelfth," and it +is much more probable that the land was heavy, and that, therefore, +the plough could not be properly worked without the additional force. + +The instrument with which the cattle were driven was not a whip, but a +goad. This goad was a long and stout stick, armed with a spike at one +end, and having a kind of spud at the other, with which the earth +could be scraped off the share when it became clogged. Such an +instrument might readily be used as a weapon, and, in the hands of a +powerful man, might be made even more formidable than a spear. As a +weapon, it often was used, as we see from many passages of the +Scriptures. For example, it is said in Judges iii. 31, "that Shamgar +the son of Anath killed six hundred Philistines with an ox-goad." + +Afterwards, in the beginning of Saul's reign, when the Israelites +fairly measured themselves against the Philistines, it was found that +only Saul and Jonathan were even tolerably armed. Fearful of the +numbers and spirit of the Israelites, the Philistines had disarmed +them, and were so cautious that they did not even allow them to +possess forges wherewith to make or sharpen the various agricultural +instruments which they possessed, lest they should surreptitiously +provide themselves with weapons. The only smith's tool which they were +allowed to retain was a file with which each man might trim the edges +of the ploughshares, mattocks, axes, and sharpen the points of the +goad. The only weapons which they could muster were made of their +agricultural implements, and among the most formidable of them was the +goad. + +How the goad came into use in Palestine may easily be seen. The +Egyptians, from among whom the people of Israel passed into the +Promised Land, did not use the goad in ploughing, but the whip, which, +from the representations on the Egyptian monuments, was identical with +the koorbash, or "cow-hide" whip, which is now in use in the same +country. But this terrible whip, which is capable, when wielded by a +skilful hand, of cutting deep grooves through the tough hide of the +ox, could not be obtained by the Jews, because the hippopotamus, of +whose hide it was made, did not live in or near Palestine. They +therefore were forced to use some other instrument wherewith to urge +on the oxen, and the goad was clearly the simplest and most effective +implement for this purpose. + +After the land was ploughed and sown, and the harvest was ripened, the +labours of the oxen were again called into requisition, first for +threshing out the corn, and next for carrying or drawing the grain to +the storehouses. + +In the earlier days, the process of threshing was very simple. A +circular piece of ground was levelled, and beaten very hard and flat, +its diameter being from fifty to a hundred feet. On this ground the +corn was thrown, and a number of oxen were driven here and there on +it, so that the constant trampling of their feet shook the ripe grain +out of the ears. The corn was gathered together in the middle of the +floor, and as fast as it was scattered by the feet of the oxen, it was +thrown back towards the centre. + +Afterwards, an improvement was introduced in the form of a rough +sledge, called "moreg," to which the oxen were harnessed by a yoke, +and on which the driver stood as he guided his team round the +threshing-floor. This instrument is mentioned in Isa. xli. 15: +"Behold, I will make thee anew and sharp threshing instrument having +teeth [or mouths]: thou shalt thresh the mountains, and beat them +small, and shalt make the hills as chaff." Mention is also made of the +same implement in 2 Sam. xxiv. 22, where it is related that Araunah +the Jebusite offered to give David the oxen for a burnt-sacrifice, and +the moregs and other implements as wood with which they could be +burned. + +The work of treading out the corn was a hard and trying one for the +oxen, and it was probably on this account that the kindly edict was +made, that the oxen who trod out the corn should not be muzzled. As a +rule, the cattle were not fed nearly as carefully as is done with us, +and so the labours of the threshing-floor would find a compensation in +the temporary abundance of which the animals might take their fill. + +After the corn was threshed, or rather trodden out, the oxen had to +draw it home in carts. These were but slight improvements on the +threshing-sledge, and were simply trays or shallow boxes on a pair of +wheels. As the wheels were merely slices cut from the trunk of a tree, +and were not furnished with iron tires, they were not remarkable for +roundness, and indeed, after a little time, were worn into rather +irregular ovals, so that the task of dragging a cart over the rough +roads was by no means an easy one. And, as the axle was simply a stout +pole fastened to the bottom of the cart, and having its rounded ends +thrust through holes in the middle of the wheels, the friction was +enormous. As, moreover, oil and grease were far too precious luxuries +to be wasted in lubricating the axles, the creaking and groaning of +the wheels was a singularly disagreeable and ear-piercing sound. + + [Illustration: TREADING OUT CORN. + + "_Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the + corn._"--(DEUT. xxv. 4.)] + +The common hackery of India is a good example of the carts mentioned +in the Scriptures. As with the plough, the cart was drawn by a couple +of oxen, connected by the yoke. The two kinds of cart, namely, the +tray and the box, are clearly indicated in the Scriptures. The new +cart on which the Ark was placed when it was sent back by the +Philistines (see 1 Sam. vi. 7) was evidently one of the former kind, +and so was that which was made twenty years afterwards, for the +purpose of conveying the Ark to Jerusalem. + +The second kind of cart is mentioned by the Prophet Amos (ch. ii. 13), +"Behold, I am pressed under you, as a cart is pressed that is full of +sheaves," reference being evidently made to heaping up of the sheaves +in the cart, and pressing them down, as is done at the present day. + +That oxen were also employed as beasts of burden is shown by the +passage in 1 Chron. xii. 40, "Moreover, they that were nigh them, even +unto Issachar, and Zebulun, and Napthali, brought bread on asses, and +on camels, and on mules, and on oxen." + +Although the cattle were evidently better tended in the olden times +than at present, those animals which were used for agriculture seem to +have passed rather a rough life, especially in the winter time. It is +rather curious that the Jews should have had no idea of preserving the +grass by making it into hay, as is done in Europe. Consequently the +chief food of the cattle was the straw and chaff which remained on the +threshing-floor after the grain had been separated. See Isa. xxx. 23: +"In that day shall thy cattle feed in large pastures. The oxen +likewise, and the young asses that ear the ground shall eat clean +provender, which hath been winnowed with the shovel and with the fan." + +This, indeed, was the only use to which the straw could be put, for it +was so crushed and broken by the feet of the oxen and the +threshing-sledge that it was rendered useless. Allusion is made to the +crushing of the straw in many passages of Scripture. See, for example, +Isa. xxv. 10, "Moab shall be trodden down [or threshed] under him, +even as straw is trodden down for the dunghill." + +The want of winter forage is the chief reason why cattle are so +irregularly disposed over Palestine, many parts of that country being +entirely without them, and only those districts containing them in +which fresh forage may be found throughout the year. + +Except a few yoke of oxen, which are kept in order to draw carts, and +act as beasts of burden, the cattle are turned loose for a +considerable portion of the year, and run about in herds from one +pasturage to another. Thus they regain many of the characteristics of +wild animals, and it is to this habit of theirs that many of the +Scriptural allusions can be traced. + +For example, see Ps. xxii. 12, "Many bulls have compassed me, strong +bulls of Bashan have beset me round. They gaped on me with their +mouths [or, their mouths opened against me] as a ravening and a +roaring lion." This passage alludes to the curiosity inherent in +cattle, which have a habit of following objects which they do not +understand or dislike, and surrounding it with looks of grave +wonderment. Even in their domesticated state this habit prevails. When +I was a boy, I sometimes amused myself with going into a field where a +number of cows and oxen were grazing, and lying down in the middle of +it. The cattle would soon become uneasy, toss their heads about, and +gradually draw near on every side, until at last they would be pressed +together closely in a circle, with their heads just above the object +of their astonishment. Their curious, earnest looks have always been +present to my mind when reading the above quoted passage. + +The Psalmist does not necessarily mean that the bulls in question were +dangerous animals. On the contrary, the bulls of Palestine are gentle +in comparison with our own animals, which are too often made savage by +confinement and the harsh treatment to which they are subjected by +rough and ignorant labourers. In Palestine a pair of bulls may +constantly be seen attached to the same yoke, a thing that never would +be seen in this country. + +The custom of turning the herds of cattle loose to find pasture for +themselves is alluded to in Joel i. 18, "How do the beasts groan! the +herds of cattle are perplexed because they have no pasture." We can +easily imagine to ourselves the terrible time to which the prophet +refers, "when the rivers of waters are dried up, and the fire hath +devoured the pastures of the wilderness," as it is wont to do when a +spark falls upon grass dried up and withered, by reason of the sun's +heat and the lack of water. Over such a country, first withered by +drought, and then desolated by fire, would the cattle wander, vainly +searching on the dusty and blackened surface for the tender young +blades which always spring up on a burnt pasture as soon as the first +rains fall. Moaning and bellowing with thirst and disappointment, +they would vainly seek for food or water in places where the seed lies +still under the clods where it was sown (v. 17), where the vines are +dried up, and the fig, the pomegranate and the palm (v. 12) are all +withered for want of moisture. + +Such scenes are still to be witnessed in several parts of the world. +Southern Africa is sometimes sadly conspicuous for them, an +exceptional season of drought keeping back the fresh grass after the +old pastures have been burned (the ordinary mode of cultivating +pasture land). Then the vast herds of cattle, whose milk forms the +staff of life to the inhabitants, wander to and fro, gathering in +masses round any spot where a spring still yields a little water, and +bellowing and moaning with thirst as they press their way towards the +spot where their owners are doling out to each a small measure of the +priceless fluid. + +The cattle are branded with the mark of their owners, so that in these +large herds there might be no difficulty in distinguishing them when +they were re-captured for the plough and the cart. On one of the +Egyptian monuments there is a very interesting group, which has +furnished the idea for the plate which illustrates this article. It +occurs in the tombs of the kings at Thebes, and represents a ploughing +scene. The simple two-handled plough is being dragged by a pair of +cows, who have the yoke fastened across the horns instead of lying on +the neck, and a sower is following behind, scattering the grain out of +a basket into the newly-made furrows. In front of the cows is a young +calf, which has run to meet its mother, and is leaping for joy before +her as she steadily plods along her course. + +The action of both animals is admirably represented; the steady and +firm gait of the mother contrasting with the light, gambolling step +and arched tail of her offspring. Both are branded with the same mark, +namely, three equal-armed crosses, one on the haunch, another on the +side, and a third on the neck. The driver carries the whip, or +koorbash, which has been already mentioned, and which is familiar to +travellers in Southern Africa under the title of "sjambok." + +In the olden times of the Israelitish race, herd-keeping was +considered as an honourable occupation, in which men of the highest +rank might engage without any derogation to their dignity. We find, +for instance, that Saul himself, even after he had been appointed +king, was acting as herdsman when the people saw the mistake they had +made in rejecting him as their monarch, and came to fetch their +divinely-appointed leader from his retirement. (See 1 Sam. xi. 5.) +Doeg, too, the faithful companion of Saul, was made the chief herdsman +of his master's cattle, so that for Saul to confer such an office, and +Doeg to accept it, shows that the post was one of much honour. And +afterwards, when David was in the zenith of his power, he completed +the organization of his kingdom, portioning out not only his army into +battalions, and assigning a commanding officer to each battalion, but +also appointing a ruler to each tribe, and setting officers over his +treasury, over the vineyards, over the olive-trees, over the +storehouses, and over the cattle. And these offices were so important +that the names of their holders are given at length in 1 Chron. xxvii. +those of the various herdsmen being thought as worthy of mention as +those of the treasurers, the military commanders, or the headmen of +the tribes. + +Before concluding this necessarily short account of the domesticated +oxen of Palestine, it will be needful to give a few lines to the +animal viewed in a religious aspect. Here we have, in bold contrast to +each other, the divine appointment of certain cattle to be slain as +sacrifices, and the reprobation of worship paid to those very cattle +as living emblems of divinity. This false worship was learned by the +Israelites during their long residence in Egypt, and so deeply had the +customs of the Egyptian religion sunk into their hearts, that they +were not eradicated after the lapse of centuries. It may easily be +imagined that such a superstition, surrounded as it was with every +external circumstance which could make it more imposing, would take a +powerful hold of the Jewish mind. + +Chief among the multitude of idols or symbols was the god Apis, +represented by a bull. Many other animals, specially the cat and the +ibis, were deeply honoured among the ancient Egyptians, as we learn +from their own monuments and from the works of the old historians. All +these creatures were symbols as well as idols, symbols to the educated +and idols to the ignorant. + +None of them was held in such universal honour as the bull Apis. The +particular animal which represented the deity, and which was lodged +with great state and honour in his temple at Memphis, was thought to +be divinely selected for the purpose, and to be impressed with certain +marks. His colour must be black, except a square spot on the forehead, +a crescent-shaped white spot on the right side, and the figure of an +eagle on his back. Under the tongue must be a knob shaped like the +sacred scarabæus, and the hairs of his tail must be double. + +This representative animal was only allowed to live for a certain +time, and when he had reached this allotted period, he was taken in +solemn procession to the Nile, and drowned in its sacred waters. His +body was then embalmed, and placed with great state in the tombs at +Memphis. + +After his death, whether natural or not, the whole nation went into +mourning, and exhibited all the conventional signs of sorrow, until +the priests found another bull which possessed the distinctive marks. +The people then threw off their mourning robes, and appeared in their +best attire, and the sacred bull was exhibited in state for forty days +before he was taken to his temple at Memphis. The reader will here +remember the analogous case of the Indian cattle, some of which are +held to be little less than incarnations of divinity. + +Even at the very beginning of the exodus, when their minds must have +been filled with the many miracles that had been wrought in their +behalf, and with the cloud and fire of Sinai actually before their +eyes, Aaron himself made an image of a calf in gold, and set it up as +a symbol of the Lord. That the idol in question was intended as a +symbol by Aaron is evident from the words which he used when summoning +the people to worship, "To-morrow is a feast of the Lord" (Gen. xxxii. +5). The people, however, clearly lacked the power of discriminating +between the symbol and that which it represented, and worshipped the +image just as any other idol might be worshipped. And, in spite of the +terrible and swift punishment that followed, and which showed the +profanity of the act, the idea of ox-worship still remained among the +people. + +Five hundred years afterwards we find a familiar example of it in the +conduct of Jeroboam, "who made Israel to sin," the peculiar crime +being the open resuscitation of ox-worship. "The king made two calves +of gold and said unto them, It is too much for you to go up to +Jerusalem: behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of +the land of Egypt. And he set the one in Bethel, and the other put he +in Dan.... And he made an house of high places, and made priests of +the lowest of the people, which were not of the tribe of Levi. And +Jeroboam ordained a feast ... like unto the feast in Judah, and he +offered upon the altar. So did he in Bethel, sacrificing unto the +calves that he had made." + +Here we have a singular instance of a king of Israel repeating, after +a lapse of five hundred years, the very acts which had drawn down on +the people so severe a punishment, and which were so contrary to the +law that they had incited Moses to fling down and break the sacred +tables on which the commandments had been divinely inscribed. Nothing +is omitted: the shape of the idol, the material of which it is +composed, the offerings, and the very words in which Aaron had so +deeply sinned, "Behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out +of the land of Egypt." Successive monarchs followed his example, and, +according to the graphic words of Scripture, they "departed not from +the ways of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, who made Israel to sin." + +As was likely to be the case in a land where cattle were of such +importance, and often formed the principal wealth of the inhabitants, +many words were in use to distinguish the cattle according to sex, +age, and number. Thus, Bakar signifies the adult animal of either sex, +the test of full growth being fitness for the plough. Consequently, +Ben-Baka, or son of the herd, signifies a male calf, and Aiglah-Bakar, +a female calf. The term Bakar is derived from a Hebrew word signifying +to cleave or plough, and hence it is used as to signify those animals +which are old enough to be put to the plough. + +Then there is the word Shor, or Tor, to signify a single head of +cattle, of any age, or of either sex. The second form of this word is +familiar to us in the Latin word "taurus," and the English "steer." +There are several other words, such as Par, a young bull, and Parah, a +heifer, which do not need explanation. + + +Another species of the ox-tribe now inhabits Palestine, though +commentators rather doubt whether it is not a comparatively late +importation. This is the true BUFFALO (_Bubalus buffelus_, Gray), +which is spread over a very large portion of the earth, and is very +plentiful in India. In that country there are two distinct breeds of +the Buffalo, namely, the Arnee, a wild variety, and the Bhainsa, a +tamed variety. The former animal is much larger than the latter, being +sometimes more than ten feet in length from the nose to the root of +the tail, and measuring between six and seven feet in height at the +shoulder. Its horns are of enormous length, the tail is very short, +and tufts of hair grow on the forehead and horns. The tamed variety is +at least one-third smaller, and, unlike the Arnee, never seems to get +into high condition. It is an ugly, ungainly kind of beast, and is +rendered very unprepossessing to the eye by the bald patches which are +mostly found upon its hide. + + [Illustration: THE BUFFALO.] + +Being a water-loving animal, the Buffalo always inhabits the low-lying +districts, and is fond of wallowing in the oozy marshes in which it +remains for hours, submerged all but its head, and tranquilly chewing +the cud while enjoying its mud-bath. While thus engaged the animal +depresses its horns so that they are scarcely visible, barely allowing +more than its eyes, ears, and nostrils to remain above the surface, so +that the motionless heads are scarcely distinguishable from the grass +and reed tufts which stud the marshes. Nothing is more startling to an +inexperienced traveller than to pass by a silent and tranquil pool +where the muddy surface is unbroken except by a number of black lumps +and rushy tufts, and then to see these tufts suddenly transformed into +twenty or thirty huge beasts rising out of the still water as if by +magic. Generally, the disturber of their peace had better make the +best of his way out of their reach, as the Buffalo, whether wild or +tame, is of a tetchy and irritable nature, and resents being startled +out of its state of dreamy repose. + +In the Jordan valley the Buffalo is found, and is used for +agriculture, being of the Bhainsa, or domesticated variety. Being much +larger and stronger than the ordinary cattle, it is useful in drawing +the plough, but its temper is too uncertain to render it a pleasant +animal to manage. As is the case with all half-wild cattle, its milk +is very scanty, but compensates by the richness of the quality for the +lack of quantity. + + + + +THE WILD BULL. + + The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament--Passages in which it is + mentioned--The Wild Bull in the net--Hunting with nets in the + East--The Oryx supposed to be the Tô of Scripture--Description + of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, and habits--The points in + which the Oryx agrees with the Tô--The "snare" in which the foot + is taken, as distinguished from the net. + + +In two passages of the Old Testament an animal is mentioned, +respecting which the translators and commentators have been somewhat +perplexed, in one passage being translated as the "Wild Ox," and in +the other as the "Wild Bull." In the Jewish Bible the same rendering +is preserved, but the sign of doubt is added to the word in both +cases, showing that the translation is an uncertain one. + +The first of these passages occurs in Deut. xiv. 5, where it is +classed together with the ox, sheep, goats, and other ruminants, as +one of the beasts which were lawful for food. Now, although we cannot +identify it by this passage, we can at all events ascertain two +important points--the first, that it was a true ruminant, and the +second, that it was not the ox, the sheep, or the goat. It was, +therefore, some wild ruminant, and we now have to ask how we are to +find out the species. + +If we turn to Isa. li. 20, we shall find a passage which will help us +considerably. Addressing Jerusalem, the prophet uses these words, "By +whom shall I comfort thee? Thy sons have fainted, they lie at the head +of all the streets, as a wild bull in a net; they are full of the fury +of the Lord, the rebuke of thy God." We now see that the Tô or Teô +must be an animal which is captured by means of nets, and therefore +must inhabit spots wherein the toils can be used. Moreover, it is +evidently a powerful animal, or the force of the simile would be lost. +The prophet evidently refers to some large and strong beast which has +been entangled in the hunter's nets, and which lies helplessly +struggling in them. We are, therefore, almost perforce driven to +recognise it as some large antelope. + +The expression used by the prophet is so characteristic that it needs +a short explanation. In this country, and at the present day, the use +of the net is almost entirely restricted to fishing and bird-catching; +but in the East nets are still employed in the capture of very large +game. + +A brief allusion to the hunting-net is made at page 27, but, as the +passage in Isaiah li. requires a more detailed account of this mode of +catching large animals, it will be as well to describe the sport as at +present practised in the East. + +When a king or some wealthy man determines to hunt game without taking +much trouble himself, he gives orders to his men to prepare their +nets, which vary in size or strength according to the particular +animal for which they are intended. If, for example, only the wild +boar and similar animals are to be hunted, the nets need not be of +very great width; but for agile creatures, such as the antelope, they +must be exceedingly wide, or the intended prey will leap over them. As +the net is much used in India for the purpose of catching game, +Captain Williamson's description of it will explain many of the +passages of Scripture wherein it is mentioned. + +The material of the net is hemp, twisted loosely into a kind of rope, +and the mode in which it is formed is rather peculiar. The meshes are +not knotted together, but only twisted round each other, much after +the fashion of the South American hammocks, so as to obtain +considerable elasticity, and to prevent a powerful animal from +snapping the cord in its struggles. Some of these nets are thirteen +feet or more in width, and even such a net as this has been overleaped +by a herd of antelopes. Their length is variable, but, as they can be +joined in any number when set end to end, the length is not so +important as the width. + +The mode of setting the nets is singularly ingenious. When a suitable +spot has been selected, the first care of the hunters is to stretch a +rope as tightly as possible along the ground. For this purpose stout +wooden stakes or truncheons are sunk crosswise in the earth, and +between these the rope is carefully strained. The favourite locality +of the net is a ravine, through which the animals can be driven so as +to run against the net in their efforts to escape, and across the +ravine a whole row of these stakes is sunk. The net is now brought to +the spot, and its lower edge fastened strongly to the ground rope. + +The strength of this mode of fastening is astonishing, and, although +the stakes are buried scarcely a foot below the surface, they cannot +be torn up by any force which can be applied to them; and, however +strong the rope may be, it would be broken before the stakes could be +dragged out of the ground. + +A smaller rope is now attached to the upper edge of the net, which is +raised upon a series of slight poles. It is not stretched quite +tightly, but droops between each pair of poles, so that a net which is +some thirteen feet in width will only give nine or ten feet of clear +height when the upper edge is supported on the poles. These latter are +not fixed in the ground, but merely held in their places by the weight +of the net resting upon them. + +When the nets have been properly set, the beaters make a wide circuit +through the country, gradually advancing towards the fatal spot, and +driving before them all the wild animals that inhabit the +neighbourhood. As soon as any large beast, such, for example, as an +antelope, strikes against the net, the supporting pole falls, and the +net collapses upon the unfortunate animal, whose struggles--especially +if he be one of the horned animals--only entangle him more and more in +the toils. + +As soon as the hunters see a portion of the net fall, they run to the +spot, kill the helpless creature that lies enveloped in the elastic +meshes, drag away the body, and set up the net again in readiness for +the next comer. Sometimes the line of nets will extend for half a mile +or more, and give employment to a large staff of hunters, in killing +the entangled animals, and raising afresh those portions of the net +which had fallen. + +Allusions to this mode of hunting are plentiful in the Old Testament. +Take, for example, Job xviii. 7: "The steps of his strength shall be +straitened, and his own counsel shall cast him down; for he is cast +into a net by his own feet, and he walketh upon a snare." And again in +the next chapter, ver. 6, "Know now that God hath overthrown me, and +hath compassed me with His net," in which is depicted forcibly the +helpless state of one on whom the net has fallen, and who is lying on +the ground vainly struggling in the meshes. + +See also Ps. lvii. 6, "They have prepared a net for my steps, my soul +is bowed down;" and Ps. lxvi. 11, "Thou broughtest us into the net, +thou laidest affliction upon our loins." In the prophet Ezekiel are +several passages which refer to the hunting net, and make especial +mention of the manner in which it falls over its victim. One of these +occurs in chap. xii. 13, "My net also will I spread upon him, and he +shall be taken in my snare." Again in chap. xix. 8, "Then the nations +set against him on every side from the provinces, and spread their net +over him" In this passage a forcible allusion is made to the manner in +which the wild animal is surrounded by the hunters, who surround and +gradually close in upon them, as they drive their victims into the +toils. The same combination of the hunters is also referred to by the +prophet Micah, vii. 2, "There is none upright among men: they all lie +in wait for blood; they hunt every man his brother with a net." + + [Illustration: WILD BULL, OR ORYX. + + "_They lie at the head of all the streets, like a wild bull in a + net._"--ISAIAH li. 21.] + +Accepting the theory that the Tô is one of the large antelopes that +inhabit, or used to inhabit, the Holy Land and its neighbourhood, we +may safely conjecture that it may signify the beautiful animal known +as the ORYX (_Oryx leucoryx_), an animal which has a tolerably wide +range, and is even now found on the borders of the Holy Land. It is a +large and powerful antelope, and is remarkable for its beautiful +horns, which sometimes exceed a yard in length, and sweep in a most +graceful curve over the back. + +Sharp as they are, and evidently formidable weapons, the manner in +which they are set on the head renders them apparently unserviceable +for combat. When, however, the Oryx is brought to bay, or wishes to +fight, it stoops its head until the nose is close to the ground, the +points of the horns being thus brought to the front. As the head is +swung from side to side, the curved horns sweep through a considerable +space, and are so formidable that even the lion is chary of attacking +their owner. Indeed, instances are known where the lion has been +transfixed and killed by the horns of the Oryx. Sometimes the animal +is not content with merely standing to repel the attacks of its +adversaries, but suddenly charges forward with astonishing rapidity, +and strikes upwards with its horns as it makes the leap. + +But these horns, which can be used with such terrible effect in +battle, are worse than useless when the animal is hampered in the net. +In vain does the Oryx attempt its usual defence: the curved horns get +more and more entangled in the elastic meshes, and become a source of +weakness rather than strength. We see now how singularly appropriate +is the passage, "Thy sons lie at the heads of all the streets, as a +wild bull (or Oryx) in a net," and how completely the force of the +metaphor is lost without a knowledge of the precise mode of fixing the +nets, of driving the animals into them, and of the manner in which +they render even the large and powerful animals helpless. + +The height of the Oryx at the shoulder is between three and four feet, +and its colour is greyish white, mottled profusely with black and +brown in bold patches. It is plentiful in Northern Africa, and, like +many other antelopes, lives in herds, so that it is peculiarly suited +to that mode of hunting which consists in surrounding a number of +animals, and driving them into a trap of some kind, whether a fenced +enclosure, a pitfall, or a net. + +There is, by the way, the term "snare," which is specially used with +especial reference to catching the foot as distinguished from the net +which enveloped the whole body. For example, in Job xviii. 8, "He is +cast into a net, he walketh on a snare," where a bold distinction is +drawn between the two and their mode of action. And in ver. 10, "The +snare is laid for him in the ground." Though I would not state +definitely that such is the case, I believe that the snare which is +here mentioned is one which is still used in several parts of the +world. + +It is simply a hoop, to the inner edge of which are fastened a number +of elastic spikes, the points being directed towards the centre. This +is merely laid in the path which the animal will take, and is tied by +a short cord to a log of wood. As the deer or antelope treads on the +snare, the foot passes easily through the elastic spikes, but, when +the foot is raised, the spikes run into the joint and hold the hoop +upon the limb. Terrified by the check and the sudden pang, the animal +tries to run away, but, by the united influence of sharp spikes and +the heavy log, it is soon forced to halt, and so becomes an easy prey +to its pursuers. + + + + +THE REÊM, OR "UNICORN" OF SCRIPTURE. + + The Reêm evidently known to the Jews--Various theories + concerning the Unicorn--Supposed identity with the Indian + Rhinoceros--Passages of Scripture alluding to the strength, + violent and intractable temper of the Reêm--The Reêm a + two-horned animal--Its evident connection with the Ox tribe--Its + presumed identity with the now extinct Urus--Mr. Dawkins' + treatise on the Urus--Enormous size and dangerous character of + the Urus--Rabbinical legend of the Reêm--Identity of the Urus + with the modern varieties of cattle--The Bull hunts of Nineveh. + + +There are many animals mentioned in the Scriptures which cannot be +identified with any certainty, partly because their names occur only +once or twice in the sacred writings, and partly because, when they +are mentioned, the context affords no clue to their identity by giving +any hint as to their appearance or habits. In such cases, although the +translators would have done better if they had simply given the Hebrew +word without endeavouring to identify it with any known animal, they +may be excused for committing errors in their nomenclature. There is +one animal, however, for which no such excuse can be found, and this +is the Reêm of Scripture, translated as Unicorn in the authorized +version. + +Now the word Reêm is mentioned seven times in the Old Testament, and +is found, not in one, but several books, showing that it was an animal +perfectly well known to those for whom the sacred books were written. +It is twice mentioned in the Pentateuch, several times in the Psalms, +once in the book of Job, once by Isaiah, and reference is once made to +it in the historical books. In these various passages, abundant +details are given of its aspect and habits, so that there is very +little doubt as to the identity of the animal. + +The Septuagint translates Reêm by the word Monoceros, or the +One-horned, which has been transferred to the Vulgate by the term +Unicornis, a word having the same signification. + +In an age when scientific investigation was utterly neglected, such a +translation would readily be accepted without cavil, and there is no +doubt that the generality of those who read the passages in question +accepted them as referring to the Unicorn of heraldry with which we, +as Englishmen, are so familiar. I may perhaps mention briefly that +such an animal is a physiological impossibility, and that the Unicorn +of the fables was a mere compound of an antelope, a horse, and a +narwhal. The tusks or teeth of the narwhal were in former days +exhibited as horns of the Unicorn, and so precious were they that one +of them was laid up in the cathedral of St. Denis, and two in the +treasury of St. Mark's at Venice, all of which were exhibited in the +year 1658 as veritable Unicorns' horns. + +The physiological difficulty above mentioned seems to have troubled +the minds of the old writers, who saw that an ivory horn had no +business to grow upon the junction of the two bones of the skull, and +yet felt themselves bound to acknowledge that such an animal did +really exist. They therefore put themselves to vast trouble in +accounting for such a phenomenon, and, in their determination to +believe in the animal, invented theories nearly as wonderful as the +existence of the Unicorn itself. + +One of these theories, arguing that the two horns may be as easily +fused together as the hoofs, is stated as follows. "Because the middle +is equally distant from both the extremes; and the hoof of this beast +may be well said to be cloven and whole, because the horn is of the +substance of the hoof, and the hoof of the substance of the horn, and +therefore the horn is whole and the hoof cloven; for the cleaving +either of the horn or of the hoof cometh from the defect of nature, +and therefore God hath given to horses and asses whole hoofs, because +there is greatest use of their legs, but unto Unicorns a whole and +entire horn, that, as the ease of man is procured by the help of +horses, so the health of them is procured by the horn of the Unicorn." + +This last sentence refers to the then universal belief, that the horn +of the Unicorn was a panacea for all illness and an antidote to all +poisons. It was thought to be so sensitive, that if a poisoned cup +were but brought near it a thick moisture would exude from its +surface, and if fragments were thrown into the cup they would cause +the liquid to swell and bubble, and at last to boil over. This +supposed virtue forms the basis of an argument used by one of the +writers on the subject, and, as the passage affords a good example of +theological argument in 1658, it will be given entire. + +After enumerating various animals (and, by the way, once actually +hitting upon the "fish called Monoceros," _i.e._ the narwhal), the +writer proceeds as follows, in the quaint and nervous English of his +time: "Now our discourse of the Unicorn is of none of these beasts, +for there is not any virtue attributed to their horns, and therefore +the vulgar sort of infidel people, which scarcely believe any herb but +such as they see in their own gardens, or any beast but such as is in +their own flocks, or any knowledge but such as is bred in their own +brains, or any birds which are not hatched in their own nests, have +never made question of these; but of the true Unicorn, whereof there +were more proofs in the world, because of the nobleness of his horn, +they have ever been in doubt. By which distinction it appeareth unto +me that there is some secret enemy in the inward degenerate nature of +man, which continually blindeth the eyes of God His people, from +beholding and believing the greatness of God His works. + +"But to the purpose: that there is such a beast, the Scripture itself +witnesseth, for _David_ thus speaketh in the 92d Psalm, _Et erigetur +cornu meus tanquam Monocerotis_. That is, 'My horn shall be lifted up +like the horn of a Unicorn.' Whereupon all divines that ever wrote +have not only collected that there is a Unicorn, but also affirm the +similitude to be betwixt the kingdom of _David_ and the horn of the +Unicorn, that as the horn of the Unicorn is wholesome to all beasts +and creatures, so should be the kingdom of David to the generation of +Christ. + +"And do we think that _David_ would compare the vertue of his kingdom +and the powerful redemption of the world, unto a thing that is not, or +is uncertain, or is fantastical? God forbid that ever any man should +so do despight to the Holy Ghost. For this cause we read also in +_Suidas_, that good men who worship God and follow His laws are +compared to Unicorns, whose greater parts, as their whole bodies, are +unprofitable and untameable, yet their horn maketh them excellent; so +in good men, although their fleshy parts be good for nothing, and fall +down to the earth, yet their grace and piety exalteth their souls to +the heavens." + +In late years, after the true origin of the Unicorn's horn was +discovered, and the belief in its many virtues abandoned, the Reêm, or +Monoceros, was almost unhesitatingly identified with the rhinoceros of +India, and for a long time this theory was the accepted one. It is +now, however, certain that the Reêm was not the rhinoceros, and that +it can be almost certainly identified with an animal which, at the +time when the passages in question were written, was plentiful in +Palestine, although, like the lion, it is now extinct. + +We will now take in their order the seven passages in which the animal +is mentioned, substituting the word Reêm for Unicorn. + +The first of these passages occurs in Numbers xxiii., where the +remarkable prophecies of Balaam are recorded. "The Lord his God is +with them, and the shout of a king is among them. God brought them out +of Egypt, he hath as it were the strength of Reêm:" (ver. 21, 22). +From this passage we gain one piece of information, namely, that the +Reêm was an exceptionally powerful animal. Indeed, it was evidently +the strongest animal that was known to the prophet and his hearers, or +it would not have been mentioned as a visible type of Divine power. + +Next we come to Deut. xxxiii., wherein another prophecy is revealed, +namely, that of Moses, just before his death and mysterious burial. +Speaking of Joseph and his tribe, the aged prophet uses these words, +"Let the blessing come upon the head of Joseph, and upon the top of +the head of him that was separated from his brethren. His glory is +like the firstling of his bullock, and his horns are like the horns of +Reêm: with them he shall push the people together to the ends of the +earth; and they are the ten thousands of Ephraim, and they are the +thousands of Manasseh" (ver. 16, 17). + +In this passage we gather more information. In the first place it is +to be noticed that the Reêm is mentioned in connexion with the +domestic cattle, and that the name is used as one that is familiar to +the hearers. Next, as the marginal reading gives the word, Reêm is +used in the singular and not in the plural number, so that the passage +may be read, "his horns are like the horns of a Unicorn." Thus we come +to the important point that the Reêm was not a one-horned, but a +two-horned animal. + +It may here be remarked that the Reêm horns were the emblem of the two +tribes that sprung from Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh, himself being +typified by the Reêm, and his two powerful sons by the horns. + +Next, in the Psalms, we find that the powerful, two-horned Reêm was +also a dangerous and violent animal. (See Psa. xxii. 19, 21.) + +"Be not Thou far from me, O Lord: O my strength, haste Thee to help +me. + +"Deliver my soul from the sword, my darling from the power (or the +hand) of the dog. + +"Save me from the lion's mouth: for Thou hast heard me from the horns +of Reêm." + +In Ps. xcii. there is another allusion to the powerful horns of the +Reêm. "For lo, Thine enemies, O Lord, for lo, Thine enemies shall +perish; all the workers of iniquity shall be scattered. But my horn +shalt Thou exalt like the horn of Reêm." + +From these passages we gather the following important points. First, +the Reêm was an animal familiar to the people of Palestine, as is +evident from the manner in which its name is introduced into the +sacred writings; secondly, it was the most powerful animal known to +the Israelites; thirdly, it was a two-horned animal; fourthly, it was +a savage and dangerous beast; and fifthly, it had some connexion with +the domesticated cattle. + +This last-mentioned point is brought out more strongly in the +remaining passages of Scripture. In Job, for example, a parallel is +drawn between the wild and untameable Reêm and the beasts of draught +and burden. + +In that magnificent series of passages in which the Lord answers Job +out of the whirlwind, and which indeed are a worthy sequel to Elihu's +impassioned discourse on the text that "God is greater than man," the +wild animals are mentioned in evident contrast to the tame. First come +the wild goats of the rock; then the wild ass, who "scorneth the +multitude of the city, neither regardeth the crying of the driver;" +and then the Reêm, which is clearly contrasted with the tamed ox. + +"Will Reêm be willing to serve thee, or abide by thy crib? Canst thou +bind Reêm with his band in the furrow? or will he harrow the valleys +after thee? Wilt thou trust him, because his strength is great? or +wilt thou leave thy labour to him? Wilt thou believe him that he will +bring home thy seed, and gather it in thy barn?" See chap. xxxix. +9-12. + +Now in these passages, the principal duties of the domesticated cattle +are described--the ploughing the furrow, the drawing of the harrow, +and the carrying home of the ripened corn, for all which purposes the +tameless spirit of Reêm renders him useless, in spite of his vast +strength. The prophet Isaiah has a passage in which the Reêm is +evidently classed with the ox tribe. See chap. xxxiv. 6, 7. + +"The sword of the Lord is filled with blood; it is made fat with +fatness, and with the blood of lambs and goats, with the fat of the +kidneys of rams: for the Lord hath a sacrifice in Bozrah, and a great +slaughter in the land of Idumea. And Reêm shall come down with them, +and the bullocks with the bulls; and their land shall be soaked with +blood, and their dust made fat with fatness." + +The last passage in which reference is made to this animal is in Ps. +xxix. 5, 6. + +"The voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars; yea, the Lord breaketh the +cedars of Lebanon. He maketh them also to skip like a calf; Lebanon +and Sirion like a young Reêm." + +On turning to the Jewish Bible we find that the word Reêm is +translated as buffalo, and there is no doubt that this rendering is +nearly the correct one, and at the present day naturalists are nearly +all agreed that the Reêm of the Old Testament must have been the now +extinct Urus. A smaller animal, the Bonassus or Bison, also existed +in Palestine, and even to the present day continues to maintain itself +in one or two spots, though it will probably be as soon completely +erased from the surface of the earth as its gigantic congener. + +That the Reêm was one of the two animals is certain, and that it was +the larger is nearly as certain. The reason for deciding upon the Urus +is, that its horns were of great size and strength, and therefore +agree with the description of the Reêm; whereas those of the Bonassus, +although powerful, are short, and not conspicuous enough to deserve +the notice which is taken of them by the sacred writers. + +Of the extinct variety we know but little. We do know, however, that +it was a huge and most formidable animal, as is evident from the +skulls and other bones which have been discovered. + +Hitherto there has been considerable difficulty in treating of the +ancient Urus, on account of the great confusion which existed in the +various synonyms that were given to the animal. The tangled skein has, +however, been carefully unravelled by Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., +F.R.S., who has published an exceedingly valuable paper on the subject +in the _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_, March 21, 1866. + +After describing the general character of the Urus, he proceeds to +remark: "The synonyms of the _Bos Urus_ are in a state of very great +confusion, arising from the fact that the two words denoting two +distinct species, the Urox and the Aurochs, are derived from the same +Sanscrit root, _Ur_, _Aur_, or _Or_, that signifies a forest, or sandy +waste. The root can be traced through many languages, and still +survives in the Greek [Greek: _horos_] (a mountain), the Norwegian +_Ore_, the Icelandic _Ure_ (the stony desert surrounding the base of +the mountains); and is preserved without change in the old German _Ur_ +(a forest), and in _Ur_ of the Chaldees. It appears also in the Ural +Mountains, and also in the canton of _Uri_, the crest of which is an +ox-head." It is worthy of mention that, in the last-mentioned place, +when new magistrates are elected, two ancient and gigantic horns, +remarkable for their double curvature, are carried in solemn +procession. + +The presence of these horns affords a remarkable confirmation to a +well-known passage in Julius Cæsars familiar "Commentaries." "The Uri +are little inferior to elephants in size" ("magnitudine paullo infra +elephantos"); "but are bulls in their nature, colour, and figure. +Great is their strength, and great their swiftness; nor do they spare +man or beast when they have caught sight of them. These, when trapped +in pitfalls, the hunters diligently kill. The youths, exercising +themselves by this sort of hunting, are hardened by the toil; and +those among them who have killed most, bringing with them the horns as +testimonials, acquire great praise. But these Uri cannot be habituated +to man or made tractable, not even when young. The great size of the +horns, as well as the form and quality of them, differ much from the +horns of our oxen. These, when carefully selected, they ring round the +edge with silver, and use them for drinking cups at their ample +feasts." + +The enormous size of the horns of an ox which was in all probability +the Urus is mentioned by another writer, who also alludes to their use +as drinking vessels. He states that some of these horns were so large +as to hold about four gallons, and then proceeds to remark that their +primitive use as drinking-cups was the reason why Bacchus was +represented as wearing horns, and was sometimes worshipped under the +form of a bull. + +It is worthy of notice, that the Sanscrit root _Ur_ is retained in the +name of the enormous Indian ox, the Gaur, a term which is formed from +two words, namely, Gau, or Ghoo, a cow, and Ur, so that the name +signifies Wild Cow. + +As to the size of the animal Urus, it is evident, by measurement of +certain remains, that it must have well deserved Cæsar's comparison +with the elephant. A skull that is described by Cuvier gave the +following measurements. Width of skull between the bases of the +horn-cores (_i.e._ the bony projections on which the hollow horns are +set), rather more than twelve inches and an half. Circumference of the +cores at the base, twelve inches and nine-tenths. Length of the cores, +twenty-seven inches and nine-tenths; and distances between their tips, +thirty-two inches and a half. + +According to the proportions of the domesticated ox, these +measurements indicated that the animal was twelve feet in length, and +six feet and a half in height. Now, if the reader will sketch out on a +wall an ox of these dimensions, he will appreciate the enormous +dimensions of the ancient Urus, far better than can be done by merely +reading figures in a book. + +But this animal, gigantic as it was, is not the largest specimen that +has been discovered. A portion of an Urus skull was discovered in the +Avon, at Melksham, near Bath, the horn-cores of which, as described by +Mr. H. Woods, were seventeen inches and a half in circumference, +thirty-six inches and a half in length, and the distance from tip to +tip was thirty-nine inches. Taking the same proportions as those of +the ordinary ox, the author shows that the skull in question belonged +to an animal very much larger than that which was described by Cuvier. +In another specimen the distance between the tips of the horn-cores +was forty-two inches, but their length only thirty-six. + +Of course, the size of the horn-cores gives little indication of the +dimensions of the horns themselves, and the principal point to be +noticed is the shape of the core, which in some specimens, though not +in all, instead of presenting the regular double curvature with which +we are so familiar in our domestic oxen, first curves outwards, then +bends backwards or a little downwards and forwards. This peculiarity +in the shape of the horns is specially noted by Cæsar, and we may +therefore receive with more security his account of their enormous +size. + +A curious rabbinical legend of the Reêm is given in Lewysohn's +"Zoologie des Talmuds." When the ark was complete, and all the beasts +were commanded to enter, the Reêm was unable to do so, because it was +too large to pass through the door. Noah and his sons therefore were +obliged to tie the animal by a rope to the ark, and to tow it behind; +and, in order to prevent it from being strangled, they tied the rope, +not round its neck, but to its horn. + +The same writer very justly remarks that the Scriptural and Talmudical +accounts of the Reêm have one decided distinction. The Scripture +speaks chiefly of its fierceness, its untameable nature, its strength, +and its swiftness, as its principal characteristics, while the Talmud +speaks almost exclusively of its size. It was evidently the largest +animal of which the writers had ever heard, and, according to Oriental +wont, they exaggerated it preposterously. Whenever the Talmudical +writers treat of animals with which they are personally acquainted, +they are simple, straightforward, and accurate. But, as soon as they +come to animals unknown to them except by hearsay, they go off into +the wildest extravagances, such, for example, as asserting that the +leopard is a hybrid between the wild boar and the lioness. The +exaggerated statements concerning the Reêm show therefore that the +animal must have been extinct long before the time of the writers. + +The question now arises, What is the distinction between the ancient +Urus and our modern cattle? The answer is simple enough. The +difference in the shape of the horn-cores is, as has been shown, not +characteristic of the animal in general, but only of certain +individuals; while other variations in the shape and length of certain +bones are of too little consequence to be accepted as bases whereon to +found a new genus or even species, and we may therefore assume that +the Urus of Cæsar, the Reêm of Scripture, was nothing more than a very +large variety of the ox, modified of course in aspect and habits by +the locality in which it lived. This assumption is strengthened by the +fact that Mr. Dawkins, in the treatise to which reference has already +been made, has "traced the gigantic Urus from the earliest Pleistocene +times through the pre-historic period at least as far as the twelfth +century after Christ." + +The reader may remember that in Cæsar's brief but graphic account of +the Urus, he mentions that it was hunted by those who wished to +distinguish themselves. Now, on many of the sculptures of Nineveh, +there are delineations of bull hunts, which show, as Mr. Layard justly +observes, that the wild bull appears to have been considered scarcely +less formidable and noble game than the lion. The king himself is +shown as attacking it, while the warriors partake of the sport either +mounted or on foot. + +The exact variety of the wild bull which is being chased is not very +recognisable. It certainly is not the ordinary domestic animal, the +shape approaching somewhat to that of the antelope. The body is +covered with marks which are evidently intended to represent hair, +though it does not follow that the hair need be thick and shaggy like +that of the bison tribe. + + + + +THE BISON. + + The Bison tribe and its distinguishing marks--Its former + existence in Palestine--Its general habits--Origin of its + name--Its musky odour--Size and speed of the Bison--Its + dangerous character when brought to bay--Its defence against the + wolf--Its untameable disposition. + + +A few words are now needful respecting the second animal which has +been mentioned in connexion with the Reêm; namely, the Bison, or +Bonassus. The Bisons are distinguishable from ordinary cattle by the +thick and heavy mane which covers the neck and shoulders, and which is +more conspicuous in the male than in the female. The general coating +of the body is also rather different, being thick and woolly instead +of lying closely to the skin like that of the other oxen. The Bison +certainly inhabited Palestine, as its bones have been found in that +country. It has, however, been extinct in the Holy Land for many +years, and, not being an animal that is capable of withstanding the +encroachments of man, it has gradually died out from the greater part +of Europe and Asia, and is now to be found only in a very limited +locality, chiefly in a Lithuanian forest, where it is strictly +preserved, and in some parts of the Caucasus. There it still preserves +the habits which made its ancient and gigantic relative so dangerous +an animal. Unlike the buffalo, which loves the low-lying and marshy +lands, the Bison prefers the high wooded localities, where it lives in +small troops. + +Its name of Bison is a modification of the word Bisam, or musk, which +was given to it on account of the strong musky odour of its flesh, +which is especially powerful about the head and neck. This odour is +not so unpleasant as might be supposed, and those who have had +personal experience of the animal say that it bears some resemblance +to the perfume of violets. It is developed most strongly in the adult +bulls, the cows and young male calves only possessing it in a slight +degree. + + [Illustration: BISON KILLING WOLF. + + "_Will the unicorn he willing to serve thee?_"--JOB xxxix. 9.] + +It is a tolerably large animal, being about six feet high at the +shoulder--a stature nearly equivalent to that of the ordinary Asiatic +elephant; and, in spite of its great bulk, is a fleet and active +animal, as indeed is generally the case with those oxen which inhabit +elevated localities. Still, though it can run with considerable speed, +it is not able to keep up the pace for any great distance, and at the +end of a mile or two can be brought to bay. + +Like most animals, however large and powerful they may be, it fears +the presence of man, and, if it sees or scents a human being, will try +to slip quietly away; but when it is baffled in this attempt, and +forced to fight, it becomes a fierce and dangerous antagonist, +charging with wonderful quickness, and using its short and powerful +horns with great effect. A wounded Bison, when fairly brought to bay, +is perhaps as awkward an opponent as can be found, and to kill it +without the aid of firearms is no easy matter. + +Although the countries in which it lives are infested with wolves, it +seems to have no fear of them when in health; and, even when pressed +by their winter's hunger, the wolves do not venture to attack even a +single Bison, much less a herd of them. Like other wild cattle, it +likes to dabble in muddy pools, and is fond of harbouring in thickets +near such localities; and those who have to travel through the forest +keep clear of such spots, unless they desire to drive out the animal +for the purpose of killing it. + +Like the extinct Aurochs, the Bison has never been domesticated, and, +although the calves have been captured while very young, and attempts +have been made to train them to harness, their innate wildness of +disposition has always baffled such efforts. + + + + +THE GAZELLE, OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE. + + The Gazelle identified with the _Tsebi_, i.e. the Roe or Roebuck + of Scripture--Various passages relating to the Tsebi--Its + swiftness, its capabilities as a beast of chase, its beauty, and + the quality of its flesh--The Tsebiyah rendered in Greek as + Tabitha, and translated as Dorcas, or Gazelle--Different + varieties of the Gazelle--How the Gazelle defends itself against + wild beasts--Chase of the Gazelle--The net, the battue, and the + pitfall--Coursing the Gazelle with greyhounds and falcons--Mr. + Chasseaud's account of a hunting party--Gentleness of the + Gazelle. + + +We now leave the Ox tribe, and come to the Antelopes, several species +of which are mentioned in the Scriptures. Four kinds of antelope are +found in or near the Holy Land, and there is little doubt that all of +them are mentioned in the sacred volume. + +The first that will be described is the well-known GAZELLE, which is +acknowledged to be the animal that is represented by the word _Tsebi_, +or _Tsebiyah_. The Jewish Bible accepts the same rendering. This word +occurs many times, sometimes as a metaphor, and sometimes representing +some animal which was lawful food, and which therefore belonged to the +true ruminants. Moreover, its flesh was not only legally capable of +being eaten, but was held in such estimation that it was provided for +the table of Solomon himself, together with other animals which will +be described in their turn. + +We will first take the passages where the word is used metaphorically, +or as a poetical image. That it was exceedingly swift of foot is +evident from several instances in which the animal is mentioned. For +example, in 2 Sam. ii. 18, we are told that Asahel, the brother of +Joab, was "as light of foot as a wild roe," or, as the passage may +also be translated, "one of the roes that is in the field." And in 1 +Chron. xii. 8, we find the following description of eleven warriors +who attached themselves to David:--"Of the Gadites there separated +themselves unto David into the hold to the wilderness men of might, +and men of war fit for the battle, that could handle shield and +buckler, whose faces were like the faces of lions, and were as swift +as the roes upon the mountains." + +That it was a beast of chase is as plainly to be gathered from the +sacred writings. See, for example, Prov. vi. 4, 5: "Give not sleep to +thine eyes, nor slumber to thine eyelids. Deliver thyself as a roe +from the hand of the hunter, and as a bird from the hand of the +fowler." + +The same imagery is employed by the prophet Isaiah, xiii. 13, 14:-- + +"Therefore I will shake the heavens, and the earth shall remove out of +her place, in the wrath of the Lord of hosts, and in the day of His +fierce anger. And it shall be as the chased roe, and as a sheep that +no man taketh up: they shall every man turn to his own people, and +flee every one into his own land." + +Having now learned that the Tsebi was very fleet of foot and a beast +of chase, we come to another series of passages, which show that it +was an animal of acknowledged beauty. In that most remarkable poem, +the Song of Solomon, or the "Song of Songs," as it is more rightly +named, there are repeated allusions to the Tsebi. In some cases the +name of the Roe is used as a sort of adjuration--"I charge thee by the +roes;" and in others the lover, whether man or woman, is compared to +the Roe. There is one consecutive series of passages in which the word +is repeatedly used. See Cant. ii. 7-9: "I charge you, O ye daughters +of Jerusalem, by the roes, and by the hinds of the field, that ye stir +not up, nor awake my love, till he please. The voice of my beloved! +behold, he cometh leaping upon the mountains, skipping upon the hills. +My beloved is like a roe or a young hart." And in the last verse of +the poem the same image is repeated--"Make haste, my beloved, and be +thou like to a roe or to a young hart upon the mountains of spices." + +Allusion is made to the beauty of the Roe, or Gazelle, in a well-known +name, Tabitha, which is, in fact, a slight corruption of the Hebrew +Tsebiyah, and is translated into Greek as Dorcas, or Gazelle. "Now +there was at Joppa a certain disciple named Tabitha, which by +interpretation is called Dorcas (_i.e._ the Gazelle). This woman was +full of good works and alms deeds which she did." + +As to the flesh of the Gazelle, or Roe, it is mentioned in Deut. xii. +15, xiv. 5, as one of the animals that affords lawful food; and the +same permission is reiterated in xv. 22, with the proviso that the +blood shall be poured out on the earth like water. + +Having now glanced at the various passages of Scripture wherein the +Gazelle is mentioned, we will proceed to the animal itself, its +appearance, locality, and general habits, in order to see how they +agree with the Scriptural allusions to the Tsebi. + +As to its flesh, it is even now considered a great dainty, although it +is not at all agreeable to European taste, being hard, dry, and +without flavour. Still, as has been well remarked, tastes differ as +well as localities, and an article of food which is a costly luxury in +one land is utterly disdained in another, and will hardly be eaten +except by one who is absolutely dying of starvation. + +The Gazelle is very common in Palestine in the present day, and, in +the ancient times, must have been even more plentiful. There are +several varieties of it, which were once thought to be distinct +species, but are now acknowledged to be mere varieties, all of which +are referable to the single species _Gazella Dorcas_. There is, for +example, the Corinna, or Corine Antelope, which is a rather +boldly-spotted female; the Kevella Antelope, in which the horns are +slightly flattened; the small variety called the Ariel, or Cora; the +grey Kevel, which is a rather large variety; and the Long-horned +Gazelle, which owes its name to a rather large development of the +horns. + + [Illustration: THE GAZELLE, (_Gazella Dorcus_) OR ROE OF SCRIPTURE + + "_Behold, he cometh leaping upon the mountains, skipping upon the + hills. My beloved is like a roe or a young hart._"--CANT. ii. 8, 9.] + +Whatever variety may inhabit any given spot, they all have the same +habits. They are gregarious animals, associating together in herds +often of considerable size, and deriving from their numbers an element +of strength which would otherwise be wanting. Against mankind, numbers +are of no avail; but when the agile though feeble Gazelle has to +defend itself against the predatory animals of its own land, it can +only defend itself by the concerted action of the whole herd. Should, +for example, the wolves prowl round a herd of Gazelles, after their +treacherous wont, the Gazelles instantly assume a posture of +self-defence. They form themselves into a compact phalanx, all the +males coming to the front, and the strongest and boldest taking on +themselves the honourable duty of facing the foe. The does and the +young are kept within their ranks, and so formidable is the array of +sharp, menacing horns, that beasts as voracious as the wolf, and far +more powerful, have been known to retire without attempting to charge. + +As a rule, however, the Gazelle does not desire to resist, and prefers +its legs to its horns as a mode of insuring safety. So fleet is the +animal, that it seems to fly over the ground as if propelled by +volition alone, and its light, agile frame is so enduring, that a fair +chase has hardly any prospect of success. Hunters, therefore, prefer a +trap of some kind, if they chase the animal merely for food or for the +sake of its skin, and contrive to kill considerable numbers at once. +Sometimes they dig pitfalls, and drive the Gazelles into them by +beating a large tract of country, and gradually narrowing the circle. +Sometimes they use nets, such as have already been described, and +sometimes they line the sides of a ravine with archers and spearmen, +and drive the herd of Gazelles through the treacherous defile. + +These modes of slaughter are, however, condemned by the true hunter, +who looks upon those who use them much in the same light as an English +sportsman looks on a man who shoots foxes. The greyhound and the +falcon are both employed in the legitimate capture of the Gazelle, and +in some cases both are trained to work together. Hunting the Gazelle +with the greyhound very much resembles coursing in our own country, +and chasing it with the hawk is exactly like the system of falconry +that was once so popular an English sport, and which even now shows +signs of revival. + +It is, however, when the dog and the bird are trained to work together +that the spectacle becomes really novel and interesting to an English +spectator. + +As soon as the Gazelles are fairly in view, the hunter unhoods his +hawk, and holds it up so that it may see the animals. The bird fixes +its eye on one Gazelle, and by that glance the animal's doom is +settled. The falcon darts after the Gazelles, followed by the dog, who +keeps his eye on the hawk, and holds himself in readiness to attack +the animal that his feathered ally may select. Suddenly the falcon, +which has been for some few seconds hovering over the herd of +Gazelles, makes a stoop upon the selected victim, fastening its talons +in its forehead, and, as it tries to shake off its strange foe, flaps +its wings into the Gazelle's eyes so as to blind it. Consequently, the +rapid course of the antelope is arrested, so that the dog is able to +come up and secure the animal while it is struggling to escape from +its feathered enemy. Sometimes, though rarely, a young and +inexperienced hawk swoops down with such reckless force that it misses +the forehead of the Gazelle, and impales itself upon the sharp horns, +just as in England the falcon is apt to be spitted on the bill of the +heron. + +The most sportsmanlike mode of hunting the Gazelle is to use the +falcon alone; but for this sport a bird must possess exceptional +strength, swiftness, and intelligence. A very spirited account of such +a chase is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud, in his "Druses of the +Lebanon:"-- + +"Whilst reposing here, our old friend with the falcon informs us that +at a short distance from this spot is a khan called Nebbi Youni, from +a supposition that the prophet Jonah was here landed by the whale; but +the old man is very indignant when we identify the place with a fable, +and declare to him that similar sights are to be seen at Gaza and +Scanderoon. But his good humour is speedily recovered by reverting to +the subject of the exploits and cleverness of his falcon. This reminds +him that we have not much time to waste in idle talk, as the greater +heats will drive the gazelles from the plains to the mountain +retreats, and lose us the opportunity of enjoying the most +sportsmanlike amusement in Syria. Accordingly, bestriding our animals +again, we ford the river at that point where a bridge once stood. + +"We have barely proceeded twenty minutes before the keen eye of the +falconer has descried a herd of gazelles quietly grazing in the +distance. Immediately he reins in his horse, and enjoining silence, +instead of riding at them, as we might have felt inclined to do, he +skirts along the banks of the river, so as to cut off, if possible, +the retreat of these fleet animals where the banks are narrowest, +though very deep, but which would be cleared at a single leap by the +gazelles. Having successfully accomplished this manoeuvre, he again +removes the hood from the hawk, and indicates to us that precaution +is no longer necessary. Accordingly, first adding a few slugs to the +charges in our barrels, we balance our guns in an easy posture, and, +giving the horses their reins, set off at full gallop, and with a loud +hurrah, right towards the already startled gazelles. + +"The timid animals, at first paralysed by our appearance, stand and +gaze for a second terror-stricken at our approach; but their pause is +only momentary; they perceive in an instant that the retreat to their +favourite haunts has been secured, and so they dash wildly forward +with all the fleetness of despair, coursing over the plain with no +fixed refuge in view, and nothing but their fleetness to aid in their +delivery. A stern chase is a long chase, and so, doubtless, on the +present occasion it would prove with ourselves, for there is many and +many a mile of level country before us, and our horses, though swift +of foot, stand no chance in this respect with the gazelles. + +"Now, however, the old man has watched for a good opportunity to +display the prowess and skill of his falcon: he has followed us only +at a hand-gallop; but the hawk, long inured to such pastime, stretches +forth its neck eagerly in the direction of the flying prey, and being +loosened from its pinions, sweeps up into the air like a shot, and +passes overhead with incredible velocity. Five minutes more, and the +bird has outstripped even the speed of the light-footed gazelle; we +see him through the dust and haze that our own speed throws around us, +hovering but an instant over the terrified herd; he has singled out +his prey, and, diving with unerring aim, fixes his iron talons into +the head of the terrified animal. + +"This is the signal for the others to break up their orderly retreat, +and to speed over the plain in every direction. Some, despite the +danger that hovers on their track, make straight for their old and +familiar haunts, and passing within twenty yards of where we ride, +afford us an opportunity of displaying our skill as amateur huntsmen +on horseback; nor does it require but little nerve and dexterity to +fix our aim whilst our horses are tearing over the ground. However, +the moment presents itself, the loud report of barrel after barrel +startles the unaccustomed inmates of that unfrequented waste; one +gazelle leaps twice its own height into the air, and then rolls over, +shot through the heart; another bounds on yet a dozen paces, but, +wounded mortally, staggering, halts, and then falls to the ground. + +"This is no time for us to pull in and see what is the amount of +damage done, for the falcon, heedless of all surrounding incidents, +clings firmly to the head of its terrified victim, flapping its strong +wings awhile before the poor brute's terrified eyes, half blinding it +and rendering its head dizzy; till, after tearing round and round with +incredible speed, the poor creature stops, panting for breath, and, +overcome with excessive terror, drops down fainting upon the earth. +Now the air resounds with the acclamations and hootings of the +ruthless victors. + +"The old man is wild in his transports of delight. More certain of the +prowess of his bird than ourselves, he has stopped awhile to gather +together the fruits of our booty, and, with these suspended to his +saddle bow, he canters up leisurely, shouting lustily the while the +praises of his infallible hawk; then getting down, and hoodwinking the +bird again, he first of all takes the precaution of fastening together +the legs of the fallen gazelle, and then he humanely blows up into its +nostrils. Gradually the natural brilliancy returns to the dimmed eyes +of the gazelle, then it struggles valiantly, but vainly, to +disentangle itself from its fetters. + +"Pitying its efforts, the falconer throws a handkerchief over its +head, and, securing this prize, claims it as his own, declaring that +he will bear it home to his house in the mountains, where, after a few +weeks' kind treatment and care, it will become as domesticated and +affectionate as a spaniel. Meanwhile, Abou Shein gathers together the +fallen booty, and, tying them securely with cords, fastens them behind +his own saddle, declaring, with a triumphant laugh, that we shall +return that evening to the city of Beyrout with such game as few +sportsmen can boast of having carried thither in one day." + +The gentle nature of the Gazelle is as proverbial as its grace and +swiftness, and is well expressed in the large, soft, liquid eye, which +has formed from time immemorial the stock comparison of Oriental poets +when describing the eyes of beauty. + + + + +THE PYGARG, OR ADDAX. + + The Dishon or Dyshon--Signification of the word + Pygarg--Certainty that the Dishon is an antelope, and that it + must be one of a few species--Former and present range of the + Addax--Description of the Addax--The Strepsiceros of Pliny. + + +There is a species of animal mentioned once in the Scriptures under +the name of Dishon which the Jewish Bible leaves untranslated, and +merely gives as Dyshon, and which is rendered in the Septuagint by +Pugargos, or PYGARG, as one version gives it. Now, the meaning of the +word Pygarg is white-crouped, and for that reason the Pygarg of the +Scriptures is usually held to be one of the white-crouped antelopes, +of which several species are known. Perhaps it may be one of them--it +may possibly be neither, and it may probably refer to all of them. + +But that an antelope of some kind is meant by the word Dishon is +evident enough, and it is also evident that the Dishon must have been +one of the antelopes which could be obtained by the Jews. Now as the +species of antelope which could have furnished food for that nation +are very few in number, it is clear that, even if we do not hit upon +the exact species, we may be sure of selecting an animal that was +closely allied to it. Moreover, as the nomenclature is exceedingly +loose, it is probable that more than one species might have been +included in the word Dishon. + +Modern commentators have agreed that there is every probability that +the Dishon of the Pentateuch was the antelope known by the name of +Addax. + +This handsome antelope is a native of Northern Africa. It has a very +wide range, and, even at the present day, is found in the vicinity of +Palestine, so that it evidently was one of the antelopes which could +be killed by Jewish hunters. From its large size, and long twisted +horns, it bears a strong resemblance to the Koodoo of Southern Africa. +The horns, however, are not so long, nor so boldly twisted, the curve +being comparatively slight, and not possessing the bold spiral shape +which distinguishes those of the koodoo. + + [Illustration: THE ADDAX, OR PYGARG OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_These are the beasts which ye shall eat: the ox, the sheep, ... the + pygarg, and the wild ox, and the chamois._"--DEUT. xiv. 4, 5.] + +The ordinary height of the Addax is three feet seven or eight inches, +and the horns are almost exactly alike in the two sexes. Their length, +from the head to the tips, is rather more than two feet. Its colour is +mostly white, but a thick mane of dark black hair falls from the +throat, a patch of similar hair grows on the forehead, and the back +and shoulders are greyish brown. There is no mane on the back of the +neck, as is the case with the koodoo. + +The Addax is a sand-loving animal, as is shown by the wide and +spreading hoofs, which afford it a firm footing on the yielding soil. +In all probability, this is one of the animals which would be taken, +like the wild bull, in a net, being surrounded and driven into the +toils by a number of hunters. It is not, however, one of the +gregarious species, and is not found in those vast herds in which some +of the antelopes love to assemble. + +Some writers reject the Addax as the Dishon, and are inclined to +consider that the real representative of the word is to be found in +the Ariel or Isabella gazelles. Of these, however, we have already +treated, and enough has been said about them to show that these +gazelles are in all probability comprised under the name Tsebi. + +It has been suggested, in contradiction to the opinion that the Dishon +is the Addax, that the word Strepsiceros, or Twisted Horn, is given to +it by Pliny, who also mentions that one of the native names for the +animal is Adas, or Akas, and that he distinguishes it from the Pygarg. +Still, the weight of evidence is so great in favour of the identity of +the Dishon and the Pygarg, that we may accept the interpretation with +safety. + + + + +THE FALLOW-DEER, OR BUBALE. + + The word Jachmur evidently represents a species of + antelope--Probability that the Jachmur is identical with the + Bubale, or Bekk'r-el-Wash--Resemblance of the animal to the ox + tribe--Its ox-like horns and mode of attack--Its capability of + domestication--Former and present range of the Bubale--Its + representation on the monuments of ancient Egypt--Delicacy of + its flesh--Size and general appearance of the animal. + + +It has already been mentioned that in the Old Testament there occur +the names of three or four animals, which clearly belong to one or +other of three or four antelopes. Only one of these names now remains +to be identified. This is the Jachmur, or Yachmur, a word which has +been rendered in the Septuagint as Boubalos, and has been translated +in our Authorized Version as FALLOW DEER. + +We shall presently see that the Fallow Deer is to be identified with +another animal, and that the word Jachmur must find another +interpretation. If we follow the Septuagint, and call it the BUBALE, +we shall identify it with a well-known antelope, called by the Arabs +the "Bekk'r-el-Wash," and known to zoologists as the BUBALE +(_Acronotus bubalis_). + +This fine antelope would scarcely be recognised as such by an +unskilled observer, as in its general appearance it much more +resembles the ox tribe than the antelope. Indeed, the Arabic title, +"Bekk'r-el-Wash," or Wild Cow, shows how close must be the resemblance +to the oxen. The Arabs, and indeed all the Orientals in whose +countries it lives, believe it not to be an antelope, but one of the +oxen, and class it accordingly. + +How much the appearance of the Bubale justifies them in this opinion +may be judged by reference to the figure on page 145. The horns are +thick, short, and heavy, and are first inclined forwards, and then +rather suddenly bent backwards. This formation of the horns causes the +Bubale to use his weapons after the manner of the bull, thereby +increasing the resemblance between them. When it attacks, the Bubale +lowers its head to the ground, and as soon as its antagonist is within +reach, tosses its head violently upwards, or swings it with a sidelong +upward blow. In either case, the sharp curved horns, impelled by the +powerful neck of the animal, and assisted by the weight of the large +head, become most formidable weapons. + +It is said that in some places, where the Bubales have learned to +endure the presence of man, they will mix with his herds for the sake +of feeding with them, and by degrees become so accustomed to the +companionship of their domesticated friends, that they live with the +herd as if they had belonged to it all their lives. This fact shows +that the animal possesses a gentle disposition, and it is said to be +as easily tamed as the gazelle itself. + +Even at the present day the Bubale has a very wide range, and formerly +had in all probability a much wider. It is indigenous to Barbary, and +has continued to spread itself over the greater part of Northern +Africa, including the borders of the Sahara, the edges of the +cultivated districts, and up the Nile for no small distance. In former +days it was evidently a tolerably common animal of chase in Upper +Egypt, as there are representations of it on the monuments, drawn +with the quaint truthfulness which distinguishes the monumental +sculpture of that period. + + [Illustration: THE BUBALE, OR FALLOW DEER OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_And Solomon's provision for one day was thirty measures of fine + flour, and threescore measure of meal; ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen + out of the pastures, and an hundred sheep; beside harts and roebucks, + and fallow-deer, and fatted fowl._"--1 KINGS iv. 22, 23.] + +It is probable that in and about Palestine it was equally common, so +that there is good reason why it should be specially named as one of +the animals that were lawful food. Not only was its flesh permitted to +be eaten, but it was evidently considered as a great dainty, inasmuch +as the Jachmur is mentioned in 1 Kings iv. 23 as one of the animals +which were brought to the royal table. See the passage quoted in full +below the illustration. + +Even at the present day it is seen near the Red Sea; and as within the +memory of man it had a much larger range than can now be assigned to +it, we may safely conjecture that it resided in Palestine in +sufficient numbers to afford a constant supply of food to the royal +residence. + +In size the Bubale is about equal to that of a heifer, and its general +colour is reddish brown. The head is long and narrow, so that the +heavy and deeply-ridged horns seem to stand out with peculiar +boldness. The shoulders are rather high, the neck is very ox-like, and +from the end of the tail hangs a tuft of long black hair. It is a +gregarious animal, and is found in herds, though not of very great +numbers. + +The Bubale is closely allied to the hartebeest, the well-known +antelope of Southern Africa. + + + + +THE SHEEP. + + + Importance of Sheep in the Bible--The Sheep the chief wealth of + the pastoral tribes--Tenure of land--Value of good + pasture-land--Arab shepherds of the present day--Difference + between the shepherds of Palestine and England--Wanderings of + the flocks in search of food--Value of the wells--How the Sheep + are watered--Duties of the shepherd--The shepherd a kind of + irregular soldier--His use of the sling--Sheep following their + shepherd--Calling the Sheep by name--The shepherd usually a part + owner of the flocks--Structure of the sheepfolds--The rock + caverns of Palestine--David's adventure with Saul--Penning of + the Sheep by night--Use of the dogs--Sheep sometimes brought up + by hand--How Sheep are fattened in the Lebanon district--The two + breeds of Sheep in Palestine--The broad-tailed Sheep, and its + peculiarities--Reference to this peculiarity in the Bible--The + Talmudical writers, and their directions to sheep-owners. + + +We now come to a subject which will necessarily occupy us for some +little time. + +There is, perhaps, no animal which occupies a larger space in the +Scriptures than the SHEEP. Whether in religious, civil, or domestic +life, we find that the Sheep is bound up with the Jewish nation in a +way that would seem almost incomprehensible, did we not recall the +light which the New Testament throws upon the Old, and the many +allusions to the coming Messiah under the figure of the Lamb that +taketh away the sins of the world. + +In treating of the Sheep, it will be perhaps advisable to begin the +account by taking the animal simply as one of those creatures which +have been domesticated from time immemorial, dwelling slightly on +those points on which the sheep-owners of the old days differed from +those of our own time. + +In the first place, the tenure of land was--and is still--entirely +different from anything that can be found in our own country. With us, +the comparatively large amount of population, placed on a +comparatively small area of ground, prohibits the mode of +sheep-keeping as practised in the East, where the pasture-lands are of +vast extent, and common to all who choose to take their flocks to +them. We have at present the Downs and the Highlands as examples of +such pasturage, but they are of small extent when compared with the +vast plains which are used for this purpose in the East. + +The only claim to the land seems, in the old times of the Scriptures, +to have lain in cultivation, or perhaps in the land immediately +surrounding a well. But any one appears to have taken a piece of +ground and cultivated it, or to have dug a well wherever he chose, and +thereby to have acquired a sort of right to the soil. The same custom +prevails at the present day among the cattle-breeding races of +Southern Africa. The banks of rivers, on account of their superior +fertility, were considered as the property of the chiefs who lived +along their course, but the inland soil was free to all. + +Had it not been for this freedom of the land, it would have been +impossible for the great men to have nourished the enormous flocks and +herds of which their wealth consisted; but, on account of the lack of +ownership of the soil, a flock could be moved to one district after +another as fast as it exhausted the herbage, the shepherds thus +unconsciously imitating the habits of the gregarious animals, which +are always on the move from one spot to another. + +Pasturage being thus free to all, Sheep had a higher comparative value +than is the case with ourselves, who have to pay in some way for their +keep. There is a proverb in the Talmud which may be curtly translated, +"Land sell, sheep buy." + +The value of a good pasture-ground for the flocks is so great, that +its possession is well worth a battle, the shepherds being saved from +a most weary and harassing life, and being moreover fewer in number +than is needed when the pasturage is scanty. Sir S. Baker, in his work +on Abyssinia, makes some very interesting remarks upon the Arab +herdsmen, who are placed in conditions very similar to those of the +Israelitish shepherds in a bad pasture-land. + +"The Arabs are creatures of necessity; their nomadic life is +compulsory, as the existence of their flocks and herds depends upon +the pasturage. Thus, with the change of seasons they must change their +localities according to the presence of fodder for their cattle.... +The Arab cannot halt in one spot longer than the pasturage will +support his flocks. The object of his life being fodder, he must +wander in search of the ever-changing supply. His wants must be few, +as the constant change of encampment necessitates the transport of all +his household goods; thus he reduces to a minimum his domestic +furniture and utensils.... + +"This striking similarity to the descriptions of the Old Testament is +exceedingly interesting to a traveller when residing among these +curious and original people. With the Bible in one's hand, and these +unchanged tribes before the eyes, there is a thrilling illustration of +the sacred record; the past becomes the present, the veil of three +thousand years is raised, and the living picture is a witness to the +exactness of the historical description. At the same time there is a +light thrown upon many obscure passages in the Old Testament by the +experience of the present customs and figures of speech of the Arabs, +which are precisely those that were practised at the periods +described.... + +"Should the present history of the country be written by an Arab +scribe, the style of the description would be precisely that of the +Old Testament. There is a fascination in the unchangeable features of +the Nile regions. There are the vast pyramids that have defied time, +the river upon which Moses was cradled in infancy, the same sandy +desert through which he led his people, and the watering-places where +their flocks were led to drink. The wild and wandering Arabs, who +thousands of years ago dug out the wells in the wilderness, are +represented by their descendants, unchanged, who now draw water from +the deep wells of their forefathers, with the skins that have never +altered their fashion. + +"The Arabs, gathering with their goats and sheep around the wells +to-day, recall the recollection of that distant time when 'Jacob went +on his journey, and came into the land of the people of the east. And +he looked, and behold a well in the field, and lo! there were three +flocks of sheep lying by it,' &c. The picture of that scene would be +an illustration of Arab daily life in the Nubian deserts, where the +present is a mirror of the past." + +Owing to the great number of Sheep which they have to tend, and the +peculiar state of the country, the life of the shepherd in Palestine +is even now very different from that of an English shepherd, and in +the days of the early Scriptures the distinction was even more +distinctly marked. + +Sheep had to be tended much more carefully than we generally think. In +the first place, a thoughtful shepherd had always one idea before his +mind,--namely, the possibility of obtaining sufficient water for his +flocks. Even pasturage is less important than water, and, however +tempting a district might be, no shepherd would venture to take his +charge there if he were not sure of obtaining water. In a climate such +as ours, this ever-pressing anxiety respecting water can scarcely be +appreciated, for in hot climates not only is water scarce, but it is +needed far more than in a temperate and moist climate. Thirst does its +work with terrible quickness, and there are instances recorded where +men have sat down and died of thirst in sight of the river which they +had not strength to reach. + +In places therefore through which no stream runs, the wells are the +great centres of pasturage, around which are to be seen vast flocks +extending far in every direction. These wells are kept carefully +closed by their owners, and are only opened for the use of those who +are entitled to water their flocks at them. + +Noontide is the general time for watering the Sheep, and towards that +hour all the flocks may be seen converging towards their respective +wells, the shepherd at the head of each flock, and the Sheep following +him. See how forcible becomes the imagery of David, the shepherd poet, +"The Lord is my Shepherd; I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down +in green pastures (or, in pastures of tender grass): He leadeth me +beside the still waters" Ps. xxiii. 1, 2). Here we have two of the +principal duties of the good shepherd brought prominently before +us,--namely, the guiding of the Sheep to green pastures and leading +them to fresh water. Very many references are made in the Scriptures +to the pasturage of sheep, both in a technical and a metaphorical +sense; but as our space is limited, and these passages are very +numerous, only one or two of each will be taken. + +In the story of Joseph, we find that when his father and brothers were +suffering from the famine, they seem to have cared as much for their +Sheep and cattle as for themselves, inasmuch as among a pastoral +people the flocks and herds constitute the only wealth. So, when +Joseph at last discovered himself, and his family were admitted to the +favour of Pharaoh, the first request which they made was for their +flocks. "Pharaoh said unto his brethren, What is your occupation? And +they said unto Pharaoh, Thy servants are shepherds, both we, and also +our fathers. + +"They said moreover unto Pharaoh, For to sojourn in the land are we +come; for thy servants have no pasture for their flocks; for the +famine is sore in the land of Canaan: now therefore, we pray thee, let +thy servants dwell in the land of Goshen." + +This one incident, so slightly remarked in the sacred history, gives a +wonderfully clear notion of the sort of life led by Jacob and his +sons. Forming, according to custom, a small tribe of their own, of +which the father was the chief, they led a pastoral life, taking their +continually increasing herds and flocks from place to place as they +could find food for them. For example, at the memorable time when the +story of Joseph begins, he was sent by his father to his brothers, who +were feeding the flocks, and he wandered about for some time, not +knowing where to find them. It may seem strange that he should be +unable to discover such very conspicuous objects as large flocks of +sheep and goats, but the fact is that they had been driven from one +pasture-land to another, and had travelled in search of food all the +way from Shechem to Dothan. + +In 1 Chron. iv. 39, 40, we read of the still pastoral Israelites that +"they went to the entrance of Gedor, even unto the east side of the +valley, to seek pasture for their flocks. And they found fat pasture +and good, and the land was wide, and quiet, and peaceable." + +How it came to be quiet and peaceable is told in the context. It was +peaceable simply because the Israelites were attracted by the good +pasturage, attacked the original inhabitants, and exterminated them so +effectually that none were left to offer resistance to the usurpers. +And we find from this passage that the value of good pasture-land +where the Sheep could feed continually without being forced to wander +from one spot to another was so considerable, that the owners of the +flocks engaged in war, and exposed their own lives, in order to obtain +so valuable a possession. + +As to the figurative passages, they are far too numerous to be quoted, +and are found throughout the whole of the Old and New Testaments. For +example, see Psalm lxxix. 13, "So we Thy people and the sheep of Thy +pasture will give Thee thanks for ever." And again, "I will feed them +upon the mountains of Israel by the rivers, and in all the inhabited +places of the country. I will feed them in a good pasture, and upon +the high mountains of Israel shall their fold be: there shall they lie +in a good fold, and in a fat pasture shall they feed upon the +mountains of Israel" (Ezek. xxxiv. 13, 14). + +We will now look at one or two of the passages that mention watering +the Sheep--a duty so imperative on an Oriental shepherd, and so +needless to our own. + +In the first place we find that most graphic narrative which occurs in +Gen xxix. to which a passing reference has already been made. When +Jacob was on his way from his parents to the home of Laban in +Padan-aram, he came upon the very well which belonged to his uncle, +and there saw three flocks of Sheep lying around the well, waiting +until the proper hour arrived. According to custom, a large stone was +laid over the well, so as to perform the double office of keeping out +the sand and dust, and of guarding the precious water against those +who had no right to it. And when he saw his cousin Rachel arrive with +the flock of which she had the management, he, according to the +courtesy of the country and the time, rolled away the ponderous +barrier, and poured out water into the troughs for the Sheep which +Rachel tended. + +About two hundred years afterwards, we find Moses performing a similar +act. When he was obliged to escape into Midian on account of his fatal +quarrel with a tyrannical Egyptian, he sat down by a well, waiting for +the time when the stone might be rolled away, and the water be +distributed. Now it happened that this well belonged to Jethro, the +chief priest of the country, whose wealth consisted principally of +Sheep. He entrusted his flock to the care of his seven daughters, who +led their Sheep to the well and drew water as usual into the troughs. +Presuming on their weakness, other shepherds came and tried to drive +them away, but were opposed by Moses, who drove them away, and with +his own hands watered the flock. + +Now in both these examples we find that the men who performed the +courteous office of drawing the water and pouring it into the +sheep-troughs married afterwards the girl to whose charge the flocks +had been committed. This brings us to the Oriental custom which has +been preserved to the present day. + +The wells at which the cattle are watered at noon-day are the +meeting-places of the tribe, and it is chiefly at the well that the +young men and women meet each other. As each successive flock arrives +at the well, the number of the people increases, and while the sheep +and goats lie patiently round the water, waiting for the time when the +last flock shall arrive, and the stone be rolled off the mouth of the +well, the gossip of the tribe is discussed, and the young people have +ample opportunity for the pleasing business of courtship. + +As to the passages in which the wells, rivers, brooks, water-springs, +are spoken of in a metaphorical sense, they are too numerous to be +quoted. + +And here I may observe, that in reality the whole of Scripture has its +symbolical as well as its outward signification; and that, until we +have learned to read the Bible strictly according to the spirit, we +cannot understand one-thousandth part of the mysteries which it +conceals behind its veil of language; nor can we appreciate +one-thousandth part of the treasures of wisdom which lie hidden in its +pages from those who have eyes and cannot see, ears and cannot hear. + +Another duty of the shepherd of ancient Palestine was to guard his +flock from depredators, whether man or beast. Therefore the shepherd +was forced to carry arms; to act as a sentry during the night; and, in +fact, to be a sort of irregular soldier. A fully-armed shepherd had +with him his bow, his spear, and his sword, and not even a shepherd +lad was without his sling and the great quarter-staff which is even +now universally carried by the tribes along the Nile--a staff as thick +as a man's wrist, and six or seven feet in length. He was skilled in +the use of all these weapons, especially in that of the sling. + +In England, in these days, the sling is only considered as a mere toy, +whereas, before the introduction of fire-arms, it was one of the most +formidable weapons that could be wielded by light troops. Round and +smooth stones weighing three or four ounces were the usual +projectiles, and, by dint of constant practice from childhood, the +slingers could aim with a marvellous precision. Of this fact we have a +notable instance in David, who knew that the sling and the five stones +in the hand of an active youth unencumbered by armour, and wearing +merely the shepherd's simple tunic, were more than a match for all the +ponderous weapons of the gigantic Philistine. + +It has sometimes been the fashion to attribute the successful aim of +David to a special miracle, whereas those who are acquainted with +ancient weapons know well that no miracle was wrought, because none +was needed; a good slinger at that time being as sure of his aim as a +good rifleman of our days. + +The sling was in constant requisition, being used both in directing +the Sheep and in repelling enemies: a stone skilfully thrown in front +of a straying Sheep being a well-understood signal that the animal had +better retrace its steps if it did not want to feel the next stone on +its back. + +Passing his whole life with his flock, the shepherd was identified +with his Sheep far more than is the case in this country. He knew all +his Sheep by sight, he called them all by their names, and they all +knew him and recognised his voice. He did not drive them, but he led +them, walking in their front, and they following him. Sometimes he +would play with them, pretending to run away while they pursued him, +exactly as an infant-school teacher plays with the children. + +Consequently, they looked upon him as their protector as well as their +feeder, and were sure to follow wherever he led them. + +We must all remember how David, who had passed all his early years as +a shepherd, speaks of God as the Shepherd of Israel, and the people as +Sheep; never mentioning the Sheep as being driven, but always as being +led. "Thou leddest Thy people like a flock, by the hands of Moses and +Aaron" (Ps. lxxvii. 20); "The Lord is my Shepherd.... He leadeth me +beside the still waters" (Ps. xxiii. 1, 2); "Lead me in a plain path, +because of mine enemies" (Ps. xxvii. 11); together with many other +passages too numerous to be quoted. + + [Illustration: SHEEP FOLLOWING THEIR SHEPHERD. + + "_He calleth his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out._"--JOHN + x. 3.] + +Our Lord Himself makes a familiar use of the same image: "He calleth +his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out. And when he putteth forth +his own sheep, he goeth before them, and the sheep follow him: for +they know his voice. And a stranger will they not follow, but will +flee from him: for they know not the voice of strangers" (John x. +3-5). And again at verse 26: "Ye believe not, because ye are not of my +sheep, as I said unto you. My sheep hear my voice, and I know them, +and they follow me." + +Although the shepherds of our own country know their Sheep by sight, +and say that there is as much difference in the faces of Sheep as of +men, they have not, as a rule, attained the art of teaching their +Sheep to recognise their names. This custom, however, is still +retained, as may be seen from a well-known passage in Hartley's +"Researches in Greece and the Levant:"-- + +"Having had my attention directed last night to the words in John x. +3, I asked my man if it were usual in Greece to give names to the +sheep. He informed me that it was, and that the sheep obeyed the +shepherd when he called them by their names. This morning I had an +opportunity of verifying the truth of this remark. Passing by a flock +of sheep, I asked the shepherd the same question which I had put to +the servant, and he gave me the same answer. I then bade him call one +of his sheep. He did so, and it instantly left its pasturage and its +companions, and ran up to the hands of the shepherd, with signs of +pleasure, and with a prompt obedience which I had never before +observed in any other animal. + +"It is also true that in this country, 'a stranger will they not +follow, but will flee from him.' The shepherd told me that many of his +sheep were still wild, that they had not learned their names, but that +by teaching them they would all learn them." + +Generally, the shepherd was either the proprietor of the flock, or had +at all events a share in it, of which latter arrangement we find a +well-known example in the bargain which Jacob made with Laban, all the +white Sheep belonging to his father-in-law, and all the dark and +spotted Sheep being his wages as shepherd. Such a man was far more +likely to take care of the Sheep than if he were merely a paid +labourer; especially in a country where the life of a shepherd was a +life of actual danger, and he might at any time be obliged to fight +against armed robbers, or to oppose the wolf, the lion, or the bear. +The combat of the shepherd David with the last-mentioned animals has +already been noticed. + +In allusion to the continual risks run by the Oriental shepherd, our +Lord makes use of the following well-known words:--"The thief cometh +not but for to steal, and to kill, and to destroy: I am come that they +might have life, and have it more abundantly. I am the Good Shepherd: +the good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep. But he that is an +hireling, ... whose own the sheep are not, seeth the wolf coming, and +leaveth the sheep, and fleeth: and the wolf catcheth them, and +scattereth the sheep. The hireling fleeth because he is an hireling, +and careth not for the sheep." + +Owing to the continual moving of the Sheep, the shepherd had very hard +work during the lambing time, and was obliged to carry in his arms the +young lambs which were too feeble to accompany their parents, and to +keep close to him those Sheep who were expected soon to become +mothers. At that time of year the shepherd might constantly be seen at +the head of his flock, carrying one or two lambs in his arms, +accompanied by their mothers. + +In allusion to this fact Isaiah writes: "His reward is with Him, and +His work before Him. He shall feed His flock like a shepherd; He shall +gather the lambs with His arms and carry them in His bosom, and shall +gently lead them that are with young" (or, "that give suck," according +to the marginal reading). Here we have presented at once before us the +good shepherd who is no hireling, but owns the Sheep; and who +therefore has "his reward with him, and his work before him;" who +bears the tender lambs in his arms, or lays them in the folds of his +mantle, and so carries them in his bosom, and leads by his side their +yet feeble mothers. + +Frequent mention is made of the folds in which the Sheep are penned; +and as these folds differed--and still differ--materially from those +of our own land, we shall miss the force of several passages of +Scripture if we do not understand their form, and the materials of +which they were built. Our folds consist merely of hurdles, moveable +at pleasure, and so low that a man can easily jump over them, and so +fragile that he can easily pull them down. Moreover, the Sheep are +frequently enclosed within the fold while they are at pasture. + + [Illustration: THE SHEEP. + + "He maketh me to lie down in green pastures."--PSALM xxiii. 2.] + +If any one should entertain such an idea of the Oriental fold, he +would not see the force of the well-known passage in which our Lord +compares the Church to a sheep fold, and Himself to the door. "He that +entereth not by the door into the sheep fold, but climbeth up some +other way, the same is a thief and a robber. But he that entereth in +by the door is the shepherd of the sheep. To him the porter openeth, +and the sheep hear his voice.... All that ever came before me +are thieves and robbers: but the sheep did not hear them. I +am the door: by me if any man enter in, he shall be saved, and shall +go in and out, and find pasture." + +Had the fold here mentioned been a simple enclosure of hurdles, such +an image could not have been used. It is evident that the fold to +which allusion was made, and which was probably in sight at the time +when Jesus was disputing with the Pharisees, was a structure of some +pretensions; that it had walls which a thief could only enter by +climbing over them--not by "breaking through" them, as in the case of +a mud-walled private house; and that it had a gate, which was guarded +by a watchman. + +In fact, the fold was a solid and enduring building, made of stone. +Thus in Numbers xxxii. it is related that the tribes of Reuben and +Gad, who had great quantities of Sheep and other cattle, asked for the +eastward side of Jordan as a pasture-ground, promising to go and fight +for the people, but previously to build fortified cities for their +families, and folds for their cattle, the folds being evidently, like +the cities, buildings of an enduring nature. + +If the reader will refer to the upper left-hand corner of the large +illustration, he will see in the distance the fold into which the +sheep are gathered at nightfall, and will perceive that it is a strong +stone building, with walls of a considerable height. In some places +the folds are simply rock caverns, partly natural and partly +artificial, often enlarged by a stone wall built outside it. It was +the absence of these rock caverns on the east side of Jordan that +compelled the Reubenites and Gadites to build folds for themselves, +whereas on the opposite side places of refuge were comparatively +abundant. + +See, for example, the well-known history related in 1 Sam. xxiii. +xxiv. David and his miscellaneous band of warriors, some six hundred +in number, were driven out of the cities by the fear of Saul, and were +obliged to pass their time in the wilderness, living in the "strong +holds" (xxiii. 14, 19), which we find immediately afterwards to be +rock caves (ver. 25). These caves were of large extent, being able to +shelter these six hundred warriors, and, on one memorable occasion, to +conceal them so completely as they stood along the sides, that Saul, +who had just come out of the open air, was not able to discern them +in the dim light, and David even managed to approach him unseen, and +cut off a portion of his outer robe. + +That this particular cave was a sheepfold we learn from xxiv. 2-4: +"Then Saul took three thousand chosen men out of all Israel, and went +to seek David and his men upon the rocks of the wild goats. And he +came to the sheepcotes by the way." Into these strongholds the Sheep +are driven towards nightfall, and, as the flocks converge towards +their resting-place, the bleatings of the sheep are almost deafening. + +The shepherds as well as their flocks found shelter in these caves, +making them their resting-places while they were living the strange, +wild, pastoral life among the hills; and at the present day many of +the smaller caves and "holes of the rock" exhibit the vestiges of +human habitation in the shape of straw, hay, and other dried herbage, +which has been used for beds, just as we now find the rude couches of +the coast-guard men in the cliff caves of our shores. + +The dogs which are attached to the sheepfolds were, as they are now, +the faithful servants of man, although, as has already been related, +they are not made the companions of man as is the case with ourselves. +Lean, gaunt, hungry, and treated with but scant kindness, they are yet +faithful guardians against the attack of enemies. They do not, as do +our sheepdogs, assist in driving the flocks, because the Sheep are not +driven, but led, but they are invaluable as nocturnal sentries. +Crouching together outside the fold, in little knots of six or seven +together, they detect the approach of wild animals, and at the first +sign of the wolf or the jackal they bark out a defiance, and scare +away the invaders. It is strange that the old superstitious idea of +their uncleanness should have held its ground through so many tens of +centuries; but, down to the present day, the shepherd of Palestine, +though making use of the dog as a guardian of his flock, treats the +animal with utter contempt, not to say cruelty, beating and kicking +the faithful creature on the least provocation, and scarcely giving it +sufficient food to keep it alive. + +Sometimes the Sheep are brought up by hand at home. "House-lamb," as +we call it, is even now common, and the practice of house-feeding +peculiar in the old Scriptural times. + +We have an allusion to this custom in the well-known parable of the +prophet Nathan: "The poor man had nothing, save one little ewe lamb, +which he had bought and nourished up: and it grew up together with +him, and with his children; it did eat of his own meat, and drank of +his own cup, and lay in his bosom, and was unto him as a daughter" (2 +Sam. xii. 3). A further, though less distinct, allusion is made to +this practice in Isaiah vii. 21: "It shall come to pass in that day, +that a man shall nourish a young cow, and two sheep." + +How the Sheep thus brought up by hand were fattened may be conjectured +from the following passage in Mr. D. Urquhart's valuable work on the +Lebanon:-- + +"In the month of June, they buy from the shepherds, when pasturage has +become scarce and sheep are cheap, two or three sheep; these they feed +by hand. After they have eaten up the old grass and the provender +about the doors, they get vine leaves, and, after the silkworms have +begun to spin, mulberry leaves. They purchase them on trial, and the +test is appetite. If a sheep does not feed well, they return it after +three days. To increase their appetite they wash them twice a day, +morning and evening, a care they never bestow on their own bodies. + +"If the sheep's appetite does not come up to their standard, they use +a little gentle violence, folding for them forced leaf-balls and +introducing them into their mouths. The mulberry has the property of +making them fat and tender. At the end of four months the sheep they +had bought at eighty piastres will sell for one hundred and forty, or +will realize one hundred and fifty. + +"The sheep is killed, skinned, and hung up. The fat is then removed; +the flesh is cut from the bones, and hung up in the sun. Meanwhile, +the fat has been put in a cauldron on the fire, and as soon as it has +come to boil, the meat is laid on. The proportion of the fat to the +lean is as four to ten, eight 'okes' fat and twenty lean. A little +salt is added, it is simmered for an hour, and then placed in jars for +the use of the family during the year. + +"The large joints are separated and used first, as not fit for keeping +long. The fat, with a portion of the lean, chopped fine, is what +serves for cooking the 'bourgoul,' and is called _Dehen_. The sheep +are of the fat-tailed variety, and the tails are the great delicacy." + +This last sentence reminds us that there are two breeds of Sheep in +Palestine. One much resembles our ordinary English Sheep, while the +other is a very different animal, being to the ordinary Sheep what the +greyhound is to the rough terrier. It is much taller on its legs, +larger-boned, and long-nosed. Only the rams have horns, and they are +not twisted spirally like those of our own Sheep, but come backwards, +and then curl round so that the point comes under the ear. The great +peculiarity of this Sheep is the tail, which is simply prodigious in +point of size, and is an enormous mass of fat. Indeed, the long-legged +and otherwise lean animal seems to concentrate all its fat in the +tail, which, as has been well observed, appears to abstract both flesh +and fat from the rest of the body. So great is this strange +development, that the tail alone will sometimes weigh one-fifth as +much as the entire animal. A similar breed of Sheep is found in +Southern Africa and other parts of the world. In some places, the tail +grows to such an enormous size that, in order to keep so valuable a +part of the animal from injury, it is fastened to a small board, +supported by a couple of wheels, so that the Sheep literally wheels +its own tail in a cart. It has been thought by some systematic +naturalists that this variety is a distinct species, and the +broad-tailed breeds of Sheep have, in consequence, been distinguished +by several names. For example, the present variety is called _Ovis +laticaudatus_ by several authors, _Ovis laticauda platyceros_ by +another, and _Ovis cauda obesa_ by another. The broad-tailed Sheep of +Tartary is called _Ovis steatopyga_. Another author calls it _Ovis +macrocercus_; and the broad-tailed Sheep of Southern Africa is called +_Ovis Capensis_. Yet they are in reality one and the same variety of +the common domesticated Sheep, differing in some particulars according +to the conditions in which they are placed, but having really no +specific distinction. It is, by the way, from the wool of the unborn +broad-tailed Sheep that the much-prized Astrachan fur is made. + +The various Scriptural writers seem never to have noticed the +difference between the breeds of Sheep; the names that are employed +denoting the different ages and sexes of the Sheep, but having no +reference to the breed. + +For example, the word "Tâleh" signifies a very young sucking lamb, +such as is mentioned in 1 Sam. vii. 9: "And Samuel took a sucking lamb +(Tâleh), and offered it for a burnt offering wholly unto the Lord." +The same word is used in Isa. lxv. 25: + +"The wolf and the lamb (tâleh) shall feed together;" the force of this +well-known passage being much increased by the correct rendering of +the word "tâleh." The Jewish Bible renders the word as "a lamb of +milk." + +The word "kebes," or "keves," (the e being pronounced like the same +letter in the word "seven") signifies a male lamb of a year or so old, +the feminine being "kebesah." When the young lamb was weaned, and was +sent to pasture, it was called by another name, _i.e._ "kar," this +word being evidently derived from the Hebrew verb which signifies to +skip. The adult ram is signified by the word "ayil," or "ail," and the +ewe by "rakal." + +Frequent reference to the fat of the tail is made in the Authorized +Version of the Scriptures, though in terms which would not be +understood did we not know that the Sheep which is mentioned in those +passages is the long-tailed Sheep of Syria. See, for example, the +history narrated in Exod. xxix. 22, where special details are given as +to the ceremony by which Aaron and his sons were consecrated to the +priesthood. "Thou shalt take of the ram the fat and the rump, and the +fat that covereth the inwards, and the caul above the liver, and the +two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them." In the Jewish Bible the +passage is given with much more precision, "Thou shalt take of the ram +the fat, _and the fat tail_," &c. The same rendering is used in Lev. +iii. 9: "And he shall offer of the sacrifice of the feast offering a +fire offering unto the Eternal; the fat thereof, and the whole fat +tail shall he take off hard by the backbone; and the fat that covereth +the inwards, and all the fat that is upon the inwards." + +But though this particular breed is not very distinctly mentioned in +the Bible, the Talmudical writers have many allusions to it. In the +Mischna these broad-tailed Sheep are not allowed to leave their folds +on the Sabbath-day, because by wheeling their little tail-waggons +behind them they would break the Sabbath. The writers describe the +tail very graphically, comparing its shape to that of a saddle, and +saying that it is fat, without bones, heavy and long, and looks as if +the whole body were continued beyond the hind-legs, and thence hung +down in place of a tail. + +The Rabbinical writers treat rather fully of the Sheep, and give some +very amusing advice respecting their management. If the ewes cannot be +fattened in the ordinary manner, that end may be achieved by tying up +the udder so that the milk cannot flow, and the elements which would +have furnished milk are forced to produce fat. If the weather should +be chilly at the shearing time, and there is danger of taking cold +after the wool is removed, the shepherd should dip a sponge in oil and +tie it on the forehead of the newly-shorn animal. Or, if he should not +have a sponge by him, a woollen rag will do as well. The same potent +remedy is also efficacious if the Sheep should be ill in lambing time. + +That the Sheep is liable to the attack of the gadfly, which deposits +its eggs in the nostrils of the unfortunate animal, was as well known +in the ancient as in modern times. It is scarcely necessary to mention +that the insect in question is the _Æstrus ovis_. Instinctively aware +of the presence of this insidious and dreaded enemy, which, though so +apparently insignificant, is as formidable a foe as any of the beasts +of prey, the Sheep display the greatest terror at the sharp, menacing +sound produced by the gadfly's wings as the insect sweeps through the +air towards its destination. They congregate together, placing their +heads almost in contact with each other, snort and paw the ground in +their terror, and use all means in their power to prevent the fly from +accomplishing its purpose. + +When a gadfly succeeds in attaining its aim, it rapidly deposits an +egg or two in the nostril, and then leaves them. The tiny eggs are +soon hatched by the natural heat of the animal, and the young larvæ +crawl up the nostril towards the frontal sinus. There they remain +until they are full-grown, when they crawl through the nostrils, fall +on the ground, burrow therein, and in the earth undergo their changes +into the pupal and perfect stages. + +It need hardly be said that an intelligent shepherd would devote +himself to the task of killing every gadfly which he could find, and, +as these insects are fond of basking on sunny rocks or tree-trunks, +this is no very difficult matter. + +The Rabbinical writers, however, being totally ignorant of practical +entomology, do not seem to have recognised the insect until it had +reached its full larval growth. They say that the rams manage to shake +the grubs out of their nostrils by butting at one another in mimic +warfare, and that the ewes, which are hornless, and are therefore +incapable of relieving themselves by such means, ought to be supplied +with plants which will make them sneeze, so that they may shake out +the grubs by the convulsive jerkings of the head caused by inhaling +the irritating substance. + +The same writers also recommend that the rams should be furnished with +strong leathern collars. + +When the flock is on the march, the rams always go in the van, and, +being instinctively afraid of their ancient enemy the wolf, they +continually raise their heads and look about them. This line of +conduct irritates the wolves, who attack the foremost rams and seize +them by the throat. If, therefore, a piece of stout leather be +fastened round the ram's neck, the wolf is baffled, and runs off in +sullen despair. + +Generally, the oldest ram is distinguished by a bell, and, when the +flock moves over the hilly slopes, the Sheep walk in file after the +leader, making narrow paths, which are very distinct from a distance, +but are scarcely perceptible when the foot of the traveller is +actually upon them. From this habit has arisen an ancient proverb, "As +the sheep after the sheep, so the daughter after the mother," a saying +which is another form of our own familiar proverb, "What is bred in +the bone will not come out of the flesh." + + +We now come to the Sheep considered with reference to its uses. First +and foremost the Sheep was, and still is, one of the chief means of +subsistence, being to the pastoral inhabitants of Palestine what the +oxen are to the pastoral inhabitants of Southern Africa. + +To ordinary persons the flesh of the Sheep was a seldom-tasted luxury; +great men might eat it habitually, "faring sumptuously every day," and +we find that, among the glories of Solomon's reign, the sacred +chronicler has thought it worth while to mention that part of the +daily provision for his household included one hundred Sheep. No +particular pains seem to have been taken about the cooking of the +animal, which seems generally to have been boiled. As, however, in +such a climate the flesh could not be kept for the purpose of making +it tender, as is the case in this part of the world, it was cooked as +soon as the animal was killed, the fibres not having time to settle +into the rigidity of death. + +Generally, when ordinary people had the opportunity of tasting the +flesh of the Sheep, it was on the occasion of some rejoicing,--such, +for example, as a marriage feast, or the advent of a guest, for whom a +lamb or a kid was slain and cooked on the spot, a young male lamb +being almost invariably chosen as less injurious than the ewe to the +future prospects of the flock. Roasting over a fire was sometimes +adopted, as was baking in an oven sunk in the ground, a remarkable +instance of which we shall see when we come to the Jewish sacrifices. +Boiling, however, was the principal mode; so much so, indeed, that the +Hebrew word which signifies boiling is used to signify any kind of +cooking, even when the meat was roasted. + +The process of cooking and eating the Sheep was as follows. + +The animal having been killed according to the legal form, the skin +was stripped off, and the body separated joint from joint, the right +shoulder being first removed. This, it will be remembered, was the +priest's portion; see Lev. vii. 32: "The right shoulder shall ye give +unto the priest for an heave offering of the sacrifices of your peace +offerings." The whole of the flesh was then separated from the bones, +and chopped small, and even the bones themselves broken up, so that +the marrow might not be lost. + +A reference to this custom is found in Micah iii. 2, 3, "Who pluck off +their skin from off them, and their flesh from off their bones; who +also eat the flesh of my people ... and they break their bones, and +chop them in pieces, as for the pot, and as flesh within the caldron." +The reader will now understand more fully the force of the prophecy, +"He keepeth all His bones: not one of them is broken" (Psa. xxxiv. +20). + +The mixed mass of bones and flesh was then put into the caldron, which +was generally filled with water, but sometimes with milk, as is the +custom with the Bedouins of the present day, whose manners are in many +respects identical with those of the early Jews. It has been thought +by some commentators that the injunction not to "seethe a kid in his +mother's milk" (Deut. xiv. 21) referred to this custom. I believe, +however, that the expression "in his mother's milk" does not signify +that the flesh of the kid might not be boiled in its mother's milk, +but that a kid might not be taken which was still in its mother's +milk, _i.e._ unweaned. + +Salt and spices were generally added to it; see Ezek. xxiv. 10: "Heap +on wood, kindle the fire, consume the flesh, and spice it well." The +surface was carefully skimmed, and, when the meat was thoroughly +cooked, it and the broth were served up separately. The latter was +used as a sort of sauce, into which unleavened bread was dipped. So in +Judges vi. 19 we read that when Gideon was visited by the angel, +according to the hospitable custom of the land, he "made ready a kid, +and unleavened cakes of an ephah of flour: the flesh he put in a +basket, and he put the broth in a pot, and brought it out unto him +under the oak, and presented it to him." + +Valuable, however, as was the Sheep for this purpose, there has always +existed a great reluctance to kill the animal, the very sight of the +flocks being an intense gratification to a pastoral Oriental. The +principal part of the food supplied by the Sheep was, and is still, +the milk; which afforded abundant food without thinning the number of +the flock. As all know who have tasted it, the milk of the Sheep is +peculiarly rich, and in the East is valued much more highly than that +of cattle. The milk was seldom drunk in a fresh state, as is usually +the case with ourselves, but was suffered to become sour, curdled, and +semi-solid. + +This custom exists at the present day, the curdled milk being known by +the name of "leben." It is worthy of notice that all the Kaffir tribes +of Southern Africa, who live almost entirely on milk, also use it +curdled, under the name of "amasi," and utterly refuse to drink it in +its fresh state, looking upon new milk much as we should look upon +unfermented ale. It is curdled by being placed in a vessel together +with some of the already curdled milk, and the usual plan is to +preserve for this special purpose a vessel which is never wholly +emptied, and which is found to curdle the milk with great rapidity. + +"Leben" is exceedingly nutritious, and especially adapted for +children, who, when accustomed to it, will very much prefer it to the +milk in a fresh state. Two separate words are used in the Old +Testament to distinguish fresh from curdled milk, the former being +called Châlâb, and the latter Chemhah. + +For butter (if we may accept the rendering of the word) the milk of +the cow or the goat seems to have been preferred, although that of the +Sheep also furnishes it. This distinction is drawn even in the +earliest days of Jewish history, and in the Song of Moses (Deut. +xxxii. 13, 14) we find this passage, "He made him to suck honey out of +the rock, and oil out of the flinty rock; butter of kine and milk of +sheep, with fat of lambs." + +There is, however, a little uncertainty about the word which is +translated as butter, and as this word is only used in a very few +passages, we will refer briefly to them. The first mention of butter +occurs in Gen. xviii. 8, where we are told that Abraham "took butter, +and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them." +In this passage we find the words "chemhah" and "châlâh" are used, the +former being translated in the Jewish Bible as "clotted cream." +Abraham therefore gave his angelic guests their choice of milk, both +fresh and curdled. In the passage from Deut. xxxii. 14, which has +already been mentioned, the same words are used, as they are in the +well-known passage in the history of Jael and Sisera (Judges v. 25): +"He asked water, and she gave him milk (châlâb); she brought forth +butter (chemhah) in a lordly dish." + +Again, the butter which Shobi, Machir, and Barzillai brought to David, +together with honey, was the chemhah (2 Sam. xvii. 29). In the +familiar passage, "Butter and honey shall He eat" (Isa. vii. 15), the +same word is used; and so it is in Job xx. 17, "He shall not see the +rivers, the floods, the brooks of honey and butter." + +But in Prov. xxx. 33, "Surely the churning (mitz) of milk (châlâb) +bringeth forth butter" (chemhah), we have a proof that the chemhah, +whatever it may be, is produced by the churning or pressure of the +fresh milk. As to the exact force of the word "mitz" there is a little +doubt, some persons translating it as pressure, and others as +agitating or shaking, a movement which, when applied to milk, would be +rightly translated as churning. This latter interpretation is +strengthened by the context, "Surely the churning (mitz) of milk +bringeth forth butter, and the wringing (mitz) of the nose bringeth +forth blood." + +It is most probable that the chemhah may signify both clotted cream +and butter, just as many words in our language have two or more +significations. Some commentators have thought that the ancient Jews +were not acquainted with butter. This theory, however, is scarcely +tenable. Butter is used largely at the present day, and is made after +the simple fashion of the East, by shaking the cream in a vessel, +exactly as it is made among the black tribes of Southern Africa and +other parts of the world. And, considering the unchanging character of +institutions in the East, we may assume as certain that the ancient +inhabitants of Palestine were, like their modern successors, +acquainted both with the clotted cream and true butter. + +Moreover, two substances, butter and honey, which are mentioned in +Samuel, in Job, and in Isaiah, as connected with each other, are still +eaten together in the East. + +A reference to the milk of Sheep is to be found in the New Testament: +"Who planteth a vineyard, and eateth not of the fruit thereof? or who +feedeth a flock, and eateth not of the milk of the flock?" (1 Cor. ix. +7). + +In this country the milk of the Sheep is scarcely ever used, but in +Scotland, especially in the great Sheep-feeding districts, its milk is +valued as it deserves, and is specially employed for the manufacture +of cheese. + +The mention of cheese brings us to another branch of the subject. +Gesenius thinks that the chemhah mentioned in Prov. xxx. must be a +kind of cheese, on account of the word "mitz," _i.e._ pressure. Thus +the word "cheese" occurs three times in the Authorized Version of the +Bible, and in all these passages a different word is used. We will +take them in their order. The first mention occurs in 1 Sam. xvii. 17, +18, "And Jesse said unto David his son, Take now for thy brethren an +ephah of this parched corn, and these ten loaves, and run to the camp +to thy brethren; and carry these ten cheeses unto the captain of their +thousand." In this passage the word which is rendered "cheeses" in the +Authorized Version is "charitz," a term which is translated in the +Jewish Bible as "slices of cheeses," on account of the etymology of +the word, which is derived from a root signifying slicing or cutting. + +Another word is used in 2 Sam. xvii. 29, where, among the provisions +that Barzillai brought to David, is mentioned "cheese of kine." The +Hebrew word "shaphôth," which is translated as cheese, derives its +origin from a root signifying to scrape. + +The third term translated as cheese is to be found in Job x. 10, "Hast +thou not poured me out as milk, and curdled me like cheese?" The word +"gebînah," which is here translated as "cheese" both in the Authorized +Version and the Jewish Bible, is derived from a root signifying to +curdle. + +Here, then, we have three passages, in each of which a different word +is mentioned, and yet these words have been translated in a precisely +similar manner, both in our own version and in the Jewish Bible. The +subject is so well summed up by the Rev. W. L. Bevan, in Smith's +"Dictionary of the Bible," that we may insert here the passage:-- + +"It is difficult to decide how far these terms correspond with our +notion of _cheese_, for they simply imply various degrees of +coagulation. It may be observed that cheese is not at the present day +common among the Bedouin Arabs, butter being decidedly preferred. But +there is a substance closely corresponding to those mentioned in 1 +Sam. xvii., 2 Sam. xvii., consisting of coagulated buttermilk, which +is dried until it becomes quite hard, and is then ground. The Arabs +eat it with butter. (Burckhardt, 'Notes on the Bedouins,' i. 60.) + +"In reference to this subject, it is noticeable that the ancients seem +generally to have used either butter or cheese, but not both. Thus the +Greeks had in reality but one expression for the two; for [Greek: +boúteron] = [Greek: boûs-turós] ('cheese of kine'). The Romans used +cheese extensively, while all nomad tribes preferred butter. The +distinction between cheese proper and coagulated milk seems to be +referred to in Pliny xi. 96." + +The reader will observe that this opinion exactly coincides with that +which was expressed a few lines above, namely, that the Hebrews used +one word to express both butter and cheese. The coagulated and dried +buttermilk--_i.e._ the "leben" of the Bedouins, and the "amasi" of the +Kaffir tribe--may well be the "shaphôth bâkâr," or "scrapings of the +kine," as being necessarily scraped off the stone or metal plate on +which it was dried. + + +We now come to a portion of the Sheep scarcely less important than the +flesh and the milk, _i.e._ the fleece, or wool. + +In the ancient times nearly the whole of the clothing was made of +wool, especially the most valuable part of it, namely the large +mantle, or "haick," in which the whole person could be folded, and +which was the usual covering during sleep. The wool, therefore, would +be an article of great national value; and so we find that when the +king of Moab paid his tribute in kind to the king of Israel, it was +carefully specified that the Sheep should not be shorn. "And Mesha +king of Moab was a sheep-master, and rendered unto the king of Israel +an hundred thousand lambs, and an hundred thousand rams, with the +wool." + +The wool of the Sheep of Palestine differed extremely in value; some +kinds being course and rough, while others were long, fine, and soft. + +The wool was dressed in those times much as it is at present, being +carded and then spun with the spindle, the distaff being apparently +unused, and the wool simply drawn out by the hand. The shape of the +spindle was much like that of the well-known flat spinning-tops that +come from Japan--namely, a disc through which passes an axle. A smart +twirl given by the fingers to the axle makes the disc revolve very +rapidly, and its weight causes the rotation to continue for a +considerable time. Spinning the wool was exclusively the task of the +women, a custom which prevailed in this country up to a very recent +time, and which still traditionally survives in the term "spinster," +and in the metaphorical use of the word "distaff" as synonymous with a +woman's proper work. + +Only a few passages occur in the Scriptures in which spinning is +mentioned. In Exod. xxxv. 25 we are told that, when the people were +preparing the materials for the Tabernacle, "all the women that were +wise-hearted did spin with their hands, and brought that which they +had spun, both of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, and of fine +linen." It is true that in Prov. xxxi. 19 there is mention both of the +distaff and spindle: "She layeth her hands to the spindle, and her +hand holds the distaff;" but the word which is translated as "distaff" +is more probably the flat disc which gave to the spindle its whirling +movement. Buxtorf's "Hebrew Lexicon" favours this interpretation, +translating the word as "verticulum, quasi fusi directorium," the word +being derived from a root signifying straight, or to keep something +else straight. + +The only other reference to spinning is the well-known passage, +"Consider the lilies, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they +spin: and yet I say unto you, That Solomon in all his glory was not +arrayed like one of these." + +When spun into threads, the wool was woven in the simple loom which +has existed up to our own day, and which is identical in its general +principles throughout a very large portion of the world. It consisted +of a framework of wood, at one end of which was placed the "beam" to +which the warp was attached; and at the other end was the "pin" on +which the cloth was rolled as it was finished. + +The reader may remember that when Delilah was cajoling Samson to tell +her the secret of his strength, he said, "If thou weavest the seven +locks of my head with the web." So, as he slept, she interwove his +long hair with the fabric which was on her loom, and, to make sure, +"fastened it with the pin," _i.e._ wove it completely into the cloth +which was rolled round the pin. So firmly had she done so, that when +he awoke he could not disentangle his hair, but left the house with +the whole of the loom, the beam and the pin, and the web hanging to +his head. + +The threads of the warp were separated by slight rods, and the woof +was passed between them with a shuttle shaped something like a sword, +which answered the double purpose of conducting the thread, and of +striking it with the edge so as to make it lie regularly in its place. + +The loom may either have been upright or horizontal, but was probably +the former, the weaver standing at his work, beginning at the top, and +so weaving down. The seamless coat or tunic of our Lord was thus made, +being "woven from the top throughout," like the Roman garments of a +similar character, called _rectæ_, signifying that they were woven in +an upright loom. According to the Jewish traditions, the sacerdotal +garments were thus made in one piece. + +Allusion is made to the speed with which the weaver throws his shuttle +in Job vii. 6, "My days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle, and are +passed without hope." When the fabric was finished, the weaver cut it +away from the thrum, an operation which is noticed in the following +passage of Isa. xxxviii. 12, "Mine age is departed, and is removed +from me like a shepherd's tent: I have cut off like a weaver my life: +He will cut me off with pining sickness." The latter sentence is +translated in the Jewish Bible "He will cut me off from the thrum," +and the same rendering is in the marginal note of the Authorized +Version. + +The reader may remember a remarkable prohibition in Deut. xxii. 11, +"Thou shalt not wear a garment of divers sorts, as woollen and linen +together," a prohibition which was sufficiently important to be +repeated in Lev. xix. 19. Now the word which is rendered as "divers +sorts" in one passage and as "mingled" in the other has been variously +interpreted, some persons rendering it as motley, some as spurious or +counterfeit, and some as spotted like a leopard. It is probable, +however, that our Authorized Version is the correct one, and that we +may accept the exposition of Josephus on the subject. He states that +such garments, _i.e._ of linen warp and woollen woof, were intended +wholly for sacerdotal use, and were in consequence prohibited to the +laity. + +Wool when taken from the Sheep was of various colours, according to +the animal from which it was shorn; but the most valuable was +necessarily the white variety, which might either be used without +dyeing, or stained of any favourite hue. Several allusions to the +whiteness of such wool are made in the Scriptures. See for example Ps. +cxlvii. 16, "He giveth snow like wool, and scattereth the hoarfrost +like ashes." Also Isa. i. 18, "Though your sins be as scarlet, they +shall be as white as snow; though they be red like crimson, they shall +be as wool." In the prophet Daniel the Ancient of Days is described as +having "His garments as white as snow, and the hair of His head like +the pure wool." And in Rev. i. 14 the same image is repeated, "His +head and His hairs were white like wool, as white as snow." + +The reader will not fail to observe that in all these passages wool +and snow are mentioned as of equal whiteness. The reference is +probably made to the newly-carded wool, which is peculiarly white and +soft. + +Wool was often dyed of various colours; blue, purple, and scarlet +being those which were generally employed. The rams' skins which +formed part of the covering of the Tabernacle were ordered to be dyed +scarlet, partly on account of the significance of the colour, and +partly because none but the best and purest fleeces would be chosen +for so rare and costly a dye. How the colour was produced we shall +learn towards the end of the volume. + +As with us, sheep-shearing was always a time of great rejoicing and +revelry, which seem often to have been carried beyond the bounds of +sobriety. Thus when Nabal had gathered together his three thousand +Sheep in Carmel, and held a shearing festival, David sent to ask for +some provisions for his band, and was refused in accordance with the +disposition of the man, who had inflamed his naturally churlish nature +with wine. "He held a feast in his house, like the feast of a king: +and Nabal's heart was merry within him, for he was very drunken" (1 +Sam. xxv. 36). + +The same was probably the case when Laban was shearing his Sheep (Gen. +xxxi. 19). Otherwise it would scarcely have been possible for Jacob to +have gone away unknown to Laban, taking with him his wives and +children, his servants, his camels, and his flocks, the rapid increase +of which had excited the jealousy of his uncle, and which were so +numerous that, in fear of his brother Esau, he divided them into two +bands, and yet was able to select from them a present to his brother, +consisting in all of nearly six hundred sheep, camels, oxen, goats, +and asses. + +Sometimes the shepherds and others who lived in pastoral districts +made themselves coats of the skins of the Sheep, with the wool still +adhering to it. The custom extends to the present day, and even in +many parts of Europe the sheep-skin dress of the shepherds is a +familiar sight to the traveller. The skin was sometimes tanned and +used as leather, but was considered as inferior to that of the goat. +Mr. Tristram conjectures that the leathern "girdle" worn by St. John +the Baptist was probably the untanned sheep-skin coat which has been +just mentioned. So it is said of the early Christians, that "they +wandered about in sheep-skins and goat-skins, being destitute, +afflicted, tormented," the sheep-skins in question being evidently the +rude shepherd's coats. + + +Next to the wool come the horns. + +In our country we have done our best to produce a hornless breed of +Sheep, thinking the nutriment which produces the horns can be better +expended on the body and fleece, but in the East the horns form an +important commodity, and are valued in proportion to their size. + +The chief use of the ram's horn was as a vessel in which to carry +liquids, especially those which, like oil, were poured out in small +quantities. For this purpose a wooden plug was driven tightly into +the larger end, so as to close it completely, and frequently covered, +in addition, with raw hide, in order to hold it firmly in its place, +while the small part of the pointed end was cut off, and the aperture +closed with a small stopper. The old powder-horns which were formerly +much used in England, and which even now are employed in Palestine and +many other countries, were good examples of this form of vessel. + +That the horn was the favourite vessel for carrying oil is seen in +many passages of the Scriptures. For example, when Saul was to be +superseded by David, Samuel was ordered to fill his horn with oil and +go to Jesse's house, 1 Sam. i. 39. The allusion was evidently to a +vessel whose ordinary use was the holding of oil. Again, when David +named Solomon his son (see 1 Kings i. 39), "Zadok the priest took an +horn of oil out of the Tabernacle, and anointed Solomon," the oil +being that which was kept in the Tabernacle for sacred purposes, and +the ingredients of which were so carefully chosen, for it was to be an +"oil of holy ointment, an ointment compounded after the art of the +apothecary (or perfumer), which shall be an holy anointing oil" (Ex. +xxx. 25). + +The horn of the ram had also a national value, as from it were made +the sacred trumpets which played so important a part in the history of +the Jewish nation. There is no doubt that the primitive trumpets were +originally formed either from the horn of an animal, such as the ox, +the large-horned antelopes, the sheep, and the goat, and that in +process of time they were made of metal, generally copper or silver. + +References are frequently made in the Bible to these trumpets, for +which there were different names, probably on account of their +different forms. These names are, however, very loosely rendered in +our version, the same word being sometimes translated the "cornet" and +sometimes the "trumpet." Putting aside, however, these points of +difference, we have chiefly to remark the fact that trumpets made of +rams' horns were ordered by the Mosaic law to be sounded at certain +times, and that their notes formed an important part of the ritual. + +Each jubilee year, for example, was ushered in by the blasts of the +sacred trumpets. "Then shalt thou cause the trumpet of the jubilee to +sound on the tenth day of the seventh month, in the day of atonement +shall ye make the trumpet sound throughout all your land" (Lev. xxv. +9). Then there was the festival known as the Feast of Trumpets. "In +the seventh month, on the first day of the month, ye shall have an +holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work: it is a day of blowing +the trumpets unto you" (Numb. xxix. 1). + +Perhaps the most prominent instance of the blowing of the sacred +trumpet may be found in the familiar passage in the book of Joshua +(ch. vi.) in which is described the fall of Jericho. "Ye shall compass +the city, all ye men of war, and go about the city once. This ye shall +do six days. And seven priests shall bear before the ark seven +trumpets of rams' horns (or jubilee cornets); and the seventh day ye +shall compass the city seven times, and the priests shall blow with +the trumpets. And it shall come to pass, when they make a long blast +with the rams' horns, and when ye hear the sound of the trumpet, all +the people shall shout with a great shout; and the wall of the city +shall fall down flat, and the people shall ascend up every man +straight before him." + +Trumpets were also used as signals to the people. "Declare ye in +Judah, and publish in Jerusalem, and say, Blow ye the trumpet in the +land: cry, gather together and say, Assemble yourselves, and let us go +into the defenced cities" (Jer. iv. 5). And on that great and solemn +day when the law was given from Mount Sinai the signal to the people +was the sound of the trumpet (or cornet, as the word is translated in +the margin). "And it came to pass on the third day in the morning, +that there were thunders and lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the +mount, and the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud; so that all the +people that was in the camp trembled" (Exod. xix. 16). + +The Hebrew word which is here translated as "trumpet" is "shofar," +which signifies also a horn, and is therefore very rightly translated +in the margin and in the Jewish Bible as "cornet." What may have been +the shape of the shofar is evident from the fact that the same +instrument is used even at the present day in certain parts of the +Jewish ritual. One of these trumpets is now before me, and is shown in +the accompanying illustration. + +In length it measures eighteen inches, _i.e._ a cubit, and it is +formed entirely in one piece. As far as I can judge, it is made from +the left horn of the broad-tailed Sheep, which, as has already been +remarked, is not spiral, but flattish, curved backwards, and forming +nearly a circle, the point passing under the ear. This structure, +added to the large size of the horn, adapts it well for its purpose. +In order to bring it to the proper shape, the horn is softened by +heat, and is then modelled into the very form which was used by the +Jewish priests who blew the trumpet before the ark. + + [Illustration: RAM'S HORN TRUMPET.] + +At the present day one such trumpet, at least, is found in every +Jewish community, and is kept by the man who has the privilege of +blowing it. On the New Year's festival and the Day of Atonement the +trumpet is used in the Jewish ritual, and as the ceremonies connected +with blowing it are extremely interesting, they will be briefly +described. + +The trumpeter, who is not necessarily a priest, but may be any pious +man selected from the congregation, prepares himself by bathing, and +at the appointed time puts on the white shirt or shroud in which Jews +are buried. Before the trumpet is blown, a prayer is said, containing +many cabalistic names of angels and _malachim_, or powers. These names +may not be pronounced. + +The Rabbi then stands, and gives out the names of the sacred tones in +their succession. By the kindness of Dr. Herman Beigel, I have been +enabled to hear the tones, and to put them into musical notes,--I +believe for the first time since they have been used. The tones are +four in number, and are called as follows: Tekeeah (the blowing), +Shebârim (the repeated notes), Terooah (the note of joy), and +Tekeeah-gedôlah (the lengthened blowing). It is not very easy exactly +to express on paper these ancient tones, but the following notes will +give a good idea of them. + + [Illustration: Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah-gedôlah.] + +These tones are blown in three partitions, in the following order:-- + + PARTITION I. PARTITION II. + + Tekeeah. Shebârim. Tekeeah. Tekeeah. Terooah. Tekeeah. + + Tekeeah. Shebârim. Tekeeah. Tekeeah. Terooah. Tekeeah. + + Tekeeah. Shebârim. Tekeeah. Tekeeah. Terooah. Tekeeah. + + PARTITION III. + + Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah. + + Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah. + + Tekeeah. Shebârim. Terooah. Tekeeah-gedôlah. + +Between each partition a pause is made, during which the congregation +join in a prayer which is full of cabalistic names of the angels who +have charge over the sacred tones. And, according to a beautiful +Hebrew tradition, when the trumpet is blown with the proper rites, +each tone is transformed into an angel, who ascends to join his +heavenly colleagues, and with them forms a crown before the throne of +God. So that, ever since the Jewish ritual was established, every New +Year's festival and Day of Atonement send forth their own angels, as +additional jewels to the heavenly crown. + +These tones are the same all over the world, and have been unchanged +for countless generations, so that we may be nearly certain that the +blast before which the walls of Jericho fell were the four sacred +tones which have just been described. The reader will perceive that +all the tones are simply octaves, blown with more or less rapidity, +the short notes of Terooah being taken as quickly as the trumpeter can +blow them, and the concluding note well swelled out, until "the voice +of the cornet waxes exceeding loud." Sometimes fifths are used instead +of octaves. + +The sounds of the shofar are very peculiar and harsh, quite unlike the +notes of any modern instrument. In spite, however, of the wild and +almost discordant harshness of the instrument, and the abrupt and even +startling character of the Shebârim and Terooah, the sound of the +shofar has a strangely solemn effect, carrying back the mind of the +hearer to the time when the priests bore their rams'-horn trumpets +before the ark, and blew the same sacred blasts under the shadow of +Sinai. + +Dr. Beigel has made a most singular discovery concerning the tones of +the shofar. If the reader will blow them on a flute in the exact order +in which they stand, he will find that he is playing a portion of the +nightingale's song. This remarkable fact has been communicated to the +Chief Rabbi and other Rabbim, who are unanimous in expressing their +satisfaction at it. We cannot, of course, venture to say whether the +sacred tones were in the first instance copied from the notes of a +singing bird, but it is not unlikely that, whether consciously or not, +the mind of the ancient composer might have been influenced by tones +which he had often heard, and which could be reproduced in the limited +compass of the ram's horn trumpet. + +The old Rabbinical writers have a curious saying about the ram: "The +ram in life has one tone, in death seven." This they explain in the +following way. When the animal is living the only sound which it can +produce is the bleat, but when it is dead it is made into musical +instruments. + + 1. Of the horns are made trumpets. + + 2. Of the leg-bones are made flutes. + + 3. Of the large intestines are made lute-strings. + + 4. Of the small intestines are made harp-strings. + + 5. Of the skin is made the drum-head. + + 6. Of the wool are made the pomegranates which hang between the + golden bells of the High Priest's garment. + +This latter sentence explains a passage in Exodus xxviii. 33, which is +not very easy of comprehension. When describing the ephod of the High +Priest, the sacred writer proceeds to say, "And beneath upon the hem +of it thou shalt make pomegranates of blue, and of purple, and of +scarlet, round about the hem thereof, and bells of gold between them +round about." Both the material and the use of the blue and purple and +scarlet pomegranates are here left uncertain, but this old Rabbinical +saying explains both. They were made of the dyed wool of the sheep, +and their use was to prevent the bells from clashing harshly together, +and to keep up a sort of gentle chime as the High Priest went about +his sacred duties. + +It is very true that only six tones instead of seven are enumerated, +but we must not be too critical in dissecting an aphorism. + + +We now come to the important subject, the use of the Sheep in sacrifice. +No animal was used so frequently for this purpose as the Sheep, and +in many passages of the Mosaic law are specified the precise age as +well as the sex of the Sheep which was to be sacrificed in certain +circumstances. Sometimes the Sheep was sacrificed as an offering of +thanksgiving, sometimes as an expiation for sin, and sometimes as a +redemption for some more valuable animal. The young male lamb was the +usual sacrifice; and almost the only sacrifice for which a Sheep might +not be offered was that of the two goats on the great Day of +Atonement. To mention all the passages in which the Sheep is ordered +for sacrifice would occupy too much of our space, and we will +therefore restrict ourselves to the one central rite of the Jewish +nation, the sacrifice of the Paschal lamb, the precursor of the Lamb +of God, who taketh away the sins of the world. + +Without examining in full the various ceremonies of the Paschal +sacrifice, we will glance over the salient points which distinguish it +from any other sacrifice. + +The lamb must be a male, which is selected and examined with the +minutest care, that it may be free from all blemish, and must be of +the first year. It must be killed on the fourteenth of the month Abib +as the sun is setting, and the blood must be sprinkled with hyssop. In +the first or Egyptian Passover the blood was sprinkled on the lintels +and doorposts of the houses, but afterwards on the altar. It must be +roasted with fire, and not boiled, after the usual custom in the East; +not a bone must be broken. It must be eaten by the household in haste, +as if they were just starting on a journey, and if any of it should be +left, it must be consumed in the fire, and not eaten on the following +day. + +Such are the chief points in connexion with the Paschal rite, at once +a sacrifice and a feast. The original directions not being +sufficiently minute to meet all the practical difficulties which might +hinder the correct performance of the rite, a vast number of +directions are given by the Rabbinical writers. In order, for example, +to guard against the destruction of any part of the animal by careless +cooking over a fire, or the possible fracture of a bone by a sudden +jet of flame, the Paschal lamb was rather baked than roasted, being +placed in an earthen oven from which the ashes had been removed. In +order to prevent it from being burned or blackened against the sides +of the oven, (in which case it would be cooked with earthenware and +not with fire), it was transfixed with a wooden stake, made from the +pomegranate-tree, and a transverse spit was thrust through the +shoulders. These spits were made of wood, because a metal spit would +become heated in the oven, and would cause all the flesh which it +touched to be roasted with metal, and not with fire; and the wood of +the pomegranate was chosen, because that wood was supposed not to emit +any sap when heated. If a drop of water had fallen on the flesh, the +law would have been broken, as that part of the flesh would be +considered as boiled, and not roasted. + +As to the eating of unleavened bread and bitter herbs with the lamb, +the custom does not bear on the present subject. In shape the oven +seems to have resembled a straw beehive, having an opening at the side +by which the fuel could be removed and the lamb inserted. + +It is most interesting to compare with the ancient Paschal sacrifice +the mode of conducting the Passover as still practised on Mount +Gerizim by the Samaritans, who still "worship in this mountain," as +their fathers had done. The Samaritans, a turbulent nation, or rather +an aggregation of tribes who had adopted their own modification of the +Jewish religion, considered Mount Gerizim as the most sacred spot on +the earth, and made it a principle of their faith to worship there. +They hallowed the mountain with various traditions, some perhaps true, +others clearly erroneous. They said that on the summit of Mount +Gerizim, and not on the comparatively little hill of Moriah, Abraham's +marvellous faith was so fearfully tested. They even now point out the +very spot on which it took place--a small smoothed plot of ground on +the summit of the mountain, remarkable for the contrast which its +level plateau presents to the rough, rugged sides of the mountain, +broken by clefts and strewn with great angular stones, as if a rocky +mountain had been blown to pieces and the fragments showered on +Gerizim. + +On Gerizim are the "twelve stones" of Joshua, placed by him in +commemoration of the passage of the Jordan. There are the great, +massive stones placed closely together in a row, and apparently +forming part of the rocky mountain itself. + +On Gerizim are the seven steps made by Adam when he was driven out of +Paradise, and in Gerizim is the cave in which the Tabernacle was +built. On Gerizim the Passover was celebrated in the time of Christ, +and on Gerizim it is celebrated still. The Samaritans have often been +prevented from doing so by the Moslems, and even so late as 1842 the +Mahometan Ulema threatened to murder the whole of the little +community, under two hundred in number, on the ground that they had no +religion. + +The Samaritans believe themselves to be children of Ephraim and +Manasseh, and that their present priest is lineally descended from a +branch of the tribe of Levi, and have accordingly a great pride in +their descent. They observe the ceremonial law with exceeding care, +and, even through the many years of persecution to which they have +been subjected, they have never failed to go thrice in the year to the +top of their holy mountain, repeating parts of the Law as they ascend. +A great loss has lately fallen upon them. They had at one time a +priesthood of the house of Aaron, but the family gradually dwindled +away, and at last utterly perished. + +The ceremony of the Passover has been described by several persons, +such as the late Consul Rogers and the Dean of Westminster, the latter +of whom has given a most striking and vivid account of the rite in his +"Lectures on the Jewish Church." + +The place which is now employed in the celebration of this rite is a +level spot about two hundred yards from the summit of the mountain, a +place which is apparently selected on account of its comparative quiet +and seclusion. Dean Stanley thinks that in former times, when the +Samaritans were the masters of the country, they celebrated the +sacrifice on the sacred plateau on the very summit of the mountain, so +that the rite could be seen for a vast distance on every side. Now, +however, the less conspicuous place is preferred. By the kindness of +the Palestine Exploration Society, I am enabled to present the reader +with a view of this sacred spot, taken from a photograph made an hour +or two before the time of sacrifice. The rough, rugged character of +the mountain is shown by this illustration, though not so well as in +several other photographs of Gerizim, in which the entire surface +seems to be loosely covered with stones like those of which the low +wall is built. Near the centre of the illustration may be seen a pile +of sticks and the tops of two caldrons, on each of which a stone is +laid to keep the cover from being blown off by the wind. These sticks +nearly fill a trench in which the caldrons are sunk, and their use +will be presently seen on reading Dean Stanley's narrative. In the far +distance are the plains of Samaria, and the long-drawn shadows of the +priest and his nephew, and probable successor, show that the time of +sacrifice is rapidly approaching. + + [Illustration: THE PLACE OF SACRIFICE.] + +On the previous day the whole of the community had pitched their tents +on the mountain, and as the time of sunset approached the women +retired to the tents, and all the males, except those who were unclean +according to the provisions of the Mosaic law, assembled near a long +deep trench that had been dug in the ground. The men are clothed in +long white garments, and the six young men who are selected as the +actual sacrificers are dressed in white drawers and shirts. These +youths are trained to the duty, but whether they hold any sacred +office could not be ascertained. + +Then, according to the narrative of Dean Stanley, "the priest, +ascending a large rough stone in front of the congregation, recited in +a loud chant or scream, in which the others joined, prayers or praises +chiefly turning on the glories of Abraham and Isaac. Their attitude +was that of all Orientals in prayer; standing, occasionally +diversified by the stretching out of the hands, and more rarely by +kneeling or crouching, with their knees wrapped in their clothes and +bent to the ground, towards the Holy Place on the summit of Gerizim. +The priest recited his prayers by heart; the others had mostly books +in Hebrew and Arabic. + +"Presently, suddenly there appeared amongst the worshippers six sheep, +driven up by the side of the youths before mentioned. The unconscious +innocence with which they wandered to and fro amongst the bystanders, +and the simplicity in aspect and manner of the young men who tended +them, more recalled a pastoral scene in Arcadia, or one of those +inimitable patriarchal _tableaux_ represented in the Ammergau Mystery, +than a religious ceremonial. + +"The sun, meanwhile, which had hitherto burnished up the Mediterranean +in the distance, now sank very nearly to the farthest western ridge +overhanging the plain of Sharon. The recitation became more vehement. +The priest turned about, facing his brethren, and the whole history of +the Exodus from the beginning of the plagues of Egypt was rapidly, +almost furiously, chanted. The sheep, still innocently playful, were +driven more closely together. + +"The setting sun now touched the ridge. The youths burst into a wild +murmur of their own, drew forth their long bright knives, and +brandished them aloft. In a moment the sheep were thrown on their +backs, and the flashing knives rapidly drawn across their throats. +Then a few convulsive but silent struggles--'as a sheep ... dumb ... +that openeth not his mouth,'--and the six forms lay lifeless on the +ground, the blood streaming from them; the one only Jewish sacrifice +lingering in the world. In the blood the young men dipped their +fingers, and a small spot was marked on the foreheads and noses of the +children. A few years ago the red stain was placed on all. But this +had now dwindled away into the present practice, preserved, we were +told, as a relic or emblem of the whole. Then, as if in congratulation +at the completion of the ceremony, they all kissed each other, in the +Oriental fashion, on each side of the head. + +"The next process was that of the fleecing and roasting of the +slaughtered animals, for which the ancient temple furnished such ample +provisions. Two holes on the mountain side had been dug; one at some +distance, of considerable depth, the other, close to the scene of the +sacrifice, comparatively shallow. In this latter cavity, after a short +prayer, a fire was kindled, out of the mass of dry heath, juniper, and +briers, such as furnished the materials for the conflagration in +Jotham's parable, delivered not far from this spot. + +"Over the fire were placed two caldrons full of water. Whilst the +water boiled, the congregation again stood around, and (as if for +economy of time) continued the recitation of the Book of Exodus, and +bitter herbs were handed round wrapped in a strip of unleavened +bread--'with unleavened bread and bitter herbs shall they eat it.' +Then was chanted another short prayer; after which the six youths +again appeared, poured the boiling water over the sheep, and plucked +off their fleeces. The right forelegs of the sheep, with the entrails, +were thrown aside and burnt. The liver was carefully put back. Long +poles were brought, on which the animals were spitted; near the bottom +of each pole was a transverse peg or stick, to prevent the body from +slipping off." + +This cross-piece does not, however, penetrate the body, which in most +cases scarcely touches it, so that there is little or no resemblance +to a crucifixion. The writer lays especial stress on this point, +because the early Christians saw in the transverse spit an emblem of +the cross. In the Jewish Passover this emblem would have been more +appropriate, as in that ceremony the cross-piece was passed through +the shoulders, and the forefeet tied to it. + +The Sheep being now prepared, they were carried to the oven, which on +this occasion was a deep, circular pit, in which a fire had been +previously kindled. Into this the victims were carefully lowered, the +stakes on which they were impaled guarding their bodies from touching +the sides of the oven, and the cross-piece at the end preventing them +from slipping off the stake to the bottom of the pit among the ashes. +A hurdle was then laid on the mouth of the pit, and wet earth was +heaped upon it so as to close it completely. The greater part of the +community then retired to rest. In about five hours, the Paschal moon +being high in the heavens, announcement was made that the feast was +about to begin. Then, to resume Dean Stanley's narrative, + +"Suddenly the covering of the hole was torn off, and up rose into the +still moonlit sky a vast column of smoke and steam; recalling, with a +shock of surprise, that, even by an accidental coincidence, Reginald +Heber should have so well caught this striking feature of so remote +and unknown a ritual: + + 'Smokes on Gerizim's mount Samaria's sacrifice.' + +"Out of the pit were dragged successively the six sheep, on their long +spits, black from the oven. The outlines of their heads, their ears, +their legs, were still visible--'his head, with his legs, and with the +inward parts thereof.' They were hoisted aloft, and then thrown on +large square brown mats, previously prepared for their reception, on +which we were carefully prevented from treading, as also from touching +even the extremities of the spit. + +"The bodies thus wrapped in the mats were hurried down to the trench +where the sacrifice had taken place, and laid out upon them in a line +between two files of the Samaritans. Those who had before been dressed +in white robes still retained them, with the addition now of shoes on +their feet and staves in their hands, and ropes round their +waists--'thus shall ye eat it; with your loins girded, your shoes on +your feet, your staff in your hand.' The recitation of prayers or of +the Pentateuch recommenced, and continued till it suddenly terminated +in their all sitting down on their haunches, after the Arab fashion at +meals, and beginning to eat. This, too, is a deviation from the +practice of only a few years since, when they retained the Mosaic +ritual of standing whilst they ate. The actual feast was conducted in +rapid silence, as of men in hunger, as no doubt most of them were, and +so as soon to consume every portion of the blackened masses, which +they tore away piecemeal with their fingers--'ye shall eat in haste.' +There was a general merriment, as of a hearty and welcome meal. + +"In ten minutes all was gone but a few remnants. To the priest and to +the women, who, all but two (probably his two wives), remained in the +tents, separate morsels were carried round. The remnants were gathered +into the mats, and put on a wooden grate, or hurdle, over the hole +where the water had been originally boiled; the fire was again lit, +and a huge bonfire was kindled. By its blaze, and by candles lighted +for the purpose, the ground was searched in every direction, as for +the consecrated particles of sacramental elements; and these fragments +of flesh and bone were thrown upon the burning mass--'ye shall let +nothing remain until the morning; and that which remaineth until the +morning ye shall burn with fire;' 'there shall not anything of the +flesh which thou sacrificest the first day at even remain all night +until the morning;' 'thou shalt not carry forth aught of the flesh +abroad out of the house.' The flames blazed up once more, and then +gradually sank away. + +"Perhaps in another century the fire on Mount Gerizim will be the only +relic left of this most interesting and ancient rite." + + + + +THE CHAMOIS. + + The Zemer or Chamois only once mentioned in the + Bible--Signification of the word Zemer--Probability that the + Zemer is the Aoudad--Appearance of the Aoudad--Its strength and + activity--Fierce temper of the adult male--Horns of the + Aoudad--Their probable use as musical instruments--Habits of the + Aoudad--The Mouflon probably classed with the Aoudad under the + name of Zemer--Appearance and habits of the Mouflon. + + +Among the animals which may be used for food is mentioned one which in +our version is rendered Chamois. See Deut. xiv. 5, a passage which has +several times been quoted. + +It is evident to any one acquainted with zoology that, whatever may be +the Hebrew word, "Chamois" cannot be the correct rendering, inasmuch +as the real Chamois does not inhabit Palestine, nor are there any +proofs that it ever did so. We must, therefore, look for some other +animal. + +Then, the Hebrew word, which only occurs once in the Bible, is Zamar, +or Zemer, _i.e._ the leaper, and therefore an animal which is +conspicuous for its agility. Zoologists have now agreed in the opinion +that the Zamer of Deuteronomy is the handsome wild sheep which we know +under the name of Aoudad (_Ammotragus Tragelaphus_). This splendid +sheep is known by various names. It is the Jaela of some authors, and +the Bearded Sheep of others. It is also called the Fichtall, or +Lerwea; and the French zoologists describe it under the name of +_Mouflon à manchettes_, in allusion to the fringe of long hair that +ornaments the fore limbs. + +The Aoudad is a large and powerful animal, exceedingly active, and has +the habits of the goat rather than of the sheep, on which account it +is reckoned among the goats by the Arabs of the present day, and +doubtless was similarly classed by the ancient inhabitants of +Palestine. The height of the adult Aoudad is about three feet, and its +general colour is pale dun, relieved by the dark masses of long hair +that fall from the neck and the tufts of similar hair which decorate +the knees of the male. The female is also bearded and tufted, but the +hair, which in the male looks like the mane of the lion, in the female +is but slightly developed. + +It is so powerful and active an animal, that an adult male which lived +for some time in the Zoological Gardens was much dreaded by the +keepers, not even the man who fed it liking to enter the enclosure if +he could help himself. The animal was given to making unexpected +charges, and would do so with astonishing quickness, springing round +and leaping at the object of his hate with tremendous force, and with +such rapidity that even the experienced keeper, who knew all the ways +of the animals under his charge, had often some difficulty in slipping +behind the door, against which the horns of the Aoudad would clatter +as if they would break the door to pieces. So fond was he of attacking +something that he would often butt repeatedly at the wooden side of +the shed, hurling himself against it with eager fury. + +The horns of the Aoudad are about two feet in length, and are of +considerable diameter. They curve boldly and gracefully backwards, +their points diverging considerably from each other, so that when the +animal throws its head up, the points of the horns come on either +side of the back. This divergence of the horns has another object. +They cover a considerable space, so that when the animal makes its +charge the object of its anger has much more difficulty in escaping +the blow than if the horns were closer together. + + [Illustration: THE AOUDAD CHASED. + + "_These are the beasts which ye shall eat: the ox, the sheep, the goat + ... and the chamois._"--DEUT. xiv. 4, 5.] + +Whether these horns were used as musical instruments is doubtful, +simply because we are not absolutely sure that the Zamar and the +Aoudad are identical, however great may be the probability. But +inasmuch as the horn-trumpets were evidently of various sizes, it is +certain that the Jewish musicians would never have neglected to take +advantage of such magnificent materials as they would obtain from the +horns of this animal. Perhaps the Chaldaic "keren" may have been the +horn of the Aoudad, or of the animal which will next be mentioned. + +The Aoudad is wonderfully active, and even the young ones bound to an +astonishing height. I have seen the marks of their hoofs eight feet +from the ground. + +In its wild state the Aoudad lives in little flocks or herds, and +prefers the high and rocky ground, over which it leaps with a +sure-footed agility equal to that of the Chamois itself. These flocks +are chased by hunters, who try to get it upon the lowest and least +broken ground, where it is at a disadvantage, and then run it down +with their horses, as seen in the illustration on page 187. + +The Aoudad was formerly plentiful in Egypt, and even now is found +along the Atlas mountain-range. It is seen on the Egyptian monuments, +and, owing to its evident profusion, we have every reason to +conjecture that it was one of those animals which were specially +indicated as chewing the cud and cleaving the hoof. + + +PERHAPS THE MOUFLON (_Caprovis Musimon_) may be the animal which is +meant by the Hebrew word Zamar, and it is not unlikely that both +animals may have been included in one name. + +This animal, which is nearly allied to the Aoudad, is also very +goatlike in general aspect. It is indeed to this resemblance that the +name Caprovis, or goat-sheep, has been given to it. The name +Ammotragus, which, as mentioned above, belongs to the Aoudad, has a +similar signification. + +The horns of the Mouflon belong only to the male animal, and are of +enormous size, so that if trumpets of deep tone and great power were +needed, they could be obtained from the horns of this animal. Those of +the Aoudad are very large, and would be well adapted for the same +purpose, but they would not furnish such instruments as the horns of +the Mouflon, which are so large that they seem almost unwieldy for an +animal of twice the Mouflon's size, and give visible proofs of the +strength and agility of an animal which can carry them so lightly and +leap about under their weight so easily as does the Mouflon. + +At the present time the Mouflon is only to be found in Cyprus, +Sardinia, and Corsica, but formerly it was known to inhabit many +other parts of the earth, and was almost certainly one of the many +animals which then haunted the Lebanon, but which have in later days +been extirpated. + + + + +THE GOAT. + + Value of the Goat--Its use in furnishing food--The male kid the + usual animal of slaughter--Excellence of the flesh and deception + of Isaac--Milk of the Goat--An Oriental milking scene--The hair + of the goat, and the uses to which it is put--The Goat's skin + used for leather--The "bottle" of Scripture--Mode of making and + repairing the bottles--Ruse of the Gibeonites--The "bottle in + the smoke"--The sacks and the kneading troughs--The Goat as used + for sacrifice--General habits of the Goat--Separation of the + Goats from the sheep--Performing Goats--Different breeds of + Goats in Palestine. + + +Whether considered in reference to food, to clothing, or to sacrifice, +the GOAT was scarcely a less important animal than the sheep. It was +especially valuable in such a country as Palestine, in which the soil +and the climate vary so much according to the locality. Upon the large +fertile plains the sheep are bred in vast flocks, the rich and +succulent grass being exactly to their taste; while in the hilly and +craggy districts the Goats abound, and delight in browsing upon the +scanty herbage that grows upon the mountain-side. + +For food the Goat was even more extensively used than the sheep. The +adult male was, of course, not eaten, being very tough, and having an +odour which would repel any but an actually starving man. Neither were +the females generally eaten, as they were needed for the future +increase of the flocks. The young male kid formed the principal +material of a feast, and as soon as a stranger claimed the hospitality +of a man in good circumstances, the first thing that was done was to +take a young male kid and dress it for him. + +For example, when the angel visited Gideon in the guise of a stranger, +Gideon "went in and made ready a kid, and unleavened cakes of an ephah +of flour," and brought them to his guest (Judges vi. 19). And when +Isaac was on his death-bed, and asked Esau to take his bow and arrows +and hunt for "venison," which was probably the flesh of one of the +antelopes which have already been mentioned, a ready substitute was +found in the two kids, from whose flesh Rebekah made the dish for +which he longed. The imposition might easily pass without detection, +because the flesh of the kid is peculiarly tender, and can scarcely be +distinguished from lamb, even when simply roasted. Isaac, therefore, +with his senses dulled by his great age, was the less likely to +discover the imposture, when the flesh of the kids was stewed into +"savoury meat such as he loved." + +A curious illustration of the prevalence of kid's flesh as food is +given in the parable of the prodigal son, for whom his father had +killed the fatted calf. "And he answering said to his father, Lo, +these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed I at any time +thy commandment: and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I might make +merry with my friends" (Luke xv. 29). The force of the reproval cannot +be properly understood unless we are acquainted with the customs of +the East. The kid was the least valuable animal that could have been +given, less valuable than a lamb, and infinitely inferior to the +fatted calf, which was kept in wealthy households for some feast of +more than ordinary magnificence. + +The kid was cooked exactly in the same manner as the sheep, namely, by +cutting to pieces and stewing in a caldron, the meat and broth being +served separately. See, for example, the case of Gideon, to whom a +reference has already been made. When he brought the banquet to his +guest, "the flesh he put in a basket, and he put the broth in a pot, +and brought it out unto him under the oak, and presented it. And the +angel of God said unto him, Take the flesh and the unleavened cakes, +and lay them upon this rock, and pour out the broth." + +The same custom exists at the present day. When an Arab chief receives +a guest, a kid is immediately killed and given to the women to be +cooked in a separate tent, and the guest is pressed to stay until it +is ready, in the very words used by Gideon three thousand years ago. +"Depart not hence, I pray thee, until I come unto thee, and bring +forth my present, and set it before thee." And the angelic guest +answered him just as a modern Arab traveller would answer his host, "I +will tarry until thou come again." For the refusal of proffered +hospitality would be and still is considered to be, either a studied +insult, or a proof of bad manners, and no one with any claims to +breeding would commit such an action without urgent cause and much +apology. + +Like the sheep, the Goat is extremely valuable as a milk-producer, and +at the present day the milk of the Goat is used as largely as that of +the sheep. "At Rasheiya, under Mount Hermon," writes Mr. Tristram, "we +saw some hundreds of goats gathering for the night in the wide open +market-place beneath the castle. It was no easy matter to thread our +way among them, as they had no idea of moving for such belated +intruders on their rest. All the she-goats of the neighbouring hills +are driven in every evening, and remain for their morning's milking, +after which they set forth on their day's excursion. + +"Each house possesses several, and all know their owners. The evening +milking is a picturesque scene. Every street and open space is filled +with the goats; and women, boys, and girls are everywhere milking with +their small pewter pots, while the goats are anxiously awaiting their +turn, or lying down to chew the cud as soon as it is over. As no kids +or he-goats are admitted, the scene is very orderly, and there is none +of the deafening bleating which usually characterises large flocks. + +"These mountain goats are a solemn set, and by the gravity of their +demeanour excite a suspicion that they have had no youth, and never +were kids. They need no herdsman to bring them home in the evening, +for, fully sensible of the danger of remaining unprotected, they hurry +homewards of their own accord as soon as the sun begins to decline." + + +Like the wool of the sheep, the hair of the Goat is used for the +manufacture of clothing; and, as is the case with wool, its quality +differs according to the particular breed of the animal, which assumes +almost as many varieties as the sheep or the dog. The hair of some +varieties is thick and rough, and can only be made into coarse cloths, +while others, of which the mohair Goat and Cashmere Goat are familiar +examples, furnish a staple of surpassing delicacy and fineness. It is +most likely that the covering and curtains of the Tabernacle mentioned +in Exod. xxvi. 7 were of the latter kind, as otherwise they would have +been out of character with the fine linen, and blue and scarlet, their +golden clasps, and the profuse magnificence which distinguished every +part of the sacred building. Moreover, the hair of the Goat is classed +among the costly offerings which were made when the Tabernacle was +built. "And they came forth, men and women, as many as were willing +hearted, and brought bracelets, and earrings, and rings, and tablets, +all jewels of gold: and every man that offered offered an offering of +gold unto the Lord. And every man, with whom was found blue, and +purple, and scarlet, and fine linen, and goats' hair, and red skins of +rams, and badgers' skins, brought them" to be used in the structure of +that wonderful building, in which nothing might be used except the +finest and costliest that could be procured. + +One of the principal uses to which the goat-skin was applied was the +manufacture of leather, for which purpose it is still used, and is +considered far better than that of the sheep. Perhaps the most common +form in which this leather is used is the well-known water-vessel, or +"bottle" of the Bible. + +These so-called bottles are made from the entire skin of the animal, +which is prepared in slightly different methods according to the +locality in which the manufacture is carried on. In Palestine they are +soaked for some little time in the tanning mixture, and are then +filled with water, after the seams have been pitched. In this state +they are kept for some time, and are kept exposed to the sun, covered +entirely with the tanning fluid, and filled up with water to supply +the loss caused by evaporation and leakage. + +The hair is allowed to remain on the skins, because it acts as a +preservative against the rough usage to which they are subject at the +hard hands of the water-carriers. By degrees the hairy covering wears +off, first in patches, and then over the entire surface, so that a new +bottle can be recognised at a glance, and any one who wished to sell +an old bottle at the price of a new one would be at once detected. + +Vessels made in this rude manner are absolutely necessary in the +countries wherein they are used. Wooden or metal vessels would be too +heavy, and, besides, the slight though constant evaporation that +always takes place through the pores of the leather keeps down the +temperature of the water, even under a burning sun, the slight loss +which is caused by the porousness of the skin being more than +counterbalanced by the coolness of the water. It is true that the +goat-skin communicates to the liquid a flavour far from pleasant, but +in those countries the quality of the water is of little consequence, +provided that it is plentiful in quantity, and tolerably cool. + +Even in our own country, leathern drinking-cups are sometimes used, +and all who have taken any interest in antiquarian manners are +familiar with the "leather bottle" and the "black-jack," the former +only surviving in museums and as signs to public-houses, though the +latter has within the memory of the present generation been in common +use. Leathern bottles are still used in the Turkish army, and I have +in my collection one of these water-bottles, which is practically the +same article as the "bottle" of Scripture, though it is of +comparatively small size, and is made with some attempt at elegance of +form. + +In all parts of the world where the skin is used for this purpose the +mode of manufacture is practically identical. An account of the art of +preparing the goat-skin as practised in Abyssinia is given by Mr. C. +Johnston, in his "Travels in Southern Abyssinia:"-- + +"To be of any value it must be taken off uncut, except around the +neck, and in those situations necessary to enable the butchers to draw +the legs out of the skin; also, of course, where the first incision is +made to commence the process, and which is a circular cut carried +around both haunches, not many inches from and having the tail for a +centre. The hide is then stripped over the thighs, and two smaller +incisions being made round the middle joint of the hind-legs enable +them to be drawn out. + +"A stick is now placed to extend these extremities, and by this, for +the convenience of the operators, the whole carcase is suspended from +the branch of a tree, and, by some easy pulls around the body, the +skin is gradually withdrawn over the fore-legs, which are incised +around the knees, to admit of their being taken out; after which, the +head being removed, the whole business concludes by the skin being +pulled inside out over the decollated neck. One of the parties now +takes a rough stone and well rubs the inside surface, to divest it of +a few fibres of the subcutaneous muscle which are inserted into the +skin, and after this operation it is laid aside until the next day; +the more interesting business of attending to the meat calling for +immediate attention. + +"These entire skins are afterwards made into sacks by the apertures +around the neck and legs being secured by a double fold of the skin +being sewed upon each other, by means of a slender but very tough +thong. These small seams are rendered quite air-tight, and the larger +orifice around the haunches being gathered together by the hands, the +yet raw skin is distended with air; and the orifice being then tied +up, the swollen bag is left in that state for a few days, until slight +putrefaction has commenced, when the application of the rough stone +soon divests its surface of the hair. After this has been effected, a +deal of labour, during at least one day, is required to soften the +distended skin by beating it with heavy sticks, or trampling upon it +for hours together, the labourer supporting himself by clinging to the +bough of a tree overhead, or holding on by the wall of the house. + +"In this manner, whilst the skin is drying, it is prevented from +getting stiff, and, still further to secure it from this evil +condition, it is frequently rubbed with small quantities of butter. +When it is supposed that there is no chance of the skin becoming hard +and easily broken, the orifice is opened, the air escapes, and a very +soft, flaccid leather bag is produced, but which, for several days +after, affords an amusement to the owner, when otherwise unemployed, +by well rubbing it all over with his hands." + +The reader will see that the two processes are practically identical, +the chief difference being that in one country the skins are distended +with water and in the other with air. + +As these bottles are rather apt to be damaged by the thorns, branches, +rocks, and similar objects with which they come in contact, and are +much too valuable to be thrown away as useless, their owners have +discovered methods of patching and repairing them, which enable them +to be used for some time longer. Patches of considerable size are +sometimes inserted, if the rent should be of importance, while the +wound caused by a thorn is mended by a simple and efficacious +expedient. The skin is first emptied, and a round flat piece of wood, +or even a stone of suitable shape, is put into it. The skin is then +held with the wounded part downwards, and the stone shaken about until +it comes exactly upon the hole. It is then grasped, the still wet hide +gathered tightly under it, so as to pucker up the skin, and a ligature +is tied firmly round it. Perhaps some of my readers may have +practised the same method of mending a punctured football. + +Allusion to this mode of mending the skin bottles is made in Josh. ix. +4, 13. The Gibeonites "did work wilily, and went and made as if they +had been ambassadors, and took old sacks upon their asses, and wine +bottles, old, and rent, and bound up ... and said ... these bottles of +wine, which we filled, were new; and, behold, they be rent." + +If these skin bottles be allowed to become dry, as is sometimes the +case when they are hung up in the smoky tents, they shrivel up, and +become rotten and weak, and are no longer enabled to bear the pressure +caused by the fermentation of new wine. So, in Ps. cxix. 81-83: "My +soul fainteth for Thy salvation: but I hope in Thy word. + +"Mine eyes fail for Thy word, saying, When wilt Thou comfort me? + +"For I am become like a bottle in the smoke; yet do I not forget Thy +statutes." + +How forcible does not this image become, when we realize the early +life of the shepherd poet, his dwelling in tents wherein are no +windows nor chimneys, and in which the smoke rolls to and fro until it +settles in the form of soot upon the leathern bottles and other rude +articles of furniture that are hung from the poles! + +In the New Testament there is a well-known allusion to the weakness of +old bottles: "Neither do men put new wine into old bottles, or the +bottles break and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish; but +they put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved." It would +be impossible to understand the meaning of this passage unless we knew +that the "bottles" in question were not vessels of glass or +earthenware, but merely the partly-tanned skins of goats. + +Another allusion to the use of the goat-skin is made in that part of +the Book of Joshua which has already been mentioned. If the reader +will refer to Josh. ix. 4, he will see that the Gibeonites took with +them not only old bottles, but old sacks. Now, these sacks bore no +resemblance to the hempen bags with which we are so familiar, but were +nothing more than the same goat-skins that were employed in the +manufacture of bottles, but with the opening at the neck left open. +They were, in fact, skin-bottles for holding solids instead of +liquids. The sacks which Joseph's brethren took with them, and in the +mouths of which they found their money, were simply goat-skin bags, +made as described. + +Yet another use for the goat-skin. It is almost certain that the +"kneading-troughs" of the ancient Israelites were simply circular +pieces of goat-skin, which could be laid on the ground when wanted, +and rolled up and carried away when out of use. Thus, the fact that +"the people took their dough before it was leavened, their +kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothing upon their +shoulders," need cause no surprise. + +Nothing could be more in accordance with probability. The women were +all hard at work, preparing the bread for the expected journey, when +the terrified Pharaoh "called for Moses and Aaron by night, and said, +Rise up, and get you forth from among my people, both ye and the +children of Israel, and go, serve the Lord, as ye have said.... And +the Egyptians were urgent upon the people that they might send them +out of the land in haste; for they said, We be all dead men." + +So the women, being disturbed at their work, and being driven out of +the country before they had leavened, much less baked, their bread, +had no alternative but to roll up the dough in the leathern +"kneading-troughs," tie them up in a bundle with their spare clothing, +and carry them on their shoulders; whereas, if we connect the +kneading-troughs with the large heavy wooden implements used in this +country, we shall form an entirely erroneous idea of the proceeding. +As soon as they came to their first halting-place at Succoth, they +took the leathern kneading-troughs out of their clothes, unrolled +them, took the dough which had not even been leavened, so unexpectedly +had the order for marching arrived, made it into flat cakes, and baked +them as they best could. The same kind of "kneading-trough" is still +in use in many parts of the world. + +Stone as well as earthenware jars were also used by the inhabitants of +ancient Palestine; but they were only employed for the storage of wine +in houses, whereas the bottles that were used in carrying wine from +one place to another were invariably made of leather. Water also was +stored in stone or earthenware jars. See, for example, John ii. 6: +"And there were set there six waterpots of stone, after the manner of +the purifying of the Jews, containing two or three firkins apiece." +Whereas, when it was carried about, it was poured into bottles made of +skin. Such was probably the "bottle of water" that Abraham put on +Hagar's shoulder, when she was driven away by the jealousy of Sarah. +Such was the "bottle of wine" that Hannah brought as her offering when +she dedicated Samuel to the service of God; and such was the "bottle +of milk" that Jael opened for Sisera when he came to her tent. Even +oil is carried in these bottles, which are certainly better adapted to +the backs of mules, which are the usual beasts of burden, than they +would be if they were made of glass or earthenware. + +The Rabbinical writers have much to say upon the Goat; but as the +greater part of their observations and directions are without any +general interest, only a few will be selected from them. + +Knowing the great strength of the Goat of their own days, they +exaggerate the power of those which belonged to the ancients. Job's +he-goats, for example, are said to have been so strong and fierce that +they could conquer wolves, while some were so powerful that they +carried bears upon their horns. They also were accustomed to climb +rocks, dig up roots, and bring them down in their mouths. + +The milk of the white Goat is useful medicinally for affections of the +lungs, and the spleen of a female kid for diseases of the spleen. But +if Goats are allowed to drink of the water in which blacksmiths cool +their iron, the spleen gradually withers away, and at last disappears +altogether. If the owner should desire to fatten a she-goat, he ought +to tie up the udders so tightly that the milk cannot come into them, +and the nourishment is therefore converted into fat instead of milk. +Also, he should take care to keep his Goats away from the place where +bread is being made, as they are very fond of the unbaked dough, and +always die if they eat it. + + +In sacrifices, the Goat was in nearly as much requisition as the lamb, +and in one--namely, that which was celebrated on the Great Day of +Atonement--the Goat was specially mentioned as the only animal which +could be sacrificed. The reader will, perhaps, remember that for this +peculiar sacrifice two Goats were required, on which two lots were +cast, one for the Lord, _i.e._ with the word "Jehovah" upon it, and +the other for the scapegoat, _i.e._ inscribed with the word "Azazel." +The latter term is derived from two Hebrew words, the former being +"Az," which is the general name for the Goat, and the second "azel," +signifying "he departed." The former, which belonged to Jehovah, was +sacrificed, and its blood sprinkled upon the mercy-seat and the altar +of incense; and the Goat Azazel was led away into the wilderness, +bearing upon its head the sins of the people, and there let loose. + + +These being the uses of the Goat, it may naturally be imagined that +the animal is one of extreme importance, and that it is watched as +carefully by its owners as the sheep. Indeed, both sheep and Goats +belong to the same master, and are tended by the same shepherd, who +exercises the same sway over them that he does over the sheep. + +They are, however, erratic animals, and, although they will follow the +shepherd wherever he may lead them, they will not mix with the sheep. +The latter will walk in a compact flock along the valley, the shepherd +leading the way, and the sheep following him, led in their turn by the +sound of the bell tied round the neck of the master-ram of the flock. +The Goats, however, will not submit to walk in so quiet a manner, but +prefer to climb along the sides of the rocks that skirt the valleys, +skipping and jumping as they go, and seeming to take delight in +getting themselves into dangerous places, where a man could not +venture to set his foot. + +In the evening, when the shepherds call their flocks to repose, they +often make use of the caverns which exist at some height in the +precipitous side of the hills, as being safe strongholds, where the +jackal and the hyæna will not venture to attack them. When such is the +case, the shepherds take their station by the mouth of the cave, and +assist the sheep as they come sedately up the narrow path that leads +to the cavern. The Goats, however, need no assistance, but come +scrambling along by paths where no foot but a Goat's could tread, +mostly descending from a considerable height above the cave, and, as +if in exultation at their superior agility, jumping over the backs of +the sheep as they slowly file into the accustomed fold. + +Friendly as they are, the Goats and sheep never mingle together. There +may be large flocks of them feeding in the same pasturage, but the +Goats always take the highest spots on which verdure grows, while the +sheep graze quietly below. Goats are specially fond of the tender +shoots of trees, which they find in plenty upon the mountain side; +and, according to Mr. Tristram, by their continual browsing, they have +extirpated many species of trees which were once common on the hills +of Palestine, and which now can only be found in Lebanon on the east +of the Jordan. + + [Illustration: GOATS ON THE MARCH. + + "_As a shepherd divideth the sheep from the goats._"--MATT. xxv. 32.] + +Even when folded together in the same enclosure, the Goats never mix +with the sheep, but gather together by themselves, and they +instinctively take the same order when assembled round the wells at +mid-day. + +This instinctive separation of the sheep and the goats naturally +recalls to our minds the well-known saying of our Lord that "before +Him shall be gathered all nations, and He shall separate them one from +another, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats: and He shall +set the sheep on His right hand, and the goats on His left." + +The image thus used was one that was familiar to all the hearers, who +were accustomed daily to see the herds of sheep and Goats under one +shepherd, yet totally distinct from each other. At feeding-time the +Goats will be browsing in long lines on the mountain sides, while the +sheep are grazing in the plain or valley; at mid-day, when the flocks +are gathered round the wells to await the rolling away of the stone +that guards the water, the Goats assemble on one side and the sheep on +the other. And at night, when they are all gathered into one fold by +one shepherd, they are still separated from each other. The same image +is employed by the prophet Ezekiel: "As for you, O my flock, thus said +the Lord God, Behold I judge between cattle and cattle, between rams +and the he-goats." + +Generally, the leading Goat was distinguished by a bell as well as the +leading sheep, and in reference to this custom there was an old +proverb, "If the shepherd takes the lead, he blinds the bell-goat," +while another proverb is based upon the inferior docility of the +animal--"If the shepherd be lame, the Goats will run away." + +Yet the Goat can be tamed very effectively, and can even be +taught to perform many tricks. "We saw just below us, on the +rudely-constructed 'parade,' a crowd of men and children, surrounding +a fantastically-dressed man exhibiting a Goat, which had been tutored to +perform some cunning trick. It stood with its four feet close together +on the top of a very long pole, and allowed the man to lift it up and +carry it round and round within the circle; then the Goat was perched +on four sticks, and again carried about. A little band of music-pipes, +drums, and tambourines--called together the people from all parts of +the town to witness this performance. + +"The Goat danced and balanced himself obediently and perfectly, in +very unnatural-looking positions, as if thoroughly understanding the +words and commands of his master. The men who watched the actions of +the Goat looked as grave and serious as if they were attending a +philosophical or scientific lecture." ("Domestic Life in Palestine," +by Miss Rogers.) + +Another feat is a favourite with the proprietors of trained Goats. The +man takes a stool and plants it carefully on the ground, so as to be +perfectly level, and then orders the Goat to stand upon it. A piece of +wood about six inches in length, and shaped something like a dice-box, +is then placed on the stool, and the Goat manages to stand on it, all +his sharp, hard hoofs being pressed closely together on the tiny +surface. The man then takes another piece of wood and holds it to the +Goat's feet. The animal gently removes first one foot and then +another, and, by careful shifting of the feet, enables its master to +place the second piece of wood on the first. Successive additions are +made, until at the last the Goat is perched on the topmost of some +nine or ten pieces of wood balanced on each other, the whole looking +like a stout reed marked off with joints. + +The stately steps and bold bearing of the old he-goat is mentioned in +the Proverbs: "There be three things which go well, yea, four are +comely in going: + +"A lion, which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not away for +any; + +"A greyhound; an he-goat also; and a king, against whom there is no +rising up." (Prov. xxx. 29-31.) The word which is here rendered as +he-goat signifies literally the "Butter," and is given to the animal +on account of the mode in which it uses its formidable horns. The word +is not common in the Bible, but it is used even at the present day +among the Arabs. + +Several herds of goats exist in Palestine, the most valuable of which +is the Mohair Goat, and the most common the Syrian Goat. These, +however dissimilar they may be in appearance, are only varieties of +the ordinary domestic animal, the former being produced artificially +by carefully selecting those specimens for breeding which have the +longest and finest hair. It was from the hair of this breed that the +costly fabrics used in the Tabernacle were woven, and it is probably +to this breed that reference is made in Solomon's Song, iv. 1, 2: +"Behold, thou art fair, my love; behold, thou art fair; thou hast +doves' eyes within thy locks: thy hair is as a flock of goats, that +appear from Mount Gilead. + +"Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep that are even shorn, which came +up from the washing." In this passage the careful reader will also +note another reference to the habits of the Goats and sheep, the hair +being compared to the dark-haired Goats that wander on the tops of the +hills, while the teeth are compared to sheep that are ranged in +regular order below. The Mohair Goat is known scientifically as _Capra +Angorensis_. The same image is used again in chap. vi. 5. + +The second breed is that which is commonest throughout the country. It +is known by the name of the Syrian Goat, and is remarkable for the +enormous length of its ears, which sometimes exceed a foot from root +to tip. This variety has been described as a separate species under +the name of _Capra Mambrica_, or _C. Syriaca_, but, like the Mohair +Goat, and twenty-three other so-called species, is simply a variety of +the common Goat, _Hircus ægragus_. + +Reference is made to the long ears of the Syrian Goat in Amos iii. 12: +"Thus saith the Lord: As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the +lion two legs, or a piece of an ear; so shall the children of Israel +be taken out that dwell in Samaria." Such a scene, which was familiar +to Amos, the shepherd as well as the prophet, is represented in the +illustration. In the foreground is the goat on which the lion has +sprung, and from which one of the long ears has been torn away. Its +companions are gathering round it in sympathy, while its kid is trying +to discover the cause of its mother's uneasiness. In the background is +a group of armed shepherds, standing round the lion which they have +just killed, while one of them is holding up the torn ear which he has +taken out of the lion's mouth. + + [Illustration: THE GOAT. + + "As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the lion a piece of an + ear."--AMOS iii. 12.] + + + + +THE WILD GOAT. + + The Azelim or Wild Goats of Scripture identical with the Beden + or Arabian Ibex--Different names of the Beden--Its appearance + and general habits--En-gedi, or Goats' Fountain--The Beden + formerly very plentiful in Palestine, and now tolerably + common--Its agility--Difficulty of catching or killing it--How + the young are captured--Flesh of the Beden--Use of the horns at + the present day--The Ako of Deuteronomy. + + +In three passages of the Old Testament occurs a word, "Azelim," which +is variously translated in our Authorized Version. + +It is first seen in 1 Sam. xxiv. 2, in which it is rendered as "Wild +Goats." "It was told Saul, saying, Behold, David is in the wilderness +of En-gedi [_i.e._ the Fountain of the Goat]. Then Saul took three +thousand chosen men out of all Israel, and went to seek David and his +men upon the rocks of the wild goats (_azelim_)." The same word occurs +in Job xxxix. 1: "Knowest thou the time when the wild goats of the +rock bring forth?" It is also found in Ps. civ. 18: "The high hills +are a refuge for the wild goats." In all these passages it is rendered +as "wild goats." But, in Prov. v. 19, it is translated as roe: +"Rejoice with the wife of thy youth. Let her be as the loving hind and +pleasant roe (_azelah_)." The Jewish Bible follows the same diverse +renderings. + +We now have to discover the animal which was signified by the word +Azel. According to its etymology, it is the Climber, just as the adult +he-goat is called the Butter. + +That it was a climbing animal is evident from its name, and that it +loved to clamber among precipices is equally evident from the repeated +connexion of the word rock with the name of the animal. We also see, +from the passage in Job, that it is a wild animal whose habits were +not known. There is scarcely any doubt that the Azel of the Old +Testament is the ARABIAN IBEX or BEDEN (_Capra Nubiana_). This animal +is very closely allied to the well-known Ibex of the Alps, or +Steinbock, but may be distinguished from it by one or two slight +differences, such as the black beard and the slighter make of the +horns, which moreover have three angles instead of four, as is the +case with the Alpine Ibex. + +The Beden is known by several names. It is sometimes called the Jaela, +sometimes the Nubian Wild Goat, and is also known as the Wild Goat of +Sinai. The general colour of the Beden is grey, becoming brownish in +winter, and being whitish grey beneath. The feet are spotted with +black and white, and the beard of the male is black, differing from +that of the Alpine Ibex, which is brown. The female is beardless. The +lines along the back and the sides of the tail are black, and there +are three streaks on each ear. + +The Beden generally lives in little herds of eight or ten, and is even +now to be found in Palestine. At the strange, wild, weird-looking +En-gedi (Ain Jiddy), or Fountain of the Goats, the Beden is still to +be seen. Mr. Tristram suggests that David and his followers took up +their residence at En-gedi for the sake of the Wild Goats that were +plentiful upon the spot, and which would furnish food for himself and +his hardy band of outlaws. "In the neighbourhood of En-gedi," remarks +this traveller, "while encamped by the Dead Sea shore, we obtained +several fine specimens, and very interesting it was to find the +graceful creature by the very fountain to which it gave name. + +"When clambering over the heights above En-gedi, I often, by the help +of my glass, saw the Ibex from a distance, and once, when near +Mar-saba, only a few miles from Jerusalem, started one at a distance +of four hundred yards. At the south end of the Dead Sea they were +common, and I have picked up a horn both near Jericho on the hills and +also on the hills of Moab on the eastern side. At Jericho, too, I +obtained a young one which I hoped to rear, but which died after I had +had it for ten days, owing, I believe, to the milk with which it was +fed being sour. Further north and west we did not find it, though I +have reason to believe that a few linger on the mountains between +Samaria and the Jordan, and perhaps also on some of the spurs of +Lebanon. We found its teeth in the breccia of bone occurring in the +Lebanon, proving its former abundance there." + +As the Beden was found so plentifully even in these days when +fire-arms have rendered many wild animals scarce and wary, so that +they will not show themselves within range of a bullet, it is evident +that in the time when David lived at En-gedi and drank of the Goats' +Fountain they were far more numerous, and could afford nourishment to +him and his soldiers. Travellers, moreover, who do not happen to be +experienced hunters, will often fail in seeing the Beden, even in +places where it is tolerably plentiful. The colour of its coat +resembles so nearly that of the rocks, that an inexperienced eye would +see nothing but bare stones and sticks where a practised hunter would +see numbers of Beden, conspicuous by their beautifully curved horns. + +The agility of the Beden is extraordinary. Loving the highest and most +craggy parts of the mountain ridge, it flings itself from spot to spot +with a recklessness that startles one who has not been accustomed to +the animal, and the wonderful certainty of its foot. It will, for +example, dash at the face of a perpendicular precipice that looks as +smooth as a brick wall, for the purpose of reaching a tiny ledge which +is hardly perceptible, and which is some fifteen feet or so above the +spot whence the animal sprang. Its eye, however, has marked certain +little cracks and projections on the face of the rock, and as the +animal makes its leap, it takes these little points of vantage in +rapid succession, just touching them as it passes upwards, and by the +slight stroke of its foot keeping up the original impulse of its leap. +Similarly, the Ibex comes sliding and leaping down precipitous sides +of the mountains, sometimes halting with all the four feet drawn +together, on a little projection scarcely larger than a penny, and +sometimes springing boldly over a wide crevasse, and alighting with +exact precision upon a projecting piece of rock that seems scarcely +large enough to sustain a rat comfortably. + +The young of the Ibex are sometimes captured and tamed. They are, +however, difficult to rear, and give much more trouble than the young +gazelles when taken in a similar manner. The natives can generally +procure the kids at the proper time of year, and sell them at a very +cheap rate. They seldom, however, can be reared, and even those who +live in the country experience the greatest difficulty in keeping the +young Beden alive until it attains maturity. + +Were it not for the curious habits of the Beden, the young could +scarcely ever be obtained alive, as they are so agile that they could +easily leap away from their slow two-legged pursuers. But the mother +Ibex has a habit of leading a very independent life, wandering to +considerable distances, and leaving her kid snugly hidden in some +rock-cleft. The hunters watch the mother as she starts off in the +morning, clamber up to the spot where the kid is concealed, and secure +it without difficulty. The Arabs say that there are always two kids at +a birth, but there is considerable discrepancy of evidence on this +point, which, after all, is of very little importance. + + [Illustration: ARABIAN IBEX, OR BEDEN; THE WILD GOAT OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats._"--PSALM cxiv. 18.] + +The flesh of the Beden is really excellent. It is far superior to that +of the gazelle, which is comparatively dry and hard, and it has been +happily suggested that the Beden was the animal in search of which +Esau was sent to hunt with his quiver and his bow, and which furnished +the "savoury meat" which Isaac loved. None but a true hunter can hope +to secure the Beden, and even all the knowledge, patience, and energy +of the best hunters are tried before they can kill their prey. It was +therefore no matter of wonder that Isaac should be surprised when he +thought that he heard Esau return so soon from the hunting-grounds. +"How is it that thou hast found it so quickly, my son?" + +There are few animals more wary than the Beden, and even the chamois +of the Alps does not exercise the finest qualities of a hunter more +than does the Beden of Palestine. It is gifted with very keen eyes, +which can discern the approach of an enemy long before its grey coat +and curved horns can be distinguished from the stones and gnarled +boughs of the mountain side. And, even if the enemy be not within +range of the animal's sight, its nostrils are so keen that it can +detect a man by scent alone at a considerable distance. Like all +gregarious animals, the Beden insures the safety of the flock by +stationing sentries, which are posted on places that command the whole +surrounding country, and to deceive the watchful senses of these wary +guardians tests all the qualities of the hunter. + +The dawn of day is the time that is generally chosen for approaching a +herd, because the animals are then feeding, and if the hunter can +manage to approach them against the wind, he may chance to come within +range. Should however the wind change its direction, he may quietly +walk home again, for at the first breath of the tainted gale the +sentinels utter their shrill whistle of alarm, and the whole party +dash off with a speed that renders pursuit useless. + +The horns of the Beden are of very great size, and from their bold +curves, with the large rings and ridges which cover their front, are +remarkably handsome objects. In their own country they are in great +request as handles to knives, and even in England they may be +occasionally seen serving as handles to carving-knives and forks. + +As to the word Ako, which occurs in Deut. xiv. 5, together with other +animals, and is rendered as "Wild Goat," there is so much doubt about +the correct translation that I can do no more than mention that the +Jewish Bible follows our authorized edition in translating Ako as Wild +Goat, but adds the doubtful mark to the word. + + + + +THE DEER. + + The Hart and Hind of Scripture--Species of Deer existing in + Palestine--Earliest mention of the Hind--The Hart classed among + the clean animals--Passages alluding to its speed--Care of the + mother for her young, and her custom of secreting it--Tameable + character of the Deer--The Rabbinical writers and their + theories--Shedding of the Deer's horns--Its fabled mode of + sleeping--The gall in the tail--Curious traditions of the enmity + between Deer and serpents--Virtues of a Deer-skin coat. + + +We now come to the DEER which are mentioned in Scripture. There are +not many passages in which they are mentioned, and one of them is +rather doubtful, as we shall see when we come to it. + +There is no doubt that the two words HART and HIND (in the Hebrew +_Ayzal_ and _Ayzalah_) represent Deer of some kind, and the question +is to find out what kind of Deer is signified by these words. I think +that we may safely determine that no particular species is meant, but +that under the word Ayzal are comprehended any kinds of Deer that +inhabit Palestine, and were likely to be known to those to whom the +earlier Scriptures were addressed. That some kind of Deer was +plentiful is evident from the references which are made to it, and +specially by the familiar word Ajala or Ayala, as it is pronounced, +which signifies the Deer-ground or pasture. But the attempt to +discriminate between one species and another is simply impossible, and +the more careful the search the more impracticable the task appears. + +As far as can be ascertained, at least two kinds of Deer inhabited +Palestine in the earlier days of the Jewish history, one belonging to +the division which is known by its branched horns, and the other to +that in which the horns are flat or palmated over the tips. Examples +of both kinds are familiar to us under the titles of the RED DEER and +the FALLOW DEER, and it is tolerably certain that both these animals +were formerly found in Palestine, or that at all events the Deer +which did exist there were so closely allied to them as to be mere +varieties occasioned by the different conditions in which they were +placed. + + +We will now proceed to the various passages in which the Hart and Hind +are mentioned in the Bible. + + [Illustration: FALLOW-DEER, OR HIND OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_I charge you ... by the hinds of the field._"--CANT. ii. 7.] + +As might be expected, we come upon it among the number of the beasts +which divided the hoof and chewed the cud, and were specially +indicated as fit for food; see Deut. xii. 15: "Notwithstanding thou +mayest kill and eat flesh in all thy gates, ... the unclean and the +clean may eat thereof, as of the roebuck, and as of the hart." + +There is, however, an earlier mention of the word in Gen. xlix. 21. It +occurs in that splendid series of imagery in which Jacob blesses his +sons, and prophesies their future, each image serving ever afterwards +as the emblem of the tribe: "Naphtali is a hind let loose: he giveth +goodly words;"--or, according to the Jewish Bible, "Naphtali is a hind +sent forth: he giveth sayings of pleasantness." Now, such an image as +this would never have been used, had not the spectacle of the "hind +let loose" been perfectly familiar to the eyes both of the dying +patriarch and his hearers, and equally so with the lion, the ass, the +vine, the serpent, and other objects used emblematically in the same +prophetic poem. + +The excellence of the Hart's flesh is shown by its occurrence among +the animals used for King Solomon's table; see 1 Kings iv. 23, a +passage which has been quoted several times, and therefore need only +be mentioned. + +Allusion is made to the speed and agility of the Deer in several +passages. See, for example, Isa. xxxv. 6: "Then shall the lame man +leap as an hart, and the tongue of the dumb sing." Again, in 2 Sam. +xxii. 33, 34: "God is my strength and power: and He maketh my way +perfect. + +"He maketh my feet like hinds' feet: and setteth me upon my high +places." + +Nearly four hundred years afterwards we find Habakkuk using precisely +the same image, evidently quoting David's Psalm of Thanksgiving:--"Yet +I will rejoice in the Lord, I will joy in the God of my salvation. + +"The Lord God is my strength, and He will make my feet like hinds' +feet, and He will make me to walk upon mine high places." (iii. 18, +19.) + +A passage of a similar character may be found in Solomon's Song, ii. +8, 9: "The voice of my beloved! behold, he cometh leaping upon the +mountains, skipping upon the hills. + +"My beloved is like a roe or a young hart." + +There is one passage in the Psalms which is familiar to us in many +ways, and not the least in that it has been chosen as the text for so +many well-known anthems. "As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, +so panteth my soul after Thee, O God. + +"My soul thirsteth for God, for the living God: when shall I come and +appear before God?" (Ps. xlii. 1, 2.) + +Beautiful as this passage is, it cannot be fully understood without +the context. + +David wrote this psalm before he had risen to royal power, and while +he was fleeing from his enemies from place to place, and seeking an +uncertain shelter in the rock-caves. In verse 6 he enumerates some of +the spots in which he has been forced to reside, far away from the +altar, the priests, and the sacrifice. He has been hunted about from +place to place by his enemies as a stag is hunted by the hounds, and +his very soul thirsted for the distant Tabernacle, in which the +Shekinah, the visible presence of God, rested on the mercy-seat +between the golden cherubim. + +Wild and unsettled as was the early life of David, this was ever the +reigning thought in his mind, and there is scarcely a psalm that he +wrote in which we do not find some allusion to the visible presence of +God among men. No matter what might be the troubles through which he +had to pass, even though he trod the valley of the shadow of death, +the thought of his God was soothing as water to the hunted stag, and +in that thought he ever found repose. Through all his many trials and +adversities, through his deep remorse for his sins, through his +wounded paternal affections, through his success and prosperity, that +one thought is the ruling power. He begins his career with it when he +opposed Goliath: "Thou comest to me with a sword, and with a spear, +and with a shield: but I come to thee in the name of the Lord of +hosts, the God of the armies of Israel." He closes his career with the +same thought, and, in the "last words" that are recorded, he charged +his son to keep the commandments of the Lord, that he might do wisely +all that he did. + +We now come to another point in the Deer's character; namely, the +watchful care of the mother over her young. She always retires to some +secret place when she instinctively knows that the birth is at hand, +and she hides it from all eyes until it is able to take care of +itself. By some strange instinct, the little one, almost as soon as it +is born, is able to comprehend the signals of its mother, and there is +an instance, well known to naturalists, where, a newly-born Deer, +hardly an hour old, crouched low to the earth in obedience to a light +tap on its shoulder from its mother's hoof. She, with the intense +watchfulness of her kind, had seen a possible danger, and so warned +her young one to hide itself. + +There is scarcely any animal so watchful as the female Deer, as all +hunters know by practical experience. It is comparatively easy to +deceive the stag who leads the herd, but to evade the eyes and ears of +the hinds is a very different business, and taxes all the resources of +a practised hunter. If they take such care of the herd in general, it +may be imagined that their watchfulness would be multiplied tenfold +when the object of their anxiety is their own young. + +It is in allusion to this well-known characteristic that a passage in +the Book of Job refers: "Knowest thou the time when the wild goats of +the rock bring forth? or canst thou mark when the hinds do calve?" +(xxxix. 1.) A similar image is used in Psa. xxix. 9. After enumerating +the wonders that are done by the voice of the Lord, the thunders and +rain torrents, the devastating tempests, the forked lightning, and the +earthquake "that shaketh the wilderness of Kadesh," the Psalmist +proceeds: "The voice of the Lord maketh the hinds to calve, and +discovereth the forests,"--this being as mysterious to the writer as +the more conspicuous wonders which he had previously mentioned. + +So familiar to the Hebrews was the watchful care which the female Deer +exercised over her young, that it forms the subject of a powerful +image in one of Jeremiah's mournful prophecies: "Yea, the hind also +calved in the field, and forsook it, because there was no grass." +(xiv. 5.) To those who understand the habits of the animal, this is a +most telling and picturesque image. In the first place, the Hind, a +wild animal that could find food where less active creatures would +starve, was reduced to such straits that she was obliged to remain in +the fields at the time when her young was born, instead of retiring to +some sheltered spot, according to her custom. And when it was born, +instead of nurturing it carefully, according to the natural maternal +instinct, she was forced from sheer hunger to abandon it in order to +find a sufficiency of food for herself. + +That the Deer could be tamed, and its naturally affectionate +disposition cultivated, is evident from a passage in the Proverbs (v. +18, 19): "Let thy fountain be blessed: and rejoice with the wife of +thy youth. Let her be as the loving hind and pleasant roe." + + [Illustration: THE RED DEER. + + "Canst thou mark when the hinds do calve?"--JOB xxxix. 1.] + +We might naturally expect that the Rabbinical writers would have +much to say on the subject of the Hart and Hind. Among much that +is irrelevant to the object of the present work there are a few +passages that deserve mention. Alluding to the annual shedding of +the Deer's horns, there is a proverb respecting one who ventures his +money too freely in trade, that "he has hung it on the stag's horns," +meaning thereby that he will never see it again. It is remarkable that +in Western Africa there is a proverb of a similar character, the +imprudent merchant being told to look for his money in the place where +Deer shed their horns. + +They firmly believed that goats and Deer associate freely with each +other, and that a mixed progeny was the result, but some of them +modify this statement by saying that this only holds good with the +smaller kinds of Deer, _i.e._ the gazelles and other antelopes. This +absurd notion has evidently taken its rise from the line of long +bristly hair that decorates the throat of the adult male, and which +these unscientific writers took to be derived from the beard of the +goat. + +On account of its watchfulness it was said always to sleep with one +eye open, "which is well known to be the case with the hare." The +ancient Jews used to catch it with nets, and then domesticate it, +feeding it principally with a plant which has a very long and straight +root, which was used by Joshua as a wand of office when he pointed out +to the Israelites the portion of ground on which each tribe had to +encamp. What the plant might have been they cannot precisely +ascertain, and the looseness of their natural history may be imagined +from the fact that some consider the plant in question to be the ivy +and others the sugar-cane. + +Some of the Deer, says these old writers, join the herds of cattle, +and even accompany them to their stalls for the night. The reason of +this gentleness of disposition seems to be found in the position of +the gall-bladder, which is said to be, not in the liver, but near the +tail. It is remarkable, by the way, that Aristotle places it actually +in the tail: "The Achaian harts have their gall in their tails;" while +Pliny thinks that the gall is placed in the ears. + +The curious superstitions respecting the enmity between the Deer and +the serpent are of very old date, and have travelled all over the +world. They probably took their rise from the esoteric teachings +which were hidden under the symbolism of animal life, and were +transmitted from country to country and from age to age, after the +manner of superstitions generally. According to one form of the +superstition, the Deer can draw serpents out of their holes by +breathing into them, and then devour them; while, according to another +form, there is such an enmity between the Deer and the serpent, that +if even a portion of the Deer's horns be burned, all snakes that come +within its influence are driven away. + +Topsell, in referring to this subject, although he feels himself bound +to believe the tradition, accounts for it in his own quaint fashion. +"A Hart by his nose draweth a Serpent out of her hole, and therefore +the grammarians derived _Elaphas_, or Hart, from _elaunein tous +opheis_, that is, of driving away serpents. + +"I cannot consent to the opinion of _Ælianus_, that affirmeth the +Serpents to follow the breath of a Hart like some philter, or amorous +cup: for, seeing that all authors hold a hostility in natures betwixt +them, it is not probable that the Serpent loveth the breath of a beast +unto whose whole body he is an enemy with a perpetual antipathy. And +if any reply that the warm breath of an Hart is acceptable to the cold +Serpent, and that therefore she followeth it as a dog creepeth to the +fire, or as other beasts to the beams of the sun, I will not greatly +gainsay it, seeing by that means it is most clear that the breath doth +not by any secret force or vertue extract and draw her out of the den, +but rather the concomitant quality of heat, which is not from the +secret fire in the bones of the Hart's throat (as _Pliny_ hath +taught), but rather from her ordinary expiration, inspiration, and +respiration. For it cannot be, that seeing all the parts of a Serpent +are opposite to a Hart, that there should be any love to that which +killeth her. + +"For my opinion, I think that the manner of the Hart's drawing the +Serpent out of her den is not, as _Ælianus_ and _Pliny_ affirmeth, by +sending into the cave a warm breath, which burneth and scorcheth the +beast out of her den, but rather, when the Hart hath found the +Serpent's nest, she draweth the air by secret and violent attraction +out from the Serpent, who, to save her life, followeth the air out of +her den. As where a vessel is broached or wrecked, the wine followeth +the flying air; and as a cupping-glass draweth blood out of a +scarified place of the body, so the Serpent is drawn unwillingly to +follow her destroyer, and not willingly, as _Ælianus_ affirmeth. The +Serpent being thus drawn forth, addeth greater force to her poyson, +whereupon the proverbial admonition did arise, 'Beware thou meet not +with a Serpent drawn out of her hole by the breath of a Hart, for at +that time, by reason of her wrath, her poyson is more vehement.' After +the self-same manner do the Sea-rams draw the Sea-calves hid in the +subterranean rocks, for by smelling they prevent the air that should +come into them for refrigeration." + +In consequence of this antipathy, travellers were accustomed to wear +dresses made of deer-skin, because no serpent would dare to bite any +one who wore such armour. The timidity of the Deer was attributed by +these strange old authors to the great size of its heart, in which +they thought was a bone shaped like a cross. + +At the beginning of this article, I mentioned that in one passage the +word which is translated as "Hart" is rendered differently in some +versions. This passage occurs in Lam. i. 6: "And from the daughter of +Zion all her beauty is departed: her princes are become like harts +that find no pasture, and they are gone without strength before the +pursuer." In some editions of the Hebrew Bible, the word Ayilim, +_i.e._ "rams," is used instead of Ayzalim, or "Harts," and this +reading is followed both by the Septuagint and the Vulgate. In two +editions of the Hebrew Bible, however, the word is Ayzalim; and, as +the Jewish Bible retains that reading, we cannot do wrong in accepting +it as the correct one. + + + + +THE CAMEL. + + +CHAPTER I. + + The two species of Camel, and the mode of distinguishing + them--Value of the Camel in the East--Camels mentioned as + elements of wealth--Uses of the Camel--The Jews forbidden to eat + its flesh--The milk of the Camel--Thirst-enduring + capability--The internal reservoir--The hump, and its use to the + animal--The Camel as a beast of draught and burden--How the + Camel is laden--Knowledge of its own powers--Camels for + riding--Difficulty of sitting a Camel--A rough-paced + steed--Method of guiding the Camel--The mesh'ab, or Camel-stick + of office--The women's saddle--Rachel's stratagem--Ornaments of + the Camel--The swift dromedary, Heirie, or Deloul--Its ungainly + aspect--Speed and endurance of the Deloul--The Camel-posts of + Bornu--Camel-drivers and their conduct--The driver's song--Young + Camels and their appearance--The deserted Camel. + +Before treating of the Scriptural references to the Camel, it will be +as well to clear the ground by noticing that two distinct species of +Camel are known to zoologists; namely, the common Camel (_Camelus +dromedarius_), which has one hump, and the Bactrian Camel (_Camelus +Bactrianus_), which has two of these curious projections. There is a +popular but erroneous idea that the dromedary and the Camel are two +distinct animals, the latter being distinguished by its huge hump, +whereas the fact is, that the dromedary is simply a lighter and more +valuable breed of the one-humped Camel of Arabia, the two-humped +Bactrian Camel being altogether a different animal, inhabiting Central +Asia, Thibet, and China. + + +The Camel is still one of the most valued animals that inhabit +Palestine, and in former times it played a part in Jewish history +scarcely inferior to that of the ox or sheep. We shall, therefore, +devote some space to it. + +In some parts of the land it even exceeded in value the sheep, and was +infinitely more useful than the goat. At the very beginning of Jewish +history we read of this animal, and it is mentioned in the New +Testament nearly two thousand years after we meet with it in the Book +of Genesis. The earliest mention of the Camel occurs in Gen. xii. 16, +where is related the journey of Abram: "He had sheep, and oxen, and +he-asses, and men-servants, and maid-servants, and she-asses, and +camels." + +Belonging, as he did, to the nomad race which lives almost wholly on +the produce of their herds, Abram needed Camels, not only for their +milk, and, for all we know, for their flesh, but for their extreme use +as beasts of burden, without which he could never have travelled over +that wild and pathless land. The whole of Abram's outer life was +exactly that of a Bedouin sheikh of the present day, in whom we find +reproduced the habits, the tone of thought, and the very verbiage of +the ancient Scriptures. + +Many years afterwards, when the son of his old age was desirous of +marrying a wife of his own kindred, we find that he sent his trusted +servants with ten of his Camels to Mesopotamia, and it was by the +offering of water to these Camels, that Rebekah was selected as +Isaac's wife (see Gen. xxiv. 10, 19). In after days, when Jacob was +about to leave Laban, these animals are mentioned as an important part +of his wealth: "And the man increased exceedingly, and had much +cattle, and maid-servants, and men-servants, and camels, and asses" +(Gen. xxx. 43). Then, in Exod. ix. 3, one of the severest plagues with +which Egypt was afflicted was the disease which fell upon the Camels +in common with the other cattle. + +It is thought worthy of mention in the sacred narrative that Job had +three thousand, and afterwards six thousand Camels (Job i. 3, and +xlii. 12); that the Midianites and Amalekites possessed "camels +without number, as the sand by the seaside for multitude" (Judg. vii. +12); and that the Reubenites, when making war against the Hagarites, +took from them fifty thousand camels--exactly the very object of such +wars in the same land at the present time. + +They were valuable enough to be sent as presents from one potentate to +another. For example, when Jacob went to meet Esau, he gave as his +present two hundred and twenty sheep, the same number of goats, fifty +oxen, thirty asses, and sixty camels, _i.e._ thirty mothers, each with +her calf. They were important enough to be guarded by men of position. +In 1 Chron. xxvii. 30, we find that the charge of David's Camels was +confided to one of his officers, Obil the Ishmaelite, who, from his +origin, might be supposed to be skilful in the management of these +animals. Bochart however, conjectures that the word Obil ought to be +read as Abal, _i.e._ the camel-keeper, and that the passage would +therefore read as follows: "Over the camels was an Ishmaelitish +camel-keeper." + + +We will now proceed to the uses of the Camel, and first take it in the +light of food. + +By the Mosaic law, the Camel was a forbidden animal, because it did +not divide the hoof, although it chewed the cud. Yet, although the +Jews might not eat its flesh, they probably used the milk for food, as +they do at the present day. No distinct Scriptural reference is made +to the milk of the Camel; but, as the Jews of the present day are +quite as fastidious as their ancestors in keeping the Mosaic law, we +are justified in concluding that, although they would not eat the +flesh of the animal, they drank its milk. At the present time, the +milk is used, like that of the sheep, goat, and cow, both in a fresh +and curdled state, the latter being generally preferred to the former. +A kind of cheese is made from it, but is not much to the taste of the +European traveller, on account of the quantity of salt which is put in +it. Butter is churned in a very simple manner, the fresh milk being +poured into a skin bag, and the bag beaten with a stick until the +butter makes its appearance. + +That it was really used in the patriarchal times is evident by the +passage which has already been mentioned, where Jacob is related to +have brought as a present to his brother Esau thirty milch Camels, +together with their young. So decided a stress would certainly not +have been laid upon the fact that the animals were milch Camels unless +the milk were intended for use. + +Perhaps the use of the Camel's milk might be justified by saying that +the prohibition extended only to eating and not to drinking, and that +therefore the milk might be used though the flesh was prohibited. + +There was another mode in which the Camel might be used by travellers +to sustain life. + +The reader is probably aware that, even in the burning climate in +which it dwells, the Camel is able to go for a long time without +drinking,--not that it requires less liquid nourishment than other +animals, but that it is able, by means of its internal construction, +to imbibe at one draught a quantity of water which will last for a +considerable time. It is furnished with a series of cells, into which +the water runs as fast as it is drunk, and in which it can be kept for +some time without losing its life-preserving qualities. As much as +twenty gallons have been imbibed by a Camel at one draught, and this +amount will serve it for several days, as it has the power of +consuming by degrees the water which it has drunk in a few minutes. + +This curious power of the Camel has often proved to be the salvation +of its owner. It has often happened that, when travellers have been +passing over the desert, their supply of water has been exhausted, +partly by the travellers and partly by the burning heat which causes +it to evaporate through the pores of the goat-skin bottle in which it +was carried. Then the next well, where they had intended to refill +their skins and refresh themselves, has proved dry, and the whole +party seemed doomed to die of thirst. + +Under these circumstances, only one chance of escape is left them. +They kill a Camel, and from its stomach they procure water enough to +sustain life for a little longer, and perhaps to enable them to reach +a well or fountain in which water still remains. The water which is +thus obtained is unaltered, except by a greenish hue, the result of +mixing with the remains of herbage in the cells. It is, of course, +very disagreeable, but those who are dying from thirst cannot afford +to be fastidious, and to them the water is a most delicious draught. + +It is rather curious that, if any of the water which is taken out of a +dead Camel can be kept for a few days, both the green hue and the +unpleasant flavour disappear, and the water becomes fresh, clear, and +limpid. So wonderfully well do the internal cells preserve the water, +that after a Camel has been dead for ten days--and in that hot climate +ten days after death are equal to a month in England--the water within +it has been quite pure and drinkable. + +Many persons believe in the popular though erroneous idea that the +Camel does not require as much water as ordinary animals. He will see, +however, from the foregoing account that it needs quite as much water +as the horse or the ox, but that it possesses the capability of taking +in at one time as much as either of these animals would drink in +several days. So far from being independent of water, there is no +animal that requires it more, or displays a stronger desire for it. A +thirsty Camel possesses the power of scenting water at a very great +distance, and, when it does so, its instincts conquer its education, +and it goes off at full speed towards the spot, wholly ignoring its +rider or driver. Many a desert spring has been discovered, and many a +life saved, by this wonderful instinct, the animal having scented the +distant water when its rider had lost all hope, and was resigning +himself to that terrible end, the death by thirst. The sacred Zemzem +fountain at Mecca was discovered by two thirsty Camels. + +Except by the Jews, the flesh of the Camel is eaten throughout +Palestine and the neighbouring countries, and is looked upon as a +great luxury. The Arab, for example, can scarcely have a greater treat +than a Camel-feast, and looks forward to it in a state of wonderful +excitement. He is so impatient, that scarcely is the animal dead +before it is skinned, cut up, and the various parts prepared for +cooking. + +To European palates the flesh of the Camel is rather unpleasant, being +tough, stringy, and without much flavour. The fatty hump is +universally considered as the best part of the animal, and is always +offered to the chief among the guests, just as the North American +Indian offers the hump of the bison to the most important man in the +assembly. The heart and the tongue, however, are always eatable, and, +however old a Camel may be, these parts can be cooked and eaten +without fear. + +The hump, or "bunch" as it is called in the Bible, has no connexion +with the spine, and is a supplementary growth, which varies in size, +not only in the species, but in the individual. It is analogous to the +hump upon the shoulders of the American bison and the Indian zebra, +and in the best-bred Camels it is the smallest though the finest and +most elastic. + +This hump, by the way, affords one of the points by which the value of +the Camel is decided. When it is well fed and properly cared for, the +hump projects boldly, and is firm and elastic to the touch. But if the +Camel be ill, or if it be badly fed or overworked, the hump becomes +soft and flaccid, and in bad cases hangs down on one side like a thick +flap of skin. Consequently, the dealers in Camels always try to +produce their animals in the market with their humps well developed; +and, if they find that this important part does not look satisfactory, +they use various means to give it the required fulness, inflating it +with air being the most common. In fact, there is as much deception +among Camel-dealers in Palestine as with dog or pigeon fanciers in +England. + +Here perhaps I may remark that the hump has given rise to some strange +but prevalent views respecting the Camel. Many persons think that the +dromedary has one hump and the Camel two--in fact, that they are two +totally distinct animals. Now the fact is that the Camel of Palestine +is of one species only, the dromedary being a lighter and swifter +breed, and differing from the ordinary Camel just as a hunter or racer +differs from a cart-horse. The two-humped Camel is a different species +altogether, which will be briefly described at the end of the present +article. + + +The Camel is also used as a beast of draught, and, as we find, not +only from the Scriptures, but from ancient monuments, was employed to +draw chariots and drag the plough. Thus in Isa. xxi. 7: "And he saw a +chariot with a couple of horsemen, a chariot of asses, and a chariot +of camels." It is evident that in this passage some chariots were +drawn by Camels and some by asses. It is, however, remarkable that in +Kennard's "Eastern Experiences," these two very useful animals are +mentioned as being yoked together: "We passed through a fertile +country, watching the fellaheen at their agricultural labours, and not +a little amused at sometimes remarking a very tall camel and a very +small donkey yoked together in double harness, dragging a plough +through the rich brown soil." Camels drawing chariots are still to be +seen in the Assyrian sculptures. In Palestine--at all events at the +present time--the Camel is seldom if ever used as a beast of draught, +being exclusively employed for bearing burdens and carrying riders. + +Taking it first as a beast of burden, we find several references in +different parts of the Scriptures. For example, see 2 Kings viii. 9: +"So Hazael went to meet him, and took a present with him, even of +every good thing of Damascus, forty camels' burden." Again, in 1 +Chron. xii. 40: "Moreover they that were nigh them, even unto Issachar +and Zebulun and Naphtali, brought bread on asses, and on camels, and +on mules, and on oxen." Another allusion to the same custom is made in +Isaiah: "They will carry their riches upon the shoulders of young +asses, and their treasures upon the bunches (or humps) of camels." + +The Camel can carry a considerable load, though not so much as is +generally fancied. A sort of a pack-saddle of a very simple +description is used, in order to keep the burden upon so +strangely-shaped an animal. A narrow bag about eight feet long is +made, and rather loosely stuffed with straw or similar material. It is +then doubled, and the ends firmly sewn together, so as to form a great +ring, which is placed over the hump, and forms a tolerably flat +surface. A wooden framework is tied on the pack-saddle, and is kept in +its place by a girth and a crupper. The packages which the Camel is to +carry are fastened together by cords, and slung over the saddle. They +are only connected by those semi-knots called "hitches," so that, when +the Camel is to be unloaded, all that is needed is to pull the lower +end of the rope, and the packages fall on either side of the animal. +So quickly is the operation of loading performed, that a couple of +experienced men can load a Camel in very little more than a minute. + +As is the case with the horse in England, the Camels that are used as +beasts of burden are of a heavier, slower, and altogether inferior +breed to those which are employed to carry riders, and all their +accoutrements are of a ruder and meaner order, devoid of the fantastic +ornaments with which Oriental riders are fond of decorating their +favourite animals. + + [Illustration: CAMEL. + + "They will carry their treasures upon the bunches of camels."--ISA. + xxx. 6.] + +In the large illustration are represented two of the ordinary Camels +of burden, as they appear when laden with boughs for the Feast of +Tabernacles. The branches are those of the Hebrew pine, and, as may be +seen, the animals are so heavily laden with them that their forms are +quite hidden under their leafy burdens. The weight which a Camel will +carry varies much, according to the strength of the individual, which +has given rise to the Oriental proverb, "As the camel, so the load." +But an animal of ordinary strength is supposed to be able to carry +from five to six hundred pounds for a short journey, and half as much +for a long one,--a quantity which, as the reader will see, is not so +very great when the bulk of the animal is taken into consideration. +It is remarkable that the Camel knows its own powers, and +instinctively refuses to move if its correct load be exceeded. But, +when it is properly loaded, it will carry its burden for hours +together at exactly the same pace, and without seeming more fatigued +than it was when it started. + +The riding Camels are always of a better breed than those which are +used for burden, and may be divided into two classes; namely, those +which are meant for ordinary purposes, and those which are specially +bred for speed and endurance. There is as much difference between the +ordinary riding Camel and the swift Camel as there is between the road +hack and the race-horse. We will first begin with the description of +the common riding Camel and its accoutrements. + +The saddle which is intended for a rider is very different from the +pack-saddle on which burdens are carried, and has a long upright +projection in front, to which the rider can hold if he wishes it. + +The art of riding the Camel is nearly as difficult of accomplishment +as that of riding the horse, and the preliminary operation of mounting +is not the least difficult portion of it. Of course, to mount a Camel +while the animal is standing is impossible, and accordingly it is +taught to kneel until the rider is seated. Kneeling is a natural +position with the Camel, which is furnished with large callosities or +warts on the legs and breast, which act as cushions on which it may +rest its great weight without abrading the skin. These callosities are +not formed, as some have imagined, by the constant kneeling to which +the Camel is subjected, but are born with it, though of course less +developed than they are after they have been hardened by frequent +pressure against the hot sand. + +When the Camel kneels, it first drops on its knees, and then on the +joints of the hind legs. Next it drops on its breast, and then again +on the bent hind legs. In rising it reverses the process, so that a +novice is first pitched forward, then backward, then forward, and then +backward again, to the very great disarrangement of his garments, and +the probable loss of his seat altogether. Then when the animal kneels +he is in danger of being thrown over its head by the first movement, +and jerked over its tail by the second; but after a time he learns to +keep his seat mechanically. + +As to the movement of the animal, it is at first almost as unpleasant +as can be conceived, and has been described by several travellers, +some of whose accounts will be here given. First comes Albert Smith, +who declares that any one who wants to practise Camel-riding in +England can do so by taking a music-stool, screwing it up as high as +possible, putting it into a cart without springs, sitting on the top +of it cross-legged, and having the cart driven at full speed +transversely over a newly ploughed field. + +There is, however, as great a difference in the gait of Camels as of +horses, some animals having a quiet, regular, easy movement, while +others are rough and high-stepping, harassing their riders grievously +in the saddle. Even the smooth-going Camel is, however, very trying at +first, on account of its long swinging strides, which are taken with +the legs of each side alternately, causing the body of the rider to +swing backwards and forwards as if he were rowing in a boat. + +Those who suffer from sea-sickness are generally attacked with the +same malady when they make their first attempts at Camel-riding, while +even those who are proof against this particular form of discomfort +soon begin to find that their backs are aching, and that the pain +becomes steadily worse. Change of attitude is but little use, and the +wretched traveller derives but scant comfort from the advice of his +guide, who tells him to allow his body to swing freely, and that in a +short time he will become used to it. Some days, however, are +generally consumed before he succeeds in training his spine to the +continual unaccustomed movement, and he finds that, when he wakes on +the morning that succeeds his first essay, his back is so stiff that +he can scarcely move without screaming with pain, and that the +prospect of mounting the Camel afresh is anything but a pleasant one. + +"I tried to sit erect without moving," writes Mr. Kennard, when +describing his experience of Camel-riding. "This proved a relief for a +few minutes, but, finding the effort too great to continue long in +this position, I attempted to recline with my head resting upon my +hand. This last manoeuvre I found would not do, for the motion of the +camel's hind legs was so utterly at variance with the motion of his +fore-legs that I was jerked upwards, and forwards, and sideways, and +finally ended in nearly rolling off altogether. + +"Without going into the details of all that I suffered for the next +two or three days--how that on several occasions I slid from the +camel's back to the ground, in despair of ever accustoming my +half-dislocated joints to the ceaseless jerking and swaying to and +fro, and how that I often determined to trudge on foot over the hot +desert sand all the way to Jerusalem rather than endure it longer--I +shall merely say that the day did at last arrive when I descended from +my camel, after many hours' riding, in as happy and comfortable a +state of mind as if I had been lolling in the easiest of arm-chairs." + +A very similar description of the transition from acute and constant +suffering to perfect ease is given by Albert Smith, who states that +more than once he has dozed on the back of his Camel, in spite of the +swaying backwards and forwards to which his body was subjected. + +If such be the discomfort of riding a smooth-going and good-tempered +Camel, it may be imagined that to ride a hard-going and cross-grained +animal must be a very severe trial to an inexperienced rider. A very +amusing account of a ride on such a Camel, and of a fall from its +back, is given by Mr. Hamilton in his "Sinai, the Hedjaz, and +Soudan:"-- + +"A dromedary I had obtained at Suk Abu Sin for my own riding did not +answer my expectations, or rather the saddle was badly put on--not an +easy thing to do well, by the way--and one of my servants, who saw how +out of patience I was at the many times I had had to dismount to have +it arranged, persuaded me to try the one he was riding, the Sheik's +present. I had my large saddle transferred to his beast, and, nothing +doubting, mounted it. + +"He had not only no nose-string, but was besides a vicious brute, +rising with a violent jerk before I was well in the saddle, and +anxious to gain the caravan, which was a little way ahead, he set off +at his roughest gallop. Carpets, kufieh, tarbush, all went off in the +jolting; at every step I was thrown a foot into the air, glad to come +down again, bump, bump, on the saddle, by dint of holding on to the +front pommel with the left hand, while the right was engaged with the +bridle, which in the violence of the exercise it was impossible to +change to its proper hand. I had almost reached the caravan, and had +no doubt my humpbacked Pegasus would relax his exertions, when a +camel-driver, one of the sons of iniquity, seeing me come up at full +speed, and evidently quite run away with, took it into his head to +come to my assistance. + +"I saw what he was at, and called out to him to get out of the way, +but instead of this he stuck himself straight before me, stretching +himself out like a St. Andrew's cross, with one hand armed with a huge +club, and making most diabolical grimaces. Of course the camel was +frightened, it was enough to frighten a much more reasonable being; +so, wheeling quickly round, it upset my unstable equilibrium. Down I +came head foremost to the ground, and when I looked up, my forehead +streaming with blood, the first thing I saw was my Arab with the +camel, which he seemed mightily pleased with himself for having so +cleverly captured, while the servant who had suggested the unlucky +experiment came ambling along on my easy-paced dromedary, and consoled +me by saying that he knew it was a runaway beast, which there was no +riding without a nose-string. + +"I now began to study the way of keeping one's seat in such an +emergency. An Arab, when he gallops his dromedary with one of these +saddles, holds hard on with the right hand to the back part of the +seat, not to the pommel, and grasps the bridle tightly in the other. +The movement of the camel in galloping throws one violently forward, +and without holding on, excepting on the naked back, when the rider +sits behind the hump, it is impossible to retain one's seat. I +afterwards thought myself lucky in not having studied this point +sooner, as, from the greater resistance I should have offered, my +tumble, since it was _fated_ I should have one, would probably have +been much more severe. It is true I might also have escaped it, but in +the chapter of probabilities I always think a mishap the most +probable." + +It may be imagined that a fall from a Camel's back is not a trifle, +and, even if the unskilful rider be fortunate enough to fall on soft +sand instead of hard rock, he receives a tolerably severe shock, and +runs no little risk of breaking a limb. For the average height of a +Camel's back is rather more than six feet, while some animals measure +seven feet from the ground to the top of the hump. Add to this a foot +or two caused by the saddle and its cushions, and a height is gained +equal to that of the ceiling of many rooms--say, eighteen inches above +the top of an ordinary door. + +This height, however, is of material advantage to the traveller. In +the first place it lifts him above the waves of heated air that are +continually rolling over the sand on which the burning rays of the sun +are poured throughout the day; and in the second place it brings him +within reach of the slightest breeze that passes above the stratum of +hot air, and which comes to the traveller like the breath of life. +Moreover, his elevated position enables him to see for a very great +distance, which is an invaluable advantage in a land where every +stranger may be a robber, and is probably a murderer besides. + +The best mode of avoiding a fall is to follow the Arab mode of +riding,--namely, to pass one leg over the upright pommel, which, as +has been mentioned, is a mere wooden peg or stake, and hitching the +other leg over the dangling foot. Perhaps the safest, though not the +most comfortable, mode of sitting is by crossing the legs in front, +and merely grasping the pommel with the hands. + +Yet, fatiguing as is the seat on the Camel's back to the beginner, it +is less so than that on the horse's saddle, inasmuch as in the latter +case one position is preserved, while in the former an infinite +variety of seat is attainable when the rider has fairly mastered the +art of riding. + +The Camel is not held by the bit and bridle like the horse, but by a +rope tied like a halter round the muzzle, and having a knot on the +left or "near" side. This is held in the left hand, and is used +chiefly for the purpose of stopping the animal. The Camel is guided +partly by the voice of its rider, and partly by a driving-stick, with +which the neck is lightly touched on the opposite side to that which +its rider wishes it to take. A pressure of the heel on the +shoulder-bone tells it to quicken its pace, and a little tap on the +head followed by a touch on the short ears are the signals for full +speed. + +There are three different kinds of stick with which the Camel is +driven; one of them, a mere almond branch with the bark, and an +oblique head, is the sceptre or emblem of sovereignty of the Prince of +Mecca. Mr. Hamilton suggests that this stick, called the "_mesh'ab_," +is the original of the jackal-headed stick with which so many of the +Egyptian deities are represented; and that Aaron's rod that "brought +forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and yielded almonds," was the +_mesh'ab_, the almond-branch sceptre, the emblem of his almost regal +rank and authority. + +The women mostly ride in a different manner from the men. Sometimes +they are hardy enough to sit the animal in the same way as their +husbands, but as a rule they are carried by the animal rather than +ride it, sitting in great basket-like appendages which are slung on +either side of the Camel. These constitute the "furniture" which is +mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 34. When Jacob left the house of Laban, to +lead an independent life, Rachel stole her father's images, or +"teraphim," and carried them away with her, true to her affectionate +though deceptive nature, which impelled her to incur the guilt of +robbery for the sake of enriching her husband with the cherished +teraphim of her father. From the most careful researches we learn that +these teraphim were used for divining the future, and that they were +made in the human form. That they were of considerable size is evident +from the fact that, when Saul was hunting after David, his wife Michal +contrived to convey him out of the house, and for a time to conceal +her fraud by putting an image (or teraph) into the bed as a +representative of her husband. Had not, therefore, the camel-furniture +been of considerable dimensions, images of such a size could not be +hidden, but they could well be stowed away in the great panniers, as +long as their mistress sat upon them, after the custom of Oriental +travellers, and declined to rise on the ready plea of indisposition. + +This sort of carriage is still used for the women and children. "The +wife and child came by in the string of camels, the former reclining +in an immense circular box, stuffed and padded, covered with red +cotton, and dressed with yellow worsted ornaments. This family nest +was mounted on a large camel. It seemed a most commodious and +well-arranged travelling carriage, and very superior as a mode of +camel-riding to that which our Sitteen rejoiced in (_i.e._ riding upon +a saddle). The Arab wife could change her position at pleasure, and +the child had room to walk about and could not fall out, the sides of +the box just reaching to its shoulders. Various jugs and skins and +articles of domestic use hung suspended about it, and trappings of +fringe and finery ornamented it." + +This last sentence brings us to another point which is several times +mentioned in the Bible; namely, the ornaments with which the +proprietors of Camels are fond of bedizening their favourite animals. + +Their leathern collars are covered with cowrie shells sewn on them in +various fantastic patterns. Crescent-shaped ornaments are made of +shells sewn on red cloth, and hung so abundantly upon the harness of +the animal that they jingle at every step which it takes. Sheiks and +other men of rank often have these ornaments made of silver, so that +the cost of the entire trappings is very great. Allusion is made to +these costly ornaments in Judges viii. When Gideon warred against +Succoth, he captured the two chiefs or kings of Midian, Zebah and +Zalmunna, and, after putting them to death, he "took away the +ornaments that were on their camels' necks,"--or, as the marginal +translation has it, their "ornaments like the moon," _i.e._ +crescent-shaped; this form having been retained unchanged for three +thousand years. (Judges viii. 21.) The value of such ornaments is +evident from the fact that they are mentioned so conspicuously in Holy +Writ; and, as if to show that the Camel trappings were of very +considerable value, a further reference is made to them in the +following passage. After the battle, Gideon made a request to his +soldiers "that ye would give me every man the earrings of his prey. +(For they had golden earrings, because they were Ishmaelites.) + +"And they answered, We will willingly give them. And they spread a +garment, and did cast therein every man the earrings of his prey. And +the weight of the golden earrings that he requested was a thousand and +seven hundred shekels of gold; beside ornaments, and collars, and +purple raiment that was on the kings of Midian, and beside the chains +that were about their camels' necks." Here we see that the ornaments +to the Camels were sufficiently costly to be classed with the golden +jewellery and the royal apparel that were worn by the kings of Midian. + + +We now come to the Swift Camel, sometimes called the Heirie, the +Maharik, or the Deloul, the last of these terms being that by which it +will be mentioned in these pages. + +The limbs of the Deloul are long and wiry, having not an ounce of +superfluous fat upon them, the shoulders are very broad, and the hump, +though firm and hard, is very small. + +A thoroughbred Deloul, in good travelling condition, is not at all a +pleasing animal to an ordinary eye, being a lank, gaunt, and +ungainly-looking creature, the very conformation which insures its +swiftness and endurance being that which detracts from its beauty. An +Arab of the desert, however, thinks a good Deloul one of the finest +sights in the world. As the talk of the pastoral tribes is of sheep +and oxen, so is the talk of the nomads about Camels. It is a subject +which is for ever on their lips, and a true Bedouin may be seen to +contemplate the beauties of one of these favourite animals for hours +at a time,--if his own, with the rapture of a possessor, or, if +another's, with the determination of stealing it when he can find an +opportunity. + +Instead of plodding along at the rate of three miles an hour, which is +the average speed of the common Camel, the Deloul can cover, if +lightly loaded, nine or ten miles an hour, and go on at the same pace +for a wonderful time, its long legs swinging, and its body swaying, as +if it were but an animated machine. Delouls have been reported to have +journeyed for nearly fifty hours without a single stop for rest, +during which time the animals must have traversed nearly five hundred +miles. Such examples must, however, be exceptional, implying, as they +do, an amount of endurance on the part of the rider equal to that of +the animal; and even a journey of half that distance is scarcely +possible to ordinary men on Delouls. + +For the movements of the Deloul are very rough, and the rider is +obliged to prepare himself for a long journey by belting himself +tightly with two leathern bands, one just under the arms, and the +other round the pit of the stomach. Without these precautions, the +rider would be likely to suffer serious injuries, and, even with them, +the exercise is so severe, that an Arab makes it a matter of special +boast that he can ride a Deloul for a whole day. + +A courier belonging to the Sherif of Mecca told Mr. Hamilton that he +often went on the same dromedary from Mecca to Medina in forty-eight +hours, the distance being two hundred and forty miles. And a +thoroughbred Deloul will travel for seven or eight weeks with only +four or five days of rest. + +Even at the present time, these Camels are used for the conveyance of +special messages, and in the remarkable Bornu kingdom a regular +service of these animals is established, two couriers always +travelling in company, so that if one rider or Camel should fail or +be captured by the Arabs, who are always on the alert for so valuable +a prey, the other may post on and carry the message to its +destination. + + [Illustration: THE CAMEL POST.] + +The swift dromedary, or Deloul, is mentioned several times in the Old +Testament. One of them occurs in Isa. lx. 6: "The multitude of camels +shall cover thee, the dromedaries of Midian and Ephah." In this +passage a distinction is drawn between the ordinary Camel and the +swift dromedary, the former being the word "gamel," and the latter the +word "beker," which is again used in Jer. ii. 23: "See thy way in the +valley, know what thou hast done: thou art a swift dromedary." + +There is a passage in the Book of Esther which looks as if it referred +to the ordinary Camel and the swift dromedary, but there is +considerable uncertainty about the proper rendering. It runs as +follows: "And he wrote in king Ahasuerus' name, and sealed it with the +king's ring, and sent letters and posts on horseback, and riders on +mules, camels, and young dromedaries." + +The Jewish Bible, however, translates this passage as follows: "And +sent letters by the runners on the horses, and riders on the racers, +mules, and young mares." Now, the word _rekesh_, which is translated +as "racer," is rendered by Buxtorf as "a swift horse or mule," and the +word _beni-rammachim_, which is translated as "young mares," literally +signifies "those born of mares." + +The Camel-drivers behave towards their animals with the curious +inconsistency which forms so large a part of the Oriental character. + +Prizing them above nearly all earthly things, proud of them, and +loving them after their own fashion, the drivers will talk to them, +cheer them, and sing interminable songs for their benefit. Towards the +afternoon the singing generally begins, and it goes on without +cessation in a sort of monotonous hum, as Dr. Bonar calls it. The same +traveller calls attention to a passage in Caussinus' "Polyhistor +Symbolicus," in which the learned and didactic author symbolizes the +maxim that more can be done by kindness than by blows. "The Camel is +greatly taken with music and melody. So much so, indeed, that if it +halts through weariness, the driver does not urge it with stripes and +blows, but soothes it by his songs." + +Several travellers have mentioned these songs. See, for example, Miss +Rogers' account of some Bedouins: "Their songs were already subdued to +harmonize with their monotonous swinging pace, and chimed softly and +plaintively with the tinkling of camel-bells, thus-- + + "'Dear unto me as the sight of mine eyes, + Art thou, O my Camel! + Precious to me as the health of my life, + Art thou, O my Camel! + Sweet to my ears is the sound + Of thy tinkling bells, O my Camel! + And sweet to thy listening ears + Is the sound of my evening song.' + +And so on, _ad libitum_." + +Sometimes a female Camel gives birth to a colt on the journey. In such +a case, a brief pause is made, and then the train proceeds on its +journey, the owner of the Camel carrying the young one in his arms +until the evening halt. He then gives it to its mother, and on the +following day it is able to follow her without further assistance. The +young Camels are almost pretty, their hair being paler than that of +the adult animal, and their limbs more slender. + +Although the young Camel is better-looking than its parents, it is not +one whit more playful. Unlike almost all other animals, the Camel +seems to have no idea of play, and even the young Camel of a month or +two old follows its mother with the same steady, regular pace which +she herself maintains. + +In spite of all the kindness with which a driver treats his Camels, he +can at times be exceedingly cruel to them, persisting in over-loading +and over-driving them, and then, if a Camel fall exhausted, removing +its load, and distributing it among the other Camels. As soon as this +is done, he gives the signal to proceed, and goes on his way, +abandoning the wretched animal to its fate--_i.e._ to thirst and the +vultures. He will not even have the humanity to kill it, but simply +leaves it on the ground, muttering that it is "his fate!" + + +THE CAMEL. + + +CHAPTER II. + + The Camel and its master--Occasional fury of the animal--A boy + killed by a Camel--Another instance of an infuriated + Camel--Theory respecting the Arab and his Camel--Apparent + stupidity of the Camel--Its hatred of a load, and mode of + expressing its disapprobation--Riding a Camel through the + streets--A narrow escape--Ceremony of weaning a young Camel--The + Camel's favourite food--Structure of the foot and adaptation to + locality--Difficulty in provisioning--Camel's hair and skin--Sal + ammoniac and Desert fuel--The Camel and the needle's + eye--Straining at a gnat and swallowing a Camel. + +We now come to the general characteristics of the Camel. + +The Camels know their master well, some of them being much more +affectionate than others. But they are liable to fits of strange +fury, in which case even their own masters are not safe from them. +They are also of a revengeful nature, and have an unpleasant faculty +of treasuring up an injury until they can find a time of repaying it. +Signor Pierotti gives a curious example of this trait of character. As +he was going to the Jordan, he found a dead Camel lying on the +roadside, the head nearly separated from the body. On inquiry he found +that the animal had a master who ill-treated it, and had several times +tried to bite him. One evening, after the Camels had been unloaded, +the drivers lay down to sleep as usual. + +The Camel made its way to its master, and stamped on him as he slept. +The man uttered one startled cry, but had no time for another. The +infuriated Camel followed up its attack by grasping his throat in its +powerful jaws, and shaking him to death. The whole scene passed so +rapidly, that before the other drivers could come to the man's +assistance he was hanging dead from the jaws of the Camel, who was +shaking him as a dog shakes a rat, and would not release its victim +until its head had been nearly severed from its body by sword-cuts. + +A similar anecdote is told by Mr. Palgrave, in his "Central and +Eastern Arabia:"-- + +"One passion alone he possesses, namely, revenge, of which he gives +many a hideous example; while, in carrying it out, he shows an +unexpected degree of forethoughted malice, united meanwhile with all +the cold stupidity of his usual character. One instance of this I well +remember--it occurred hard by a small town in the plain of Baalbec, +where I was at the time residing. + +"A lad of about fourteen had conducted a large camel, laden with wood, +from that very village to another at half an hour's distance or so. As +the animal loitered or turned out of the way, its conductor struck it +repeatedly, and harder than it seems to have thought he had a right to +do. But, not finding the occasion favourable for taking immediate +quits, it 'bided its time,' nor was that time long in coming. + +"A few days later, the same lad had to re-conduct the beast, but +unladen, to his own village. When they were about half way on the +road, and at some distance from any habitation, the camel suddenly +stopped, looked deliberately round in every direction to assure itself +that no one was in sight, and, finding the road clear of passers-by, +made a step forward, seized the unlucky boy's head in its monstrous +mouth, and, lifting him up in the air, flung him down again on the +earth, with the upper part of his head completely torn off, and his +brains scattered on the ground. Having thus satisfied its revenge, the +brute quietly resumed its pace towards the village, as though nothing +were the matter, till some men, who had observed the whole, though +unfortunately at too great a distance to be able to afford timely +help, came up and killed it. + +"Indeed, so marked is this unamiable propensity, that some +philosophers have ascribed the revengeful character of the Arabs to +the great share which the flesh and milk of the camel have in their +sustenance, and which are supposed to communicate, to those who +partake of them over-largely, the moral or immoral qualities of the +animal to which they belonged. I do not feel myself capable of +pronouncing an opinion on so intricate a question, but thus much I can +say, that the camel and its Bedouin master do afford so many and such +divers points of resemblance, that I do not think our Arab of Shomer +far in the wrong, when I once on a time heard him say, 'God created +the Bedouin for the camel, and the camel for the Bedouin.'" + +The reader will observe that Mr. Palgrave in this anecdote makes +reference to the stupidity of the Camel. There is no doubt that the +Camel is by no means an intellectual animal; but it is very possible +that its stupidity may in a great measure be owing to the fact that no +one has tried to cultivate its intellectual powers. The preceding +anecdotes show clearly that the Camel must possess a strong memory, +and be capable of exercising considerable ingenuity. + +Still it is not a clever animal. If its master should fall off its +back, it never dreams of stopping, as a well-trained horse would do, +but proceeds at the same plodding pace, leaving his master to catch it +if he can. Should it turn out of the way to crop some green +thorn-bush, it will go on in the same direction, never thinking of +turning back into the right road unless directed by its rider. Should +the Camel stray, "it is a thousand to one that he will never find his +way back to his accustomed home or pasture, and the first man who +picks him up will have no particular shyness to get over; ... and the +losing of his old master and of his former cameline companions gives +him no regret, and occasions no endeavour to find them again." + +He has the strongest objection to being laden at all, no matter how +light may be the burden, and expresses his disapprobation by growling +and groaning, and attempting to bite. So habitual is this conduct that +if a kneeling Camel be only approached, and a stone as large as a +walnut laid on its back, it begins to remonstrate in its usual manner, +groaning as if it were crushed to the earth with its load. + +The Camel never makes way for any one, its instinct leading it to plod +onward in its direct course. What may have been its habits in a state +of nature no one can tell, for such a phenomenon as a wild Camel has +never been known in the memory of man. There are wild oxen, wild +goats, wild sheep, wild horses, and wild asses, but there is no spot +on the face of the earth where the Camel is found except as the +servant of man. Through innate stupidity, according to Mr. Palgrave, +it goes straight forwards in the direction to which its head happens +to be pointed, and is too foolish even to think of stopping unless it +hears the signal for halt. + +As it passes through the narrow streets of an Oriental city, laden +with goods that project on either side, and nearly fill up the +thoroughfare, it causes singular inconvenience, forcing every one who +is in front of it to press himself closely to the wall, and to make +way for the enormous beast as it plods along. The driver or rider +generally gives notice by continually calling to the pedestrians to +get out of the way, but a laden Camel rarely passes through a long +street without having knocked down a man or two, or driven before it a +few riders on asses who cannot pass between the Camel and the wall. + +One source of danger to its rider is to be found in the low archways +which span so many of the streets. They are just high enough to permit +a laden Camel to pass under them, but are so low that they leave no +room for a rider. The natives, who are accustomed to this style of +architecture, are always ready for an archway, and, when the rider +sees an archway which will not allow him to retain his seat, he slips +to the ground, and remounts on the other side of the obstacle. + +Mr. Kennard had a very narrow escape with one of these archways. "I +had passed beneath one or two in perfect safety, without being obliged +to do more than just bend my head forward, and was in the act of +conversing with one of my companions behind, and was therefore in a +happy state of ignorance as to what was immediately before me, when +the shouting and running together of the people in the street on +either side made me turn my head quickly, but only just in time to +feel my breath thrown back on my face against the keystone of a +gateway, beneath which my camel, with too much way on him to be +stopped immediately, had already commenced to pass. + +"With a sort of feeling that it was all over with me, I threw myself +back as far as I could, and was carried through in an almost +breathless state, my shirt-studs actually scraping along against the +stonework. On emerging again into the open street, I could hardly +realize my escape, for if there had been a single projecting stone to +stop my progress, the camel would have struggled to get free, and my +chest must have been crushed in." + +It will be seen from these instances that the charge of stupidity is +not an undeserved one. Still the animal has enough intellect to +receive all the education which it needs for the service of man, and +which it receives at a very early age. The ordinary Camel of burden is +merely taught to follow its conductor, to obey the various words and +gestures of command, and to endure a load. The Deloul, however, is +more carefully trained. It is allowed to follow its mother for a whole +year in perfect liberty. Towards the expiration of that time the young +animal is gradually stinted in its supply of milk, and forced to +browse for its nourishment. On the anniversary of its birth, the young +Deloul is turned with its head towards Canopus, and its ears solemnly +boxed, its master saying at the same time, "Henceforth drinkest thou +no drop of milk." For this reason the newly-weaned Camel is called +Lathim, or the "ear-boxed." It is then prevented from sucking by a +simple though cruel experiment. A wooden peg is sharpened at both +ends, and one end thrust into the young animal's nose. When it tries +to suck, it pricks its mother with the projecting end, and at the same +time forces the other end more deeply into the wound, so that the +mother drives away her offspring, and the young soon ceases to make +the attempt. + +The food of the Camel is very simple, being, in fact, anything that it +can get. As it proceeds on its journey, it manages to browse as it +goes along, bending its long neck to the ground, and cropping the +scanty herbage without a pause. Camels have been known to travel for +twenty successive days, passing over some eight hundred miles of +ground, without receiving any food except that which they gathered for +themselves by the way. The favourite food of the Camel is a shrub +called the ghada, growing to six feet or so in height, and forming a +feathery tuft of innumerable little green twigs, very slender and +flexible. It is so fond of this shrub that a Camel can scarcely ever +pass a bush without turning aside to crop it; and even though it be +beaten severely for its misconduct, it will repeat the process at the +next shrub that comes in sight. + +It also feeds abundantly on the thorn-bushes which grow so plentifully +in that part of the world; and though the thorns are an inch or two in +length, very strong, and as sharp as needles, the hard, horny palate +of the animal enables it to devour them with perfect ease. + +There are several species of these thorn-shrubs, which are scattered +profusely over the ground, and are, in fact, the commonest growth of +the place. After they die, being under the fierce sun of that climate, +they dry up so completely, that if a light be set to them they blaze +up in a moment, with a sharp cracking sound and a roar of flame, and +in a moment or two are nothing but a heap of light ashes. No wonder +was it that when Moses saw the thorn-bush burning without being +consumed he was struck with awe at the miracle. These withered bushes +are the common fuel of the desert, giving out a fierce but brief heat, +and then suddenly sinking into ashes. "For as the crackling of thorns +under a pot, so is the laughter of the fool" (Eccl. vii. 6). + +The dried and withered twigs of these bushes are also eaten by the +Camel, which seems to have a power of extracting nutriment from every +sort of vegetable substance. It has been fed on charcoal, and, as has +been happily remarked, could thrive on the shavings of a carpenter's +workshop. + +Still, when food is plentiful, it is fed as regularly as can be +managed, and generally after a rather peculiar manner. "Our guide," +writes Mr. Hamilton, in the work which has already been mentioned, "is +an elderly man, the least uncouth of our camel-drivers. He has three +camels in the caravan, and it was amusing to see his preparations for +their evening's entertainment. The table-cloth, a circular piece of +leather, was duly spread on the ground; on this he poured the quantity +of dourrah destined for their meal, and calling his camels, they came +and took each its place at the feast. It is quaint to see how each in +his turn eats, so gravely and so quietly, stretching his long neck +into the middle of the heap, then raising his head to masticate each +mouthful; all so slowly and with such gusto, that we could swear it +was a party of epicures sitting in judgment on one of Vachette's +_chefs d'oeuvre_." + +The foregoing passages will show the reader how wonderfully adapted is +the constitution of the Camel for the country in which it lives, and +how indispensable it is to the inhabitants. It has been called "the +ship of the desert," for without the Camel the desert would be as +impassable as the sea without ships. No water being found for several +days' journey together, the animal is able to carry within itself a +supply of water which will last it for several days, and, as no green +thing grows far from the presence of water, the Camel is able to feed +upon the brief-lived thorn-shrubs which have sprung up and died, and +which, from their hard and sharp prickles, are safe from every animal +except the hard-mouthed Camel. + +But these advantages would be useless without another--i.e. the foot. +The mixed stones and sand of the desert would ruin the feet of almost +any animal, and it is necessary that the Camel should be furnished +with a foot that cannot be split by heat like the hoof of a horse, +that is broad enough to prevent the creature from sinking into the +sand, and is tough enough to withstand the action of the rough and +burning soil. + +Such a foot does the Camel possess. It consists of two long toes +resting upon a hard elastic cushion with a tough and horny sole. This +cushion is so soft that the tread of the huge animal is as noiseless +as that of a cat, and, owing to the division of the toes, it spreads +as the weight comes upon it, and thus gives a firm footing on loose +ground. The foot of the moose-deer has a similar property, in order to +enable the animal to walk upon the snow. + +In consequence of this structure, the Camel sinks less deeply into the +ground than any other animal; but yet it does sink in it, and dislikes +a deep and loose sand, groaning at every step, and being wearied by +the exertion of dragging its hard foot out of the holes into which +they sink. It is popularly thought that hills are impracticable to the +Camel; but it is able to climb even rocky ground from which a horse +would recoil. Mr. Marsh, an American traveller, was much surprised by +seeing a caravan of fifty camels pass over a long ascent in Arabia +Petræa. The rock was as smooth as polished marble, and the angle was +on an average fifteen degrees; but the whole caravan passed over it +without an accident. + +The soil that a Camel most hates is a wet and muddy ground, on which +it is nearly sure to slip. If the reader will look at a Camel from +behind, he will see that the hinder legs are close together until the +ankle-joint, when they separate so widely that the feet are set on the +ground at a considerable distance from each other. On dry ground this +structure increases the stability of the animal by increasing its +base; but on wet ground the effect is singularly unpleasant. The soft, +padded feet have no hold, and slip sideways at every step, often with +such violence as to dislocate a joint and cause the death of the +animal. When such ground has to be traversed, the driver generally +passes a bandage round the hind legs just below the ankle-joint, so as +to prevent them from diverging too far. + +It must be remarked, however, that the country in which the animal +lives is essentially a dry one, and that moist and muddy ground is so +exceptional that the generality of Camels never see it in their lives. +Camels do not object to mud an inch or two deep, provided that there +is firm ground below; and they have been seen to walk with confident +safety over pavements covered with mud and half-frozen snow. + +The animals can ford rivers well enough, provided that the bed be +stony or gravelly; but they are bad swimmers, their round bodies and +long necks being scarcely balanced by their legs, so that they are apt +to roll over on their sides, and in such a case they are sure to be +drowned. When swimming is a necessity, the head is generally tied to +the stern of a boat, or guided by the driver swimming in front, while +another often clings to the tail, so as to depress the rump and +elevate the head. It is rather curious that the Camels of the Sahara +cannot be safely entrusted to the water. They will swim the river +readily enough; but they are apt to be seized with illness afterwards, +and to die in a few hours. + +We now come to some other uses of the Camel. + +Its hair is of the greatest importance, as it is used for many +purposes. In this country, all that we know practically of the Camel's +hair is that it is employed in making brushes for painters; but in its +own land the hair plays a really important part. At the proper season +it is removed from the animal, usually by being pulled away in tufts, +but sometimes by being shorn like the wool of sheep, and it is then +spun by the women into strong thread. + +From this thread are made sundry fabrics where strength is required +and coarseness is not an objection. The "black tents" of the Bedouin +Arabs, similar to those in which Abraham lived, are made of Camel's +hair, and so are the rugs, carpets, and cordage used by the nomad +tribes. Even mantles for rainy or cold weather are made of Camel's +hair, and it was in a dress of this coarse and rough material that St. +John the Baptist was clad. The best part of the Camel's hair is that +which grows in tufts on the back and about the hump, the fibre being +much longer than that which covers the body. There is also a little +very fine under-wool which is carefully gathered, and, when a +sufficient quantity is procured, it is spun and woven into garments. +Shawls of this material are even now as valuable as those which are +made from the Cachmire goat. + +The skin of the Camel is made into a sort of leather. It is simply +tanned by being pegged out in the sun and rubbed with salt. + +Sandals and leggings are made of this leather, and in some places +water-bottles are manufactured from it, the leather being thicker and +less porous than that of the goat, and therefore wasting less of the +water by evaporation. The bones are utilized, being made into various +articles of commerce. + +So universally valuable is the Camel that even its dung is important +to its owners. Owing to the substances on which the animal feeds, it +consists of little but macerated fragments of aromatic shrubs. It is +much used as poultices in case of bruises or rheumatic pains, and is +even applied with some success to simple fractures. It is largely +employed for fuel, and the desert couriers use nothing else, their +Camels being furnished with a net, so that none of this useful +substance shall be lost. For this purpose it is carefully collected, +mixed with bits of straw, and made into little rolls, which are dried +in the sun, and can then be laid by for any time until they are +needed. + +Mixed with clay and straw, it is most valuable as a kind of mortar or +cement with which the walls of huts are rendered weather-proof, and +the same material is used in the better-class houses to make a sort of +terrace on the flat roof. This must be waterproof in order to +withstand the wet of the rainy season, and no material answers the +purpose so well as that which has been mentioned. So strangely hard +and firm is this composition, that stoves are made of it. These stoves +are made like jars, and have the faculty of resisting the power of the +inclosed fire. Even after it is burned it has its uses, the ashes +being employed in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac. + + +There are two passages in the New Testament which mention the Camel in +an allegorical sense. The first of these is the proverbial saying of +our Lord, "A rich man shall hardly enter into the kingdom of heaven. +Again I say unto you, It is easier for a camel to go through the eye +of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God" +(Matt. xix. 23, 24). + +Now, this well-known but scarcely understood passage requires some +little dissection. If the reader will refer to the context, he will +see that this saying was spoken in allusion to the young and wealthy +man who desired to be one of the disciples, but clung too tightly to +his wealth to accept the only conditions on which he could be +received. His possessions were a snare to him, as was proved by his +refusal to part with them at Christ's command. On his retiring, the +expression was used, "that a rich man shall hardly (or, with +difficulty) enter the kingdom of heaven," followed by the simile of +the Camel and the needle's eye. + +Now, if we are to take this passage literally, we can but draw one +conclusion from it, that a rich man can no more enter heaven than a +camel pass through the eye of a needle, _i.e._ that it is impossible +for him to do so. Whereas, in the previous sentence, Christ says not +that it is impossible, but difficult ([Greek: dyskolôs]) for him to do +so. It is difficult for a man to use his money for the service of God, +the only purpose for which it was given him, and the difficulty +increases in proportion to its amount. But wealth in itself is no more +a bar to heaven than intellect, health, strength, or any other gift, +and, if it be rightly used, is one of the most powerful tools that can +be used in the service of God. Our Lord did not condemn all wealthy +men alike. He knew many; but there was only one whom He advised to +sell his possessions and give them to the poor as the condition of +being admitted among the disciples. + + [Illustration: CAMEL GOING THROUGH A "NEEDLE'S EYE." + + "_It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for + a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God._"--MATT. xix. 24.] + +We will now turn to the metaphor of the Camel and the needle's eye. Of +course it can be taken merely as a very bold metaphor, but it may also +be understood in a simpler sense, the sense in which it was probably +understood by those who heard it. In Oriental cities, there are in the +large gates small and very low apertures called metaphorically +"needle's-eyes," just as we talk of certain windows as "bull's-eyes." +These entrances are too narrow for a Camel to pass through them in the +ordinary manner, or even if loaded. When a laden Camel has to pass +through one of these entrances, it kneels down, its load is removed, +and then it shuffles through on its knees. "Yesterday," writes Lady +Duff-Gordon from Cairo, "I saw a camel go through the eye of a needle, +_i.e._ the low-arched door of an enclosure. He must kneel, and bow his +head to creep through; and thus the rich man must humble himself." + +There is another passage in which the Camel is used by our Lord in a +metaphorical sense. This is the well-known sentence: "Ye blind guides, +which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel" (Matt. xxiii. 24). It is +remarkable that an accidental misprint has robbed this passage of its +true force. The real translation is: "which strain _out_ the gnat, and +swallow the camel." The Greek word is [Greek: diulizô], which +signifies to filter thoroughly; and the allusion is made to the +pharisaical custom of filtering liquids before drinking them, lest by +chance a gnat or some such insect which was forbidden as food might be +accidentally swallowed. + + + + +THE BACTRIAN CAMEL. + + General description of the animal--Its use in mountain + roads--Peculiar formation of the foot--Uses of a mixed + breed--Its power of enduring cold--Used chiefly as a beast of + draught--Unfitness for the plough--The cart and mode of + harnessing--The load which it can draw--Camel-skin ropes--A + Rabbinical legend. + + +The second kind of Camel--namely, the Bactrian species--was probably +unknown to the Jews until a comparatively late portion of their +history. This species was employed by the Assyrians, as we find by the +sculptures upon the ruins, and if in no other way the Jews would +become acquainted with them through the nation by whom they were +conquered, and in whose land they abode for so long. + +The Bactrian Camel is at once to be distinguished from that which has +already been described by the two humps and the clumsier and sturdier +form. Still the skeletons of the Bactrian and Arabian species are so +similar that none but a very skilful anatomist can distinguish between +them, and several learned zoologists have expressed an opinion, in +which I entirely coincide, that the Bactrian and Arabian Camels are +but simple varieties of one and the same species, not nearly so +dissimilar as the greyhound and the bulldog. + +Unlike the one-humped Camel, the Bactrian species is quite at home in +a cold climate, and walks over ice as easily as its congener does over +smooth stone. It is an admirable rock-climber, and is said even to +surpass the mule in the sureness of its tread. This quality is +probably occasioned by the peculiar structure of the foot, which has +an elongated toe projecting beyond the soft pad, and forming a sort of +claw. In the winter time the riders much prefer them to horses, +because their long legs enable them to walk easily through snow, in +which a horse could only plunge helplessly, and would in all +probability sink and perish. + +A mixed breed of the one-humped and the Bactrian animals is thought to +be the best for hill work in winter time, and General Harlan actually +took two thousand of these animals in winter time for a distance of +three hundred and sixty miles over the snowy tops of the Indian +Caucasus; and though the campaign lasted for seven months, he only +lost one Camel, and that was accidentally killed. Owing to its use +among the hills, the Bactrian species is sometimes called the Mountain +Camel. + +It very much dislikes the commencement of spring, because the warm +mid-day sun slightly melts the surface of the snow, and the frost of +night converts it into a thin plate of ice. When the Camel walks upon +this semi-frozen snow, its feet plunge into the soft substratum +through the icy crust, against which its legs are severely cut. The +beginning of the winter is liable to the same objection. + +The mixed breed which has just been mentioned must be procured from a +male Bactrian and a female Arabian Camel. If the parentage be +reversed, the offspring is useless, being weak, ill-tempered, and +disobedient. + +The Bactrian Camel is, as has been mentioned, tolerant of cold, and is +indeed so hardy an animal that it bears the severest winters without +seeming to suffer distress, and has been seen quietly feeding when the +thermometer has reached a temperature several degrees below zero. +Sometimes, when the cold is more than usually sharp, the owners sew a +thick cloth round its body, but even in such extreme cases the animal +is left to find its own food as it best can. And, however severe the +weather may be, the Bactrian Camel never sleeps under a roof. + +This Camel is sometimes employed as a beast of burden, but its general +use is for draught. It is not used for the plough, because it has an +uncertain and jerking mode of pulling, and does not possess the steady +dragging movement which is obtained by the use of the horse or ox. + + [Illustration: BACTRIAN CAMEL. + + "_He saw a chariot of camels._"--ISAIAH xxi. 7.] + +It is almost invariably harnessed to carts, and always in pairs. The +mode of yoking the animals is as simple as can well be conceived. A +pole runs between them from the front of the vehicle, and the Camels +are attached to it by means of a pole which passes over their necks. +Oxen were harnessed in a similar manner. It was probably one of these +cars or chariots that was mentioned by Isaiah in his prophecy +respecting Assyria:--"And he saw a chariot with a couple of horsemen, +a chariot of asses, and a chariot of camels" (Isa. xxi. 7). The cars +themselves are as simple as the mode of harnessing them, being almost +exactly like the ox carts which have already been described. + +The weight which can be drawn by a pair of these Camels is really +considerable. On a tolerably made road a good pair of Camels are +expected to draw from twenty-six to twenty-eight hundred weight, and +to continue their labours for twenty or thirty successive days, +traversing each day an average of thirty miles. It is much slower than +the Arabian Camel, seldom going at more than two and a half miles per +hour. If, however, the vehicle to which a pair of Bactrians are +harnessed were well made, the wheels truly circular, and the axles +kept greased so as to diminish the friction, there is no doubt that +the animals could draw a still greater load to longer distances, and +with less trouble to themselves. As it is, the wheels are wretchedly +fitted, and their ungreased axles keep up a continual creaking that is +most painful to an unaccustomed ear, and totally unheeded by the +drivers. + +The hair of the Bactrian Camel is long, coarse, and strong; and, like +that of the Arabian animal, is made into rough cloth. It is plucked +off by hand in the summer time, when it naturally becomes loose in +readiness for its annual renewal, and the weight of the entire crop of +hair ought to be about ten pounds. The skin is not much valued, and is +seldom used for any purpose except for making ropes, straps, and +thongs, and is not thought worth the trouble of tanning. The milk, +like that of the Arabian animal, is much used for food, but the +quantity is very trifling, barely two quarts per diem being procured +from each Camel. + +There is but little that is generally interesting in the Rabbinical +writers on the Camel. They have one proverbial saying upon the +shortness of its ears. When any one makes a request that is likely to +be refused, they quote the instance of the Camel, who, it seems, was +dissatisfied with its appearance, and asked for horns to match its +long ears. The result of the request was, that it was deprived of its +ears, and got no horns. + + + + +THE HORSE. + + The Hebrew words which signify the Horse--The Horse introduced + into Palestine from Egypt--Similarity of the war-horse of + Scripture and the Arab horse of the present day--Characteristics + of the Horse--Courage and endurance of the Horse--Hardness of + its unshod hoofs--Love of the Arab for his Horse--Difficulty of + purchasing the animal--The Horse prohibited to the + Israelites--Solomon's disregard of the edict--The war-chariot, + its form and use--Probable construction of the iron chariot--The + cavalry Horse--Lack of personal interest in the animal. + + +Several Hebrew words are used by the various Scriptural writers to +signify the Horse, and, like our own terms of horse, mare, pony, +charger, &c., are used to express the different qualities of the +animal. The chief distinction of the Horse seemed to lie in its use +for riding or driving, the larger and heavier animals being naturally +required for drawing the weighty springless chariots. The chariot +horse was represented by the word Sus, and the cavalry horse by the +word _Parash_, and in several passages both these words occur in bold +contrast to each other. See, for example, 1 Kings iv. 26, &c. + + +Among the many passages of Scripture in which the Horse is mentioned, +there are few which do not treat of it as an adjunct of war, and +therefore it is chiefly in that light that we must regard it. + +The Horse of the Scriptures was evidently a similar animal to the Arab +Horse of the present day, as we find not only from internal evidence, +but from the sculptures and paintings which still remain to tell us of +the vanished glories of Egypt and Assyria. It is remarkable, by the +way, that the first mention of the Horse in the Scriptures alludes to +it as an Egyptian animal. During the terrible famine which Joseph had +foretold, the Egyptians and the inhabitants of neighbouring countries +were unable to find food for themselves or fodder for their cattle, +and, accordingly, they sold all their beasts for bread. "And they +brought their cattle unto Joseph, and Joseph gave them bread in +exchange for horses and the flocks, and for the cattle of herds, and +for the asses, and he fed them with bread for all their cattle for +that year." + +This particular breed of Horses is peculiarly fitted for the purposes +of war, and is much less apt for peaceful duties than the heavier and +more powerful breeds, which are found in different parts of the world. +It is remarkable for the flexible agility of its movements, which +enable it to adapt itself to every movement of the rider, whose +intentions it seems to divine by a sort of instinct, and who guides it +not so much by the bridle as by the pressure of the knees and the +voice. Examples of a similar mode of guidance may be seen on the +well-known frieze of the Parthenon, where, in the Procession of +Horsemen, the riders may be seen directing their steeds by touching +the side of the neck with one finger, thus showing their own skill and +the well-trained quality of the animals which they ride. + +Its endurance is really wonderful, and a horse of the Kochlani breed +will go through an amount of work which is almost incredible. Even the +trial by which a Horse is tested is so severe, that any other animal +would be either killed on the spot or ruined for life. When a young +mare is tried for the first time, her owner rides her for some fifty +or sixty miles at full speed, always finishing by swimming her through +a river. After this trial she is expected to feed freely; and should +she refuse her food, she is rejected as an animal unworthy of the name +of Kochlani. + +Partly from native qualities, and partly from constant association +with mankind, the Arab Horse is a singularly intelligent animal. In +Europe we scarcely give the Horse credit for the sensitive +intelligence with which it is endowed, and look upon it rather as a +machine for draught and carriage than a companion to man. The Arab, +however, lives with his horse, and finds in it the docility and +intelligence which we are accustomed to associate with the dog rather +than the Horse. It will follow him about and come at his call. It will +stand for any length of time and await its rider without moving. +Should he fall from its back, it will stop and stand patiently by him +until he can remount; and there is a well-authenticated instance of an +Arab Horse whose master had been wounded in battle, taking him up by +his clothes and carrying him away to a place of safety. + +Even in the very heat and turmoil of the combat, the true Arab Horse +seems to be in his true element, and fully deserves the splendid +eulogium in the Book of Job (xxxix. 19-25): "Hast thou given the horse +strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? + +"Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? the glory of his +nostrils is terror. + +"He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength: he goeth on +to meet the armed men. + +"He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither turneth he back +from the sword. + +"The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. + +"He walketh the ground with fierceness and rage: neither believeth he +that it is the sound of the trumpet. + +"He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha; and he smelleth the battle afar +off, the thunder of the captains, and the shouting." + +In another passage an allusion is made to the courage of the Horse, +and its love for the battle. "I hearkened and heard, but they spake +not aright: no man repented him of his wickedness, saying, What have I +done? Every one turned to his course, as the horse rusheth into the +battle." (Jer. viii. 6.) Even in the mimic battle of the djereed the +Horse seems to exult in the conflict as much as his rider, and wheels +or halts almost without the slightest intimation. + +The hoofs of the Arab Horses are never shod, their owners thinking +that that act is not likely to improve nature, and even among the +burning sands and hard rocks the Horse treads with unbroken hoof. In +such a climate, indeed, an iron shoe would be worse than useless, as +it would only scorch the hoof by day, and in consequence of the rapid +change of temperature by day or night, the continual expansion and +contraction of the metal would soon work the nails loose, and cause +the shoe to fall off. + + [Illustration: WAR HORSE. + + "He saith among the trumpets, Ha, Ha; and he smelleth the battle afar + off, the thunder of the captains and the shouting."--JOB xxxix. 25.] + +A tender-footed Horse would be of little value, and so we often find +in the Scriptures that the hardness of the hoof is reckoned among one +of the best qualities of a Horse. See, for example, Isa. v. 28: +"Whose arrows are sharp, and all their bows bent, their horses' +hoofs shall be counted like flint, and their wheels like a +whirlwind." Again, in Micah iv. 13: "Arise and thresh, O daughter of +Zion: for I will make thine horn iron, and I will make thy hoofs +brass: and thou shalt beat in pieces many people." Allusion is here +made to one mode of threshing, in which a number of Horses were turned +into the threshing-floor, and driven about at random among the wheat, +instead of walking steadily like the oxen. + +In Judges v. 22 there is a curious allusion to the hoofs of the Horse. +It occurs in the Psalm of Thanksgiving sung by Deborah and Barak after +the death of Sisera: "Then were the horse-hoofs broken by the means of +the prancings, the prancings of their mighty ones." It is easy now to +see that these words infer a scornful allusion to the inferiority of +the enemy's Horses, inasmuch as the hoofs of the best Horses would be +"counted as flint," and would not be broken by the prancings. + +Horses possessed of the qualities of courage, endurance, and sureness +of foot are naturally invaluable; and even at the present day the Arab +warrior esteems above all things a Horse of the purest breed, and, +whether he buys or sells one, takes care to have its genealogy made +out and hung on the animal's neck. + +As to the mare, scarcely any inducement is strong enough to make an +Arab part with it, even to a countryman, and the sale of the animal is +hindered by a number of impediments which in point of fact are almost +prohibitory. Signor Pierotti, whose long residence in Palestine has +given him a deep insight into the character of the people, speaks in +the most glowing terms of the pure Arab Horse, and of its inestimable +value to its owner. Of the difficulties with which the sale of the +animal is surrounded, he gives a very amusing account:-- + +"After this enumeration of the merits of the horse, I will describe +the manner in which a sale is conducted, choosing the case of the +mare, as that is the more valuable animal. The price varies with the +purity of blood of the steed, and the fortunes of its owner. When he +is requested to fix a value, his first reply is, 'It is yours, and +belongs to you, I am your servant;' because, perhaps, he does not +think that the question is asked with any real design of purchasing; +when the demand is repeated, he either makes no answer or puts the +question by; at the third demand he generally responds rudely with a +sardonic smile, which is not a pleasant thing to see, as it is a sign +of anger; and then says that he would sooner sell his family than his +mare. This remark is not meant as a mere jest; for it is no uncommon +thing for a Bedawy to give his parents as hostages rather than +separate himself from his friend. + +"If, however, owing to some misfortune, he determines on selling his +mare, it is very doubtful whether he or his parents will allow her to +leave their country without taking the precaution to render her unfit +for breeding. + +"There are many methods of arranging the sale, all of which I should +like to describe particularly; however, I will confine myself to a +general statement. Before the purchaser enters upon the question of +the price to be paid, he must ascertain that the parents, friends, and +allies of the owners give their consent to the sale, without which +some difficulty or other may arise, or perhaps the mare may be stolen +from her new master. He must also obtain an unquestionable warranty +that she is fit for breeding purposes, and that no other has a prior +claim to any part of her body. This last precaution may seem rather +strange, but it arises from the following custom. It sometimes happens +that, when a Bedawy is greatly in want of money, he raises it most +easily by selling a member of his horse; so that very frequently a +horse belongs to a number of owners, one of whom has purchased the +right fore-leg, another the left, another the hind-leg, or the tail, +or an ear, or the like; and the proprietors have each a proportionate +interest in the profits of its labour or sale. + +"So also the offspring are sold in a similar manner; sometimes only +the first-born, sometimes the first three; and then it occasionally +happens that two or three members of the foal are, as it were, +mortgaged. Consequently, any one who is ignorant of this custom may +find that, after he has paid the price of the mare to her supposed +owner, a third person arises who demands to be paid the value of his +part; and, if the purchaser refuse to comply, he may find himself in a +very unpleasant situation, without any possibility of obtaining help +from the local government. Whoever sells his mare entirely, without +reserving to himself one or two parts, must be on good terms with the +confederate chiefs in the neighbourhood, and must have obtained their +formal sanction, otherwise they would universally despise him, and +perhaps lie in wait to kill him, so that his only hope of escape would +be a disgraceful flight, just as if he had committed some great +crime. It is an easier matter to purchase a stallion; but even in this +case the above formalities must be observed. + +"These remarks only apply to buying horses of the purest blood; those +of inferior race are obtained without difficulty, and at fair prices." + +For some reason, perhaps the total severance of the Israelites from +the people among whom they had lived so long in captivity, the use of +the Horse, or, at all events, the breeding of it, was forbidden to the +Israelites; see Deut. xvi. 16. After prophesying that the Israelites, +when they had settled themselves in the Promised Land, would want a +king, the inspired writer next ordains that the new king must be +chosen by Divine command, and must belong to one of the twelve tribes. +He then proceeds as follows:--"But he shall not multiply horses to +himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to the end that he +should multiply horses: forasmuch as the Lord hath said unto you, Ye +shall henceforth return no more that way." + +The foresight of this prophetical writer was afterwards shown by the +fact that many kings of Israel did send to Egypt for Horses, Egypt +being the chief source from which these animals were obtained. And, +judging from the monuments to which reference has been made, the Horse +of Egypt was precisely the same animal as the Arab Horse of the +present day, and was probably obtained from nomad breeders. + +In spite of the prohibitory edict, both David and Solomon used Horses +in battle, and the latter supplied himself largely from Egypt, +disregarding as utterly the interdict against plurality of Horses as +that against plurality of wives, which immediately follows. + +David seems to have been the first king who established a force of +chariots, and this he evidently did for the purpose of action on the +flat grounds of Palestine, where infantry were at a great disadvantage +when attacked by the dreaded chariots; yet he did not controvert the +law by multiplying to himself Horses, or even by importing them from +Egypt; and when he had an opportunity of adding to his army an +enormous force of chariots, he only employed as many as he thought +were sufficient for his purpose. After he defeated Hadadezer, and had +taken from him a thousand chariots with their Horses together with +seven hundred cavalry, he houghed all the Horses except those which +were needed for one hundred chariots. + +Solomon, however, was more lax, and systematically broke the ancient +law by multiplying Horses exceedingly, and sending to Egypt for them. +We learn from 1 Kings iv. 26 of the enormous establishment which he +kept up both for chariots and cavalry. Besides those which were given +to him as tribute, he purchased both chariots and their Horses from +Egypt and Syria, the chariots being delivered at the rate of six +hundred shekels of silver, and the Horses for an hundred and fifty +shekels. + +Chariots were far more valued in battle than horsemen, probably +because their weight made their onset irresistible against infantry, +who had no better weapons than bows and spears. The slingers +themselves could make little impression on the chariots; and even if +the driver, or the warrior who fought in the chariot, or his +attendant, happened to be killed, the weighty machine, with its two +Horses, still went on its destructive way. + +Of their use in battle we find very early mention. For example, in +Exod. xiv. 6 it is mentioned that Pharaoh made ready his chariot to +pursue the Israelites; and in a subsequent part of the same chapter we +find that six hundred of the Egyptian chariot force accompanied their +master in the pursuit, and that the whole army was delayed because the +loss of the chariot wheels made them drive heavily. + +Then in the familiar story of Sisera and Jael the vanquished general +is mentioned as alighting from his chariot, in which he would be +conspicuous, and taking flight on foot; and, after his death, his +mother is represented as awaiting his arrival, and saying to the women +of the household, "Why is his chariot so long in coming? Why tarry the +wheels of his chariot?" + +During the war of conquest which Joshua led, the chariot plays a +somewhat important part. As long as the war was carried on in the +rugged mountainous parts of the land, no mention of the chariot is +made; but when the battles had to be fought on level ground, the enemy +brought the dreaded chariots to bear upon the Israelites. In spite of +these adjuncts, Joshua won the battles, and, unlike David, destroyed +the whole of the Horses and burned the chariots. + +Many years afterwards, a still more dreadful weapon, the iron chariot, +was used against the Israelites by Jabin. This new instrument of war +seems to have cowed the people completely; for we find that by means +of his nine hundred chariots of iron Jabin "mightily oppressed the +children of Israel" for twenty years. It has been well suggested that +the possession of the war chariot gave rise to the saying of +Benhadad's councillors, that the gods of Israel were gods of the +hills, and so their army had been defeated; but that if the battle +were fought in the plain, where the chariots and Horses could act, +they would be victorious. + +So dreaded were these weapons, even by those who were familiar with +them and were accustomed to use them, that when the Syrians had +besieged Samaria, and had nearly reduced it by starvation, the fancied +sound of a host of chariots and Horses that they heard in the night +caused them all to flee and evacuate the camp, leaving their booty and +all their property in the hands of the Israelites. + +Whether the Jews ever employed the terrible scythe chariots is not +quite certain, though it is probable that they may have done so; and +this conjecture is strengthened by the fact that they were employed +against the Jews by Antiochus, who had "footmen an hundred and ten +thousand, and horsemen five thousand and three hundred, and elephants +two and twenty, and three hundred chariots armed with hooks" (2 Macc. +xiii. 2). Some commentators think that by the iron chariots mentioned +above were signified ordinary chariots armed with iron scythes +projecting from the sides. + +By degrees the chariot came to be one of the recognised forces in war, +and we find it mentioned throughout the books of the Scriptures, not +only in its literal sense, but as a metaphor which every one could +understand. In the Psalms, for example, are several allusions to the +war-chariot. "He maketh wars to cease unto the end of the earth; He +breaketh the bow, and cutteth the spear in sunder; He burneth the +chariot in the fire" (Ps. xlvi. 9). Again: "At Thy rebuke, O God of +Jacob, both the chariot and horse are cast into a dead sleep" (Ps. +lxxvi. 6). And: "Some trust in chariots, and some in horses: but we +will remember the name of the Lord our God" (Ps. xx. 7). Now, the +force of these passages cannot be properly appreciated unless we +realize to ourselves the dread in which the war-chariot was held by +the foot-soldiers. Even cavalry were much feared; but the chariots +were objects of almost superstitious fear, and the rushing sound of +their wheels, the noise of the Horses' hoofs, and the shaking of the +ground as the "prancing horses and jumping chariots" (Nab. iii. 2) +thundered along, are repeatedly mentioned. + +See, for example, Ezek. xxvi. 10: "By reason of the abundance of his +horses their dust shall cover thee: thy walls shall shake at the noise +of the horsemen, and of the wheels, and of the chariots." Also, Jer. +xlvii. 3: "At the noise of the stamping of the hoofs of his strong +horses, at the rushing of his chariots, and at the rumbling of his +wheels, the fathers shall not look back to their children for +feebleness of hands." See also Joel ii. 4, 5: "The appearance of them +is as the appearance of horses; and as horsemen, so shall they run. + +"Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall they leap, +like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble, as a +strong people set in battle array." + +In several passages the chariot and Horse are used in bold imagery as +expressions of Divine power: "The chariots of God are twenty thousand, +even thousands of angels: the Lord is among them, as in Sinai, in the +holy place" (Ps. lxviii. 17). A similar image is employed in Ps. civ. +3: "Who maketh the clouds His chariot: who walketh upon the wings of +the wind." In connexion with these passages, we cannot but call to +mind that wonderful day when the unseen power of the Almighty was made +manifest to the servant of Elisha, whose eyes were suddenly opened, +and he saw that the mountain was full of Horses and chariots of fire +round about Elisha. + +The chariot and horses of fire by which Elijah was taken from earth +are also familiar to us, and in connexion with the passage which +describes that wonderful event, we may mention one which occurs in the +splendid prayer of Habakkuk (iii. 8): "Was the Lord displeased against +the rivers? was Thine anger against the rivers? was Thy wrath against +the sea, that Thou didst ride upon Thine horses and Thy chariots of +salvation?" + +By degrees the chariot came to be used for peaceful purposes, and was +employed as our carriages of the present day, in carrying persons of +wealth. That this was the case in Egypt from very early times is +evident from Gen. xli. 43, in which we are told that after Pharaoh had +taken Joseph out of prison and raised him to be next in rank to +himself, the king caused him to ride in the second chariot which he +had, and so to be proclaimed ruler over Egypt. Many years afterwards +we find him travelling in his chariot to the land of Goshen, whither +he went to meet Jacob and to conduct him to the presence of Pharaoh. + +At first the chariot seems to have been too valuable to the Israelites +to have been used for any purpose except war, and it is not until a +comparatively late time that we find it employed as a carriage, and +even then it is only used by the noble and wealthy. Absalom had such +chariots, but it is evident that he used them for purposes of state, +and as appendages of his regal rank. Chariots or carriages were, +however, afterwards employed by the Israelites as freely as by the +Egyptians, from whom they were originally procured; and accordingly we +find Rehoboam mounting his chariot and fleeing to Jerusalem, Ahab +riding in his chariot from Samaria to Jezreel, with Elijah running +before him; and in the New Testament we read of the chariot in which +sat the chief eunuch of Ethiopia whom Philip baptized (Acts viii. 28). + +As to the precise form and character of these chariots, they are made +familiar to us by the sculptures and paintings of Egypt and Assyria, +from both of which countries the Jews procured the vehicles. Differing +very slightly in shape, the principle of the chariot was the same; and +it strikes us with some surprise that the Assyrians, the Egyptians, +and the Jews, the three wealthiest and most powerful nations of the +world, should not have invented a better carriage. They lavished the +costliest materials and the most artistic skill in decorating the +chariots, but had no idea of making them comfortable for the +occupants. + +They were nothing but semicircular boxes on wheels, and of very small +size. They were hung very low, so that the occupants could step in and +out without trouble, though they do not seem to have had the sloping +floor of the Greek or Roman chariot. They had no springs, but, in +order to render the jolting of the carriage less disagreeable, the +floor was made of a sort of network of leathern ropes, very tightly +stretched so as to be elastic. The wheels were always two in number, +and generally had six spokes. + +To the side of the chariot was attached the case which contained the +bow and quiver of arrows, and in the case of a rich man these +bow-cases were covered with gold and silver, and adorned with figures +of lions and other animals. Should the chariot be intended for two +persons, two bow-cases were fastened to it, the one crossing the +other. The spear had also its tubular case, in which it was kept +upright, like the whip of a modern carriage. + +Two Horses were generally used with each chariot, though three were +sometimes employed. They were harnessed very simply, having no traces, +and being attached to the central pole by a breast-band, a very slight +saddle, and a loose girth. On their heads were generally fixed +ornaments, such as tufts of feathers, and similar decorations, and +tassels hung to the harness served to drive away the flies. Round the +neck of each Horse passed a strap, to the end of which was attached a +bell. This ornament is mentioned in Zech. xiv. 20: "In that day shall +there be upon the bells of the horses, Holiness unto the Lord"--_i.e._ +the greeting of peace shall be on the bells of the animals once used +in war. + +Sometimes the owner drove his own chariot, even when going into +battle, but the usual plan was to have a driver, who managed the +Horses while the owner or occupant could fight with both his hands at +liberty. In case he drove his own Horse, the reins passed round his +waist, and the whip was fastened to the wrist by a thong, so that when +the charioteer used the bow, his principal weapon, he could do so +without danger of losing his whip. + +Thus much for the use of the chariot in war; we have now the Horse as +the animal ridden by the cavalry. + +As was the case with the chariot, the war-horse was not employed by +the Jews until a comparatively late period of their history. They had +been familiarized with cavalry during their long sojourn in Egypt, and +in the course of their war of conquest had often suffered defeat from +the horsemen of the enemy. But we do not find any mention of a mounted +force as forming part of the Jewish army until the days of David, +although after that time the successive kings possessed large forces +of cavalry. + +Many references to mounted soldiers are made by the prophets, +sometimes allegorically, sometimes metaphorically. See, for example, +Jer. vi. 23: "They shall lay hold on bow and spear; they are cruel, +and have no mercy; their voice roareth like the sea; and they ride +upon horses, set in array as men for war against thee, O daughter of +Zion." The same prophet has a similar passage in chap. l. 42, couched +in almost precisely the same words. And in chap. xlvi. 4, there is a +further reference to the cavalry, which is specially valuable as +mentioning the weapons used by them. The first call of the prophet is +to the infantry: "Order ye the buckler and shield, and draw near to +battle" (verse 3); and then follows the command to the cavalry, +"Harness the horses; and get up, ye horsemen, and stand forth with +your helmets; furbish the spears, and put on the brigandines." The +chief arms of the Jewish soldier were therefore the cuirass, the +helmet, and the lance, the weapons which in all ages, and in all +countries, have been found to be peculiarly suitable to the +horse-soldier. + + +Being desirous of affording the reader a pictorial representation of +the war and state chariots, I have selected Egypt as the typical +country of the former, and Assyria of the latter. Both drawings have +been executed with the greatest care in details, every one of which, +even to the harness of the Horses, the mode of holding the reins, the +form of the whip, and the offensive and defensive armour, has been +copied from the ancient records of Egypt and Nineveh. + +We will first take the war-chariot of Egypt. + +This form has been selected as the type of the war-chariot, because +the earliest account of such a force mentions the war-chariots of +Egypt, and because, after the Israelites had adopted chariots as an +acknowledged part of their army, the vehicles, as well as the trained +Horses, and probably their occupants, were procured from Egypt. + +The scene represents a battle between the imperial forces and a +revolted province, so that the reader may have the opportunity of +seeing the various kinds of weapons and armour which were in use in +Egypt at the time of Joseph. In the foreground is the chariot of the +general, driven at headlong speed, the Horses at full gallop, and the +springless chariot leaping off the ground as the Horses bound along. +The royal rank of the general in question is shown by the feather fan +which denotes his high birth, and which is fixed in a socket at the +back of his chariot, much as a coachman fixes his whip. The rank of +the rider is further shown by the feather plumes on the heads of his +Horses. + + [Illustration: EGYPTIAN WAR-CHARIOTS. + + "_Come up, ye horses; and rage, ye chariots; and let the mighty men + come forth._"--JER. xlvi. 9. + + "_The noise of a whip, and the noise of the rattling of the wheels, + and of the prancing horses, and of the jumping chariots._"--NAHUM iii. + 2. + + "_Like the noise of chariots ... shall they leap._"--JOEL ii. 5.] + +By the side of the chariot are seen the quiver and bow-case, the +former being covered with decorations, and having the figure of a +recumbent lion along its sides. The simple but effective harness of +the Horses is especially worthy of notice, as showing how the ancients +knew, better than the moderns, that to cover a Horse with a +complicated apparatus of straps and metal only deteriorates from the +powers of the animal, and that a Horse is more likely to behave well +if he can see freely on all sides, than if all lateral vision be cut +off by the use of blinkers. + +Just behind the general is the chariot of another officer, one of +whose Horses has been struck, and is lying struggling on the ground. +The general is hastily giving his orders as he dashes past the fallen +animal. On the ground are lying the bodies of some slain enemies, and +the Horses are snorting and shaking their heads, significative of +their unwillingness to trample on a human being. By the side of the +dead man are his shield, bow, and quiver, and it is worthy of notice +that the form of these weapons, as depicted upon the ancient Egyptian +monuments, is identical with that which is still found among several +half-savage tribes of Africa. + +In the background is seen the fight raging round the standards. One +chief has been killed, and while the infantry are pressing round the +body of the rebel leader and his banner on one side, on the other the +imperial chariots are thundering along to support the attack, and are +driving their enemies before them. In the distance are seen the clouds +of dust whirled into the air by the hoofs and wheels, and circling in +clouds by the eddies caused by the fierce rush of the vehicles, thus +illustrating the passage in Jer. iv. 13: "Behold, he shall come up as +clouds, and his chariots shall be as a whirlwind: his horses are +swifter than eagles. Woe unto us! for we are spoiled." The reader will +see, by reference to the illustration, how wonderfully true and +forcible is this statement, the writer evidently having been an +eye-witness of the scene which he so powerfully depicts. + + +The second scene is intentionally chosen as affording a strong +contrast to the former. Here, instead of the furious rush, the +galloping Horses, the chariots leaping off the ground, the archers +bending their bows, and all imbued with the fierce ardour of battle, +we have a scene of quiet grandeur, the Assyrian king making a solemn +progress in his chariot after a victory, accompanied by his +attendants, and surrounded by his troops, in all the placid splendour +of Eastern state. + +Chief object in the illustration stands the great king in his chariot, +wearing the regal crown, or mitre, and sheltered from the sun by the +umbrella, which in ancient Nineveh, as in more modern times, was the +emblem of royalty. By his side is his charioteer, evidently a man of +high rank, holding the reins in a business-like manner; and in front +marches the shield-bearer. In one of the sculptures from which this +Illustration was composed, the shield-bearer was clearly a man of +rank, fat, fussy, full of importance, and evidently a portrait of some +well-known individual. + + [Illustration: ASSYRIAN CHARIOT OF STATE. + + "_Then shall there enter into the gates of this city kings and princes + sitting upon the throne of David, riding in chariots._"--JER. xvii. + 25.] + +The Horses are harnessed with remarkable lightness, but they bear the +gorgeous trappings which befit the rank of the rider, their heads +being decorated with the curious successive plumes with which the +Assyrian princes distinguished their chariot Horses, and the +breast-straps being adorned with tassels, repeated in successive rows +like the plumes of the head. + +The reader will probably notice the peculiar high action of the +Horses. This accomplishment seems to have been even more valued among +the ancients than by ourselves, and some of the sculptures show the +Horses with their knees almost touching their noses. Of course the +artist exaggerated the effect that he wanted to produce; but the very +fact of the exaggeration shows the value that was set on a high and +showy action in a Horse that was attached to a chariot of state. The +old Assyrian sculptors knew the Horse well, and delineated it in a +most spirited and graphic style, though they treated it rather +conventionally. The variety of attitude is really wonderful, +considering that all the figures are profile views, as indeed seemed +to have been a law of the historical sculptures. + + +Before closing this account of the Horse, it may be as well to remark +the singular absence of detail in the Scriptural accounts. Of the +other domesticated animals many such details are given, but of the +Horse we hear but little, except in connexion with war. There are few +exceptions to this rule, and even the oft-quoted passage in Job, which +goes deeper into the character of the Horse than any other portion of +the Scriptures, only considers the Horse as an auxiliary in battle. We +miss the personal interest in the animal which distinguishes the many +references to the ox, the sheep, and the goat; and it is remarkable +that even in the Book of Proverbs, which is so rich in references to +various animals, very little is said of the Horse. + + + + +THE ASS. + + Importance of the Ass in the East--Its general use for the + saddle--Riding the Ass not a mark of humility--The triumphal + entry--White Asses--Character of the Scriptural Ass--Saddling + the Ass--The Ass used in agriculture--The Ass's millstone--The + water-wheel and the plough--Reminiscences of the Ass in the + Scriptural narrative--Its value as property--The flesh of the + Ass--The siege of Samaria and its horrors--Various legends + respecting the Ass--The impostor and his fate--Samson and + Balaam. + + +In the Scriptures we read of two breeds of Ass, namely, the +Domesticated and the Wild Ass. As the former is the more important of +the two, we will give it precedence. + + +In the East, the Ass has always played a much more important part than +among us Westerns, and on that account we find it so frequently +mentioned in the Bible. In the first place, it is the universal +saddle-animal of the East. Among us the Ass has ceased to be regularly +used for the purposes of the saddle, and is only casually employed by +holiday-makers and the like. Some persons certainly ride it +habitually, but they almost invariably belong to the lower orders, and +are content to ride without a saddle, balancing themselves in some +extraordinary manner just over the animal's tail. In the East, +however, it is ridden by persons of the highest rank, and is decorated +with saddle and harness as rich as those of the horse. + +In England we should be very much surprised to see a royal prince, a +judge, or a bishop travelling habitually on a donkey, but in Palestine +it is just the animal which would be considered most appropriate for +the purpose. For example, we find that Abraham, an exceptionally +wealthy man, and a chief of high position, made use of the Ass for the +saddle. It was on an Ass that he travelled when he made his three +days' journey from Beersheba to Moriah, when he was called to prove +his faith by sacrificing Isaac (see Gen. xxii. 3). + +Then in Judges x. 3, 4, we find that riding upon the Ass is actually +mentioned as a mark of high rank. + +"And after him arose Jair, a Gileadite, and judged Israel twenty and +two years. + +"And he had thirty sons that rode on thirty ass colts, and they had +thirty cities, which are called Havoth-jair unto this day, which are in +the land of Gilead." So here we have the curious fact, that the sacred +historian thinks it worth while to mention that great men, the sons of +the chief man of Israel, each of them being ruler over a city, rode upon +Ass colts. In the same book, xii. 13, 14, we have a similar record of +Abdon, the judge who preceded Samson. + +"After him Abdon the son of Hillel, a Pirathonite, judged Israel. + +"And he had forty sons and thirty nephews" (or grandsons according to +some translators) "that rode on threescore and ten ass colts: and he +judged Israel eight years." + +Thus we see that, so far from the use of the Ass as a saddle-animal +being a mark of humility, it ought to be viewed in precisely the +opposite light. In consequence of the very natural habit of reading, +according to Western ideas, the Scriptures, which are books +essentially Oriental in all their allusions and tone of thought, many +persons have entirely perverted the sense of one very familiar +passage, the prophecy of Zechariah concerning the future Messiah. +"Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: +behold, thy King cometh unto thee: He is just, and having salvation; +lowly, and riding upon an ass, and upon a colt the foal of an ass" +(Zech. ix. 9). + +Now this passage, as well as the one which describes its fulfilment so +many years afterwards, has often been seized upon as a proof of the +meekness and lowliness of our Saviour, in riding upon so humble an +animal when He made His entry into Jerusalem. The fact is, that there +was no humility in the case, neither was the act so understood by the +people. He rode upon an Ass as any prince or ruler would have done who +was engaged on a peaceful journey, the horse being reserved for war +purposes. He rode on the Ass, and not on the horse, because He was the +Prince of Peace and not of war, as indeed is shown very clearly in the +context. For, after writing the words which have just been quoted, +Zechariah proceeds as follows (ver. 10): "And I will cut off the +chariot from Ephraim, and the horse from Jerusalem, and the battle bow +shall be cut off: and He shall speak peace unto the heathen: and His +dominion shall be from sea even to sea, and from the river even to the +ends of the earth." + +Meek and lowly was He, as became the new character, hitherto unknown +to the warlike and restless Jews, a Prince, not of war, as had been +all other celebrated kings, but of peace. Had He come as the Jews +expected--despite so many prophecies--their Messiah to come, as a +great king and conqueror, He might have ridden the war-horse, and been +surrounded with countless legions of armed men. But He came as the +herald of peace, and not of war; and, though meek and lowly, yet a +Prince, riding as became a prince, on an Ass colt which had borne no +inferior burden. + +That the act was not considered as one of lowliness is evident from +the manner in which it was received by the people, accepting Him as +the Son of David, coming in the name of the Highest, and greeting Him +with the cry of "Hosanna!" ("Save us now,") quoted from verses 25, 26 +of Ps. cxviii.: "Save now, I beseech Thee, O Lord: O Lord, I beseech +Thee, send now prosperity." + +"Blessed be He that cometh in the name of the Lord." + +The palm-branches which they strewed upon the road were not chosen by +the attendant crowd merely as a means of doing honour to Him whom they +acknowledged as the Son of David. They were necessarily connected with +the cry of "Hosanna!" At the Feast of Tabernacles, it was customary +for the people to assemble with branches of palms and willows in their +hands, and for one of the priests to recite the Great Hallel, i.e. Ps. +cxiii. and cxviii. At certain intervals, the people responded with the +cry of "Hosanna!" waving at the same time their palm-branches. For the +whole of the seven days through which the feast lasted they repeated +their Hosannas, always accompanying the shout with the waving of +palm-branches, and setting them towards the altar as they went in +procession round it. + +Every child who could hold a palm-branch was expected to take part in +the solemnity, just as did the children on the occasion of the +triumphal entry. By degrees, the name of Hosanna was transferred to +the palm-branches themselves, as well as to the feast, the last day +being called the Great Hosanna. + +The reader will now see the importance of this carrying of +palm-branches, accompanied with Hosannas, and that those who used +them in honour of Him whom they followed into Jerusalem had no idea +that He was acting any lowly part. + +Again, the action of the disciples in putting their mantles on the +Ass, and setting their Master upon them, was one that signified their +acknowledgment of Him as their Prince; and the same idea was typified +by the laying of the clothes upon the road, together with the +palm-branches. Compare also the passage in 2 Kings ix. 13. When Elisha +sent the young prophet to call Jehu from among the council, and to +anoint him King of Israel, the act of anointing was performed in a +private chamber. Jehu, scarcely realizing the import of the act, +seemed to think it a trick played upon him by some of his companions, +the commanding officers of the army. When, however, they heard his +account of the interview with the prophet, they at once accepted him +as their king, and, as token thereof, "they hasted, and took every man +his garment, and put it under him at the top of the stairs, and blew +with trumpets, saying, Jehu is king." + +White Asses were selected for persons of high rank, especially for +those who exercised the office of judges. See Judges v. 10: "Speak, ye +that ride on white asses, ye that sit in judgment, and walk by the +way." Such Asses are still in use for similar purposes, and are bred +expressly for the use of persons of rank. They are larger, and are +thought to be swifter, than the ordinary breeds; but they are by no +means hardy animals, and are said to be unsuitable for places near the +sea-coast. + +Both sexes used the Ass for riding, as they do now in the East. See +for example Judges i. 14, where we find that Achsah, the daughter of +Caleb, rode on an Ass when she went to ask her father to give her some +springs of water, in addition to the land which he had previously +given her as a dowry. Later in the Scriptural history we read that +Abigail, the wife of the wealthy churl Nabal, rode to meet David on an +Ass, when she went to deprecate his anger against her husband (1 Sam. +xxv. 23). And, still later, the woman of Shunem, who acted so +hospitably towards Elisha, rode on an Ass to meet him when her child +had died from sunstroke in the field (see 2 Kings iv. 24). + +Now all these women were of high rank, and certainly neither of them +would have considered that riding on an Ass was an act of humility. We +will cite them in succession, and begin with Achsah. She was the +daughter of one of the most illustrious of the Israelites, a man of +whom we read as being almost the equal of Joshua, one of the +illustrious two who were included in the special exemption from the +punishment of rebellion. Moreover, Caleb was a man of enormous +territorial possessions, as we find from several passages in the Old +Testament; a man who was able to give to his daughter not only a large +amount of land as a dowry, but also the wells or springs which +multiplied its value tenfold. + +Next we come to the case of Abigail, the wife of Nabal, who himself +belonged to the family of Caleb, and probably owed his wealth simply +to the accident of his birth. It is related of Nabal, that his +"possessions were in Carmel, and the man was very great, and he had +three thousand sheep, and a thousand goats." Yet his wife, who +undoubtedly ruled her household as a housewife should do, and who was +thought worthy of becoming David's wife after the death of her +cowardly husband, rode on an Ass when she went on a mission in which +life and death were involved. + +And lastly, the woman of Shunem, who rode on an Ass to meet Elisha, +engaged in a mission in which the life of her only child was involved, +was a woman of great wealth (2 Kings iv. 8), who was able not only to +receive the prophet, but to build a chamber, and furnish it for him. + +Not to multiply examples, we see from these passages that the Ass of +the East was held in comparatively high estimation, being used for the +purposes of the saddle, just as would a high-bred horse among +ourselves. + +Consequently, the Ass is really a different animal. In this country he +is repressed, and seldom has an opportunity for displaying the +intellectual powers which he possesses, and which are of a much higher +order than is generally imagined. It is rather remarkable, that when +we wish to speak slightingly of intellect we liken the individual to +an Ass or a goose, not knowing that we have selected just the +quadruped and the bird which are least worthy of such a distinction. + +Putting aside the bird, as being at present out of place, we shall +find that the Ass is one of the cleverest of our domesticated animals. +We are apt to speak of the horse with a sort of reverence, and of the +Ass with contemptuous pity, not knowing that, of the two animals, the +Ass is by far the superior in point of intellect. It has been well +remarked by a keen observer of nature, that if four or five horses are +in a field, together with one Ass, and there be an assailable point in +the fence, the Ass is sure to be the animal that discovers it, and +leads the way through it. + + [Illustration: SYRIAN ASSES. + + _"A bridle for the ass._"--PROV. xxvi.] + +Take even one of our own toil-worn animals, turned out in a common to +graze, and see the ingenuity which it displays when persecuted by the +idle boys who generally frequent such places, and who try to ride +every beast that is within their reach. It seems to divine at once the +object of the boy as he steals up to it, and he takes a pleasure in +baffling him just as he fancies that he has succeeded in his attempt. + +Should the Ass be kindly treated, there is not an animal that proves +more docile, or even affectionate. Stripes and kicks it resents, and +sets itself distinctly against them; and, being nothing but a slave, +it follows the slavish principle of doing no work that it can possibly +avoid. + +Now, in the East the Ass takes so much higher rank than our own +animal, that its whole demeanour and gait are different from those +displayed by the generality of its brethren in England. "Why, the very +slave of slaves," writes Mr. Lowth, in his "Wanderer in Arabia," "the +crushed and grief-stricken, is so no more in Egypt: the battered +drudge has become the willing servant. Is that active little fellow, +who, with race-horse coat and full flanks, moves under his rider with +the light step and the action of a pony--is he the same animal as that +starved and head-bowed object of the North, subject for all pity and +cruelty, and clothed with rags and insult? + +"Look at him now. On he goes, rapid and free, with his small head well +up, and as gay as a crimson saddle and a bridle of light chains and +red leather can make him. It was a gladdening sight to see the +unfortunate as a new animal in Egypt." + +Hardy animal as is the Ass, it is not well adapted for tolerance of +cold, and seems to degenerate in size, strength, speed, and spirit in +proportion as the climate becomes colder. Whether it might equal the +horse in its endurance of cold provided that it were as carefully +treated, is perhaps a doubtful point; but it is a well-known fact that +the horse does not necessarily degenerate by moving towards a colder +climate, though the Ass has always been found to do so. + +There is, of course, a variety in the treatment which the Ass receives +even in the East. Signor Pierotti, whose work on the customs and +traditions of Palestine has already been mentioned, writes in very +glowing terms of the animal. He states that he formed a very high +opinion of the Ass while he was in Egypt, not only from its spirited +aspect and its speed, but because it was employed even by the Viceroy +and the great Court officers, who may be said to use Asses of more or +less intelligence for every occasion. He even goes so far as to say +that, if all the Asses were taken away from Egypt, not a man would be +left. + +The same traveller gives an admirable summary of the character of the +Ass, as it exists in Egypt and Palestine. "What, then, are the +characteristics of the ass? Much the same as those which adorn it in +other parts of the East--namely, it is useful for riding and for +carrying burdens; it is sensible of kindness, and shows gratitude; it +is very steady, and is larger, stronger, and more tractable than its +European congener; its pace is easy and pleasant; and it will shrink +from no labour, if only its poor daily feed of straw and barley is +fairly given. + +"If well and liberally supplied, it is capable of any enterprise, and +wears an altered and dignified mien, apparently forgetful of its +extraction, except when undeservedly beaten by its masters, who, +however, are not so much to be blamed, because, having learned to live +among sticks, thongs, and rods, they follow the same system of +education with their miserable dependants. + +"The wealthy feed him well, deck him with fine harness and silver +trappings, and cover him, when his work is done, with rich Persian +carpets. The poor do the best they can for him, steal for his benefit, +give him a corner at their fireside, and in cold weather sleep with +him for more warmth. In Palestine, all the rich men, whether monarchs +or chiefs of villages, possess a number of asses, keeping them with +their flocks, like the patriarchs of old. No one can travel in that +country, and observe how the ass is employed for all purposes, without +being struck with the exactness with which the Arabs retain the Hebrew +customs." + +The result of this treatment is, that the Eastern Ass is an enduring +and tolerably swift animal, vying with the camel itself in its powers +of long-continued travel, its usual pace being a sort of easy canter. +On rough ground, or up an ascent, it is said even to gain on the +horse, probably because its little sharp hoofs give it a firm footing +where the larger hoof of the horse is liable to slip. + +The familiar term "saddling the Ass" requires some little explanation. + +The saddle is not in the least like the article which we know by that +name, but is very large and complicated in structure. Over the +animal's back is first spread a cloth, made of thick woollen stuff, +and folded several times. The saddle itself is a very thick pad of +straw, covered with carpet, and flat at the top, instead of being +rounded as is the case with our saddles. The pommel is very high, and +when the rider is seated on it, he is perched high above the back of +the animal. Over the saddle is thrown a cloth or carpet, always of +bright colours, and varying in costliness of material and ornament +according to the wealth of the possessor. It is mostly edged with a +fringe and tassels. + +The bridle is decorated, like that of the horse, with bells, +embroidery, tassels, shells, and other ornaments. An example of the +headstall worn by an Ass belonging to a wealthy man may be seen in the +illustration. + +As we may see from 2 Kings iv. 24, the Ass was generally guided by a +driver who ran behind it, just as is the custom with the hired Asses +in this country. Owing to the unchanging character of the East, there +is no doubt that the "riders on asses" of the Scriptures rode exactly +after the mode which is adopted at the present day. What that mode is, +we may learn from Mr. Bayard Taylor's amusing and vivid description of +a ride through the streets of Cairo:-- + +"To see Cairo thoroughly, one must first accustom himself to the ways +of these long-eared cabs, without the use of which I would advise no +one to trust himself in the bazaars. Donkey-riding is universal, and +no one thinks of going beyond the Frank quarters on foot. If he does, +he must submit to be followed by not less than six donkeys with their +drivers. A friend of mine who was attended by such a cavalcade for two +hours, was obliged to yield at last, and made no second attempt. When +we first appeared in the gateway of an hotel, equipped for an +excursion, the rush of men and animals was so great that we were +forced to retreat until our servant and the porter whipped us a path +through the yelling and braying mob. After one or two trials I found +an intelligent Arab boy named Kish, who for five piastres a day +furnished strong and ambitious donkeys, which he kept ready at the +door from morning till night. The other drivers respected Kish's +privilege, and henceforth I had no trouble. + +"The donkeys are so small that my feet nearly touched the ground, but +there is no end to their strength and endurance. Their gait, whether +in pace or in gallop, is so easy and light that fatigue is impossible. +The drivers take great pride in having high-cushioned red saddles, and +in hanging bits of jingling brass to the bridles. They keep their +donkeys close shorn, and frequently beautify them by painting them +various colours. The first animal I rode had legs barred like a +zebra's, and my friend's rejoiced in purple flanks and a yellow belly. +The drivers ran behind them with a short stick, punching them from +time to time, or giving them a sharp pinch on the rump. Very few of +them own their donkeys, and I understood their pertinacity when I +learned that they frequently received a beating on returning home +empty-handed. + +"The passage of the bazaars seems at first quite as hazardous on +donkey-back as on foot; but it is the difference between knocking +somebody down and being knocked down yourself, and one certainly +prefers the former alternative. There is no use in attempting to guide +the donkey, for he won't be guided. The driver shouts behind, and you +are dashed at full speed into a confusion of other donkeys, camels, +horses, carts, water-carriers, and footmen. In vain you cry out +'_Bess_' (enough), '_Piacco_,' and other desperate adjurations; the +driver's only reply is: 'Let the bridle hang loose!' You dodge your +head under a camel-load of planks; your leg brushes the wheel of a +dust-cart; you strike a fat Turk plump in the back; you miraculously +escape upsetting a fruit-stand; you scatter a company of spectral, +white-masked women; and at last reach some more quiet street, with the +sensations of a man who has stormed a battery. + +"At first this sort of riding made me very nervous, but presently I +let the donkey go his own way, and took a curious interest in seeing +how near a chance I ran of striking or being struck. Sometimes there +seemed no hope of avoiding a violent collision; but, by a series of +the most remarkable dodges, he generally carried you through in +safety. The cries of the driver running behind gave me no little +amusement. 'The hawadji comes! Take care on the right hand! Take care +on the left hand! O man, take care! O maiden, take care! O boy, get +out of the way! The hawadji comes!' Kish had strong lungs, and his +donkey would let nothing pass him; and so wherever we went we +contributed our full share to the universal noise and confusion." + +This description explains several allusions which are made in the +Scriptures to treading down the enemies in the streets, and to the +chariots raging and jostling against each other in the ways. + +The Ass was used in the olden time for carrying burdens, as it is at +present, and, in all probability, carried them in the same way. Sacks +and bundles are tied firmly to the pack-saddle; but poles, planks, and +objects of similar shape are tied in a sloping direction on the side +of the saddle, the longer ends trailing on the ground, and the shorter +projecting at either side of the animal's head. The North American +Indians carry the poles of their huts, or wigwams, in precisely the +same way, tying them on either side of their horses, and making them +into rude sledges, upon which are fastened the skins that form the +walls of their huts. The same system of carriage is also found among +the Esquimaux, and the hunters of the extreme North, who harness their +dogs in precisely the same manner. The Ass, thus laden, becomes a very +unpleasant passenger through the narrow and crowded streets of an +Oriental city; and many an unwary traveller has found reason to +remember the description of Issachar as the strong Ass between two +burdens. + +The Ass was also used for agriculture, and was employed in the plough, +as we find from many passages. See for example, "Blessed are ye that +sow beside all waters, that send forth thither the feet of the ox and +the ass" (Isa. xxxii. 20). Sowing beside the waters is a custom that +still prevails in all hot countries, the margins of rivers being +tilled, while outside this cultivated belt there is nothing but desert +ground. + +The ox and the Ass were used in the first place for irrigation, +turning the machines by which water was lifted from the river, and +poured into the trenches which conveyed it to all parts of the tilled +land. If, as is nearly certain, the rude machinery of the East is at +the present day identical with those which were used in the old +Scriptural times, they were yoked to the machine in rather an +ingenious manner. The machine consists of an upright pivot, and to it +is attached the horizontal pole to which the ox or Ass is harnessed. A +machine exactly similar in principle may be seen in almost any +brick-field in England; but the ingenious part of the Eastern +water-machine is the mode in which the animal is made to believe that +it is being driven by its keeper, whereas the man in question might be +at a distance, or fast asleep. + +The animal is first blindfolded, and then yoked to the end of the +horizontal bar. Fixed to the pivot, and rather in front of the bar, is +one end of a slight and elastic strip of wood. The projecting end, +being drawn forward and tied to the bridle of the animal, keeps up a +continual pull, and makes the blinded animal believe that it is being +drawn forward by the hand of a driver. Some ingenious but lazy +attendants have even invented a sort of self-acting whip, i.e. a stick +which is lifted and allowed to fall on the animal's back by the action +of the wheel once every round. + +The field being properly supplied with water, the Ass is used for +ploughing it. It is worthy of mention that at the present day the +prohibition against yoking an ox and an Ass together is often +disregarded. The practice, however, is not a judicious one, as the +slow and heavy ox does not act well with the lighter and more active +animal, and, moreover, is apt to butt at its companion with its horns +in order to stimulate it to do more than its fair proportion of the +work. + +That the Ass was put to a similar use in turning the large millstones +may be seen from Matt. xviii. 6. In the Authorized Version, the +passage is rendered thus: "But whoso shall offend one of these little +ones which believe in Me, it were better for him that a millstone were +hanged about his neck, and that he were drowned in the depth of the +sea." + +Now if we turn to the Greek Testament we find that the passage reads +rather differently, a force being giving to it which it does not +possess in the translation: "But whosoever shall scandalize [_i.e._ be +a stumbling-block to] one of these little ones that believe in Me, it +were better for him that an ass's millstone were hung about his neck, +and he were sunk in the depth of the sea." The chief force of this +saying lies in the word which is omitted in our translation. Our Lord +specially selected the Ass's millstone on account of its size and +weight, in contradistinction to the ordinary millstone, which was +turned backwards and forwards by the hands of women. + +There is a custom now in Palestine which probably existed in the days +of the Scriptures, though I have not been able to find any reference +to it. Whenever an Ass is disobedient and strays from its master, the +man who captures the trespasser on his grounds clips a piece out of +its ear before he returns it to its owner. Each time that the animal +is caught on forbidden grounds it receives a fresh clip of the ear. By +looking at the ears of an Ass, therefore, any one can tell whether it +has ever been a straggler; and if so, he knows the number of times +that it has strayed, by merely counting the clip-marks, which always +begin at the tip of the ear, and extend along the edges. Any Ass, no +matter how handsome it may be, that has many of those clips, is always +rejected by experienced travellers, as it is sure to be a dull as well +as a disobedient beast. + +Signor Pierotti remarks that if the owners of the Asses were treated +similarly for similar offences, the greater number would be marked as +soon as they begin to walk, and of the adults there would be scarcely +one who had any ear on his head. + +The Ass being so universally useful, we need not be surprised at the +prominence which it takes in the Scriptural narrative, and the +frequency with which its name occurs. The wealthy personages of the +olden time seemed to have esteemed the Ass as highly as the camel, the +ox, the sheep, or the goat. Abraham, for example, is described as +being a rich man, and possessing "sheep, and oxen, and he-asses, and +men-servants, and maid-servants, and she-asses, and camels" (Gen. xii. +16). In a succeeding chapter (xxx. 43) the prosperity of Jacob is +mentioned in almost exactly the same terms. + +So, before Job's trials came upon him, "his substance was seven +thousand sheep, and three thousand camels, and five hundred yoke of +oxen [_i.e._ 1,000], and five hundred she-asses, and a very great +household; so that this man was the greatest of all the men of the +east" (Job i. 3). And after his trials, when his wealth was restored +to him twofold, the thousand she-asses are mentioned as prominently as +the thousand yoke of oxen. + +That the care of the Asses was an honourable post we learn from +several passages. Take for example Gen. xxxvi. 24: "And these are the +children of Zibeon; both Ajah, and Anah: this was that Anah that found +the mules in the wilderness, as he fed the asses of Zibeon his +father." The charge of the Asses was, as the reader must see, a post +of sufficient honour and importance to be trusted to the son of the +owner. A similar case is recorded in the well-known instance of Saul, +whose father had lost his herd of Asses, and who at once sent his son +upon the important mission of recovering them. And it was during the +fulfilment of this mission that he was anointed the first king of +Israel. + +Later in the sacred history we find that when David consolidated his +power, and organized the affairs of his new kingdom, he divided the +people in general, the army, the land, the produce, and the cattle, +into departments, and appointed over each department some eminent man +whose name is carefully given. After mentioning that the people and +the army were divided into "courses," and that certain officers were +set over each course, the sacred historian proceeds to state that one +officer was appointed as overseer of the treasury, another of the +granaries, another of the field-labourers, another over the vineyards, +and so forth. He then mentions that even the cattle were divided into +their several departments, the care of the hill-cattle being given to +one man, and of the cattle of the plain to another, of the camels to a +third, and of the Asses to a fourth. + +It is scarcely necessary to mention that the flesh of the Ass was +forbidden to the Jews, because the animal neither chewed the cud nor +divided the hoof. How repulsive to them must have been the flesh of +the Ass we may infer from the terrible description of the siege of +Samaria by Benhadad. The sacred historian describes with painful +fidelity the horrors of the siege, and of the dreadful extremity to +which the people were reduced. No circumstance could be more terrible +than the quarrel between the two mothers, who had mutually agreed to +kill and eat their children, and yet on a par with that dreadful +statement is mentioned the fact that even the flesh of the Ass was +eaten, and that an Ass's head cost eighty pieces of silver. + +Whether the milk of the she Ass were used or not is rather a doubtful +point, but, in all probability, the milk was considered as lawful +food, though the flesh might not be eaten. + +As to the legends respecting the Ass, they are innumerable, and I +shall only mention one or two of them. + +The first is an old Rabbinical legend respecting the Flood and the +admission of the creatures into the ark. It appears that no being +could enter the ark unless specially invited to do so by Noah. Now +when the Flood came, and overwhelmed the world, the devil, who was at +that time wandering upon the earth, saw that he was about to be cut +off from contact from mankind, and that his dominion would be for ever +gone. The ark being at last completed, and the beasts called to enter +it in their proper order, the turn of the Ass came in due course. + +Unfortunately for the welfare of mankind, the Ass was taken with a fit +of obstinacy, and refused to enter the vessel according to orders. +After wasting much time over the obstinate animal, Noah at last lost +patience, and struck the Ass sharply, crying at the same time to it, +"Enter, thou devil!" Of course the invitation was at once accepted, +the devil entered the ark, and on the subsiding of the water issued +out to take his place in the newly begun world. + + +Since the Christian era, many curious legends have sprung up +respecting the Ass. One of the most familiar of these legends refers +to the black stripe along the spine and the cross-bar over the +shoulder. This black cross is really believed by many persons to have +been given to the animal in consequence of its connexion with our +Lord. I need hardly tell the reader that it is the remnant of the +stripes which in the zebra cover the animal from head to foot, which +in the quagga cover the head, body, and part of the limbs, and which +in one species of Wild Ass are not seen at all in the adult animal. + +There is another Christian legend respecting the Ass of Palestine, +which is thought to owe its superiority in size, swiftness, and +strength to the fact that it helped to warm the infant Saviour in the +manger, that it carried Him and His mother into Egypt and back again, +and that it was used by the Lord himself and His disciples. Any one +who ventures to hint that the Ass of Palestine owes its superiority +over its European brother to the warmer climate, is thought to be a +heretic by the pious but ignorant men who believe and disseminate such +legends. + +Signor Pierotti tells a story of a certain Russian monk who happened +to visit Palestine, and in the course of his travels found the +leg-bone of an Ass, which he took back with him and publicly exhibited +as part of the identical animal on which the Virgin Mary and infant +Saviour rode. (I need scarcely mention that there is no mention in the +Scriptures of the fact that the Holy Family rode upon an Ass; though +such a mode of travel was certainly the one which they would adopt.) +For some time, this deception drew for the impostor many gifts from +the superstitious but pious people, but the affair at last reached the +ears of his superiors, and he paid the deserved penalty of his +trickery. + +There are recorded in the Scriptures two remarkable circumstances +connected with the Ass, which, however, need but a few words. The +first is the journey of Balaam from Pethor to Moab, in the course of +which there occurred that singular incident of the Ass speaking in +human language (see Numb. xxii. 21, 35). The second is the well-known +episode in the story of Samson, where he is recorded as breaking the +cords with which his enemies had bound him, and killing a thousand +Philistines with the fresh jaw-bone of an Ass. + + + + +THE WILD ASS. + + The Arod and Pere of Scripture--Various allusions to the Wild + Ass--Its swiftness and wildness--The Wild Ass of Asia and + Africa--Knowledge of the animal displayed by the sacred + writers--How the Wild Ass is hunted--Excellence of its + flesh--Sir R. K. Porter's meeting with a Wild Ass--Origin of the + domestic Ass--The Wild Asses of Quito. + + +There are several passages of Scripture in which the Wild Ass is +distinguished from the domesticated animal, and in all of them there +is some reference made to its swiftness, its intractable nature, and +love of freedom. + +In the Hebrew Scriptures there are two words which are given in the +Authorized Translation as Wild Ass, namely, Arod and Pere, and it is +rather remarkable that both words occur in the same passage. If the +reader will refer to Job xxxix. 5, he will see the following passage: +"Who hath sent out the wild ass (Pere) free? or who hath loosed the +bands of the wild ass (Arod)?" Now there are only two places in the +whole Hebrew Scriptures in which the word Arod occurs, and there are +many doubts whether the word Arod is rightly translated. The first is +that which has just been quoted, and the second occurs in Dan. v. 21: +"And he was driven from the sons of men; and his heart was made like +the beasts, and his dwelling was with the wild asses." + +The Jewish Bible translates the word differently in the two passages. +That in Job it renders as follows: "Who hath sent forth the wild ass +free? or who hath loosed the bands of the untamed?" In the other +passage, however, it follows the rendering of the Authorized Version, +and gives the word as "wild asses." It is thought by several scholars +that the two words refer to two different species of Wild Ass. It may +be so, but as the ancient writers had the loosest possible ideas +regarding distinction of species, and as, moreover, it is very +doubtful whether there be any real distinction of species at all, we +may allow the subject to rest, merely remembering that the rendering +of the Jewish Bible, "the untamed," is a correct translation of the +word Arod, though the particular animal to which it is applied may be +doubtful. + +We will now pass to the word about which there is no doubt whatever, +namely, the Pere. This animal is clearly the species which is +scientifically known as _Asinus hemippus_. During the summer time it +has a distinct reddish tinge on the grey coat, which disappears in the +winter, and the cross-streak is black. There are several kinds of Wild +Ass known to science, all of which have different names. Some of our +best zoologists, however, have come to the conclusion that they all +really belong to the same species, differing only in slight points of +structure which are insufficient to constitute separate species. + +The habits of the Wild Ass are the same, whether it be the Asiatic or +the African animal, and a description of one will answer equally well +for the other. It is an astonishingly swift animal, so that on the +level ground even the best horse has scarcely a chance of overtaking +it. It is exceedingly wary, its sight, hearing, and sense of scent +being equally keen, so that to approach it by craft is a most +difficult task. + +Like many other wild animals, it has a custom of ascending hills or +rising grounds, and thence surveying the country, and even in the +plains it will generally contrive to discover some earth-mound or heap +of sand from which it may act as sentinel and give the alarm in case +of danger. It is a gregarious animal, always assembling in herds, +varying from two or three to several hundred in number, and has a +habit of partial migration in search of green food, traversing large +tracts of country in its passage. + +It has a curiously intractable disposition, and, even when captured +very young, can scarcely ever be brought to bear a burden or draw a +vehicle. Attempts have been often made to domesticate the young that +have been born in captivity, but with very slight success, the wild +nature of the animal constantly breaking out, even when it appears to +have become moderately tractable. + +Although the Wild Ass does not seem to have lived within the limits of +the Holy Land, it was common enough in the surrounding country, and, +from the frequent references made to it in Scriptures, was well known +to the ancient Jews. We will now look at the various passages in which +the Wild Ass is mentioned, and begin with the splendid description in +Job xxxix. 5-8: + +"Who hath sent out the wild ass free? or who hath loosed the bands of +the wild ass? + +"Whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren lands (or salt +places) his dwellings. + +"He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth he the +crying of the driver. + +"The range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth after +every green thing." + +Here we have the animal described with the minuteness and truth of +detail that can only be found in personal knowledge; its love of +freedom, its avoidance of mankind, and its migration in search of +pasture. Another allusion to the pasture-seeking habits of the animal +is to be found in chapter vi. of the same book, verse 5: "Doth the +wild ass bray when he hath grass?" or, according to the version of the +Jewish Bible, "over tender grass?" + +The same author has several other allusions to the Wild Ass. See, for +example, chap. xi. 12: "For vain man would be wise, though man be born +like a wild ass's colt." And in chap. xxiv. 5, in speaking of the +wicked and their doings, he uses the following metaphor: "Behold, as +wild asses in the desert, go they forth to their work; rising betimes +for a prey: the wilderness yieldeth food for them and their children," +or for the young, as the passage may be more literally rendered. The +same migratory habit is also mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah (chap. +xiv. 6): "And the wild asses did stand in the high places, they +snuffed up the wind like dragons; their eyes did fail, because there +was no grass." There is another allusion to it in Hosea viii. 9: "For +they are gone up to Assyria, a wild ass alone by himself." + +Even in the earliest times of Jewish history we find a reference to +the peculiar nature of this animal. In Gen. xvi. 12 it is prophesied +of Ishmael, that "he will be a wild man; his hand will be against +every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the +presence of all his brethren." Now the real force of this passage is +quite missed in the Authorized Version, the correct rendering being +given in the Jewish Bible: "And he will be a wild ass (Pere) among +men; his hand will be against all, and the hand of all against him, +and in the face of all his brethren he shall dwell." + +Allusion is made to the speed of the animal in Jer. ii. 24: "A wild +ass used to the wilderness, that snuffeth up the wind at her pleasure; +in her occasion who can turn her away? all they that seek her will not +weary themselves; in her month they shall find her." The fondness of +the Wild Ass for the desert is mentioned by the prophet Isaiah. +Foretelling the desolation that was to come upon the land, he uses +these words: "Because the palaces shall be forsaken, the multitude of +the city shall be left; the forts and towers shall be for dens (or +caves) for ever, and a joy of wild asses, a pasture of flocks." + +These various qualities of speed, wariness, and dread of man cause the +animal to be exceedingly prized by hunters, who find their utmost +skill taxed in approaching it. Men of the highest rank give whole days +to the hunt of the Wild Ass, and vie with each other for the honour of +inflicting the first wound on so fleet an animal. With the exception +of the Jews, the inhabitants of the countries where the Wild Ass lives +eat its flesh, and consider it as the greatest dainty which can be +found. + +A very vivid account of the appearance of the animal in its wild state +is given by Sir R. Kerr Porter, who was allowed by a Wild Ass to +approach within a moderate distance, the animal evidently seeing that +he was not one of the people to whom it was accustomed, and being +curious enough to allow the stranger to approach him. + + [Illustration: THE WILD ASS. + + "As wild asses in the desert go they forth."--JOB xxiv. 5.] + +"The sun was just rising over the summit of the eastern mountains, +when my greyhound started off in pursuit of an animal which, my +Persians said, from the glimpse they had of it, was an antelope. +I instantly put spurs to my horse, and with my attendants gave +chase. After an unrelaxed gallop of three miles, we came up with +the dog, who was then within a short stretch of the creature he +pursued; and to my surprise, and at first vexation, I saw it to be an +ass. + +"Upon reflection, however, judging from its fleetness that it must be +a wild one, a creature little known in Europe, but which the Persians +prize above all other animals as an object of chase, I determined to +approach as near to it as the very swift Arab I was on could carry me. +But the single instant of checking my horse to consider had given our +game such a head of us that, notwithstanding our speed, we could not +recover our ground on him. + +"I, however, happened to be considerably before my companions, when, +at a certain distance, the animal in its turn made a pause, and +allowed me to approach within pistol-shot of him. He then darted off +again with the quickness of thought, capering, kicking, and sporting +in his flight, as if he were not blown in the least, and the chase was +his pastime. When my followers of the country came up, they regretted +that I had not shot the creature when he was within my aim, telling me +that his flesh is one of the greatest delicacies in Persia. + +"The prodigious swiftness and the peculiar manner in which he fled +across the plain coincided exactly with the description that Xenophon +gives of the same animal in Arabia. But above all, it reminded me of +the striking portrait drawn by the author of the Book of Job. I was +informed by the Mehnander, who had been in the desert when making a +pilgrimage to the shrine of Ali, that the wild ass of Irak Arabi +differs in nothing from the one I had just seen. He had observed them +often for a short time in the possession of the Arabs, who told him +the creature was perfectly untameable. + +"A few days after this discussion, we saw another of these animals, +and, pursuing it determinately, had the good fortune to kill it." + + +It has been suggested by many zoologists that the Wild Ass is the +progenitor of the domesticated species. The origin of the domesticated +animal, however, is so very ancient, that we have no data whereon +even a theory can be built. It is true that the Wild and the +Domesticated Ass are exactly similar in appearance, and that an +_Asinus hemippus_, or Wild Ass, looks so like an Asiatic _Asinus +vulgaris_, or Domesticated Ass, that by the eye alone the two are +hardly distinguishable from each other. But with their appearance the +resemblance ends, the domestic animal being quiet, docile, and fond of +man, while the wild animal is savage, intractable, and has an +invincible repugnance to human beings. + +This diversity of spirit in similar forms is very curious, and is +strongly exemplified by the semi-wild Asses of Quito. They are the +descendants of the animals that were imported by the Spaniards, and +live in herds, just as do the horses. They combine the habits of the +Wild Ass with the disposition of the tame animal. They are as swift of +foot as the Wild Ass of Syria or Africa, and have the same habit of +frequenting lofty situations, leaping about among rocks and ravines, +which seem only fitted for the wild goat, and into which no horse can +follow them. + +Nominally, they are private property, but practically they may be +taken by any one who chooses to capture them. The lasso is employed +for the purpose, and when the animals are caught they bite, and kick, +and plunge, and behave exactly like their wild relations of the Old +World, giving their captors infinite trouble in avoiding the teeth and +hoofs which they wield so skilfully. But, as soon as a load has once +been bound on the back of one of these furious creatures, the wild +spirit dies out of it, the head droops, the gait becomes steady, and +the animal behaves as if it had led a domesticated life all its days. + + + + +THE MULE. + + Ancient use of the Mules--Various breeds of Mule--Supposed date + of its introduction into Palestine--Mule-breeding forbidden to + the Jews--The Mule as a saddle-animal--Its use on occasions of + state--The king's Mule--Mules brought from Babylon after the + captivity--Obstinacy of the Mule--The Mule as a beast of + burden--The "Mule's burden" of earth--Mules imported by the + Phoenicians--Legends respecting the Mule. + + +There are several references to the Mule in the Holy Scriptures, but +it is remarkable that the animal is not mentioned at all until the +time of David, and that in the New Testament the name does not occur +at all. + +The origin of the MULE is unknown, but that the mixed breed between +the horse and the ass has been employed in many countries from very +ancient times is a familiar fact. It is a very strange circumstance +that the offspring of these two animals should be, for some purposes, +far superior to either of the parents, a well-bred Mule having the +lightness, surefootedness, and hardy endurance of the ass, together +with the increased size and muscular development of the horse. Thus it +is peculiarly adapted either for the saddle or for the conveyance of +burdens over a rough or desert country. + +The Mules that are most generally serviceable are bred from the male +ass and the mare, those which have the horse as the father and the ass +as the mother being small, and comparatively valueless. At the present +day, Mules are largely employed in Spain and the Spanish dependencies, +and there are some breeds which are of very great size and singular +beauty, those of Andalusia being especially celebrated. In the Andes, +the Mule has actually superseded the llama as a beast of burden. + +Its appearance in the sacred narrative is quite sudden. In Gen. xxxvi. +24, there is a passage which seems as if it referred to the Mule: +"This was that Anah that found the mules in the wilderness." Now the +word which is here rendered as Mules is "Yemim," a word which is not +found elsewhere in the Hebrew Scriptures. The best Hebraists are +agreed that, whatever interpretation may be put upon the word, it +cannot possibly have the signification that is here assigned to it. +Some translate the word as "hot springs," while the editors of the +Jewish Bible prefer to leave it untranslated, thus signifying that +they are not satisfied with any rendering. + + [Illustration: MULES OF THE EAST + + "_Be ye not as the horse and mule, which have no under + standing._"--PSALM xxxii. 9.] + +The word which is properly translated as Mule is "Pered;" and the +first place where it occurs is 2 Sam. xiii. 29. Absalom had taken +advantage of a sheep-shearing feast to kill his brother Amnon in +revenge for the insult offered to Tamar: "And the servants of Absalom +did unto Amnon as Absalom had commanded. Then all the king's sons +arose, and every man gat him up upon his mule, and fled." It is +evident from this passage that the Mule must have been in use for a +considerable time, as the sacred writer mentions, as a matter of +course, that the king's sons had each his own riding mule. + +Farther on, chap. xviii. 9 records the event which led to the death of +Absalom by the hand of Joab. "And Absalom met the servants of David. +And Absalom rode upon a mule, and the mule went under the thick boughs +of a great oak, and his head caught hold of the oak, and he was taken +up between the heaven and the earth; and the mule that was under him +went away." + +We see by these passages that the Mule was held in such high +estimation that it was used by the royal princes for the saddle, and +had indeed superseded the ass. In another passage we shall find that +the Mule was ridden by the king himself when he travelled in state, +and that to ride upon the king's Mule was considered as equivalent to +sitting upon the king's throne. See, for example, 1 Kings i. in which +there are several passages illustrative of this curious fact. See +first, ver. 33, in which David gives to Zadok the priest, Nathan the +prophet, and Benaiah the captain of the hosts, instructions for +bringing his son Solomon to Gihon, and anointing him king in the stead +of his father: "Take with you the servants of your lord, and cause +Solomon my son to ride upon mine own mule, and bring him down to +Gihon." + +Then, in ver. 38, we are told that David's orders were obeyed, that +Solomon was set on the king's Mule, was anointed by Zadok, and +proclaimed as king to the people. In ver. 44 we are told how Adonijah, +who had attempted to usurp the throne, and was at the very time +holding a coronation feast, heard the sound of the trumpets and the +shouting in honour of Solomon, and on inquiring was told that Solomon +had been crowned king by Zadok, recognised by Nathan, accepted by +Benaiah, and had ridden on the king's Mule. These tidings alarmed him, +and caused him to flee for protection to the altar. Now it is very +remarkable that in each of these three passages the fact that Solomon +rode upon the king's Mule is brought prominently forward, and it was +adduced to Adonijah as a proof that Solomon had been made the new king +of Israel. + +That the Mule should have become so important an animal seems most +remarkable. In Levit. xix. 19 there is an express injunction against +the breeding of Mules, and it is unlikely, therefore, that they were +bred in Palestine. But, although the Jews were forbidden to breed +Mules, they evidently thought that the prohibition did not extend to +the use of these animals, and from the time of David we find that they +were very largely employed both for the saddle and as beasts of +burden. In all probability, the Mules were imported from Egypt and +other countries, and that such importation was one of the means for +furnishing Palestine with these animals we learn from 1 Kings x. 24, +25, in which the sacred writer enumerates the various tribute which +was paid to Solomon: "All the earth sought to Solomon, to hear the +wisdom which God had put in his heart. + +"And they brought every man his present, vessels of silver, and +vessels of gold, and garments, and armour, and spices, horses, and +mules, a rate year by year." The same fact is recorded in 2 Chron. ix. +24. + +In the time of Isaiah the Mule was evidently in common use as a riding +animal for persons of distinction. See chap. lxvi. 20: "And they shall +bring all your brethren for an offering unto the Lord, out of all +nations, upon horses, and in chariots, and in litters, and upon mules, +and upon swift beasts, to My holy mountain Jerusalem." Another +allusion to the Mule as one of the recognised domesticated animals is +found in Zech. xiv. 15: "So shall be the plague of the horse, of the +mule, of the camel, and of the ass, and of all the beasts that shall +be in these tents, as this plague." + +The value of these animals may be inferred from the anxiety of Ahab to +preserve his Mules during the long drought that had destroyed all the +pasturage. "Ahab said unto Obadiah, Go into the land, unto all +fountains of water, and unto all brooks: peradventure we may find +grass to save the horses and mules alive, that we lose not all the +beasts." + +Now this Obadiah was a very great man. He was governor of the king's +palace, an office which has been compared to that of our Lord High +Chamberlain. He possessed such influence that, although he was known +to be a worshipper of Jehovah, and to have saved a hundred prophets +during Jezebel's persecution, he retained his position, either because +no one dared to inform against him, or because he was too powerful to +be attacked. Yet to Obadiah was assigned the joint office of seeking +for pasturage for the Mules, the king himself sharing the task with +his chamberlain, thus showing the exceeding value which must have been +set on these appanages of royal state. + +Their importance may be gathered from a passage in the Book of Ezra, +in which, after enumerating with curious minuteness the number of the +Jews who returned home from their Babylonish captivity, the sacred +chronicler proceeds to remark that "their horses were seven hundred +thirty and six; their mules, two hundred forty and five; their camels, +four hundred thirty and five; their asses, six thousand seven hundred +and twenty" (Ezra ii. 66, 67). There is a parallel passage in Neh. +vii. 68, 69. + +Seeing that the Mule was in such constant use as a riding animal, it +is somewhat remarkable that we never find in the Scripture any mention +of the obstinate disposition which is proverbially associated with the +animal. There is only one passage which can be thought even to bear +upon such a subject, and that is the familiar sentence from Ps. xxxii. +9: "Be ye not as the horse, or as the mule, which have no +understanding: whose mouth must be held in with bit and bridle, lest +they come near unto thee;" and, as the reader will see, no particular +obstinacy or frowardness is attributed to the Mule which is not +ascribed to the horse also. + +Still, that the Mule was as obstinate and contentious an animal in +Palestine as it is in Europe is evident from the fact that the Eastern +mules of the present day are quite as troublesome as their European +brethren. They are very apt to shy at anything, or nothing at all; +they bite fiercely, and every now and then they indulge in a violent +kicking fit, flinging out their heels with wonderful force and +rapidity, and turning round and round on their fore-feet so quickly +that it is hardly possible to approach them. There is scarcely a +traveller in the Holy Land who has not some story to tell about the +Mule and its perverse disposition; but, as these anecdotes have but +very slight bearing on the subject of the Mule as mentioned in the +Scriptures, they will not be given in these pages. + +That the Mule was employed as a beast of burden as well as for riding, +we gather from several passages in the Old Testament. See, for +example, 1 Chron. xii. 40: "Moreover they that were nigh them, even +unto Issachar and Zebulun and Naphtali, brought bread on asses, and on +camels, and on mules, and on oxen." We have also the well-known +passage in which is recorded the reply of Naaman to Elisha after the +latter had cured him of his leprosy: "And Naaman said, Shall there not +then, I pray thee, be given to thy servant two mules' burden of +earth?" It does not necessarily follow that two of Naaman's Mules were +to be laden with earth, but the probability is, that Naaman used the +term "a Mule's burden" to express a certain quantity, just as we talk +of a "load" of hay or gravel. + +As Mules are animals of such value, we may feel some little surprise +that they were employed as beasts of burden. It is possible, however, +that a special and costly breed of large and handsome Mules, like +those of Andalusia, were reserved for the saddle, and that the smaller +and less showy animals were employed in the carriage of burdens. + +Before parting entirely with the Mule, it will be well to examine the +only remaining passage in which the animal is mentioned. It occurs in +Ezek. xxvii. 14: "They of the house of Togarmah traded in thy fairs +with horses and horsemen and mules." The chapter in which this passage +occurs is a sustained lamentation over Tyre, in which the writer first +enumerates the wealth and greatness of the city, and then bewails its +downfall. Beginning with the words, "O Tyrus, thou hast said, I am of +perfect beauty," the prophet proceeds to mention the various details +of its magnificence, the number and beauty of its ships built with +firs from Senir, having oars made of the oaks of Bashan, masts of the +cedars of Lebanon, benches of ivory, sails of "fine linen with +broidered work from Egypt," and coverings of purple and scarlet from +the isles of Elishah. The rowers were from Zidon and Arvad, while Tyre +itself furnished their pilots or steersmen. + +After a passing allusion to the magnificent army of Tyre, the sacred +writer proceeds to mention the extent of the merchandise that was +brought to this queen of ancient seaports: silver and other metals +were from Tarshish, slaves and brass from Meshech, ivory and ebony +from Dedan, jewellery and fine linen from Syria; wheat, honey, and oil +from Judæa; wine and white wool from Damascus, and so forth. And, +among all these riches, are prominently mentioned the horses and Mules +from Togarmah. Now, it has been settled by the best bibliographers +that the Togarmah of Ezekiel is Armenia, and so we have the fact that +the Phoenicians supplied themselves with Mules and horses by importing +them from Armenia instead of breeding those animals themselves, just +as Palestine imported its horses, and probably its Mules also, from +Egypt. + +It is rather remarkable that the Arabs of Palestine very seldom breed +the Mule for themselves, but, like the ancient Jews, import them from +adjacent countries, mostly from the Lebanon district. Those from +Cyprus are, however, much valued, as they are very strong, diligent, +and steady, their pace being nearly equal to that of the horse. Mules +are seldom used for agricultural purposes, though they are extensively +employed for riding and for carrying burdens, especially over rocky +districts. + +The Mule is not without its legend. One of the oddest of these +accounts for its obstinacy and its incapacity for breeding. + +When the Holy Family was about to travel into Egypt, St. Joseph chose +a Mule to carry them. He was in the act of saddling the animal, when +it kicked him after the fashion of Mules. Angry with it for such +misconduct, St. Joseph substituted an ass for the Mule, thus giving +the former the honour of conveying the family into Egypt, and laid a +curse upon it that it should never have parents nor descendants of its +own kind, and that it should be so disliked as never to be admitted +into its master's house, as is the case with the horse and other +domesticated animals. This is one of the multitudinous legends which +are told to the crowds of pilgrims who come annually to see the +miraculous kindling of the holy fire, and to visit the tree on which +Judas hanged himself. + + + + +SWINE. + + The Mosaic prohibition of the pig--Hatred of Swine by Jews and + Mahometans--A strange use of bacon--The prodigal son--Resistance + to the persecution of Antiochus--Swine hated by the early + Egyptians--Supposed connexion between Swine and diseases of the + skin--Destruction of the herd of Swine--The locality of the + event discovered--Pigs bred for the monasteries--The jewel of + gold in a Swine's snout--The wild boar of the woods, and the + beast of the reeds--The damage which it does to the + vines--General account of the wild boar of Palestine--Excellence + of its flesh. + + +Many are the animals which are specially mentioned in the Mosaic law +as unfit for food, beside those that come under the general head of +being unclean because they do not divide the hoof and chew the cud. +There is none, however, that excited such abhorrence as the hog, or +that was more utterly detested. + +It is utterly impossible for a European, especially one of the present +day, to form even an idea of the utter horror and loathing with which +the hog was regarded by the ancient Jews. Even at the present day, a +zealous Jew or Mahometan looks upon the hog, or anything that belongs +to the hog, with an abhorrence too deep for words. The older and +stricter Jews felt so deeply on this subject, that they would never +even mention the name of the hog, but always substituted for the +objectionable word the term "the abomination." + +Several references are made in the Scriptures to the exceeding disgust +felt by the Jews towards the Swine. The portion of the Mosaic law on +which a Jew would ground his antipathy to the flesh of Swine is that +passage which occurs in Lev. xi. 7: "And the swine, though he divide +the hoof, and be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is +unclean to you." But the very same paragraph, of which this passage +forms the termination, treats of other unclean beasts, such as the +coney (or hyrax) and the hare, neither of which animals are held in +such abhorrence as the Swine. + +This enactment could not therefore have produced the singular feeling +with which the Swine were regarded by the Jews, and in all probability +the antipathy was of far greater antiquity than the time of Moses. + +How hateful to the Jewish mind was the hog we may infer from many +passages, several of which occur in the Book of Isaiah. See, for +example, lxv. 3, 4: "A people that provoketh me to anger continually +to my face; that sacrificeth in gardens, and burneth incense upon +altars of brick; + +"Which remain among the graves, and lodge in the monuments, which eat +swine's flesh, and broth of abominable things is in their vessels." +Here we have the people heaping one abomination upon another--the +sacrifice to idols in the gardens, the burning of incense upon a +forbidden altar and with strange fire, the living among the tombs, +where none but madmen and evil spirits were supposed to reside, and, +as the culminating point of iniquity, eating Swine's flesh, and +drinking the broth in which it was boiled. + +In the next chapter, verse 3, we have another reference to the Swine. +Speaking of the wickedness of the people, and the uselessness of their +sacrifices, the prophet proceeds to say: "He that killeth an ox is as +if he slew a man; he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he had cut off a +dog's neck; he that offereth an oblation, as if he offered swine's +blood." We see here how the prophet proceeds from one image to +another: the murder of a man, the offering of a dog instead of a lamb, +and the pouring out of Swine's blood upon the altar instead of +wine--the last-mentioned crime being evidently held as the worst of +the three. Another reference to the Swine occurs in the same chapter, +verse 17: "They that sanctify themselves, and purify themselves in the +gardens behind one tree in the midst, eating swine's flesh, and the +abomination, and the mouse, shall be consumed together, saith the +Lord." + +Not only did the Jews refuse to eat the flesh of the hog, but they +held in utter abomination everything that belonged to it, and would +have thought themselves polluted had they been even touched with a +hog's bristle. Even at the present day this feeling has not +diminished, and both by Jews and Mahometans the hog is held in utter +abhorrence. + +Some recent travellers have made great use of this feeling. Signor +Pierotti, for example, during his long sojourn in Palestine, found the +flesh of the hog extremely beneficial to him. "How often has the flesh +of this animal supported me, especially during the earlier part of my +stay in Palestine, before I had learned to like the mutton and the +goats' flesh! I give the preference to this meat because it has often +saved me time by rendering a fire unnecessary, and freed me from +importunate, dirty, and unsavoury guests, who used their hands for +spoons, knives, and forks. + +"A little piece of bacon laid conspicuously upon the cloth that served +me for a table was always my best friend. Without this talisman I +should never have freed myself from unwelcome company, at least +without breaking all the laws of hospitality by not inviting the +chiefs of my escort or the guides to share my meal; a thing neither +prudent nor safe in the open country. Therefore, on the contrary, when +thus provided I pressed them with the utmost earnestness to eat with +me, but of course never succeeded in persuading them; and so dined in +peace, keeping on good terms with them, although they did call me +behind my back a 'dog of a Frank' for eating pork. + +"Besides, I had then no fear of my stores failing, as I always took +care to carry a stock large enough to supply the real wants of my +party. So a piece of bacon was more service to me than a revolver, a +rifle, or a sword; and I recommend all travellers in Palestine to +carry bacon rather than arms, for the latter are often stolen, the +former is never." + +Such being the feelings of the Jews, we may conceive the abject +degradation to which the Prodigal Son of the parable must have +descended, when he was compelled to become a swine-herd for a living, +and would have been glad even to have eaten the very husks on which +the Swine fed. These husks, by the way, were evidently the pods of the +locust-tree, or carob, of which we shall have more to say in a future +page. We have in our language no words to express the depths of +ignominy into which this young man must have fallen, nor can we +conceive any office which in our estimation would be so degrading as +would be that of swine-herd to a Jew. + +How deeply rooted was the abhorrence of the Swine's flesh we can see +from a passage in 2 Maccabees, in which is related a series of insults +offered to the religion of the Jews. The temple at Jerusalem was to be +called the Temple of Jupiter Olympus, and that on Gerizim was to be +dedicated to Jupiter, the defender of strangers. The altars were +defiled by forbidden things, and the celebration of the Sabbath, or of +any Jewish ceremony, was punishable with death. + +Severe as were all these afflictions, there was one which the Jews +seem, from the stress laid upon it, to have felt more keenly than any +other. This was the compulsory eating of Swine's flesh, an act which +was so abhorrent to the Jews that in attempting to enforce it, +Antiochus found that he was foiled by the passive resistance offered +to him. The Jews had allowed their temples to be dedicated to the +worship of heathen deities, they had submitted to the deprivation of +their sacred rites, they had even consented to walk in procession on +the Feast of Bacchus, carrying ivy like the rest of the worshippers in +that most licentious festival. It might be thought that any people who +submit to such degradation would suffer any similar indignity. But +even their forbearance had reached its limits, and nothing could +induce them to eat the flesh of Swine. + +Several examples of the resistance offered by them are recorded in the +book just mentioned. Eleazar, for example, a man ninety years old, +sternly refused to partake of the abominable food. Some of the +officials, in compassion for his great age, advised him to take lawful +meat with him and to exchange it for the Swine's flesh. This he +refused to do, saying that his age was only a reason for particular +care on his part, lest the young should be led away by his example. +His persecutors then forced the meat into his mouth, but he rejected +it, and died under the lash. + +Another example of similar, but far greater heroism, is given by the +same chronicler. A mother and her seven sons were urged with blows to +eat the forbidden food, and refused to do so. Thinking that the mother +would not be able to endure the sight of her sons' sufferings, the +officers took them in succession, and inflicted a series of horrible +tortures upon them, beginning by cutting off their tongues, hands, and +feet, and ending by roasting them while still alive. Their mother, far +from counselling her sons to yield, even though they were bribed by +promises of wealth and rank, only encouraged them to persevere, and, +when the last of her sons was dead, passed herself through the same +fiery trial. + +Even among the ancient Egyptians this repugnance to the Swine +prevailed, though there was a sort of Pariah caste among them who bred +the animal and ate its flesh. + +This we learn from Herodotus ("Euterpe," xlvii.):--"The Egyptians +consider the pig to be an impure animal, and if therefore a man in +passing near a pig should but touch it with his clothes, he goes at +once to the river and plunges into it. In the next place, swine-herds, +although they be native Egyptians, are the only men who are not +allowed to enter into any of their temples, neither will any man give +his daughter in marriage to one of them, nor take a wife from among +them, but the swine-herds only marry among themselves. + +"The Egyptians therefore do not think it right to sacrifice swine to +any other deities, but to the moon and Bacchus they sacrifice them at +the same time; that is to say, at the same full moon, and then they +eat the flesh.... This sacrifice of pigs to the moon is performed in +the following manner. When the sacrificer has killed the victims, he +puts the tip of the tail, the spleen, and the caul together, covers +them with the fat found in the belly of the animal, and then consumes +it with fire. The rest of the flesh they eat during the full moon in +which they offer the sacrifices, but on no other day would any man +ever taste it. The poor among them, through want of money, make pigs +out of dough; and, after baking them, offer them in sacrifice. + +"On the eve of the festival of Bacchus, every one slays a pig before +his door, and then restores it to the swine-herd that sold it, that he +may carry it away. The rest of this festival to Bacchus, except as +regards the pigs, the Egyptians celebrate much in the same manner as +the Greeks do." + +It has been conjectured, and with plausibility, that the pig was +prohibited by Moses on account of the unwholesomeness of its flesh in +a hot country, and that its almost universal repudiation in such lands +is a proof of its unfitness for food. In countries where diseases of +the skin are so common, and where the dreaded leprosy still maintains +its hold, the flesh of the pig is thought, whether rightly or wrongly, +to increase the tendency to such diseases, and on that account alone +would be avoided. + +It has, however, been shown that the flesh of Swine can be habitually +consumed in hot countries without producing any evil results; and, +moreover, that the prohibition of Moses was not confined to the Swine, +but included many other animals whose flesh is used without scruple by +those very persons who reject that of the pig. + +Knowing the deep hatred of the Jews towards this animal, we may +naturally wonder how we come to hear of herds of Swine kept in Jewish +lands. + +Of this custom there is a familiar example in the herd of Swine that +was drowned in the sea (Matt. viii. 28-34). It is an open question +whether those who possessed the Swine were Jews of lax principles, who +disregarded the Law for the sake of gain, or whether they were +Gentiles, who, of course, were not bound by the Law. The former seems +the likelier interpretation, the destruction of the Swine being a +fitting punishment for their owners. It must be here remarked, that +our Lord did not, as is often said, destroy the Swine, neither did He +send the devils into them, so that the death of these animals cannot +be reckoned as one of the divine miracles. Ejecting the evil spirits +from the maniacs was an exercise of His divine authority; the +destruction of the Swine was a manifestation of diabolical anger, +permitted, but not dictated. + +The scene of so remarkable an event is naturally of great interest, +especially as the statements of the Evangelists who mention it do not +precisely agree. This subject is so well treated by Mr. Tristram in +his "Land of Israel," that it must be given in his own words:-- + +"The field of the tombs at Gadara presents a vivid illustration of the +circumstances connected with the healing of the demoniac in the +country of the Gadarenes, or Gergesenes. With one exception, all the +concomitant events of the miracle are exactly illustrated. We have +beyond the city the field of tombs, these tombs suited for the refuge +of demoniac outcasts, occupied as dwellings to the present day. We +have a plain suited for the feeding of swine, with its roots and +acorns, and we have a steep place hard by, of several hundred feet +high, [Greek: krêmnon]. But then, it does not run down to the sea, but +to the little river. This objection is, I think, fatal to the +identification of Um Keis with the scene of the miracle. + +"St. Mark (v. 2) tells us that our Lord was met _immediately_ on His +coming out of the ship. This place is three and a half hours distant +from its shores. It is important also to observe that St. Matthew +(viii. 28) reads not Gadarenes, but Gergesenes, and St. Luke states +that the coast of the Gadarenes was over against Galilee (viii. 26). I +should feel thereupon disposed fully to endorse the suggestion of Dr. +Thomson, that St. Matthew, writing for those intimately acquainted +with the topography of the country in detail, names the obscure and +exact locality, _Gergesa_; while SS. Mark and Luke, writing for those +at a distance, simply name the country of Gadara, as being a place of +importance, and the acknowledged capital of the district. This is +borne out by the statement of Josephus ('Bell. Jud.' 1, viii. 35). + +"Dr. Thomson visited, at the mouth of the Wady Semakh, directly +opposite Gennesaret, some ruins called by his guide _Kerza_, or +_Gerza_, which he identifies with the Gergesa of St. Matthew. The +discovery is most interesting and important. I visited the place +myself from a boat, and observed the remains of a valley and a khan; +but, unfortunately, I was not aware at the time of the interest +attaching to the place, and did not ascertain, or at least note down, +the name given to it by my boatmen. + +"The statement of Origen exactly bears out the discovery of Dr. +Thomson. After stating that Gadara was not the scene of the miracle, +for these was thence no steep place into the sea, he states that +Gergesa is an ancient city on the shores of the lake, by which is a +steep place which runs down to it. In one important particular my +memory corroborates the statement of Dr. Thomson, viz. that while +there is here no precipice running sheer to the shore, but a narrow +belt of land, the cliff behind is steep, and the sea so narrow, that a +herd of swine, rushing frantically down, must certainly have been +overwhelmed in the sea before they could recover themselves. + +"While the tombs at Gadara are peculiarly interesting and remarkable, +yet the whole region is so perforated everywhere by rock-chambers of +the dead that we may be quite certain that a home for the demoniac +will not be wanting whatever locality be assigned for the events +recorded by the Evangelists." + +Although that part of the country is well suited for feeding Swine, +the animals are no longer kept. In the first place, there is a great +want of spirit in matters of commerce; and in the second, the country +is so unsettled that the merchants would probably be robbed. The +woods, moreover, furnish nowadays but a scanty supply of acorns, and +those are eaten by the Arabs instead of being given to pigs. + +These animals are at the present day much neglected, because the +Mahometans and Jews may not eat the flesh, and the Christians, as a +rule, abstain from it, so that they may not hurt the feelings of their +neighbours. Pigs are however reared in the various monasteries, and by +the Arabs attached to them; the former eating the hog, and the latter +only breeding it for sale. Signor Pierotti states that the pigs become +as part of the family, who live and grow fat together with them. +Though, he remarks, they are not so intelligent as those that listened +to St. Anthony preaching in the Thebaid, they play with the children, +understand the language of their masters, and do not disdain to play +with the fowls, dogs, cats, asses, and horses, and are much more +nimble than their European brethren, although they are smaller in size +and not so spirited. + +Although the pig was so detested by the Jews, they were evidently well +acquainted with it. St. Peter, for example, in his Second Epistle, +chap. ii. 22, refers to the habit of wallowing in the mire, a custom +which is common to all the pachydermatous animals, which, in spite of +their thick hide, are very sensitive to the attacks of flies, and +cover themselves with mud in order to defend themselves against their +tiny but dreaded enemies. + +In connexion with the Swine, there is a passage in the Proverbs which +requires a slight comment. It occurs in chap. xi. 22: "As a jewel (or +pendant) of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman which is +without discretion." The sacred writer refers here to the custom +adopted by Oriental women of wearing a ring in the nostril--a custom +which has existed to the present day, and is familiar to all those who +have travelled in the East. The plan which is generally adopted is +that of boring a hole through the nostril, passing a ring through it, +and, when the wound has healed, hanging various jewels and other +ornaments upon the ring, so as to constitute the "pendant of gold" +mentioned in the proverb. + +The image used by our Lord of casting pearls before Swine needs no +explanation. + +We now come to the wild animal. Their is only one passage in the +Scriptures in which the WILD BOAR is definitely mentioned, and another +in which a reference is made to it in a paraphrase. + +The former of these is the well-known verse of the Psalms: "Why hast +thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do +pluck her? + +"The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the +field doth devour it" (Ps. lxxx. 12, 13). The second passage is to be +found in Ps. lxviii. 30. In the Authorized Version it is thus +rendered: "Rebuke the company of spearmen, the multitude of bulls, +with the calves of the people." If the reader will refer to the +marginal translation (which, it must be remarked, is of equal +authority with the text), the passage runs thus: "Rebuke the beasts of +the reeds," &c. Now, this is undoubtedly the correct rendering, and is +accepted in the Jewish Bible. + +Having quoted these two passages, we will proceed to the description +and character of the animal. + +In the former times, the Wild Boar was necessarily much more plentiful +than is the case in these days, owing to the greater abundance of +woods, many of which have disappeared by degrees, and others been +greatly thinned by the encroachments of mankind. Woods and reed-beds +are always the habitations of the Wild Boar, which resides in these +fastnesses, and seems always to prefer the reed-bed to the wood, +probably because it can find plenty of mud, in which it wallows after +the fashion of its kind. There is no doubt whatever that the "beast of +the reeds" is simply a poetical phrase for the Wild Boar. + +If there should be any cultivated ground in the neighbourhood, the +Boar is sure to sally out and do enormous damage to the crops. It is +perhaps more dreaded in the vineyards than in any other ground, as it +not only devours the grapes, but tears down and destroys the vines, +trampling them under foot, and destroying a hundredfold as much as it +eats. + + [Illustration: WILD BOAR OF PALESTINE. + + "The Boar out of the wood doth waste it."--PS. lxxx. 13.] + +If the reader will refer again to Ps. lxxx. he will see that the +Jewish nation is described under the image of a vine: "Thou hast +brought a vine out of Egypt: Thou hast cast out the heathen and +planted it," &c. No image of a destructive enemy could therefore +be more appropriate than that which is used. We have read of +the little foxes that spoil the vines, but the Wild Boar is a much +more destructive enemy, breaking its way through the fences, rooting +up the ground, tearing down the vines themselves, and treading them +under its feet. A single party of these animals will sometimes destroy +an entire vineyard in a single night. + +We can well imagine the damage that would be done to a vineyard even +by the domesticated Swine, but the Wild Boar is infinitely more +destructive. It is of very great size, often resembling a donkey +rather than a boar, and is swift and active beyond conception. The +Wild Boar is scarcely recognisable as the very near relation of the +domestic species. It runs with such speed, that a high-bred horse +finds some difficulty in overtaking it, while an indifferent steed +would be left hopelessly behind. Even on level ground the hunter has +hard work to overtake it; and if it can get upon broken or hilly +ground, no horse can catch it. The Wild Boar can leap to a +considerable distance, and can wheel and turn when at full speed, with +an agility that makes it a singularly dangerous foe. Indeed, the +inhabitants of countries where the Wild Boar flourishes would as soon +face a lion as one of these animals, the stroke of whose razor-like +tusks is made with lightning swiftness, and which is sufficient to rip +up a horse, and cut a dog nearly asunder. + +Although the Wild Boar is not as plentiful in Palestine as used to be +the case, it is still found in considerable numbers. Whenever the +inhabitants can contrive to cut off the retreat of marauding parties +among the crops, they turn out for a general hunt, and kill as many as +they can manage to slay. After one of these hunts, the bodies are +mostly exposed for sale, but, as the demand for them is very small, +they can be purchased at a very cheap rate. Signor Pierotti bought one +in the plains of Jericho for five shillings. For the few who may eat +the hog, this is a fortunate circumstance, the flesh being very +excellent, and as superior to ordinary pork as is a pheasant to a +barn-door fowl, or venison to mutton. + + + + +THE ELEPHANT. + + The Elephant indirectly mentioned in the Authorized + Version--Solomon's ivory throne--Ivory used in Egypt--Horns of + ivory--The ivory palaces--Beds of ivory--The Tyrian ships--Ivory + mentioned by Homer--Vessels of ivory--The Elephant as an engine + of war--Antiochus and his Elephants--Oriental + exaggeration--Self-devotion of Eleazar--Attacking the Elephants, + and their gradual abandonment in war--The Talmudical writers on + the Elephant--A funeral and an omen. + + +Except indirectly, the Elephant is never mentioned in the Authorized +Version of the Canonical Scriptures, although frequent references are +made to ivory, the product of that animal. + +The earliest mention of ivory in the Scriptures is to be found in 1 +Kings x. 18: "Moreover the king (_i.e._ Solomon) made a great throne +of ivory, and overlaid it with the best gold." This passage forms a +portion of the description given by the sacred historian of the +glories of Solomon's palace, of which this celebrated throne, with the +six steps and the twelve lions on the steps, was the central and most +magnificent object. It is named together with the three hundred golden +shields, the golden vessel of the royal palace, and the wonderful +arched viaduct crossing the valley of the Tyropoeon, "the ascent by +which he went up unto the house of the Lord," all of which glories so +overcame the Queen of Sheba that "there was no more spirit in her." + +We see, therefore, that in the time of Solomon ivory was so precious +an article that it was named among the chief of the wonders to be seen +in the palace of Solomon, the wealthiest and most magnificent monarch +of sacred or profane history. + +That it should not have been previously mentioned is very singular. +Five hundred years had elapsed since the Israelites escaped from the +power of Egypt, and during the whole of that time, though gold and +silver and precious stones and costly raiment are repeatedly +mentioned, we do not find a single passage in which any allusion is +made to ivory. Had we not known that ivory was largely used among the +Egyptians, such an omission would cause no surprise. But the +researches of modern travellers have brought to light many articles of +ivory that were in actual use in Egypt, and we therefore cannot but +wonder that a material so valued and so beautiful does not seem to +have been reckoned among the treasures which were brought by the +Israelites from the land of their captivity, and which were so +abundant that the Tabernacle was entirely formed of them. + +In the various collections of Europe are many specimens of ivory used +by the ancient Egyptians, among the chief of which may be mentioned an +ivory box in the Louvre, having on its lid the name of the dynasty in +which it was carved, and the ivory-tipped lynch-pins of the splendid +war-chariot in Florence, from which the illustration on page 260 has +been drawn. + +The ivory used by the Egyptians was, of course, that of the African +Elephant; and was obtained chiefly from Ethiopia, as we find in +Herodotus ("Thalia," 114):--"Where the meridian declines towards the +setting sun, the Ethiopian territory reaches, being the extreme part +of the habitable world. It produces much gold, huge elephants, wild +trees of all kinds, ebony, and men of large stature, very handsome and +long-lived." + +Solomon may have procured from the same source part of the ivory which +he used so lavishly, but it is evident that he was also supplied from +India. In 1 Kings x. 22 we read: "For the king had at sea a navy of +Tharshish with the navy of Hiram: once in three years came the navy of +Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks." +The reader will remark that an opinion has already been expressed that +the country whence these articles were brought must be India, and this +conjecture is strengthened by the Hebrew names given to the apes, the +peacocks, and the ivory, which are almost identical with the words +employed in the Cingalese language of the present day. + +The usual Hebrew word for ivory is _shen_, i.e. a tooth, the +Israelites being perfectly aware that it was the product of a tooth, +and not of a horn. It is true that in one passage the word "horn" is +used in connexion with the term "ivory," or "tooth," in such a manner +that a reader of the English Version might imagine the sacred writers +to think that ivory was obtained from the horn of some animal. This +passage occurs in the prophet Ezekiel, xxvii. 15. Speaking of Tyre and +her greatness, the prophet uses the following terms: "The men of Dedan +were thy merchants; many isles were the merchandise of thine hand: +they brought thee for a present horns of ivory and ebony." + +If we refer to the Hebrew Bible, we shall find that the literal +translation of this passage runs as follows: "The men of Dedan were +thy traders; many maritime settlements were the merchandise of thine +hand: they offered thee as a price horns of teeth and ebony." It is +evident that the word _kerenoth_, or horns, is used to represent the +horn-like shape of the Elephant's tusk, as it appears when imported +into the country, the use of the term _shen_, or tooth, showing that +the shape and not material is to be implied by the term. + +Now if the reader will look at a passage which has already been quoted +(1 Kings x. 22), he will see that the marginal reading translates the +word "ivory" as "elephants' teeth." This rendering is undoubtedly the +correct one. The Hebrew word is _shen-habbim_, and there is little, if +any, doubt that the term _habbim_ is rightly translated as +"elephants." A similar word, _Habba_, is found in the Assyrian +inscriptions, and is thought by Sir H. Rawlinson to have the same +signification. + +It will be as well to mention here a curious version of Gen. 1. 1, in +which Joseph is said to have placed the body of his father upon a bier +of _shin-daphin_, or ivory. + +After the passage in 1 Kings, ivory is repeatedly mentioned, sometimes +in allusion to its smoothness and whiteness, and sometimes to its use +as a luxurious appendage of the palace. For its use in the former +sense, we may take the well-known passage in the Song of Solomon: "His +hands are as gold rings set with the beryl: his belly is as bright +ivory overlaid with sapphires" (Cant. v. 14). Also vii. 4, "Thy neck +is as a tower of ivory." + +For its use in the second of these senses we may take several +passages. See, for example, Ps. xlv. 8: "All thy garments smell of +myrrh, aloes, and cassia, out of the ivory palaces, whereby they have +made thee glad." It has been suggested that the words "ivory palaces" +may signify boxes or chests inlaid with ivory, in which were deposited +the royal garments, together with perfumes. Whether or not this be the +case, it is evident that the ivory is here mentioned as a costly +adjunct of royal luxury. + +There are, however, passages in which ivory is distinctly mentioned as +forming part of the adornment of houses. For example, see 1 Kings +xxii. 39: "Now the rest of the acts of Ahab, and all that he did, and +the ivory house which he made, are they not written in the book of the +chronicles of the kings of Israel?" The "ivory house" could not, of +course, be built wholly of ivory, and it is evident that by the term +is signified a palace, the rooms of which were inlaid with ivory. +Another mention of such houses is made in Amos iii. 15: "And I will +smite the winter house with the summer house; and the houses of ivory +shall perish, and the great houses shall have an end, saith the Lord." + +Chambers thus decorated are to be seen at the present day, and it is +remarkable that ivory is still used, together with ebony, in panelling +the walls of rooms--a combination which is mentioned in several of the +passages which have already been quoted. + +The use of ivory as an article of luxury is also mentioned in Amos vi. +4: "Woe to them ... that lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch +themselves upon their couches." And in Ezekiel xxvii. 6, the +overwhelming wealth and luxury of Tyre are pictured by the costly +materials of which the Assyrians built their ships--the planks of +Senir fir, the masts of cedar, the oars of Bashan oak, the sails of +fine linen, and the very benches on which the rowers sat, inlaid with +ivory. How accurate was the prophet in the details of his bodings, is +shown by the research of Mr. Layard, who found among the buried ruins +of Nineveh great quantities of ivory, some manufactured, and some in +its original state as imported--the uncut tusks, or "horns of ivory," +to which reference has already been made. + +The classical reader need scarcely be reminded of the parallel between +passages of Scripture and those of profane authors, in which ivory is +mentioned as a costly ornament. See, for example, the Iliad, book v. +484:-- + + "From his numbed hands the iv'ry studded reins, + Dropped in the dust, are trailed along the plains." + + (_Lines_ 712, 713, POPE'S _Version_.) + +In ancient Greece, as well as in Assyria, the beds of the wealthy were +adorned with ivory. Ulysses, for example (see Odyssey, book xxi.), +king as he was, made his own bridal bed of hide thongs interlaced, and +inlaid the posts with gold, ivory, and silver. And, in the beginning +of the same book, we find that the key of the royal armoury was made +of brass inlaid with ivory. + +There is only one passage in the New Testament in which ivory is +mentioned: "And the merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over +her, for no man buyeth their merchandise any more; the merchandise of +gold, and silver, and precious stones, ... and all manner vessels of +ivory." (Rev. xviii. 11, 12.) + + +Having now examined the passages in which ivory is mentioned, we turn +to those in which the Elephant itself is named. These are only to be +found in the Apocrypha, and in all of them the Elephant is described +as an engine of war. If the reader will refer to the First Book of the +Maccabees, he will find that the Elephant is mentioned at the very +commencement of the book. "Now when the kingdom was established before +Antiochus, he thought to reign over Egypt, that he might have the +dominion of two realms. + +"Wherefore he entered into Egypt with a great multitude, with +chariots, and elephants, and horsemen, and a great navy." (i. 16, 17.) + +Here we see that the Elephant was considered as a most potent engine +of war, and, as we may perceive by the context, the King of Egypt was +so alarmed by the invading force, that he ran away, and allowed +Antiochus to take possession of the country. + +After this, Antiochus Eupator marched against Jerusalem with a vast +army, which is thus described in detail:--"The number of his army was +one hundred thousand footmen, and twenty thousand horsemen, and two +and thirty elephants exercised in battle. + +"And to the end that they might provoke the elephants to fight, they +showed them the blood of grapes and mulberries. + +"Moreover, they divided the beasts among the armies, and for every +elephant they appointed a thousand men, armed with coats of mail, and +with helmets of brass on their heads; and, besides this, for every +beast were ordained five hundred horsemen of the best. + +"These were ready at every occasion wheresoever the beast was; and +whithersoever the beast went they went also, neither departed they +from him. + +"And upon the beasts were there strong towers of wood, which covered +every one of them, and were girt fast unto them with devices; there +were also upon every one two and thirty strong men that fought upon +them, beside the Indian that ruled him. + +"As for the remnant of the horsemen, they set them on this side and +that side at the two fronts of the host, giving them signs what to do, +and being harnessed all over amidst the ranks." (1 Macc. vi. 30, &c.) + +It is evident from this description that, in the opinion of the +writer, the Elephants formed the principal arms of the opposing force, +these animals being prominently mentioned, and the rest of the army +being reckoned as merely subsidiaries of the terrible beasts. The +thirty-two Elephants appear to have taken such a hold of the +narrator's mind, that he evidently looked upon them in the same light +that the ancient Jews regarded chariots of war, or as at the present +day savages regard artillery. According to his ideas, the thirty-two +Elephants constituted the real army, the hundred thousand infantry and +twenty thousand cavalry being only in attendance upon these animals. + +Taken as a whole, the description of the war Elephant is a good one, +though slightly exaggerated, and is evidently written by an +eye-witness. The mention of the native mahout, or "Indian that guided +him," is characteristic enough, as is the account of the howdah, or +wooden carriage on the back of the animal. + +The number of warriors, however, is evidently exaggerated, though not +to such an extent as the account of Julius Cæsar's Elephants, which +are said to have carried on their backs sixty soldiers, beside the +wooden tower in which they fought. It is evident that, in the first +place, no Elephant could carry a tower large enough to hold so many +fighting men, much less one which would afford space for them to use +their weapons. + +A good account of the fighting Elephant is given by Topsel (p. +157):--"There were certain officers and guides of the Elephants, who +were called _Elephantarchæ_, who were the governors of sixteen +Elephants, and they which did institute and teach them martial +discipline were called _Elephantagogi_. + +"The Military Elephant did carry four persons on his bare back, one +fighting on the right hand, another fighting on the left hand, a +third, which stood fighting backwards from the Elephant's head, and a +fourth in the middle of these, holding the rains, and guiding the +Beast to the discretion of the Souldiers, even as the Pilot in a ship +guideth the stem, wherein was required an equall knowledge and +dexterity; for when the Indian which ruled them said, Strike here on +the right hand, or else on the left, or refrain and stand still, no +reasonable man could yield readier obedience." + +This description is really a very accurate as well as spirited one, +and conveys a good idea of the fighting Elephant as it appeared when +brought into action. + +Strangely enough, after giving this temperate and really excellent +account of the war Elephant, the writer seems to have been unable to +resist the fascination of his theme, and proceeds to describe, with +great truth and spirit, the mode of fighting adopted by the animal, +intermixed with a considerable amount of the exaggeration from which +the former part of his account is free. + +"They did fasten iron chains, first of all, upon the Elephant that was +to bear ten, fifteen, twenty, or thirty men, on either side two +panniers of iron bound underneath their belly, and upon them the like +panniers of wood, hollow, wherein they placed their men at armes, and +covered them over with small boards (for the trunck of the Elephant +was covered with a mail for defence, and upon that a broadsword, two +cubits long); this (as also the wooden Castle, or pannier aforesaid) +were fastened first to the neck and then to the rump of the Elephant. + +"Being thus armed, they entered the battel, and they shewed unto the +Beasts, to make them more fierce, wine, liquor made of Rice, and white +cloth, for at the sight of any of these his courage and rage +increaseth above all measure. Then at the sound of the Trumpet, he +beginneth with teeth to strike, tear, beat, spoil, take up into the +air, cast down again, stamp upon men under feet, overthrow with his +trunck, and make way for his riders to pierce with Spear, Shield, and +Sword; so that his horrible voice, his wonderful body, his terrible +force, his admirable skill, his ready and inestimable obedience, and +his strange and seldom-seen shape, produced in a main battel no mean +accidents and overturns." + +In this account there is a curious mixture of truth and exaggeration. +As we have already seen, the number of soldiers which the animal was +supposed to carry is greatly exaggerated, and it is rather amusing to +note how the "towers" in which they fought are modified into +"panniers." Then the method by which the animal is incited to the +combat is partly true, and partly false. Of course an Elephant is not +angered by seeing a piece of white cloth, or by looking at wine, or a +liquor made of rice. + +But that the wine, or the "liquor made of rice," _i.e._ arrack, was +administered to the Elephant before it was brought into the +battle-field, is likely enough. Elephants are wonderfully fond of +strong drink. They can be incited to perform any task within their +powers by a provision of arrack, and when stimulated by a plentiful +supply of their favourite drink they would be in good fighting +condition. + +Next we find the writer describing the Elephant as being furnished +with a coating of mail armour on its proboscis, the end of which was +armed with a sword a yard in length. Now any one who is acquainted +with the Elephant will see at once that such offensive and defensive +armour would deprive the animal of the full use of the proboscis, and +would, therefore, only weaken, and not strengthen, its use in battle. +Accordingly we find that the writer, when describing with perfect +accuracy the mode in which the Elephant fights, utterly omits all +mention of the sword and the mailed proboscis, and describes the +animal, not as striking or thrusting with the sword, but as +overthrowing with the trunk, taking up into the air, and casting down +again--acts which could only be performed when the proboscis was +unencumbered by armour. The use of weapons was left to the soldiers +that fought upon its back, the principal object of the huge animal +being to trample its way through the opposing ranks, and to make a way +for the soldiers that followed. + +It may be easily imagined that, before soldiers become familiarized +with the appearance of the Elephant, they might be pardoned for being +panic-struck at the sight of so strange an animal. Not only was it +formidable for its vast size, and for the armed men which it carried, +but for the obedience which it rendered to its keeper, and the skill +with which it wielded the strange but powerful weapon with which +Nature had armed it. + +At first, the very approach of so terrible a foe struck consternation +into the soldiers, who knew of no mode by which they could oppose the +gigantic beast, which came on in its swift, swinging pace, crushing +its way by sheer weight through the ranks, and striking right and left +with its proboscis. No other method of checking the Elephant, except +by self-sacrifice, could be found; and in 1 Macc. vi. 43-46, we read +how Eleazar, the son of Mattathias, nobly devoted himself for his +country. + +"Eleazar also, surnamed Savaran, perceiving that one of the beasts, +armed with royal harness, was higher than all the rest, and supposing +that the king was upon him. + +"Put himself in jeopardy, to the end he might deliver his people, and +get him a perpetual name. + +"Whereupon he ran upon him courageously, through the midst of the +battle, slaying on the right hand and on the left, so that they were +divided from him on both sides. + +"Which done, he crept under the elephant, and thrust him under, and +slew him; whereupon the elephant fell down upon him, and he died." + +I may here mention that the surname of Savaran, or Avaran, as it ought +to be called, signifies one who pierces an animal from behind, and was +given to him after his death, in honour of his exploit. + +At first, then, Elephants were the most formidable engines of war that +could be brought into the battle-field, and the very sight of these +huge beasts, towering above even the helmets of the cavalry, +disheartened the enemy so much that victory became easy. + +After a while, however, when time for reflection had been allowed, the +more intellectual among the soldiers began to think that, after all, +the Elephant was not a mere engine, but a living animal, and, as such, +subject to the infirmities of the lower animals. So they invented +scheme after scheme, by which they baffled the attacks of these once +dreaded foes, and sometimes even succeeded in driving them back among +the ranks of their own soldiery, so maddened with pain and anger, +that they dealt destruction among the soldiers for whom they were +fighting, and so broke up their order of battle that the foe easily +overcame them. + +The vulnerable nature of the proboscis was soon discovered, and +soldiers were armed with very sharp swords, set on long handles, with +which they continually attacked the Elephants' trunks. Others were +mounted on swift horses, dashed past the Elephant, and hurled their +darts before the animal could strike them. Others, again, were placed +in chariots, and armed with very long and sharply-pointed spears. +Several of these chariots would be driven simultaneously against an +Elephant, and sometimes succeeded in killing the animal. Slingers also +were told off for the express purpose of clearing the "castles," or +howdahs, of the soldiers who fought on the Elephants' backs, and their +especial object was the native mahout, who sat on the animal's neck. + +Sometimes they made way for the Elephant as it pressed forward, and +then closed round it, so as to make it the central mark, on which +converged a hail of javelins, arrows, and stones on every side, until +the huge animal sank beneath its many wounds. By degrees, therefore, +the Elephant was found to be so uncertain an engine of war, that its +use was gradually discontinued, and finally abandoned altogether. + + +The Elephant which was employed in these wars was the Indian species, +_Elephas Indicus_, which is thought to be more susceptible of +education than the African Elephant. The latter, however, has been +tamed, and, in the days of Rome's greatest splendour, was taught to +perform a series of tricks that seem almost incredible. As, however, +the Indian species is that with which we have here to do, I have +selected it for the illustration. + +It may be at once distinguished from its African relative by the +comparatively small ears, those of the African Elephant reaching above +the back of the head, and drooping well below the neck. The shape of +the head, too, is different. In the Indian species, only the males +bear tusks, and even many of them are unarmed. In the African species, +however, both sexes bear tusks, those of the male furnishing the best +ivory, with its peculiar creamy colour and beautiful graining, and +those of the female being smaller in size, and producing ivory of a +much inferior quality. + + [Illustration: INDIAN ELEPHANT + + "They brought thee for a present horns of Ivory"--EZ. xxvii. 15.] + +The Talmudical writers have not much to say about the Elephant, and +what they do say is rather ludicrous than otherwise. The proboscis, +say they, gives the animal a very ugly look, so that to dream of the +trunk of an Elephant is a bad omen. Indeed, it is so odd a substitute +for a nose, that when people look at it they say, "Praised be He who +can thus transform His creatures." + +Largest and strongest of earth's inhabitants, the Elephant is yet +afraid of the smallest. The gnat attacks him, flies into the open end +of the proboscis, and sucks his blood at its ease. + +It is rather remarkable that there is an ironical adage respecting the +Elephant and the eye of the needle, exactly similar to the familiar +proverb of the camel and the needle's eye. + + + + +THE CONEY, OR HYRAX. + + The Shaphan of Scripture, and the correct meaning of the + word--Identification of the Shaphan with the Syrian + Hyrax--Description of the animal--Its feet, teeth, and apparent + rumination--Passages in which the Coney is mentioned--Habits of + the animal--Its activity and wariness--The South African Hyrax, + and its mode of life--Difficulty of procuring it--Similarity in + appearance and habits of the Syrian species--Three species of + Hyrax known to naturalists--The Talmudical writers on the + Shaphan--The jerboa and the rabbit--A curious speculation and a + judicious compromise. + + +Among the many animals mentioned in the Bible, there is one which is +evidently of some importance in the Jewish code, inasmuch as it is +twice named in the Mosaic law. + +That it was also familiar to the Jews is evident from other references +which are made to its habits. This animal is the Shaphan of the Hebrew +language, a word which has very wrongly been translated in the +Authorized Version as Coney, _i.e._ Rabbit, the creature in question +not being a rabbit, nor even a rodent. No rabbit has ever been +discovered in Palestine, and naturalists have agreed that the +true Coney or Rabbit has never inhabited the Holy Land. There +is no doubt that the Shaphan of the Hebrew Scripture, and the Coney of +the Vulgate, was the SYRIAN HYRAX (_Hyrax Syriacus_). This little +animal is rather larger than an ordinary rabbit, is not unlike it in +appearance, and has many of its habits. It is clothed with brown fur, +it is very active, it inhabits holes and clefts in rocks, and it has +in the front of its mouth long chisel-shaped teeth, very much like +those of the rabbit. Consequently, it was classed by naturalists among +the rodents for many years, under the name of Rock Rabbit. Yet, as I +have already mentioned, it is not even a rodent, but belongs to the +pachydermatous group of animals, and occupies an intermediate place +between the rhinoceros and the hippopotamus. + + [Illustration: THE HYRAX. + + "_The Conies are but a feeble folk, yet make they their houses in the + rocks._"--PROV. xxx. 26.] + +If it be examined carefully, the rodent-like teeth will be seen to +resemble exactly the long curved tusks of the hippopotamus, with +their sharp and chisel-edged tips; the little feet, on a close +inspection, are seen to be furnished with a set of tiny hoofs just +like those of the rhinoceros; and there are many other points in its +structure which, to the eye of a naturalist, point out its true place +in nature. + +In common with the rodents, and other animals which have +similarly-shaped teeth, the Hyrax, when at rest, is continually +working its jaws from side to side, a movement which it instinctively +performs, in order that the chiselled edges of the upper and lower +teeth may be preserved sharp by continually rubbing against each +other, and that they may not be suffered to grow too long, and so to +deprive the animal of the means whereby it gains its food. But for +this peculiar movement, which looks very like the action of +ruminating, the teeth would grow far beyond the mouth, as they rapidly +deposit dental material in their bases in order to supply the waste +caused at their tips by the continual friction of the edges against +each other. + +It may seem strange that an animal which is classed with the elephant, +the rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, all bare-skinned animals, should +be clothed with a furry coat. The reader may perhaps remember that the +Hyrax does not afford a solitary instance of this structure, and that, +although the elephants of our day have only a few bristly hairs thinly +scattered over the body, those of former days were clad in a thick and +treble coat of fur and hair. + + +There are four passages of Scripture in which the Coney is +mentioned--two in which it is prohibited as food, and two in which +allusion is made to its manner of life. In order to understand the +subject better, we will take them in their order. + +The first mention of the Coney occurs in Leviticus xi. 5, among the +list of clean and unclean animals: "The coney, because he cheweth the +cud, but divideth not the hoof; he is unclean unto you." The second is +of a like nature, and is to be found in Deut. xiv. 7: "These ye shall +not eat of them that chew the cud, or of them that divide the cloven +hoof; as the camel, and the hare, and the coney: for they chew the +cud, but divide not the hoof; therefore they are unclean unto you." + +The remaining passages, which describe the habits of the Coney, are as +follow. The first alludes to the rock-loving habits of the animal: +"The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats, and the rocks for the +conies." (Ps. civ. 18.) The second makes a similar mention of the +localities which the animal frequents, and in addition speaks of its +wariness, including it among the "four things which are little upon +the earth, but they are exceedingly wise." The four are the ants, the +locusts, the spiders, and the Conies, which "are but a feeble folk, +yet make they their houses in the rocks." + +We will take these passages in their order. + +It has already been mentioned that the Hyrax, a true pachyderm, does +not merely chew the cud, but that the peculiar and constant movement +of its jaws strongly resembles the act of rumination. The Jews, +ignorant as they were of scientific zoology, would naturally set down +the Hyrax as a ruminant, and would have been likely to eat it, as its +flesh is very good. It must be remembered that two conditions were +needful to render an animal fit to be eaten by a Jew, the one that it +must be a ruminant, and the second that it should have a divided hoof. +Granting, therefore, the presence of the former qualification, Moses +points out the absence of the latter, thereby prohibiting the animal +as effectually as if he had entered into a question of comparative +anatomy, and proved that the Hyrax was incapable of rumination. + +We now come to the habits of the animal. + +As we may gather from the passages of Scripture which have already +been mentioned, the Hyrax inhabits rocky places, and lives in the +clefts that are always found in such localities. It is an exceedingly +active creature, leaping from rock to rock with wonderful rapidity, +its little sharp hoofs giving it a firm hold of the hard and irregular +surface of the stony ground. Even in captivity it retains much of its +activity, and flies about its cage with a rapidity that seems more +suitable to a squirrel than to an animal allied to the rhinoceros and +hippopotamus. + +There are several species--perhaps only varieties--of the Hyrax, all +of them identical in habits, and almost precisely similar in +appearance. The best known of these animals is that which inhabits +Southern Africa (_Hyrax Capensis_), and which is familiar to the +colonists by its name of Klip-das, or Rock-rabbit. In situations which +suit it, the Hyrax is very plentiful, and is much hunted by the +natives, who esteem its flesh very highly. Small and insignificant as +it appears to be, even Europeans think that to kill the Hyrax is a +tolerable test of sportsmanship, the wariness of the animal being so +great that much hunter's craft is required to approach it. + +The following account of the Hyrax has been furnished to me by +Lt.-Col. A. W. Drayson, R.A.:--"In the Cape Colony, and over a great +portion of Southern Africa, this little creature is found. It is +never, as far as my experience goes, seen in great numbers, as we find +rabbits in England, though the caution of the animal is such as to +enable it to remain safe in districts from which other animals are +soon exterminated. + +"As its name implies, it is found among rocks, in the crevices and +holes of which it finds a retreat. When a natural cavity is not found, +the klip-das scratches a hole in the ground under the rocks, and +burrows like a common rabbit. In size it is about equal to a hare, +though it is much shorter in the legs, and has ears more like those of +a rat than a rabbit. Its skin is covered with fur, thick and woolly, +as though intended for a colder climate than that in which it is +usually found; and, when seen from a distance, it looks nearly black. + +"The rock-rabbit is a very watchful creature, and usually feeds on the +summit of any piece of rock near its home, always choosing one from +which it can obtain a good view of the surrounding country. When it +sees an enemy approaching, it sits rigidly on the rock and watches him +without moving, so that at a little distance it is almost impossible +to distinguish it from the rock on which it sits. When it does move, +it darts quickly out of sight, and disappears into its burrow with a +sudden leap. + +"In consequence of its activity and cunning, the rock-rabbit is seldom +killed by white men; and when a hunter does secure one, it is +generally by means of a long shot. The natives usually watch near its +burrow, or noiselessly stalk it. + +"I once killed one of these animals by a very long shot from a rifle, +as it was sitting watching us from the top of a large boulder, at a +distance of a hundred and fifty yards or thereabouts. The Dutch Boers +who were with me were delighted at the sight of it, as they said it +was good eating; and so it proved to be, the flesh being somewhat like +that of a hare, though in our rough field-cookery we could not do +justice to it." + +This short narrative excellently illustrates the character of the +animal, which is classed among the "four things which be exceeding +wise." It is so crafty that no trap or snare ever set has induced a +Hyrax to enter it, and so wary that it is with difficulty to be killed +even with the aid of fire-arms. "No animal," writes Mr. Tristram, +"ever gave us so much trouble to secure.... The only chance of +securing one is to be concealed, particularly about sunset or before +sunrise, on some overhanging cliff, taking care not to let the shadow +be cast below, and then to wait until the little creatures cautiously +peep forth from their holes. They are said to be common by those who +have not looked for them, but are certainly not abundant in Palestine, +and few writers have ever had more than a single glimpse of one. I had +the good fortune to see one feeding in the gorge of the Kedron, and +then to watch it as it sat at the mouth of its hole, ruminating, +metaphorically if not literally, while waiting for sunset." + +Should the Hyrax manage to catch a glimpse of the enemy, it utters a +shrill cry or squeal, and darts at once to its hole--an action which +is followed by all its companions as soon as they hear the warning +cry. It is a tolerably prolific animal, rearing four or five young at +a birth, and keeping them in a soft bed of hay and fur, in which they +are almost hidden. If surprised in its hole and seized, the Hyrax will +bite very sharply, its long chisel-edged teeth inflicting severe +wounds on the hand that attempts to grasp it. But it is of a tolerably +docile disposition, and in a short time learns to know its owner, and +to delight in receiving his caresses. + +Three species of Hyrax are known to naturalists. One is the Klip-das, +or Rock-rabbit, of Southern Africa; the second is the Ashkoko of +Abyssinia; and the third is the Syrian Hyrax, or the Coney of the +Bible. The two last species have often been confounded together, but +the Syrian animal may be known by the oblong pale spot on the middle +of its back. + +The Talmudical writers were greatly perplexed about the proper reading +of the word Shaphan, some of them thinking it to be a jerboa, and +others considering it as the rabbit. Lewysohn sums up the arguments +after a rather curious fashion. According to him, the strongest +argument against the translation of the Biblical word Shaphan as +"rabbit" is that the animal came from Spain, and was probably unknown +to the earlier Talmudists, though the later writers might have known +it. + +Then, struck with the resemblance of the Hebrew word [Hebrew: Sh'p'n] +and Spain, he proceeds to discuss the probability of the Shaphan +deriving its name from Spain, the country of its origin, or of Spain +being so called on account of the number of rabbits which inhabited +it. He comes at last to the conclusion that the jerboa was probably +the animal which was prohibited in the Mosaic law; but that, as the +rabbit answered in every respect to the Talmudical conditions, it may, +for all practical purposes, be accepted as the representative of the +Shaphan of Scripture. + + + + +BEHEMOTH. + + Literal translation of the word Behemoth--Various theories + respecting the identity of the animal--The Hippopotamus known to + the ancient Hebrews--Geographical range of the animal--"He + eateth grass like the ox"--Ravages of the Hippopotamus among the + crops--Structure of the mouth and teeth--The "sword or scythe" + of the Hippopotamus--Some strange theories--Haunts of the + Hippopotamus--The Egyptian hunter--A valuable painting--Strength + of the Hippopotamus--Rising of the Nile--Modern + hunters--Wariness of the Hippopotamus--The pitfall and the + drop-trap. + + +In the concluding part of that wonderful poem which is so familiar to +us as the Book of Job, the Lord is represented as reproving the +murmurs of Job, by showing that he could not even understand the +mysteries of the universe, much less the purposes of the Creator. By +presuming to bring a charge of injustice against his Maker, he in fact +inferred that the accuser was more competent to govern the world than +was the Creator, and thus laid himself open to the unanswerable irony +of the splendid passages contained in chapters xl. xli., which show +that man cannot even rule the animals, his fellow-creatures, much less +control the destinies of the human race. + +The passages with which we are at present concerned are to be found at +the end of the fortieth chapter, and contain a most powerful +description of some animal which is called by the name of Behemoth. +Now this word only occurs once in the whole of the Scriptures, _i.e._ +in Job xl. 15: "Behold now behemoth, which I made with thee," &c. Some +commentators, in consequence of the plural termination of the word, +which may be literally translated as "beasts," have thought that it +was a collective term for all the largest beasts of the world, such as +the elephant, the hippopotamus, the wild cattle, and their like. +Others have thought that the elephant was signified by the word +Behemoth; and some later writers, acquainted with palæontology, have +put forward a conjecture that the Behemoth must have been some extinct +pachydermatous animal, like the dinotherium, in which might be +combined many of the qualities of the elephant and hippopotamus. + +It is now, however, agreed by all Biblical scholars and naturalists, +that the hippopotamus, and no other animal, is the creature which was +signified by the word Behemoth, and this interpretation is followed in +the Jewish Bible. + +We will now take the whole of the passage, and afterwards examine it +by degrees, comparing the Authorized Version with the Jewish Bible, +and noting at the same time one or two variations in the rendering of +certain phrases. The passage is given as follows in the Jewish Bible, +and may be compared with our Authorized Version:-- + +"Behold now the river-horse, which I have made with thee: he eateth +grass like an ox. + +"Lo now, his strength is in his loins, and his vigour is in the +muscles of his body. + +"He moveth his tail like a cedar: the sinews of his thighs are wrapped +together. + +"His bones are pipes of copper; his bones are like bars of iron. + +"He is the chief of the ways of God: he that made him can alone reach +his sword. + +"That the mountains should bring forth food for him, and all the +beasts of the field play there. + +"He lieth under wild lotuses, in the covert of the reed, and fens. + +"Wild lotuses cover him with their shadow; willows of the brook +compass him about. + +"Behold, should a river overflow, he hasteth not: he feels secure +should Jordan burst forth up to his mouth. + +"He taketh it in with his eyes: his nose pierceth through snares." + +We will now take this description in detail, and see how far it +applies to the now familiar habits of the hippopotamus. A little +allowance must of course be made for poetical imagery, but we shall +find that in all important details the account of the Behemoth agrees +perfectly with the appearance and habits of the hippopotamus. + +In the first place, it is evident that we may dismiss from our minds +the idea that the Behemoth was an extinct pachyderm. The whole tenor +of the passage shows that it must have been an animal then existing, +and whose habits were familiar to Job and his friends. Now the date of +the Book of Job could not have been earlier than about 1500 B.C., and +in, consequence, the ideas of a palæozoic animal must be discarded. + +We may also dismiss the elephant, inasmuch as it was most unlikely +that Job should have known anything about the animal, and it is +certain that he could not have attained the familiarity with its +appearance and habits which is inferred by the context. Moreover, it +cannot be said of the elephant that "he eateth grass as an ox." The +elephant feeds chiefly on the leaves of trees, and when he does eat +grass, he cannot do so "like an ox," but plucks it with his proboscis, +and then puts the green tufts into his mouth. So characteristic a +gesture as this would never have passed unnoticed in a description so +full of detail. + +That the hippopotamus was known to the ancient Hebrews is certain. +After their sojourn in Egypt they had necessarily become familiarized +with it; and if, as most commentators believe, the date of the Book of +Job be subsequent to the liberation of the Israelites, there is no +difficulty in assuming that Job and his companions were well +acquainted with the animal. Even if the book be of an earlier date, it +is still possible that the hippopotamus may, in those days, have lived +in rivers where it is now as much extinct as it is in England. Mr. +Tristram remarks on this point: "No hippopotamus is found in Asia, but +there is no reason for asserting that it may not have had an eastern +range as far as Palestine, and wallowed in the Jordan; for its bones +are found in the _débris_ of the rivers of Algeria, flowing into the +Mediterranean, when tradition is quite silent as to its former +existence. + +"Several extinct species of hippopotamus have been found in the later +tertiary deposits, both of England and other countries of Europe, +embedded in gravel which contains shells of many existing species of +the locality, showing that the temperature has not much changed, and +that some of the fossil species were natives of cold and temperate +climes." + +There is no doubt that the hippopotamus and the urus were the two +largest animals known to the Jews, and it is probably on that account +that the former received the name of Behemoth. + +Assuming, therefore, that the Behemoth is identical with the +hippopotamus, we will proceed with the description. + +The words "whom I made with thee" have been variously translated. Some +Hebraists render them as, "whom I made near thee," _i.e._ near or in +the country in which Job lived. Others read the words, "like as thee," +_i.e._ that the Behemoth was the fellow-creature of Job. Others again +understand them as signifying that the man and the animal were +contemporaneous, and the passage should be read, "whom I made at the +same time with thee." Whichever interpretation we adopt, it is evident +that a parallel of some kind is drawn between the man and the beast. + +"He eateth grass like the ox." The word which is here rendered "grass" +is translated in Numb. xi. 5 as "leeks." It means, something that is +green, and is probably used to signify green herbage of any +description. Now it is perfectly true of the hippopotamus that it eats +grass like an ox, or like cattle, as the passage may be translated. In +order to supply its huge massive body with nourishment, it consumes +vast quantities of food, as indeed may be inferred from the structure +of its mouth and jaws. The mouth is enormously broad and +shovel-shaped, so as to take in a large quantity of food at once; and +the gape is so wide, that when the animal opens its jaws to their full +extent it seems to split its head into two nearly equal portions. This +great mobility of jaw is assisted by the peculiar form of the gape, +which takes a sudden turn upwards, and reaches almost to the eyes. + +Just as the mouth is formed to contain a vast quantity of food, so +the jaws and teeth are made to procure it. From the front of the lower +jaw the incisor teeth project horizontally, no longer performing the +ordinary duties of teeth, but being modified into tusks, which are in +all probability used as levers for prising up the vegetables on which +the animal lives. But the most singular portion of the jaw is the mode +in which the canine teeth are modified so as to resemble the incisor +teeth of rodents, and to perform a similar office. + +These teeth are very long, curved, and chisel-edged at their tips, +their shape being preserved by continual attrition, just as has been +mentioned of the hyrax. The material of the teeth is peculiarly hard, +so much so, indeed, that it is in great request for artificial teeth, +the "verniers" of philosophical instruments, and similar purposes. +Consequently, with these teeth the hippopotamus can cut through the +stems of thick and strong herbage as with shears, and the strength of +its jaws is so great that an angered hippopotamus has been known to +bite a man completely in two, and to crush a canoe to fragments with a +single movement of its enormous jaws. + +Keeping this description in our minds, we shall see how true is the +statement in verse 19. This passage is not adequately rendered in the +Authorized Version: the word which is translated as "sword" also +signifies a scythe, and evidently having that meaning in the text. The +passage is best translated thus: "His Maker hath furnished him with +his scythe." + +The havoc which such an animal can make among growing crops may be +easily imagined. It is fond of leaving the river, and forcing its way +into cultivated grounds, where it eats vast quantities of green food, +and destroys as much as it eats, by the trampling of its heavy feet. +Owing to the width of the animal, the feet are placed very far apart, +and the consequence is that the hippopotamus makes a double path, the +feet of each side trampling down the herbage, and causing the track to +look like a double rut, with an elevated ridge between them. + +Some little difficulty has been made respecting the passage in verse +20, "Surely the mountains bring him forth food." Commentators ignorant +of the habits of the hippopotamus, and not acquainted with the +character of the country where it lives, have thought that the animal +only lived in the rivers, and merely found its food along its banks, +or at most upon the marshes at the river-side. The hippopotamus, say +they, is not a dweller on the mountains, but an inhabitant of the +river, and therefore this passage cannot rightly be applied to the +animal. + +Now, in the first place, the word _harim_, which is translated as +"mountains" in the Authorized Version, is rendered as "hills" by many +Hebraists. Moreover, as we know from many passages of Scripture, the +word "mountain" is applied to any elevated spot, without reference to +its height. Such places are very common along the banks of the Nile, +and are employed for the culture of vegetables, which would not grow +properly upon the flat and marshy lands around them. These spots are +very attractive to the hippopotamus, who likes a change of diet, and +thus finds food upon the mountains. In many parts of Egypt the river +runs through a mountainous country, so that the hills are within a +very short distance of the water, and are easily reached by the +hippopotamus. + +The Talmudical writers exaggerated, after their custom, the +dimensions, voracity, and other attributes of the Behemoth. They said +that the animal devoured daily the herbage of a thousand hills, but +that, in order to prevent the devastation of the world which such +voracity would occasion, the herbage was miraculously renewed every +night. Only two of the Behemoth were ever created, and, lest they +should increase in numbers, and destroy every green thing on the face +of the earth, they were made incapable of propagating their kind. +There are other legends of the Behemoth too puerile to be narrated. + +We will now proceed to the next verse. After mentioning that the +Behemoth can eat grass like an ox, and finds its food upon the hills, +the sacred writer proceeds to show that in its moments of repose it is +an inhabitant of the rivers and marshy ground: "He lieth under the +shady trees, in the covert of the reed, and fens. + +"The shady trees cover him with their shadow; the willows of the brook +compass him about." + +Here I may remind the reader that the compound Hebrew word which is +rendered in the Authorized Version as "shady trees" is translated by +some persons as "wild lotuses"--a rendering which is followed by the +editor of the Jewish Bible. Apparently, however, the Authorized +Version gives a more correct meaning of the term. Judging from a +well-known Egyptian painting, which represents a hunter in the act of +harpooning the hippopotamus, the tall papyrus reeds are the plants +that are signified by this word, which occurs in no other place in the +Scriptures. + +Nothing can be more accurate than this description of the habits of +the animal. I have now before me a number of sketches by Mr. T. +Baines, representing various incidents in the life of the +hippopotamus; and in one or two of them, the little islands that stud +the river, as well as the banks themselves, are thickly clothed with +reeds mixed with papyrus, the whole being exactly similar to those +which are represented in the conventional style of Egyptian art. These +spots are the favourite haunts of the hippopotamus, which loves to lie +under their shadow, its whole body remaining concealed in the water, +and only the eyes, ears, and nostrils appearing above the surface. + +As reference will be made to this painting when we come to the +Leviathan, it will be as well to describe it in detail. In order that +the reader should fully understand it, I have had it translated, so to +speak, from the conventional outline of Egyptian art into perspective, +exactly as has been done with the Assyrian and Egyptian chariots. + +In the foreground is seen the hunter, standing on a boat that closely +resembles the raft-boat which is still in use in several parts of +Africa. It is made of the very light wood called ambatch, by cutting +down the requisite number of trees, laying them side by side so that +their bases form the stern and their points the bow of the +extemporized boat. They are then firmly lashed together, the pointed +ends turned upwards, and the simple vessel is complete. It is, in +fact, nothing more than a raft of triangular shape, but the wood is so +buoyant that it answers every purpose. + +In his hand the hunter grasps the harpoon which he is about to launch +at the hippopotamus. This is evidently the same weapon which is still +employed for that purpose. It consists of a long shaft, into the end +of which a barbed iron point is loosely inserted. To the iron point is +attached one end of a rope, and to the other end, which is held in the +left hand of the harpooner, a float of ambatch wood is fastened. + + [Illustration: THE HIPPOPOTAMUS, OR BEHEMOTH OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_Behold now behemoth, which I made with thee._"--JOB xl. 15.] + +When the weapon is thrown, the furious struggles of the wounded animal +disengage the shaft of the harpoon, which is regained by the +hunter; and as it dashes through the water, throwing up spray +as it goes, the ambatch float keeps the end of the rope at the +surface, so that it can be seen as soon as the animal becomes quieter. +Sometimes it dives to the bottom, and remains there as long as its +breath can hold out; and when it comes up to breathe, it only pushes +the nostrils out of the water under the shadow of the reeds, so that +but for the float it might manage to escape. + + [Illustration: THE EGYPTIAN HUNTER. + + "_He lieth under the shady trees, in the covert of the reed, and + fens._"--JOB xl. 21. + + (The attitude of the Hippopotamus is copied from the painting.)] + +In the meantime, guided by the float, the hunter follows the course of +the animal, and, as soon as it comes within reach of his weapon, +drives another spear into it, and so proceeds until the animal dies +from loss of blood. The modern hunters never throw a second harpoon +unless the one already fixed gives way, mainly employing a spear to +inflict the last wounds. But if we may judge from this painting, the +Egyptian hunter attached a new rope with every cast of his weapon, +and, when the hippopotamus became weak from its wounds, gathered up +the ropes and came to close quarters. + +In the bow of the boat is the hunter's assistant, armed with a rope +made lasso-wise into a noose, which he is throwing over the head of +the hippopotamus, whose attitude and expression show evidently, in +spite of the rudeness of the drawing, the impotent anger of the +weakened animal. + +Behind the hippopotamus are the tall and dense reeds and papyrus under +the shelter of which the animal loves to lie, and on the surface of +the water float the beautiful white flowers of the lotus. + +In the Egyptian painting, the artist, in spite of the +conventionalities to which he was bound, has depicted the whole scene +with skill and spirit. The head and open mouth of the hippopotamus are +remarkably fine, and show that the artist who drew the animal must +have seen it when half mad with pain, and half dead from loss of +blood. + +The enormous strength of the hippopotamus is shown in verses 16, 18, +the last of which passages requires a little explanation. Two +different words are used here to express the bones of the animal. The +first is derived from a word signifying strength, and means the +"strong bones," _i.e._ those of the legs. These are hollow, and are +therefore aptly compared to tubes or pipes of copper. The second term +is thought by some Hebraists to refer to the rib-bones, which are +solid, and therefore are not likened to tubes, but to bars of iron. + +The 23d verse has been translated rather variously. The Authorized +Version can be seen by reference to a Bible, and another translation, +that of the Jewish Bible, is given on page 319. A third, and perhaps +the best rendering of this passage is given by the Rev. W. Drake, in +Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible:" "Lo, the river swelleth proudly +against him, yet he is not alarmed; he is securely confident though a +Jordan burst forth against his mouth." + +In all probability reference is here made to the annual rising of the +Nile, and the inundations which it causes. In some years, when it +rises much above its usual height, the floods become most disastrous. +Whole villages are swept away, and scarcely a vestige of the mud-built +houses is left; the dead bodies of human beings are seen intermixed +with those of cattle, and the whole country is one scene of +desolation. Yet the almost amphibious hippopotamus cares nothing for +the floods, as long as it can find food, and so, "though the river +swelleth proudly against him," he is not alarmed. + +From the use of the word "Jordan" in the same verse, it might be +thought that the river of Palestine was intended. This, however, is +not the case. The word "Jordan" is simply used as a poetical term for +any river, and is derived from a Hebrew word which signifies +"descending quickly." + +We now come to the last verse of this noble description: "He taketh it +in with his eyes." These words have also been variously rendered, some +translating them as "He receiveth it (_i.e._ the river) up to his +eyes." But the translation which seems to suit the context best is, +"Who will take him when in his sight? His nose pierceth through +(_i.e._ detects) snares." Now, this faculty of detecting snares is one +of the chief characteristics of the hippopotamus, when it lives near +places inhabited by mankind, who are always doing their best to +destroy it. In the first place, its body gives them an almost +unlimited supply of flesh, the fat is very highly valued for many +purposes, the teeth are sold to the ivory-dealers, and the hide is cut +up into whips, or khoorbashes. + +There is now before me a khoorbash, purchased from a native Egyptian +who was beating a servant with it. The whip is identical with that +which was used by the ancient Egyptians in urging the Israelites to +their tasks, and the scene reminded the traveller so forcibly of the +old Scriptural times that he rescued the unfortunate servant, and +purchased the khoorbash, which is now in my collection. + +Not content with hunting the hippopotamus, the natives contrive +various traps, either pitfalls or drop-traps. The former are simply +pits dug in the path of the animal, covered with sticks and reeds, and +having at the bottom a sharp stake on which the victim is impaled, and +so effectually prevented from escaping or damaging the pit by its +struggles. + + [Illustration: HIPPOPOTAMUS AND TRAP. + + "_His nose pierceth through snares._"--JOB xl. 24.] + +The drop-trap is a log of wood, weighted with stones, and having at +one end an iron spike, which is sometimes poisoned. The path which the +animal takes is watched, a conveniently overhanging branch is +selected, and from that branch the cruel spear is suspended, by a +catch or trigger, exactly over the centre of the path. There is no +difficulty in finding the precise centre of the path, owing to the +peculiar gait of the animal, which has already been described. One end +of the trigger supports the spear, and to the other is attached a +rope, which is brought across the path in such a way that when touched +it relieves the spear, which is driven deeply into the animal's back. +If well hung, the spear-blade divides the spine, and the wounded +animal falls on the spot, but, even if it should miss a vital part, +the poison soon does its fatal work. + +In consequence of the continual persecution to which it is subjected, +the hippopotamus becomes exceedingly wary, and, huge, clumsy, and +blundering as it looks, is clever enough to detect either pitfall or +drop-trap that have not been contrived with especial care. An old and +experienced hippopotamus becomes so wary that he will be suspicious +even of a bent twig, and, rather than venture across it, he will leave +the path, force for himself a roundabout passage, and return to the +path beyond the object that alarmed him. + +Mr. T. Baines, to whose sketches I am indebted for the illustration, +told me that the hippopotamus is possessed of much more intellect than +might be expected from a creature of so dull, clumsy, and unpromising +aspect. Apathetic it generally is, and, as long as it is left +unmolested, does not care to molest even the human beings that intrude +upon its repose. + +It likes to lie in the shade of the reeds and rushes, and may be seen +floating in the water, with only the nostrils, the eyes, and the ears +above the surface, these organs being set in a line along the head, +evidently for the purpose of allowing the whole body to be hidden +under water while the three most important senses are capable of +acting. + +A canoe-man who knows the habits of the hippopotamus will fearlessly +take his fragile vessel through a herd of the animals, knowing that, +if he only avoids contact with them, they will not interfere with him. +The only danger is, that a hippopotamus may rise under the canoe, and +strike itself against the boat, in which case the animal is rather apt +to consider the intruding object as an enemy, and to attack it, +sometimes crushing the canoe between its teeth, and mostly upsetting +it, and throwing the crew into the water. In such a case, the men +always dive at once to the bottom of the river, and hold on to some +weed or rock as long as they can exist without breathing. The reason +for this proceeding is, that the hippopotamus always looks for its +enemy upon the surface of the water, and, if the men were to swim to +shore, they would be caught and killed before they had swum many +strokes. But, as it sees nothing but the damaged canoe, its +short-lived anger vanishes, and it sinks again into the river, +leaving the men at liberty to regain and repair their vessel. + +There is one passage in the description of the Behemoth which requires +a few words of explanation: "He moveth his tail like a cedar" (v. 17). + +Several commentators have imagined that this expression shows that the +Behemoth must have been an animal which had a very long and powerful +tail, and have adduced the passage as a proof that the crocodile was +the animal that was signified by the Behemoth. Others, again, have +shifted the position of the tail, and, by rendering it as the +"proboscis," have identified the Behemoth with the elephant. There is, +however, no necessity for straining the interpretation, the passage +evidently signifying that the member in question is stiff and +inflexible as the cedar-stem. + + + + +BIRDS. + + + + +THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE. + + Difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in + Scripture--The vultures of Palestine--The Lämmergeier, or + Ossifrage of Scripture--The Hebrew word Peres, and its + signification--The Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker--Appearance of the + Lämmergeier--Its flight and mode of feeding--How the Lämmergeier + kills snakes and tortoises, and breaks marrow-bones--Mode of + destroying the chamois and mountain sheep--Nest of the + Lämmergeier. + + +It has already been mentioned that even the best Biblical scholars +have found very great difficulties in identifying several of the +animals which are named in Scripture. This difficulty is greatly +increased when we come to the BIRDS, and in many instances it is +absolutely impossible to identify the Hebrew word with any precise +species. In all probability, however, the nomenclature of the birds is +a very loose one, several species being classed under the same title. + +Even at the present day, the English language presents many similar +instances of poverty, as is well known to all zoologists. Taking the +birds as our first examples, how often do we not find the same word +used to signify many distinct species, and, again, one species +designated by several dissimilar words? The word Vulture, for example, +is used to signify a great number of birds, including the Lämmergeier, +the Condors, the Griffons, the Caracaras, and others; while the term +Eagle has scarcely a less wide signification. Sometimes the name is +applied in such a manner as to mislead those who are not scientific +ornithologists, and we find such inappropriate titles as night-hawk, +fern-owl, hedge-sparrow, reed-wren, &c., the birds in question being +neither hawks, owls, sparrows, nor wrens. + +Keeping this difficulty in mind, I shall mention all the species which +are likely to have been classed under a single title, giving a general +description of the whole, and a detailed account of the particular +species which seems to answer most closely to the Hebrew word. + + + [Illustration: THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_These are they of which ye shall not eat: the eagle, and the + ossifrage, and the ospray._"--DEUT. xiv. 12] + +Following the arrangement which has been employed in this work, I +shall begin with the bird which has been placed by zoologists at the +head of its class, namely, the LÄMMERGEIER, the bird which may be +safely identified with the Ossifrage of Scripture. The Hebrew word is +"Peres," a term which only occurs twice when signifying a species of +bird; namely, in Lev. xi. 13, and the parallel passage in Deut. xiv. +12. The first of these passages runs as follows: "These ye shall have +in abomination among the fowls; they shall not be eaten, they are an +abomination: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray." The +corresponding passage in Deuteronomy has precisely the same +signification, though rather differently worded: "These are they of +which ye shall not eat: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray." + +The reader will here notice that the sacred narrative gives no account +of the appearance or habits of the bird, but merely classed it with +the remainder of the predacious birds, all of which are declared to be +unfit for food. We must therefore look for some assistance in the +etymology of the word _peres_, which signifies one who breaks +anything. The same word occurs in several other passages of Scripture. + +For example, the word was much used by David in commemorating any +remarkable event. When David sent Uzzah and Ahio to fetch the ark from +Kirjath-jearim, the oxen which drew the cart stumbled and shook the +ark, so that it seemed likely to fall. Uzzah, who walked by the side +of the cart, while his brother marched in front of the oxen, +instinctively put out his hand to uphold it, and fell dead by the side +of the ark which he had touched without authority. In order to +commemorate this event, David called the spot whereon it occurred +Perez-Uzzah, or the Breaking of Uzzah, "because the LORD had made a +breach upon Uzzah." (See 2 Sam. vi. 8.) + +Reference to this event was afterwards made by David when he brought +the ark into Jerusalem. Having taken warning by the solemn event which +he had witnessed, he called together the priests and Levites, to whom +he gave the commission to bring the ark with due honour, and "said +unto them, Ye are the chief of the fathers of the Levites: sanctify +yourselves, both ye and your brethren, that ye may bring up the ark of +the Lord God of Israel unto the place that I have prepared for it. + +"For, because ye did it not at the first, the LORD our God made a +breach (_peres_) upon us, for that we sought Him not in due order" (1 +Chron. xv. 12, 13). David again employed the word to signify the +breaking up or destruction of the Philistines. "David smote them +there, and said, The Lord hath broken forth upon mine enemies before +me, as the breach of waters. Therefore he called the name of that +place Baal-perazim"--_i.e._ the Place of Breakings. The same word +occurs again in that dread message to Belshazzar, written by the hand +upon the wall, "Mene, mene, tekel, upharsin," or _peres_, the last +word signifying that the kingdom was broken up, and would be given +to other rulers. + +The word _peres_, then, signifies a breaker; and the Latin term +Ossifraga, or Bone-breaker, is a very good translation of the word. +How it applies to the Lämmergeier we shall presently see. + +The Lämmergeier belongs to the vultures, but has much more the +appearance of an eagle than a vulture, the neck being clothed with +feathers, instead of being naked or only covered with down. It may at +once be known by the tuft of long, hair-like feathers which depends +from the beak, and which has gained for the bird the title of Bearded +Vulture. The colour of the plumage is a mixture of different browns +and greys, tawny below and beautifully pencilled above, a line of pure +white running along the middle of each feather. When young it is +nearly black, and indeed has been treated as a separate species under +the name of Black Vulture. + +It is one of the largest of the flying birds, its length often +exceeding four feet, and the expanse of its wings being rather more +than ten feet. In consequence of this great spread of wing, it looks +when flying like a much larger bird than it really is, and its size +has often been variously misstated. Its flight, as may be imagined +from the possession of such wings, is equally grand and graceful, and +it sweeps through the air with great force, apparently unaccompanied +by effort. + +The Lämmergeier extends through a very large range of country, and is +found throughout many parts of Europe and Asia. It is spread over the +Holy Land, never congregating in numbers, like ordinary vultures, but +living in pairs, and scarcely any ravine being uninhabited by at least +one pair of Lämmergeiers. + +The food of the Lämmergeier is, like that of other vultures, the flesh +of dead animals, though it does not feed quite in the same manner that +they do. When the ordinary vultures have found a carcase they tear it +to pieces, and soon remove all the flesh. This having been done, the +Lämmergeier comes to the half-picked bones, eats the remaining flesh +from them, and finishes by breaking them and eating the marrow. That a +bird should be able to break a bone as thick and hard as the +thigh-bone of a horse or ox seems rather problematical, but the bird +achieves the feat in a simple and effectual manner. + +Seizing the bone in its claws, it rises to an immense height in the +air, and then, balancing itself over some piece of rock, it lets the +bone fall, and sweeps after it with scarce less rapidity than the bone +falls. Should the bone be broken by the fall, the bird picks the +marrow out of the fragments; and should it have escaped fracture by +reason of falling on a soft piece of ground instead of a hard rock, +the bird picks it up, and renews the process until it has attained its +object. It will be seen, therefore, that the name of Ossifrage, or +Bone-breaker, may very properly be given to this bird. + +Not only does it extract the marrow from bones in this peculiar +manner, but it procures other articles of food by employing precisely +the same system. If it sees a tortoise, many of which reptiles are +found in the countries which it inhabits, it does not waste time and +trouble by trying to peck the shell open, but carries its prey high in +the air, drops it on the ground, and so breaks its shell to pieces. +Tortoises are often very hard-shelled creatures, and the Lämmergeier +has been observed to raise one of them and drop it six or seven times +before the stubborn armour would yield. Snakes, too, are killed in a +similar manner, being seized by the neck, and then dropped from a +height upon rocks or hard ground. The reader may perhaps be aware that +the Hooded Crow of England breaks bones and the shells of bivalve +molluscs in a similar manner. + +Mr. Tristram suggests, with much probability, that the "eagle" which +mistook the bald head of the poet Æschylus for a white stone, and +killed him by dropping a tortoise upon it, was in all likelihood a +Lämmergeier, the bird being a denizen of the same country, and the act +of tortoise-dropping being its usual mode of killing those reptiles. + +We now see why the Lämmergeier is furnished with such enormous wings, +and so great a power of flight, these attributes being needful in +order to enable it to lift its prey to a sufficient height. The air, +as we all know, becomes more and more attenuated in exact proportion +to the height above the earth; and did not the bird possess such great +powers of flight, it would not be able to carry a heavy tortoise into +the thinner strata of air which are found at the height to which it +soars. + +The instinct of killing its prey by a fall is employed against other +animals besides snakes and tortoises, though exerted in a somewhat +different manner. The bird, as has already been mentioned, lives among +mountain ranges, and it may be seen floating about them for hours +together, watching each inch of ground in search of prey. Should it +see a goat or other inhabitant of the rocks standing near a precipice, +the Lämmergeier sweeps rapidly upon it, and with a blow of its wing +knocks the animal off the rock into the valley beneath, where it lies +helplessly maimed, even if not killed by the fall. + +Even hares and lambs are killed in this manner, and it is from the +havoc which the Lämmergeier makes among the sheep that it has obtained +the name of Lämmergeier, or Lamb-Vulture. So swift and noiseless is +the rush of the bird, that an animal which has once been marked by its +blood-red eye seldom escapes from the swoop; and even the Alpine +hunters, who spend their lives in pursuit of the chamois, have +occasionally been put in great jeopardy by the sudden attack of a +Lämmergeier, the bird having mistaken their crouching forms for the +chamois, and only turned aside at the last moment. + +The reason for employing so remarkable a mode of attack is to be found +in the structure of the feet, which, although belonging to so large +and powerful a bird, are comparatively feeble, and are unable, like +those of the eagle, to grasp the living animal in a deadly hold, and +to drive the sharp talons into its vitals. They are not well adapted +for holding prey, the talons not possessing the hook-like form or the +sharp points which characterise those of the eagle. The feet, by the +way, are feathered down to the toes. The beak, too, is weak when +compared with the rest of the body, and could not perform its work +were not the object which it tears previously shattered by the fall +from a height. + +The nest of the Lämmergeier is made of sticks and sods, and is of +enormous dimensions. It is almost always placed upon a lofty cliff, +and contains about a wagon-load or so of sticks rudely interwoven, and +supporting a nearly equal amount of sods and moss. + +An allied species lives in Northern Africa, where it is called by a +name which signifies Father Longbeard, in allusion to the beard-like +tufts of the bill. + + + + +THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE OR GIER-EAGLE. + + The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian Vulture--Its + appearance on the Egyptian monuments--Signification of the word + _Râchâm_--Various translations of the word--The shape, size, and + colour of the bird--Its value as a scavenger, and its general + habits--The Egyptian Vultures and the griffons--Its fondness for the + society of man--Nest of the Egyptian Vulture. + + +In the same list of unclean birds which has already been given, we +find the name of a bird which we can identify without much difficulty, +although there has been some little controversy about it. This is the +so-called Gier-Eagle, which is named with the cormorant and the +pelican as one of the birds which the Jews are forbidden to eat. The +word which is translated as Gier-Eagle is Râchâm, a name which is +almost identical with the Arabic name of the EGYPTIAN VULTURE, +sometimes called Pharaoh's Chicken, because it is so often sculptured +on the ancient monuments of Egypt. It is called by the Turks by a name +which signifies White Father, in allusion to the colour of its +plumage. + +Before proceeding to a description of the bird, we will examine the +other interpretations which have been given to the word _râchâm_. + +In the first place, the word signifies "love," and is used in that +sense in many passages of Scripture. According to Buxtorf, the bird in +question is the merops or bee-eater, "a bird so called from the love +and pity which is shown to its parents, because it nurtures them when +hidden in the most lofty caves." Some of the Talmudists take it to be +the woodpecker. + +Another rendering of the word which has received much favour is, that +the Râchâm is the hyacinthine gallinule, or sultana hen (_Pophyrio +veterum_). This bird is allied to the rails, and is remarkable for the +great length of its toes, by means of which it can walk on floating +herbage as it lies on the surface of the water. The colour of the bird +is a rich and variable blue, darker on the back and lighter on the +throat and breast. It is on account of this purple hue that the bird +has received the name of _Porphyrio_, or Purple Bird. It is spread +over many parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe. + + [Illustration: EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE. + + "_And the pelican, and the gier-eagle, and the cormorant._"--DEUT. + xiv. 17.] + +The reading of _râchâm_ as _porphyrio_ is followed in the Septuagint, +and the reading has been defended on the ground that the bird must +belong to the aquatic group, being placed between the pelican and +cormorant. The Jewish Bible follows our version, but affixes the mark +of doubt to the word. + +Although some of the Talmudists render the word as woodpecker, others +identify it with the Egyptian Vulture. In Lewysohn's "Zoologie des +Talmuds," there is a curious speculation on this subject. This bird, +according to the authors whom he quotes, is the Schirkrek, and +derives its name from its peculiar cry, which begins with a hiss +(Schirk) and ends with a shriek (Rek). The bird utters its cry when +the rising of the Nile is expected, and so has earned the name of +Râchâm, or Love, this word being frequently used in the Scriptures as +a metaphor for rain, dew, or any water that nourishes plants. + +Without adopting the process of reasoning employed in this case, we +may safely accept the conclusion, and consider the Râchâm as identical +with the Egyptian Vulture (_Neophron perenopterus_). + +This bird is not a very large one, being about equal to a raven in +size, though its enormously long wings give it an appearance of much +greater size. Its colour is white, with the exception of the quill +feathers of the wings, which are dark-brown. The bill and the naked +face and legs are bright ochreous yellow. It does not attain this +white plumage until its third year, its colour before reaching adult +age being brown, with a grey neck and dull yellow legs and face. + +The Egyptian Vulture, although not large, is a really handsome bird, +the bold contrast of pure white and dark brown being very conspicuous +when it is on the wing. In this plumage it has never been seen in +England, but one or two examples are known of the Egyptian Vulture +being killed in England while still in its dark-brown clothing. + +It inhabits a very wide range of country, being found throughout all +the warmer parts of the Old World. Although it is tolerably plentiful, +it is never seen in great numbers, as is the case with several of the +vultures, but is always to be found in pairs, the male and female +never separating, and invariably being seen close together. In fact, +in places where it is common it is hardly possible to travel more than +a mile or two without seeing a pair of Egyptian Vultures. Should more +than two of these birds be seen together, the spectator may be sure +that they have congregated over some food. It has been well suggested +that its Hebrew name of Râchâm, or Love, has been given to it in +consequence of this constant association of the male and female. + +The Egyptian Vulture is one of the best of scavengers, not only +devouring the carcases of dead animals, but feeding on every kind of +offal or garbage. Indeed, its teeth and claws are much too feeble to +enable it to cope with the true vultures in tearing up a large +carcase, and in consequence it never really associates with them, +although it may be seen hovering near them, and it never ventures to +feed in their company, keeping at a respectful distance while they +feed, and, when they retire, humbly making a meal on the scraps which +they have left. + +Mr. Tristram narrates an amusing instance of this trait of character. +"On a subsequent occasion, on the north side of Hermon, we observed +the griffons teaching a lesson of patience to the inferior scavengers. +A long row of Egyptian vultures were sitting on some rocks, so +intently watching a spot in a corn-field that they took no notice of +our approach. Creeping cautiously near, we watched a score of griffons +busily engaged in turning over a dead horse, one side of which they +had already reduced to a skeleton. + +"Their united efforts had just effected this, when we showed +ourselves, and they quickly retired. The inferior birds, who dreaded +us much less than them, at once darted to the repast, and, utterly +regardless of our presence within ten yards of them, began to gorge. +We had hardly retired two hundred yards, when the griffons came down +with a swoop, and the Egyptian vultures and a pair or two of eagles +hurriedly resumed their post of observation; while some black kites +remained, and contrived by their superior agility to filch a few +morsels from their lordly superiors." + +So useful is this bird as a scavenger, that it is protected in all +parts of the East by the most stringent laws, so that a naturalist who +wishes for specimens has some difficulty in procuring the bird, or +even its egg. It wanders about the streets of the villages, and may +generally be found investigating the heaps of refuse which are left to +be cleared away by the animals and birds which constitute the +scavengers of the East. + +It not only eats dead animal substances, but kills and devours great +quantities of rats, mice, lizards, and other pests that swarm in hot +countries. So tame is it, that it may even be observed, like the gull +and the rook of our own country, following the ploughman as he turns +up the ground, and examining the furrow for the purpose of picking up +the worms, grubs, and similar creatures that are disturbed by the +share. + +Being thus protected and encouraged by man, there is good reason why +it should have learned in course of time to fear him far less than its +own kind. Indeed, it is so utterly fearless with regard to human +beings, that it habitually follows the caravans as they pass from one +town to another, for the sake of feeding on the refuse food and other +offal which is thrown aside on the road. + +Two articles of diet which certainly do not seem to fall within the +ordinary range of vulture's food are said to be consumed by this bird. +The first is the egg of the ostrich, the shell of which is too hard to +be broken by the feeble beak of the Egyptian Vulture. The bird cannot, +like the lämmergeier, carry the egg into the air and drop it on the +ground, because its feet are not large enough to grasp it, and only +slip off its round and polished surface. Therefore, instead of raising +the egg into the air and dropping it upon a stone, it carries a stone +into the air and drops it upon the egg. So at least say the natives of +the country which it inhabits, and there is no reason why we should +doubt the truth of the statement. + +The other article of food is a sort of melon, very full of juice. This +melon is called "nara," and is devoured by various creatures, such as +lions, leopards, mice, ostriches, &c. and seems to serve them instead +of drink. + +The nest of the Egyptian Vulture is made in some rocky ledge, and the +bird does not trouble itself about selecting a spot inaccessible to +man, knowing well that it will not be disturbed. The nest is, like +that of other vultures, a large and rude mass of sticks, sods, bones, +and similar materials, to which are added any bits of rag, rope, skin, +and other village refuse which it can pick up as it traverses the +streets. There are two, and occasionally three, eggs, rather variously +mottled with red. In its breeding, as in its general life, it is not a +gregarious bird, never breeding in colonies, and, indeed, very seldom +choosing a spot for its nest near one which has already been selected +by another pair. + +The illustration on page 340 represents part of the nest of the +Egyptian Vulture, in which the curious mixture of bones and sticks is +well shown. The parent birds are drawn in two characteristic attitudes +taken from life, and well exhibit the feeble beak, the peculiar and +intelligent, almost cunning expression of the head, and the ruff of +feathers which surrounds the upper part of the neck. In the distance +another bird is drawn as it appears on the wing, in order to show the +contrast between the white plumage and the dark quill feathers of the +wings, the bird presenting a general appearance very similar to that +of the common English sea-gull. + + + + +THE + +GRIFFON VULTURE, OR EAGLE OF SCRIPTURE. + + The Griffon Vulture identified with the Eagle of Scripture--The word + _Nesher_ and its signification--Geographical range of the Griffon--Its + mode of flight and sociable habits--The featherless head and neck of + the bird--The Vulture used as an image of strength, swiftness, and + rapacity--Its powers of sight--How Vultures assemble round a + carcase--Nesting-places of the Griffon--Mr. Tristram's description of + the Griffon--Rock-caves of the Wady Hamâm--Care of the young, and + teaching them to fly--Strength of the Griffon--Its emblematical use in + Egypt and Assyria--The god Nisroch--Noble aspect of the Griffon--Its + longevity--Various attitudes assumed by the bird. + + +We now come to another word which will give us but little trouble in +identification. This is the word _Nesher_, which is invariably +translated in the Authorized Version of the Bible as Eagle, but which +was undoubtedly a different bird, and has satisfactorily been +identified with the GRIFFON VULTURE, or Great Vulture (_Gyps fulvus_). +The reasons for this conclusion are so inextricably interwoven with +the various passages in which the bird is mentioned, that I shall not +give them separately, but simply allude to them in the course of the +article. + +In the first place, the name Nesher is derived, according to many +Hebraists, from a word which signifies the power of sight, and is +given to the bird in consequence of its piercing vision. The +Talmudical writers mention a curious proverb concerning the sight of +the Vulture, namely, that a Vulture in Babylon can see a carcase in +Palestine. Other scholars derive it from a word which signifies its +longevity, while others again believe that the true derivation is to +be found in a word which signifies ripping up or tearing with the +beak. + + +The Griffon Vulture is found throughout a large portion of the Old +World, inhabiting nearly all the warmer portions of this hemisphere. +The colour of the adult bird is a sort of yellowish brown, diversified +by the black quill feathers and the ruff of white down that surrounds +the neck. The head and neck are without feathers, but are sparingly +covered with very short down of a similar character to that of the +ruff. + +It is really a large bird, being little short of five feet in total +length, and the expanse of wing measuring about eight feet. + +The Griffon Vulture is very plentiful in Palestine, and, unlike the +lesser though equally useful Egyptian Vulture, congregates together in +great numbers, feeding, flying, and herding in company. Large flocks +of them may be seen daily, soaring high in the air, and sweeping their +graceful way in the grand curves which distinguish the flight of the +large birds of prey. They are best to be seen in the early morning, +being in the habit of quitting their rocky homes at daybreak, and +indulging in a flight for two or three hours, after which they mostly +return to the rocks, and wait until evening, when they take another +short flight before retiring to rest. + +Allusion is made in the Scriptures to the gregarious habits of the +Vultures: "Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be +gathered together" (Matt xxiv. 28). That the Vulture, and not the +eagle, is here signified, is evident from the fact that the eagles do +not congregate like the Vultures, never being seen in greater numbers +than two or three together, while the Vultures assemble in hundreds. + +The featherless head of the Vulture is mentioned in the Book of Micah, +chap. i. ver. 16: "Make thee bald, and poll thee for thy delicate +children; enlarge thy baldness as the eagle; for they are gone into +captivity from thee." It is evident that in this passage reference is +made, not to the eagle, whose head is thickly covered with feathers, +but to the Vulture, whose head and neck are but scantily sprinkled +with white down. Some commentators, not aware that the word _nesher_ +should have been rendered as "vulture," have explained the passage by +saying that the prophet referred to the moulting-time of the eagle; +but the reader will see that such an explanation is at the best a +forced one, whereas the reference to the bald head of the Vulture is +both simple and natural. + +The voracity of the Vulture, and its capacity for discovering food, +are both mentioned in Job xxxix. 27-30: "Doth the eagle (_nesher_) +mount up at thy command, and make her nest on high? + +"She dwelleth and abideth on the rock, upon the crag of the rock, and +the strong place. + +"From thence she seeketh the prey, and her eyes behold afar off. + +"Her young ones also suck up blood: and where the slain are, there is +she." + +See also Hab. i. 6-8, in which the prophet speaks of the Chaldeans, +"that bitter and hasty nation, which shall march through the breadth +of the land, to possess the dwelling-places that are not theirs. + +"They are terrible and dreadful: ... and their horsemen shall spread +themselves, and their horsemen shall come from far; they shall fly as +the eagle that hasteth to eat." + +There is also a curious passage in the Book of Proverbs, chap. xxx. +ver. 17, which alludes to the carnivorous nature of the bird: "The eye +that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the +ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles shall eat +it." + +Allusion is made in several passages to the swiftness of the Vulture, +as well as its voracity. See, for example, a portion of David's +lamentation over the bodies of Saul and Jonathan, who, according to +the poet's metaphor, "were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in +their death they were not divided; they were swifter than eagles, they +were stronger than lions." + +The "bitter" people--namely, the Chaldeans--are again mentioned in a +very similar manner by the prophet Jeremiah: "Our persecutors are +swifter than the eagles of the heavens; they pursued us upon the +mountains, they laid wait for us in the wilderness" (Lam. iv. 19). + +There is something peculiarly appropriate in employing the Vulture as +an image of strength and swiftness when applied to warriors, the bird +being an invariable attendant on the battle, and flying to the field +of death with marvellous swiftness. All who had ever witnessed a +battle were familiar with the presence of the Vulture--the scene of +carnage, and the image which is employed, would be one which commended +itself at once to those for whom it was intended. And, as the earlier +history of the Jewish nation is essentially of a warlike character, we +cannot wonder that so powerful and familiar an image should have been +repeatedly introduced into the sacred writings. + +The wonderful powers of sight possessed by this bird are mentioned in +the passage from Job xxxix. which has already been quoted. + +Here it may be as well to say that, piercing as is the vision of the +Vulture, its visual powers have been much exaggerated. It certainly +does possess a vision of no ordinary capacity, which is able to assume +either a telescopic or a microscopic character, by means of a complex +and marvellous structure, which can alter the whole shape of the organ +at the will of the bird. + +Not only can the eye be thus altered, but it changes instantaneously, +so as to accommodate itself to the task which it is to perform. A +Vulture, for example, sees from a vast height the body of a dead +animal, and instantly swoops down upon it like an arrow from a bow. In +order to enable the bird to see so distant an object, the eye has been +exercising its telescopic powers, and yet, in a second or two, when +the Vulture is close to its prey, the whole form of the eye must be +changed, or the bird would mistake its distance, and dash itself to +pieces on the ground. + +To describe this beautiful piece of mechanism would be outside the +scope of the present work; but the reader can find it in every good +work on comparative anatomy, and is strongly advised to make himself +master of the means by which a result so apparently impossible is +secured. + +By means of its powerful eyes, the Vulture can see to an enormous +distance, and with great clearness, but neither so far nor so clearly +as is popularly supposed. It is true that, as soon as a carcase is +discovered, it will be covered with Vultures, who arrive from every +side, looking at first like tiny specks in the air, scarcely +perceptible even to practised eyes, and all directing their flight to +the same point. "Where the carcase is, there will the vultures be +gathered together." But, although they all fly towards the same spot, +it does not follow that they have all seen the same object. The fact +is, they see and understand each other's movements. + +A single Vulture, for example, sees a dead or dying sheep, and swoops +down upon it. The other Vultures which are flying about in search of +food, and from which the animal in question may be concealed, know +perfectly well that a Vulture soars high in the air when searching for +food, and only darts to the earth when it has found a suitable prey. +They immediately follow its example, and in their turn are followed by +other Vultures, which can see their fellows from a distance, and know +perfectly well why they are all converging to one spot. + +In this way all the Vultures of a neighbourhood will understand, by a +very intelligible telegraph, that a dead body of some animal has been +found, and, aided by their wonderful powers of flight, will assemble +over its body in an almost incredibly short space of time. + +The resting-place of the Griffon Vulture is always on some lofty spot. +The Arabian Vulture will build within easy reach, the eagle prefers +lofty situations, but nothing but the highest and most inaccessible +spots will satisfy the Vulture. To reach the nest of this bird is +therefore a very difficult task, only to be attempted by experienced +and intrepid cragsmen; and, in consequence, both the eggs and young of +the Griffon Vulture cannot be obtained except for a very high price. +The birds are fond of building in the rock-caves which are found in so +many parts of Palestine, and in some places they fill these places as +thickly as rooks fill a rookery. + +The fondness of the Vulture for such localities is more than once +mentioned in Holy Writ. One of these passages, which occurs in Job +xxxix. 29, has already been quoted, and another, and equally forcible +one, is to be found in the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah: "Thy +terribleness hath deceived thee, and the pride of thine heart, O thou +that dwellest in the clefts of the rock, that holdest the height of +the hill: though thou shouldest make thy nest as high as the eagle +(_nesher_), I will bring thee down from thence, saith the Lord" (Jer. +xlix. 16). + +In Mr. Tristram's "Land of Israel," there is a very graphic +description of the Griffon's nests, and of the difficulty experienced +in reaching them. "A narrow gorge, with limestone cliffs from five +hundred to six hundred feet high, into which the sun never penetrates, +walls the rapid brook on each side so closely that we often had to +ride in the bed of the stream. The cliffs are perforated with caves at +all heights, wholly inaccessible to man, the secure resting-place of +hundreds of noble griffons, some lämmergeiers, lanner falcons, and +several species of eagle.... One day in the ravine well repaid us, +though so terrific were the precipices, that it was quite impossible +to reach any of the nests with which it swarmed. + +"We were more successful in the Wady Hamâm, the southwest end of the +plain, the entrance from Hattin and the Buttauf, where we spent three +days in exploration. The cliffs, though reaching the height of fifteen +hundred feet, rise like terraces, with enormous masses of _débris_, +and the wood is half a mile wide. By the aid of Giacomo, who proved +himself an expert rope-climber, we reaped a good harvest of griffons' +eggs, some of the party being let down by ropes, while those above +were guided in working them by signals from others below in the +valley. It required the aid of a party of a dozen to capture these +nests. The idea of scaling the cliff with ropes was quite new to some +Arabs who were herding cattle above, and who could not, excepting one +little girl, be induced to render any assistance. She proved herself +most sensible and efficient in telegraphing. + +"While capturing the griffons' nests, we were re-enacting a celebrated +siege in Jewish history. Close to us, at the head of the cliffs which +form the limits of the celebrated Plain of Hattin, were the ruins of +Irbid, the ancient Arbela, marked principally by the remains of a +synagogue, of which some marble shafts and fragments of entablature, +like those of Tell Hûm, are still to be seen, and were afterwards +visited by us. + +"Hosea mentions the place apparently as a strong fortress: 'All thy +fortresses shall be spoiled, as Shalman spoiled Beth-arbel in the day +of battle' (Hos. x. 14). Perhaps the prophet here refers to the +refuges in the rocks below. + +"The long series of chambers and galleries in the face of the +precipice are called by the Arabs Kulat Ibn Maân, and are very fully +described by Josephus. These cliffs were the homes of a set of +bandits, who resided here with their families, and for years set the +power of Herod the Great at defiance. At length, when all other +attempts at scaling the fortress had failed, he let down soldiers at +this very spot in boxes, by chains, who attacked the robbers with long +hooks, and succeeded in rooting them all out. The exploit was familiar +to us by an engraving of the _Penny Magazine_ of old, and little did +we dream that we should one day storm those very caves in a similar +way ourselves. We could not but regret that Herod had neglected to +leave his chains and grappling-irons for our use. + +"The rock galleries, though now only tenanted by griffons, are very +complete and perfect, and beautifully built. Long galleries wind +backwards and forwards in the cliff side, their walls being built with +dressed stone, flush with the precipice, and often opening into +spacious chambers. Tier after tier rise one after another with +projecting windows, connected by narrow staircases, carried sometimes +upon arches, and in the upper portions rarely broken away. In many of +the upper chambers to which we were let down, the dust of ages had +accumulated, undisturbed by any foot save that of the birds of the +air; and here we rested during the heat of the day, with the plains +and lake set as in a frame before us. We obtained a full zoological +harvest, as in three days we captured fourteen nests of griffons." + +Although these caverns and rocky passages are much more accessible +than most of the places whereon the Griffons build, the natives never +venture to enter them, being deterred not so much by their height, as +by their superstitious fears. The Griffons instinctively found out +that man never entered these caverns, and so took possession of them. + +As the young Griffons are brought up in these lofty and precipitous +places, it is evident that their first flight must be a dangerous +experiment, requiring the aid of the parent birds. At first the young +are rather nervous at the task which lies before them, and shrink from +trusting themselves to the air. The parents, however, encourage them +to use their wings, take short flights in order to set them an +example, and, when they at last venture from the nest, accompany and +encourage them in their first journey. + +Even this habit has been noted by the sacred writers, and been +forcibly employed as an image of divine protection. See the Song of +Moses, in which the aged leader, whose forty years' work was at last +finished, recapitulates the mercies vouchsafed to the people of +Israel, and exhorts them against the sin of ingratitude: "For the +Lord's portion is His people; Jacob is the lot of His inheritance. + +"He found him in a desert land, and in the waste howling wilderness; +He led him about, He instructed him, He kept him as the apple of His +eye. + +"As an eagle stirreth up her nest, fluttereth over her young, +spreadeth abroad her wings, taketh them, beareth them on her wings; + +"So the Lord alone did lead him, and there was no strange god with +him" (Deut. xxxii. 9-12). + +The strength of flight of the Vulture is also noticed by the sacred +writers. See, for example, Exod. xix. 4: "Ye have seen what I did to +the Egyptians, and how I bare you on eagles' (_nesherim_) wings, and +brought you unto myself." + +This passage had a peculiar force when addressed to the Hebrews, the +Vulture being one of the chief emblems of Egyptian power, and its +outspread wings continually recurring on the grand monuments and +temples with which they must have been so familiar. + +Strangely enough, in their second captivity, the Jews met with the +same emblem among the Assyrians. For example, their god Nisroch, whom +we find mentioned as specially worshipped by Sennacherib, was a +vulture-headed deity, bearing not only the head of the bird, but also +its wings. The vast wings of the Vulture were by the Assyrians used as +types of Divine power, and were therefore added, not only to human +figures, but to those of beasts. The human-headed and vulture-winged +bulls of Nineveh, with which we are now so familiar, are good examples +of this peculiar imagery. + +The name Nisroch, by the way, is evidently the same word as _nesher_, +and bears even closer resemblance to the Arabic _niss'r_. This bird +was also the war standard of Assyria, just as the eagle is that of +France, and the metaphors used by Habbakuk and Jeremiah had therefore +a doubly forcible sense. + +We find the same bird employed as a visible emblem of Divine +omnipresence and omniscience in the visions seen by Ezekiel and St. +John: "And every one had four faces; the first face was the face of a +cherub, and the second face was the face of a man, and the third the +face of a lion, and the fourth the face of an eagle" (Ezek. x. 14). +Then, in the Revelation, chap. iv. ver. 6, 7, is the account of a +vision of very similar character: "In the midst of the throne, and +round about the throne, were four beasts full of eyes before and +behind. + +"And the first beast was like a lion, and the second was like a calf, +and the third beast had a face as a man, and the fourth beast was like +a flying eagle." + +From these passages we shall see that the Griffon Vulture was not held +by the Scriptural writers in the contempt with which we are apt to +regard it. Not having any Vultures resident in our country, for the +simple reason that there is not enough carrion in the whole of England +to feed a single Vulture for a month, we have no practical knowledge +of them, and are apt to confound, under the common title of Vulture, +birds of most dissimilar aspect. Some of them, especially those which +inhabit the West Indies, are mean-looking, slouching, sneaking, +obscene birds, which, even when brought to this country, and nourished +on fresh meat, cannot be regarded without inspiring a feeling of +disgust. + +But there are others which are really grand and noble birds, which +excite admiration instead of disgust, and one of the chief among these +is the Griffon Vulture. Scavenger though it be, it is not disgusting +in its habits, and may even be called a cleanly bird. It is +intelligent, after its way, and is quite as susceptible of human +teaching as the falcon or the cormorant. It is not quarrelsome, and, +even when feeding, does not try to drive away its neighbour, but feeds +alongside of him with perfect amity and quiet. + +In common with other birds of its order, the Griffon Vulture is a very +long-lived bird, and even this characteristic is noticed in the +well-known passage, "Bless the Lord, O my soul, and forget not all His +benefits: ... who satisfieth thy mouth with good things; so that thy +youth is renewed like the eagle's" (Ps. ciii. 1, 5). + + [Illustration: THE VULTURE, OR EAGLE OF SCRIPTURE. + + "Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered + together."--MATT. xxiv. 28.] + +This passage has often been absurdly misinterpreted by commentators +who have not appreciated the metaphorical style of all Oriental +poetry. Taking the passage in its exact literal sense, and not knowing +that reference is made to the Vulture and not to the eagle, +they have taken for granted that the eagle had some mode of +renewing its youth, and, in fact, after becoming old, went through +some process by which it shook off the decrepitude of old age, and +became young again. Others, seeing that such an interpretation was +both strained and far-fetched, have thought that reference was made to +the annual moult of the eagle, which they fancied to be of a very +severe character, the whole of the feathers being shed at once, so as +to leave the bird naked and helpless, and then being restored with +added strength and beauty. + +It is evident, however, that no such interpretation is needed, and +that the Psalmist, when using the expression "renewing the youth like +an eagle's," only employed a metaphorical expression significative of +longevity. + +If we recapitulate the various passages in which the Nesher is +mentioned in the Scriptures, we shall find that the sacred writers +were thoroughly acquainted with the bird, and that they wrote of it +with an occasional fulness and an invariable precision which shows how +familiar they were with a bird at once so plentiful and so +conspicuous. + +The illustration represents one of the rocky gorges so plentiful in +Palestine, inhabited by a number of Griffon Vultures. Some of them are +feeding upon the carcase of a dead animal, another is upon her nest, +and several Vultures, who have gorged themselves with food after their +fashion, are sitting listlessly on the rock, in some of the singular +positions which this bird affects. There is, perhaps, no bird which +has a more curious set of attitudes than the Griffon Vulture, or which +exhibits so different an aspect at various times. + +In flight it is one of the most magnificent birds that can be seen, +and even when perched it often retains a certain look of majesty and +grandeur. Sometimes, however, especially when basking in the sun, it +assumes a series of attitudes which are absolutely grotesque, and +convert the noble-looking bird into a positively ludicrous object. At +one moment it will sit all hunched up, its head sunk between its +shoulders, and one wing trailing behind it as if broken. At another it +will bend its legs and sit down on the ankle-joint, pushing its feet +out in front, and supporting itself by the stiff feathers of its tail. +Often it will crouch nearly flat on the ground, partly spread its +wings, and allow their tips to rest on the earth, and sometimes it +will support nearly all the weight of its body on the wings, which +rest, in a half doubled state, on the ground. I have before me a great +number of sketches, taken in a single day, of the attitudes assumed by +one of these birds, every one of which is strikingly different from +the others, and transforms the whole shape of the bird so much that it +is scarcely recognisable as the same individual. + + + + +THE EAGLE. + + Signification of the word _Asniyeh_--The Golden Eagle and its + habits--The Imperial Eagle--Its solitary mode of life--The + Short-toed Eagle--Its domestic habits and fondness for the + society of man--The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle--Its mode of + catching fish--Its distribution in Palestine. + + +As to the Eagle, rightly so called, there is little doubt that it is +one of the many birds of prey that seem to have been classed under the +general title of Asniyeh--the word which in the Authorized Version of +the Bible is rendered as Osprey. A similar confusion is observable in +the modern Arabic, one word, _ogab_, being applied indiscriminately to +all the Eagles and the large _falconidæ_. + +The chief of the true Eagles, namely, the Golden Eagle (_Aquila +chrysaëtos_), is one of the inhabitants of Palestine, and is seen +frequently, though never in great numbers. Indeed, its predacious +habits unfit it for associating with its kind. Any animal which lives +chiefly, if not wholly, by the chase, requires a large district in +order to enable it to live, and thus twenty or thirty eagles will be +scattered over a district of twice the number of miles. Like the lion +among the mammalia, the Eagle leads an almost solitary life, scarcely +ever associating with any of its kind except its mate and its young. + + [Illustration: THE EAGLE. + + "Though thou shouldest make thy nest as high as the eagle."--JER. xlix. + 16.] + +Although it lives principally by the chase, it has no objection to +carrion, and, as has already been mentioned on page 342, may be seen +feeding on a dead animal in company with the lesser vultures, +though it retires before the lordly griffon. Being so thinly +scattered, it would not be so conspicuous a bird as the griffon, which +is not only very much larger, but associates in great numbers, and +probably on that account no definite species of Eagle seems to be +mentioned in Holy Writ. + +Four or five species of Eagle are known to inhabit Palestine. There +is, for example, the Imperial Eagle (_Aquila mogilnik_), which may be +distinguished from the Golden Eagle by a white patch on the shoulders, +and the long, lancet-shaped feathers of the head and neck. These +feathers are of a fawn colour, and contrast beautifully with the deep +black-brown of the back and wings. It is not very often seen, being a +bird that loves the forest, and that does not care to leave the +shelter of the trees. It is tolerably common in Palestine. + +Then there are several of the allied species, of which the best +example is perhaps the Short-toed Eagle (_Circaëtus gallicus_), a bird +which is extremely plentiful in the Holy Land--so plentiful indeed +that, as Mr. Tristram remarks, there are probably twice as many of the +Short-toed Eagles in Palestine as of all the other species put +together. The genus to which this bird belongs does not take rank with +the true Eagles, but is supposed by systematic naturalists to hold an +intermediate place between the true Eagles and the ospreys. + +The Short-toed Eagle is seldom a carrion-eater, preferring to kill its +prey for itself. It feeds mostly on serpents and other reptiles, and +is especially fond of frogs. It is a large and somewhat heavily built +bird, lightness and swiftness being far less necessary than strength +in taking the animals on which it feeds. It is rather more than two +feet in length, and is a decidedly handsome bird, the back being dark +brown, and the under parts white, covered with crescent-shaped black +spots. + + + + +THE OSPREY. + + The Osprey, or Fishing Eagle--Its geographical range--Mode of + securing prey--Structure of its feet--Its power of balancing + itself in the air. + + +We now come to the Osprey itself (_Pandion haliaëtus_), which was +undoubtedly one of the birds grouped together under the collective +term Asniyeh. This word occurs only in the two passages in Deut. xiv. +and Lev. xi. which have been several times quoted already, and need +not be mentioned again. + +This fine bird is spread over a very large range of country, and is +found in the New World as well as the Old. In consequence of its +peculiar habits, it is often called the Fishing Eagle. + +The Osprey is essentially a fish-eater. It seems very strange that a +predacious bird allied to the eagles, none of which birds can swim, +much less dive, should obtain its living from the water. That the +cormorant and other diving birds should do so is no matter of +surprise, inasmuch as they are able to pursue the fish in their own +element, and catch them by superior speed. But any bird which cannot +dive, and which yet lives on fish, is forced to content itself with +those fish that come to the surface of the water, a mode of obtaining +a livelihood which does not appear to have much chance of success. Yet +the Osprey does on a large scale what the kingfisher does on a small +one, and contrives to find abundant food in the water. + +Its method of taking prey is almost exactly like that which is +employed by the kingfisher. When it goes out in search of food, it +soars into the air, and floats in circles over the water, watching +every inch of it as narrowly as a kestrel watches a stubble-field. No +sooner does a fish rise toward the surface to take a fly, or to leap +into the air for sport, than the Osprey darts downwards, grasps the +fish in its talons, drags the struggling prey from the water, and with +a scream of joy and triumph bears it away to shore, where it can be +devoured at leisure. + + [Illustration: THE OSPREY. + + "These are they of which ye shall not eat; the eagle, and the + ossifrage, and the osprey." + + DEUT. xiv. 12.] + +The bird never dives, neither does it seize the fish with its beak +like the kingfisher. It plunges but slightly into the water, as +otherwise it would not be able to use its strong wings and +carry off its prey. In order to enable the bird to seize the hard +and slippery body of the fish, it is furnished with long, very sharp, +and boldly-hooked talons, which force themselves into the sides of the +fish, and hold it as with grappling irons. + +In order to enable it to hover over the water, and to watch the +surface carefully, it is possessed of wonderful powers of flight, +being able to balance itself in one spot without seeming to move a +wing, and having the singular facility of doing so even when a +tolerably strong breeze is blowing. It has even been observed to +maintain its place unmoved when a sharp squall swept over the spot. + +Although not very plentiful in Palestine, nor indeed in any other +country, it is seen throughout the whole of that country where it can +find a sufficiency of water. It prefers the sea-shore and the rivers +of the coast, and is said to avoid the Sea of Galilee. + + + + +THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE. + + The word _Dayah_ and its signification--Dayah a collective term + for different species of Kites--The Common or Red Kite plentiful + in Palestine--Its piercing sight and habit of soaring--The Black + Kite of Palestine and its habits--The Egyptian Kite--The Raah or + Glede of Scripture--The Buzzards and their habits--The Peregrine + Falcon an inhabitant of Central Palestine, and the Lanner of the + eastern parts of the country. + + +In Lev. xi. 14 and Deut. xiv. 13, we find the Vulture among the list +of birds which the Jews were not permitted to eat. The word which is +translated as Vulture is _dayah_, and we find it occurring again in +Isaiah xxxiv. 15, "There shall the vultures also be gathered, every +one with her mate." There is no doubt, however, that this translation +of the word is an incorrect one, and that it ought to be rendered as +KITE. In Job xxviii. 7, there is a similar word, _ayah_, which is also +translated as Vulture, and which is acknowledged to be not a Vulture, +but one of the Kites: "There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and +which the vulture's eye hath not seen." Both these words are nearly +identical with modern Arabic terms which are employed rather loosely +to signify several species of Kite. Buxtorf, in his Hebrew Lexicon, +gives the correct rendering, translating _dayah_ as _Milvus_, and the +Vulgate in one or two places gives the same translation, though in +others it renders the word as Vulture. + + [Illustration: THE KITE, OR VULTURE OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye + hath not seen._" + + JOB xxviii. 7.] + +Mr. Tristram, who has given much attention to this subject, is +inclined to refer the word _ayah_ to the Common Kite (_Milvus +regalis_), which was once so plentiful in this country, and is now +nearly extinct; and _dayah_ to the Black Kite (_Milvus atra_). He +founds this distinction on the different habits of the two species, +the Common or Red Kite being thinly scattered, and being in the habit +of soaring into the air at very great heights, and the latter being +very plentiful and gregarious. + +We will first take the Red Kite. + +This bird is scattered all over Palestine, feeding chiefly on the +smaller birds, mice, reptiles, and fish. In the capture of fish the +Kite is almost as expert as the osprey, darting from a great height +into the water, and bearing off the fish in its claws. The wings of +this bird are very long and powerful, and bear it through the air in a +peculiarly graceful flight. It is indeed in consequence of this flight +that it has been called the Glede, the word being derived from its +gliding movements. + +The sight of this bird is remarkably keen and piercing, and, from the +vast elevation to which it soars when in search of food, it is able to +survey the face of the country beneath, and to detect the partridge, +quail, chicken, or other creature that will serve it for food. This +piercing sight and habit of soaring render the passage in Job +peculiarly appropriate to this species of Kite, though it does not +express the habits of the other. Should the Kite suspect danger when +forced to leave its nest, it escapes by darting rapidly into the air, +and soaring at a vast height above the trees among which its home is +made. From that elevation it can act as a sentinel, and will not come +down again until it is assured of safety. + + +Of the habits of the BLACK KITE (_Milvus atra_), Mr. Tristram gives an +admirable description. "The habits of the bird bear out the allusion +in Isa. xxxiv. 15, for it is, excepting during the winter three +months, so numerous everywhere in Palestine as to be almost +gregarious. It returns about the beginning of March, and scatters +itself over the whole country, preferring especially the neighbourhood +of valleys, where it is a welcome and unmolested guest. It does not +appear to attack the poultry, among whom it may often be seen feeding +on garbage. It is very sociable, and the slaughter of a sheep at one +of the tents will soon attract a large party of black kites, which +swoop down regardless of man and guns, and enjoy a noisy scramble for +the refuse, chasing each other in a laughable fashion, and sometimes +enabling the wily raven to steal off with the coveted morsel during +their contentions. It is the butt of all the smaller scavengers, and +is evidently most unpopular with the crows and daws, and even rollers, +who enjoy the amusement of teasing it in their tumbling flight, which +is a manoeuvre most perplexing to the kite." + +The same writer proceeds to mention that the Black Kite, unlike the +red species, is very careless about the position of its nest, and +never even attempts to conceal it, sometimes building it in a tree, +sometimes on a rock-ledge, and sometimes in a bush growing on the +rocks. It seems indeed desirous of making the nest as conspicuous as +possible, and hangs it all over with bits of cloth, strips of bark, +wings of birds, and even the cast skins of serpents. + +Another species (_Milvus Ægyptiacus_) is sometimes called the Black +Kite from the dark hue of its plumage, but ought rather to retain the +title of Egyptian Kite. Unlike the black kite, this bird is a great +thief, and makes as much havoc among poultry as the red kite. It is +also a robber of other birds, and if it should happen to see a weaker +bird with food, it is sure to attack and rob it. Like the black kite, +it is fond of the society of man, and haunts the villages in great +numbers, for the purpose of eating the offal, which in Oriental towns +is simply flung into the streets to be devoured by the dogs, vultures, +kites, and other scavengers, without whom no village would be +habitable for a month. + + +Whether the word _raah_, which is translated as Glede in Deut. xiv. +13, among the list of birds which may not be eaten, is one of these +species of Kite, or a bird of a different group, is a very doubtful +point. This is the only passage in which the word occurs, and we have +but small grounds for definitely identifying it with any one species. +The Hebrew Bible retains the word Glede, but affixes a mark of doubt +to it, and several commentators are of opinion that the word is a +wrong reading of _dayah_, which occurs in the parallel passage in Lev. +xi. 14. The reading of the Septuagint follows this interpretation, and +renders it as Vulture in both cases. Buxtorf translates the word +_raah_ as Rook, but suggests that _dayah_ is the correct reading. + +Accepting, however, the word _raah_, we shall find that it is derived +from a root which signifies sight or vision, especially of some +particular object, so that a piercing sight would therefore be the +chief characteristic of the bird, which, as we know, is one of the +attributes of the Kites, together with other birds of prey, so that it +evidently must be classed among the group with which we are now +concerned. It has been suggested that, granting the _raah_ to be a +species distinct from the _dayah_, it is a collective term for the +larger falcons and buzzards, several species of which inhabit +Palestine, and are not distinctly mentioned in the Bible. + +Several species of buzzard inhabit the Holy Land, and there is no +particular reason why they should be mentioned except by a collective +name. Some of the buzzards are very large birds, and though their +wings are short when compared with those of the vultures and eagles, +the flight of the bird is both powerful and graceful. It is not, +however, remarkable for swiftness, and never was employed, like the +falcon, in catching other birds, being reckoned as one of the useless +and cowardly birds of prey. In consonance with this opinion, to +compare a man to a buzzard was thought a most cutting insult. + + [Illustration: THE PEREGRINE FALCON, OR GLEDE OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_And the Glede, and the kite, and the vulture after his + kind._"--DEUT. xiv. 13.] + +As a general rule, it does not chase its prey like the eagles or the +large-winged falcons, but perches on a rock or tree, watches for some +animal on which it can feed, pounces on it, and returns to its post, +the whole movements being very like those of the flycatcher. This +sluggishness of disposition, and the soft and almost owl-like plumage, +have been the means of bringing the bird into contempt among +falconers. + +As to the large falcons, which seem to be included in the term _raah_, +the chief of them is the Peregrine Falcon (_Falco peregrinus_), which +is tolerably common in the Holy Land. In his "Land of Israel," Mr. +Tristram gives several notices of this bird, from which we may take +the following picture from a description of a scene at Endor. "Dreary +and desolate looked the plain, though of exuberant fertility. Here and +there might be seen a small flock of sheep or herd of cattle, tended +by three or four mounted villagers, armed with their long firelocks, +and pistols and swords, on the watch against any small party of +marauding cattle-lifters. + +"Griffon vultures were wheeling in circles far over the rounded top of +Tabor; and here and there an eagle was soaring beneath them in search +of food, but at a most inconvenient distance from our guns. Hariers +were sweeping more rapidly and closely over the ground, where lambs +appeared to be their only prey; and a noble peregrine falcon, which in +Central Palestine does not give place to the more eastern lanner, was +perched on an isolated rock, calmly surveying the scene, and +permitting us to approach and scrutinize him at our leisure." + +The habit of perching on the rock, as mentioned above, is very +characteristic of the Peregrine Falcon, who loves the loftiest and +most craggy cliffs, and makes its nest in spots which can only be +reached by a bold and experienced climber. The nests of this bird are +never built in close proximity, the Peregrine preferring to have its +home at least a mile from the nest of any other of its kinsfolk. +Sometimes it makes a nest in lofty trees, taking possession of the +deserted home of some other bird; but it loves the cliff better than +the tree, and seldom builds in the latter when the former is +attainable. + +In the passage from the "Land of Israel" is mentioned the LANNER +FALCON (_Falco lanarius_), another of the larger falcons to which the +term _raah_ may have been applied. + +This bird is much larger than the Peregrine Falcon, and, indeed, is +very little less than the great gerfalcon itself. It is one of the +birds that were reckoned among the noble falcons; and the female, +which is much larger and stronger than the male, was employed for the +purpose of chasing the kite, whose long and powerful wings could not +always save it from such a foe. + +Although the Lanner has been frequently mentioned among the British +birds, and the name is therefore familiar to us, it is not even a +visitor of our island. The mistake has occurred by an error in +nomenclature, the young female Peregrine Falcon, which is much larger +and darker than the male bird, having been erroneously called by the +name of Lanner. + + [Illustration: THE LANNER FALCON.] + +In the illustration, a pair of Lanner Falcons are depicted as pursuing +some of the rock-pigeons which abound in Palestine, the attitudes of +both birds being taken from life. + + + + +THE HAWK. + + The Netz or Hawk--Number of species probably grouped under that + name--Rare occurrence of the word--The Sparrow-Hawk and its + general habits--Its place of nesting--The Kestrel, or + Wind-hover--Various names by which it is known in England--Its + mode of feeding and curious flight--The Hariers--Probable + derivation of the name--Species of Harier known to inhabit + Palestine--Falconry apparently unknown to the ancient Jews. + + +There is no doubt that a considerable number of species are grouped +together under the single title Netz, or Hawk, a word which is rightly +enough translated. That a great number of birds should have been thus +confounded together is not surprising, seeing that even in this +country and at the present time, the single word Hawk may signify any +one of at least twelve different species. The various falcons, the +hariers, the kestrel, the sparrow-hawk, and the hobbies, are one and +all called popularly by the name of Hawk, and it is therefore likely +that the Hebrew word Netz would signify as many species as the English +word Hawk. From them we will select one or two of the principal +species. + +In the first place, the word is of very rare occurrence. We only find +it three times. It first occurs in Lev. xi. 16, in which it is named, +together with the eagle, the ossifrage, and many other birds, as among +the unclean creatures, to eat which was an abomination. It is next +found in the parallel passage in Deut. xiv. 15, neither of which +portions of Scripture need be quoted at length. + +That the word _netz_ was used in its collective sense is very evident +from the addition which is made to it in both cases. The Hawk, "after +its kind," is forbidden, showing therefore that several kinds or +species of Hawk were meant. Indeed, any specific detail would be quite +needless, as the collective term was quite a sufficient indication, +and, having named the vultures, eagles, and larger birds of prey, the +simple word _netz_ was considered by the sacred writer as expressing +the rest of the birds of prey. + +We find the word once more in that part of the Bible to which we +usually look for any reference to natural history. In Job xxxix. 26, +we have the words, "Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and turn [or +stretch] her wings toward the south?" The precise signification of +this passage is rather doubtful, but it is generally considered to +refer to the migration of several of the Hawk tribe. That the bird in +question was distinguished for its power of flight is evident from the +fact that the sacred poet has selected that one attribute as the most +characteristic of the Netz. + +Taking first the typical example of the Hawks, we find that the +SPARROW-HAWK (_Accipiter nisus_) is plentiful in Palestine, finding +abundant food in the smaller birds of the country. It selects for its +nest just the spots which are so plentiful in the Holy Land, _i.e._ +the crannies of rocks, and the tops of tall trees. Sometimes it builds +in deserted ruins, but its favourite spot seems to be the lofty +tree-top, and, in default of that, the rock-crevice. It seldom builds +a nest of its own, but takes possession of that which has been made by +some other bird. Some ornithologists think that it looks out for a +convenient nest, say of the crow or magpie, and then ejects the +rightful owner. I am inclined to think, however, that it mostly takes +possession of a nest that is already deserted, without running the +risk of fighting such enemies as a pair of angry magpies. This opinion +is strengthened by the fact that the bird resorts to the same nest +year after year. + +It is a bold and dashing bird, though of no great size, and when wild +and free displays a courage which it seems to lose in captivity. As is +the case with so many of the birds, the female is much larger than her +mate, the latter weighing about six ounces, and measuring about a foot +in length, and the former weighing above nine ounces, and measuring +about fifteen inches in length. + + +The most plentiful of the smaller Hawks of Palestine is the COMMON +KESTREL (_Tinnunculus alaudarius_). This is the same species with +which we are so familiar in England under the names of Kestrel, +Wind-hover, and Stannel Hawk. + + [Illustration: KESTREL. + + "_Doth the Hawk fly by thy wisdom?_"--JOB xxxix. 26.] + +It derives its name of Wind-hover from its remarkable habit of +hovering, head to windward, over some spot for many minutes together. +This action is always performed at a moderate distance from the +ground; some naturalists saying that the Hawk in question never hovers +at an elevation exceeding forty feet, while others, myself included, +have seen the bird hovering at a height of twice as many yards. +Generally, however, it prefers a lower distance, and is able by +employing this manoeuvre to survey a tolerably large space beneath. As +its food consists in a very great measure of field-mice, the Kestrel +is thus able by means of its telescopic eyesight to see if a mouse +rises from its hole; and if it should do so, the bird drops on it and +secures it in its claws. + +Unlike the sparrow-hawk, the Kestrel is undoubtedly gregarious, and +will build its nest in close proximity to the habitations of other +birds, a number of nests being often found within a few yards of each +other. Mr. Tristram remarks that he has found its nest in the recesses +of the caverns occupied by the griffon vultures, and that the Kestrel +also builds close to the eagles, and is the only bird which is +permitted to do so. It also builds in company with the jackdaw. + +Several species of Kestrel are known, and of them at least two inhabit +the Holy Land, the second being a much smaller bird than the Common +Kestrel, and feeding almost entirely on insects, which it catches with +its claws, the common chafers forming its usual prey. Great numbers of +these birds live together, and as they rather affect the society of +mankind, they are fond of building their nests in convenient crannies +in the mosques or churches. Independently of its smaller size, it may +be distinguished from the Common Kestrel by the whiteness of its +claws. + +The illustration is drawn from a sketch taken from life. The bird +hovered so near a house, and remained so long in one place, that the +artist fixed a telescope and secured an exact sketch of the bird in +the peculiar attitude which it is so fond of assuming. After a while, +the Kestrel ascended to a higher elevation, and then resumed its +hovering, in the attitude which is shown in the upper figure. In +consequence of the great abundance of this species in Palestine, and +the peculiarly conspicuous mode of balancing itself in the air while +in search of prey, we may feel sure that the sacred writers had it +specially in their minds when they used the collective term Netz. + +The Kestrel has a very large geographical range, being plentiful not +only in England and Palestine, but in Northern and Southern Europe, +throughout the greater part of Asia, in Siberia, and in portions of +Africa. The bird, therefore, is capable of enduring both heat and +cold, and, as is often the case with those creatures that are useful +to man, is a perfect cosmopolitan. + +It is easily trained, and, although in the old hawking days it was +considered a bird which a noble could not carry, it can be trained to +chase the smaller birds as successfully as the falcons can be taught +to pursue the heron. The name Tinnunculus is supposed by some to have +been given to the bird in allusion to its peculiar cry, which is +clear, shrill, and consists of a single note several times repeated. + +On page 361 the reader may see a representation of a pair of HARIER +HAWKS flying below the rock on which the peregrine falcon has +perched, and engaged in pursuing one of the smaller birds. + +They have been introduced because several species of Harier are to be +found in Palestine, where they take, among the plains and lowlands, +the place which is occupied by the other hawks and falcons among the +rocks. + +The name of Harier appears to be given to these birds on account of +their habit of regularly quartering the ground over which they fly +when in search of prey, just like hounds when searching for hares. +This bird is essentially a haunter of flat and marshy lands, where it +finds frogs, mice, lizards, on which it usually feeds. It does not, +however, confine itself to such food, but will chase and kill most of +the smaller birds, and occasionally will catch even the leveret, the +rabbit, the partridge, and the curlew. + +When it chases winged prey, it seldom seizes the bird in the air, but +almost invariably keeps above it, and gradually drives it to the +ground. It will be seen, therefore, that its flight is mostly low, as +suits the localities in which it lives, and it seldom soars to any +great height, except when it amuses itself by rising and wheeling in +circles together with its mate. This proceeding generally takes place +before nest-building. The usual flight is a mixture of that of the +kestrel and the falcon, the Harier sometimes poising itself over some +particular spot, and at others shooting forwards through the air with +motionless wings. + +Unlike the falcons and most of the hawks, the Harier does not as a +rule perch on rocks, but prefers to sit very upright on the ground, +perching generally on a mole-hill, stone, or some similar elevation. +Even its nest is made on the ground, and is composed of reeds, sedges, +sticks, and similar matter, materials that can be procured from marshy +land. The nest is always elevated a foot or so from the ground, and +has occasionally been found on the top of a mound more than a yard in +height. It is, however, conjectured that in such cases the mound is +made by one nest being built upon the remains of another. The object +of the elevated nest is probably to preserve the eggs in case of a +flood. + +At least five species of Hariers are known to exist in the Holy Land, +two of which are among the British birds, namely, the Marsh Harier +(_Circus æruginosus_), sometimes called the Duck Hawk and the Moor +Buzzard, and the Hen Harier (_Circus cyaneus_), sometimes called the +White Hawk, Dove Hawk, or Blue Hawk, on account of the plumage of the +male, which differs greatly according to age; and the Ring-tailed +Hawk, on account of the dark bars which appear on the tail of the +female. All the Hariers are remarkable for the Circlet of feathers +that surrounds the eyes, and which resembles in a lesser degree the +bold feather-circle around the eye of the owl tribe. + + +Before taking leave of the Hawks, it is as well to notice the entire +absence in the Scriptures of any reference to falconry. Now, seeing +that the art of catching birds and animals by means of Hawks is a +favourite amusement among Orientals, as has already been mentioned +when treating of the gazelle (page 139), and knowing the unchanging +character of the East, we cannot but think it remarkable that no +reference should be made to this sport in the Scriptures. + +It is true that in Palestine itself there would be but little scope +for falconry, the rough hilly ground and abundance of cultivated soil +rendering such an amusement almost impossible. Besides, the use of the +falcon implies that of the horse, and, as we have already seen, the +horse was scarcely ever used except for military purposes. + +Had, therefore, the experience of the Israelites been confined to +Palestine, there would have been good reason for the silence of the +sacred writers on this subject. But when we remember that the +surrounding country is well adapted for falconry, that the amusement +is practised there at the present day, and that the Israelites passed +so many years as captives in other countries, we can but wonder that +the Hawks should never be mentioned as aids to bird-catching. We find +that other bird-catching implements are freely mentioned and employed +as familiar symbols, such as the gin, the net, the snare, the trap, +and so forth; but that there is not a single passage in which the +Hawks are mentioned as employed in falconry. + + + + +THE OWL. + + The words which have been translated as Owl--The Côs, or Little + Owl--Use made of the Little Owl in bird-catching--Habits of the + bird--The Barn, Screech, or White Owl a native of Palestine--The + Yanshûph, or Egyptian Eagle Owl--Its food and nest--The Lilith, + or Night Monster--Various interpretations of the word--The + Kippoz probably identical with the Scops Owl, or Marouf. + + +In various parts of the Old Testament there occur several words which +are translated as OWL in the Authorized Version, and in most cases the +rendering is acknowledged to be the correct one, while in one or two +instances there is a difference of opinion on the subject. + +In Lev. xi. 16, 17, we find the following birds reckoned among those +which are an abomination, and which might not be eaten by the +Israelites: "The owl, and the night-hawk, and the cuckoo, and the hawk +after his kind; + +"And the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great owl." + +Here, then, we have in close proximity the word Owl repeated three +times, and the same repetition occurs in the parallel passage in Deut. +xiv. Now the words which are here translated as Owl are totally +different words in the Hebrew, so that if we leave them untranslated, +the passages will run as follow: "And the Bath-haya'anah, and the +night-hawk, and the cuckoo, and the hawk after his kind; + +"And the Côs, and the cormorant, and the Yanshûph." + +Taking these words in order, we find in the first place that the +Jewish Bible accepts the translation of the words _côs_ and +_yanshûph_, merely affixing to them the mark of doubt. But it +translates the word _bath-haya'anah_ as Ostrich, without adding the +doubtful mark. Now the same word occurs in several other passages of +Scripture, the first being in Job xxx. 29: "I am a brother to dragons, +and a companion to owls." In the marginal reading of the Authorized +Version, which, as the reader must bear in mind, is of equal value +with the text, the rendering is the same as that of the Jewish Bible, +and in several other passages the same reading is followed. We +therefore accept the word _bath-haya'anah_ as the ostrich, and dismiss +it from among the owls. + + +Coming now to the other words, we find in the passages already quoted +the words _côs_ and _yanshûph_. Both those words occur in other parts +of Scripture, and evidently are the names of nocturnal birds that +haunt ruins and lonely places. Taking them in order, we find the word +_côs_ to occur again in Ps. cii. 6: "I am like a pelican of the +wilderness: I am like an owl of the desert." The Psalm in which this +passage occurs is a penitential prayer, in which the writer uses many +of the metaphors employed by Job when lamenting his afflictions, and +describes himself as left alone among men. + +The simile is equally just and feasible in this case, the Owl being +essentially a bird of night, and associated with solitude and gloom. +The particular species which is signified by the word _côs_ bears but +very slightly on the subject, inasmuch as in general habits all the +true Owls are very similar in hiding by day in their nests, and coming +out at night to hunt for prey, their melancholy hoot, or startling +shriek, breaking the silence of the night. + +Still it is necessary to identify, if we can, some species with the +word _côs_, and it is very likely that the Little Owl, or Boomah of +the Arabs (_Athene Persica_), is the bird which is signified by the +word _côs_. This species is probably identical with the Little Night +Owl of England (_Athene noctua_). Though rare in England, it is very +common in many parts of the Continent where it is much valued by +bird-catchers, who employ it as a means of attracting small birds to +their traps. They place it on the top of a long pole, and carry it +into the fields, where they plant the pole in the ground. This Owl has +a curious habit of swaying its body backwards and forwards, and is +sure to attract the notice of all the small birds in the +neighbourhood. It is well known that the smaller birds have a peculiar +hatred to the Owl, and never can pass it without mobbing it, +assembling in great numbers, and so intent on their occupation that +they seem to be incapable of perceiving anything but the object of +their hatred. Even rooks, magpies, and hawks are taken by this simple +device. + +Whether or not the Little Owl was used for this object by the ancient +inhabitants of Palestine is rather doubtful; but as they certainly did +so employ decoy birds for the purpose of attracting game, it is not +unlikely that the Little Owl was found to serve as a decoy. We shall +learn more about the system of decoy-birds when we come to the +partridge. + + [Illustration: THE LITTLE OWL + + "_I am like an owl of the desert._"--PS. cii. 6.] + +The Little Owl is to be found in almost every locality, caring little +whether it takes up its residence in cultivated grounds, in villages, +among deserted ruins, or in places where man has never lived. As, +however, it is protected by the natives, it prefers the neighbourhood +of villages, and may be seen quietly perched in some favourite spot, +not taking the trouble to move unless it be approached closely. And to +detect a perched Owl is not at all an easy matter, as the bird has a +way of selecting some spot where the colours of its plumage harmonize +so well with the surrounding objects that the large eyes are often the +first indication of its presence. Many a time I have gone to search +after Owls, and only been made aware of them by the sharp angry snap +that they make when startled. + +The name _Athene_, by the way, has been given to this Owl because it +is the species selected by the Greeks as the emblem of wisdom. + +The common BARN OWL of England (_Strix flammea_) also inhabits +Palestine, and if, as is likely to be the case, the word côs is a +collective term under which several species are grouped together, the +Barn or White Owl is likely to be one of them. + +Like the Little Owl, it affects the neighbourhood of man, though it +may be found in ruins and similar localities. An old ruined castle is +sure to be tenanted by the Barn Owl, whose nightly shrieks have so +often terrified the belated wanderer, and made him fancy that the +place was haunted by disturbed spirits. Such being the case in +England, it is likely that in the East, where popular superstition has +peopled every well with its jinn and every ruin with its spirit, the +nocturnal cry of this bird, which is often called the Screech Owl from +its note, should be exceedingly terrifying, and would impress itself +on the minds of sacred writers as a fit image of solitude, terror, and +desolation. + +The Screech Owl is scarcely less plentiful in Palestine than the +Little Owl, and, whether or not it be mentioned under a separate name, +is sure to be one of the birds to which allusion is made in the +Scriptures. + + +Another name now rises before us: this is the Yanshûph, translated as +the Great Owl, a word which occurs not only in the prohibitory +passages of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, but in the Book of Isaiah. In +that book, ch. xxxiv. ver. 10, 11, we find the following passage: +"From generation to generation it shall lie waste; none shall pass +through it for ever and ever. + +"But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl +(_yanshûph_) also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall +stretch out upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of +emptiness." The Jewish Bible follows the same reading. + +It is most probable that the Great Owl or Yanshûph is the EGYPTIAN +EAGLE OWL (_Bubo ascalaphus_), a bird which is closely allied to the +great Eagle Owl of Europe (_Bubo maximus_), and the Virginian Eared +Owl (_Bubo Virginianus_) of America. This fine bird measures some two +feet in length, and looks much larger than its real size, owing to the +thick coating of feathers which it wears in common with all true Owls, +and the ear-like feather tufts on the top of its head, which it can +raise or depress at pleasure. Its plumage is light tawny. + +This bird has a special predilection for deserted places and ruins, +and may at the present time be seen on the very spots of which the +prophet spoke in his prediction. It is very plentiful in Egypt, where +the vast ruins are the only relics of a creed long passed away or +modified into other forms of religion, and its presence only +intensifies rather than diminishes the feeling of loneliness that +oppresses the traveller as he passes among the ruins. + +The European Eagle Owl has all the habits of its Asiatic congener. It +dwells in places far from the neighbourhood of man, and during the day +is hidden in some deep and dark recess, its enormous eyes not being +able to endure the light of day. In the evening it issues from its +retreat, and begins its search after prey, which consists of various +birds, quadrupeds, reptiles, fish, and even insects when it can find +nothing better. + +On account of its comparatively large dimensions, it is able to +overcome even the full-grown hare and rabbit, while the lamb and the +young fawn occasionally fall victims to its voracity. It seems never +to chase any creature on the wing, but floats silently through the +air, its soft and downy plumage deadening the sound of its progress, +and suddenly drops on the unsuspecting prey while it is on the ground. + +The nest of this Owl is made in the crevices of rocks, or in ruins, +and is a very large one, composed of sticks and twigs, lined with a +tolerably large heap of dried herbage, the parent Owls returning to +the same spot year after year. Should it not be able to find either a +rock or a ruin, it contents itself with a hollow in the ground, and +there lays its eggs, which are generally two in number, though +occasionally a third egg is found. The Egyptian Eagle Owl does much +the same thing, burrowing in sand-banks, and retreating, if it fears +danger, into the hollow where its nest has been made. + +In the large illustration the two last-mentioned species are given. +The Egyptian Eagle Owl is seen with its back towards the spectator, +grasping in its talons a dead hare, and with ear-tufts erect is +looking towards the Barn Owl, which is contemplating in mingled anger +and fear the proceedings of the larger bird. Near them is perched a +raven, in order to carry out more fully the prophetic words, "the owl +also and the raven shall dwell in it." + + +Two more passages yet remain in which the word Owl is mentioned, and, +curiously enough, both of them are found in the Book of Isaiah, the +poet-prophet, who seized with a poet's intuition on the natural +objects around him, and converted the simplest and most familiar +incidents into glowing imagery and powerful metaphor. + +If the reader will refer to Isaiah xxxiv. 13-15, he will find the +following passages, which are, in fact, a continuation of the prophecy +against Idumea, which has already been quoted. "And thorns shall come +up in her palaces, nettles and brambles in the fortresses thereof: and +it shall be an habitation of dragons, and a court for owls. + +"The wild beasts of the desert shall also meet with the wild beasts of +the island, and the satyr shall cry to his fellow; the screech owl +also shall rest there, and find for herself a place of rest. + +"There shall the great owl make her nest, and lay, and hatch, and +gather under her shadow." + +It has been already mentioned that the word which is translated as +Owl, in the first of these passages, is _bath-haya'anah_, which is +generally considered to signify the ostrich. In verse 14 we come to a +new word, namely, _lilith_. In the marginal reading of the Authorized +Version, this word is rendered as "night monster," and the Jewish +Bible takes nearly the same view of the word by translating it as "a +nocturnal one," evidently basing this interpretation upon the +derivation of the word. Several Hebraists have thought that the word +_lilith_ merely represents some mythological being, like the dread +Lamia of the ancients, a mixture of the material and spiritual--too +ethereal to be seen by daylight, and too gross to be above the +requirements of human food. The blood of mankind was the food of these +fearful beings, and, according to old ideas, they could only live +among ruins and desert places, where they concealed themselves during +the day at the bottoms of wells or the recesses of rock-caverns, and +stole out at night to seize on some unlucky wanderer, and suck his +blood as he slept. + +The reader may remember that even our very imperfect version of the +"Arabian Nights" repeatedly alludes to this belief, the evil spirit +being almost invariably represented as dwelling in ruins, rocky +places, and the interiors of wells. + +Although it is very possible that the prophet may have referred to +some of the mythological beings which were so universally supposed to +inhabit deserted spots, and thus to have employed the word _lilith_ as +a term which he did not intend to be taken otherwise than +metaphorically, it is equally possible that some nocturnal bird may +have been meant, and in that case the bird in question must almost +certainly have been an Owl of some kind. As to the particular species +of Owl, that is a question which cannot be satisfactorily answered, +especially as so many scholars find reason to doubt whether the word +_lilith_ represents an Owl, or indeed any ordinary inhabitant of +earth. As, therefore, we have no data whereon to found a positive +opinion, the question will be allowed to remain an open one. + +The last word which is translated as Owl is _kippoz_, and occurs in +ch. xxxiv. 15: "There shall the great owl make her nest." + + [Illustration: THE OWL. + + "I am a companion to owls."--JOB. xxx. 29.] + +Many Hebraists think that in this case the word _kippoz_ is a mere +clerical error for _kippod_, or hedgehog, and have translated the +passage accordingly. The Septuagint and the Vulgate follow this +reading; Buxtorf, in his Hebrew Lexicon, translates _kippoz_ as +Thrush, deriving the name from the dipping character of its flight. +The Jewish Bible, following several other authorities, renders the +word as "arrow-snake," while several scholars translate it as "darting +serpent." This interpretation, however, is scarcely tenable, as the +description of the Kippoz as making its nest, laying its eggs, and +gathering them under its shadow, clearly points to a bird, and not a +reptile. It is very true that the boa or python snake has been seen to +coil itself round a heap of its eggs, but the sacred writer could +hardly have had many opportunities of seeing such an act, while the +custom of a bird gathering her young under the shadow of her wings +must have been perfectly familiar to him. There is, moreover, the +fact that the context speaks of the vultures, so that a bird +of some kind was evidently in the mind of the writer. Mr. +Tristram suggests that the Kippoz might be intended for the Scops Owl, +called Marouf by the Arabs, and which is very common about ruins, +caves, and the old walls of towns. Its note is well represented by the +word _kippoz_. + +"It is a migrant, returning to Palestine in spring. It is the smallest +owl in the country, being little more than seven inches in length, +with long ear-tufts, and its whole plumage most delicately mottled and +speckled with grey and light brown." + +This species is very plentiful on the continent of Europe, though it +is rare in the British Isles. It feeds, as might be presumed from its +diminutive size, on mice, small reptiles, and insects. Its scientific +name, according to the nomenclature of the British Museum, is +_Ephialtes Scops_. + + + + +THE NIGHT-HAWK. + + Different interpretations of the word Tachmâs--Probability that + it signifies the Nightjar--Various names of the bird--Its + remarkable jarring cry, and wheeling flight--Mode of + feeding--Boldness of the bird--Deceptive appearance of its size. + + +We next come to the vexed question of the word Tachmâs, which is +rendered in the Authorized Version as NIGHT-HAWK. + +This word only occurs among the list of prohibited birds (see Lev. xi. +16, and Deut. xiv. 15), and has caused great controversies among +commentators. Some Hebraists have thought that the male ostrich was +signified by _tachmâs_, the word _bath-haya'anah_ being supposed by +them to signify the female ostrich. It is hardly probable, however, +that the sacred writer should have mentioned separately the sexes of +the same species, and we must therefore look for some other +interpretation. + +Going to the opposite extreme of size, some scholars have translated +_tachmâs_ as Swallow. This again is not a very probable rendering, as +the swallow would be too small a bird to be specially named in the +prohibitory list. The balance of probability seems to lie between two +interpretations,--namely, that which considers the word _tachmâs_ to +signify the Night-hawk, and that which translates it as Owl. For both +of these interpretations much is to be said, and it cannot be denied +that of the two the latter is perhaps the preferable. If so, the White +or Barn Owl is probably the particular species to which reference is +made. + + [Illustration: THE NIGHT-HAWK. + + "_The owl, and the night-hawk, and the cuckoo._"--DEUT. xiv. 15.] + +Still, many commentators think that the Night-hawk or Nightjar is the +bird which is signified by the word _tachmâs_; and, as we have already +treated of the owls, we will accept the rendering of the Authorized +Version. Moreover, the Jewish Bible follows the same translation, and +renders _tachmâs_ as Night-hawk, but affixes the mark of doubt. + +It is not unlikely that the Jews may have reckoned this bird among the +owls, just as is the case with the uneducated among ourselves, who +popularly speak of the Nightjar as the Fern Owl, Churn Owl, or Jar +Owl, the two last names being given to it on account of its peculiar +cry. There are few birds, indeed, which have received a greater +variety of popular names, for, besides the Goatsucker and the five +which have already been mentioned, there are the Wheel-bird and +Dor-hawk, the former of these names having been given to the bird on +account of its wheeling round the trees while seeking for prey, and +the latter on account of the dor-beetles on which it largely feeds. + +This curious variety of names is probably due to the very conspicuous +character of the Nightjar, its strange, jarring, weird-like cry +forcing itself on the ear of the least attentive, as it breaks the +silence of night. It hardly seems like the cry of a bird, but rather +resembles the sound of a pallet falling on the cogs of a +rapidly-working wheel. It begins in the dusk of evening, the long, +jarring note being rolled out almost interminably, until the hearer +wonders how the bird can have breath enough for such a prolonged +sound. The hearer may hold his breath as long as he can, take a full +inspiration, hold his breath afresh, and repeat this process over and +over again, and yet the Nightjar continues to trill out its rapid +notes without a moment's cessation for breath, the sound now rising +shrill and clear, and now sinking as if the bird were far off, but +never ceasing for an instant. + +This remarkable cry has caused the uneducated rustics to look upon the +bird with superstitious dread, every one knowing its cry full well, +though to many the bird is unknown except by its voice. It is probable +that, in the days when Moses wrote the Law, so conspicuous a bird was +well known to the Jews, and we may therefore conjecture that it was +one of those birds which he would specially mention by name. + +The general habits of the Nightjar are quite as remarkable as its +note. It feeds on the wing, chasing and capturing the various moths, +beetles, and other insects that fly abroad by night. It may be seen +wheeling round the branches of some tree, the oak being a special +favourite, sometimes circling round it, and sometimes rising high in +the air, and the next moment skimming along the ground. Suddenly it +will disappear, and next moment its long trilling cry is heard from +among the branches of the tree round which it has been flying. To see +it while singing is almost impossible, for it has a habit of sitting +longitudinally on the branch, and not across it, like most birds, so +that the outline of its body cannot be distinguished from that of the +bough on which it is seated. As suddenly as it began, the sound +ceases, and simultaneously the bird may be seen wheeling again through +the air with its noiseless flight. + +Being a very bold bird, and not much afraid of man, it allows a +careful observer to watch its movements clearly. I have often stood +close to the tree round which several Nightjars were circling, and +seen them chase their prey to the ground within a yard or two of the +spot on which I was standing. The flight of the Nightjar is singularly +graceful. Swift as the swallow itself, it presents a command of wing +that is really wonderful, gliding through the air with consummate +ease, wheeling and doubling in pursuit of some active moth, whose +white wings glitter against the dark background, while the sober +plumage of its pursuer is scarcely visible, passing often within a few +feet of the spectator, and yet not a sound or a rustle will reach his +ears. Sometimes the bird is said to strike its wings together over its +back, so as to produce a sharp snapping sound, intended to express +anger at the presence of the intruder. I never, however, heard this +sound, though I have watched the bird so often. + +Owing to the soft plumage with which it is clad, this bird, like the +owls, looks larger than really is the case. It is between ten and +eleven inches in length, with an expanse of wing of twenty inches, and +yet weighs rather less than three ounces. Its large mouth, like that +of the swallow tribe, opens as far as the eyes, and is furnished with +a set of _vibrissæ_ or bristles, which remind the observer of the +"whale-bone" which is set on the jaw of the Greenland whale. The +scientific name of the bird is _Caprimulgus Europæus_. + + + + +THE SWALLOW. + + Identification of the smaller birds--Oriental indifference to + natural history--Use of collective terms--The + Swallow--Signification of the word _Deror_--The Bird of + Liberty--Swallows and Swifts--The Sunbirds and + Bee-eaters--Variety of small birds found in Palestine--The + Swallows of Palestine--Swallows protected by man in various + countries--Nesting of the Swallow--The Rufous Swallow and + Martin--The Sis or Swift--Various species of Swift inhabiting + the Holy Land--Talmudical notions of the Swift or Swallow--The + leper and his offering--The cooking pot and the sacrificial + vessel--Signification of the word _Tzippor-deror_. + + +Difficult as is the identification of the mammalia mentioned in the +Bible, that of the birds is much more intricate. + +Some of the larger birds can be identified with tolerable certainty, +but when we come to the smaller and less conspicuous species, we are +at once lost in uncertainty, and at the best can only offer +conjectures. The fact is, the Jews of old had no idea of +discriminating between the smaller birds, unless they happened to be +tolerably conspicuous by plumage or by voice. We need not be much +surprised at this. The Orientals of the present day do precisely the +same thing, and not only fail to discriminate between the smaller +birds, but absolutely have no names for them. + +By them, the shrikes, the swallows, the starlings, the thrushes, the +larks, the warblers, and all the smaller birds, are called by a common +title, derived from the twittering sound of their voices, only one or +two of them having any distinctive titles. They look upon the birds +much as persons ignorant of entomology look at a collection of moths. +There is not much difficulty in discriminating between the great +hawk-moths, and perhaps in giving a name to one or two of them which +are specially noticeable for any peculiarity of form or colour; but +when they come to the "Rustics," the "Carpets," the "Wainscots," and +similar groups, they are utterly lost; and, though they may be able to +see the characteristic marks when the moths are placed side by side, +they are incapable of distinguishing them separately, and, to their +uneducated eyes, twenty or thirty species appear absolutely alike. + +I believe that there is no country where a knowledge of practical +natural history is so widely extended as in England, and yet how few +educated persons are there who, if taken along a country lane, can +name the commonest weed or insect, or distinguish between a sparrow, a +linnet, a hedge-sparrow, and a chaffinch. Nay, how many are there who, +if challenged even to repeat the names of twelve little birds, would +be unable to do so without some consideration, much less to know them +if the birds were placed before them. + +Such being the case in this country, where the capability of +observation is more or less cultivated in every educated person, we +may well expect that a profound ignorance on the subject should exist +in countries where that faculty is absolutely neglected as a matter of +education. Moreover, in England we have a comparatively limited list +of birds, whereas in Palestine are found nearly all those which are +reckoned among British birds, and many other species besides. Those +which reside in England reside also for the most part in Palestine, +while the greater part of the migratory birds pass, as we might +expect, into the Holy Land and the neighbouring countries. + +If then we put together the two facts of an unobservant people and a +vastly extended fauna, we shall not wonder that so many collective +terms are used in the Scriptures, one word often doing duty for twenty +or thirty species. The only plan, therefore, which can be adopted, is +to mention generally the birds which were probably grouped under one +name, and to describe briefly one or two of the most prominent. + +It is, however, rather remarkable that the song of birds does not +appear to be noticed by the sacred writers. We might expect that +several of the prophets, especially Isaiah, the great sacred poet, who +drew so many of his images from natural objects, would have found in +the song of birds some metaphor expressive of sweetness or joy. We +might expect that in the Book of Job, in which so many creatures are +mentioned, the singing of birds would be brought as prominently +forward as the neck clothed with thunder of the horse, the tameless +freedom of the wild ass, the voracity of the vulture, and the +swiftness of the ostrich. We might expect the song of birds to be +mentioned by Amos, the herdman of Tekoa, who introduces into his +rugged poem the rear of the old lion and the wail of the cub, the +venom of the serpent hidden in the wattled wall of the herdman's hut, +and the ravages of the palmer-worm among the olives. Above all, we +might expect that in the Psalms there would be many allusions to the +notes of the various birds which have formed such fruitful themes for +the poets of later times. There are, however, in the whole of the +Scriptures but two passages in which the song of birds is mentioned, +and even in these only a passing allusion is made. + +One of them occurs in Psalm civ. 12: "By them (_i.e._ the springs of +water) shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation, which sing +among the branches." This passage is perhaps rendered more closely in +the Jewish Bible: "Over them dwell the fowls of the heaven; they let +their voices resound (or give their voice) from between the foliage." + +The other occurs in Eccles. xii. 4: "And the doors shall be shut in +the streets, when the sound of the grinding is low, and he shall rise +up at the voice of the bird, and all the daughters of music shall be +brought low." The word which is here translated as "bird," is that +which is rendered in some places as "sparrow," in others as "fowl," +and in others as "bird." Even in these passages, as the reader will +have noticed, no marks of appreciation are employed, and we hear +nothing of the sweetness, joyousness, or mournfulness of the bird's +song. + + +We will now proceed to the words which have been translated as Swallow +in the Authorized Version. + +These are two in number, namely, _derôr_ and _agar_. Hebraists are, +however, agreed that the latter word has been wrongly applied, the +translators having interchanged the signification of two contiguous +words. + +We will therefore first take the word _deror_. This word signifies +liberty, and is well applied to the Swallow, the bird of freedom. It +is remarkable, by the way, how some of the old commentators have +contrived to perplex themselves about a very simple matter. One of +them comments upon the bird as being "so called, because it has the +liberty of building in the houses of mankind." Another takes a +somewhat similar view of the case, but puts it in a catechetical +form: "Why is the swallow called the bird of liberty? Because it lives +both in the house and in the field." It is scarcely necessary to point +out to the reader that the "liberty" to which allusion is made is the +liberty of flight, the bird coming and going at its appointed times, +and not being capable of domestication. + +Several kinds of Swallow are known in Palestine, including the true +Swallows, the martins, and the swifts, and, as we shall presently see, +it is likely that one of these groups was distinguished by a separate +name. Whether of not the word _deror_ included other birds beside the +Swallows is rather doubtful, though not at all unlikely; and if so, it +is probable that any swift-winged insectivorous bird would be called +by the name of Deror, irrespective of its size or colour. + +The bee-eaters, for example, are probably among the number of the +birds grouped together under the word _deror_, and we may conjecture +that the same is the case with the sunbirds, those bright-plumed +little beings that take in the Old World the place occupied by the +humming-birds in the New, and often mistaken for them by travellers +who are not acquainted with ornithology. One of these birds, the +_Nectarinia Oseæ_, is described by Mr. Tristram as "a tiny little +creature of gorgeous plumage, rivalling the humming-birds of America +in the metallic lustre of its feathers--green and purple, with +brilliant red and orange plumes under its shoulders." + +In order to account for the singular variety of animal life which is +to be found in Palestine, and especially the exceeding diversity of +species among the birds, we must remember that Palestine is a sort of +microcosm in itself, comprising within its narrow boundaries the most +opposite conditions of temperature, climate, and soil. Some parts are +rocky, barren, and mountainous, chilly and cold at the top, and acting +as channels through which the winds blow almost continuously. The +cliffs are full of holes, rifts, and caverns, some natural, some +artificial, and some of a mixed kind, the original caverns having been +enlarged and improved by the hand of man. + +As a contrast to this rough and ragged region, there lie close at hand +large fertile plains, affording pasturage for unnumbered cattle, and +of a tolerably equable temperature, so that the animals which are +pastured in it can find food throughout the year. Through the centre +of Palestine runs the Jordan, fertilizing its banks with perpetual +verdure, and ending its course in the sulphurous and bituminous waters +of the Dead Sea, under whose waves the ruins of the wicked cities are +supposed to lie. Westward we have the shore of the Mediterranean with +its tideless waves of the salt sea, and on the eastward of the +mountain range that runs nearly parallel to the sea is the great Lake +of Tiberias, so large as to have earned the name of the Sea of +Galilee. + + [Illustration: THE RUFOUS SWALLOW AND GALILEAN SWIFT. + + "_The turtle, and the crane, and the swallow observe the time of their + coming._"--JER. viii. 7.] + +Under these favourable conditions, therefore, the number of species +which are found in Palestine is perhaps greater than can be seen in +any other part of the earth of the same dimensions, and it seems +probable that for this reason, among many others, Palestine was +selected to be the Holy Land. If, for example, the Christian Church +had been originated under the tropics, those who lived in a cold +climate could scarcely have understood the language in which the +Scriptures must necessarily have been couched. Had it, on the +contrary, taken its rise in the Arctic regions, the inhabitants of the +tropics and temperate regions could not have comprehended the imagery +in which the teachings of Scripture must have been conveyed. But the +small and geographically insignificant Land of Palestine combines in +itself many of the characteristics which belong respectively to the +cold, the temperate, and the hot regions of the world, so that the +terms in which the sacred writings are couched are intelligible to a +very great proportion of the world's inhabitants. + +This being the case, we naturally expect to find that several species +of the Swallow are inhabitants of Palestine, if indeed so migratory a +bird can be rightly said to be an inhabitant of any one country. + +The chief characteristic of the Swallow, the "bird of freedom," is +that it cannot endure captivity, but is forced by instinct to pass +from one country to another for the purpose of preserving itself in a +tolerably equable temperature, moving northwards as the spring ripens +into summer, and southwards as autumn begins to sink into winter. By +some marvellous instinct it traces its way over vast distances, +passing over hundreds of miles where nothing but the sea is beneath +it, and yet at the appointed season returning with unerring certainty +to the spot where it was hatched. How it is guided no one knows, but +the fact is certain, that Swallows, remarkable for some peculiarity by +which they could be at once identified, have been observed to leave +the country on their migration, and to return in the following year to +the identical nest whence they started. + +The habits of the Swallow are much the same in Palestine as they are +in England. Its habit of making its nest among the habitations of +mankind is mentioned in a well-known passage of the Psalms: "The +sparrow hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for herself, where +she may lay her young, even Thine altars, O Lord of Hosts, my King and +my God" (Ps. lxxxiv. 3). The Swallow seems in all countries to have +enjoyed the protection of man, and to have been suffered to build in +peace under his roof. We find the same idea prevalent in the New World +as well as the Old, and it is rather curious that the presence of the +bird should so generally he thought to bring luck to a house. + +In some parts of our country, a farmer would not dare to kill a +Swallow or break down its nest, simply because he thinks that if he +did so his cows would fail to give their due supply of milk. The +connexion between the milking of a cow in the field and the +destruction of a Swallow's nest in the house is not very easy to see, +but nevertheless such is the belief. This idea ranks with that which +asserts the robin and the wren to be the male and female of the same +species, and to be under some special divine protection. + +Whatever may be the origin of this superstition, whether it be derived +from some forgotten source, or whether it be the natural result of the +confiding nature of the bird, the Swallow enjoys at the present day +the protection of man, and builds freely in his houses, and even his +places of worship. The heathen temples, the Mahometan mosques, and the +Christian churches are alike inhabited by the Swallow, who seems to +know her security, and often places her nest where a child might reach +it. + +The bird does not, however, restrict itself to the habitations of man, +though it prefers them; and in those places where no houses are to be +found, and yet where insects are plentiful, it takes possession of the +clefts of rocks, and therein makes its nest. Many instances are known +where the Swallow has chosen the most extraordinary places for its +nest. It has been known to build year after year on the frame of a +picture, between the handles of a pair of shears hung on the wall, on +a lamp-bracket, in a table-drawer, on a door-knocker, and similar +strange localities. + +The swiftness of flight for which this bird is remarkable is noticed +by the sacred writers. "As the bird by wandering, as the swallow by +flying, so the curse causeless shall not come" (Prov. xxvi. 2). This +passage is given rather differently in the Jewish Bible, though the +general sense remains the same: "As the bird is ready to flee, as the +swallow to fly away; so a causeless execration, it shall not come." It +is possible, however, that this passage may allude rather to the +migration than the swiftness of the bird. + +Several species of Swallow inhabit the Holy Land. There is, for +example, our common SWALLOW, which is one of the migratory species, +while another, the Oriental Swallow (_Hirundo cahirica_), often +remains in the warmer parts of the country throughout the year. This +bird may be distinguished by the chestnut hue of the under parts. + +Perhaps the most characteristic species is the RUFOUS or RUSSET +SWALLOW (_Hirundo rufula_), a bird which is exceedingly rare even in +the warmer parts of Europe, but is plentiful in Palestine. It may be +easily known by the chestnut red of the back just above the tail, in +the spot where the white patch occurs in our house martin. The under +parts are differently coloured from those of the common Swallow, being +pink instead of white. + +Several Martins inhabit Palestine, among which are the two species +with which we are so familiar in England, namely, the HOUSE MARTIN +(_Chelidon urbica_) and the SAND MARTIN (_Cotyle riparia_). At least +two other species of Martin are known to inhabit the Holy Land, but +they do not call for any special notice. + + +Besides the word _deror_, which is acknowledged to signify the +Swallow, there is another word which, by a curious transposition, has +been translated as "crane," whereas there is little doubt that it +signifies one of the Swallow tribe, and most probably represents the +Swift. The word is _sis_, and occurs in two passages. The first occurs +in Isa. xxxviii. 13, 14, in the well-known prayer of Hezekiah during +his sickness: "From day even to night wilt thou make an end of me. +Like a crane [_sis_], or a swallow, so did I chatter: I did mourn as a +dove: mine eyes fail with looking upward." The Jewish Bible reads the +words, "Like a chattering swallow," affixing the mark of doubt; while +the Septuagint translates the word _sis_ as "Chelidon," or Swallow, +and this is probably the correct rendering of the word. + +Accepting this as the true interpretation, we find that the word _sis_ +is very expressive of the perpetual chattering of the Swift, whose +sharp, shrill cries often betray its presence while it is sailing in +the air almost beyond the ken of human eyes. There is a wailing, +melancholy sound about the bird's cry which makes Hezekiah's image +exceedingly appropriate, and he could hardly have selected a more +forcible metaphor. + +The second passage occurs in Jer. viii. 7: "Yea, the stork in the +heaven knoweth her appointed times; and the turtle, and the crane +[_sis_], and the swallow observe the time of their coming; but my +people know not the judgment of the Lord." With regard to this +passage, the Jewish Bible renders the word _sis_ as Swallow, though +with the mark of doubt. + +Allusion is here made to the migratory habits of the Swift. There is, +perhaps, no bird more conspicuous in this respect; for whereas the +other migratory birds seem to straggle, as it were, into the country, +the Swifts arrive almost simultaneously, so that on one day not a +Swift will be seen, and on the next the air is full of their dark, +glancing forms. + +Like the Swallow, the Swift haunts the neighbourhood of man, and loves +to build its simple nest in the roofs of houses. Almost any hole will +do for a Swift to build in, provided that it be tolerably deep; for +the bird loves darkness for its nest, though it is essentially in its +habits a bird of light. + +Perhaps the word "build" is scarcely the right one, inasmuch as the +nest is even more simple than that of the sand-martin. This latter +bird does indeed arrange with some regularity the feathers which +compose its nest, as may be seen by a beautiful specimen obtained by +Mr. Gould; whereas the Swift merely places together a quantity of hay, +straw, hair, feathers, and similar materials, all of which are +probably obtained from the ruins of a sparrow's nest which had +occupied the hole before the Swift took possession of it. + +Several species of Swift inhabit Palestine. The common Swift +(_Cypselus apus_), with which we are so familiar, is very plentiful, +and so is the ALPINE SWIFT (_Cypselus melba_), a bird which is rare in +England, though it occasionally visits our shores. It is much larger +than the common Swift, and is brown above and white below, instead of +being dusky black, like the common species. + +The most characteristic species is, however, the GALILEAN SWIFT +(_Cypselus affinis_). Of this kind, Mr. Tristram remarks that it is +"very like the house-martin in general appearance and size. It resides +all the year in the Jordan valley, where alone it is found, living in +large communities, and has a pleasing note, a gentle and melodious +wail, very different from the harsh scream of the other swifts. Its +nests are very peculiar, being composed generally of straw and +feathers, agglutinated together by the bird's saliva, like those of +the edible swallow of Eastern Asia. They are without any lining, +attached to the under side of an overhanging rock. It also sometimes +takes possession of the nest of the rufus swallow for its purposes. +The Galilean swift has a wide range, being found in India and +Abyssinia." + +It is possible that this may be the Sis mentioned by Hezekiah, its +soft wailing cry being used as the metaphor to express his own +complaining. + + +As might be expected, the Talmudical writers have much to say on this +bird. + +For example, the offering which a leper made at the cleansing of his +infirmity might be the Tzippor-deror, the rather quaint reason being +that it was a bird with sharp scratching claws, and was therefore very +appropriately offered in connexion with a disease of the skin. Here we +have rather a complication of terms, the word _tzippor_ being used, as +we shall presently see, to signify the sparrow in particular, or any +little bird in general. The particular species, therefore, which is +signified by the combination of the two words _tzippor-deror_ is +rather obscure, and the Talmudists themselves are rather uncertain +about it. The interpretation of this compound word seems, however, to +have been a difficulty, and the various renderings which have been +suggested seem at last to have varied between the wild pigeon, or +rock-dove, and the Swallow. An account of the various arguments is +given by Lewysohn in his "Zoologie des Talmuds," page 206, and may be +briefly epitomized, as follows, in favour of the Swallow, or, as we +shall soon see, the Swift. + +The reader may perhaps be acquainted with the legend respecting the +death of Titus, how a gnat made its way through his nostril into his +brain, and there grew and kept him in constant torture until he died, +when, according to some writers, it had reached the size of a +Tzippor-deror, and weighed two selaim. Others enlarged upon this +story, and said that it grew as large as a wild pigeon, and weighed +two pounds. Now, as twenty-five selaim are equal to one pound, it +follows that the Tzippor-deror must have been very much less than the +wild pigeon, and that therefore the two birds could not have been +identical. + +Another reason for believing the Tzippor-deror to be a much smaller +bird than the pigeon is found in a curious rule respecting the eating +of certain meats. The Jews were forbidden to eat date-shells with the +heathen, unless they were cooked in a vessel with an opening so small +that a Tzippor-deror could not have been introduced into the pot. The +reason of this curious proviso was, that if any unclean flesh, such as +that of the swine, or of any animal which had been offered to idols, +had been cooked in that vessel, even the date-shells would become +unclean. But, if the mouth of the pot were too small for a +Tzippor-deror to be passed through it, such a vessel could not have +been used in cooking meat, and might therefore be assumed to be clean. +Here, then, we have another proof of the small size of the bird. With +regard to this argument, I find myself perplexed as to the +"date-shells." Dates have no shells, and need no cooking, while the +stones are too hard and woody to be rendered edible by any amount of +cooking. Still, the word employed by Lewysohn is "dattelschalen." + +The leper's offering was not laid on the altar, but was submitted to a +peculiar manipulation on the part of the priest. Among other points of +ritual, the blood had to be mixed with a certain quantity of water, +which it barely discoloured, staining it of a very pale red. As the +amount of water was the fourth part of a "log," and is defined to be +equal to the contents of six hen's eggs, it was evident that the bird +whose blood would only discolour so small a volume of water must be a +little one. + +After giving all these details, the learned writer sums up his +arguments by saying that he believes the Tzippor-deror to be the White +Swallow, which is small, and has claws so sharp that by means of them +it can cling to the wall. Now this action is one of the +characteristics of the Swifts, who often cling to walls for a time, +and then resume their flight. They do so in preference to sitting on +the ground after the fashion of the Swallow, because the great length +of the wings causes the Swift to find some little difficulty in rising +from a level surface. After weighing all the various arguments that +have been urged on the subject, we may conclude that the Tzippor-deror +was the White, or Alpine Swift, which has been already described on +page 389. + + + + +THE HOOPOE, OR LAPWING OF SCRIPTURE. + + The "Dukiphath" of Scripture--Various interpretations of the + word--The Hoopoe--Its beauty and ill reputation--The unpleasant + odour of its nest--Food of the Hoopoe--Its beautiful nest, and + remarkable gestures--A curious legend of Solomon and the Hoopoe. + + +In the two parallel chapters, Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv., there occurs +the name of a bird which is translated in the Authorized Version, +Lapwing: "And the stork, the heron after her kind, the lapwing, and +the bat." + +The Hebrew word is _dukiphath_, and various interpretations have been +proposed for it, some taking it to be the common domestic fowl, others +the cock-of-the-woods, or capercailzie, while others have preferred to +translate it as Hoopoe. The Jewish Bible retains the word lapwing, but +adds the mark of doubt. Commentators are, however, agreed that of all +these interpretations, that which renders the word as HOOPOE (_Upupa +epops_) is the best. + +There would be no particular object in the prohibition of such a bird +as the lapwing, or any of its kin, while there would be very good +reasons for the same injunction with regard to the Hoopoe. + +In spite of the beauty of the bird, it has always had rather an ill +reputation, and, whether in Europe or Asia, its presence seems to be +regarded by the ignorant with a kind of superstitious aversion. This +universal distaste for the Hoopoe is probably occasioned by an +exceedingly pungent and disagreeable odour which fills the nest of the +bird, and which infects for a considerable time the hand which is +employed to take the eggs. + +The nest is, moreover, well calculated for retaining any unpleasant +smell, being generally made in the hollow of a tree, and having +therefore but little of that thorough ventilation which is found in +nearly all nests which are built on boughs and sprays. The odour in +question proceeds from a substance secreted from the tail-glands of +the Hoopoe, and is not due, as was long supposed, to the food which +was brought to the nest. + + [Illustration: THE HOOPOE.] + +There was good reason for supposing that this evil odour was caused by +the food, inasmuch as the Hoopoe is in the habit of raking about in +very unsavoury places in search of insects. But it does not therefore +follow that the insects which it finds are possessed of an evil smell. +On the contrary, some of the worst-smelling insects--notably the +lace-wing fly and many of the flower-haunting hemiptera--are +invariably found upon the leaves of trees and the petals of flowers; +while others which, like many of the scarab beetles, haunt the most +repulsive substances, are in themselves bright, and clean, and sweet. + +The food of the Hoopoe consists almost entirely of insects. They have +been said to feed on earth-worms; but this notion seems to be a +mistaken one, as in captivity they will not touch an earth-worm so +long as they can procure an insect. Beetles of various kinds seem to +be their favourite food, and when the beetles are tolerably +large--say, for example, as large as the common cockchafer and +dor-beetle--the bird beats them into a soft mass before it attempts to +eat them. Smaller beetles are swallowed without any ceremony. The +various boring insects which make their home in decaying wood are +favourite articles of diet with the Hoopoe, which digs them out of the +soft wood with its long curved beak. + +It has already been mentioned that the nest is usually made in the +hollow of a tree. In many parts of the country however, hollow trees +cannot be found, and in that case the Hoopoe resorts to clefts in the +rock, or even to holes in old ruins. + +The bird is a peculiarly conspicuous one, not only on account of its +boldly-barred plumage and its beautiful crest, but by its cry and its +gestures. It has a way of elevating and depressing its crest, and +bobbing its head up and down, in a manner which could not fail to +attract the attention even of the most incurious, the whole aspect and +expression of the bird varying with the raising and depressing of the +crest. + +Respecting this crest there is a curious old legend. As is the case +with most of the Oriental legends, it introduces the name of King +Solomon, who, according to Oriental notions, was a mighty wizard +rather than a wise king, and by means of his seal, on which was +engraven the mystic symbol of Divinity, held sway over the birds, the +beasts, the elements, and even over the Jinns and Afreets, _i.e._ the +good and evil spirits, which are too ethereal for the material world +and too gross for the spiritual, and therefore hold the middle place +between them. + +On one of his journeys across the desert, Solomon was perishing from +the heat of the sun, when the Hoopoes came to his aid, and flew in a +dense mass over his head, thus forming a shelter from the fiery +sunbeams. Grateful for this assistance, the monarch told the Hoopoes +to ask for a boon, and it should be granted to them. The birds, after +consulting together, agreed to ask that from that time every Hoopoe +should wear a crown of gold like Solomon himself. The request was +immediately granted, and each Hoopoe found itself adorned with a +royal crown. At first, while their honours were new, great was the joy +of the birds, who paused at every little puddle of water to +contemplate themselves, bowing their heads over the watery mirror so +as to display the crown to the best advantage. + +Soon, however, they found cause to repent of their ambition. The +golden crown became heavy and wearisome to them, and, besides, the +wealth bestowed on the birds rendered them the prey of every fowler. +The unfortunate Hoopoes were persecuted in all directions for the sake +of their golden crowns, which they could neither take off nor conceal. + +At last, the few survivors presented themselves before Solomon, and +begged him to rescind his fatal gift, which he did by substituting a +crest of feathers for the crown of gold. The Hoopoe, however, never +forgets its former grandeur, and is always bowing and bending itself +as it used to do when contemplating its golden crown in the water. + + + + +THE SPARROW. + + Signification of the word _Tzippor_--The bird used for the + leper's sacrifice--The Sparrow upon the house-top--Architecture + of the East--Proclamation from the house-tops--The Blue Thrush, + its appearance and habits--Little birds exposed for sale in the + market--The two Sparrows sold for a farthing--Bird-catching--The + net, the snare, and the trap--The Sparrow that builds her nest + in the Temple--The Tree-Sparrow--Various Sparrows that inhabit + Palestine--Birds kept in cages. + + +We have already discussed the signification of the compound word +_tzippor-deror_, and will now take the word _tzippor_ alone. + +Like many other Hebrew terms, the word is evidently used in a +collective sense, signifying any small bird that is not specially +designated. In several portions of Scripture it is translated as +Sparrow, and to that word we will at present restrict ourselves. + +Much difficulty has been found in identifying the bird which is +signified by this word, the various allusions not agreeing with each +other. For example, in the marginal reading in Lev. xiv. 4 it is +employed as a bird of sacrifice. When a leper had found that his +disease had passed away, he was ordered to present himself before the +priest, who would examine him, and decide whether the leprosy had +really passed away or not. If he found that the man was right, a +series of symbolic ceremonies had to be performed before the former +leper could be restored to his place in the congregation. + +These ceremonies lasted for eight days, and the first of them was the +sacrificing of the Sparrow. "Then shall the priest command to take for +him that shall be cleansed two birds [_tzipporim_ or sparrows] alive +and clean, and cedar-wood, and scarlet, and hyssop." One of these +birds was to be sacrificed over running water, and the other to be set +free, this sacrifice being analogous to that of the scape-goat. + +We see in this passage that the bird in question, whatever it might +be, must be one of those birds which were considered as clean and fit +for food. Indeed, the very use of the word "clean" shows that the +leper was not restricted to any particular species. Had this been the +case, there would have been no necessity for stipulating that the +Tzipporim must belong to the list of _clean_ birds--_i.e._ those which +were permitted as food to the Israelites. Had any definite species +been intended, there would have been no necessity for mentioning the +word "clean" in connexion with the bird. + +In the remaining ceremonies no such word is needed. There is no +stipulation that the lamb to be sacrificed should be clean, or, in +case the leper should be a poor man, that the doves which he offers +should be clean. That the lamb should be without blemish is especially +mentioned, because it would not be right to offer a maimed or diseased +animal--he who presented himself before the Lord might not offer a +sacrifice which cost him nothing, and therefore was no true sacrifice. +But the lamb and the dove were known to be "clean" animals, so it was +useless to use the word in connexion with them. If, therefore, the +words "clean birds" (_tzipporim_) be mentioned, it is evident that the +leper might select any of the Tzipporim, provided that it be one of +the species that was acknowledged to be dean. + +Here, then, we have an example that the Sparrow might be a bird of +sacrifice. We will now pass to Ps. cii. 5-7, in which we find that the +word is used as an emblem of solitude and misery: "By reason of the +voice of my groaning, my bones cleave to my skin. + +"I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the +desert. + +"I watch, and am as a sparrow alone upon the house-top." + +The word which is here translated as "Sparrow" is _tzippor_, the same +which is rendered as "bird" in Lev. xiv. 4. The Hebrew Bible more +consistently uses the collective term "bird" in both instances, and +renders the passage as, "I watch, and am as a lonely bird upon a +roof." + +Now, any one who knows the habits of the Sparrow is perfectly aware +that it is a peculiarly sociable bird. It is quarrelsome enough with +its fellows, and always ready to fight for a stray grain or morsel of +food; but it is exceedingly gregarious, assembling together in little +parties, enlivening the air with its merry though unmusical +twitterings. + +This cosmopolitan bird is plentiful in the coast towns of Palestine, +where it haunts the habitations of men with the same dauntless +confidence which it displays in England. It is often seen upon roofs +or house-tops, but is no more apt to sit alone in Palestine than it is +in England. On the contrary, the Sparrows collect in great numbers on +the house-tops, attracted by the abundant supply of food which it +finds there. This requires some little explanation. + +The house-tops of the East, instead of being gabled and tiled as among +ourselves, to allow the rain to run off, are quite flat, and serve as +terraces or promenades in the evening, or even for sleeping-places; +and from the house-tops proclamations were made. See, for example, 1 +Sam. ix. 25: "And when they were come down from the high place into +the city, Samuel communed with Saul upon the top of the house"--this +being the ordinary place which would be chosen for a conversation. In +order to keep out the heat of the mid-day sun, tents were sometimes +pitched upon these flat house-tops. (See 2 Sam. xvi. 22.) Reference to +the use of the house-tops as places for conversation are made in the +New Testament. See, for example, Matt. x. 27: "What I tell you in +darkness, that speak ye in light; and what ye hear in the ear, that +preach ye upon the house-tops." Another passage of a similar nature +occurs in Luke xii. 3: "Therefore whatsoever ye have spoken in +darkness shall be heard in the light, and that which ye have spoken in +the ear in closets shall be proclaimed on the house-tops." + +These roofs, instead of being built with sloping rafters like those to +which we are accustomed in this country, are made with great beams of +wood laid horizontally, and crossed by planks, poles, and brushwood +packed tightly together. As this roof would not keep out the rain, it +is covered with a thick layer of clay mixed with straw, and beaten +down as hard as possible. This covering has constantly to be renewed, +as, even in the best made roofs, the heavy rains are sure to wash away +some portion of the clay covering, which has to be patched up with a +fresh supply of earth. A stone roller is generally kept on the roof of +each house for the purpose of making a flat and even surface. + +The earth which is used for this purpose is brought from the +uncultivated ground, and is full of various seeds. As soon as the +rains fall, these seeds spring up, and afford food to the Sparrows and +other little birds, who assemble in thousands on the house-tops, and +then peck away just as they do in our own streets and farm-yards. + +It is now evident that the "sparrow alone and melancholy upon the +house-tops" cannot be the lively, gregarious Sparrow which assembles +in such numbers on these favourite feeding-places. We must therefore +look for some other bird, and naturalists are now agreed that we may +accept the BLUE THRUSH (_Petrocossyphus cyaneus_) as the particular +Tzippor, or small bird, which sits alone on the house-tops. The colour +of this bird is a dark blue, whence it derives its popular name. Its +habits exactly correspond with the idea of solitude and melancholy. +The Blue Thrushes never assemble in flocks, and it is very rare to see +more than a pair together. It is fond of sitting on the tops of +houses, uttering its note, which, however agreeable to itself, is +monotonous and melancholy to a human ear. + +In connexion with the passage already quoted, "What ye hear in the +ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops," I will take the opportunity +of explaining the passage itself, which scarcely seems relevant to the +occasion unless we understand its bearings. The context shows that our +Lord was speaking of the new doctrines which He had come to teach, +and the duty of spreading them, and alludes to a mode of religious +teaching which was then in vogue. + + [Illustration: THE BLUE THRUSH, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_I am as a sparrow alone upon the house-tops._"--PS. cii. 7.] + +The long captivity of the Jews in Babylon had caused the Hebrew +language to be disused among the common people, who had learned the +Chaldaic language from their captors. After their return to Palestine, +the custom of publicly reading the Scriptures was found to be +positively useless, the generality of the people being ignorant of the +Hebrew language. + +Accordingly, the following modification was adopted. The roll of the +Scriptures was brought out as usual, and the sacred words read, or +rather chanted. After each passage was read, a doctor of the law +whispered its meaning into the ear of a Targumista or interpreter, who +repeated to the people in the Chaldaic language the explanation which +the doctor had whispered in Hebrew. The reader will now see how +appropriate is the metaphor, the whispering in the ear and subsequent +proclamation being the customary mode of imparting religious +instruction. + +If the reader will now turn to Matt. x. 29, he will find that the word +"sparrow" is used in a passage which has become very familiar to us. +"Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing? and one of them shall not +fall on the ground without your Father. + +"But the very hairs of your head are all numbered. + +"Fear ye not therefore, ye are of more value than many sparrows." The +same sentences are given by St. Luke (xii. 6), in almost the same +words. + +Now the word which is translated as "Sparrow" is _strouthion_, a +collective word, signifying a bird of any kind. Without the addition +of some epithet, it was generally used to signify any kind of small +bird, though it is occasionally employed to signify even so large a +creature as an eagle, provided that the bird had been mentioned +beforehand. Conjoined with the word "great," it signifies the ostrich; +and when used in connexion with a word significative of running, it is +employed as a general term for all cursorial birds. + +In the passages above quoted it is used alone, and evidently signifies +any kind of little bird, whether it be a sparrow or not. Allusion is +made by our Lord to a custom, which has survived to the present day, +of exposing for sale in the markets the bodies of little birds. They +are stripped of their feathers, and spitted together in rows, just as +are larks in this country, and always have a large sale. Various birds +are sold in this manner, little if any distinction being made between +them, save perhaps in respect of size, the larger species commanding a +higher price than the small birds. In fact, they are arranged exactly +after the manner in which the Orientals sell their "kabobs," _i.e._ +little pieces of meat pierced by wooden skewers. + +It is evident that to supply such a market it is necessary that the +birds should be of a tolerably gregarious nature, so that a +considerable number can be caught at a time. Nets were employed for +this purpose, and we may safely infer that the forms of the nets and +the methods of using them were identical with those which are employed +in the same country at the present day. + +It is rather curious that the mode of bird-catching which is familiar +to us under the name of bat-fowling is employed in the East. The +fowlers supply themselves with a large net supported on two sticks, +and, taking a lantern with them fastened to the top of a pole, they +sally out at night to the places where the small birds sleep. + +Raising the net on its sticks, they lift it to the requisite height, +and hold the lantern exactly opposite to it, so as to place the net +between the birds and the lantern. The roosting-places are then beaten +with sticks or pelted with stones, so as to awaken the sleeping birds. +Startled by the sudden noise, they dash from their roosts, +instinctively make towards the light, and so fall into the net. +Bird-catching with nets is several times mentioned in the Old +Testament, but in the New the net is only alluded to as used for +taking fish. + +Beside the net, several other modes of bird-catching were used by the +ancient Jews, just as is the case at the present day. Boys, for +example, who catch birds for their own consumption, and not for the +market, can do so by means of various traps, most of which are made on +the principle of the noose, or snare. Sometimes a great number of +hair-nooses are set in places to which the birds are decoyed, so that +in hopping about many of them are sure to become entangled in the +snares. Sometimes the noose is ingeniously suspended in a narrow +passage which the birds are likely to traverse, and sometimes a simple +fall-trap is employed. + +To these nooses many allusions are made in the Scriptures. See, for +example, Ps. cxxiv. 7: "Our soul is escaped as a bird (_tzippor_) out +of the snare of the fowlers: the snare is broken, and we are escaped." +Also Prov. vii. 23: "He goeth after her straightway, as an ox goeth to +the slaughter ... as a bird hasteneth to the snare, and knoweth not +that it is for his life." There is one passage in Ecclesiastes, where +both the fishing-net and the snare are mentioned in connexion with +each other: "For man knoweth not his time: as the fishes that are +taken in an evil net, and as the birds that are caught in the snare; +so are the sons of men snared in an evil time, when it falleth +suddenly upon them" (ix. 12). + +Allusion is also made to the snare by the prophet Amos in one of the +passages where his rough, homely diction rises by successive steps +into sublimity: "Can a bird fall in a snare upon the earth, where no +gin is for him? shall one take up a snare from the earth, and have +taken nothing at all?" (iii. 5.) + +So common was the use of the snare that it was frequently used as a +familiar image by the sacred writers. "How long shall this man be a +snare to us?" said Pharaoh's servants of Moses, through whom the +waters of the sacred river had been polluted, and various other +plagues had come upon the Egyptians. Idols are called snares in many +parts of the Scriptures, and so is the society of the wicked. A +forcible use of this image was made by Saul when he found that his +daughter Michal loved David: "And Saul said, I will give him her, that +she may be a snare to him, and that the hand of the Philistines may be +against him" (1 Sam. xviii. 21). His device, or snare, not only +failed, but, as we learn in the succeeding chapter, verses 11-16, +David was "delivered from the snare of the fowler," by the very means +which had been employed for entrapping him. + + +We now pass to another division of the subject. In Ps. lxxxiv. 1-3, we +come upon a passage in which the Sparrow is again mentioned: "How +amiable are Thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts! + +"My soul longeth, yea, even fainteth for the courts of the Lord; my +heart and my flesh crieth out for the living God. + +"Yea, the sparrow hath found an house, and the swallow a nest for +herself, where she may lay her young, even Thine altars, O Lord of +hosts, my King, and my God." + +It is evident that we have in this passage a different bird from the +Sparrow that sitteth alone upon the house-tops; and though the same +word, _tzippor_, is used in both cases, it is clear that whereas the +former bird was mentioned as an emblem of sorrow, solitude, and +sadness, the latter is brought forward as an image of joy and +happiness. "Blessed are they," proceeds the Psalmist, "that dwell in +Thy house: they will be still praising Thee.... For a day in Thy +courts is better than a thousand. I had rather be a doorkeeper in the +house of my God, than to dwell in the tents of wickedness." + +According to Mr. Tristram, this is probably one of the species to +which allusion is made by the Psalmist. While inspecting the ruins in +the neighbourhood of the Temple, he came upon an old wall. "Near this +gate I climbed on to the top of the wall, and walked along for some +time, enjoying the fine view at the gorge of the Kedron, with its +harvest crop of little white tombs. In a chink I discovered a +sparrow's nest (_Passer cisalpinus_, var.) of a species so closely +allied to our own that it is difficult to distinguish it, one of the +very kind of which the Psalmist sung.... The swallows had departed for +the winter, but the sparrow has remained pertinaciously through all +the sieges and changes of Jerusalem." + + [Illustration: THE TREE-SPARROW, OR SPARROW OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_Yea, the sparrow hath found an house, where she may lay her + young._"--PS. lxxxiv. 3.] + +The same traveller thinks that the TREE SPARROW (_Passer montanus_) +may be the species to which the sacred writer refers, as it is even +now very plentiful about the neighbourhood of the Temple. In all +probability we may accept both these birds as representatives of the +Sparrow which found a home in the Temple. The swallow is separately +mentioned, possibly because its migratory habits rendered it a +peculiarly conspicuous bird; but it is probable that many species of +birds might make their nests in a place where they felt themselves +secure from disturbance, and that all these birds would be mentioned +under the collective and convenient term of Tzipporim. + +As we are engaged upon the word Sparrow, it may be mentioned that +several species of Sparrow inhabit Palestine. There is, for example, +the common House Sparrow, with which we are so familiar. Then, as has +just been described, there is the Tree Sparrow--a bird which is very +common in some parts of England, and never seen in others. + +Beside these, there is the MARSH SPARROW, or SPANISH SPARROW (_Passer +salicarius_), which haunts the banks of the Jordan, and is found there +in countless myriads. Mr. Tristram mentions that it builds so +plentifully in the thorn-bushes of the Jordan valley, that he has seen +the branches borne down by the weight of the nests. The same writer, +in remarking upon the difficulty, not to say impossibility, of +defining the precise bird which was signified by a Hebrew word, says +that, exclusive of the crow tribe, the swifts, cuckoos, rollers, +kingfishers, &c., nearly one hundred and fifty species of passerine +birds are known to inhabit the Holy Land, any or all of which may be +signified by the word _tzippor_. + +In curious contrast to the generally unobservant nature of the +Oriental, and to the almost entire absence in Scripture of any +allusion to the song of birds, we find that not only do the Orientals +of the present day keep singing-birds in cages, but that the custom +was in all probability prevalent during the days when the various +Scriptural books were written. Any of my readers who are familiar--as +they ought to be--with that store-house of Oriental manners, the +"Arabian Nights," will remember several allusions to birds kept in +cages, some for their song, some for their beauty of plumage, and some +for their powers of talking. The same custom is continued at the +present day; and not only in Palestine, but in other Eastern +countries, birds may be seen in cages hung outside the houses. + +In two passages of the Scriptures the word "cage" is mentioned, but in +one case the word evidently has another meaning, and in the other the +signification is open to doubt. + +The first of these passages occurs in Jer. v. 27: "For among my people +are found wicked men: they lay wait, as he that setteth snares; they +set a trap, they catch men. + +"As a cage is full of birds, so are their houses full of deceit." + +There is but little doubt that the word which is rendered here as +"cage" really signifies a trap, probably one of the basket-traps which +are still employed in the East in bird-catching. One marginal reading +gives the word as "coop." The whole of the context, however, shows +that reference is made, not to keeping birds in cages, but to +capturing them in traps, to which the houses of the wicked are +compared. + +The second mention of the word "cage" occurs in the Revelation, where +the sacred writer compares Babylon with "a cage of every unclean +bird." The word in this case signifies "prison," and we cannot +definitely say that it represents a cage such as we understand by the +word. There is, however, a passage in the Book of Job (xli. 5) which +unmistakeably alludes to the custom of domesticating birds. Speaking +of the leviathan and its strength, the sacred writer uses the +following metaphor:--"Wilt thou play with him as with a bird, or wilt +thou bind him for thy maidens?" + + + + +THE CUCKOO. + + The Cuckoo only twice mentioned in Scripture--Difficulty of + identifying the Shachaph--The common species, and the Great + Spotted Cuckoo--Depositing the egg--Conjectures respecting the + Shachaph--Etymology of the word--The various gulls, and other + sea-birds. + + +Only in two instances is the word CUCKOO found in the Authorized +Version of the Bible, and as they occur in parallel passages they are +practically reduced to one. In Lev. xi. 16 we find it mentioned among +the birds that might not be eaten, and the same prohibition is +repeated in Deut. xiv. 15, the Jews being ordered to hold the bird in +abomination. + +The Hebrew word is _shachaph_ (the vowels to be pronounced as in +"mat"), but as to the precise bird which is signified we can but +conjecture. The etymology of the word gives us but little assistance. +_Shachaph_ is derived from a root that signifies leanness or +slenderness; but it is not very easy to base an interpretation on such +grounds. In the Jewish Bible the word is rendered as "Cuckoo," but +with the addition of the doubtful mark. + +It is possible that the bird may be the Shachaph of the Pentateuch, +for several species of Cuckoo are known to inhabit the Holy Land. One +of them is the species with which we are so familiar in this country +by sound, if not by sight, and which possesses in Palestine the same +habits as in England. It is rather remarkable, by the way, that the +Arabic name for the bird is exactly the same as ours, the peculiar cry +having supplied the name. Its habit of laying its eggs in the nests of +other birds is well known, together with the curious fact, that +although so large a bird, measuring more than a foot in length, its +egg is not larger than that of the little birds, such as the +hedge-sparrow, robin, or redstart. + + [Illustration: THE GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO. + + "_And the owl, and the night-hawk, and the cuckoo, and the hawk after + his kind._"--LEV. xi. 16; DEUT. xiv. 15.] + +Besides this species, another Cuckoo inhabits Palestine, and is much +more common. This is the GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO (_Oxylophus +glandarius_). The birds belonging to this genus have been separated +from the other Cuckoos because the feathers on the head are formed +into a bold crest, in some species, such as Le Vaillant's Cuckoo, +reminding the observer of the crest of the cockatoo. This fine bird +measures nearly sixteen inches in length, and can be distinguished, +not only by the crested head, but by the reddish grey of the throat +and chest, and the white tips of the wing and tail feathers. + +This species lays its eggs in the nests of comparatively large birds, +such as the rooks, crows, and magpies; and it is a remarkable fact, +that just as the egg of the English Cuckoo is very small, so as to +suit the nests of the little birds in which it is placed, that of the +Great Spotted Cuckoo is as large as the average rook's egg, so as to +be in proportion to the nests of the larger birds. + + +Many commentators believe that by the word _shachaph_ was signified +some species of sea-gull, or at all events some marine bird. As such +birds live on fish, they would necessarily come into the class of +unclean birds, and there is on that account some probability that the +suggestion is a correct one. + +Dr. Lewysohn has a very elaborate disquisition on the subject, in +which he decides that the creature was one of the sea-birds, and +derives its name of Shachaph, or "attenuated," from the meagreness of +its proportions. Of the various sea-birds, he selects the petrel as +the species which he thinks to have been signified by the word. This +bird, as he says, is a very lean one, having many feathers, but very +little flesh, so that its limbs are no larger than olives, and no one +could make a meal of it. This last remark, however, tends to diminish +rather than to establish his theory, as, if the bird could not be +eaten, there would have been no object in prohibiting the Jews from +eating it. + +He further proceeds to observe that the bird is unable to scratch, and +may therefore be given to a child as a playfellow, and that it is +capable of being domesticated and living in a cage. There is, however, +no argument here, and the theory is not a tenable one. + +Mr. Tristram, with far more probability, suggests that if the bird be +not one of the Cuckoos, and be really a sea-bird, it may be one of the +shearwaters which live in such numbers on the sea-shore of Palestine. +He mentions especially two species, the Great Shearwater (_Puffinus +cinereus_) and the Manx Shearwater (_Puffinus anglorum_), both of +which are extremely plentiful on the coast, skimming continually over +the water, and being at the present day regarded by the Mahometans +with superstitious awe, being thought to be the ever-restless souls of +the condemned, who are doomed to fly backwards and forwards +continually until the end of the world, clad in sombre plumage, and +never permitted to rest. + +Besides the shearwater, many species of gull inhabit the same coast, +and it is not at all unlikely that the word _shachaph_ was used in a +collective sense, as we have seen to be the case with _tzippor_, and +signified any of the marine birds, without aiming at distinction of +species. + + + + +THE DOVE. + + Parallel between the lamb and the Dove--Derivation of the Hebrew + word _Yonâh_--The Dove and the olive branch--Abram's sacrifice, + and its acceptance--The sacrifice according to the law of + Moses--The Dove-sellers of the Temple--Talmudical zoology--The + story of Ilisch--The Dove and the raven--The Dove a type of + Israel--The Beni-yonâh, or Sons of Pigeons--Home-finding + instinct of the pigeon--The Oriental Dove-cotes--Voice of the + Dove--Its strength of wing--The Dove's dung of Samaria--Various + pigeons of Palestine--The Rock-Dove and its multitudes--The Dove + and the Griffon--The Turtle-Doves of Palestine, and their + appearance and habits. + + +In giving the Scriptural history of the Doves and Pigeons, we shall +find ourselves rather perplexed in compressing the needful information +into a reasonable space. There is no bird which plays a more important +part, both in the Old and the New Testaments, or which is employed so +largely in metaphor and symbol. + +The Doves and Pigeons were to the birds what were the sheep and lambs +to the animals, and, like them, derived their chief interest from +their use in sacrifice. Both the lamb and the young pigeon being +emblems of innocence, both were used on similar occasions, the latter +being in many instances permitted when the former were too expensive +for the means of the offerer. As to the rendering of the Hebrew words +which have been translated as Pigeon, Dove, and Turtle Dove, there has +never been any discussion. The Hebrew word _yonâh_ has always been +acknowledged to signify the Dove or Pigeon, and the word _tôr_ to +signify the Turtle Dove. Generally, the two words are used in +combination, so that _tor-yonâh_ signifies the Turtle Dove. + +Though the interpretation of the word _yonâh_ is universally accepted, +there is a little difficulty about its derivation, and its +signification apart from the bird. Some have thought that it is +derived from a root signifying warmth, in allusion to the warmth of +its affection, the Dove having from time immemorial been selected as +the type of conjugal love. Others, among whom is Buxtorf, derive it +from a word which signifies oppression, because the gentle nature of +the Dove, together with its inability to defend itself, cause it to be +oppressed, not only by man, but by many rapacious birds. + + +The first passage in which we hear of the Dove occurs in the earlier +part of Genesis. Indeed, the Dove and the raven are the first two +creatures that are mentioned by any definite names, the word +_nachosh_, which is translated as "serpent" in Gen. iii. 1, being a +collective word signifying any kind of serpent, whether venomous or +otherwise, and not used for the purpose of designating any particular +species. + +Turning to Gen. viii. 8, we come to the first mention of the Dove. The +whole passage is too familiar to need quoting, and it is only needful +to say that the Dove was sent out of the ark in order that Noah might +learn whether the floods had subsided, and that, after she had +returned once, he sent her out again seven days afterwards, and that +she returned, bearing an olive-branch (or leaf, in the Jewish Bible). +Seven days afterwards he sent the Dove for the third time, but she had +found rest on the earth, and returned no more. + +It is not within the province of this work to treat, except in the +most superficial manner, of the metaphorical signification of the +Scriptures. I shall, therefore, allude but very slightly to the +metaphorical sense of the passages which record the exit from the ark +and the sacrifice of Noah. Suffice it to say that, putting entirely +aside all metaphor, the characters of the raven and the Dove are well +contrasted. The one went out, and, though the trees were at that time +submerged, it trusted in its strong wings, and hovered above the +watery expanse until the flood had subsided. The Dove, on the +contrary, fond of the society of man, and having none of the wild, +predatorial habits which distinguish the raven, twice returned to its +place of refuge, before it was finally able to find a resting-place +for its foot. + +After this, we hear nothing of the Dove until the time of Abraham, +some four hundred years afterwards, when the covenant was made between +the Lord and Abram, when "he believed in the Lord, and it was counted +to him for righteousness." In order to ratify this covenant he was +ordered to offer a sacrifice, which consisted of a young heifer, a +she-goat, a ram, a turtle-dove, and a young dove or pigeon. The larger +animals were severed in two, but the birds were not divided, and +between the portions of the sacrifice there passed a lamp of fire as a +symbol of the Divine presence. + +In after days, when the promise that the seed of Abram should be as +the stars of heaven for multitude had been amply fulfilled, together +with the prophecy that they should be "strangers in a land that was +not theirs," and should be in slavery and under oppression for many +years, the Dove was specially mentioned in the new law as one of the +creatures that were to be sacrificed on certain defined occasions. + +Even the particular mode of offering the Dove was strictly defined. +See Lev. i. 14-17: "If the burnt sacrifice for his offering to the +Lord be of fowls, then he shall bring his offering of turtle-doves, or +of young pigeons. + +"And the priest shall bring it unto the altar, and wring off his head, +and burn it on the altar; and the blood thereof shall be wrung out at +the side of the altar. + +"And he shall pluck away his crop with his feathers, and cast it +beside the altar, on the east part, by the place of the ashes. + +"And he shall cleave it with the wings thereof, but shall not divide +it asunder: and the priest shall burn it upon the altar, upon the wood +that is upon the fire." + +Here we have a repetition not only of the sacrifice of Abram, but of +the mode in which it was offered, care being taken that the body of +the bird should not be divided. There is a slight, though not very +important variation in one or two portions of this passage. For +example, the wringing off the head of the bird is, literally, pinching +off, and had to be done with the thumb nail; and the passage which is +by some translators rendered as the crop and the feathers, is by +others translated as the crop and its contents--a reading which seems +to be more consonant with the usual ceremonial of sacrifice than the +other. + +As a general rule, the pigeon was only sanctioned as a sacrificial +animal in case one of more value could not be afforded; and so much +care was taken in this respect, that with the exception of the two +"sparrows" (_tzipporim_) that were enjoined as part of the sacrifice +by which the cleansed leper was received back among the people (Lev. +xiv. 4), no bird might be offered in sacrifice unless it belonged to +the tribe of pigeons. + +It was in consequence of the poverty of the family that the Virgin +Mary brought two young pigeons when she came to present her new-born +Son in the Temple. For those who were able to afford it, the required +sacrifice was a lamb of the first year for a burnt-offering, and a +young pigeon or Turtle Dove for a sin-offering. But "if she be not +able to bring a lamb, then she shall bring two turtles, or two young +pigeons, the one for the burnt-offering and the other for a +sin-offering." The extraordinary value which all Israelites set upon +the first-born son is well known, both parents even changing their own +names, and being called respectively the father and mother of Elias, +or Joseph, as the case may be. If the parents who had thus attained +the summit of their wishes possessed a lamb, or could have obtained +one, they would most certainly have offered it in the fulness of their +joy, particularly when, as in the case of Mary, there was such cause +for rejoicing; and the fact that they were forced to substitute a +second pigeon for the lamb is a proof of their extreme poverty. + +While the Israelites were comparatively a small and compact nation, +dwelling around their tabernacle, the worshippers could easily offer +their sacrifices, bringing them from their homes to the altar. But in +process of time, when the nation had become a large and scattered one, +its members residing at great distances, and only coming to the Temple +once or twice in the year to offer their sacrifices, they would have +found that for even the poor to carry their pigeons with them would +have greatly increased the trouble, and in many cases have been almost +impossible. + +For the sake of convenience, therefore, a number of dealers +established themselves in the outer courts of the Temple, for the +purpose of selling Doves to those who came to sacrifice. Sheep and +oxen were also sold for the same purpose, and, as offerings of money +could only be made in the Jewish coinage, money-changers established +themselves for the purpose of exchanging foreign money brought from a +distance for the legal Jewish shekel. That these people exceeded their +object, and endeavoured to overreach the foreign Jews who were +ignorant of the comparative value of money and goods, is evident from +the fact of their expulsion by our Lord, and the epithets which were +applied to them. + +As the Dove played so important a part in the Jewish worship, the +Talmudical writers have investigated the subject with a curious +minuteness. + +In the first place, they discuss the reasons for its selection as the +bird of sacrifice, and always endeavour to represent it as contrasted +with the raven--all birds of the raven kind, _i.e._ the rooks, crows, +magpies, and the like, being set down as cunning, deceptive, and +thieving; while all the pigeon kind are mild, true, and loving. There +is a curious story which illustrates this idea. A certain man named +Ilisch, who understood the language of birds, was "once upon a time" +in captivity, when he heard the cry of a raven, which called out to +him, "Ilisch! Ilisch! flee! flee!" But Ilisch said within himself, "I +believe not this lying bird." But next came a Dove, which said the +same words. Then said Ilisch, "I believe this bird, because Israel is +compared to a dove." + +Here this Ilisch, whoever he may be, referred to the Talmudical +writers on the subject of the Dove, which they delighted to compare +with Israel in a variety of ways, some of them being very obscure and +rather far-fetched. For example, of all birds the Dove is the most +persecuted, being gentle, meek, and unable to resist. She cannot fight +with her beak or her claws, and has only her wings, with which she +will flee away if she is able, or if not, will fight with them. Now, +as the wings are to the Dove, so is the law to Israel. + +The wings are the strength of the Dove. Upheld by them she can fly for +many hours, so that the birds of prey which are pursuing her cannot +take her. Then comes a strange notion of the Dove's flight. When other +birds are tired, they sit down and fold their wings to rest. But the +tired Dove never ceases her flight; but when one wing is fatigued, +she allows it to rest, and continues her flight with the other. So is +it with Israel, who, though persecuted by the Gentiles, and deprived +of half her strength, cannot be entirely crushed, but still survives +and asserts herself. + +One reason that is given for the gentle disposition of the Dove is +that the bird has no gall, the gall being considered by the +naturalists of old as the source and fountain of contention, the +bitterness of the gall being supposed to infuse itself into the +spirit. Probably on account of this anatomical peculiarity, the Dove +was considered as the very pattern for married people, and the emblem +of chastity, as it lives in the strictest monogamy, never desiring +another mate. Unfortunately for these writers, the Raven, which is +always mentioned by them in strong contrast with the Dove, is quite as +remarkable for its attachment to its mate and young, and for the +strictness of its monogamy, the same pair, when once mated, residing +together for the whole of their lives. + +Even the age of the Dove was made a matter of consideration by the +Talmudists, so that in great measure the original benevolence of the +Law was cramped by the restrictions which were laid upon it. As we are +told by St. Paul, in Heb. ix., even under the old dispensation, +without shedding of blood there was no remission of sins, and he who +desired to obtain that remission was obliged to shed the blood of the +sacrifice. Now, in order that poverty should be no restriction to the +attainment of the greatest spiritual privileges, it was ordained that +young pigeons or Turtle Doves might be substituted for the more costly +animals. + +These birds cost but very little. The peasant might take them from the +dove-cote, which was the appendage of most households, and he who was +too poor even to have a dove-cote of his own might go to the rocky +side of the ravines, and take as many young as he pleased from the +myriad nests which are placed in the clefts. Thus, at any time of the +year, the poorest man or woman could obtain the means of sacrifice. + +But the restrictive genius which was so sternly rebuked by our Lord +soon made itself felt. All these birds, in order to be fit for +sacrifice, must be Beni-yonâh, _i.e._ Sons of Doves. The definition of +this term is rather interesting, as it affords an excellent example of +the hair-splitting character of these interpreters of the Law. +According to them, a pigeon could only be ranked among the Beni-yonâh +for a short period of its life, and, if it were too young or too old, +it might not be offered as a sacrifice. + +The test of proper age lay in the feathers. If the bird were so young +that the feathers could be pulled out without drawing blood, it was +considered as being below age. If, on the contrary, blood followed the +feathers, but the plumage of the neck exhibited a metallic lustre, it +was reckoned as having passed the age of Beni-yonâh. It might be a +father, and not the son, of pigeons. When these feathers are visible, +the bird changes its name, and is called Tôr--a word which will be +presently explained. + +According to some of these old writers, the Dove was considered as +having a superiority over other birds in the instinctive certainty +with which it finds its way from one place to another. At the present +time, our familiarity with the variety of pigeon known as the Carrier +has taught us that the eye is the real means employed by the pigeon +for the direction of its flight. Those who fly pigeons for long +distances always take them several times over the same ground, +carrying them to an increasing distance at every journey, so that the +birds shall be able to note certain objects which serve them as +landmarks. + +Bees and wasps have recourse to a similar plan. When a young wasp +leaves its nest for the first time, it does not fly away at once, but +hovers in front of the entrance for some time, getting farther and +farther away from the nest until it has learned the aspect of +surrounding objects. The pigeon acts in precisely the same manner, and +so completely does it depend upon eyesight that, if a heavy fog should +come on, the best-trained pigeon will lose its way. + +The old writers, however, made up their minds that the pigeon found +its way by scent, which sense alone, according to their ideas, could +guide it across the sea. They were not aware of the power possessed by +birds of making their eyes telescopic at will, or of the enormous +increase of range which the sight obtains by elevation. A pigeon at +the elevation of several hundred yards can see to an astonishing +distance, and there is no need of imagining one sense to receive a +peculiar development when the ordinary powers of another are +sufficient to obtain the object. + +That dove-cotes were in use among the earlier Jews is well known. An +allusion to the custom of keeping pigeons in cotes is seen in Isa. lx. +8: "Who are these that fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their +windows?" or, as the Jewish Bible translates the passage, "as the +doves to their apertures?" In this passage the sacred writer utters a +prophecy concerning the coming of the world to the Messiah, the +Gentiles flocking to Him as the clouds of pigeons fly homeward to +their cotes. + +The practice of pigeon-keeping has survived to the present day, the +houses of wealthy men being furnished with separate pigeon-houses, +built up of a number of earthen jars, and roofed over. Each jar is the +habitation of a pair of pigeons, and the whole principle of this +dove-cote is exactly the same as that which was employed by the late +Mr. Waterton in erecting the starling-houses in his garden and +grounds. Poorer people, who cannot afford to build a separate house +for the pigeons, set up jars for them in their own houses, the pigeons +gaining access to their nests through the door. + +The Talmudical writers have even their regulations respecting the +keeping of tame pigeons. No one was allowed to do so who had not a +sufficiency of ground around his house to supply food for them. +According to their regulations, the pigeon-house must not be within +fifty paces of cultivated ground belonging to any one except the owner +of the pigeons. The reason for this prohibition was, that as the +pigeon was known to be an exceedingly voracious bird, it should not +feed at the expense of a neighbour. It was conventionally supposed to +feed by choice in the immediate vicinity of the house, and, when it +had filled its crop, to be unwilling to fly farther than was +absolutely necessary. + +Being so familiar with this bird, it was to be expected that the +writers of the Scriptures would make many references to it. The +plaintive, monotonous cooing of the pigeon is several times mentioned. +For example: "And Huzzab shall be led away captive, she shall be +brought up, and her maids shall lead her as with the voice of doves, +taboring upon their breasts" (Nah. ii. 7). The Jewish Bible gives this +passage in another and certainly a more forcible manner: "And Huzzab +shall be uncovered and brought up, and her maids shall sigh as the +voice of doves, drumming upon their breasts." Here the prophet alludes +to the ancient custom of beating the breast as a sign of sorrow (a +custom that survived even in this country until a very recent date), +accompanied with the moanings of distress. + +The prophet Isaiah makes use of a similar metaphor: "I did mourn as a +dove: mine eyes fail with looking upward" (xxxviii. 14). Also in chap. +lix. 11: "We roar all like bears, and mourn sore like doves." + + [Illustration: THE ROCK DOVE. + + "O my dove, that art in the clefts of the rocks."--CANT. ii. 14.] + +The beauty of the bird is mentioned in many passages, several of which +occur in the Song of Solomon. "Behold, thou art fair, my love; behold, +thou art fair; thou hast dove's eyes" (i. 15). "His eyes are the eyes +of doves by the rivers of waters, washed with milk, and fitly set" (v. +12). And in several other places the beloved is spoken of as a Dove, +as in the following passage: "My dove, my undefiled, is but one; she +is the only one of her mother, she is the choice one of her that bare +her" (vi. 9). + +Allusion is made to the peculiar metallic gleam of the Dove's plumage +in a well-known passage of the Psalms: "Though ye have lien among the +pots, yet shall ye be as the wings of a dove covered with silver, and +her feathers with yellow gold" (Ps. lxviii. 13). + +The strong flight of the Dove is also mentioned by the Psalmist in an +equally familiar passage: "And I said, Oh that I had wings like a +dove! for then would I fly away, and be at rest. Lo, then would I +wander far off, and remain in the wilderness" (Ps. lv. 6, 7). It is +scarcely necessary to advert to the well-known passages in which +reference is made to the gentleness of the Dove. + +That the pigeons which are not domesticated live in the rocks was +known to the Scripture writers, who make several references to the +fact. + +See, for example: "O ye that dwell in Moab, leave the cities, and +dwell in the rock, and be like the dove that maketh her nest in the +sides of the hole's mouth" (Jer. xlviii. 28). See also Ezek. vii. 16: +"But they that escape of them shall escape, and shall be on the +mountains like doves of the valleys, all of them mourning, every one +for his iniquity." + +This is an especially graphic image. The deep valleys that run between +the mountain ranges are literally crowded with pigeons who have made +their nests in the cavities. Several of these are so well known that +they go by the name of "Valleys of Pigeons." + +In the Song of Solomon (ii. 14) is another reference to the +rock-loving propensities of the Dove: "O my dove, that art in the +clefts of the rock, in the secret places of the stairs, let me see thy +countenance, let me hear thy voice." The Jewish Bible gives a slightly +different rendering, translating the word which is given as "stairs" +in the Authorized Version as "cliffs." + +That the Doves were caught in nets is evident from a passage in Hosea +(vii. 11, 12): "Ephraim also is like a silly dove without heart: they +call to Egypt, they go to Assyria. + +"When they shall go, I will spread my net upon them; I will bring them +down as the fowls of the heaven; I will chastise them, as their +congregation hath heard." + +There is one passage in the Old Testament about which great +controversy has taken place. It occurs in 2 Kings vi. 25. When +Ben-hadad besieged Samaria, and tried to reduce it by starvation, the +famine was so great in the city that "an ass's head was sold for +fourscore pieces of silver, and the fourth part of a cab of dove's +dung for five pieces of silver." + +Objection has been taken to this passage on the score of the exceeding +repulsiveness of the food. This objection, however, cannot hold good; +for, although such diet must have been most repulsive, it could not +have been more so than the flesh of the ass, an animal which was +strictly forbidden as food, and held as unclean. Moreover, as we see +in verse 29 that parents actually ate the flesh of their own children, +it is evident that the mere repulsiveness of the food cannot be taken +as an objection. + +A far stronger objection is to be found in the fact that even all the +dove-cotes of Samaria could not furnish a sufficient quantity for +food, especially as the Doves themselves must have been killed and +eaten long before the people were driven to such an extremity as to +eat the flesh of their own children. It is far more probable that the +"dove's-dung" was the name of a vegetable of some kind. We find a +similar nomenclature in the popular names of many of our own plants, +such as oxlip, cowslip, horse-tail, hart's-tongue, mouse-ear, +maidenhair, and the like. + + +We now come to the various species of Pigeons which inhabit Palestine. + +In the Holy Land are found all the species of Pigeons which inhabit +England, together with one or two others. First, there is the Rock +Pigeon, or Blue Rock Dove (_Columba livia_), which is acknowledged to +be the origin of our domestic breeds of Pigeons, with all their +infinite variety of colour and plumage. This species, though plentiful +in Palestine, is not spread over the whole of the land, but lives +chiefly on the coast and in the higher parts of the country. In these +places it multiplies in amazing numbers, its increase being almost +wholly unchecked by man, on account of the inaccessible cliffs in +which it lays its eggs and nurtures its young, its only enemies being +a few of the birds and beasts of prey, which can exercise but a +trifling influence on these prolific birds. + +In other parts of the country the Egyptian Rock Dove (_Columba +Schimperi_) takes the place of the more northern species. It is a +little smaller than our own Rock Dove, and has not the whitish plumage +on the lower part of the back. This species is quite as numerous as +the other, and builds in similar places. Mr. Tristram, while visiting +the Wady (or Valley) Seimûn, which lies near the Lake of Gennesaret, +witnessed an amusing example of the vast number of these Pigeons. + +"No description can give an adequate idea of the myriads of rock +pigeons. In absolute clouds they dashed to and fro in the ravine, +whirling round with a rush and a whirr that could be felt like a gust +of wind. It was amusing to watch them upset the dignity and the +equilibrium of the majestic griffon as they swept past him. This +enormous bird, quietly sailing along, was quite turned on his back by +the sudden rush of wings and wind." + +The writer of this description has been too modest. It is impossible +to convey a better idea of the vast multitude of birds than has been +given by this anecdote. We are all familiar with the clatter of +Pigeons' wings as they dart from their resting-place, and can well +imagine how great must have been the multitude of birds that would +fairly turn the powerful griffon-vulture on its back. This description +may be advantageously compared with the passage in Isa. lx. 8: "Who +are these that fly as a cloud?" the sacred writer well knowing the +force of his image when addressed to those who were familiar with the +habits of the bird, whether it was the semi-domesticated House Pigeon +or the wild Rock Dove. The Ring Dove (_Columba palumbus_) and the +Stock Dove (_Columba ænas_) are also found in Palestine. + +These birds are taken in nets, into which they are decoyed by a very +effective though cruel device. + +When one of these birds is trapped or snared, it is seized by its +capturers, who spare its life for the sake of using it as a decoy. +They blind it by sewing its eyelids together, and then fasten it to a +perch among trees. The miserable bird utters plaintive cries, and +continually flaps its wings, thus attracting others of its kind, who +settle on the surrounding branches and are easily taken, their whole +attention being occupied by the cries of their distressed companion. + +We now come to the Turtle Doves, several of which inhabit the Holy +Land; but, as they are similar in habits, we will confine ourselves to +the common species (_Turtur auritus_), with which we are so familiar +in this country. The Hebrew word which is translated as Turtle, is +_tôr_, a term which is usually employed in connexion with the word +_yônâh_, or Dove, thus, _tôr-yônâh_. The name is evidently derived +from the note of the bird. + +The reader may remember that on page 414, a curious tradition has been +mentioned respecting the word _tôr_; namely, that it represented the +age, and not the species of a Dove. There is but little doubt, +however, that the word really does represent a species, and that the +Turtle Dove is the bird signified by the word _tôr_. For example, its +migratory habits are noticed in the sacred writings. See the following +passage in the Song of Solomon. + + [Illustration: THE TURTLE DOVE. + + "_The voice of the turtle is heard in our land._"--CANT. ii. 12.] + +"Lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone; the flowers appear +on the earth; the time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice +of the turtle is heard in our land" (Cant. ii. 11, 12). The prophet +Jeremiah also refers to the migration of this bird: "Yea, the stork in +the heaven knoweth her appointed times; and the turtle, and the crane, +and the swallow observe the time of their coming: but my people know +not the judgment of the Lord" (viii. 7). + +Beside this species, there is the Collared Turtle Dove (_Turtur +risorius_), one variety of which is known in England as the Barbary +Dove. It is a large species, measuring more than a foot in length. +Another species is the Palm Turtle (_Turtur Senegalensis_), so called +from its habit of nesting on palm-trees, when it is obliged to build +at a distance from the habitations of man. It is a gregarious bird, +several nests being generally found on one tree, and even, when it +cannot find a palm, it will build among the thorns in multitudes. Like +the common Dove, it is fond of the society of man, and is sure to make +its nest among human habitations, secure in its knowledge that it will +not be disturbed. + +It is rather a small bird, being barely ten inches in length, and +having no "collar" on the neck, like the two preceding species. + + + + +POULTRY. + + Poultry plentiful in Palestine at the present day--The Domestic + Fowl unknown in the early times of Israel--The eating and + gathering of eggs--References to Poultry in the New + Testament--The egg and the scorpion--The fatted fowl of + Solomon--The hen brooding over her eggs--Poultry prohibited + within Jerusalem--The cock-crowing. + + +At the present day, poultry are plentiful both in Palestine and Syria, +and that they were bred in the time of the Apostles is evident from +one or two references which are made by our Lord. How long the +Domestic Fowl had been known to the Jews is extremely uncertain, and +we have very little to guide us in our search. + +That it was unknown to the Jews during the earlier period of their +history is evident from the utter silence of the Old Testament on the +subject. A bird so conspicuous and so plentiful would certainly have +been mentioned in the Law of Moses had it been known to the +Israelites; but, in all its minute and detailed provisions, the Law is +silent on the subject. + +Neither the bird itself nor its eggs are mentioned, although there are +a few references to eggs, without signifying the bird which laid +them. The humane provision in Deut. xxii. 6, 7, refers not to a +domesticated, but to a wild bird: "If a bird's nest chance to be +before thee in any tree, or on the ground, whether they be young ones, +or eggs, and the dams sitting upon the young, or upon the eggs, thou +shalt not take the dam with the young: but thou shalt in any wise let +the dam go, and take the young to thee; that it may be well with thee, +that thou mayest prolong thy days." + +That eggs were used for food, is seen from Job vi. 6: "Can that which +is unsavoury be eaten without salt? or is there any taste in the white +of an egg?" So in Isa. lix. 5: "They hatch cockatrice' eggs, and weave +the spider's web: he that eateth of their eggs dieth." + +There is another passage in the same book which refers to the +gathering of eggs as mentioned in Deut. xxii. "And my hand hath found +as a nest the riches of the people: and as one gathereth eggs that are +left, have I gathered all the earth" (Isa. x. 14). The well-known +passage in Luke xi. 11, 12, however, evidently refers to the ordinary +hen's egg, which was used then for food just as is the case at the +present day: "If a son shall ask bread of any of you that is a father, +will he give him a stone? or if he ask a fish, will he for a fish give +him a serpent? + +"Or if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?" + +There is but one passage in the Old Testament which has ever been +conjectured to refer to the Domestic Fowl. It occurs in 1 Kings iv. +22, 23, among the list of the daily provision of Solomon's household: +"And Solomon's provision for one day was thirty measures of fine +flour, and threescore measures of meal, + +"Ten fat oxen, and twenty oxen out of the pastures, and an hundred +sheep, beside harts, and roebucks, and fallow-deer, and fatted fowl." + +Now the word which is here rendered as "fatted fowl" is in the Hebrew, +_barberim_. Judging by the etymology of the word, which is derived +from a root that signifies whiteness, or purity, it has been thought +that the correct rendering would be "fattened white" (birds). Some +Hebraists have conjectured that the white birds in question were +geese, this term including various white birds, swans among the +number. + +Many persons think that the fatted fowl mentioned in the above-quoted +passage were really Domestic Fowl, which Solomon had introduced into +Palestine, together with various other birds and animals, by means of +his fleet. There may be truth in this conjecture, but, as there can be +no certainty, we will pass from the Old Testament to the New. + +THE DOMESTIC FOWL. + +"_As a hen doth gather her brood under her wings._"--LUKE xiii. 34. + +We are all familiar with the passages in which the Domestic Fowl is +mentioned in the New Testament. There is, for example, that touching +image employed by our Lord when lamenting over Jerusalem: "O +Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets, and stonest them +that are sent unto thee; how often would I have gathered thy children +together, as a hen doth gather her brood under her wings, and ye would +not!" The reference is evidently made to the Domesticated Fowl, which +in the time of our Lord was largely bred in the Holy Land. + +Some writers have taken objection to this statement in consequence of +a Rabbinical law which prohibited poultry from being kept within the +walls of Jerusalem, lest in their search for food they should scratch +up any impurity which had been buried, and so defile the holy city. +But it must be remembered that in the time of Christ Jerusalem +belonged practically to the Romans, who held it with a garrison, and +who, together with other foreigners, would not trouble themselves +about any such prohibition, which would seem to them, as it does to +us, exceedingly puerile, not to say unjustifiable. Whether the Jews +obeyed or disregarded the prohibition, it is evident that it would +have been binding on the Jews alone, and that all Gentiles were exempt +from it. Some commentators have even thought that the Domestic Fowl +was not known in Palestine until imported by the Romans. + +That the bird was common in the days of our Lord is evident from the +reference to the "cock-crowing" as a measure of time. + +Even on this subject there has been much controversy, some persons +thinking that the words are to be understood in their literal sense, +and others that they are merely metaphorical, and refer to the +divisions of time under the Romans, which were marked by the blowing +of trumpets, conventionally termed cock-crowings. There is, however, +no necessity to search for a metaphorical meaning when the literal +interpretation is clear and intelligible. At the present day, as in +all probability in the time of our Lord, the crowing of the cocks is +employed as a means of reckoning time during the night, the birds +crowing at certain hours with almost mechanical regularity. + + + + +THE PEACOCK. + + The foreign curiosities imported by Solomon--The word _Tucciyim_ + and its various interpretations--Identity of the word with the + Cingalese name of the Peacock--Reasons why the Peacock should + have been brought to Solomon--Its subsequent neglect and + extirpation. + + +Among the many foreign objects which were imported by Solomon into +Palestine, we find that the Peacock is specially mentioned. (See a +passage which has already been mentioned in connexion with ivory and +apes.) The sacred historian, after mentioning the ivory throne, the +golden shields and targets, that all the vessels in Solomon's house +were of gold, and that silver was so common as to be of no account, +proceeds to give the reason for this profuse magnificence. "For the +king had at sea a navy of Tharshish with the navy of Hiram: once in +three years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and silver, +ivory, and apes, and peacocks" (1 Kings x. 22). + +The word which is here translated as Peacock is in the Hebrew +_tucciyim_, and has been rendered in various modes. The Jewish Bible +accepts the same translation as our own, and does not even affix the +mark of doubt. Some Hebraists have rendered the word as "parrots," +while others have tried to identify the Tucciyim with guinea-fowls. + +In the identification of any animal, much must necessarily depend on +the country in which it is found. Now, if the reader will refer to +page 2 of this work, he will see that India and Ceylon are identified +as the land visited by Solomon's ships. In the latter island are found +all the three valuables which are mentioned in the above-quoted +passage, and it is remarkable that the Cingalese name for the Peacock +is so similar to the Hebrew word, that we have every reason to believe +that the word _tucciyim_ or _tuyeyim_ is in reality a Hebraic form of +the Cingalese tokei. A similar resemblance of name occurs in the +Hebrew and Cingalese terms for ape and elephant. + +That this magnificent bird should have been one of those creatures +that were imported by Solomon is almost certain. It would be imported +for the same reason as the apes; namely, for the purpose of adding to +the glories of Solomon's house, and no bird could have been selected +which would have a more magnificent effect than the Peacock. Moreover, +although unknown in Palestine, it is extremely plentiful in its native +land, inhabiting the jungle by thousands, and, by a curious +coincidence, being invariably most plentiful in those spots which are +most frequented by tigers. In many parts of the country, great numbers +of Peacocks frequent the temples, and live amicably with the sacred +monkeys, passing their lives in absolute security, protected by the +sanctity of the place. + +Their numbers, therefore, would render them easily accessible to +Solomon's envoys, who would purchase them at a cheap rate from the +native dealers, while their surpassing beauty would render them sure +of a sale on their arrival in Jerusalem. Indeed, their beauty made so +great an impression that they are separately mentioned by the sacred +chronicler, the Peacock and the ape being the only two animals that +are thought worthy of enumeration. + +It seems that after Solomon's death the breed of Peafowl was not kept +up, owing in all probability to the troubles which beset the throne +after that magnificent monarch died. + + + + +THE PARTRIDGE. + + The word _Kore_ and its signification--The Partridge upon the + mountains--David's simile--The Desert Partridge and its + habits--Hunting the Partridge with sticks--Eggs of the + Partridge--A disputed reading, and probable signification of the + passage--Egg-hunting in Palestine--The various species of + Partridge--The Francolin and the Sand-grouse. + + +There is a bird mentioned in the Old Testament, which, although its +name is only given twice, is a very interesting bird to all students +of the Scriptures, both passages giving an insight into the +manners and customs of the scarcely changing East. This is +the bird called in the Hebrew Kore, a word which has been generally +accepted as signifying some kind of Partridge. There is no doubt that, +like most other Hebrew names of animated beings, the word is a +collective one, signifying a considerable number of species. + + [Illustration: THE PEACOCK. + + "Once in three years came the navy of Tharshish, bringing gold, and + silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks." 1 KINGS x. 22.] + +The first passage occurs in 1 Sam. xxvi. 20. When David was being +pursued by Saul, and had been forced to escape from the city and hide +himself in the rocky valleys, he compared himself to the Partridge, +which frequented exactly the same places: "The king of Israel is come +out to seek a flea, as when one doth hunt a partridge upon the +mountains." + +The appositeness of this simile is perfect. The bird to which David +alluded was in all probability the Desert Partridge (_Ammoperdix +Heyii_), a species which especially haunts rocky and desert places, +and even at the present day is exceedingly plentiful about the Cave of +Adullam. The males, when they think themselves unobserved, are fond of +challenging, or calling to each other in a loud ringing note, a +peculiarity that has earned for the bird the Hebrew name of Kore, or +"the caller." + +It is a very active bird, not taking to flight if it can escape by +means of its legs, and, when pursued or disturbed, running with great +swiftness to some rocky cleft in which it may hide itself, taking care +to interpose, as it runs, stones or other obstacles between itself and +the object of its alarm. Thus, then, it will be seen how close was the +parallel between this bird and David, who was forced, like the +Partridge, to seek for refuge in the rocky caves. + +But the parallel becomes even closer when we come to examine the full +meaning of the passage. The Partridge is at the present day hunted on +the mountains exactly as was the case in the time of David. The usual +hunters are boys, who provide themselves with a supply of stout sticks +about eighteen inches in length, and, armed with these, they chase the +birds, hurling the sticks one after the other along the ground, so as +to strike the Partridge as it runs. Generally, several hunters chase +the same bird, some of them throwing the sticks along the ground, +while others hurl them just above the bird, so that if it should take +to flight, it maybe struck as it rises into the air. By +pertinaciously chasing an individual bird, the hunters tire it, and +contrive to come so close that they are certain to strike it. + + [Illustration: THE GREEK PARTRIDGE. + + "_A partridge upon the mountains._"--1 SAM. xxvi. 20.] + +Rude as this mode of bird-hunting may seem, it is still employed in +some parts of England, and is effective even against birds far more +active on the wing than the Partridge. I have seen snipe killed in the +New Forest by being hunted down with sticks. Squirrels are chased and +killed in a similar manner, except that the "bolts," or the sticks for +squirrel-hunting, are weighted with lead at one end. + +The reader will now see how perfect is the image. Driven from the +city, David was forced to wander, together with the Desert Partridge, +upon the hill-sides, and, like that bird, his final refuge is the +rock. Then came the hunters and pursued him, driving him from place to +place, as the boys hunt the Partridge, until he was weary of his life, +and exclaimed in his despair, "I shall now perish one day by the hand +of Saul." + +The second passage in which the word _kore_ is found occurs in Jer. +xvii. 11: "As the partridge sitteth on eggs, and hatcheth them not; so +he that getteth riches, and not by right, shall leave them in the +midst of his days, and at his end shall be a fool." The marginal +reading of this passage gives the sense in a slightly different form, +and commences the verse as follows: "As the partridge gathereth +(young) which she hath not brought forth, so he," &c. The Jewish Bible +gives the whole passage rather differently from both these readings: +"A partridge hatching what it hath not laid (_or_ borne), is he that +getteth (_or_ maketh) riches, and not by right (_or_ judgment): he +shall leave them in the midst (_or_ half) of his days, and at his end +shall be base." + +Taking all these readings, and comparing them with the original, with +each other, and with the context, we can have but little doubt that +reference is made by the prophet to the number of unborn, _i.e._ +unhatched, eggs on which the Partridge sits, but which are so often +taken from her before they can be hatched. Just as hunting the +Partridge is an acknowledged sport among the inhabitants of the +uncultivated parts of Palestine, so is searching for the eggs of the +bird a regular business at the proper time of year. + +The Partridges of Palestine are, like those of our own land, +exceedingly prolific birds, laying a wonderful number of eggs, more +than twenty being sometimes found in a single nest. These eggs are +used for food, and the consumption of them is very great, so that many +a Partridge has been deprived of her expected family: she has sat upon +eggs, and hatched them not. + + +Of these birds several species inhabit Palestine. There is, for +example, the Desert Partridge, which has already been mentioned. It is +beautifully, though not brilliantly, coloured, and may be known by the +white spot behind the eye, the purple and chestnut streaks on the +sides, and the orange bill and legs. These, however, soon lose their +colour after death. + +Then there is the Greek Partridge (_Caccabis saxatilis_), which is +even more plentiful than the preceding species, and is more widely +spread. It is a large bird of its kind, being much larger than our +English species, and may be known by its size, the dark red legs and +beak, and the bold bars on the sides. + +Mr. Tristram suggests, with much probability, that the Francolin, or +Black Partridge of India, and the Sand-Grouse, may be included among +the number of the birds which are included under the common name of +Kore. The latter bird is extremely plentiful in Palestine, and, in all +probability, was classed by the unobservant Jews with the true +Partridge. + + + + +THE QUAIL. + + Signification of the word _Selâv_--Various passages in which the + word is mentioned--The locust, the stork, and the + sand-grouse--Spreading the birds around the camp--Migration of + the Quail--Drying the Quails for food--Modes of catching the + Quail in the East--The Quail-hunters of Northern + Africa--Quarrelsome nature of the bird--Quail-fighting in the + East--How the Quails were brought to the Israelites. + + +In one or two parts of the Old Testament is found a word which has +been translated in the Authorized Version of the Bible as QUAIL. + +The word is _selâv_, and in every case where it is mentioned it is +used with reference to the same occurrence; namely, the providing of +flesh-meat in the wilderness, where the people could find no food. As +the passages remarkably bear upon each other, it will be advisable to +quote them in the order in which they come. + +The first mention of the Selâv occurs in Exod. xvi. Only a few days +after the Israelites had passed the Red Sea, they began to complain of +the desert land into which Moses had led them, and openly said that +they wished they had never left the land of their slavery, where they +had plenty to eat. According to His custom, pitying their +narrow-minded and short-sighted folly, the natural result of the long +servitude to which they had been subject, the Lord promised to send +both bread and flesh-meat. + +"And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, + + [Illustration: THE QUAIL. + + "_The people asked, and He brought quails._"--PSALM cv. 40.] + +"I have heard the murmurings of the children of Israel: speak unto +them, saying, At even ye shall eat flesh, and in the morning ye shall +be filled with bread; and ye shall know that I am the Lord your God. + +"And it came to pass, that at even the quails came up, and covered the +camp" (ver. 11-13). + +The next passage records a similar circumstance, which occurred about +a year afterwards, when the Israelites were tired of eating nothing +but the manna, and again wished themselves back in Egypt. "And there +went forth a wind from the Lord, and brought quails from the sea, and +let them fall by the camp, as it were a day's journey on this side, +and as it were a day's journey on the other side, round about the +camp, and as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth. + +"And the people stood up all that day, and all that night, and all the +next day, and they gathered the quails: he that gathered least +gathered ten homers; and they spread them all abroad for themselves +round about the camp" (Numb. xi. 31, 32). + +The last passage in which Quails are mentioned occurs in the Psalms. +In Ps. cv. are enumerated the various wonders done on behalf of the +Israelites, and among them is specially mentioned this gift of the +Quails and manna. "The people asked, and He brought quails, and +satisfied them with the bread of heaven" (ver. 40). + +We now have to ask ourselves what the word _selâv_ really means. Some +commentators have thought that it signified a species of locust, +insects which travel in vast multitudes, and are always carried with +the wind, thus agreeing with the statement that the Selavim were +brought by the wind. Others have imagined that the Selavim were +flying-fish, blown on shore as they rose from the sea after their +fashion. Putting aside other reasons against these interpretations, +the Psalms contain a passage which effectually contradicts them, and +proves that the Selâv was a bird of some kind. + +"He had commanded the clouds from above, and opened the doors of +heaven, + +"And had rained down manna upon them to eat, and had given them of the +corn of heaven. + +"Man did eat angels' food: He sent them meat to the full. + +"He caused an east wind to blow in the heaven; and by His power He +brought in the south wind. + +"He rained flesh also upon them as dust, and feathered fowls like as +the sand of the sea" (Ps. lxxviii. 23-27). + +From this passage it is evident that the Selavim which were sent +together with the manna were birds of some kind--"fowls of wing," +according to the literal sense of the Hebrew; so that the theory that +they were insects or fish must be dismissed as untenable. The +question now remains, with what species of bird are we to identify the +Selâv? + +Respecting this question, there has been great discussion, chiefly +arising from the fact that the various commentators endeavoured to +show that the Selâv was not the Quail, but some other bird. Some, for +example, take it to be the white stork, which is very plentiful in +Palestine, and sometimes flies in such numbers that the sky is +darkened as the winged host passes by. They base this supposition on +the stature of the bird, which is so tall that it stands about "two +cubits high upon the face of the earth." So it does, but this is a +very insufficient reason for translating the word _selâv_ as "stork." + +In the first place, the words "as it were two cubits high upon the +face of the earth" certainly do not refer to the stature of the +individual birds. They are popularly taken to signify that the earth +was covered with the bodies of the Selavim to the depth of three feet. + +This, however, can hardly have been the fact, as in that case they +would have utterly overwhelmed the whole camp, and crushed the tents +by their weight. Moreover, there would have been no need of gathering +them up, as they would have lain so thickly on the ground that the +only trouble would have been to make a passage through them. It is not +very easy to force a passage through snow a yard in depth, while to do +so through the same depth of birds would have been almost impossible. + +Neither could the Israelites have "spread them all abroad for +themselves round about the camp." If the Selavim lay to the depth of a +yard "as it were a day's journey on this side, and a day's journey on +the other side of the camp," _i.e._ some eight or ten miles all round +it, there would have been no space whereon the birds could have been +spread. The sentence in question has a totally different +signification, and refers to the height from the ground at which the +birds fly. Taken in this sense, the whole passage falls into harmony, +whereas in any other it involves a difficulty. + +If the ordinary interpretation of _selâv_ by "Quail" be accepted, the +description is exactly correct. The Quails fly in vast flocks, and, +being weak-winged birds, never fly against the direction of the wind. +They will wait for days until the wind blows in the required +direction, and will then take wing in countless multitudes; so that in +an hour or two a spot on which not a Quail could be seen is covered +with them. + +On account of their short wings, they never rise to any great height, +even when crossing the sea, while on land they fly at a very low +elevation, merely skimming over the ground, barely a yard or "two +cubits high upon the face of the earth." We may now see how needless +it is to attribute the two cubits to the stature of the bird, or to +the depth at which they lay on the ground. + +There are other reasons why the Selâv could not be any species of +stork. In the first place, all the stork tribe are included among the +list of unclean birds, and it is not likely that the Almighty would +have neutralized His own edicts by providing food which the Israelites +were forbidden to eat. In the next place, even had the flesh of the +stork been lawful, it is of so unpleasant a nature that the people +could not have eaten it. For similar reasons we may dismiss the +theories which consider the Selâv to be a goose or water-fowl of any +kind. + +Some persons have thought that the sand-grouse is the Selâv. In the +first place, the flesh of this bird is hard, tasteless, and disliked +by those who have tried it; so that the Israelites would not have been +tempted to eat it. In the next, it is a strong-winged and swift-footed +bird, and would not have satisfied the required conditions. It flies +high in the air, instead of merely skimming over the ground, and when +it alights is fresh and active, and cannot easily be caught. The +Quail, on the contrary, after it has flown for any distance, is so +completely tired out that when it alights it crouches to the earth, +and will allow itself to be picked up by hand. It has even been +trodden to death under a horse's feet. + +Moreover, the flesh of the Quail is peculiarly excellent, and would be +a great temptation to men who had passed so long a time without eating +animal food. Another corroboration of the identity of the Quail and +the Selâv is to be found in the mode in which the flesh is prepared at +the present day. As soon as the birds have arrived, they are captured +in vast multitudes, on account of their weariness. Many are consumed +at once, but great numbers are preserved for future use by being split +and laid out to dry in the sun, precisely as the Israelites are said +to have spread out the Selavim "all abroad for themselves round about +the camp." + +It is rather remarkable that the Arabs of the present day use a word +almost exactly resembling _selâv_ to represent the Quail. The word is +_salwa_, given by one of the older writers on the subject as _selaw_. + +Accepting, therefore, the Selâv and Quail to be identical, we may +proceed to the description of the bird. + +It is small, plump, and round-bodied, with the head set closely on the +shoulders. Owing to this peculiarity of form, it has its Arab name, +which signifies plumpness or fatness. The wings are pressed closely to +the body, and the tail is pointed, very short, and directed downwards, +so that it almost appears to be absent, and the bird seems to be even +more plump than really is the case. + +Several modes of capturing these birds are still practised in the +East, and were probably employed, not only on the two occasions +mentioned in Exodus and Numbers, but on many others of which the +Scriptural narrative takes no notice. One very simple plan is, for the +hunters to select a spot on which the birds are assembled, and to ride +or walk round them in a large circle, or rather in a constantly +diminishing spiral. The birds are by this process driven closer and +closer together, until at the last they are packed in such masses that +a net can be thrown over them, and a great number captured in it. + +Sometimes a party of hunters unite to take the Quails, and employ a +similar manoeuvre, except that, instead of merely walking round the +Quails, they approach simultaneously from opposite points, and then +circle round them until the birds are supposed to be sufficiently +packed. At a given signal they all converge upon the terrified birds, +and take them by thousands at a time. + +In Northern Africa these birds are captured in a very similar fashion. +As soon as notice is given that a flight of Quails has settled, all +the men of the village turn out with their great burnouses or cloaks. +Making choice of some spot as a centre, where a quantity of brushwood +grows or is laid down, the men surround it on all sides, and move +slowly towards it, spreading their cloaks in their outstretched hands, +and flapping them like the wings of huge birds. Indeed, when a man is +seen from a little distance performing this act, he looks more like a +huge bat than a human being. + +As the men gradually converge upon the brushwood, the Quails naturally +run towards it for shelter, and at last they all creep under the +treacherous shade. Still holding their outspread cloaks in their +extended hands, the hunters suddenly run to the brushwood, fling their +cloaks over it, and so enclose the birds in a trap from which they +cannot escape. Much care is required in this method of hunting, lest +the birds should take to flight, and so escape. The circle is +therefore made of very great size, and the men who compose it advance +so slowly that the Quails prefer to use their legs rather than their +wings, and do not think of flight until their enemies are so close +upon them that their safest course appears to be to take refuge in the +brushwood. + +Boys catch the Quails in various traps and springes, the most +ingenious of which is a kind of trap, the door of which overbalances +itself by the weight of the bird. + +By reason of the colour of the Quail, and its inveterate habit of +keeping close to the ground, it easily escapes observation, and even +the most practised eye can scarcely distinguish a single bird, though +there may be hundreds within a very small compass. Fortunately for the +hunters, and unfortunately for itself, it betrays itself by its shrill +whistling note, which it frequently emits, and which is so peculiar +that it will at once direct the hunter to his prey. + +This note is at the same time the call of the male to the female and a +challenge to its own sex. Like all the birds of its group, the Quail +is very combative, and generally fights a battle for the possession of +each of its many mates. It is not gifted with such weapons of offence +as some of its kinsfolk, but it is none the less quarrelsome, and +fights in its own way as desperately as the game-cock of our own +country. + +Indeed, in the East, it is used for exactly the same purpose as the +game-cock. Battles between birds and beasts, not to say men, are the +common amusement with Oriental potentates, and, when they are tired of +watching the combats of the larger animals, they have Quail-fights in +their own chambers. The birds are selected for this purpose, and are +intentionally furnished with stimulating food, so as to render them +even more quarrelsome than they would be by nature. Partridges are +employed for the same cruel purpose; and as both these birds are +easily obtained, and are very pugnacious, they are especially suited +for the sport. + +Two passages occur in the Scriptures which exactly explain the mode in +which the Quails were sent to the Israelites. The first is in Ps. +lxxviii. 26. The Psalmist mentions that the Lord "caused an east wind +to blow in the heaven, and by His power He brought in the south wind." +Here, on examining the geographical position of the Israelites, we see +exactly how the south-east wind would bring the Quails. + +The Israelites had just passed the Red Sea, and had begun to +experience a foretaste of the privations which they were to expect in +the desert through which they had to pass. Passing northwards in their +usual migrations, the birds would come to the coast of the Red Sea, +and there would wait until a favourable wind enabled them to cross the +water. The south-east wind afforded them just the very assistance +which they needed, and they would naturally take advantage of it. + +It is remarkable how closely the Scriptural narrative agrees with the +habits of the Quail, the various passages, when compared together, +precisely coinciding with the character of the bird. In Exod. xvi. 13 +it is mentioned that "at even the quails came up and covered the +camp." Nocturnal flight is one of the characteristics of the Quail. +When possible, they invariably fly by night, and in this manner escape +many of the foes which would make great havoc among their helpless +columns if they were to fly by day. + +The identity of the Selâv with the common Quail is now seen to be +established. In the first place, we have the name still surviving in +the Arabic language. Next, the various details of the Scriptural +narrative point so conclusively to the bird, that even if we were to +put aside the etymological corroboration, we could have but little +doubt on the subject. There is not a detail which is not correct. The +gregarious instinct of the bird, which induces it to congregate in +vast numbers; its habit of migration; its inability to fly against the +wind, and the necessity for it to await a favourable breeze; its +practice of flying by night, and its custom of merely skimming over +the surface of the ground; the ease with which it is captured; the +mode of preserving by drying in the sun, and the proverbial delicacy +of its flesh, are characteristics which all unite in the Quail. + + +Before closing our account of the Quail, it will be as well to devote +a short space to the nature of the mode by which the Israelites were +twice fed. Commentators who were unacquainted with the natural history +of the bird have represented the whole occurrence as a miraculous one, +and have classed it with the division of the Red Sea and of the +Jordan, with the various plagues by which Pharaoh was induced to +release the Israelites, and with many other events which we are +accustomed to call miracles. + +In reality, there is scarcely anything of a miraculous character about +the event, and none seems to have been claimed for it. The Quails were +not created at the moment expressly for the purpose of supplying the +people with food, nor were they even brought from any great distance. +They were merely assisted in the business on which they were engaged, +namely, their migration or customary travel from south to north, and +waiting on the opposite side of the narrow sea for a south-east wind. +That such a wind should blow was no miracle. The Quails expected it to +blow, and without it they could not have crossed the sea. That it was +made to blow earlier than might have been the case is likely enough, +but that is the extent of the miraculous character of the event. +Taking the word in its ordinary sense, no miracle was wrought, simply +because none was wanted. Granting to the fullest extent that He who +arranged the course of the world can alter His arrangements as easily +as He made them, we cannot but see that in this case no alteration was +needed, and that, in consequence, none was made. + + + + +THE RAVEN. + + Signification of the word _Oreb_--The Raven tribe plentiful in + Palestine--The Raven and the Dove--Elijah and the + Ravens--Various explanations of the circumstance--Feeding the + young Ravens--Luis of Grenada's sermon--The white Raven of + ancient times--An old legend--Reference to the blackness of the + Raven's plumage--Desert-loving habits of the Raven--Its mode of + attacking the eye--Notions of the old commentators--Ceremonial + use of the Raven--Return of the Ravens--Cunning of the + bird--Nesting-places of the Raven--The magpie and its + character--The starling--Its introduction into Palestine--The + Rabbi perplexed--Solution of the difficulty. + + +It is more than probable that, while the Hebrew word _oreb_ primarily +signifies the bird which is so familiar to us under the name of RAVEN, +it was also used by the Jews in a much looser sense, and served to +designate any of the Corvidæ, or Crow tribe, such as the raven itself, +the crow, the rook, the jackdaw, and the like. We will first take the +word in its restricted sense, and then devote a brief space to its +more extended signification. + +As might be expected from the cosmopolitan nature of the Raven, it is +very plentiful in Palestine, and even at the present time is +apparently as firmly established as it was in the days when the +various Scriptural books were written. + +There are few birds which are more distinctly mentioned in the Holy +Scriptures than the Raven, though the passages in which its name +occurs are comparatively few. It is the first bird which is mentioned +in the Scriptures, its name occurring in Gen. viii. 7: "And it came to +pass at the end of forty days, that Noah opened the window of the ark +which he had made; + +"And he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro, until the +waters were dried up from off the earth." + +Here we have, at the very outset, a characteristic account of the +bird. It left the ark, and flew to and fro, evidently for the purpose +of seeking food. The dove, which immediately followed the Raven, acted +in a different manner. She flew from the ark in search of food, and, +finding none, was forced to return again. The Raven, on the contrary, +would find plenty of food in the bodies of the various animals that +had been drowned, and were floating on the surface of the waters, and, +therefore, needed not to enter again into the ark. The context shows +that it made the ark a resting-place, and that it "went forth to and +fro," or, as the Hebrew Bible renders the passage, "in going and +returning," until the waters had subsided. Here, then, is boldly drawn +the distinction between the two birds, the carrion-eater and the +feeder on vegetable substances--a distinction to which allusion has +already been made in the history of the dove. + + [Illustration: THE RAVEN. + + "_Who provideth for the raven his food?_"--JOB xxxviii. 41.] + +Passing over the declaration in Lev. xi. 15 and Deut. xiv. 14, that +every Raven (_i.e._ the Raven and all its tribe) is unclean, we come +to the next historical mention of the bird. This occurs in 1 Kings +xvii. When Elijah had excited the anger of Ahab by prophesying three +years of drought, he was divinely ordered to take refuge by the brook +Cherith, one of the tributaries of the Jordan. "And it shall be, that +thou shalt drink of the brook; and I have commanded the ravens +[_orebim_] to feed thee there. + +"So he went and did according unto the word of the Lord: for he went +and dwelt by the brook Cherith, that is before Jordan. + +"And the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning, and bread +and flesh in the evening, and he drank of the brook." + +In this passage we have a history of a purely miraculous character. It +is not one that can be explained away. Some have tried to do so by +saying that the banished prophet found the nests of the Ravens, and +took from them daily a supply of food for his sustenance. The +repetition of the words "bread and flesh" shows that the sacred writer +had no intention of signifying a mere casual finding of food which the +Ravens brought for their young, but that the prophet was furnished +with a constant and regular supply of bread and meat twice in the day. +It is a statement which, if it be not accepted as the account of a +miracle, must be rejected altogether. + +I may here mention that an explanation of the passage has been offered +by some commentators, who render the word _orebim_ as "Arabs," and so +arrive at the conclusion that the prophet was fed in his retirement by +the Arab tribes which came to the brook for water. Others have thought +that the Orebim were the inhabitants of a village called Orbo, near +the Cherith. There is, however, no need of any such explanations. The +account of the prophet's flight to the Cherith and of the daily supply +of food which he received has been accepted as a simple statement of +facts by all Jewish writers, and there is no alternative but either to +accept it in the same sense or to reject it. + +This part of the subject naturally leads to certain passages in which +the feeding of the young Ravens is mentioned. See, for example, Job +xxxviii. 41: "Who provideth for the raven his food? when his young +ones cry unto God, they wander for lack of meat." This passage is +rendered rather differently and more forcibly in the Jewish Bible. +"Who provideth for the raven his food, when his young ones cry unto +God, and wander for lack of meat?" A passage of similar import occurs +in Ps. cxlvii. 9: "He giveth to the beast his food, and to the young +ravens which cry." An evident reference is made to these passages in +Luke xii. 24: "Consider the ravens: for they neither sow nor reap; +which neither have storehouse nor barn; and God feedeth them: how much +more are ye better than the fowls?" + +In all these cases reference is made to a curious idea which prevailed +respecting the Raven. It was thought that the Raven was a cruel +parent, and that after the eggs were hatched it cared nothing for the +young until they were full fledged. As, moreover, the bird was thought +to be peculiarly late in attaining its plumage, the young Ravens must +all die of hunger, were they not fed in some remarkable manner. This +subject is treated at some length by Luis of Grenada in his Sermons. +As the passage in question is a very curious one, I give both the +original and a translation. For the latter I am indebted to the Rev. +C. J. Smith, author of "Synonyms and Antonyms," who has preserved, +with much success, the quaint structure of the language. + +"Dominica XIV. post Pent. Concio 1: + +"Nisi hæc enim omnia magnam nobis admirationis materiam divinæque +providentiæ notitiam præberent, nequaquam Dominus inter cetera +sapientiæ et providentiæ suæ argumenta hoc etiam commemoraret, cum ad +Job ait: 'Quis præparat corvo escam suam, quando pulli ejus clamant ad +Deum vagantes eò quòd non habeant cibos?'[1] Et in Psal.: 'Qui dat +jumentis escam ipsorum et pullis corvorum invocantibus eum.'[2] + + [1] Job xxxviii. + + [2] Ps. cxlvii. + +"Cur autem hoc in loco pullorum corvi præcipuè meminerit, in causa +est, quod in his miro modo singularis providentiæ cura elucet. Ait +enim interpres quidam corvorum pullos eum implumes adhuc sunt, +candorem præ se ferre: ideoque a parentibus ut nothos negligi, quod +eorum non referant colorem. Quo tempore divina providentia, quæ +nusquam dormit, eos ad se clamantes alit. Vermiculos enim quosdam in +nidulo nasci constituit, quorum esu sustentantur donec nono tandem die +nascentibus plumis parentum colorem referant, atque ita demum ab illis +nutriantur. + + +"Cum igitur divina providentia nulla in re neque animalculis istis +etiam si a patribus deserantur desit, quanta ilia diffidentia est, quæ +solis hominibus eam deesse profitetur? Si homo inter omnes inferioris +hujus mundi creaturas nobilissimum et pulcherrimum animal est, si +solus ipse Dei imagine insignitus, si ipse hujus magnæ familiæ +princeps ac dominus est, si ejus obsequio cuncta militant, si omnia +rerum conditor subiecit pedibus ejus oves et boves universas, insuper +et pecora campi, &c. qui fieri potest ut cum hujus mundi moderator Dñs +nullum neque animalculum neque vermiculum a providentiæ suæ cura +excludat, sed omnibus abunde omnia suppeditat, pium hominem (cujus +obsequio cuncta destinavit) fame et inedia confici patiatur. Si pater +aliquis filii sui familiam, servos, ancillas, et jumenta diligenter +curaret, illisque necessaria abunde provideret, quomodo filium fame +perire sineret, cujus familiam tanta cura fovet et alit? Quis enim hoc +in animum inducere possit? Hæc ijitur altera ratio est qua celestis +Magister diffidentiam nostram curare, et spem alere atque fulcire +studet." + +"Fourteenth Sunday after Pentecost, Sermon 1: + +"For if it were not that all these things afford to us great matter of +admiration and demonstration of the providence of God, it were in vain +that the Lord, among other tokens of His wisdom and providence, had +selected this also, when He saith in Job: 'Who provideth for the raven +his food? when his young ones cry unto God, wandering for lack of +meat.' And in the Psalms: 'Who giveth their own food to the cattle, +and to the young ravens that call upon Him.' + +"Now that in this place He hath been mainly mindful of the ravens' +young, is partly for this cause, that marvellously in them the +singular care of Providence doth show forth. For a certain annotator +saith, that the young ravens while as yet they are unfledged do appear +of whiteness, and therefore are neglected of their parents as if they +were bastards, seeing that they resemble not their colour. At which +time Divine Providence, who nowhere sleepeth, doth feed them who call +upon Himself. For He causeth certain vermicles (small worms) to be +bred in the little nest, by eating of which they are sustained, until +at length on the ninth day, the feathers beginning to grow, they +resemble the colour of their parents, and so come to be nourished by +them. + +"Seeing then that Divine Providence is never wanting in any matter, +not even to these little creatures, though they be deserted of their +parents, how great is that distrust which averreth that it is wanting +unto men alone! If man be among all the creatures of this lower world +the noblest and the fairest of things; if he alone be made illustrious +by God's image; if he himself be of this great family the leader and +lord; if in obedience to him all things serve; if the Constructor of +all things hath put under his feet 'all sheep and oxen, yea, and the +beasts of the field;' how shall it be that when the Lord, the Ruler of +this world, shutteth out none, neither insect nor worm, from the care +of His providence, but supplieth abundantly all things for all, He +should suffer the righteous man, for whose service He hath appointed +all things, to perish of hunger and lack of food? + +"If it be that every father would diligently care for his son's +household, and men-servants, and maid-servants, and cattle, and +provide them abundantly with all things needful, how should He suffer +His sons to perish whose families He cherisheth and feedeth with so +great care? Who, indeed, could harbour such a thought? This then is +another consideration whereby the heavenly Master seeks to cure our +distrust, and to feed and stay our hope." + +Some of the old writers improved on this legend by saying that the +worms crawled into the mouths of the young Ravens, so that the birds +had not even the trouble of picking them up. + +Some of the ancient Jewish writers had an idea that the Raven was +originally a white bird, and that its colour was changed by way of +punishment for its evil disposition and deceitful conduct. A similar +idea was held by the old mythological writers. They said that the +Raven was formerly the favourite bird of Apollo, and that it was +celebrated for its sweet song and snowy white plumage. Part of its +duty was to bring water for its master from the fountain Hippocrene. + +One day, instead of doing its duty, the bird amused itself in the +garden, and at last fell asleep. Fearful when it awoke that it should +be punished for its carelessness, the cunning Raven snatched up a +snake, killed it, and brought it to Apollo, saying that the serpent +had disputed the passage to the fountain, and that, after a long +fight, it had just been killed. Apollo, angry with the bird for having +told a lie, drove it from his presence, and as it fled its musical +voice turned into a harsh croak, and its white plumage became black. + + "'Liar!' exclaimed the god, + The Python-killer, as from his keen eye + The lightning darted, 'Me wouldst thou deceive + With such a wretched tale! Hence, hence! begone! + Black as thy falsehood fly through shuddering air, + A bird of lonely night! Dumb be thy voice + Of sweetest melody: henceforth thy cry + Tell but of woes and horrors, a wild shriek + Of darkness and dismay.'" + + _Knight's Quarterly Magazine_ + +Reference to the blackness of the Raven's plumage is made in the Song +of Solomon. "My beloved is white and ruddy, the chiefest among ten +thousand. + +"His beard is as the most fine gold, his locks are bushy and black as +a Raven." (Cant. v. 10, 11.) A similar expression is common among +ourselves. + +On account of its mode of life, the Raven cannot exist in a wild state +in cultivated ground. Hence it has disappeared from the greater part +of England, and is seldom to be seen except on wide moors or in large +forests. Cultivated ground affords it scarcely any food, and it is +therefore a bird of the wilderness rather than of the towns. + +Like all feeders on carrion, it is wonderfully quick in detecting a +dead or dying animal, and rivals the vulture itself in the sharpness +of its vision. If any one who is passing over a part of the country +where Ravens still survive, should wish to see one of the birds, he +has only to lie flat on the ground, and keep his eyes nearly shut, so +as only to see through the lashes. Should there be a Raven within many +miles, it is sure to discover the apparently dead body, and to alight +at no great distance, walking round and round, with its peculiar +sidelong gait, and, if it be not checked in time, will make a dash at +the eye of the prostrate individual, and probably blind him for life. + +This habit of pecking at the eye is inherent in all the crow tribe, +probably because they know instinctively that if the animal will allow +its eye to be pecked out it must be dead; and if it should still +possess life, it would be blinded for the moment, so as to allow its +assailant to escape. The Scriptures note this custom of the Raven, as +we see in Prov. xxx. 17: "The eye that mocketh at his father and +despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it +out, and the young eagles shall eat it." + +The desert-loving habit of the Raven is noticed in Isa. xxxiv. 11: +"The cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl also and the +raven shall dwell in it: and He shall stretch out upon it the line of +confusion, and the stones of emptiness." + + +We will now pass to the notices of the Raven as given by the writers +and commentators of the Talmud. + +Being an unclean bird, and one of ill omen, it was not permitted to +perch on the roof of the Temple. According to some writers, it was +kept off by means of scarecrows, and according to others, by long and +sharp iron spikes set so closely together that there was no room for +the bird to pass between them. The latter is by far the more probable +account, as the Raven is much too cunning a bird to be deceived by a +scarecrow for any length of time. It might be alarmed at the first +sight of a strange object, but in a very short time it would hold all +scarecrows in supreme contempt. + +Its carrion-eating propensities were well known to the ancient +writers, who must have had many opportunities of seeing the Raven +unite with the vultures in consuming the bodies, not only of dead +animals, but of warriors killed in battle. So fond was the Raven of +this food that, according to those writers, the very smell of human +blood attracted the bird; and, if a man accidentally cut himself, or +if he were bled for some illness, the odour of the blood would bring +round the spot all the Ravens of the place. + +The punctuality with which the Raven, in common with all its kin, +returns to its roosting-place, was also familiar to the Talmudists, +who made rather an ingenious use of this habit. The ceremonial law of +the Jews required the greatest care in observing certain hours, and it +was especially necessary to know the precise time which marked the +separation of one day from another. This was ascertained easily enough +as long as the day was clear, but in case of a dull, murky day, when +the course of the sun could not be traced, some other plan was needed. + +In the olden times, no artificial means of measuring time were known, +and the devout Jew was consequently fearful lest he might unwittingly +break the law by doing on one day an act which ought to have been done +on another. A convenient method for ascertaining the time was, +however, employed, and, as soon as the Ravens, rooks, and similar +birds were seen returning to their homes, the sun was supposed to be +setting. + +This habit of returning regularly at the same time is mentioned by Mr. +Tristram in his "Land of Israel:"-- + +"Of all the birds of Jerusalem, the raven is decidedly the most +characteristic and conspicuous. It is present everywhere to eye and +ear, and the odours that float around remind us of its use. On the +evening of our arrival we were perplexed by a call-note, quite new to +us, mingling with the old familiar croak, and soon ascertained that +there must be a second species of raven along with the common _Corvus +corax_. This was the African species (_Corvus umbrinus_, Hed.), the +ashy-necked raven, a little smaller than the world-wide raven, and +here more abundant in individuals. + +"Beside these, the rook (_Corvus agricola_, Trist.), the common grey, +or hooded crow (_Corvus cornix_, L.), and the jackdaw (_Corvus +monedula_, L.), roost by hundreds in the sanctuary. We used to watch +them in long lines passing over our tents every morning at daybreak, +and returning in the evening, the rooks in solid phalanx leading the +way, and the ravens in loose order bringing up the rear, generally far +out of shot. Before retiring for the night, popular assemblies of the +most uproarious character were held together in the trees of the +Kedron and Mount Olivet, and not until sunset did they withdraw in +silence, mingled indiscriminately, to their roosting-places on the +walls. + +"My companions were very anxious to obtain specimens of these +Jerusalem birds, which could only be approached as they settled for +the night; but we were warned by the Consul that shooting them so +close to the mosque might be deemed a sacrilege by the Moslems, and +provoke an attack by the guardians of the Haram and the boys of the +neighbourhood. They finally determined, nevertheless, to run the risk; +and stationing themselves just before sunset in convenient +hiding-places near the walls, at a given signal they fired +simultaneously, and, hastily gathering up the spoils, had retreated +out of reach, and were hurrying to the tents before an alarm could be +raised. The discharge of ten barrels had obtained fourteen specimens, +comprising five species. + +"The same manoeuvre was repeated with equal success on another +evening; but on the third occasion the ravens had learned wisdom by +experience, and, sweeping round Siloam, chose another route to their +dormitory." + +Those who have tried to come within gunshot of a Raven, even in this +country, can appreciate this anecdote, and can understand how the +Raven would ever afterwards keep clear of a spot where the flash and +smoke of fire-arms had twice appeared. + +An anecdote which authenticates this cautious turn of mind in the +Raven is given in Mr. Thompson's work on the "Natural History of +Ireland." There was a large yard in which the sparrows used to +congregate, and it was a custom of the owner to lay a train of corn +for the sparrows to eat, and then to rake the whole line with a +discharge from a gun concealed in an outhouse. A tame Raven lived +about the premises, and as soon as it saw any one carrying a gun +towards the fatal outhouse, it became much alarmed, and hurried off to +hide itself. As soon as the gun was fired, out came the Raven from its +place of concealment, pounced on one of the dead sparrows, carried it +off, and ate it in its private haunt. + +The nest to which the Raven returns with such punctuality is placed in +some spot where it is safe from ordinary intruders. The tops of lofty +trees are favoured localities for the nest, and so are old towers, the +interior of caves, and clefts in lofty precipices. The nest is large +and clumsy, and the bird, trusting in the inaccessible character of +the locality, troubles itself very little about concealment. The Raven +is a peculiarly domestic bird, and a pattern of conjugal affection. It +pairs for life, and both male and female take their share of sitting +on the eggs and nurturing the young. + + +The old writers of whom mention has been made admitted that all the +Corvidæ were signified by the word _oreb_. Sometimes they drew a +distinction between them, but, as a rule, the word _oreb_ might mean +any of those birds, from a Raven to a starling. + +The MAGPIE is one of those birds which is separately mentioned. Like +the Raven, it was thought to be harsh and cruel to its young, so that +whenever a man behaved badly to his children, either by neglect or by +absolute cruelty, he was called a Magpie-man by way of derision. +Similarly, a man of a morose or evil disposition was termed a +Raven-hearted man. As, however, the Magpie is not entirely black, but +has some white in its plumage, it was held to be rather a better bird +than the Raven. Moreover, it is fond of haunting the habitations of +men, so that it was held to be of a softer nature than the Raven, +which always kept itself as far from mankind as possible. + +Lastly, we come to the Starling, which, as I have already mentioned, +is considered as one of the Raven tribe, and is ranked under the name +of Oreb. The old writers had no very great opinion of this bird, which +they considered as exceptionally quarrelsome, probably on account of +its shrill, harsh cry. They had a curious proverb, "Two Starlings +cannot sleep in one bed," by which they meant that two quarrelsome +people ought not to associate together. + +There is a rather curious legend respecting the introduction of the +Starling into Palestine. + +Many years ago, a strange bird appeared in Jerusalem. It was caught, +and brought before a celebrated Rabbi for examination, in order that +he might decide whether it belonged to the clean or the unclean birds. +After examining it, he could not make up his mind to either side of +the question, and left the disputed point to be settled in a different +way. + +He ordered the bird to be placed on the roof of a house, and to be +carefully watched, in order that the birds which associated with it +might be noticed. For some time no birds of any kind would recognise +the stranger, until at last there came a Raven from Egypt, which +claimed acquaintance with it. In consequence of this, the Starling was +ever afterwards classed with the Raven, and considered as an unclean +bird. The Egyptian Raven which is here mentioned is described as being +a very small bird, scarcely larger, indeed, than the Starling itself. + + + + + +THE OSTRICH. + + Hebrew words designating the Ostrich--Description of the bird in + the Book of Job--Ancient use of Ostrich plumes--Supposed + heedlessness of eggs and young--Mode of depositing the + eggs--Hatching them in the sand--Natural enemies of the + Ostrich--Anecdote of Ostriches and their young--Alleged + stupidity of the Ostrich--Methods of hunting and snaring the + bird--The Ostrich in domestication--Speed of the Ostrich--The + flesh of the bird prohibited to the Jews--Ostrich eggs and their + uses--Food of the Ostrich--Mode of drinking--Cry of the Ostrich, + and reference made to it in Micah. + + +There is rather a peculiarity about the manner in which this bird is +mentioned in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures, and, unless we +go to the original Hebrew, we shall be greatly misled. In that version +the Ostrich is mentioned only three times, but in the Hebrew it occurs +eight times. If the reader will refer to page 370, he will see that +the Hebrew word _bath-haya'nah_, which is translated in the Authorized +Version as "owl," ought really to be rendered as "Ostrich." Taking +this to be the case, we find that there are several passages in the +Scriptures in which the word has been used in the wrong sense, and +that in those places, instead of rendering the word as "owl," we ought +to read it as "Ostrich." + +The first mention of this bird occurs in Lev. xi. 16, and the parallel +passage of Deut. xiv., in which the Ostrich is reckoned among the +unclean birds, without any notice being given of its appearance or +habits. + +In the Book of Job, however, we have the Ostrich mentioned with that +preciseness and fulness of description which is so often the case when +the writer of that wonderful poem treats of living creatures. + +"Gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks? or wings and feathers +unto the ostrich? + +"Who leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust, + +"And forgetteth that the foot may crush them, or that the wild beast +may break them. + +"She is hardened against her young ones, as though they were not hers: +her labour is in vain without fear; + +"Because God hath deprived her of wisdom, neither hath He imparted to +her understanding. + +"What time she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the horse and +his rider." (Job xxxix. 13-19.) + +There is rather a peculiarity in the translation of this passage, +wherein the word which has been translated as "peacock" is now allowed +to be properly rendered as "Ostrich," while the word which is +translated as "Ostrich" ought to have been given as "feathers." The +marginal translation gives the last words of ver. 13 in a rather +different manner, and renders it thus:--"Gavest thou the goodly wings +unto the peacocks, or the feathers of the stork and ostrich?" The +Hebrew Bible renders the next verses as follows:-- + +"She would yet leave her eggs on the earth, and warm them in dust; and +forget that the foot may crush them, or that the beast of the field +may break them. + +"She is hardened against her young ones, for those not hers; being +careless, her labour is in vain." + +In the same Book, chap. xxx., is another passage wherein this bird is +mentioned. "I went mourning without the sun: I stood up, and I cried +in the congregation. + +"I am a brother to dragons, and a companion to owls," or Ostriches, in +the marginal and correct reading. The Jewish Bible also translates the +word as Ostriches, but the word which the Authorized Version renders +as "dragons" it translates as "jackals." Of this point we shall have +something to say on a future page. A somewhat similar passage occurs +in Isa. xliii. 20: "The beast of the field shall honour me, the +dragons and the owls" (Ostriches in marginal reading), "because I give +waters in the wilderness, and rivers in the desert, to give drink to +My people, My chosen." The Jewish Bible retains the same reading, +except that the word "dragons" is given with the mark of doubt. + +Accepting, therefore, the rendering of the Hebrew as Ostriches, let us +see how far the passages of Scripture agree with the appearance and +habits of the bird. + +Here I may observe that, although in the Scriptures frequent allusions +are made to the habits of animals, we are not to look for scientific +exactness to the Scriptures. Among much that is strictly and +completely true, there are occasional errors, to which a most needless +attention has been drawn by a certain school of critics, who point to +them as invalidating the truth of Scripture in general. The real fact +is, that they have no bearing whatever on the truth or falsehood of +the Scriptural teachings. + +The Scriptures were written at various times, for instruction in +spiritual and not in temporal matters, and were never intended for +scientific treatises on astronomy, mathematics, zoology, or any such +branch of knowledge. The references which are made to the +last-mentioned subject are in no case of a scientific nature, but are +always employed by way of metaphor or simile, as the reader must have +seen in the previous pages. No point of doctrine is taught by them, +and none depends on them. + +The Spirit which conveyed religious instruction to the people could +only use the means that existed, and could no more employ the +scientific knowledge of the present time than use as metaphors the +dress, arms, and inventions of the present day. The Scriptures were +written in Eastern lands for Orientals by Orientals, and were +consequently adapted to Oriental ideas; and it would be as absurd to +look for scientific zoology in the writings of an ancient Oriental, as +for descriptions of the printing press, the steam-engine, the +photographic camera, or the electric telegraph. + +So, when we remember that only a few years ago the real history of the +Ostrich was unknown to those who had made zoology the study of their +lives, we cannot wonder that it was also unknown to those who lived +many centuries ago, and who had not the least idea of zoology, or any +kindred science. + +Still, even with these drawbacks, it is wonderful how accurate in many +instances were the writers of the Scriptures, and the more so when we +remember the character of the Oriental mind, with its love of +metaphor, its disregard of arithmetical precision, and its poetical +style of thought. + +We will now take the passage in Job xxxix. In ver. 13 reference is +made to the wings and feathers of the Ostrich. If the reader will +refer to page 260, he will see that the feathers of the Ostrich were +formerly used as the emblem of rank. In this case, they are shown as +fastened to the heads of the horses, and also in the form of a plume, +fixed to the end of a staff, and appended to a chariot, as +emblematical of the princely rank of the occupier. In the ancient +Egyptian monuments these Ostrich plumes are repeatedly shown, and in +every case denote very high rank. These plumes were therefore held in +high estimation at the time in which the Book of Job was written, and +it is evidently in allusion to this fact that the sacred writer has +mentioned so prominently the white plumes of the Ostrich. + +Passing the next portion of the description, we find that the Ostrich +is mentioned as a bird that is careless of its eggs, and leaves them +"in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust, and forgetteth that the +foot may crush them, or that the wild beast may break them." + +Now it is true that the Ostrich is often known to take the greatest +care of its eggs, the male collecting and sitting on them, and +watching them with loving assiduity, and by some persons this fact has +been brought forward as a proof that the writer of the Book of Job was +mistaken in his statements. A further acquaintance with the habits of +the bird tells us, however, that in those parts of the world which +were known to the writer of that book the Ostrich does behave in +precisely the manner which is described by the sacred writer. + +Several females lay their eggs in the same nest, if the title of nest +can be rightly applied to a mere hollow scooped in the sand, and, at +least during the daytime, when the sun is shining, they simply cover +the eggs with sand, so as to conceal them from ordinary enemies, and +leave them to be hatched by the warm sunbeams. They are buried to the +depth of about a foot, so that they receive the benefit of a tolerably +equable warmth. So much, then, for the assertion that the Ostrich +leaves her eggs "in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust." + +We next come to the statement that she forgets that "the foot may +crush them, or that the wild beast may break them." It is evident from +the preceding description that eggs which are buried a foot deep in +the sand could not be crushed by the foot, even were they of a fragile +character, instead of being defended by a shell as thick, and nearly +as hard, as an ordinary earthenware plate. Neither would the wild +beast be likely to discover much less to break them. + + [Illustration: OSTRICH AND NEST. + + "_Who leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the + dust._"--JOB xxxix. 14.] + +A more intimate acquaintance with the history of the Ostrich shows +that, even in this particular, the sacred writer was perfectly +correct. Besides the eggs which are intended to be hatched, and which +are hidden beneath the sand to be hatched, a number of supplementary +eggs are laid which are not meant to be hatched, and are evidently +intended as food for the young until they are able to forage for +themselves. These are left carelessly on the surface of the ground, +and may easily be crushed by the hoof of a horse, if not by the foot +of man. We meet, however, with another statement,--namely, that they +may be broken by the wild beasts. Here we have reference to another +fact in the history of the Ostrich. The scattered eggs, to which +allusion is made, are often eaten, not only by beasts, but also by +birds of prey; the former breaking the shells by knocking them against +each other, and the latter by picking up large stones in their claws, +rising above the eggs, and dropping the stones on them. The bird would +like to seize the egg, rise with it in the air, and drop it on a +stone, as mentioned on page 337, but the round, smooth surface of the +egg defies the grasp of talons, and, instead of dropping the egg upon +a stone, it is obliged to drop a stone upon the egg. + +Up to the present point, therefore, the writer of the Book of Job is +shown to be perfectly correct in his statements. We will now proceed +to verse 16: "She is hardened against her young ones, as though they +were not hers." Now in the Jewish Bible the passage is rendered rather +differently: "She is hardened against her young ones, for those not +hers;" and, as we shall presently see, the reading perfectly agrees +with the character of the Ostrich. + +There has long existed a belief that the Ostrich, contrary to the +character of all other birds, is careless of her young, neglects them, +and is even cruel to them. That this notion was shared by the writer +of the Book of Job is evident from the preceding passage. It also, +prevailed for at least a thousand years after the Book of Job was +written. See Lam. iv. 3: "Even the sea monsters draw out the breast, +they give suck to their young ones: the daughter of my people is +become cruel, like the ostriches in the wilderness." + +It is probable that this idea respecting the cruelty of the Ostrich +towards its young is derived from the fact that if a flock of +Ostriches be chased, and among them there be some very young birds, +the latter are left behind by their parents, and fall a prey to the +hunters. But, in reality, the Ostrich has no choice in the matter. The +wide sandy desert affords no place of concealment in which it might +hide its young. Nature has not furnished it with weapons by means of +which it can fight for them; and consequently it is forced to use the +only means of escape by which it can avoid sacrificing its own life, +as well as the lives of the young. + +It does not, however, leave the young until it has tried, by all means +in its power, to save them. For example, it sometimes has recourse to +the manoeuvre with which we are so familiar in the case of the +lapwing, and pretends to be wounded or lamed, in order to draw the +attention of its pursuers, while its young escape in another +direction. An instance of this practice is given by Mr. Andersson in +his "Lake Ngami." "When we had proceeded little more than half the +distance, and in a part of the plain entirely destitute of vegetation, +we discovered a male and female ostrich, with a brood of young ones, +about the size of ordinary barn-door fowls. We forthwith dismounted +from our oxen, and gave chase, which proved of no ordinary interest. + +"The moment the parent birds became aware of our intention, they set +off at full speed--the female leading the way, and the cock, though at +some little distance, bringing up the rear of the family party. It was +very touching to observe the anxiety the birds evinced for the safety +of their progeny. Finding that we were quickly gaining upon them, the +male at once slackened his pace and diverged somewhat from his course; +but, seeing that we were not to be diverted from our purpose, he again +increased his speed, and, with wings drooping so as almost to touch +the ground, he hovered round us, now in wide circles, and then +decreasing the circumference until he came almost within pistol-shot, +when he abruptly threw himself on the ground, and struggled +desperately to regain his legs, as it appeared, like a bird that has +been badly wounded. + +"Having previously fired at him, I really thought he was disabled, and +made quickly towards him. But this was only a ruse on his part, for, +on my nearer approach, he slowly rose, and began to run in a different +direction to that of the female, who by this time was considerably +ahead with her charge." Nor is this a solitary instance of the care +which the Ostrich will take of her young. Thunberg mentions that on +one occasion, when he happened to ride near a place where an Ostrich +was sitting on the eggs, the bird jumped up and pursued him, evidently +with the object of distracting his attention from the eggs. When he +faced her, she retreated; but as soon as he turned his horse, she +pursued him afresh. + +The care of the mother for the young is perhaps less needed with the +Ostrich than with most birds. The young are able to run with such +speed that ordinary animals are not able to overtake them, and, +besides, they are protected by their colour as long as they are +comparatively helpless. Their downy plumage harmonizes completely +with the sandy and stony ground, even when they run, and when they +crouch to the earth, as is their manner when alarmed, even the most +practised eye can scarcely see them. Mr. Andersson, an experienced +hunter, states that when the Ostrich chicks were crouching almost +under his feet, he had the greatest difficulty in distinguishing their +forms. + +Owing to the great number of the eggs that are laid, the young are +often very numerous, between thirty and forty chicks sometimes +belonging to one brood. In the Ostrich chase which has already been +described, the brood were eighteen in number, and so great was their +speed that, in spite of their youth and diminutive size, Mr. Andersson +only succeeded in capturing nine of them after an hour's severe chase. + +We find, therefore, that we must acquit the Ostrich of neglecting its +young, much more of cruelty towards them; and we will now turn to the +next charge against the bird, that of stupidity. + +In one sense, the bird certainly may be considered stupid. Like nearly +all wild creatures which live on large plains, it always runs against +the wind, so as to perceive by scent if any enemies are approaching. +Its nostrils are very sensitive, and can detect a human being at a +very great distance. So fastidious is it in this respect, that no +hunter who knows his business ever attempts to approach the Ostrich +except from leeward. If a nest is found, and the discoverer wishes the +birds to continue laying in it, he approaches on the leeward side, and +rakes out the eggs with a long stick. + +The little Bosjesman, who kills so many of these birds with his tiny +bow and arrow, makes use of this instinct when he goes to shoot the +Ostrich, disguised in a skin of one of the birds. Should an Ostrich +attack him, as is sometimes the case, he only shifts his position to +windward, so as to allow the birds to catch the scent of a human +being, when they instantly make off in terror. + +When, therefore, the Ostriches are alarmed, they always run to +windward, instinctively knowing that, if an enemy should approach in +that direction, their powers of scent will inform them of the danger. +Being aware of this habit, the hunters manage so that while one of +them goes round by a long detour to frighten the game, the others are +in waiting at a considerable distance to windward, but well on one +side, so that no indication of their presence may reach the sensitive +nostrils of the birds. As soon as the concealed hunters see the +Ostriches fairly settled down to their course, they dash off at right +angles to the line which the birds are taking, and in this way come +near enough to use their weapons. The antelopes of the same country +have a similar instinct, and are hunted in precisely the same manner. + +Thus, then, in one sense the Ostrich may be considered as open to the +charge of stupidity, inasmuch as it pursues a course which can be +anticipated by enemies who would otherwise be unable to overtake it. +But it must be remembered that instinct cannot be expected to prove a +match for reason, and that, although its human enemies are able to +overreach it, no others can do so, the instinct of running against the +wind serving to guard it from any foe which it is likely to meet in +the desert. + +When captured alive and tamed, it certainly displays no particular +amount of intellect. The Arabs often keep tame Ostriches about their +tents, the birds being as much accustomed to their quarters as the +horses. In all probability they did so in ancient times, and the +author of the Book of Job was likely to be familiar with tame +Ostriches, as well as with the wild bird. + +Stupidity is probably attributed to the tame bird in consequence of +the habit possessed by the Ostrich of picking up and eating substances +which cannot be used as food. For example, it will eat knives, bits of +bone or metal, and has even been known to swallow bullets hot from the +mould. On dissecting the digestive organs of an Ostrich, I have found +a large quantity of stones, pieces of brick, and scraps of wood. These +articles are, however, not intended to serve as food, but simply to +aid digestion, and the bird eats them just as domestic fowls pick up +gravel, and smaller birds grains of sand. In swallowing them, +therefore, the Ostrich does not display any stupidity, but merely +obeys a natural instinct. + +Lastly, we come to the speed of the Ostrich: "What time she lifteth up +herself on high, she scorneth the horse and his rider." + +This statement is literally true. When the Ostrich puts forth its full +speed, there is no horse that can catch it in a fair chase. It may be +killed by the ruse which has already been described, but an adult +Ostrich can run away from the swiftest horse. When it runs at full +speed, it moves its long legs with astonishing rapidity, covering at +each stride an average of twenty-four feet, a fact from which its rate +of speed may be deduced. In consequence of this width of stride, and +the small impression made in the sand by the two-toed foot, the track +of a running Ostrich is very obscure. Perhaps no better proof of the +swiftness of the bird can be given than the extreme value set upon it +by the Arabs. Although they are bred to the desert as much as the +Ostrich itself, and are mounted on horses whose swiftness and +endurance are proverbial, they set a very high value on the Ostrich, +and to have captured one of these birds establishes an Arab's fame as +a hunter. + +Sometimes the Arabs employ the plan of cutting across the course of +the bird, but at others they pursue it in fair chase, training their +horses and themselves specially for the occasion. They furnish +themselves with a supply of water, and then start in pursuit of the +first flock of Ostriches they find. They take care not to alarm the +birds, lest they should put out their full speed and run away out of +sight, but just keep sufficiently near to force the birds to be +continually on the move. They will sometimes continue this chase for +several days, not allowing their game time to eat or rest, until at +last it is so tired that it yields itself an easy prey. + +In Southern Africa, snares are used for taking the Ostrich. They are +in fact ordinary springes, but of strength suitable to the size of the +bird. The cord is made fast to a sapling, which is bent down by main +strength, and the other end is then formed into a noose and fastened +down with a trigger. Sometimes the bird is enticed towards the snare +by means of a bait, and sometimes it is driven over it by the +huntsmen. In either case, as soon as the Ostrich puts its foot within +the fatal noose, the trigger is loosed, the sapling is released, and, +with a violent jerk, the Ostrich is caught by the leg and suspended in +the air. + +Why the flesh of the Ostrich should have been prohibited to the Jews +is rather a mystery. It is much valued by most natives, though some of +the Arab tribes still adhere to the Jewish prohibition, and those +Europeans who have tried it pronounce it to be excellent when the bird +is young and tender, but to be unpleasantly tough when it is old. Mr. +Andersson says that its flesh resembles that of the zebra, and +mentions that the fat and blood are in great request, being mixed +together by cutting the throat of the bird, passing a ligature round +the neck just below the incision, and then shaking and dragging the +bird about for some time. Nearly twenty pounds of this substance are +obtained from a single Ostrich. + +The ancient Romans valued exceedingly the flesh of this bird. We are +told that Heliogabalus once had a dish served at his table containing +six hundred Ostrich brains, and that another emperor ate a whole +Ostrich at a meal. As an adult Ostrich weighs some twenty-five stone, +we may presume that the bird in question was a young one. + +The eggs are most valuable articles of food, both on account of their +excellent flavour and their enormous size. It is calculated that one +Ostrich egg contains as much as twenty-five ordinary hen's eggs. +Cooking the Ostrich egg is easily performed. A hole is made in the +upper part of the egg, and the lower end is set on the fire. A forked +stick is then introduced into the egg, and twirled between the hands, +so as to beat up the whole of the interior. Europeans usually add +pepper and salt, and say that this simple mode of cooking produces an +excellent omelette. + +The ordinary food of the Ostrich consists of the seeds, buds, and tops +of various plants. It seems strange, however, that in the deserts, +where there is so little vegetation, the bird should be able to +procure sufficient food to maintain its enormous body. Each of the +specimens which are kept at the Zoological Gardens eats on an average +a pint of barley, the same quantity of oats, four pounds' weight of +cabbage, and half a gallon of chaff, beside the buns, bread, and other +articles of food which are given to them by visitors. + +Although the Ostrich, like many other inhabitants of the desert, can +live for a long time without water, yet it is forced to drink, and +like the camel, which it resembles in so many of its ways, drinks +enormously, taking in the water by a succession of gulps. When the +weather has been exceptionally hot, the Ostrich visits the +water-springs daily, and is so occupied in quenching its thirst that +it will allow the hunter to come within a very short distance. It +appears, indeed, to be almost intoxicated with its draught, and, even +when it does take the alarm, it only retreats step by step, instead of +scudding off with its usually rapid strides. + +The camel-like appearance of the Ostrich has already been mentioned. +In the Arabic language the Ostrich is called by a name which signifies +camel-bird, and many of the people have an idea that it was originally +a cross between a bird and a camel. + +The cry of the Ostrich is a deep bellow, which, according to +travellers in Southern Africa, so resembles the roar of the lion that +even the practised ears of the natives can scarcely distinguish the +roar of the animal from the cry of the bird. The resemblance is +increased by the fact that both the lion and Ostrich utter their cry +by night. It is evidently to this cry that the prophet Micah alludes: +"Therefore I will wail and howl, I will go stripped and naked: I will +make a wailing like the dragons, and mourning as the owls" (Ostriches +in marginal reading). The cry of the variety of Ostrich which inhabits +Northern Africa is said to bear more resemblance to the lowing of an +ox than the roar of the lion; but as the bird is smaller than its +southern relative, the difference is probably accounted for. + +It has been mentioned that the Ostrich has no weapons wherewith to +fight for its young; still, though it be destitute of actual weapons, +such as the spur of the gamecock or the beak and talons of the eagle, +it is not entirely defenceless. Its long and powerful legs can be +employed as weapons, and it can kick with such force that a man would +go down before the blow, and probably, if struck on the leg or arm, +have the limb broken. The blow is never delivered backward, as is the +kick of the horse, but forward, like that of the kangaroo. The natives +of the countries where it resides say that it is able to kill by its +kick the jackal that comes to steal its eggs, and that even the hyæna +and the leopard are repelled by the gigantic bird. + + + + +THE BITTERN. + + Signification of the word _Kippod_--The Bittern and its general + appearance--The bird of solitude--Difficulty of detecting the + Bittern in its haunts--Mudie's description of the Bittern and + its home--The strange cry of the bird--Superstitions connected + with it--The Night-raven--Nest of the Bittern--Scarcity of the + bird at the present day--Food of the Bittern--The bird formerly + brought to table. + + +In the account of the hedgehog, page 80, it has been mentioned that +the Hebrew word _Kippod_, which has been rendered in the Authorized +Version as "Bittern," is in all probability the Syrian hedgehog, and +that the Jewish Bible accepts that rendering without even affixing the +mark of doubt to the word. As, however, some writers on the subject +still adhere to the more familiar rendering, a short account will be +given of the Bittern (_Botauris stellaris_). + +The Bittern belongs to the same family as the herons, the cranes, and +the storks, and has many of the habits common to them all. It is, +however, essentially a bird of solitude, hating the vicinity of man, +and living in the most retired spots of marshy ground. As it sits +among the reeds and rushes, though it is a large bird, it is scarcely +visible even to a practised eye, its mottled plumage harmonizing with +surrounding objects in such a way that the feathers of the bird can +scarcely be distinguished from the sticks, stones, and grass tufts +among which it sits. The ground colour of the plumage is dark buff, +upon which are sprinkled mottlings and streaks of black, chestnut, +grey, and brown. These mottled marks harmonize with the stones and +tufts of withered grass, while the longitudinal dashes of buff and +black on the neck and breast correspond with the sticks and reeds. + +In a similar manner the tiger, though so large an animal, can lie in a +very small covert of reeds without being detected, its striped fur +corresponding with the reeds themselves and the shadows thrown by +them; and the leopard can remain hidden among the boughs of a tree, +its spotted coat harmonizing with the broken light and shade of the +foliage. + + [Illustration: THE BITTERN. + + "_I will alto make it a possession for the bittern, and pools for + water._"--ISA. xiv. 23.] + +The following powerful description of the Bittern's home is given by +Mudie: "It is a bird of rude nature, where the land knows no character +save that which the untrained working of the elements impresses upon +it; so that when any locality is in the course of being won to +usefulness, the bittern is the first to depart, and when any one is +abandoned, it is the last to return. 'The bittern shall dwell there' +is the final curse, and implies that the place is to become +uninhabited and uninhabitable, it hears not the whistle of the +ploughman, nor the sound of the mattock; and the tinkle of the +sheep-bell, or the lowing of the ox (although the latter bears so much +resemblance to its own hollow and dismal voice, that it has given +foundation to the name), is a signal for it to be gone. + +"Extensive and dingy pools--if moderately upland, so much the +better--which lie in the hollows, catching, like so many traps, the +lighter and more fertile mould which the rains wash and the winds blow +from the naked heights around, and converting it into harsh and dingy +vegetation, and the pasture of those loathsome things which wriggle in +the ooze, or crawl and swim in the putrid and mantling waters, are the +habitation of the bittern. + +"Places which scatter blight and mildew over every herb which is more +delicate than a sedge, a carex, or a rush, and consume every wooded +plant that is taller than the sapless and tasteless cranberry or the +weeping upland willow; which shed murrain over the quadrupeds, chills +which eat the flesh off their bones, and which, if man ventures there, +consume him by putrid fever in the hot and dry season, and shake him +to pieces with ague when the weather is cold and humid. + +"Places from which the heath and the lichen stand aloof, and where +even the raven, lover of disease, and battener upon all that expires +miserably and exhausted, comes rarely and with more than wonted +caution, lest that death which he comes to seal and riot upon in +others should unawares come upon himself. The raven loves carrion on +the dry and unpoisoning moor, scents it from afar, and hastens to it +upon his best and boldest wing; but 'the reek o' the rotten fen' is +loathsome to the sense of even the raven, and it is hunger's last +pinch ere he come nigh to the chosen habitation, the only loved abode, +of the bittern." + +Secure in its retreat, the Bittern keeps its place even if a sportsman +should pass by the spot on which it crouches. It will not be tempted +to leave its retreat by noise, or even by stone throwing, for it knows +instinctively that the quaking bogland which it selects as its home is +unsafe for the step of man. + +The very cry of the Bittern adds to this atmosphere of desolation. By +day the bird is silent, but after the sun has gone down it utters its +strange wild cry, a sound which exactly suits the localities in which +it loves to make its habitation. During part of the year it only emits +a sharp, harsh cry as it rises on the wing, but during the breeding +season it utters the cry by which it summons its mate, one of the +strangest love-calls that can be imagined. It is something between +the neighing of a horse, the bellow of a bull, and a shriek of savage +laughter. It is very loud and deep, so that it seems to shake the +loose and marshy ground. There was formerly an idea that, when the +Bittern uttered this booming cry, it thrust its bill into the soft +ground, and so caused it to shake. In reality, the cry is uttered on +the wing, the bird wheeling in a spiral flight, and modulating its +voice in accordance with the curves which it describes in the air. +This strange sound is only uttered by the male bird. + +In every country inhabited by the Bittern we find that its deep +sepulchral cry, booming out through the darkness, and heard at an +immense distance, has been dreaded as the prophecy of some evil to +come. In some parts both of England and Ireland it is known as the +Night-raven, and under that title is held in the greatest fear. +Allusion is made to this belief in the well-known passage from +Middleton's "Witch":-- + + "At the Night-raven's dismal voice, + When others tremble, we rejoice; + And nimbly, nimbly, dance we still + To the echoes of a hollow hill." + +Under the same title Goldsmith writes of it in his "Animated Nature." +"I remember, in the place where I was a boy, with what terror the +bird's note affected the whole village,--they considered it as the +presage of some sad event, and generally found or made one to succeed +it. I do not speak ludicrously, but if any person in the neighbourhood +died, they supposed it could not be otherwise, for the night-raven had +foretold it; but if nobody happened to die, the death of a cow or a +sheep gave completion of the prophecy." + +In some parts of England the Bittern is known by the odd title of +Butter-bump, a fact which was mentioned in the _Zoologist_ many years +ago:-- + + "There'll either be rain, or else summat waur, + When Butter-bump sings upo' Potterie car." + +About Fermanagh, in Ireland, the Bittern is called Bog-bluiter, _i.e._ +Bog-bleater, just as the snipe is termed the Heather-bluiter. + +Like most of the long-legged wading birds, the Bittern is able to +change its shape, and apparently to alter its size, in an astonishing +manner. When it is walking over the ground, with head erect and eye +glanced vigilantly at surrounding objects, it looks a large, bold, +vigorous, and active bird. Next minute it will sink its head in its +shoulders, so that the long beak seems to project from them, and the +neck totally disappears, the feathers enveloping each other as +perfectly and smoothly as if it never had had a neck. In this attitude +it will stand for an hour at a time on one leg, with the other drawn +close to its body, looking as dull, inert, and sluggish a bird as can +well be imagined, and reduced apparently to one half of its former +size. The Bittern is represented in one of its extraordinary attitudes +on the plate which illustrates the cormorant. + +The nest of the Bittern is placed on the ground, and near the water, +though the bird always takes care to build it on an elevated spot +which will not be flooded if the water should rise by reason of a +severe rain. There is, however, but little reason for the Bittern to +fear a flood, as at the time of year which is chosen, for +nest-building the floods are generally out, and the water higher than +is likely to be the case for the rest of the year. The materials of +the nest are found in marshes, and consist of leaves, reeds, and +rushes. + +It will be seen from the foregoing account, that if the word _Kippod_ +be translated as "Bittern," the imagery connected with it holds good, +and that no more powerful figure could be imagined for the desolation +of Babylon than the prophecy, "I will make it a possession for the +bittern, and pools of water" (Isa. xiv. 23). + + [Illustration: THE CORMORANT. + + "But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it."--ISA. xxxiv. 11.] + +Though once plentiful in England, the Bittern is now very scarce, and +there are few who have seen it in its native haunts. Formerly, when +swamps and marshes abounded, the Bittern abounded in proportion, but +drainage and cultivation and railways have fairly driven the Bittern +out of the country, and in a few years it will be as completely +extinct in England as the bustard or the eagle. Even the great marshes +of Essex are being reclaimed and rendered unfit for the occupation of +the bird; and, from the upper part of the house where this account is +written, I can see with the aid of the telescope cornfields, and +pasture-lands, and barns, and ricks, and roads, diversifying the wide +expanses which were once covered with brackish water at every flow of +the tide, and at the ebb only left as quagmires through which the foot +of man could not pass, and on which grew the rough and scanty +herbage that flourishes under conditions that would kill almost +any other vegetation. + +No longer can the Bittern find a home there. Deep ditches intersect +each other at short intervals, into which the moisture of the really +rich soil is drained, and the water that once stood in stagnant pools +which the Bittern loved is conducted into them, and discharged into +the river at the ebb tide. By the abstraction of the moisture, the +whole country has been lowered more than a foot, and, together with +the stagnant pools, the Bittern has vanished never more to return. And +here it may be mentioned that, although the Bittern inhabits none but +desolate places, it only selects those which contain capabilities of +cultivation. So, if the boom of the Bittern be heard, it may be +accepted as deciding two things--firstly, that the ground is utterly +deserted by man, and uncultivated; and secondly, that it ought to be +occupied by him, and brought into cultivation. + +At the present day, the Bittern is very plentiful in the swampy +grounds which edge the Tigris, just as it used to be in the marshes +which border the Thames. Should the time come when London will have +passed away as completely as the great cities of old, and the banks of +the Thames lie as desolate as those of the Tigris, the Bittern will +reassume its sway, and its deep booming note will again be heard +through the stillness of night. + +As if to add to the general effect of its character, it is essentially +a solitary bird, and in this characteristic entirely unlike its +relatives the heron and the stork, which are peculiarly sociable, and +love to gather themselves together in multitudes. But the Bittern is +never found except alone, or at the most accompanied for a time by its +mate and one or two young ones. + +The localities in which it resides are sufficient evidence of the +nature of its food. Frogs appear to be its favourite diet, but it also +feeds on various fish, insects, molluscs, worms, and similar +creatures. Dull and apathetic as it appears to be, it can display +sufficient energy to capture tolerably large fish. Though the Bittern +is only about two feet in total length, one of these birds was killed, +in the stomach of which were found one perfect rudd eight inches in +length and two in depth, together with the remains of another fish, of +a full-grown frog, and of an aquatic insect. In another instance, a +Bittern had contrived to swallow an eel as long as itself; while in +many cases the remains of five or six full-grown frogs have been +found in the interior of the bird, some just swallowed, and others in +various stages of digestion. + +In former times the Bittern was used as food in England, and was +considered one of the delicacies of a rich man's table. Partly on +account of its scarcity, and partly on account of a popular prejudice, +it is never eaten at the present day, and those few specimens which +are occasionally exposed for sale are merely purchased for the sake of +their plumage. The flesh of the Bittern justifies the predilection +which was formerly exhibited for it, as it is tender, well-flavoured, +and fat. + + + + +THE HERON. + + The Heron mentioned as an unclean bird--The Heron used for food + in England, and considered as a delicacy--Sociable character of + the bird, and its mode of feeding--Its enormous appetite--How + the Heron fights--Ancient falconry--Nesting of the Heron--The + papyrus marshes and their dangers--Description of the + papyrus--Vessels of bulrushes--The Egret and its beautiful + plumage--Uses of the train feathers. + + +The name of the Heron is only mentioned twice in the +Scriptures--namely, in the two parallel passages of Lev. xi. 19 and +Deut. xiv. 18; in both of which places the Heron is ranked among the +unclean birds that might not be eaten. + +In some of the cases where beasts or birds are prohibited as food, the +prohibition seems scarcely needed. To us of the present day this seems +to be the case with the Heron, as it is never brought to table. The +reason for this disuse of the Heron as food is not that it is unfit +for the table, but that it has become so scarce by the spread of +cultivation and house-building, that it has been gradually abandoned +as a practically unattainable article of diet. The flesh of the Heron, +like that of the bittern, is remarkably excellent, and in the former +days, when it was comparatively plentiful, and falconry was the +ordinary amusement of the rich, the Heron formed a very important dish +at every great banquet. + + [Illustration: THE HERON. + + "_These are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls + ... the stork, the heron after her kind._"--DEUT. xi. 13, 19.] + +The bird, however, must be eaten when young. A gentleman who liked to +try experiments for himself in the matter of food, found that, if +young Herons were properly cooked, they formed a most excellent dish, +equal, in his opinion, to grouse. Wishing to have his own judgment +confirmed by that of others, he had several of them trussed and +dressed like wild geese, and served up at table under that name. The +guests approved greatly of the bird, and compared it to hare, the +resemblance being further increased by the dark colour of the flesh. +There was not the slightest fishy flavour about the bird. This, +however, is apt to be found in the older birds, but can be removed by +burying them in the earth for several days, just as is done with the +solan goose and one or two other sea-birds. + +Several species of Heron inhabit Palestine, of which the common Heron +(_Ardea cinerea_), with which we are so familiar in England, is +perhaps the most plentiful; and it is to this bird that the +prohibition chiefly extends. But there were several other species of +the bird, as is implied by the language of the law, which prohibited +the Heron "after her kind." The Egrets are probably included in this +category; and, if the word _kippod_ be really the hedgehog, it is +tolerably certain that the bittern was included under the general term +Anâphah, which is given in the Authorized Version as Heron. The Jewish +Bible follows the same reading, but affixes the mark of doubt to the +word. + +The abundance of birds belonging to the Heron tribe is well shown by +some of the paintings and carvings on Egyptian monuments, in which +various species of Herons and other water-birds are depicted as living +among the papyrus reeds, exactly the locality in which they are most +plentiful at the present day. + +Unlike the bittern, the Heron is a most sociable bird, and loves not +only to live, but even to feed, in company with others of its own +species. In Mr. Waterton's grounds, near Walton, I have watched the +Herons feeding in close proximity to each other. The birds were fond +of wading stealthily along the edge of the lake until they came to a +suitable spot, where they would stand immersed in the water up to the +thighs, waiting patiently for their prey. They stood as still as if +they were carved out of wood, the ripples of the lake reflected on +their plumage as the breeze ruffled the surface of the water. Suddenly +there would be a quick dive of the beak, either among the reeds or in +the water, and each stroke signified that the Heron had caught its +prey. + +Frogs and small fishes are the usual food of the Heron, though it +often grapples with larger prey, having been seen to capture an eel of +considerable size in its beak. Under such circumstances it leaves the +water, with the fish in its mouth, and beats it violently against a +stone so as to kill it. Now and then the bird is vanquished in the +struggle by the fish, several instances being known in which an eel, +in its endeavours to escape, has twisted itself so tightly round the +neck of the bird that both have been found lying dead on the shore. + +In one such case the Heron's beak had struck through the eyes of the +eel, so that the bird could not disengage itself. In another the Heron +had tried to swallow an eel which was much too large for it, and had +been nearly choked by its meal. The eel must necessarily have been a +very large one, as the Heron has a wonderful capacity for devouring +fish. Even when quite young, it can swallow a fish as large as a +herring, and when it is full grown it will eat four or five large +herrings at a meal. + +Now when we remember that an Englishman of average appetite finds one +herring to form a very sufficient breakfast, we can easily imagine +what must be the digestive power of a bird which, though very inferior +to man in point of bulk, can eat four times as much at a meal. Even +though the fish be much larger in diameter than the neck of the bird, +the Heron can swallow it as easily as a small snake swallows a large +frog. The neck merely seems to expand as if it were made of +Indiarubber, the fish slips down, and the bird is ready for another. + +Generally the Herons feed after sunset, but I have frequently seen +them busily engaged in catching their prey in full daylight, when the +sunbeams were playing in the water so as to produce the beautiful +rippling effect on the Heron's plumage which has already been +mentioned. + +The Heron does not restrict itself to fishes or reptiles, but, like +the bittern, feeds on almost any kind of aquatic animal which comes +within its reach. When it lives near tidal rivers, it feeds largely on +the shrimps, prawns, green crabs, and various other crustacea; and +when it lives far inland, it still makes prey of the fresh-water +shrimps, the water-beetles, and the boat-flies, and similar aquatic +creatures. In fact, it acts much after the fashion of the lions, +tigers, and leopards, which put up with locusts and beetles when they +can find no larger prey. + +The long beak of the Heron is not merely an instrument by which it can +obtain food, but is also a weapon of considerable power. When +attacked, it aims a blow at the eye of its opponent, and makes the +stroke with such rapidity that the foe is generally blinded before +perceiving the danger. When domesticated, it has been known to keep +possession of the enclosure in which it lived, and soon to drive away +dogs by the power of its beak. When it is young, it is quite helpless, +its very long legs being unable to support its body, which is entirely +bare of plumage, and has a very unprepossessing appearance. + +The flight of the Heron is very powerful, its wings being very large +in proportion to its slender body. Sometimes the bird takes to +ascending in a spiral line, and then the flight is as beautiful as it +is strong. When chased by the falcon it mostly ascends in this manner, +each of the two birds trying to rise above the other. + +The nest of the Heron is always made on the top of some lofty tree, +whenever the bird builds in places where trees can be found; and as +the bird is an eminently sociable one, a single nest is very seldom +found, the Heron being as fond of society as the rook. In England the +heronries are invariably found in clumps of trees, the nests of the +birds being quite close together. In some parts of Palestine, however, +where trees are very scarce, the Heron is obliged to choose some other +locality for its nest, and in that case prefers the great thickets of +papyrus reeds which are found in the marshes, and which are even more +inaccessible than the tops of trees. + +One of these marshes is well described by Mr. Tristram in his "Land of +Israel." "The whole marsh is marked in the map as impassable; and most +truly it is so. I never anywhere have met with a swamp so vast and +utterly impenetrable. First there is an ordinary bog, which takes one +up to one's knees in water; then, after half a mile, a belt of deeper +swamp, where the yellow water lily (_Nuphar lutea_) flourishes; then a +belt of tall reeds; the open water covered with white water-lily +(_Nymphæa alba_); and beyond again an impenetrable wilderness of +papyrus (_Papyrus antiquorum_), in the beautiful forest of which Dr. +Thomson has not recognised the celebrated material of Egypt, though he +has well described it under its Arabic name, 'babeer' ("Land and +Book," 259). + +"The papyrus extends right across to the east side. A false step off +its roots will take the intruder over head in suffocating peat-mud. We +spent a long time in attempting to effect an entrance, and at last +gave it up, satisfied that the marsh birds were not to be had. In +fact, the whole is simply a floating bog of several miles square; a +very thin crust of vegetation covers an unknown depth of water; and, +if the explorer breaks through this, suffocation is imminent. Some of +the Arabs, who were tilling the plain for cotton, assured us that even +a wild boar never got through it. We shot two bitterns, but in +endeavouring to retrieve them I slipped from the root on which I was +standing, and was drawn down in a moment, only saving myself from +drowning by my gun, which had providentially caught across a papyrus +stem." + +It may here be mentioned that the bulrush of Scripture is undoubtedly +the papyrus. The ark or basket of bulrushes, lined with slime and +pitch, in which Moses was laid, was made of the papyrus, which at the +present day is used for the manufacture of baskets, mats, sandals, and +for the thatching of houses. Many tribes which inhabit the banks of +the Nile make simple boats, or rather rafts, of the papyrus, which +they cut and tie in bundles; and it is worthy of notice that the +Australian native makes a reed boat in almost exactly the same manner. + +Compare Is. xviii. 1, 2: "Woe to the land shadowing with wings, which +is beyond the rivers of Ethiopia. + +"That sendeth ambassadors by the sea, even in vessels of bulrushes." +Did we not know that vessels are actually made of bulrushes at the +present day, a custom which has survived from very ancient times, we +might find a difficulty in understanding this passage, while the +meaning is intelligible enough when it is viewed by the light of the +knowledge that the Ethiopian of the present day takes gold, and ivory, +and other merchandise down the Nile in his boat of papyrus (or +bulrush) reeds tied together. + +The papyrus runs from ten to fifteen or sixteen feet in height, so +that the Herons are at no loss for suitable spots whereon to place +their nests. The name "papyrus," from which our word "paper" is +derived, is nothing more than a Latinized form of the old Arabic name +"babeer." It is never found except in muddy and swampy places such as +those which have already been mentioned. Thus we have in Job viii. 11 +a reference to this quality of the papyrus: "Can the rush grow up +without mire? can the flag grow without water?" + + +The Egrets, which are probably included under the generic title of +Anâphah, are birds of passage, and at the proper season are plentiful +in Palestine. These pretty birds much resemble the heron in general +form, and in general habits both birds are very much alike, haunting +the marshes and edges of lakes and streams, and feeding upon the frogs +and other inhabitants of the water. In countries where rice is +cultivated, the Egret may generally be seen in the artificial swamps +in which that plant is sown. The colour of the Egret is pure white, +with the exception of the train. This consists of a great number of +long slender feathers of a delicate straw colour. Like those which +form the train of the peacock, they fall over the feathers of the +tail, and entirely conceal them. The train of the Egret is highly +valued in the East, brushes being made of them wherewith flies can be +driven away, or delicate articles dusted. As the bird is a very shy +and wary one, these feathers cannot be easily procured, especially as +they do not make their appearance until the bird has reached its third +year, and had time to learn the signs of approaching danger. The Egret +is rather larger than the heron, a full-grown specimen measuring about +four feet in length, whereas the heron is scarcely more than a yard in +total length. The train-feathers of the Egret add, however, to the +apparent size of the bird. + + + + +THE CRANE. + + Various passages in which the Crane is mentioned--Its migratory + habits, and loud voice--Geographical range of the Crane--The + bird once plentiful in the fen districts of England--Its + favourite roosting-places--Size of the Crane, and measurement of + the wings--The Crane once used as food--Plumes of the Crane and + their use--Structure of the vocal organs--Nest and eggs of the + Crane. + + +In the description of the dove and the swallow two passages have been +quoted in which the name of the CRANE is mentioned, one referring to +its voice, and the other to its migratory instinct. The first passage +occurs in Isa. xxxviii. 14: "Like a crane or swallow, so did I +chatter;" and the other in Jer. viii. 7: "The turtle and the crane and +the swallow observe the time of their coming." + +It is rather remarkable that in both these cases the word "Crane" is +used in connexion with the swallow, or rather the swift, and that in +both instances the names of the birds should have been interchanged. +If we refer to the original of these passages, we shall find that the +former of them would run thus, "Like a _sis_ or an _agur_" and the +latter thus, "The turtle and the _sis_ and the _agur_." That in these +passages the interpretation of the words _sis_ and _agur_ have been +interchanged has already been mentioned, and, as the former has been +described under the name of swallow or swift, we shall now treat of +the latter under the title of Crane. + + [Illustration: THE CRANE. + + "_Like a crane ... so did I chatter._"--ISA. xxxviii. 14.] + +The species here mentioned is the common Crane (_Grus cinerea_), a +bird which has a very wide range, and has occasionally made its +appearance in one or two parts of Great Britain. In Ireland it is +thought to be common, but in that country the word Crane is simply a +popular misnomer for the heron. As is the case with many wild birds, +especially those of the larger kinds, the Crane appears to have been a +much more frequent visitor of our shores than can be the case in the +present day, when the land is thickly populated, and not a strange +bird can show itself without running the risk of being shot. + +As might be imagined, the Cranes favoured the great fen-districts of +England, especially those of Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire, where it +used to be found in large flocks. That in those days it bred in +England is evident from Acts of Parliament in the reigns of Henry +VIII. and Edward VI., in which reigns the taking of a Crane's egg was +punished with a fine of twenty pence, in those days a considerable +sum, being nearly four times the average daily wages of a working man. +A small flock of Cranes was seen in Zetland in 1807, but at the +present time drainage, cultivation, and house-building have as +effectually extirpated the gregarious Crane as the solitary bittern. + +The Crane performs its annual migrations in company, vast flocks of +many thousand individuals passing like great clouds at an immense +height, whence their trumpet-like cry is audible for a great distance +round, and attracts the ear if not the eye to them. Thus we have at a +glance both the characteristics to which reference is made in the +Scriptures, namely, the noisy cry and the habit of migration. + +It is a very gregarious bird, associating with its comrades in flocks, +just as do the starlings and rooks of our own country, and, like these +birds, has favourite roosting-places in which it passes the night. +When evening approaches, the Cranes may be seen in large flocks +passing to their roosting-places, and, on account of their great size, +having a very strange effect. A fair-sized Crane will measure seven +feet across the expanded wings, so that even a solitary bird has a +very imposing effect when flying, while that of a large flock of +Cranes on the wing is simply magnificent. + +The spots which the Crane selects for its roosting-places are +generally of the same character. Being in some respects a wary bird, +though it is curiously indifferent in others, it will not roost in any +place near bushes, rocks, or other spots which might serve to conceal +an enemy. The locality most favoured by the Crane is a large, smooth, +sloping bank, far from any spot wherein an enemy may be concealed. The +birds keep a careful watch during the night, and it is impossible for +any foe to approach them without being discovered. The Crane is noisy +on the wing, and, whether it be soaring high over head on its long +migratory journeys, or be merely flying at dusk to its roosting-place, +it continually utters its loud, clangorous cry. + +The food of the Crane is much like that of the heron, but in addition +to the frogs, fish, worms, and insects, it eats vegetable substances. +Sometimes it is apt to get into cultivated grounds, and then does much +damage to the crops, pecking up the ground with its long beak, partly +for the sake of the worms, grubs, and other creatures, and partly for +the sake of the sprouting seeds. + +Although by reason of its scarcity the Crane has been abandoned as +food, its flesh is really excellent, and in former days was valued +very highly, and was looked upon much in the same light as grouse or +blackcock by ourselves at the present day. The two facts, that it was +once comparatively plentiful and that it was highly valued for the +table, are shown by an old record of the banquet following the +enthronization of an Archbishop of Canterbury, at which two hundred +and four Cranes were served at table. Even in those days the bird was +a very valuable one, the average cost exceeding three shillings, so +that none but the wealthy could indulge in such a luxury. + +Like the egret, the Crane is remarkable for the flowing plumes of the +back, which fall over the tail feathers, and form a train. These +feathers are much used as plumes, both for purposes of dress and as +brushes or flappers wherewith to drive off the flies. By reason of +this conformation, some systematic zoologists have thought that it has +some affinity to the ostrich, the rhoea, and similar birds, and that +the resemblance is strengthened by the structure of the digestive +organs, which are suited to vegetable as well as animal substances, +the stomach being strong and muscular. + +The peculiar voice of the Crane, which it is so fond of using, and to +which reference is made in the Scriptures, is caused by a peculiar +structure of the windpipe, which is exceedingly long, and, instead of +going straight to the lungs, undergoes several convolutions about the +breast-bone, and then proceeds to the lungs. + +The Crane makes its nest on low ground, generally among osiers or +reeds, and it lays only two eggs, pale olive in colour, dashed +profusely with black and brown streaks. + + + + +THE STORK. + + Signification of the Hebrew word _Chasidah_--Various passages in + which it is mentioned--The Chasidah therefore a large, + wide-winged, migratory bird--Its identification with the + Stork--Derivation of its Hebrew name--The Stork always + protected--Uses of the tail--Its mode of quartering the ground + in search of food--Migratory habits of the Stork--Nesting of the + bird, and its favourite localities--The fir-trees of + Palestine--Love of the Stork for its young. + + +In the Old Testament there are several passages wherein is mentioned +the word _Chasidah_. We will take these passages in their order. In +the first place, we find that the Chasidah is enumerated in Lev. xi. +19 among the unclean creatures: "And the stork, the heron after her +kind, and the lapwing, and the bat." The parallel passage in Deut. +xiv. 18 has precisely the same words. Next we have the passage in Job +xxxix. 13: "Gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks? or the +feathers of the chasidah and ostrich?" (marginal reading.) Next we +come to Ps. civ. 16, 17: "The trees of the Lord are full of sap; the +cedars of Lebanon, which He hath planted. + +"Where the birds make their nests: as for the chasidah, the fir-trees +are her house." + +Passing to the prophets, we find that Jeremiah uses the same word +(viii. 7): "Yea, the chasidah in the heaven knoweth her appointed +times; and the turtle and the crane and the swallow observe the time +of their coming; but my people know not the judgment of the Lord." + +The last mention of the word occurs in Zech. v. 9: "Then lifted I up +mine eyes, and looked, and, behold, there came out two women, and the +wind was in their wings; (for they had wings like the wings of a +chasidah;) and they lifted up the ephah between the earth and the +heaven." + +We learn from these passages that, in the first place, the Chasidah +was certainly a bird, as it is mentioned in connexion with other +birds, and is said to have wings and feathers. Our next business is to +find out what particular bird is meant by the Chasidah. It is evident +from the passage in Jeremiah that it is a migratory bird; from that in +the Psalms, that it builds its nest upon a fir-tree; and from those in +Job and Zechariah, that it is a large-winged bird. These details very +much narrow the question, which is still further limited by the fact +that we have already identified the crane and the heron. + +The Authorized Version invariably renders the word Chasidah as +"Stork," and is undoubtedly right; though the Septuagint has no less +than four different translations, reading it as "heron" in one place, +"pelican" in another, "hoopoe" in another, and in the fourth instance +leaving the word untranslated, but Græcized into the form of _asida_. +It would have been better if the last-mentioned plan had been followed +throughout. + +There is, however, no doubt that the Authorized Version is perfectly +correct; and it is followed by the Jewish Bible, in which no mark of +doubt is affixed to the word. + +In Buxtorf's Lexicon there is a curious derivation of the word. He +says that the word _Chasidah_ is derived from _chesed_, a word that +signifies benevolence. This word is used in many familiar passages; +such as, "unworthy of all the _benefits_," "according to the multitude +of Thy _mercies_," "exercising _pity_," and so forth. + +According to some writers, the name was given to the Stork because it +was supposed to be a bird remarkable for its filial piety; "for the +storks in their turn support their parents in their old age: they +allow them to rest their necks on their bodies during migration, and, +if the elders are tired, the young ones take them on their backs." +According to others, the name is given to the Stork because it +exercises kindness towards its companions in bringing them food; but +in all cases the derivation of the word is acknowledged to be the +same. + +Partly in consequence of this idea, which is a very old and almost +universal one, and partly on account of the great services rendered by +the bird in clearing the ground of snakes, insects, and garbage, the +Stork has always been protected through the East, as it is to the +present day in several parts of Europe. The slaughter of a Stork, or +even the destruction of its eggs, would be punished with a heavy fine; +and in consequence of the immunity which it enjoys, it loves to haunt +the habitations of mankind. + +In many of the Continental towns, where sanitary regulations are not +enforced, the Stork serves the purpose of a scavenger, and may be seen +walking about the market-place, waiting for the offal of fish, fowls, +and the like, which are simply thrown on the ground for the Storks to +eat. In Eastern lands the Stork enjoys similar privileges, and we may +infer that the bird was perfectly familiar both to the writers of the +various Scriptural books in which it was mentioned, and to the people +for whom these books were intended. + +When they settle upon a tract of ground, the Storks divide it among +themselves in a manner that seems to have a sort of system in it, +spreading themselves over it with wonderful regularity, each bird +appearing to take possession of a definite amount of ground. By this +mode of proceeding, the ground is rapidly cleared of all vermin; the +Storks examining their allotted space with the keenest scrutiny, and +devouring every reptile, mouse, worm, grub, or insect that they can +find on it. Sometimes they will spread themselves in this manner over +a vast extent of country, arriving suddenly, remaining for several +months, and departing without giving any sign of their intention to +move. + +The wings of the Stork, which are mentioned in Holy Writ, are very +conspicuous, and are well calculated to strike an imaginative mind. +The general colour of the bird is white, while the quill feathers of +the wings are black; so that the effect of the spread wings is very +striking, an adult bird measuring about seven feet across, when +flying. As the body, large though it may be, is comparatively light +when compared with the extent of wing, the flight is both lofty and +sustained, the bird flying a very great height, and, when migrating, +is literally the "stork in the heavens." + +Next we come to the migratory habits of the Stork. + +Like the swallow, the Stork resorts year after year to the same +spots; and when it has once fixed on a locality for its nest, that +place will be assuredly taken as regularly as the breeding-season +comes round. The same pair are sure to return to their well-known +home, notwithstanding the vast distances over which they pass, and the +many lands in which they sojourn. Should one of the pair die, the +other finds a mate in a very short time, and thus the same home is +kept up by successive generations of Storks, much as among men one +ancestral mansion is inhabited by a series of members of the same +family. + +So well is this known, that when a pair of Storks have made their nest +in a human habitation their return is always expected, and when they +arrive the absentees are welcomed on all sides. In many countries +breeding-places are specially provided for the Storks; and when one of +them is occupied for the first time, the owner of the house looks upon +it as a fortunate omen. + +The localities chosen by the Stork for its nest vary according to the +surrounding conditions. The foundation which a Stork requires is a +firm platform, the more elevated the better, but the bird seems to +care little whether this platform be on rocks, buildings, or trees. +If, for example, it builds its nest in craggy places, far from the +habitations of man, it selects some flat ledge for the purpose, +preferring those that are at the extreme tops of the rocks. The summit +of a natural pinnacle is a favourite spot with the Stork. + +In many cases the Stork breeds among old ruins, and under such +circumstances it is fond of building its nest on the tops of pillars +or towers, the summits of arches, and similar localities. When it +takes up its abode among mankind, it generally selects the +breeding-places which have been built for it by those who know its +taste, but it frequently chooses the top of a chimney, or some such +locality. + +Sometimes, however, it is obliged to build in spots where it can find +neither rocks nor buildings, and in such cases it builds on trees, +and, like the heron, is sociable in its nesting, a whole community +residing in a clump of trees. It is not very particular about the kind +of tree, provided that it be tolerably tall, and strong enough to bear +the weight of its enormous nest; and the reader will at once see that +the fir-trees are peculiarly fitted to be the houses for the Stork. + +As is the case with so many zoological words, botanical names seem to +be frequently used in a collective sense by the scriptural writers, +several species being signified by a single name. Thus the word which +is in some cases translated as "fir," is in some rendered as +"pine-tree," in others as "juniper," and in others as "cypress." In +the present case it is undoubtedly translated rightly, though in the +Jewish Bible it is rendered as "cypress:" "The trees of the Eternal +satisfy themselves, the cedars of Lebanon which He hath planted; where +birds make their nests: as for the stork, cypresses are its house." + +The particular species of fir-tree to which the Psalmist alludes is +probably the Aleppo pine (_Pinus halepensis_), which comes next to the +great cedars of Lebanon in point of size. It was this tree that +furnished the timber and planks for Solomon's temple and palace, a +timber which was evidently held in the greatest estimation. This tree +fulfils all the conditions which a Stork would require in +nest-building. It is lofty, and its boughs are sufficiently horizontal +to form a platform for the nest, and strong enough to sustain it. On +account of its value, and the reckless manner in which it has been cut +down without new plantations being formed, the Aleppo pine has +vanished from many parts of Palestine wherein it was formerly common, +and would afford a dwelling-place for the Stork. + +There are, however, several other species of fir which are common in +various parts of the country, each species flourishing in the soil +best suited to it, so that the Stork would never be at a loss to find +a nesting-place in a country which furnished so many trees suitable to +its purposes. + +As may be expected from the localities chosen by the Stork for its +breeding-place, its nest is very large and heavy. It is constructed +with very little skill, and is scarcely more than a huge quantity of +sticks, reeds, and similar substances, heaped together, and having in +the middle a slight depression in which the eggs are laid. These eggs +are usually three, or perhaps four in number, and now and then a fifth +is seen, and are of a very pale buff or cream colour. + + [Illustration: THE STORK. + + "As for the stork, the fir-trees are her house."--PS. civ. 17.] + +As is the case with the heron, the young of the Stork are quite +helpless when hatched, and are most ungainly little beings, with their +long legs doubled under them, unable to sustain their round and almost +naked bodies, while their large beaks are ever gaping for food. +Those of my readers who have had young birds of any kind must +have noticed the extremely grotesque appearance which they +possess when they hold up their heads and cry for food, with their +bills open to an almost incredible extent. In such birds as the Stork, +the heron, and others of the tribe, the grotesque appearance is +exaggerated in proportion to the length and gape of the bill. + +The Stork is noted for being a peculiarly kind and loving parent to +its young, in that point fully deserving the derivation of its Hebrew +name, though its love manifests itself towards the young, and not +towards the parent. + +The Rev. H. B. Tristram mentions from personal experience an instance +of the watchful care exercised by the Stork over its young. "The +writer was once in camp near an old ruined tower in the plains of +Zana, south of the Atlas, where a pair of storks had their nest. The +four young might often be seen from a little distance, surveying the +prospect from their lonely height, but whenever any of the human party +happened to stroll near the tower, one of the old storks, invisible +before, would instantly appear, and, lighting on the nest, put its +feet gently on the necks of all the young, so as to hold them down out +of sight till the stranger had passed, snapping its bill meanwhile, +and assuming a grotesque air of indifference, as unconscious of there +being anything under its charge." (Smith's "Dict. Bible," vol. iii. p. +1384.) + +The snapping noise which is here mentioned is the only sound produced +by the Stork, which is an absolutely silent bird, as far as voice is +concerned. + + +There is another species of Stork found in Palestine, to which the +fir-trees are especially a home. This is the Black Stork (_Ciconia +nigra_), which in some parts of the country is even more plentiful +than its white relative, which it resembles in almost every +particular, except that it has a dark head and back, the feathers +being glossed with purple and green like those of the magpie. This +species, which is undoubtedly included in the Hebrew word _chasidah_, +always makes its nest on trees whenever it can find them, and in some +of the more densely wooded parts of Palestine is in consequence +plentiful, placing its nest in the deepest parts of the forests. When +it cannot obtain trees, it will build its nest on rocky ledges. It +lays two or three eggs of a greenish white colour. + +Like the preceding species, the Black Stork is easily domesticated. +Colonel Montague kept one which was very tame, and would follow its +keeper like a dog. Its tameness enabled its proceedings to be closely +watched, and its mode of feeding was thereby investigated. It was fond +of examining the rank grass and mud for food, and while doing so +always kept its bill a little open, so as to pounce down at once on +any insect or reptile that it might disturb. + +Eels were its favourite food, and it was such an adept at catching +them that it was never seen to miss one, no matter how small or quick +it might be. As soon as it had caught one of these active fish, it +went to some dry place, and then disabled its prey by shaking and +beating it against the ground before swallowing it, whereas many birds +that feed on fish swallow their prey as soon as it is caught. The +Stork was never seen to swim as the heron sometimes does, but it would +wade as long as it could place its feet on the bed of the stream, and +would strain its head and the whole of its neck under water in +searching for fish. + +It was of a mild and peaceable disposition, and, even if angered, did +not attempt to bite or strike with its beak, but only denoted its +displeasure by blowing the air sharply from its lungs, and nodding its +head repeatedly. After the manner of Storks, it always chose an +elevated spot on which to repose, and took its rest standing on one +leg, with its head so sunk among the feathers of its shoulders that +scarcely any part of it was visible, the hinder part of the head +resting on the back, and the bill lying on the fore-part of the neck. + +Though the bird is so capable of domestication, it does not of its own +accord haunt the dwellings of men, like the White Stork, but avoids +the neighbourhood of houses, and lives in the most retired places it +can find. It may generally be seen in marshy grounds, spending the +greater part of its time in procuring food, or in going to and from +its nest while engaged in the task of feeding its young. + + + + +THE SWAN. + + Signification of the word _Tinshemeth_--The Gallinule and the + Ibis--Appearance and habits of the Hyacinthine Gallinule--A + strange use for the bird--The White or Sacred Ibis--The bird + mentioned by Herodotus--The Glossy Ibis, or Black + Ibis--Veneration with which the bird was regarded. + + +In the two parallel chapters of Lev. xi. 18 and Deut. xiv. 16, the +Hebrew word _tinshemeth_ is found, and evidently signifies some kind +of bird which was forbidden as food. After stating (Lev. xi. 13) that +"these are they which ye shall have in abomination among the fowls; +they shall not be eaten, they are an abomination," the sacred lawgiver +proceeds to enumerate a number of birds, nearly all of which have +already been described. Among them occurs the name of _tinshemeth_, +between the great owl and the pelican. + +What was the precise species of bird which was signified by this name +it is impossible to say, but there is no doubt that it could not have +been the Swan, according to the rendering of the Authorized Version. +The Swan is far too rare a bird in Palestine to have been specially +mentioned in the law of Moses, and in all probability it was totally +unknown to the generality of the Israelites. Even had it been known to +them, and tolerably common, there seems to be no reason why it should +have been reckoned among the list of unclean birds. + +On turning to the Hebrew Bible, we find that the word is left +untranslated, and simply given in its Hebrew form, thereby signifying +that the translators could form no opinion whatever of the proper +rendering of the word. The Septuagint translates the Tinshemeth as the +Porphyrio or Ibis, and the Vulgate follows the same rendering. Later +naturalists have agreed that the Septuagint and Vulgate have the far +more probable reading; and, as two birds are there mentioned, they +will be both described. + + [Illustration: IBIS AND GALLINULE (SWAN OF SCRIPTURES). + + "_These are they of which ye shall not eat ... the little owl, and the + great owl, and the swan._" DEUT. xiv. 12, 16.] + +The first is the Porphyrio, by which we may understand the HYACINTHINE +GALLINULE (_Porphyrio veterum_). All the birds of this group are +remarkable for the enormous length of their toes, by means of which +they are enabled to walk upon the loose herbage that floats on the +surface of the water as firmly as if they were treading on land. Their +feet are also used, like those of the parrots, in conveying food to +the mouth. We have in England a very familiar example of the +Gallinules in the common water-hen, or moor-hen, the toes of which are +of great proportionate length, though not so long as those of the +Purple Gallinule, which almost rivals in this respect the jacanas of +South America and China. The water-rail, and corncrake or land-rail, +are also allied to the Gallinules. + +The Hyacinthine Gallinule derives its name from its colour, which is a +rich and variable blue, taking a turquoise hue on the head, neck, +throat, and breast, and deep indigo on the back. The large bill and +the legs are red. Like many other birds, however, it varies much in +colour according to age. + +It has a very wide geographical range, being found in many parts of +Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is common in the marshy districts of +Palestine, where its rich blue plumage and its large size, equalling +that of a duck, render it very conspicuous. The large and powerful +bill of this bird betokens the nature of its food, which consists +almost entirely of hard vegetable substances, the seeds of aquatic +herbage forming a large portion of its diet. When it searches for food +on the seashore, it eats the marine vegetation, mixing with this diet +other articles of an animal nature, such as molluscs and small +reptiles. + +Though apparently a clumsy bird, it moves with wonderful speed, +running not only swiftly but gracefully, its large feet being no +hindrance to the rapidity of its movements. It is mostly found in +shallow marshes, where the construction of its feet enables it to +traverse both the soft muddy ground and the patches of firm earth with +equal ease. Its wings, however, are by no means equal to its legs +either in power or activity; and, like most of the rail tribe, it +never takes to the air unless absolutely obliged to do so. + +The nest of the Hyacinthine Gallinule is made on the sedge-patches +which dot the marshes, much like that of the coot. The nest, too, +resembles that of the coot, being composed of reeds, sedges, and other +aquatic plants. The eggs are three or four in number, white in colour, +and nearly spherical in form. + +The ancients were well acquainted with the Hyacinthine Gallinule, and +were in the habit of keeping it tamed in their houses, in which case +it was prized by the men and hated by the women. There was a popular +idea about the bird that it always detected any infidelity on the part +of the female sex, and that when the master of the house came home the +bird acquainted him with the crime by making gestures as if it wished +to strangle itself. + +There are several species of Gallinule, but that which has just been +described is the most conspicuous, and therefore, if either of the +Gallinules be the Tinshemeth of the Jewish lawgiver, we may safely +conclude that the Hyacinthine Gallinule is the species. + + +As, however, the Ibis has an equal claim to the title of Tinshemeth, +we will devote a few lines to a description of the bird. The +particular species which would be signified by the word _tinshemeth_ +would undoubtedly be the WHITE or SACRED IBIS (_Ibis religiosa_), a +bird which derives its name of Sacred from the reverence with which it +was held by the ancient Egyptians, and the frequency with which its +figure occurs in the monumental sculptures. It was also thought worthy +of being embalmed, and many mummies of the Ibis have been found in the +old Egyptian burial-places, having been preserved for some three +thousand years. + +In his account of the various animals which were accounted sacred by +the Egyptians, Herodotus mentions the Ibis, mixing up a considerable +amount of truth with a few errors, and a good deal of superstition. +Having heard of the relics of some winged serpents near the city of +Buto, he went to see them. "When I arrived there I saw bones and +spines of serpents, in such quantities as it would be impossible to +describe: there were heaps of these spinal bones, some large, some +smaller, and some still less, and there were great numbers of them. + +"The place in which these spinal bones lie scattered is of the +following description:--It is a narrow pass between two mountains into +a spacious plain; this plain is contiguous to the plain of Egypt. It +is reported that, at the beginning of spring, winged serpents fly from +Arabia towards Egypt; but that the ibises, a sort of bird, meet them +at the pass, and do not allow the serpents to go by, but kill them. +For this service the Arabians say that the ibis is highly reverenced +by the Egyptians, and the Egyptians acknowledge that they reverence +these birds for this reason. + +"The ibis is of the following description. It is all over a deep +black, it has the legs of a crane, its beak is much curved, and it is +about the size of a _crex_. Such is the form of the black ones that +fight with the serpents. But those that are commonly conversant among +men (for there are two species) are bare on the head and the whole +neck; have white plumage, except on the head, the throat, and the tips +of the wings and extremity of the tail. In all these parts that I have +mentioned they are of a deep black; in their legs and back they are +like the other kind." (Herod. "Euterpe," 75, 76, Cary's translation.) + +Putting aside the mention of the winged serpents, of which he only +learned by hearsay, we find that Herodotus has given a very fair +account of two species of Ibis,--namely, the GLOSSY or GREEN IBIS +(_Ibis falcinellus_), and the White or Sacred Ibis, whose scientific +names have already been given. + +The Glossy Ibis has been known to come as far as the British shores, +but it requires a much warmer climate than that of England in order to +pass its life in a state of health. It has, however, a large +geographical range, being found both in Northern Africa and Southern +America. It derives its popular name from the rich glossy plumage, +which shines with a metallic or rather a silken lustre that is +singularly beautiful in life, and is with great difficulty preserved +in stuffed specimens. + +The principal hue of the bird is very deep green, but it is so "shot" +with reflections of rich purple, blue, and gold, that it alters its +hue with every change of light. At a little distance the deep green +plumage looks quite black, as does that of the magpie, and on this +account it has been called by Herodotus the Black Ibis. + +This species is popularly called Abou Menzel, or Father Sickle-bill, +on account of its slender curved beak, and in some places goes by the +name of Abou Hannes, or Father John, because it makes its appearance +upon or about St. John's Day. From all appearance, it does not feed +upon snakes, seeming to restrict itself to molluscs and similar food; +and, on account of this discrepancy with the account given by +Herodotus, many writers have doubted whether it could really be the +bird meant by that historian and traveller. But we must remember that, +though he saw both the black and the white Ibis, he did not see +either of them eat snakes; and as those who told him of their +serpent-devouring habits stated at the same time that the snakes had +wings like those of the bat, we may summarily dismiss their account +from the argument. + +The White Ibis, however, is the bird which was most highly venerated +by the Egyptians, and probably for that very reason was placed among +the list of prohibited birds in the ancient law. It is about as large +as an ordinary hen, and, as its name imports, has the greater part of +its plumage white, the ends of the wing-feathers and the coverts being +black, with violet reflections. The long neck is black and bare, and +has a most curious aspect, looking as if it were made of an old black +kid glove, very much crumpled, but still retaining its gloss. + +The reason for the extreme veneration with which the bird was regarded +by the ancient Egyptians seems rather obscure. It is probable, +however, that the partial migration of the bird was connected in their +minds with the rise of the Nile, a river as sacred to the old +Egyptians as the Ganges to the modern Hindoo. As soon as the water +begins to rise, the Ibis makes its appearance, sometimes alone, and +sometimes in small troops. It haunts the banks of the river, and +marshy places in general, diligently searching for food by the aid of +its long bill. It can fly well and strongly, and it utters at +intervals a rather loud cry, dipping its head at every utterance. +Specimens of these birds can be seen at the Zoological Gardens. + + + + +THE CORMORANT. + + The word _Shâlâk_ and its signification--The Greek + Catarrhactes--Habits of the Cormorant--The bird trained to catch + fish--Mode of securing its prey--Nests and eggs of the + Cormorant--Nesting in fir-trees--Flesh of the bird. + + +Although in the Authorized Version of the Scriptures the word +Cormorant occurs three times, there is no doubt that in two of the +passages the Hebrew word ought to have been rendered as Pelican, as we +shall see when we come presently to the description of that bird. + +In the two parallel passages, Lev. xi. 17 and Deut. xiv. 17, a +creature called the Shâlâk is mentioned in the list of prohibited +meats. That the Shâlâk must be a bird is evident from the context, and +we are therefore only left to discover what sort of bird it may be. On +looking at the etymology of the word we find that it is derived from +a root which signifies hurling or casting down, and we may therefore +presume that the bird is one which plunges or sweeps down upon its +prey. + +All Hebraists have agreed that it is one of the sea-birds, and this +view of the case seems to be taken in the Septuagint, where the word +is rendered by Catarrhactes, a term that has the same derivation in +Greek as the Shâlâk in Hebrew. It is indeed the same word from which +we form our term "cataract," to express the manner in which the water +plunges or is hurled down from a height. + +In consequence of this derivation, several writers have thought that +the Shâlâk might be the Solan goose, or gannet, a bird which lives on +fish, and always takes its prey by darting down upon it from a height. +This bird, however, although it certainly answers completely to the +sense of the word _shâlâk_, is not common enough on the shores of +Palestine to be specially mentioned among the unclean birds. Other +writers, seeing this difficulty, have thought that the Shâlâk might be +one of the terns, or sea-swallows, forgetful of the fact that these +are not plunging birds, although exceedingly swift of flight. + +Weighing, however, the opinions of the various Hebraists and +naturalists, we may safely determine that the word _shâlâk_ has been +rightly translated in the Authorized Version. The Hebrew Bible gives +the same reading, and does not affix the mark of doubt to the word, +though there are very few of the long list of animals in Lev. xi. and +Deut. xiv. which are not either distinguished by the mark of doubt, +or, like the Tinshemeth, are left untranslated. + +The Cormorant belongs to the family of the pelicans, the relationship +between them being evident to the most unpractised eye; and the whole +structure of the bird shows its admirable adaptation for the life +which it leads. + +Its long beak enables it to seize even a large fish, while the hook at +the end prevents the slippery prey from escaping. The long snake-like +neck gives the bird the power of darting its beak with great rapidity, +and at the same time allows it to seize prey immediately to the right +or left of its course. Its strong, closely-feathered wings enable it +to fly with tolerable speed, while at the same time they can be closed +so tightly to the body that they do not hinder the progress of the +bird through the water; while the tail serves equally when spread to +direct its course through the air, and when partially or entirely +closed to act as a rudder in the water. Lastly, its short powerful +legs, with their broadly-webbed feet, act as paddles, by which the +bird urges itself through the water with such wonderful speed that it +can overtake and secure the fishes even in their own element. Besides +these outward characteristics, we find that the bird is able to make a +very long stay under water, the lungs being adapted so as to contain a +wonderful amount of air. + +The method of catching prey which is practised by the Cormorant is +familiar to us from the fact that the Cormorant has been trained to +play the same part in the water as the falcon in the air, and has been +taught to catch fish, and bring them ashore for its master. So adroit +are they, that if one of them should catch a fish which is too heavy +for it another bird will come to its assistance, and the two together +will bring the struggling prey to land. Trained birds of this +description have been employed in China from time immemorial, and in +later years they have been re-introduced into England, where they have +often exhibited their really wonderful powers. + +In the days of Charles I. these birds were kept in training, and there +was attached to the Court a professed official, called the Kings +Master of the Cormorants. These birds were usually caught and trained +in Holland, and thence exported to England. The disturbed state of the +country during the civil wars, added to the sport-destroying character +of the Puritans, seems to have caused the sport to be abandoned in +this country, and it is only within the last few years that they have +been again employed. In order to prevent it from swallowing the fish +which it takes, each bird has a ring or ligature passed round its +neck. + +The Cormorant is a most voracious bird, swallowing a considerable +weight of fish at a meal, and digesting them so rapidly that it is +soon ready for another supply. Although it is essentially a marine +bird, hunger often takes it inland, especially to places where are +lakes or large rivers. Mr. Waterton mentions, in his "Essays on +Natural History," that the Cormorants often visited the lake at Walton +Hall, and that they soon became so familiar and fearless, that after +catching and eating their prey they would sit on the terrace and preen +their feathers under the windows of the drawing-room. + +The lake is by no means a large one, and it is probable that the birds +were attracted by the absolute security which was felt by every winged +creature within the domain. "His skill in diving," writes Mr. +Waterton, "is most admirable, and his success beyond belief. You may +know him at a distance, among a thousand water-fowl, by his upright +neck, by his body being apparently half immersed in the water, and by +his being perpetually in motion when not on land. + +"While the ducks and teal and widgeons are stationary on the pool, the +cormorant is seen swimming to and fro, as if in quest of something. +First raising his body nearly perpendicular, down he plunges into the +deep, and, after staying there a considerable time, he is sure to +bring up a fish, which he invariably swallows head foremost. Sometimes +half an hour elapses before he can manage to accommodate a large eel +quietly in his stomach. + +"You see him straining violently with repeated efforts to gulp it; and +when you fancy that the slippery mouthful is successfully disposed of, +all on a sudden the eel retrogrades upwards from its dismal sepulchre, +struggling violently to escape. The cormorant swallows it again, and +up again it comes, and shows its tail a foot or more out of its +destroyer's mouth. At length, worn out with ineffectual writhings and +slidings, the eel is gulped down into the cormorant's stomach for the +last time, there to meet its dreaded and inevitable fate." + +Mr. Fortune gives a somewhat similar account of the feeding of tame +Cormorants in China. The birds preferred eels to all other food, and, +in spite of the difficulty in swallowing the slippery and active +creature, would not touch another fish as long as an eel was left. The +bird is so completely at home in the water that it does not need, like +the heron and other aquatic birds, to bring its prey ashore in order +to swallow it, but can eat fish in the water as well as catch them. It +always seizes the fish crosswise, and is therefore obliged to turn it +before it can swallow the prey with the head downwards. Sometimes it +contrives to turn the fish while still under water, but, if it should +fail in so doing, it brings its prey to the surface, and shifts it +about in its bill, making a series of little snatches at it until the +head is in the right direction. When it seizes a very large fish, the +bird shakes its prey just as a dog shakes a rat, and so disables it. +It is said to eat its own weight of fish in a single day. + +Sometimes, when it has been very successful or exceptionally hungry, +it loads itself with food to such an extent that it becomes almost +insensible during the process of digestion, and, although naturally a +keen-eyed and wary bird, allows itself to be captured by hand. + +The nest of the Cormorant is always upon a rocky ledge, and generally +on a spot which is inaccessible except by practised climbers furnished +with ropes, poles, hooks, and other appurtenances. Mr. Waterton +mentions that when he descended the Raincliff, a precipice some four +hundred feet in height, he saw numbers of the nests and eggs, but +could not get at them except by swinging himself boldly off the face +of the cliff, so as to be brought by the return swing into the +recesses chosen by the birds. + +The nests are mostly placed in close proximity to each other, and are +made of sticks and seaweeds, and, as is usual with such nests, are +very inartificially constructed. The eggs are of a greenish white on +the outside, and green on the inside. When found in the nest, they are +covered with a sort of chalky crust, so that the true colour is not +perceptible until the crust is scraped off. Two to four eggs are +generally laid in, or rather on, each nest. As may be imagined from +the character of the birds' food, the odour of the nesting-place is +most horrible. + +Sometimes, when rocks cannot be found, the Cormorant is obliged to +select other spots for its nest. It is mentioned in the "Proceedings +of the Zoological Society," that upon an island in the midst of a +large lake there were a number of Scotch fir-trees, upon the branches +of which were about eighty nests of the Cormorant. + +The flesh of the Cormorant is very seldom eaten, as it has a fishy +flavour which is far from agreeable. To eat an old Cormorant is indeed +almost impossible, but the young birds may be rendered edible by +taking them as soon as killed, skinning them, removing the whole of +the interior, wrapping them in cloths, and burying them for some time +in the ground. + +From the account of this bird, the reader will see that it may well be +the Shâlâk of the Old Testament. Owing to its size and its peculiar +habits, it is a very conspicuous bird, and therefore likely to be +selected by name by the ancient lawgiver. And although its flesh is +not very agreeable, it can be eaten; and, as has been shown, can be +rendered tolerably palatable by a very simple process. The flesh of +the Solan goose is deprived in a similar manner of its naturally rank +and fishy flavour. + + + + +THE PELICAN. + + The Pelican of the wilderness--Attitudes of the bird--Its love + of solitude--Derivation of the Hebrew word--Fantastic + interpretation--Mode of feeding the young--Fables regarding the + Pelican--Breeding-places of the bird--The object of its wide + wings and large pouch--Colour of the Pelican. + + +On page 490 it has been mentioned that in two passages of Scripture, +the word which is translated in the Authorized Version as Cormorant, +ought to have been rendered as PELICAN. These, however, are not the +first passages in which we meet with the word _kaath_. The name occurs +in the two parallel passages of Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv. among the list +of birds which are proscribed as food. Passing over them, we next come +to Ps. cii. 6. In this passage, the sacred writer is lamenting his +misery: "By reason of the voice of my groaning my bones cleave to my +skin. + +"I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the +desert." + +In these sentences, we see that the Kaath was a bird of solitude that +was to be found in the "wilderness," _i.e._ far from the habitations +of man. This is one of the characteristics of the Pelican, which loves +not the neighbourhood of human beings, and is fond of resorting to +broad, uncultivated lands, where it will not be disturbed. + +In them it makes its nest and hatches its young, and to them it +retires after feeding, in order to digest in quiet the ample meal +which it has made. Mr. Tristram well suggests that the metaphor of the +Psalmist may allude to the habit common to the Pelican and its kin, of +sitting motionless for hours after it has gorged itself with food, its +head sunk on its shoulders, and its bill resting on its breast. + +This is but one of the singular, and often grotesque, attitudes in +which the Pelican is in the habit of indulging. + + [Illustration: THE PELICAN. + + "_I am like a pelican in the wilderness._"--PS. cii. 6.] + +There are before me a number of sketches made of the Pelicans at the +Zoological Gardens, and in no two cases does one attitude in the least +resemble another. In one sketch the bird is sitting in the attitude +which has just been described. In another it is walking, or rather +staggering, along, with its head on one side, and its beak so closed +that hardly a vestige of its enormous pouch can be seen. Another +sketch shows the same bird as it appeared when angry with a companion, +and scolding its foe in impotent rage; while another shows it basking +in the sun, with its magnificent wings spread and shaking in the warm +beams, and its pouch hanging in folds from its chin. + +One of the most curious of these sketches shows the bird squatting on +the ground, with its head drawn back as far as possible, and sunk so +far among the feathers of the back and shoulders that only a portion +of the head itself can be seen, while the long beak is hidden, except +an inch or two of the end. In this attitude it might easily be +mistaken at a little distance for an oval white stone. + +The derivation of the Hebrew word _kaath_ is a very curious one. It is +taken from a verb signifying "to vomit," and this derivation has been +explained in different ways. + +The early writers, who were comparatively ignorant of natural history, +thought that the Pelican lived chiefly on molluscs, and that, after +digesting the animals, it rejected their shells, just as the owl and +the hawk reject the bones, fur, and feathers of their prey. They +thought that the Pelican was a bird of a hot temperament, and that the +molluscs were quickly digested by the heat of the stomach: "conchas +enim, calore ventris coctas, rursus evomit, ut testis rejectis, +esculenta seligat." + +At the present day, however, knowing as we do the habits of the +Pelican, we find that, although the reasons just given are faulty, and +that the Pelican lives essentially on fish, and not on molluscs, the +derivation of the word is really a good one, and that those who gave +the bird the name of Kaath, or the vomiter, were well acquainted with +its habits. + +The bird certainly does eat molluscs, but the principal part of its +diet is composed of fish, which it catches dexterously by a sort of +sidelong snatch of its enormous bill. The skin under the lower part of +the beak is so modified that it can form, when distended, an enormous +pouch, capable of holding a great quantity of fish, though, as long as +it is not wanted, the pouch is so contracted into longitudinal folds +as to be scarcely perceptible. When it has filled the pouch, it +usually retires from the water, and flies to a retired spot, often +many miles inland, where it can sit and digest at its ease the +enormous meal which it has made. + +As it often chooses its breeding-places in similar spots, far from the +water, it has to carry the food with which it nourishes its young for +many miles. For this purpose it is furnished, not only with the pouch +which has been just mentioned, but with long, wide, and very powerful +wings, often measuring from twelve to thirteen feet from tip to tip. +No one, on looking at a Pelican as it waddles about or sits at rest, +would imagine the gigantic dimensions of the wings, which seem, as the +bird spreads them, to have almost as unlimited a power of expansion as +the pouch. + +In these two points the true Pelicans present a strong contrast to the +cormorants, though birds closely allied. The cormorant has its home +close by the sea, and therefore needs not to carry its food for any +distance. Consequently, it needs no pouch, and has none. Neither does +it require the great expanse of wing which is needful for the Pelican, +that has to carry such a weight of fish through the air. Accordingly, +the wings, though strong enough to enable the bird to carry for a +short distance a single fish of somewhat large size, are comparatively +short and closely feathered, and the flight of the cormorant possesses +neither the grace nor the power which distinguishes that of the +Pelican. + +When the Pelican feeds its young, it does so by pressing its beak +against its breast, so as to force out of it the enclosed fish. Now +the tip of the beak is armed, like that of the cormorant, with a +sharply-curved hook, only, in the case of the Pelican, the hook is of +a bright scarlet colour, looking, when the bird presses the beak +against the white feathers of the breast, like a large drop of blood. +Hence arose the curious legend respecting the Pelican, which +represented it as feeding its young with its own blood, and tearing +open its breast with its hooked bill. We find that this legend is +exemplified by the oft-recurring symbol of the "Pelican feeding its +young" in ecclesiastical art, as an emblem of Divine love. + +This is one of the many instances in which the inventive, poetical, +inaccurate Oriental mind has seized some peculiarity of form, and +based upon it a whole series of fabulous legends. As long as they +restricted themselves to the appearance and habits of the animals with +which they were familiarly acquainted, the old writers were curiously +full, exact, and precise in their details. But as soon as they came to +any creature of whose mode of life they were entirely or partially +ignorant, they allowed their inventive faculties full scope, and put +forward as zoological facts statements which were the mere creation of +their own fancy. We have already seen several examples of this +propensity, and shall find more as we proceed with the zoology of the +Scriptures. + +The fabulous legends of the Pelican are too numerous to be even +mentioned, but there is one which deserves notice, because it is made +the basis of an old Persian fable. + +The writer of the legend evidently had some partial knowledge of the +bird. He knew that it had a large pouch which could hold fish and +water; that it had large and powerful wings; and that it was in the +habit of flying far inland, either for the purpose of digesting its +food or nourishing its young. Knowing that the Pelican is in the habit +of choosing solitary spots in which it may bring up its young in +safety, but not knowing the precise mode of its nesting, the writer in +question has trusted to his imagination, and put forward his theories +as facts. + +Knowing that the bird dwells in "the wilderness," he has assumed that +the wilderness in question is a sandy, arid desert, far from water, +and consequently from vegetation. Such being the case, the nurture of +the Pelican's young is evidently a difficult question. Being aquatic +birds, the young must needs require water for drink and bathing, as +well as fish for food; and, though a supply of both these necessaries +could be brought in the ample pouches of the parents, they would be +wasted unless some mode of storing were employed. + +Accordingly, the parent birds were said to make their nest in a hollow +tree, and to line it with clay, or to build it altogether of clay, so +as to leave a deep basin. This basin the parent birds were said to use +as a sort of store-pond, bringing home supplies of fish and water in +their pouches, and pouring them into the pond. The wild beasts who +lived in the desert were said to be acquainted with these nests, and +to resort to them daily in order to quench their thirst, repaying +their entertainers by protecting their homes. + +In real fact, the Pelican mostly breeds near water, and is fond of +selecting little rocky islands where it cannot be approached without +danger. The nest is made on the ground, and is formed in a most +inartificial manner of reeds and grass, the general mass of the nest +being made of the reeds, and the lining being formed of grass. The +eggs are white, of nearly the same shape at both ends, and are from +two to five in number. On an average, however, each nest will contain +about two eggs. + +The parent birds are very energetic in defence of their eggs or young, +and, according to Le Vaillant, when approached they are "like furious +harpies let loose against us, and their cries rendered us almost deaf. +They often flew so near us that they flapped their wings in our faces, +and, though we fired our pieces repeatedly, we were not able to +frighten them." When the well-known naturalist Sonnerat tried to drive +a female Pelican from her nest, she appeared not to be frightened, but +angry. She would not move from her nest, and when he tried to push her +off, she struck at him with her long bill and uttered cries of rage. + +In order to aid the bird in carrying the heavy weights with which it +loads itself, the whole skeleton is permeated with air, and is +exceedingly light. Beside this, the whole cellular system of the bird +is honeycombed with air-cells, so that the bulk of the bird can be +greatly increased, while its weight remains practically unaltered, and +the Pelican becomes a sort of living balloon. + +The habit of conveying its food inland before eating it is so +characteristic of the Pelican that other birds take advantage of it. +In some countries there is a large hawk which robs the Pelican, just +as the bald-headed eagle of America robs the osprey. Knowing +instinctively that when a Pelican is flying inland slowly and heavily +and with a distended pouch it is carrying a supply of food to its +home, the hawk dashes at it, and frightens it so that the poor bird +opens its beak, and gives up to the assailant the fish which it was +bearing homewards. + +It is evident that the wings which are needed for supporting such +weights, and which, as we have seen, exceed twelve feet in length from +tip to tip, would be useless in the water, and would hinder rather +than aid the bird if it attempted to dive as the close-winged +cormorant does. Accordingly, we find that the Pelican is not a diver, +and, instead of chasing its finny prey under water, after the manner +of the cormorant, it contents itself with scooping up in its beak the +fishes which come to the surface of the water. The very buoyancy of +its body would prevent it from diving as does the cormorant, and, +although it often plunges into the water so fairly as to be for a +moment submerged, it almost immediately rises, and pursues its course +on the surface of the water, and not beneath it. Like the cormorant, +the Pelican can perch on trees, though it does not select such spots +for its roosting-places, and prefers rocks to branches. In one case, +however, when some young Pelicans had been captured and tied to a +stake, their mother used to bring them food during the day, and at +night was accustomed to roost in the branches of a tree above them. + +One of the two passages to which allusion has already been made in +which the word _kaath_ has been wrongly translated, occurs in Isa. +xxxiv. 10, 11: "From generation to generation it shall lie waste; none +shall pass through it for ever and ever. + +"But the cormorant [Pelican in margin] and the bittern shall possess +it; the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall stretch +out upon it the line of confusion and the stones of emptiness." + +These words form part of a prophecy concerning Idumæa or Edom, in +which the desolation that is to come upon the land is painted in the +most vivid colours. The streams are to be turned into pitch, and the +dust into brimstone; thorns are to come up in the palaces, and nettles +and brambles in the fortresses, and the land is to be washed with +blood. And so great is to be the desolation of the land, that even the +Pelican, which keeps itself far from the habitations of men, is to +possess it. + +A similar figure is employed by the prophet Zephaniah, when writing of +the utter destruction of Nineveh, that "rejoicing city, that dwelt +carelessly, that said in her heart, I am, and there is no more beside +me." In chap. ii. ver. 13, 14, the prophet writes as follows: "He will +stretch out His hand against the north, and destroy Assyria; and will +make Nineveh a desolation, and dry like a wilderness. + +"And flocks shall lie down in the midst of her, all the beasts of the +nations; both the cormorant [Pelican] and bittern shall lodge in the +upper lintels of it, their voices shall sing in the windows; +desolation shall be in the threshold: for He shall overcome the cedar +work." + +In both these passages the Jewish Bible renders the word _kaath_ as +Pelican. For a further explanation of them the reader is referred to +the article on the hedgehog. + +It will be now seen that, accepting the Kaath to be the Pelican, the +imagery of the scriptural writers is as accurate as it is forcible. +Though under some circumstances a thoroughly social bird, it is yet +fond of retiring to the most solitary spots in order to consume at +peace the prey that it has captured; and, as it sits motionless and +alone for hours, more like a white stone than, a bird, it may well be +accepted as a type of solitude and desolation. + +The colour of the common Pelican is white, with a very slight pinky +tinge, which is most conspicuous in the breeding season. The feathers +of the crest are yellow, and the quill feathers of the wings are jetty +black, contrasting well with the white plumage of the body. The pouch +is yellow, and the upper part of the beak bluish grey, with a red line +running across the middle, and a bright red hook at the tip. This +plumage belongs only to the adult bird, that of the young being ashen +grey, and four or five years are required before the bird puts on its +full beauty. There is no difference in the appearance of the sexes. +The illustration on page 496 represents a fine old male Crested +Pelican (_Pelecanus cristatus_). The general colour is greyish white, +with a slight yellowish tint on the breast. The pouch is bright +orange, and the crest is formed of curling feathers. + + + + +REPTILES. + + + + +THE TORTOISE. + + Reptiles in general--Looseness of the term "creeping + things"--The Tzab of the Scriptures, translated as + Tortoise--Flesh and eggs of the Tortoise--Its slow + movements--Hibernation dependent on temperature--The + "Water-Tortoises--Their food and voracity--Their eggs--Their + odour terrifying the horses--The Dhubb lizard and its + legends--Its armed tail, and the use made of it--Its food, and + localities which it prefers. + + +We now come to a different class of animated beings. We have already +found that the sacred writers were very loose in their nomenclature of +the mammalia and birds, and we may therefore expect to find that even +greater uncertainty prevails with regard to the REPTILES. It is +evident that the sacred writers classed together the "creeping things" +of the earth, without troubling themselves about zoological accuracy, +and that by them a lizard, a centipede, and a caterpillar would have +been alike classed as belonging to the "creeping things." For example, +we learn in Deut. xiv. 19 that "every creeping thing that flieth" is +unclean. On referring to Levit. xi. 21, we find that the same +prohibition is repeated, but with an addition that shows that the +sacred writer is treating of insects under the head of "creeping +things." "Yet these may ye eat of every flying creeping thing that +goeth upon all four, which have legs above their feet, to leap withal +upon the earth; + +"Even these of them may ye eat; the locust after his kind, and the +bald locust after his kind, and the beetle after his kind, and the +grasshopper after his kind. + +"But all other flying creeping things which have four feet shall be an +abomination unto you." + +As to the particular species signified by these different insects, the +reader is referred to that portion of the work which treats of +entomology; and it is sufficient to observe that in this passage the +term "creeping things" is employed to designate insects. + +If we pass to verse 42 of the same chapter, we find that among the +"creeping things" the centipedes, millepedes, and very probably the +caterpillars, are ranked. "Whatsoever hath more feet among all +creeping things that creep upon the earth, them ye shall not eat, for +they are an abomination. + +"Ye shall not make yourselves [or, your souls] abominable with any +creeping thing that creepeth, neither shall ye make yourselves unclean +with them, that ye should be defiled thereby." + +Again, in Ps. civ. 24, 25, different orders of animals are classed +under the name of creeping things: "0 Lord, how manifold are Thy +works! in wisdom hast Thou made them all: the earth is full of Thy +riches. + +"So is this great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping +innumerable, both small and great beasts." In this passage it is +probable that the sacred writer classed together all the inhabitants +of the sea that creep and that do not swim with fins, and that under +this term are first comprised the marine turtles, and perhaps snakes. +Indeed, from verses 10 and 11 of Levit. xi. it is almost certain that +marine and aquatic reptiles are signified: "All that have not fins and +scales in the seas and in the rivers, of all that move in the waters, +and of every living thing which is in the waters, they shall be an +abomination unto you: + +"They shall be even an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their +flesh, but ye shall have their carcases in abomination." + +This prohibition also includes the whole of the molluscs, and the +marine worms, or annelids. + +We will take these creatures in their order, and begin with those +which are classed as Reptiles by the zoologists of the present day, +and which are distinguished by having a bony skeleton, breathing by +means of lungs and not of gills, having a heart with two auricles and +one ventricle, and the skin being covered with horny plates or scales. +The first in order are those which are covered with plates, and which +are known as the Chelarians, including the Tortoises and Turtles. + + +In Levit. xi. 29, there occurs among the list of unclean beasts a word +which is translated in the Authorized Version as "tortoise." The word +is _Tzab_, and is rendered in the Hebrew Bible as "lizard," but with +the mark of doubt affixed to it. As the correct translation of the +word is very dubious, we shall examine it in both these senses. + + [Illustration: THE DHUBB AND TORTOISE. + + "_These also shall be unclean unto you among the creeping things that + creep upon the earth; the weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise + after his kind_."--LEVIT. xi. 29.] + +The common Tortoise (_Testudo Græca_) is very common in Palestine, and +is so plentiful that it would certainly have been used by the +Israelites as food, had it not been prohibited by law. At the present +day it is cooked and eaten by the inhabitants of the country who are +not Jews, and its eggs are in as great request as those of the fowl. + +These eggs are hard, nearly spherical, thick-shelled, and covered with +minute punctures, giving them a roughness like that of a file. In +captivity the Tortoise is very careless about the mode in which they +are deposited, and I have seen a large yard almost covered with eggs +laid by Tortoises and abandoned. The white or albumen of the egg is so +stiff and gelatinous that to empty one of them without breaking the +shell is a difficult task, and the yolk is very dark, and covered with +minute spots of black. When fresh the eggs are as good as those of the +fowl, and many persons even think them better; the only drawback being +that their small size and thick shell cause considerable trouble in +eating them. + +The flesh of the Tortoise is eaten, not only by human beings, but by +birds, such as the lämmergeier. In order to get at the flesh of the +Tortoise, they carry it high in the air and drop it on the ground so +as to break the shell to pieces, should the reptile fall on a stone or +rock. If, as is not often the case in such a rocky land as that of +Palestine, it should fall on a soft spot, the bird picks it up, soars +aloft, and drops it again. + +The Tortoises have no teeth, but yet are able to crop the herbage with +perfect ease. In lieu of teeth the edges of the jaws are sharp-edged +and very hard, so that they cut anything that comes between them like +a pair of shears. Leaves that are pulpy and crisp are bitten through +at once, but those that are thin, tough, and fibrous are rather torn +than bitten, the Tortoise placing its feet upon them, and dragging +them to pieces with its jaws. The carnivorous Tortoises have a similar +habit, as we shall presently see. + +This is the species from whose deliberate and slow movements the +familiar metaphor of "slow as a Tortoise" was derived, and it is this +species which is the hero of the popular fable of the "Hare and the +Tortoise." Many of the reptiles are very slow in some things and +astonishingly quick in others. Some of the lizards, for example, will +at one time remain motionless for many hours together, or creep about +with a slow and snail-like progress, while at others they dart from +spot to spot with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow their +movements. This however is not the case with the Tortoise, which is +always slow, and, but for the defensive armour in which it is encased, +would long ago have been extirpated. + +During the whole of the summer months it may be seen crawling +deliberately among the herbage, eating in the same deliberate style +which characterises all its movements, and occasionally resting in the +same spot for many hours together, apparently enjoying the warm beams +of the sunshine. + +As winter approaches, it slowly scrapes a deep hole in the ground, and +buries itself until the following spring awakes it once more to active +life. The depth of its burrow depends on the severity of the winter, +for, as the cold increases, the Tortoise sinks itself more deeply into +the earth. + + +MENTION has been made of a species of Tortoise that inhabits the +water. This is the CASPIAN EMYS (_Emys caspica_), a small species, +measuring about six inches in length. It belongs to the large family +of the Terrapins, several of which are so well known in America, and +has a long, retractile neck, very sharp jaws, and webbed feet, and a +well-developed tail. + +The body is flattish, and the colour is olive, with lines of yellow +edged with black, and the head is marked with longitudinal streaks of +bright yellow. After the death of the creature these yellow streaks +fade away gradually, and at last become nearly black. The skin of the +head is thin, but very hard. In general appearance it is not unlike +the chicken Tortoise of America, a species which is often brought to +England and kept in captivity, on account of its hardy nature and the +little trouble which is needed for keeping it in health. + +I have kept specimens of the Caspian Emys for some time, and found +them to be more interesting animals than they at first promised to be. +They were active, swimming with considerable speed, and snatching +quickly at anything which they fancied might be food. + +They were exceedingly voracious, consuming daily a quantity of meat +apparently disproportioned to their size, and eating it in a manner +that strongly reminded me of the mole when engaged on a piece of meat +or the body of a bird or mouse. The Tortoise would plant its fore-paws +firmly at each side of the meat, seize a mouthful in its jaws, and, by +retracting its head violently, would tear away the piece which it had +grasped. + +They are most destructive among fish, and are apt to rise quietly +underneath a fish as it basks near the surface of the water, grasp it +beneath with its sharp-edged jaws, and tear away the piece, leaving +the fish to die. It is rather remarkable that the Lepidosiren, or +mud-fish of the Gambia, destroys fish in a precisely similar manner, +though, as its jaws are much sharper than those of the Emys, it does +not need the aid of fore-paws in biting out its mouthful of flesh. + +Like the land Tortoise, it is one of the hibernators, and during the +winter months buries itself deeply in the earth, choosing for this +purpose the soft, muddy bed or bank of the pond in which it lives. Its +eggs are white, and hard-shelled, but are more oval than those of the +land Tortoise, and both ends are nearly alike. In fact, its egg might +well be mistaken for that of a small pigeon. The shell has a +porcelain-like look, and is very liable to crack, so that the +resemblance is increased. + +There is one drawback to these reptiles when kept as pets. They give +out a very unpleasant odour, which is disagreeable to human nostrils, +but is absolutely terrifying to many animals. The monkey tribe have +the strongest objection to these aquatic Tortoises. I once held one of +them towards a very tame chimpanzee, much to his discomfiture. He +muttered and remonstrated, and retreated as far as he could, pushing +out his lips in a funnel-like form, and showing his repugnance to the +reptile in a manner that could not be mistaken. + +Horses seem to be driven almost frantic with terror, not only by the +sight, but by the odour of these Tortoises. In Southern Africa there +are Tortoises closely allied to the Caspian Emys, and having the same +power of frightening horses. In "Land and Water" for February 22d, +1869, there is an account of an adventure with one of those Tortoises, +called in the catalogue of the British Museum the Reddish Pelamedusa. +It is of an olive colour, and, when adult, there is a slight +depression on either side of the vertebral line. + +"Some very awkward accidents have occurred to parties from the terror +caused by the fresh-water turtle (_Pelamedusa subrufa_). Carts have +been smashed to fragments, riders thrown, and the utmost confusion +caused by them. It is their smell, and it is certainly very +disagreeable. + +"My first acquaintance with the fact was in this wise. I was out +shooting with two young ladies who had volunteered as markers; and, as +you know, all our shooting is done from horseback. I had jumped off +for a shot at some francolins near a knill, or water-hole, and, after +picking up my birds, was coming round the knill to windward of the +horses. In my path scrambled a turtle. I called out to my young +friends, and told them of my find, on which one of them, in a hasty +voice, said, 'Oh, please, Mr. L., don't touch it; you will frighten +the horses!' + +"Of course I laughed at the idea, and picked up the reptile, which +instantly emitted its pungent odour--its means of defence. Though a +long way off, the moment the horses caught the scent, away they flew, +showing terror in every action. The girls, luckily splendid riders, +tugged in vain at the reins; away they went over the Veldt, leaving me +in mortal fear that the yawning 'aard-vark' holes (_Orycteropus +capensis_) would break their necks. My own horse, which I had hitched +to a bush, tore away his bridle, and with the ends streaming in the +wind and the stirrups clashing about him, sped off home at full +gallop, and was only recovered after a severe chase by my gallant +young Amazons, who, after a race of some miles, succeeded in checking +their affrighted steeds and in securing my runaway. But for some hours +after, if I ventured to windward, there were wild-looking eyes and +cocked ears--the smell of the reptile clung to me." + +Should any of my readers keep any of those water Tortoises, they will +do well to supply them plentifully with food, to give them an elevated +rocky perch on which they can scramble, and on which they will sit for +hours so motionless that at a little distance they can scarcely be +distinguished from the stone on which they rest. They should also be +weighed at regular intervals, as decrease of weight is a sure sign +that something is wrong, and, as a general rule, is an almost certain +precursor of death. + +This little reptile is not without its legends. According to the old +writers on natural history, it is of exceeding use to vine-growers in +the season when there is excess of rain or hail. Whenever the owner of +a vineyard sees a black cloud approaching, all he has to do is, to +take one of these Tortoises, lay it on its back, and carry it round +the vineyard. He must then go into the middle of the ground and lay +the reptile on the earth, still on its back; and the effect of this +proceeding would be that the cloud would pass aside from a place so +well protected. + +"But," proceeds the narrator, not wishing to be responsible for the +statement, "such diabolical and foolish observations were not so muche +to be remembered in this place, were it not for their sillinesse, that +by knowing them men might learn the weaknesse of human wisdom when it +erreth from the fountain of all science and true knowledge (which is +Divinity), and the most approved assertions of nature. And so I will +say no more in this place of the sweet-water tortoise." + + +THE DHUBB. + +We now come to the second animal, which may probably be the Tzab of +the Old Testament. + +This creature is one of the lizards, and is a very odd-looking +creature. It is certainly not so attractive in appearance that the +Jews might be supposed to desire it as food; but it often happens +that, as is the case with the turtle and iguana, from the most +ungainly, in the latter animal even repulsive, forms are produced the +most delicate meats. + +The DHUBB, or EGYPTIAN MASTIGURE, as the lizard is indifferently +called, grows to a considerable size, measuring when adult three feet +in length. Its colour is green, variegated with brown, and is slightly +changeable, though not to the extent that distinguishes the chameleon. +The chief peculiarity of this lizard consists in its tail, which is +covered with a series of whorls or circles of long, sharply-pointed, +hard-edged scales. The very appearance of this tail suggests its use +as a weapon of defence, and it is said that even the dreaded cerastes +is conquered by it, when the lizard and the snake happen to find +themselves occupants of the same hole. + +The ancients had a very amusing notion respecting the use of the spiny +tail possessed by the Dhubb and its kin. They had an idea that, +comparatively small though it was, it fed upon cattle, and that it was +able to take them from the herd and drive them to its home. For this +purpose, when it had selected an ox, it jumped on its back, and by the +pricking of its sharp claws drove the animal to gallop in hope of +ridding himself of his tormentor. In order to guide him in the +direction of its home, it made use of its tail, lashing the ox "to +make him go with his rider to the place of his most fit execution, +free from all rescue of his herdsman, or pastor, or the annoyance of +passengers, where, in most cruel and savage manner, he teareth the +limbs and parts one from another till he be devoured." + +This very absurd account is headed by an illustration, which, though +bad in drawing and rude in execution, is yet so bold and truthful that +there is no doubt that it was sketched from the living animal. + +As it haunts sandy downs, rocky spots, and similar localities, it is +well adapted for the Holy Land, which is the home of a vast number of +reptiles, especially of those belonging to the lizards. In the summer +time they have the full enjoyment of the hot sunbeams, in which they +delight, and which seem to rouse these cold-blooded creatures to +action, while they deprive the higher animals of all spirit and +energy. In the winter time these very spots afford localities wherein +the lizards can hibernate until the following spring, and in such a +case they furnish the reptiles with secure hiding-places. + +Although the Dhubb does not destroy and tear to pieces oxen and other +cattle, it is yet a rather bloodthirsty reptile, and will kill and +devour birds as large as the domestic fowl. Usually, however, its food +consists of beetles and other insects, which it takes deliberately. + +Whether or not the Dhubb be the same reptile as the Tzab of the Old +Testament, the resemblance between the Hebrew and Arabic words is very +remarkable. + + + + +THE LEVIATHAN OR CROCODILE. + + Signification of the word _Leviathan_--Description in the Book + of Job--Structure and general habits of the Crocodile--The + throat-valve and its use--Position of the nostrils--Worship of + the Crocodile--The reptile known in the Holy Land--Two legends + respecting its presence there--Mode of taking prey--Cunning of + the Crocodile--The baboons and the Crocodile--Speed of the + reptile--Eggs and young of the Crocodile, and their + enemies--Curious story of the ichneumon and ibis--Modes of + capturing the Crocodile--Analysis of Job's description--The + Crocodile also signified by the word _Tannin_. Aaron's rod + changed into a Tannin--Various passages in which the word + occurs--Use of the word by the prophet Jeremiah. + + +The word _Leviathan_ is used in a rather loose manner in the Old +Testament, in some places representing a mammalian of the sea, and in +others signifying a reptile inhabiting the rivers. As in the most +important of these passages the Crocodile is evidently signified, we +will accept that rendering, and consider the Crocodile as being the +Leviathan of Scripture. The Jewish Bible accepts the word Crocodile, +and does not add the mark of doubt. + +The fullest account of the Leviathan occurs in Job xli., the whole of +which chapter is given to the description of the terrible reptile. As +the translation of the Jewish Bible differs in some points from that +of the Authorized Version, I shall here give the former, so that the +reader may be able to compare them with each other. + +"Canst thou draw out a crocodile with a hook, or his tongue with a +cord which thou lettest down? + +"Canst thou put a reed into his nose, or bore his jaw through with a +thorn? + +"Will he make many supplications unto thee? will he speak soft words +unto thee? + +"Will he make a covenant with thee? wilt thou take him as a servant +for ever? + +"Wilt thou play with him as with a bird, or wilt thou bind him for thy +maidens? + +"Shall the companions make a banquet of him? shall they part him among +the merchants? + +"Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons, or his head with +fish-spears? + +"Lay thine hand upon him, thou wilt no more remember the battle. + +"Behold, the hope of him is in vain; shall not one be cast down at the +sight of him? + +"None is so fierce that dare stir him up; who then is able to stand +before Me? + +"Who hath forestalled Me that I should repay him? whatsoever is under +the whole heaven is Mine. + +"I will not be silent of his parts, nor of the matter of his power, +nor of his comely proportion. + +"Who can uncover the face of his garment? who would enter the double +row in his jaw? + +"Who can open the doors of his face? his teeth are terrible round +about. + +"The strength of his shields are his pride, shut up together as with a +close seal. + +"One is so near to another that no air can come between them. + +"They are joined one to another, they stick together that they cannot +be sundered. + +"His snortings make light to shine, and his eyes are like the eyelids +of the morning dawn. + +"Out of his nostrils goeth smoke, as out of a seething pot or caldron. + +"His breath kindleth live coals, and a flame goeth out of his mouth. + +"In his neck abideth strength, and before him danceth terror. + +"The flakes of his flesh are joined together, they are firm in +themselves; yea, as hard as nether millstone. + +"When he raiseth himself up, the mighty are afraid; by reason of +breakings they lose themselves. + +"The sword of him that layeth at him cannot hold: the spear, the dart, +nor the habergeon. + +"He esteemeth iron as straw, and copper as rotten wood. + +"The arrow cannot make him flee: sling-stones are turned with him into +stubble. + +"Clubs are counted as stubble; he laugheth at the shaking of a spear. + +"His under parts are like sharp points of potsherd; he speaketh sharp +points upon the mire. + +"He maketh the deep to boil like a pot; he maketh the sea like a pot +of ointment. + +"He maketh a path to shine after him; one would think the deep to be +hoary. + +"Upon earth there is not his like, who is made without fear. + +"He beholdeth all high things; he is a king over all the children of +pride." + +This splendid description points as clearly to the Crocodile as the +description of the Behemoth which immediately precedes it does to the +hippopotamus, and it is tolerably evident that the sacred poet who +wrote these passages must have been personally acquainted with both +the Crocodile and the hippopotamus. In both descriptions there are a +few exaggerations, or rather, poetical licences. For example, the +bones of the hippopotamus are said to be iron and copper, and the +Crocodile is said to kindle live coals with his breath. These, +however, are but the natural imagery of an Oriental poet, and, +considering the subject, we may rather wonder that the writer has not +introduced even more fanciful metaphors. + + +Before proceeding with the Biblical portion of the history of this +formidable reptile, I will mention a few points connected with the +Crocodile and its kin. There are several species of Crocodile in +different parts of the world, ten species at least being known to +science. Some inhabit India, some tropical America, some Asia, and +some Africa, so that the genus is represented in nearly all the warmer +parts of the world. + +They are all known by the formation of the teeth, the lower canines +fitting each into a notch on the side of the upper jaw. The feet are +webbed to the tips, and though the reptile mostly propels itself +through the water by means of its tail, it can also paddle itself +gently along by means of its feet. The teeth are all made for +snatching and tearing, but not for masticating, the Crocodile +swallowing its prey entire when possible; and when the animal is too +large to be eaten entire, the reptile tears it to pieces, and swallows +the fragments without attempting to masticate them. + +In order to enable it to open its mouth under water, the back of its +throat is furnished with a very simple but beautiful contrivance, +whereby the water is received on a membranous valve, and, in +proportion to its pressure, closes the orifice of the throat. As the +Crocodiles mostly seize their prey in their open jaws and hold it +under water until devoured, it is evident that without such a +structure as has been described the Crocodile would be as likely to +drown itself as its prey. But the throat-valve enables it to keep its +mouth open while the water is effectually prevented from running down +its throat, and the nostrils, placed at the end of the snout, enable +it to breathe at its ease, while the unfortunate animal which it has +captured is being drowned beneath the surface of the water. + +This position of the nostrils serves another purpose, and enables the +Crocodile to breathe while the whole of its body is under the water, +and only an inch or two of the very end of the snout is above the +surface. As, moreover, the Crocodile, as is the case with most +reptiles, is able to exist for a considerable time without breathing, +it only needs to protrude its nostrils for a few moments, and can then +sink entirely beneath the water. In this way the reptile is able to +conceal itself in case it should suspect danger; and as, in such +instances, it dives under the herbage of the river, and merely thrusts +its nose into the air among the reeds and rashes, it is evident that, +in spite of its enormous size, it baffles the observation of almost +every foe. + +The Crocodile is one of the many animals to which divine honours were +paid by the Egyptians. This we learn from several sources. Herodotus, +for example, in "Euterpe," chapter 69, writes as follows: "Those who +dwell about Thebes and Lake Moeris, consider them to be very sacred; +and they each of them train up a Crocodile, which is taught to be +quite tame; and they put crystal and gold ear-rings into their ears, +and bracelets on their fore-paws; and they give them appointed and +sacred food, and treat them as well as possible while alive, and when +dead, they embalm them, and bury them in sacred vaults. + +"But the people who dwell about the city of Elephantine eat them, not +considering them as sacred." + +The reasons for this worship are several. At the root of them all lies +the tendency of man to respect that which he fears rather than that +which he loves; and the nearer the man approaches the savage state, +the more is this feeling developed. By this tendency his worship is +regulated, and it will be found that when man is sufficiently advanced +to be capable of worship at all, his reverence is invariably paid to +the object which has the greatest terrors for him. The Crocodile, +therefore, being the animal that was most dreaded by the ancient +Egyptians, was accepted as the natural type of divinity. + +By degrees, though the worship of the Crocodile was retained, the +worshippers thought themselves obliged to find reasons for their +veneration, and some of them said that they considered the Crocodile a +type of divinity because it had no tongue, and was therefore an emblem +of divine power, which requires no tongue wherewith to speak. "For by +a mute and silent way it ascendeth, and bringeth all things mortal to +a vocal justice, which speaketh in action, though not in voyce, even +as all that is in the Crocodile is action and not voyce." + +Some said that they reverenced the Crocodile because it laid +threescore eggs and lived threescore years, this being the span of +human life. Others, and these give by far the best reason, say that +divine honours are paid to the Crocodile because the time of laying +the eggs and hatching the young foreshows the annual rising of the +Nile, on which depends the prosperity of the whole country. Still +there is no doubt that, whatever explanations may have been offered by +the advocates of Crocodile worship, the true reason for it was nothing +but the terror inspired by the animal. + + +Owing to the accuracy of the description in the Book of Job, which is +evidently written by one who was personally acquainted with the +Crocodile, it is thought by many commentators that the writer must +have been acquainted with the Nile, in which river both the Crocodile +and hippopotamus are found at the present day. + +It is possible, however, that the hippopotamus and the Crocodile have +had at one time a much wider range than they at present enjoy. Even +within the memory of man the hippopotamus has been driven further and +further up the Nile by the encroachments of man. It has long been said +that even at the present day the Crocodile exists in Palestine in the +river which is called "Nhar Zurka," which flows from Samaria through +the plains of Sharon. Several of the older writers have mentioned its +existence in this river, and, since this work was commenced, the +long-vexed question has been set at rest; a Crocodile, eight feet in +length, having been captured in the Nhar Zurka. + +In her "Domestic Life in Palestine," Miss Rogers gives an old legend +by which the people account for the presence of Crocodiles in this +river. Many ages ago there dwelt upon the bank of the river an old man +and his two sons, the elder of whom was idle and profligate, while the +younger was industrious and virtuous. + +The father died, and left them each an equal share of his wealth--the +flocks and herds which fed on the rich banks of the river. In process +of time, the elder brother wasted all his property by riotous living +and neglect, while the younger brother had greatly increased his +flocks and herds, and had become a wealthy man. The elder, being +jealous of his brothers prosperity, sought in his mind how to do him +an injury. Accordingly, he travelled to Egypt, brought some young +Crocodiles thence, and turned them into the river, hoping that they +would destroy his brother's flocks as they came to drink. + +Some time afterwards, he went down to the river, and, as he had been +accustomed to do, descended to the water to wash, when the Crocodiles +seized him, dragged him into the water, and devoured him. + +This is one legend. Another states that many years ago a colony of +Egyptians had settled on the bank of the Nhar Zurka, and that they, +being worshippers of the Crocodile, brought some of the young from the +Nile and established them in the river, which thenceforward bore the +name of Nhar Zurka, or the Crocodile River. The reader will doubtless +have noticed that in both these legends the Crocodile is said to be an +importation from the Nile, and is not held to be indigenous to the +river. + +Allusion is made in the former of these two legends to the mode in +which the Crocodile seizes its prey. It does not attack it openly, +neither, as some have said, does it go on shore for that purpose. It +watches to see whether any animal comes to drink, and then, sinking +beneath the surface of the water, dives rapidly, rises unexpectedly +beneath the unsuspecting victim, seizes it with a sudden snap of its +huge jaws, and drags it beneath the water. Should the intended prey be +too far from the water to be reached by the mouth, or so large that it +may offer a successful resistance, the Crocodile strikes it a +tremendous blow with its tail, and knocks it into the water. The +dwellers on the Nile bank say that a large Crocodile will with a +single blow of its tail break all the four legs of an ox or a horse. + +These cunning reptiles even contrive to catch birds as they come for +water. On the banks of the Nile the smaller birds drink in a very +peculiar manner. They settle in numbers on the flexible branches that +overhang the stream, and when, by their weight, the branch bends +downwards, they dip their beaks in the water. The Crocodile sees afar +off a branch thus loaded, swims as near as possible, and then dives +until it can see the birds immediately above it, when it rises +suddenly, and with a snap of its jaws secures a whole mouthful of the +unsuspecting birds. + +Sir S. Baker, in his travels on the Nile, gave much attention to the +Crocodile, and has collected a great amount of interesting information +about the reptile, much of which is peculiarly valuable, inasmuch as +it illustrates the Scriptural notices of the creature. He states that +it is a very crafty animal, and that its usual mode of attack is by +first showing itself, then swimming slowly away to a considerable +distance, so as to make its intended victim think that danger is over, +and then returning under water. It is by means of this manoeuvre that +it captures the little birds. It first makes a dash at them, +open-mouthed, causing them to take to flight in terror. It then sails +slowly away as if it were so baffled that it did not intend to renew +the attack. When it is at a considerable distance, the birds think +that their enemy has departed, and return to the branch, which they +crowd more than ever, and in a minute or two several dozen of them are +engulfed in the mouth of the Crocodile, which has swiftly dived under +them. + +On one occasion, Sir S. Baker was walking near the edge of the river, +when he heard a great shrieking of women on the opposite bank. It +turned out that a number of women had been filling their "gerbas" +(water-skins), when one of them was suddenly attacked by a large +Crocodile. She sprang back, and the reptile, mistaking the filled +gerba for a woman, seized it, and gave the owner time to escape. It +then dashed at the rest of the women, but only succeeded in seizing +another gerba. + + [Illustration: THE CROCODILE, THE LEVIATHAN OF SCRIPTURE. + + "Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons? or his head with fish + spears."--JOB xli. 7.] + +A short time previously a Crocodile, thought by the natives to be the +same individual, had seized a woman and carried her off; and another +had made an attack on a man in a very curious manner. A number +of men were swimming across the river, supported, after their +custom, on gerbas inflated with air, when one of them felt himself +seized by the leg by a Crocodile, which tried to drag him under water. +He, however, retained his hold on the skin, and his companions also +grasped his arms and hair with one hand, while with the other they +struck with their spears at the Crocodile. At last they succeeded in +driving the reptile away, and got their unfortunate companion to land, +where they found that the whole of the flesh was stripped from the leg +from the knee downwards. The poor man died shortly afterwards. + +These crafty reptiles also try to catch the baboons by lying in wait +for them at their drinking places; but the baboons are generally more +than a match for the Crocodile in point of cunning and quickness of +sight. Sir S. Baker witnessed an amusing example of such an attempt +and its failure. + +"The large tamarind-trees on the opposite bank are generally full of +the dog-faced baboons (_Cynocephalus_) at their drinking hour. I +watched a large Crocodile creep slily out of the water and lie in +waiting among the rocks at the usual drinking place before they +arrived, but the baboons were too wide awake to be taken in so easily. + +"A young fellow was the first to discover the enemy. He had +accompanied several wise and experienced old hands to the extremity of +a bough that at a considerable height overhung the river; from this +post they had a bird's eye view, and reconnoitred before one of the +numerous party descended to drink. The sharp eyes of the young one at +once detected the Crocodile, who matched in colour so well with the +rocks that most probably a man would not have noticed it until too +late. + +"At once the young one commenced shaking the bough and screaming with +all his might, to attract the attention of the Crocodile and to induce +it to move. In this he was immediately joined by the whole party, who +yelled in chorus, while the large old males bellowed defiance, and +descended to the lowest branches within eight or ten feet of the +Crocodile. It was of no use--the pretender never stirred, and I +watched it until dark. It remained still in the same place, waiting +for some unfortunate baboon whose thirst might provoke his fate, but +not one was sufficiently foolish, although the perpendicular bank +prevented them from drinking except at that particular spot." + +It may be imagined that if the Crocodile were to depend entirely for +its food upon the animals that it catches on the bank or in the river, +it would run a risk of starving. The fact is, that its principal food +consists of fish, which it can chase in the water. The great speed at +which the Crocodile darts through the water is not owing to its webbed +feet, but to its powerful tail, which is swept from side to side, and +thus propels the reptile after the manner of a man "sculling" a boat +with a single oar in the stern. The whales and the fishes have a +similar mode of propulsion. + +On land, the tail is the Crocodile's most formidable weapon. It is one +mass of muscle and sinew, and the force of its lateral stroke is +terrible, sweeping away every living thing that it may meet. +Fortunately for its antagonists, the Crocodile can turn but very +slowly, so that, although it can scramble along at a much faster pace +than its appearance indicates, there is no great difficulty in +escaping, provided that the sweep of its tail be avoided. As the +Crocodile of the Nile attains when adult a length of thirty feet, one +moiety of which is taken up by the tail, it may easily be imagined +that the power of this weapon can scarcely be exaggerated. + +As if to add to the terrors of the animal, its head, back, and tail +are shielded by a series of horny scales, which are set so closely +together that the sharpest spear can seldom find its way through them, +and even the rifle ball glances off, if it strikes them obliquely. +Like many other reptiles, the Crocodile is hatched from eggs which are +laid on shore and vivified by the warmth of the sun. + +These eggs are exceedingly small when compared with the gigantic +lizard which deposited them, scarcely equalling in dimensions those of +the goose. There is now before me an egg of the cayman of South +America, a fresh-water lizard but little smaller than the Crocodile of +the Nile, and this is barely equal in size to an ordinary hen's egg. +It is longer in proportion to its width, but the contents of the two +eggs would be as nearly as possible of the same bulk. On the exterior +it is very rough, having a granulated appearance, not unlike that of +dried sharkskin, and the shell is exceedingly thin and brittle. The +lining membrane, however, is singularly thick and tough, so that the +egg is tolerably well defended against fracture. + +When first hatched, the young Crocodile is scarcely larger than a +common newt, but it attains most formidable dimensions in a very short +time. Twenty or thirty eggs are laid in one spot, and, were they not +destroyed by sundry enemies, the Crocodiles would destroy every living +creature in the rivers. Fortunately, the eggs and young have many +enemies, chiefly among which is the well-known ichneumon, which +discovers the place where the eggs are laid and destroys them, and +eats any young Crocodiles that it can catch before they succeed in +making their way to the water. + +The old writers were aware of the services rendered by the ichneumon, +but, after their wont, exaggerated them by additions of their own, +saying that the ichneumon enters into the mouth of the Crocodile as it +lies asleep, and eats its way through the body, "putting the Crocodile +to exquisite and intolerable torment, while the Crocodile tumbleth to +and fro, sighing and weeping, now in the depth of water, now on the +land, never resting till strength of nature faileth. For the incessant +gnawing of the ichneumon so provoketh her to seek her rest in the +unrest of every part, herb, element, throws, throbs, rollings, but all +in vain, for the enemy within her breatheth through her breath, and +sporteth herself in the consumption of those vital parts which waste +and wear away by yielding to unpacificable teeth, one after another, +till she that crept in by stealth at the mouth, like a puny thief, +comes out at the belly like a conqueror, through a passage opened by +her own labour and industry." + +The author has in the long passage, a part of which is here quoted, +mentioned that the ichneumon takes its opportunity of entering the +jaws of the Crocodile as it lies with its mouth open against the beams +of the sun. It is very true that the Crocodile does sleep with its +mouth open; and, in all probability, the older observers, knowing that +the ichneumon did really destroy the eggs and young of the Crocodile, +only added a little amplification, and made up their minds that it +also destroyed the parents. The same writer who has lately been quoted +ranks the ibis among the enemies of the Crocodile, and says that the +bird affects the reptile with such terror that, if but an ibis's +feather be laid on its back, the Crocodile becomes rigid and unable +to move. The Arabs of the present time say that the water-tortoises +are enemies to the eggs, scratching them out of the sand and eating +them. + + +We will now pass to the description of the Crocodile in the Book of +Job. + +In the beginning of that description, Job is asked in irony whether he +can draw out Leviathan with a hook, or bore his jaw with a thorn. This +is probably in allusion, not so much to the size and strength of the +Crocodile, as to its cunning. At the present time the Arabs of the +Nile assert that to catch a Crocodile with a hook is impossible. Mr. +Lowth suggested to his boatmen that, if a large hook were baited with +meat, a Crocodile might be caught. Yusef eagerly denied the +possibility of such a capture: "Him too clever--crocodile looking out +of his eye so" (making a squint)--"he see everything like one man, as +crocodile like man--people thinking him was one man long time, very +long time." + +According to Herodotus, however, the Egyptians did take the Crocodile +with a hook, which they first baited with a small pig, and let into +the river, and then beat another pig so as to make it scream. The +Crocodile, hearing the cries of the pig, swims to seize its prey, and +swallows the baited hook instead of the living pig. As soon as it is +caught, the hunters draw it on shore, and when it tries to attack +them, they throw sand into its eyes so as to blind it. It is +remarkable that the Arab hunters of the Nile still employ sand as +their best defensive weapon when they have harpooned a hippopotamus +and dragged it to the bank. The animal, finding that it cannot +retreat, charges into the men, who repel it by throwing sand into its +eyes. + +The expression "boring his jaw with a thorn" probably refers to the +fishermen's universal custom of stringing together the captured fish +by a twig passed through the mouth. In the late Mr. Waterton's +"Wanderings" there is an account of the method employed by the natives +in catching the cayman, which is the Crocodile of tropical America. A +steel hook was tried and found useless, but one of the natives made in +a short time an ingenious hook, composed of four sharpened wooden +spikes, with which he succeeded in catching the reptile, thus +literally boring its jaw with a thorn. + +Allusion is made to the impenetrable character of the scale in verses +7, 15, 16, 17, and from verses 26 to 30. Verse 8 is given better in +the Jewish Bible than in the Authorized Version. "Lay thine hand upon +him, thou wilt no more remember the battle." The same may be said of +verse 22, which is thus rendered in the Authorized Version: "In his +neck remaineth strength, and sorrow is turned into joy before him." +The marginal reading gives the last verse as "sorrow rejoiceth." +Neither of these expressions is very intelligible, but the rendering +of the Jewish Bible is not only clear, but forcible. "In his neck +abideth strength, and before him danceth terror." + +In verse 13 the marginal translation is nearly the correct one: "Who +can come to him within his double bridle?" and the Jewish Bible gives +the real meaning of the passage, showing that allusion is made to the +double rows of teeth in both jaws, those of the upper interlacing into +those of the lower. "Who would enter the double (row) in his jaw?" +this reading being carried out by the following verse: "Who can open +the doors of his face? his teeth are terrible round about" (Jewish +Bible). + +The quick sight of the Crocodile is mentioned in verse 18, his eyelids +being compared to the "eyes of the morning," this metaphor being +further illustrated by the hieroglyphs, wherein the eye of the +Crocodile is employed as the emblem of day-dawn. The impossibility of +domesticating this terrible reptile is shown in verses 4 and 5: "Will +he make many supplications unto thee? Will he speak soft words unto +thee? + +"Wilt thou play with him as with a bird? or wilt thou bind him for thy +maidens?" + +Allusion is evidently made to the disagreeable nature of its flesh, +which is penetrated with a strong musky odour, in verse 6: "Shall the +companions make a banquet of him? Shall they part him among the +merchants?" + +And lastly, the foam raised by the lashing of the Crocodile's mighty +tail, and the wake that is left behind it as it urges itself through +the water, are mentioned in verses 31 and 32. + + +It is not unlikely that the word Leviathan also signified any of the +larger inhabitants of the waters, whether marine or reptile, and that +a whale or a Crocodile would be equally called by that name. In this +sense we must interpret the well-known passage, Ps. civ. 24-26: + +"O Lord, how manifold are Thy works! in wisdom hast Thou made them +all: the earth is full of Thy riches. + +"So is this great and wide sea" (_i.e._ the Mediterranean), "wherein +are things creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts. + +"There go the ships: there is that Leviathan, whom Thou hast made to +play therein." In this passage the writer points to some large +inhabitant of the Mediterranean, or the Great Sea, as it is called in +Scripture, to distinguish it from the Sea of Galilee, and the only +creature which would answer to the allusion must be one of the larger +cetacean. + + +We also find that the Crocodile must be signified by the Hebrew word +_tannin_, which occurs in several parts of Scripture, and which is +sometimes translated as "dragon," and sometimes as "serpent," and +sometimes as "whale." For example, in Exod. vii. 10, we find the +well-known passage which relates the changing of Aaron's rod into a +Tannin, or serpent, as the Authorized Version translates it. The +Jewish Bible, however, simply renders the word as "huge creature." +Next, we come to Deut. xxxii. 33: "Their wine is the poison of +dragons, and the cruel venom of asps." This passage is rendered in the +Jewish Bible as "Their wine is the fury of huge creatures, and the +cruel venom [or head] of asps." + +The same word occurs in Job vii. 12: "Am I a sea, or a whale +[_tannin_], that thou settest a watch over me?" We also find it in +Jer. ix. 11: "And I will make Jerusalem heaps, and a den of dragons +[_tannin_];" and the same image is repeated in x. 22: "Behold, the +noise of the bruit is come, and a great commotion out of the north +country, to make the cities of Judah desolate, and a den of dragons." +The same prophet again repeats the word in xiv. 6: "The wild asses did +stand in the high places, they snuffed up the wind like dragons." + +There is nothing in any of these passages which would give any clue as +to the creature that was signified by the word _tannin_, but we obtain +a clue to it in Ezek. xxix. 2-5: "Son of man, set thy face against +Pharaoh king of Egypt, and prophesy against him, and against all +Egypt: + +"Speak, and say, Thus saith the Lord God, Behold, I am against thee, +Pharaoh king of Egypt, the great dragon that lieth in the midst of his +rivers, which hath said, My river is mine own, and I have made it for +myself. + +"But I will put hooks in thy jaws, and T will cause the fish of thy +rivers to stick unto thy scales; and I will bring thee up out of the +midst of thy rivers, and all the fish of thy rivers shall stick unto +thy scales. + +"And I will leave thee thrown into the wilderness, thee and all the +fish of thy rivers: thou shalt fall upon the open fields; thou shalt +not be brought together nor gathered: I have given thee for meat to +the beasts of the field, and to the fowls of the heaven." + +See also xxxii. 2, 3: "Son of man, take up a lamentation for Pharaoh +king of Egypt, and say unto him, Thou art like a young lion of the +nations, and thou art as a whale [_tannin_] in the seas; and thou +camest forth with thy rivers, and troubledst the waters with thy feet, +and fouledst their rivers. + +"Thus saith the Lord God, I will therefore spread out my net over thee +with a company of many people; and they shall bring thee up in my +net." + +There is a peculiar significance in the comparison of Pharaoh to the +Crocodile. It is the master and terror of the Nile, of whom all +animals stand in fear. It is ravenous, crafty, fierce, and relentless, +keen-eyed to espy prey, and swift to devour it. Yet, in spite of all +these evil qualities, the Egyptians venerated it, pampered it, hung it +with costly jewels, and paid divine honours to it, exactly as they +considered their despotic sovereign as a demigod during his life, and +honoured him with an apotheosis after his death. + +Like the Crocodile, secure in his scaly armour, Pharaoh thought +himself invincible, but, though man could not conquer him, God could +do so. Man could not "put a hook into his nose, or bore his jaws +through with a thorn" (Job xli. 2); but the Lord could "put hooks in +his jaws, and bring him up out of the midst of his rivers, and give +him for meat to the beasts of the field and the fowls of the heaven." + +Taking also the Tannin of Exod. vii. to be the Crocodile, we see how +appropriate were all the circumstances. The miracle was performed in +the presence of Pharaoh, who is afterwards spoken of under the emblem +of the "dragon (_tannin_) that lieth in the midst of the river." The +rod of the future high priest of the Lord was changed into the +Crocodile, which was worshipped by the Egyptian priests and magicians; +and when they imitated the miracle, Aaron's rod swallowed up those of +the heathen in token that the Lord would destroy idolatry. + +It is worthy of mention here that, although in the Authorized Version +of the Scriptures, the rods of both Moses and Aaron are mentioned as +having been changed into serpents, the words which are translated as +serpents are different. The rod of Aaron, the priest, was turned into +a Tannin, _i.e._ Crocodile; that of Moses, the lawgiver, into a +Nachash or serpent. + +There is one passage which seems to imply that the word _tannin_ may +signify a cetacean. It occurs in Lam. iv. 3: "Even the sea-monsters +[_tannin_] draw out the breast, they give suck to their young ones." +If the sacred writers were aware that the cetaceans were mammals and +suckled their young, and that the Crocodile left its offspring to find +food for themselves, there would be no doubt on the subject. But it is +not at all likely that the Prophet Jeremiah, his soul torn by the +crimes of his country and the calamities which he foresaw, persecuted +by his own people, his life endangered by the forebodings that he was +compelled to utter, imprisoned, exiled, and at last dying in a strange +land, would have been versed in natural history, or would have +troubled himself to inquire as to the manner in which the young of the +Crocodile were fed. The sense of the passage is plain enough, and +contains a rebuke to the people in that they neglect their children, +and were worse than the ferocious inhabitants of the water, as we +shall see on reading the whole of the passage: "Even the sea-monster +draws out the breast; they give suck to their young ones: the daughter +of my people is become cruel, like the ostriches in the wilderness. + +"The tongue of the sucking child cleaveth to the roof of his mouth for +thirst; the young children ask bread, and no man breaketh it unto +them." + + + + +THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD. + + Difficulty of identifying the Letââh--Probability that it is a + collective and not a specific term--Various Lizards of + Palestine--The Green or Jersey Lizard--The Cyprius, its + appearance and habits--The Glass Snake or + Scheltopusic--Translation of the word _chomet_--Probability that + it signifies the Skink--Medicinal uses of the Lizard--The Seps + tribe--The common Cicigna, and the popular belief concerning its + habits--The Sphænops and its shallow tunnel. + + +In Leviticus xi. 30, the word Lizard is used as the rendering of the +Hebrew word _letââh_ (pronounced as L'tâh-âh). There are one or two +difficulties about the word, but, without going into the question of +etymology, which is beside the object of this work, it will be +sufficient to state that the best authorities accept the rendering, +and that in the Jewish Bible the word Lizard is retained, but with the +mark of doubt appended to it. + +In all probability, the sacred lawgiver employs the word _letââh_ as a +general term; so that, although he prohibits certain Lizards by name, +as having been used for food by the various nations with whom the +Israelites were necessarily brought in contact during their captivity, +their wanderings, and their final conquest of Palestine, he implies +that the whole of the Lizard tribe are to be considered as unfit to be +eaten by the chosen people. + +We shall presently examine some of those which are prohibited by name, +and it will be sufficient in the present case to glance at the Lizard +tribes of Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. + +These lands absolutely swarm with Lizards. Even in our own country, +Lizards are far more common than is generally known. I have caused the +greatest surprise in an agricultural county by catching and showing to +the field-labourers the common Scaly Lizard (_Zootoca vivipara_). The +little reptile was exceedingly plentiful, and yet not one of the +labourers, nor even their employers, had seen it. + +In warmer parts of the earth, the Lizards are so numerous and so +comparatively large that they force themselves upon the notice. For +example, the well-known GREEN or JERSEY LIZARD (_Lacerta viridis_) is +exceedingly plentiful, and may be seen darting among the leaves in +search of prey, after the erratic manner of Lizards generally, which +will remain absolutely motionless for hours together, then whisk about +so rapidly that the eye can scarcely follow their movements, and +subside into quiescence as suddenly as they started from it. + + [Illustration: THE CYPRIUS, OR LIZARD OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, + and the mole._"--LEVIT. xi. 30.] + +In many parts of the world, especially in France, where the terror +inspired by nearly all reptiles is really ludicrous, this beautiful +and harmless creature is feared as if it were a venomous serpent, and, +to judge from experience, I doubt whether a cobra or a rattlesnake +would excite more horror than a Green Lizard. + + +A very common species of Lizard, and therefore likely to be one of +those which are grouped under the common name of Letââh, is the +Cyprius (_Plestiodon auratum_). This handsome Lizard is golden-yellow +in colour, beautifully spotted with orange and scarlet, and may be +distinguished, even when the colours have fled after death, by the +curiously formed ears, which are strongly toothed in front. It is very +plentiful in Palestine, and, like others of its kin, avoids cultivated +tracts, and is generally found on rocky and sandy soil which cannot be +tilled. It is active, and, if alarmed, hides itself quickly in the +sand or under stones. + +It belongs to the great family of the Skinks, many of which, like the +familiar blind-worm of our own country, are without external legs, +and, though true Lizards, progress in a snake-like manner, and are +generally mistaken for snakes. One of these is the GLASS SNAKE or +SCHELTOPUSIC (_Pseudopus pallasii_), which has two very tiny hind +legs, but which is altogether so snake-like that it is considered by +the natives to be really a serpent. They may well be excused for their +error, as the only external indications of limbs are a pair of +slightly-projecting scales at the place where the hind legs would be +in a fully-developed Lizard. + +Though tolerably plentiful, the Scheltopusic is not very often seen, +as it is timid and wary, and, when it suspects danger, glides away +silently into some place of safety. When adult, the colour of this +Lizard is usually chestnut, profusely mottled with black or deep +brown, the edge of each scale being of the darker colour. It feeds +upon insects and small reptiles, and has been known to devour a nest +full of young birds. + + +In Levit. xi. 30 is a Hebrew word, _chomet_, which is given in the +Authorized Version as SNAIL. There is, however, no doubt that the word +is wrongly translated, and that by it some species of Lizard is +signified. The Jewish Bible follows the Authorized Version, but +affixes the mark of doubt to the word. There is another word, +_shablul_, which undoubtedly does signify the snail, and will be +mentioned in its proper place. + +It is most probable that the word _chomet_ includes, among other +Lizards, many of the smaller Skinks which inhabit Palestine. Among +them we may take as an example the COMMON SKINK (_Scincus +officinalis_), a reptile which derives its specific name from the fact +that it was formerly used in medicine, together with mummy, and the +other disgusting ingredients which formed the greater part of the old +Pharmacopoeia. + +Even at the present day, it is used for similar purposes in the East, +and is in consequence captured for the use of physicians, the body +being simply dried in the sun, and then sent to market for sale. It is +principally employed for the cure of sunstroke, nettle-rash, +sand-blindness, or fever, and both patient and physician have the +greatest confidence in its powers. It is said by some European +physicians that the flesh of the Skink really does possess medicinal +powers, and that it has fallen into disrepute chiefly because those +powers have been exaggerated. In former days, the head and feet were +thought to possess the greatest efficacy, and were valued accordingly. + +Like all its tribe, the Skink loves sandy localities, the soil exactly +suiting its peculiar habits. Although tolerably active, it does not +run so fast or so far as many other Lizards, and, when alarmed, it has +a peculiar faculty for sinking itself almost instantaneously under the +sand, much after the fashion of the shore-crabs of our own country. +Indeed, it is even more expeditious than the crab, which occupies some +little time in burrowing under the wet and yielding sand, whereas the +Skink slips beneath the dry and comparatively hard sand with such +rapidity that it seems rather to be diving into a nearly excavated +burrow than to be scooping a hollow for itself. + +The sand is therefore a place of safety to the Skink, which does not, +like the crab, content itself with merely burying its body just below +the surface, but continues to burrow, sinking itself in a few seconds +to the depth of nearly a yard. + +The length of the Skink is about eight inches, and its very variable +colour is generally yellowish brown, crossed with several dark bands. +Several specimens, however, are spotted instead of banded with brown, +while some are banded with white, and others are spotted with white. +In all, however, the under-surface is silver grey. + + +It has been thought by several zoologists, that several of the Lizards +belonging to the Seps family may be included in the general term of +Chomet. + +This theory is strengthened by the fact that those of the Sepsidæ +which have no visible feet, and which, after the custom of such +Lizards, burrow in the sand, are even at the present day eaten by +Arabs, under the convenient title of Sand-fishes. + +Several species of the Sepsidæ inhabit Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, +and of these we will take two as examples. + +The first is the COMMON SEPS or CICIGNA (_Seps tridactylis_), a nearly +legless Lizard, having a very long and snake-like body, and four legs, +so small and feeble as to be of scarcely any use in locomotion. + +It bears some resemblance to the blindworm of England, feeds on much +the same diet, and has similar habits. It is perfectly harmless, its +teeth being too small, and its jaws too feeble, to hurt any creature +larger than those on which it feeds; but, like the blindworm, it is +much dreaded by the ignorant, who believe that it steals upon horses +and other cattle by night, and bites them as they sleep. + +Like other Lizards of its kind, it is one of the sand-lovers, burying +itself when it suspects danger. + + +The second example of the Sepsidæ is one that has its chief home in +Egypt. This is the CAPISTRATED SPHÆNOPS (_Sphænops sepsoides_). This +reptile is also a burrower, but does not sink so deeply into the sand +as those Lizards which have just been noticed. Indeed, it scarcely +burrows deeply enough to cover it, so that with the foot the sand may +be scraped off, and the reptile discovered. + +Sometimes it has recourse to a substitute for a tunnel, and will crawl +along the deep rut made by a cart-wheel rather than take the trouble +of excavating a passage for itself. In consequence of this +peculiarity, it may generally be found in any ridged ground, such as +that which is employed in the cultivation of rice and other grain, +and, as it prefers to follow the course of the ridges rather than +leave them, it may be taken without much trouble. It is perfectly +harmless, and, although when taken it struggles violently to escape, +it never employs its teeth on the hand that holds it. The colour of +the Sphænops is pale brown, diversified with a black stripe on either +side of the muzzle, and a longitudinal series of black dots along the +body. The tail is conical and pointed. + + + + +THE CHAMELEON, MONITOR, AND GECKO. + + Translation of the word _Koach_--Signification of the word, and + its applicability to the Chameleon--Power of the reptile's + grasp--The prehensile tail--Demeanour of the Chameleon on the + ground--The independent eyes--Its frequent change of + colour--Mode of taking prey--Strange notions respecting the + Chameleon--The Monitor, or Land Crocodile--Its habits and use to + mankind--The Nilotic Monitor, and its habit of destroying the + eggs and young of the Crocodile--The Gecko or Ferret of + Scripture. + + +In Levit. xi. 30 there occurs a word which has caused great trouble to +commentators. The word is _koach_ (pronounced as a dissyllable thus, +ko-ach). Primarily, it signifies power and strength, but in this +passage it signifies the name of some creature which is included in +the list of unclean beasts. There is very little doubt that it +signifies some species of lizard, and in the Authorized Version it is +rendered as CHAMELEON. The Jewish Bible accepts the same translation, +but appends to it the mark of doubt. + +There are two lizards to which the term may possibly be +applied--namely, the Chameleon and the Monitor; and, as the Authorized +Version of the Scriptures accepts the former interpretation, we will +first describe the Chameleon. + + +This reptile is very plentiful in the Holy Land, as well as in Egypt, +so that the Israelites would be perfectly familiar with it, both +during their captivity and after their escape. It is but a small +reptile, and the reader may well ask why a name denoting strength +should be given to it. I think that we may find the reason for its +name in the extraordinary power of its grasp, as it is able, by means +of its peculiarly-formed feet and prehensile tail, to grasp the +branches so tightly that it can scarcely be removed without damage. + +I once saw six or seven Chameleons huddled up together, all having +clasped each other's legs and tails so firmly that they formed a +bundle that might be rolled along the ground without being broken up. +In order to show the extraordinary power of the Chameleon's grasp, I +have had a figure drawn from a sketch taken by myself from a specimen +which I kept for several months. + + [Illustration: GECKO AND CHAMELEON. + + "_And the ferret, and the chameleon, and the lizard, and the snail, + and the mole._"--LEVIT. xi. 30.] + +When the Chameleon wished to pass from one branch to another, it used +to hold firmly to the branch by the tail and one hind-foot, and +stretch out its body nearly horizontally, feeling about with the other +three feet, as if in search of a convenient resting-place. In this +curious attitude it would remain for a considerable time, apparently +suffering no inconvenience, though even the spider-monkey would have +been unable to maintain such an attitude for half the length of time. + +The strength of the grasp is really astonishing when contrasted with +the size of the reptile, as any one will find who allows the Chameleon +to grasp his finger, or who tries to detach it from the branch to +which it is clinging. The feet are most curiously made. They are +furnished with five toes, which are arranged like those of parrots and +other climbing birds, so as to close upon each other like the thumb +and finger of a human hand. They are armed with little yellow claws, +slightly curved and very sharp, and when they grasp the skin of the +hand they give it an unpleasantly sharp pinch. + +The tail is as prehensile as that of the spider-monkey, to which the +Chameleon bears a curious resemblance in some of its attitudes, though +nothing can be more different than the volatile, inquisitive, restless +disposition of the spider-monkey and the staid, sober demeanour of the +Chameleon. The reptile has the power of guiding the tail to any object +as correctly as if there were an eye at the end of the tail. When it +has been travelling over the branches of trees, I have often seen it +direct its tail to a projecting bud, and grasp it as firmly as if the +bud had been before and not behind it. + +Sometimes, when it rests on a branch, it allows the tail to hang down +as a sort of balance, the tip coiling and uncoiling unceasingly. But, +as soon as the reptile wishes to move, the tail is tightened to the +branch, and at once coiled round it. There really seems to be almost a +separate vitality and consciousness on the part of the tail, which +glides round an object as if it were acting with entire independence +of its owner. + +On the ground the Chameleon fares but poorly. Its walk is absolutely +ludicrous, and an experienced person might easily fail to identify a +Chameleon when walking with the same animal on a branch. It certainly +scrambles along at a tolerable rate, but it is absurdly awkward, its +legs sprawling widely on either side, and its feet grasping futilely +at every step. The tail, which is usually so lithe and nimble, is then +held stiffly from the body, with a slight curve upwards. + +The eyes are strange objects, projecting far from the head, and each +acting quite independently of the other, so that one eye may often be +directed forwards, and the other backwards. The eyeballs are covered +with a thick wrinkled skin, except a small aperture at the tip, which +can be opened and closed like our own eyelids. + +The changing colour of the Chameleon has been long known, though there +are many mistaken ideas concerning it. + +The reptile does not necessarily assume the colour of any object on +which it is placed, but sometimes takes a totally different colour. +Thus, if my Chameleon happened to come upon any scarlet substance, the +colour immediately became black, covered with innumerable circular +spots of light yellow. The change was so instantaneous that, as it +crawled on the scarlet cloth, the colour would alter, and the +fore-part of the body would be covered with yellow spots, while the +hinder parts retained their dull black. Scarlet always annoyed the +Chameleon, and it tried to escape whenever it found itself near any +substance of the obnoxious hue. + +The normal colour was undoubtedly black, with a slight tinge of grey. +But in a short time the whole creature would become a vivid verdigris +green, and, while the spectator was watching it, the legs would become +banded with rings of bright yellow, and spots and streaks of the same +colour would appear on the head and body. + +When it was excited either by anger or by expectation--as, for +example, when it heard a large fly buzzing near it--the colours were +singularly beautiful, almost exactly resembling in hue and arrangement +those of the jaguar. Of all the colours, green seemed generally to +predominate, but the creature would pass so rapidly from one colour to +another that it was scarcely possible to follow the various gradations +of hue. + +Some persons have imagined that the variation of colour depends on the +wants and passions of the animal. This is not the case. The change is +often caused by mental emotion, but is not dependent on it; and I +believe that the animal has no control whatever over its colour. The +best proof of this assertion may be found in the fact that my own +Chameleon changed colour several times after its death; and, indeed, +as long as I had the dead body before me, changes of hue were taking +place. + +The food of the Chameleon consists of insects, mostly flies, which it +catches by means of its tongue, which can be protruded to an +astonishing distance. The tongue is nearly cylindrical, and is +furnished at the tip with a slight cavity, which is filled with a very +glutinous secretion. When the Chameleon sees a fly or other insect, it +gently protrudes the tongue once or twice, as if taking aim, like a +billiard-player with his cue, and then, with a moderately smart +stroke, carries off the insect on the glutinous tip of the tongue. The +force with which the Chameleon strikes is really wonderful. My own +specimen used to look for flies from my hand, and at first I was as +much surprised with the force of the blow struck by the tongue as I +was with the grasping power of the feet. + +Among the wild legends with which the earlier naturalists adorned +their accounts of all animals with which they were not personally +familiar, those of the Chameleon are not the least curious. +"Themselves," writes Topsel, an author of the sixteenth century, "are +very gentle, never exasperated but when they are about wilde +fig-trees. + +"They have for their enemies the serpent, the crow, and the hawk. When +the hungry serpent doth assault them, they defend themselves in this +manner, as Alexander Mindius writeth. They take in their mouths a +broad and strong stalk, under protection of which, as under a buckler, +they defend themselves against their enemy the serpent, by reason that +the stalk is broader than the serpent can gripe in his mouth, and the +other parts of the chamæleon so firm and hard as the serpent cannot +hurt them: he laboureth but in vain to get a prey, so long as the +stalk is in the chamæleon's mouth. + +"But if the chamæleon at any time see a serpent taking the air, and +sunning himself under some green tree, he climbeth up into that tree, +and setteth himself directly over the serpent; then out of his mouth +he casteth a thread, like a spider, at the end of which hangeth a drop +of poyson as bright as any pearl; by this string he letteth down the +poyson upon the serpent, which, lighting upon it, killeth it +immediately. + +"And Scaliger reporteth a greater wonder than this in the description +of the chamæleon; for he saith, if the boughs of the tree so grow as +the perpendicular line cannot fall directly upon the serpent, then he +so correcteth and guideth it with his fore-feet that it falleth upon +the serpent within the mark of a hair's breadth. + +"The raven and the crow are also at variance with the chamæleon, and +so great is the adverse nature betwixt these twain, that if the crow +eat of the chamæleon being slain by him, he dyeth for it except he +recover his life by a bay-leaf, even as the elephant, after he hath +devoured a chamæleon, saveth his life by eating of the wilde +olive-tree. + +"But the greatest wonder of all is the hostility which Pliny reporteth +to be betwixt the chamæleon and the hawk. For he writeth that when a +hawk flyeth over a chamæleon, she hath no power to resist the +chamæleon, but falleth down before it, yeelding both her life and her +limbs to be devoured by it, and thus that devourer that liveth upon +the prey and blood of others hath no power to save her own life from +this little beast." + +It may here be remarked that the frog was said to save itself from the +water-ducks by seizing a stick crosswise in its mouth, so that when +the duck came to seize its prey, the stick came across the angles of +the jaws, and prevented the frog from being swallowed. + + +So much for the Chameleon. We will now take the NILOTIC MONITOR +(_Hydrosaurus niloticus_) and the LAND MONITOR (_Psammosaurus +scincus_), the other reptiles which have been conjectured to be the +real representatives of the Koach. + +These lizards attain to some size, the former sometimes measuring six +feet in length, and the latter but a foot or so less. Of the two, the +Land Monitor, being the more common, both in Palestine and Egypt, has +perhaps the best claim to be considered as the Koach of Scripture. It +is sometimes called the Land Crocodile. It is a carnivorous animal, +feeding upon other reptiles and the smaller mammalia, and is very fond +of the eggs of the crocodile, which it destroys in great numbers, and +is in consequence much venerated by the inhabitants of the country +about the Nile. + +The theory that this reptile may be the Koach of Leviticus is +strengthened by the fact that even at the present day it is cooked and +eaten by the natives, whereas the chameleon is so small and bony that +scarcely any one would take the trouble of cooking it. + +The Nilotic Monitor shares the same habit of devouring crocodiles' +eggs, and consequently shares the respect of those who are endangered +by the crocodile. It even eats the young crocodiles after they are +hatched, chasing them through the water, and capturing them by means +of its superior swiftness. It may be distinguished from the Land +Monitor by the elevated keel which runs along the whole of the spine +from the neck to the very end of the long tail. The general colour of +the Nilotic Monitor is olive-grey, mottled with black. On the back of +the neck are a series of curved bands of a whitish yellow. + + +It is mentioned on page 69, that the word _anâkah_, which is +translated as "ferret" in Levit. xi. 30, is certainly a lizard, and in +all probability is one of the Geckos. I have therefore introduced into +the same illustration on page 535 the commonest species of Gecko found +in Palestine. The reader will observe the flat, fan-like expansions at +the ends of the toes, by which it is able to adhere to flat surfaces. + + + + +SERPENTS. + + Serpents in general--Signification of the Hebrew word + _Nachash_--Various passages in which the Nachash is + mentioned--The fiery Serpents of the wilderness--Explanation of + the words "flying" and "fiery" as applied to Serpents--Haunts of + the Serpent--The Cobra, or Asp of Scripture--Meaning of the word + _Pethen_--The deaf Adder that stoppeth her ear--Serpent-charming + in the East--Principle on which the charmers work--Sluggishness + of the Serpent nature--Ceremony of initiation into + Serpent-charming--Theories respecting the deaf Adder--Luis of + Grenada's sermon--The Cerastes, or Horned Serpent--Appearance + and habits of the reptile--The "Adder in the path." + + +As we have seen that so much looseness of nomenclature prevailed among +the Hebrews even with regard to the mammalia, birds, and lizards, we +can but expect that the names of the Serpents will be equally +difficult to identify. + +No less than seven names are employed in the Old Testament to denote +some species of Serpent; but there are only two which can be +identified with any certainty, four others being left to mere +conjecture, and one being clearly a word which, like our snake or +serpent, is a word not restricted to any particular species, but +signifying Serpents in general. This word is _nâchâsh_ (pronounced +nah-kahsh). It is unfortunate that the word is so variously translated +in different passages of Scripture, and we cannot do better than to +follow it through the Old Testament, so as to bring all the passages +under our glance. + +The first mention of the Nâchâsh occurs in Gen. iii., in the +well-known passage where the Serpent is said to be more subtle than +all the beasts of the field, the wisdom or subtlety of the Serpent +having evidently an allegorical and not a categorical signification. +We find the same symbolism employed in the New Testament, the +disciples of our Lord being told to be "wise as serpents, and harmless +as doves." + +Allusion is made to the gliding movement of the Serpent tribe in Prov. +xxx. 19. On this part of the subject little need be said, except that +the movements of the Serpent are owing to the mobility of the ribs, +which are pushed forward in succession and drawn back again, so as to +catch against any inequality of the ground. This power is increased by +the structure of the scales. Those of the upper part of the body, +which are not used for locomotion, are shaped something like the +scales of a fish; but those of the lower part of the body, which come +in contact with the ground, are broad belts, each overlapping the +other, and each connected with one pair of ribs. + +When, therefore, the Serpent pushes forward the ribs, the edges of the +scaly belts will catch against the slightest projection, and are able +to give a very powerful impetus to the body. It is scarcely possible +to drag a snake backwards over rough ground; while on a smooth +surface, such as glass, the Serpent would be totally unable to +proceed. This, however, was not likely to have been studied by the +ancient Hebrews, who were among the most unobservant of mankind with +regard to details of natural history: it is, therefore, no wonder that +the gliding of the Serpent should strike the writer of the proverb in +question as a mystery which he could not explain. + +The poisonous nature of some of the Serpents is mentioned in several +passages of Scripture; and it will be seen that the ancient Hebrews, +like many modern Europeans, believed that the poison lay in the forked +tongue. See, for example, Ps. lviii. 4: "Their poison is like the +poison of a serpent" (_nâchâsh_). Also Prov. xxiii. 32, in which the +sacred writer says of wine that it brings woe, sorrow, contentions, +wounds without cause, redness of eyes, and that "at the last it biteth +like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder." + + [Illustration: COBRA AND CERASTES, THE ASP AND ADDER OF SCRIPTURE. + + "_They are like the deaf asp_ (marginal translation) _that stoppeth + her ear, which will not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming + never so wisely._"--PS. lviii. 4, 5. + + "_Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path._"--GEN. + xlix. 17.] + +The idea that the poison of the Serpent lies in the tongue is seen in +several passages of Scripture. "They have sharpened their tongues like +a serpent; adders' poison is under their lips" (Ps. cxl. 3). Also in +Job xx. 16, the sacred writer says of the hypocrite, that "he shall +suck the poison of asps: the viper's tongue shall slay him." + +As to the fiery Serpents of the wilderness, it is scarcely needful to +mention that the epithet of "fiery" does not signify that the Serpents +in question produced real fire from their mouths, but that allusion is +made to the power and virulence of their poison, and to the pain +caused by their bite. We ourselves naturally employ a similar +metaphor, and speak of a "burning pain," of a "fiery trial," of "hot +anger," and the like. + +The epithet of "flying" which is applied to these Serpents is +explained by the earlier commentators as having reference to a Serpent +which they called the Dart Snake, and which they believed to lie in +wait for men and to spring at them from a distance. They thought that +this snake hid itself either in hollows of the ground or in trees, and +sprang through the air for thirty feet upon any man or beast that +happened to pass by. + +"And surely if it be lawful to conjecture what kinds of Serpents those +were which in the Scripture were called Fiery Serpents, and did sting +the Israelites to death in the Wildernesse, until the Brazen Serpent +was erected for their cure; among all the Serpents in the world, that +kind of death and pain can be ascribed to none more properly than to +these Cafezati, or Red-dart Serpents. + +"For first, the Wildernesse, which was the place wherein they annoyed +the people, doth very well agree to their habitation. Secondly, the +Fiery Serpents are so called by figure, not that they are fiery, but, +as all Writers do agree, either because they were red like fire; or +else because the pain which they inflicted did burn like fire, or +rather for both these causes together, which are joyntly and severally +found in these Red Serpents. And therefore I will conclude for my +opinion, that these Serpents (as the highest poyson in nature) were +sent by God to afflict the sinning Israelites, whose poyson was +uncurable, except by Divine miracle." + +The places in which the Serpent is accustomed to lie are mentioned in +various portions of the Old Testament. The habit of lying in hedges is +mentioned in Ecclesiastes. "He that diggeth a pit shall fall into it; +and whoso breaketh an hedge, a serpent shall bite him" (Eccles. x. 8). +The Prophet Amos alludes to its custom of haunting the walls of houses +(see v. 18, 19): "The day of the Lord is darkness, and not light. + +"As if a man did flee from a lion, and a bear met him; or went into +the house, and leaned his hand on the wall, and a serpent bit him." +This passage refers also to the ordinary architecture of the East, the +walls of common houses, such as those with which a herdman like Amos +would be most familiar, being little more than hurdles covered with +mud. Such walls would soon fall into disrepair, and would be full of +holes, in which spiders, centipedes, lizards, and serpents hide +themselves. + + +We will now take the various species of Serpents mentioned in the +Bible, as nearly as they can be identified. + +Of one species there is no doubt whatever. This is the COBRA (_Naja +haje_), a serpent which is evidently signified by the Hebrew word +_pethen_. + +There are several passages in which this word occurs, nearly all of +which contain some allusion to its poisonous nature, and one of them +mentioning a characteristic which settles its identity beyond doubt. + +In the very beginning of the Scriptural books we find a reference to +the Pethen. The first occurs in Deut. xxxii. 33: "Their vine is of the +vine of Sodom, and of the fields of Gomorrah: their grapes are grapes +of gall, their clusters are bitter: + +"Their wine is the poison of dragons, and the cruel venom of asps" +(_pethenim_). + +Next we come to the passage in Job xx. 14-16: "Yet his meat in his +bowels is turned, it is the gall of asps (_pethenim_) within him. + +"He hath swallowed down riches, and he shall vomit them up again: God +shall cast them out of his belly. + +"He shall suck the poison of asps (_pethenim_): the viper's (_epheh_) +tongue shall slay him." + +These passages clearly indicate the venomous nature of the Pethen, and +there is another which occurs in Isaiah, in which the same quality is +inferred though not directly stated. It occurs in chap. xi., which is +devoted to a prophecy of the spiritual reign of the Messiah, and in +which is found that allusion to Himself which our Lord quoted in the +Temple (see ver. 2). The passage with which we have now to do occurs +in verse 8: "And the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp +(_pethen_), and the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' +den." + +We may also find a passage in the Psalms, in which the Pethen is +classed with the lion as being equally to be dreaded by the traveller. +"Thou shalt tread upon the lion and adder (_pethen_), the young lion +and the dragon shalt thou trample under feet." + +All these passages agree in one point, namely, that the Pethen is a +creature the bite of which is exceedingly venomous, but there is +nothing in them to assist us in identifying it. The Pethen may be, as +far as these passages are concerned, any kind of venomous Serpent. But +there is just one allusion to the Pethen which enables us to decide at +once as to its identity. It occurs in Ps. lviii. 3-5: "The wicked are +estranged from the womb: they go astray as soon as they be born, +speaking lies. + +"Their poison is like the poison of a serpent: they are like the deaf +adder (_pethen_) that stoppeth her ear; + +"Which will not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming never so +wisely." The last verse is rendered rather differently in the Jewish +Bible: "Which will not hearken to the voice of whisperers, the cunning +master of charms." + +Here we have a clue to the identification of the Pethen. It is +evidently a Serpent that was accustomed to be subjected to the action +of charmers; and as we find that in the olden times and at the present +day the cobra, a most venomous Serpent, was and is tamed by +professional charmers, there is no doubt that the Egyptian cobra is +the Pethen of Scripture. I say the Egyptian cobra, because there is a +closely allied species, the cobra of India (_Naja tripudians_), which +very much resembles the Naja haje, and which is also tamed by +serpent-charmers. A passing allusion to this custom in taming Serpents +is made by St. James in his General Epistle, chap. iii. 7: "For every +kind of beasts, and of birds, and of serpents, and of things in the +sea, is tamed, and hath been tamed by mankind: + +"But the tongue can no man tame; it is an unruly evil, full of deadly +poison." + +How the serpent-charmers perform their feats is not very intelligible. +That they handle the most venomous Serpents with perfect impunity is +evident enough, and it is also clear that they are able to produce +certain effects upon the Serpents by means of musical (or unmusical) +sounds. But these two items are entirely distinct, and one does not +depend upon the other. + +In the first place, the handling of venomous snakes has been +performed by Englishmen without the least recourse to any arts except +that of acquaintance with the habits of Serpents. The late Mr. +Waterton, for example, would take up a rattlesnake in his bare hand +without feeling the least uneasy as to the behaviour of his prisoner. +He once took twenty-seven rattlesnakes out of a box, carried them into +another room, put them into a large glass case, and afterwards +replaced them in the box. He described to me the manner in which he +did it, using my wrist as the representative of the Serpent. + +The nature of all Serpents is rather peculiar, and is probably owing +to the mode in which the blood circulates. They are extremely +unwilling to move, except when urged by the wants of nature, and will +lie coiled up for many hours together when not pressed by hunger. +Consequently, when touched, their feeling is evidently like that of a +drowsy man, who only tries to shake off the object which may rouse +him, and composes himself afresh to sleep. + +A quick and sudden movement would, however, alarm the reptile, which +would strike in self-defence, and, sluggish as are its general +movements, its stroke is delivered with such lightning rapidity that +it would be sure to inflict its fatal wound before it was seized. If, +therefore, Mr. Waterton saw a Serpent which he desired to catch, he +would creep very quietly up to it, and with a gentle, slow movement +place his fingers round its neck just behind the head. If it happened +to be coiled up in such a manner that he could not get at its neck, he +had only to touch it gently until it moved sufficiently for his +purpose. + +When he had once placed his hand on the Serpent, it was in his power. +He would then grasp it very lightly indeed, and raise it gently from +the ground, trusting that the reptile would be more inclined to be +carried quietly than to summon up sufficient energy to bite. Even if +it had tried to use its fangs, it could not have done so as long as +its captor's fingers were round its neck. + +As a rule, a great amount of provocation is needed before a venomous +Serpent will use its teeth. One of my friends, when a boy, caught a +viper, mistaking it for a common snake. He tied it round his neck, +coiled it on his wrist by way of a bracelet, and so took it home, +playing many similar tricks with it as he went. After arrival in the +house, he produced the viper for the amusement of his brothers and +sisters, and, after repeating his performances, tried to tie the snake +in a double knot. This, however, was enough to provoke the most +pacific of creatures, and in consequence he received a bite on his +finger. + +There is no doubt that the snake-charmers trust chiefly to this +sluggish nature of the reptile, but they certainly go through some +ceremonies by which they believe themselves to be rendered impervious +to snake-bites. They will coil the cobra round their naked bodies, +they will irritate the reptile until it is in a state of fury; they +will even allow it to bite them, and yet be none the worse for the +wound. Then, as if to show that the venomous teeth have not been +abstracted, as is possibly supposed to be the case, they will make the +cobra bite a fowl, which speedily dies from the effects of the poison. + +Even if the fangs were extracted, the Serpents would lose little of +their venomous power. These reptiles are furnished with a whole series +of fangs in different stages of development, so that when the one in +use is broken or shed in the course of nature, another comes forward +and fills its place. There is now before me a row of four fangs, which +I took from the right upper jawbone of a viper caught in the New +Forest. + +In her interesting "Letters from Egypt," Lady Duff-Gordon gives an +amusing account of the manner in which she was formally initiated into +the mysteries of snake-charming, and made ever afterwards impervious +to the bite of venomous Serpents:-- + +"At Kóm Omboo, we met with a Rifáee darweesh with his basket of tame +snakes. After a little talk, he proposed to initiate me: and so we sat +down and held hands like people marrying. Omar [her attendant] sat +behind me, and repeated the words as my 'wakeel.' Then the Rifáee +twisted a cobra round our joined hands, and requested me to spit on +it; he did the same, and I was pronounced safe and enveloped in +snakes. My sailors groaned, and Omar shuddered as the snakes put out +their tongues; the darweesh and I smiled at each other like Roman +augurs." + +She believed that the snakes were toothless; and perhaps on this +occasion they may have been so. Extracting the teeth of the Serpent is +an easy business in experienced hands, and is conducted in two ways. +Those snake-charmers who are confident of their own powers merely +grasp the reptile by the neck, force open its jaws with a piece of +stick, and break off the fangs, which are but loosely attached to the +jaw. Those who are not so sure of themselves irritate the snake, and +offer it a piece of cloth, generally the corner of their mantle, to +bite. The snake darts at it, and, as it seizes the garment, the man +gives the cloth a sudden jerk, and so tears away the fangs. + +Still, although some of the performers employ mutilated snakes, there +is no doubt that others do not trouble themselves to remove the fangs +of the Serpents, but handle with impunity the cobra or the cerastes +with all its venomous apparatus in good order. + +We now come to the second branch of the subject, namely, the influence +of sound upon the cobra and other Serpents. The charmers are always +provided with musical instruments, of which a sort of flute with a +loud shrill sound is the one which is mostly used in the performances. +Having ascertained, from slight marks which their practised eyes +easily discover, that a Serpent is hidden in some crevice, the charmer +plays upon his flute, and in a short time the snake is sure to make +its appearance. + +As soon as it is fairly out, the man seizes it by the end of the tail, +and holds it up in the air at arm's length. In this position it is +helpless, having no leverage, and merely wriggles about in fruitless +struggles to escape. Having allowed it to exhaust its strength by its +efforts, the man lowers it into a basket, where it is only too glad to +find a refuge, and closes the lid. After a while, he raises the lid +and begins to play the flute. + +The Serpent tries to glide out of the basket, but, as soon as it does +so, the lid is shut down again, and in a very short time the reptile +finds that escape is impossible, and, as long as it hears the sound of +the flute, only raises its head in the air, supporting itself on the +lower portion of its tail, and continues to wave its head from side to +side as long as it hears the sound of the music. + +The rapidity with which a cobra learns this lesson is extraordinary, +the charmers being as willing to show their mastery over newly-caught +Serpents as over those which have been long in their possession. Some +persons have thought that all the snakes caught by the professional +charmers are tame reptiles, which have been previously placed in the +hole by the men, and which have been deprived of their fangs. Careful +investigations, however, have proved that the snake is really +attracted by the shrill notes of the flute, and that the charmers +handle with unconcern the snakes which are in full possession of their +fangs and poison-glands. + +The allusion to the "deaf adder, which stoppeth her ears." needs a +little explanation. Some species of Serpent are more susceptible to +sound than others, the cobra being the most sensitive of all the +tribe. Any of these which are comparatively insensible to the charmers +efforts may be considered as "deaf adders." But there has been from +time immemorial a belief in the East that some individual Serpents are +very obstinate and self-willed, refusing to hear the shrill sound of +the flute, or the magic song of the charmer, and pressing one ear into +the dust, while they stop the other with the tail. + +Louis of Grenada, one of whose quaint sermons has already been quoted, +alludes in another discourse to this curious belief, in which it is +evident that he fully concurred. + +"_Dominica XI. post Pent. Concio_ 1: + +"'Furor illis secundum similitudinem serpentis sicut aspidis et +obturantis aures suas; quæ non exaudit vocem incantantium, et venefici +incantantis sapienter.' + +"Vulgo enim ferunt aspidem cum incantatur ne lethali veneno homines +inficiat, alteram aurem terræ affigere, alteram vero cauda in eam +immissa obstruere ut ita demum veneni vis intus latentis illæsa +maneat. + +"Ad hoc igitur modum cum sapiens incantatur, hoc est, divini verbi +concionator obstinatos homines ad sanitatem perducere et lethale +venenum peccati, quod in eorum mentibus residet delere contendit; illi +contra (dæmone id operante) sic aures suas huic divinæ incantationi +claudunt ut nihil prorsus eorum quæ dicuntur advertant." + +"_Eleventh Sunday after Pentecost, Sermon_ 1: + +"'Their fury is after the likeness of the serpent, as the asp which +even stoppeth her ears--which heedeth not the voice of the charmers; +even of the wizard which charmeth wisely.' + +"For they say commonly, the asp while she is charmed, so that she +poisoneth not men with her deadly venom, layeth one of her ears to the +ground and stoppeth the other by thereinto putting her tail, that so +the strength of the poison which lurketh within may abide unhurt. + +"After this manner, therefore, when the wise charmer--that is, the +preacher of the Word of God--striveth to lead obstinate men to health, +and to destroy the deadly poison of sin which dwelleth in their minds, +they, on the other hand (the devil bringing this to pass), do so shut +their ears to this divine charming that they heed nothing at all of +these things which are said." + +In order to show how widely this idea of the snake stopping its ears +is spread, I insert the following extract from a commentary on the +Psalms by Richard Rolle (Hermit) of Hampole. It is taken from the MS. +in Eton College Library, No. 10, date 1450. R. Rolle died just a +hundred years before his commentary was translated into the Northern +dialect. + +"'Furor illis se[~c]d[~m] similitudin[~e] [~s]pentis: sicut aspidus +surde et obturantis aures suas.' ¶ Wodnes til Þase after Þe lykenying +of nedder: als of snake doumbe and stoppand hir erres. ¶ Rightly +calles he Þa[~i] wode for Þai haue na witt to se whider Þai ga for Þai +louke Þaire eghen and rennes til Þe fire Þaire wodnes es domested Þat +will not be [~t]ned als of Þe snake Þat festes Þe tane ere till Þe +erther and Þe toÞer stopis with hi[~r] tayle swa Þai do Þat here noght +godes worde Þai stoppe Þai[~r] erres with lufe of erthely thyng Þat +Þai delite Þa[~i] one and with Þaire tayle Þat es with aide synes Þat Þai +will noght amende." + +It may be as well to remark, before passing to another of the +Serpents, that snakes have no external ears, and that therefore the +notion of the serpent stopping its ears is zoologically a simple +absurdity. + + +THE CERASTES, OR SHEPHIPHON OF SCRIPTURE. + +The word _shephiphon_, which evidently signifies some species of +snake, only occurs once in the Scriptures, but fortunately that single +passage contains an allusion to the habits of the serpent which makes +identification nearly certain. The passage in question occurs in Gen. +xlix. 17, and forms part of the prophecy of Jacob respecting his +children: "Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path, +that biteth the horses heels, so that his rider shall fall backward." + +Putting aside the deeper meaning of this prophecy, there is here an +evident allusion to the habits of the CERASTES, or HORNED VIPER, a +species of venomous serpent, which is plentiful in Northern Africa, +and is found also in Palestine and Syria. It is a very conspicuous +reptile, and is easily recognised by the two horn-like projections +over the eyes. The name Cerastes, or horned, has been given to it on +account of these projections. + +This snake has a custom of lying half buried in the sand, awaiting the +approach of some animal on which it can feed. Its usual diet consists +of the jerboas and other small mammalia, and as they are exceedingly +active, while the Cerastes is slow and sluggish, its only chance of +obtaining food is to lie in wait. It will always take advantage of any +small depression, such as the print of a camel's foot, and, as it +finds many of these depressions in the line of the caravans, it is +literally "a serpent by the way, an adder in the path." + +According to the accounts of travellers, the Cerastes is much more +irritable than the cobra, and is very apt to strike at any object +which may disturb it. Therefore, whenever a horseman passes along the +usual route, his steed is very likely to disturb a Cerastes lying in +the path, and to be liable to the attack of the irritated reptile. +Horses are instinctively aware of the presence of the snake, and +mostly perceive it in time to avoid its stroke. Its small dimensions, +the snake rarely exceeding two feet in length, enable it to conceal +itself in a very small hollow, and its brownish-white colour, +diversified with darker spots, causes it to harmonize so thoroughly +with the loose sand in which it lies buried, that, even when it is +pointed out, an unpractised eye does not readily perceive it. + +Even the cobra is scarcely so dreaded as this little snake, whose bite +is so deadly, and whose habits are such as to cause travellers +considerable risk of being bitten. + + + + +THE VIPER, OR EPHEH. + + Passages in which the word _Epheh_ occurs--El-effah--The Sand + Viper, or Toxicoa--Its appearance and habits--The + Acshub--Adder's poison--The Spuugh-Slange--The Cockatrice, or + Tsepha--The Yellow Viper--Ancient ideas concerning the + Cockatrice--Power of its venom. + + +We now come to the species of snake which cannot be identified with +any certainty, and will first take the word _epheh_, which is +curiously like to the Greek _ophis_. From the context of the three +passages in which it occurs, it is evidently a specific, and not a +collective name, but we are left in much doubt as to the precise +species which is intended by it. The first of those passages occurs in +Job xx. 16: "The viper's (_epheh_) tongue shall slay him." The second +is found in Isa. xxx. 6: "The burden of the beasts of the south: into +the land of trouble and anguish, from whence come the young and old +lion, the viper (_epheh_) and fiery flying serpent." The last of these +passages occurs in ch. lix. 5 of the same book: "That which is crushed +breaketh out into a viper" (_epheh_). + +The reader will see that in neither of those passages have we the +least intimation as to the particular species which is signified by +the word _epheh_, and the only collateral evidence which we have on +the subject fails exactly in the most important point. We are told by +Shaw that in Northern Africa there is a small snake, the most +poisonous of its tribe, which is called by the name of _El-effah_, a +word which is absolutely identical with the Epheh of the Old +Testament. But, as he does not identify the _effah_, except by saying +that it rarely exceeds a foot in length, we gain little by its +discovery. + +Mr. Tristram believes that he has identified the Epheh of the Old +Testament with the Sand-Viper, or Toxicoa (_Echis arenicola_). This +reptile, though very small, and scarcely exceeding a foot in length, +is a dangerous one, though its bite is not so deadly as that of the +cobra or cerastes. It is variable in colour, but has angular white +streaks on its body, and a row of whitish spots along the back. The +top of the head is dark, and variegated with arrow-shaped white marks. + + [Illustration: THE TOXICOA. (Supposed to be the viper of Scripture.) + + "_The viper's tongue shall slay him._"--JOB xx. 16.] + +The Toxicoa is very plentiful in Northern Africa, Palestine, Syria, +and the neighbouring countries, and, as it is exceedingly active, is +held in some dread by the natives. The Toxicoa is closely allied to +the dreaded Horatta-pam snake of India (_Echis carinata_). + +The old Hebraists can make nothing of the word, but it is not unlikely +that a further and fuller investigation of the ophiology of Northern +Africa may succeed where mere scholarship, unallied with zoological +knowledge, has failed. + + +The next word is _acshub_ (pronounced [)a]k-shoob). It only occurs in +one passage, namely Ps. cxl. 3: "They have sharpened their tongues +like a serpent (_nachash_); adder's (_acshub_) poison is under their +lips." The precise species represented by this word is unknown. +Buxtorf, however, explains the word as the Spitter, "illud genus quod +venenum procul exspuit." Now, if we accept this derivation, we must +take the word _acshub_ as a synonym for _pethen_. We have already +identified the Pethen with the Naja haje, a snake which has the power +of expelling the poison to some distance, when it is out of reach of +its enemy. Whether the snake really intends to eject the poison, or +whether it is merely flung from the hollow fangs by the force of the +suddenly-checked stroke, is uncertain. That the Haje cobra can expel +its poison is an acknowledged fact, and the Dutch colonists of the +Cape have been so familiarly acquainted with this habit, that they +have called this reptile by the name of Spuugh-Slange, or Spitting +Snake, a name which, if we accept Buxtorf's etymology, is precisely +equivalent to the word _acshub_. + + +Another name of a poisonous snake occurs several times in the Old +Testament. The word is _tsepha_, or _tsiphôni_, and it is sometimes +translated as Adder, and sometimes as Cockatrice. The word is rendered +as Adder in Prov. xxiii. 32, where it is said that wine "biteth like a +serpent, and stingeth like an adder." Even in this case, however, the +word is rendered as Cockatrice in the marginal translation. + +It is found three times in the Book of Isaiah. Ch. xi. 8: "The weaned +child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den." Also, ch. xiv. 29: +"Rejoice not thou, whole Palestina, because the rod of him that smote +thee is broken: for out of the serpent's (_nachash_) nest shall come +forth a cockatrice (_tsepha_), and his fruit shall be a fiery flying +serpent." The same word occurs again in ch. lix. 5: "They hatch +cockatrice' eggs." In the prophet Jeremiah we again find the word: +"For, behold, I will send serpents, cockatrices among you, which will +not be charmed, and they shall bite you, saith the Lord." + +This last passage gives us a little, but not much, assistance in +identifying the Tsepha. We learn by it that the Tsepha was one of the +serpents that were not subject to charmers, and so we are able to say +that it was neither the cobra, which we have identified with the +Pethen of Scripture, nor the Cerastes or Horned Snake, which has been +shown to be the Shephiphon. Our evidence is therefore only of a +negative character, and the only positive evidence is that which may +be inferred from the passage in Isa. xiv. 29, where the Tsepha is +evidently thought to be more venomous than the ordinary serpent or +Nachash. + +Mr. Tristram suggests that the Tsepha of Scripture may possibly be the +Yellow Viper (_Daboia xanthica_), which is one of the largest and most +venomous of the poisonous serpents which are found in Palestine, and +which is the more dangerous on account of its nocturnal habits. This +snake is one of the Katukas, and is closely allied to the dreaded +Tic-polonga of Ceylon, a serpent which is so deadly, and so given to +infesting houses, that one of the judges was actually driven out of +his official residence by it. + +As to the old ideas respecting the origin of the Cockatrice, a very +few words will suffice for them. This serpent was thought to be +produced from an egg laid by a cock and hatched by a viper. "For they +say," writes Topsel, "that when a cock groweth old, he layeth a +certain egge without any shell, in stead whereof it is covered with a +very thick skin, which is able to withstand the greatest force of an +easie blow or fall. They say moreover that this Egge is laid only in +the summer time, about the beginning of Dog days, being not so long as +a Hen's Egge, but round and orbicular. Sometimes of a dirty, sometimes +of a boxy, and sometimes of yellowish muddy colour, which Egge, +afterwards sat upon by a Snake or a Toad, bringeth forth the +Cockatrice, being half a foot in length, the hinder part like a Snake, +the former part like a Cock, because of a treble combe on his +forehead. + +"But the vulgar opinion of _Europe_ is, that the Egge is nourished by +a Toad, and not by a Snake; howbeit in better experience it found that +the Cock doth sit on that Egge himself: whereof _Serianus Semnius_ in +his twelfth book of the Hidden Animals of Nature hath this discourse, +in the fourth chapter thereof. 'There happened,' saith he, 'within our +memory, in the city of Pirizæa, that there were two old Cocks which +had laid Egges, and the common people (because of opinion that those +Egges would engender Cockatrices) laboured by all meanes possible to +keep the same Cocks from sitting on those Egges, but they could not +with clubs and staves drive them from the Egges, until they were +forced to break the Egges in sunder, and strangle the Cocks." + +In this curious history it is easy to see the origin of the notion +respecting the birth of the Cockatrice. It is well known that hens, +after they have reached an advanced age, assume much of the plumage +and voice of the male bird. Still, that one of them should +occasionally lay an egg is no great matter of wonder, and, as the egg +would be naturally deposited in a retired and sheltered spot, such as +would be the favoured haunts of the warmth-loving snake, the ignorant +public might easily put together a legend which, absurd in itself, is +yet founded on facts. The small shell-less egg, so often laid by +poultry, is familiar to every one who has kept fowls. + +Around this reptile a wonderful variety of legends have been +accumulated. The Cockatrice was said to kill by its very look, +"because the beams of the Cockatrice's eyes do corrupt the visible +spirit of a man, which visible spirit corrupted all the other spirits +coming from the brain and life of the heart, are thereby corrupted, +and so the man dyeth." + +The subtle poison of the Cockatrice infected everything near it, so +that a man who killed a Cockatrice with a spear fell dead himself, by +reason of the poison darting up the shaft of the spear and passing +into his hand. Any living thing near which the Cockatrice passed was +instantly slain by the fiery heat of its venom, which was exhaled not +only from its mouth, but its sides. For the old writers, whose +statements are here summarized, contrived to jumble together a number +of miscellaneous facts in natural history, and so to produce a most +extraordinary series of legends. We have already seen the real origin +of the legend respecting the egg from which the Cockatrice was +supposed to spring, and we may here see that some one of these old +writers has in his mind some uncertain floating idea of the +respiratory orifices of the lamprey, and has engrafted them on the +Cockatrice. + +"To conclude," writes Topsel, "this poyson infecteth the air, and the +air so infected killeth all living things, and likewise all green +things, fruits, and plants of the earth: it burneth up the grasse +whereupon it goeth or creepeth, and the fowls of the air fall down +dead when they come near his den or lodging. Sometimes he biteth a Man +or a Beast, and by that wound the blood turneth into choler, and so +the whole body becometh yellow as gold, presently killing all who +touch it or come near it." + +I should not have given even this limited space to such puerile +legends, but for the fact that such stories as these were fully +believed in the days when the Authorized Version of the Bible was +translated. The ludicrous tales which have been occasionally mentioned +formed the staple of zoological knowledge, and an untravelled +Englishman had no possible means of learning the history of foreign +animals, except from such books which have been quoted, and which were +in those days the standard works on Natural History. The translators +of the Bible believed most heartily in the mysterious and baleful +reptile, and, as they saw that the Tsepha of Scripture was an +exceptionally venomous serpent, they naturally rendered it by the word +Cockatrice. + + + + +THE FROG. + + The Frog only mentioned in the Old Testament as connected with + the plagues of Egypt--The severity of this plague explained--The + Frog detestable to the Egyptians--The Edible Frog and its + numbers--Description of the species. + + +Plentiful as is the Frog throughout Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, it is +very remarkable that in the whole of the canonical books of the Old +Testament the word is only mentioned thrice, and each case in +connexion with the same event. + +In Exod. viii. we find that the second of the plagues which visited +Egypt came out of the Nile, the sacred river, in the form of +innumerable Frogs. The reader will probably remark, on perusing the +consecutive account of these plagues, that the two first plagues were +connected with that river, and that they were foreshadowed by the +transformation of Aaron's rod. + +When Moses and Aaron appeared before Pharaoh to ask him to let the +people go, Pharaoh demanded a miracle from them, as had been foretold. +Following the divine command, Aaron threw down his rod, which was +transformed into a crocodile--the most sacred inhabitant of the sacred +river--a river which was to the Egyptians what the Ganges is to the +Hindoos. + +Next, as was most appropriate, came a transformation wrought on the +river by means of the same rod which had been transformed into a +crocodile, the whole of the fresh-water throughout the land being +turned into blood, and the fish dying and polluting the venerated +river with their putrefying bodies. In Egypt, a partially rainless +country, such a calamity as this was doubly terrible, as it at the +same time desecrated the object of their worship, and menaced them +with perishing by thirst. + + [Illustration: THE FROG (_Rana esculenta_). + + "_And the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly._"--EXOD. viii. 3.] + +The next plague had also its origin in the river, but extended far +beyond the limits of its banks. The frogs, being unable to return to +the contaminated stream wherein they had lived, spread themselves in +all directions, so as to fulfil the words of the prediction: "If thou +refuse to let them go, behold, I will smite all thy borders with +frogs: + +"And the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly, which shall go up +and come into thine house, and into thy bed-chamber, and upon thy +bed, and into the house of thy servants, and upon thy people, and into +thine ovens, and into thy kneading-troughs" (or dough). + +Supposing that such a plague was to come upon us at the present day, +we should consider it to be a terrible annoyance, yet scarcely worthy +of the name of plague, and certainly not to be classed with the +turning of a river into blood, with the hail and lightning that +destroyed the crops and cattle, and with the simultaneous death of the +first-born. But the Egyptians suffered most keenly from the +infliction. They were a singularly fastidious people, and abhorred the +contact of anything that they held to be unclean. We may well realize, +therefore, the effect of a visitation of Frogs, which rendered their +houses unclean by entering them, and themselves unclean by leaping +upon them; which deprived them of rest by getting on their beds, and +of food by crawling into their ovens and upon the dough in the +kneading-troughs. + +And, as if to make the visitation still worse, when the plague was +removed, the Frogs died in the places into which they had intruded, so +that the Egyptians were obliged to clear their houses of the dead +carcases, and to pile them up in heaps, to be dried by the sun or +eaten by birds and other scavengers of the East. + +As to the species of Frog which thus invaded the houses of the +Egyptians, there is no doubt whatever. It can be but the GREEN, or +EDIBLE FROG (_Rana esculenta_), which is so well known for the +delicacy of its flesh. This is believed to be the only aquatic Frog of +Egypt, and therefore must be the species which came out of the river +into the houses. + +Both in Egypt and Palestine it exists in very great numbers, swarming +in every marshy place, and inhabiting the pools in such numbers that +the water can scarcely be seen for the Frogs. Thus the multitudes of +the Frogs which invaded the Egyptians was no matter of wonder, the +only miraculous element being that the reptiles were simultaneously +directed to the houses, and their simultaneous death when the plague +was taken away. + +It has, however, been suggested that, at the time of year at which the +event occurred, the young Frogs were in the tadpole stage of +existence, and therefore would not be able to pass over land. But, +even granting that to be the case, it does not follow that the adult +Frogs were not numerous enough to produce the visitation, and it +seems likely that those who were not yet developed were left to +reproduce the race after the full-grown Frogs had perished. + +The Green Frog is larger than our common English species, and is +prettily coloured, the back being green, spotted with black, and +having three black stripes upon it. The under parts are yellowish. At +night it keeps up a continued and very loud croaking, so that a pond +in which a number of these Frogs are kept is quite destructive of +sleep to any one who is not used to the noise. + +Frogs are also mentioned in Rev. xvi. 13: "And I saw three unclean +spirits like frogs come out of the mouth of the dragon, and out of the +mouth of the beast, and out of the mouth of the false prophet." With +the exception of this passage, which is a purely symbolical one, there +is no mention of Frogs in the New Testament. It is rather remarkable +that the Toad, which might be thought to afford an excellent symbol +for various forms of evil, is entirely ignored, both in the Old and +New Testaments. Probably the Frogs and Toads were all classed together +under the same title. + + + + +FISHES. + + + + +FISHES. + + Impossibility of distinguishing the different species of + Fishes--The fishermen Apostles--Fish used for food--The miracle + of the loaves and Fishes--The Fish broiled on the coals--Clean + and unclean Fishes--The scientific writings of Solomon--The + Sheat-fish, or Silurus--The Eel and the Muræna--The Long-headed + Barbel--Fish-ponds and preserves--The Fish-ponds of Heshbon--The + Sucking-fish--The Lump-sucker--The Tunny--The Coryphene. + + +We now come to the FISHES, a class of animals which are repeatedly +mentioned both in the Old and New Testaments, but only in general +terms, no one species being described so as to give the slightest +indication of its identity. + +This is the more remarkable because, although the Jews were, like all +Orientals, utterly unobservant of those characteristics by which the +various species are distinguished from each other, we might expect +that St. Peter and other of the fisher Apostles would have given the +names of some of the Fish which they were in the habit of catching, +and by the sale of which they gained their living. + +It is true that the Jews, as a nation, would not distinguish between +the various species of Fishes, except, perhaps, by comparative size. +But professional fishermen would be sure to distinguish one species +from another, if only for the fact that they would sell the +best-flavoured Fish at the highest price. + +We might have expected, for example, that the Apostles and disciples +who were present when the miraculous draught of Fishes took place +would have mentioned the technical names by which they were accustomed +to distinguish the different degrees of the saleable and unsaleable +kinds. + +Or we might have expected that on the occasion when St. Peter cast his +line and hook into the sea, and drew out a Fish holding the +tribute-money in his mouth, we might have learned the particular +species of Fish which was thus captured. We ourselves would assuredly +have done so. It would not have been thought sufficient merely to say +that a Fish was caught with money in its mouth, but it would have +been considered necessary to mention the particular fish as well as +the particular coin. + +But it must be remembered that the whole tone of thought differs in +Orientals and Europeans, and that the exactness required by the one +has no place in the mind of the other. The whole of the Scriptural +narratives are essentially Oriental in their character, bringing out +the salient points in strong relief, but entirely regardless of minute +detail. + + +We find from many passages both in the Old and New Testaments that +Fish were largely used as food by the Israelites, both when captives +in Egypt and after their arrival in the Promised Land. Take, for +example, Numb. xi. 4, 5: "And the children of Israel also wept again, +and said, Who shall give us flesh to eat? + +"We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely." Then, in the +Old Testament, although we do not find many such categorical +statements, there are many passages which allude to professional +fishermen, showing that there was a demand for the Fish which they +caught, sufficient to yield them a maintenance. + +In the New Testament, however, there are several passages in which the +Fishes are distinctly mentioned as articles of food. Take, for +example, the well-known miracle of multiplying the loaves and the +Fishes, and the scarcely less familiar passage in John xxi. 9: "As +soon then as they were come to land, they saw a fire of coals there, +and fish laid thereon, and bread. + +"Jesus saith unto them, Bring of the fish which ye have now caught. + +"Simon Peter went up, and drew the net to land full of great fishes, +an hundred and fifty and three: and for all there were so many, yet +was not the net broken. + +"Jesus saith unto them, Come and dine. And none of the disciples durst +ask Him, Who art Thou? knowing that it was the Lord. + +"Jesus then cometh, and taketh bread, and giveth them, and fish +likewise." + +We find in all these examples that bread and Fish were eaten together. +Indeed, Fish was eaten with bread just as we eat cheese or butter; and +St. John, in his account of the multiplication of the loaves and +Fishes, does not use the word "fish," but another word which rather +signifies sauce, and was generally employed to designate the little +Fish that were salted down and dried in the sunbeams for future use. + +As to the various species which were used for different purposes, we +know really nothing, the Jews merely dividing their Fish into clean +and unclean. + +Still, we find that Solomon treated of Fishes as well as of other +portions of the creation. "And he spake of trees, from the cedar tree +that is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the +wall: he spake also of beasts, and of fowl, and of creeping things, +and of fishes." (1 Kings iv. 33.) + +Now it is evidently impossible that Solomon could have treated of +Fishes without distinguishing between their various species. +Comparatively young as he was, he had received such a measure of +divine inspiration, that "there came of all people to know the wisdom +of Solomon, from all kings of the earth, which had heard of his +wisdom." + +Yet, although some of his poetical and instructive writings have +survived to our time, the whole of his works on natural history have +so completely perished, that they have not even introduced into the +language the names of the various creatures of which he wrote. So, in +spite of all his labours, there is not a single word in the Hebrew +language, as now known, by which one species of Fish can be +distinguished from another, as to the distinction between the clean +and unclean Fishes. + +According to Levit. xi. the qualification for food lay simply in the +possession of fins and scales. "These shall ye eat of all that are in +the waters: whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the +seas, and in the rivers, them shall ye eat. + +"And all that have not fins and scales in the seas, and in the rivers, +of all that move in the waters, and of any living thing which is in +the waters, they shall be an abomination unto you: + +"They shall be even an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their +flesh, but ye shall have their carcases in abomination" (ver. 9-11). +There is a similar prohibition in Deut. xiv. 9. + +Some of the species to which this prohibition would extend are evident +enough. There are, for example, the Sheat-fishes, which have the body +naked, and which are therefore taken out of the list of permitted +Fishes. The Sheat-fishes inhabit rivers in many parts of the world, +and often grow to a very considerable size. They may be at once +recognised by their peculiar shape, and by the long, fleshy tentacles +that hang from the mouth. The object of these tentacles is rather +dubious, but as the fish have been seen to direct them at will to +various objects, it is likely that they may answer as organs of touch. + + [Illustration: 1. MURÆNA (Muræna helena). + + 2. LONG-HEADED BARBEL (Barbus longiceps). + + 3. SHEAT-FISH (Silurus macracanthus). + + "_All that have not fins and scales ... shall be an abomination unto + you._"--LEVIT. xi. 10.] + +As might be conjectured from its general appearance, it is one of the +Fishes that love muddy banks, in which it is fond of burrowing so +deeply that, although the river may swarm with Sheat-fishes, a +practised eye is required to see them. + +As far as the Sheat-fishes are concerned, there is little need for the +prohibition, inasmuch as the flesh is not at all agreeable in flavour, +and is difficult of digestion, being very fat and gelatinous. The +swimming-bladder of the Sheat-fish is used in some countries for +making a kind of isinglass, similar in character to that of the +sturgeon, but of coarser quality. + +The lowermost figure in the illustration on page 566 represents a +species which is exceedingly plentiful in the Sea of Galilee. + +On account of the mode in which their body is covered, the whole of +the sharks and rays are excluded from the list of permitted Fish, as, +although they have fins, they have no scales, their place being taken +by shields varying greatly in size. The same rule excludes the whole +of the lamprey tribe, although the excellence of their flesh is well +known. + +Moreover, the Jews almost universally declare that the Muræna and Eel +tribe are also unclean, because, although it has been proved that +these Fishes really possess scales as well as fins, and are therefore +legally permissible, the scales are hidden under a slimy covering, and +are so minute as to be practically absent. + +The uppermost figure in the illustration represents the celebrated +Muræna, one of the fishes of the Mediterranean, in which sea it is +tolerably plentiful. In the days of the old Roman empire, the Muræna +was very highly valued for the table. The wealthier citizens built +ponds in which the Murænæ were kept alive until they were wanted. This +Fish sometimes reaches four feet in length. + +The rest of the Fishes which are shown in the three illustrations +belong to the class of clean Fish, and were permitted as food. The +figure of the Fish between the Muræna and Sheat-fish is the +Long-headed Barbel, so called from its curious form. + +The Barbels are closely allied to the carps, and are easily known by +the barbs or beards which hang from their lips. Like the sheat-fishes, +the Barbels are fond of grubbing in the mud, for the purpose of +getting at the worms, grubs, and larvæ of aquatic insects that are +always to be found in such places. The Barbels are rather long in +proportion to their depth, a peculiarity which, owing to the length of +the head, is rather exaggerated in this species. + +The Long-headed Barbel is extremely common in Palestine, and may be +taken with the very simplest kind of net. Indeed, in some places, the +fish are so numerous that a common sack answers nearly as well as a +net. + +It has been mentioned that the ancient Romans were in the habit of +forming ponds in which the Murænæ were kept, and it is evident, from +several passages of Scripture, that the Jews were accustomed to +preserve fish in a similar manner, though they would not restrict +their tanks or ponds to one species. + +Allusion is made to this custom in the Song of Solomon: "Thy neck is +as a tower of ivory; thine eyes like the fish-pools in Heshbon, by the +gate of Bath-rabbim." The Hebrew Bible renders the passage in a +slightly different manner, not specifying the particular kind of pool. +"Thine eyes are as the pools in Heshbon by a gate of great concourse." + +Buxtorf, however, in his Hebrew Lexicon, translates the word as +"piscina," _i.e._ fish-pond. Now among the ruins of Heshbon may still +be seen the remains of a large tank, which in all probability was one +of the "fish-pools" which are mentioned by the sacred writer. + +If we accept the rendering of the Authorized Version, it is shown that +tanks or ponds were employed for this purpose, by a passage which +occurs in the prophecy of Isaiah: "The fishers also shall mourn, and +all they that cast angle into the brooks shall lament, and they that +spread nets upon the waters shall languish. + +"Moreover they that work in fine flax, and they that weave networks, +shall be confounded. + +"And they shall be broken in the purposes thereof, all that make +sluices and ponds for fish" (xix. 8-10). + +This passage, however, is rendered rather variously. The marginal +translation of verse 10 substitutes the word "foundations" for +"purposes," and the words "living things" for "fish." The Jewish Bible +takes an entirely different view of the passage, and renders it as +follows: "The fishers also shall groan, and all that cast angle into +the river shall mourn, and they that spread nets upon the waters shall +be languid. + +"Moreover, they that work in combed flax and they that weave networks +shall be confounded. + +"And the props thereof shall be crushed; all working for wages are +void of soul." + +However, the mark of doubt is affixed to this last phrase, and it +cannot be denied that the rendering of the Authorized Version is at +all events more consistent than that of the Jewish Bible. In the +former, we first find the fishers taking their prey with the hook and +line, then with different kinds of nets, and lastly, placing the fish +thus captured in sluices and ponds until they are wanted for +consumption. + + [Illustration: FISHES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. + + 1. SUCKING-FISH (Echeneis remora). + + 2. TUNNY (Thynnus thynnus). + + 3. CORYPHENE (Coryphæna hippuris). + + "_These shall ye eat of all that are in the waters._"--LEVIT. xi. 9.] + +The accompanying illustration represents Fishes of the Mediterranean +Sea, and it is probable that one of them may be identified, though the +passage in which it is mentioned is only an inferential one. In the +prophecy against Pharaoh, king of Egypt, the prophet Ezekiel writes as +follows: "I will put hooks in thy jaws, and I will cause the fish of +thy rivers to stick unto thy scales, and I will bring thee up out of +the midst of thy rivers, and all the fish of thy rivers shall stick +unto thy scales" (xxix. 4). + +Reference is here made to some inhabitant of the waters that has the +power of adhesion, and two suggestions have been made respecting the +precise signification of the passage. Some commentators think that the +"Fishes" here mentioned are the Cuttles, which, although they are not +Fishes at all, but belong to the molluscs, are called Fishes after the +loose nomenclature of the Hebrew language, just as, even in our +stricter and more copious language, we speak of the same creature as +the Cuttle-fish, and use the word "shell-fish" to denote both molluscs +and crustacea. + +Others believe that the prophet made allusion to the Sucking-fish, +which has the dorsal fins developed into a most curious apparatus of +adhesion, by means of which it can fasten itself at will to any smooth +object, and hold so tightly to it that it can scarcely be torn away +without injury. + +The common Sucking-fish (_Echeneis remora_) is shown in the upper part +of the illustration. + +There are, however, other fish which have powers of adhesion which, +although not so remarkable as those of the Sucking-fish, are yet very +strong. There is, for example, the well-known Lump-sucker, or +Lump-fish, which has the ventral fins modified into a sucker so +powerful that, when one of these fishes has been put into a pail of +water, it has attached itself so firmly to the bottom of the vessel +that when lifted by the tail it raised the pail, together with several +gallons of water. + +The Gobies, again, have their ventral fins united and modified into a +single sucker, by means of which the fish is able to secure itself to +a stone, rock, or indeed any tolerably smooth surface. These fishes +are popularly known as Bull-routs. + +The centre of the illustration is occupied by another of the +Mediterranean fishes. This is the well-known Tunny (_Thynnus +thynnus_), which furnishes food to the inhabitants of the coasts of +this inland sea, and indeed constitutes one of their principal sources +of wealth. This fine fish is on an average four or five feet in +length, and sometimes attains the length of six or seven feet. + +The flesh of the Tunny is excellent, and the fish is so conspicuous, +that the silence of the Scriptures concerning its existence shows the +utter indifference to specific accuracy that prevailed among the +various writers. + +The other figure represents the Coryphene (_Coryphæna hippuris_), +popularly, though very wrongly, called the Dolphin, and celebrated, +under that name, for the beautiful colours which fly over the surface +of the body as it dies. + +The flesh of the Coryphene is excellent, and in the times of classic +Rome the epicures were accustomed to keep these fish alive, and at the +beginning of a feast to lay them before the guests, so that they +might, in the first place, witness the magnificent colours of the +dying fish, and, in the second place, might be assured that when it +was cooked it was perfectly fresh. Even during life, the Coryphene is +a most lovely fish, and those who have witnessed it playing round a +ship, or dashing off in chase of a shoal of flying-fishes, can +scarcely find words to express their admiration of its beauty. + + +FISHES. + +CHAPTER II. + + Various modes of capturing Fish--The hook and line--Military use + of the hook--Putting a hook in the jaws--The fishing + spear--Different kinds of net--The casting-net--Prevalence of + this form--Technical words among fishermen--Fishing by + night--The draught of Fishes--The real force of the + miracle--Selecting the Fish--The Fish-gate and Fish-market--Fish + killed by a draught--Fishing in the Dead Sea--Dagon, the + fish-god of Philistina, Assyria, and Siam--Various Fishes of + Egypt and Palestine. + +As to the various methods of capturing Fish, we will first take the +simplest plan, that of the hook and line, as is mentioned in the +passage quoted above from Ezekiel. Sundry other references are made to +angling, both in the Old and New Testaments. See, for example, the +well-known passage respecting the leviathan, in Job xli. 1, 2: "Canst +thou draw out leviathan with an hook? or his tongue with a cord which +thou lettest down? + +"Canst thou put an hook into his nose? or bore his jaw through with a +thorn?" + +It is thought that the last clause of this passage refers, not to the +actual capture of the Fish, but to the mode in which they were kept in +the tanks, each being secured by a ring or hook and line, so that it +might be taken when wanted. + +On referring to the New Testament, we find that the fisher Apostles +used both the hook and the net. See Matt. xvii. 27: "Go thou to the +sea, and cast an hook, and take up the fish that first cometh up." Now +this passage explains one or two points. + +In the first place, it is one among others which shows that, although +the Apostles gave up all to follow Christ, they did not throw away +their means of livelihood, as some seem to fancy, nor exist ever +afterwards on the earnings of others. On the contrary, they retained +their fisher equipment, whether boats, nets, or hooks; and here we +find St. Peter, after the way of fishermen, carrying about with him +the more portable implements of his craft. + +Next, the phrase "casting" the hook into the sea is exactly expressive +of the mode in which angling is conducted in the sea and large pieces +of water, such as the Lake of Galilee. The fisherman does not require +a rod, but takes his line, which has a weight just above the hook, +coils it on his left arm in lasso fashion, baits the hook, and then, +with a peculiar swing, throws it into the water as far as it will +reach. The hook is allowed to sink for a short time, and is then drawn +towards the shore in a series of jerks, in order to attract the Fish, +so that, although the fisherman does not employ a rod, he manages his +line very much as does an angler of our own day when "spinning" for +pike or trout. + +Sometimes the fisherman has a number of lines to manage, and in this +case he acts in a slightly different manner. After throwing out the +loaded hook, as above mentioned, he takes a short stick, notched at +one end, and pointed at the other, thrusts the sharp end into the +ground at the margin of the water, and hitches the line on the notch. + +He then proceeds to do the same with all his lines in succession, and +when he has flung the last hook into the water, he sits down on a heap +of leaves and grass which he has gathered together, and watches the +lines to see if either of them is moved in the peculiar jerking manner +which is characteristic of a "bite." After a while, he hauls them in +successively, removes the Fish that may have been caught, and throws +the lines into the water afresh. + +This mode of fishing is mentioned in Habakkuk i. 15: "They take up all +of them with the angle." + +There are one or two passages which seem to refer to the custom of +angling, though they really bear on a different subject. One of these +is to be found in Ezek. xxxviii.: "And I will turn thee back, and put +hooks into thy jaws, and I will bring thee forth and all thine army, +horses and horsemen." There is another passage of a similar character +in Amos iv. 2: "The Lord God hath sworn by His holiness, that, lo, the +days shall come upon you, that He will take you away with hooks, and +your posterity with fish-hooks." + +The word which is here translated as "hook" may more properly be +rendered as "ring," and the prophet alludes to the cruel custom then +prevalent of passing a sharpened hook through the nose or cheek of a +prisoner taken in war, twisting it into a ring, tying a cord to it, +and so leading him just as a bull is led by the ring in the nose. + +There are several references in the Scriptures to the hook used for +this cruel purpose. See 2 Kings xix. 28: "Because thy rage against Me +and thy tumult is come up into Mine ears, therefore I will put My hook +in thy nose, and My bridle in thy lips, and I will turn thee back by +the way by which thou camest." + +The reader will perceive how much more forcible is this passage when +understood rightly than when the word "hook" is taken as signifying a +mere fish-hook, the sum of it being that the Assyrians should be made +captives and slaves, and driven back to the country whence they came. +The passage in Ezek. xxix. 4 must be taken in the same sense: "But I +will put hooks in thy jaws." + +That the spear was used in the old Scriptural times as it is at the +present is shown from several passages of Holy Writ. See, for example, +Job xli. 7: "Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons? or his head +with fish-spears? as also in the same chapter, "The sword of him that +layeth at him cannot hold: the spear, the dart, nor the habergeon. + +"He esteemeth iron as straw, and brass as rotten wood. + +"The arrow cannot make him flee: sling-stones are turned with him into +stubble. + +"Darts are counted as stubble: he laugheth at the shaking of a spear" +(ver. 26-29). + +Fishing with the spear is much used in the smaller tributary streams +of the Jordan, and the weapon, instead of being many-pointed and +barbed in trident fashion, has but one point, and is without barbs. +With these spears the people contrive to catch a considerable variety +of Fish. + +We now come to the practice of catching Fish by the net, a custom to +which the various Scriptural writers frequently refer, sometimes in +course of historical narrative, and sometimes by way of allegory or +metaphor. The reader will remember that the net was also used on land +for the purpose of catching wild animals, and that many of the +allusions to the net which occur in the Old Testament refer to the +land and not to the water. + +The commonest kind of net, which was used in the olden times as it is +now, was the casting-net. This kind of net is circular, and is loaded +all round its edge with weights, and suspended by the middle to a +cord. When the fisherman throws this net, he gathers it up in folds in +his arms, and, with a peculiar swing of the arms, only to be learned +by long practice, flings it so that it spreads out and falls in its +circular form upon the surface of the water. It rapidly sinks to the +bottom, the loaded circumference causing it to assume a cup-like form, +enclosing within its meshes all the Fish that happen to be under it as +it falls. When it has reached the bottom, the fisherman cautiously +hauls in the rope, so that the loaded edges gradually approach each +other, and by their own weight cling together and prevent the Fish +from escaping as the net is slowly drawn ashore. + +This kind of net is found, with certain modifications, in nearly all +parts of the world. The Chinese are perhaps supreme in their +management of it. They have a net of extraordinary size, and cast it +by flinging it over their backs, the huge circle spreading itself out +in the most perfect manner as it falls on the water. + +At the present day, when the fishermen use this net they wade into the +sea as far as they can, and then cast it. In consequence of this +custom, the fishermen are always naked while engaged in their work, +wearing nothing but a thick cap in order to save themselves from +sun-stroke. It is probable that on the memorable occasion mentioned by +St. John, in chap. xxi., all the fishermen were absolutely, and not +relatively naked--_i.e._ that they wore no clothes at all, not even +the ordinary tunic. + +That a great variety of nets was used by the ancient Jews is evident +from the fact that there are no less than ten words to signify +different kinds of net. At the present day we have very great +difficulty in deciding upon the exact interpretation of these +technical terms, especially as in very few cases are we assisted +either by the context or by the etymology of the words. It is the same +in all trades or pursuits, and we can easily understand how our own +names of drag-net, seine, trawl, and keer-drag would perplex any +commentator who happened to live some two thousand years after English +had ceased to be a living language. + +Four or five of the Hebrew words give no clue whatever, being simply +derived from a root that signifies weaving, and that therefore merely +indicates the fact that the articles in question are nets. Some of +them are derived from a word which signifies lying in wait, and +another from a word which signifies catching or seizing. + +The translators who rendered the Hebrew into the familiar form of the +Septuagint either were unable to distinguish between the various +Hebrew terms, or did not think that any discrimination was needed, +inasmuch as they sometimes render the same Hebrew word by several +Greek equivalents, and sometimes use the same Greek word to express +several Hebrew terms. + +When we come to the New Testament, we find a certain feeling of +relief, because the three words used to signify different kinds of +nets are easily understood. + +There is, for example, the _amphiblêstron_ ([Greek: amphiblêstrun]), +which is undoubtedly a casting net, as is signified by the etymology +of the word, which is derived from two Greek words signifying to cast +around. This word is used by Herodotus in a sort of parable related by +Cyrus to the Ionians and Æolians, who had refused to revolt from +Croesus when Cyrus asked them to do so; but, when they found he was +sure to be their master, they sent an embassy to ask to be admitted +among his subjects on the same terms which they had enjoyed when under +the rule of Croesus. + +When the embassy came before Cyrus, he only answered them with a +parable: "A piper, seeing some fishes in the sea, began to pipe, +expecting that they would come ashore; but, finding his hopes +disappointed, he took a casting-net, and enclosed a great number of +fishes, and drew them out. When he saw them leaping about, he said to +the fishes, 'Cease your dancing, since when I piped you would not come +out and dance.'" + +The reader will doubtless have noticed the singular analogy between +this parable and the saying of our Lord, "I have piped to you, and ye +have not danced." + +This is the net that is mentioned in Matt. iv. 18: "And Jesus, walking +by the Sea of Galilee, saw two brethren, Simon called Peter and Andrew +his brother, casting a net (_amphiblêstron_) into the sea." + +The second word, _diktuon_ ([Greek: dikton]), is derived from another +word signifying to throw; so that if we use the expression +"casting-net" for the word _amphiblêstron_, and "throwing-net" for the +word _diktuon_, we shall be tolerably accurate. Practically both words +are used for the same net, as we find by proceeding further with the +sacred narration. + +After mentioning that the future Apostles were casting a net +(_amphiblêstron_), St. Matthew proceeds as follows: "And He said unto +them, Follow Me, and I will make you fishers of men. + +"And they straightway left their nets (_diktua_), and followed Him" +(ver. 19, 20). In the following verse, where James and John are +mentioned as being occupied in mending their nets after the wont of +all practical fishermen, the word which is translated as "nets" is +_diktua_. + +If we turn to John xxi. we find the same word employed. + +After the Resurrection, the fisher Apostles were pursuing their craft +by night, as is still the custom, and had caught nothing--a very +serious loss to them. Then at daybreak they saw their risen Lord +standing on the seashore, and, as was several times the case after the +Resurrection, did not recognise Him. He then told them to cast the net +(_diktuon_) over the right hand of the boat, and as soon as that was +done the net was filled with Fishes. + +Now the knowledge of the real meaning of the word diktua gives to this +passage a signification which it would not otherwise possess. + +In ver. 11, St. John (who was one of the actors in the scene, and who +therefore writes with the precision of an eye-witness) states that the +number of large Fishes was a hundred and fifty-three, and yet the net +was not broken. Knowing that the casting-net is comparatively small, +we now see that a hundred and fifty-three _large_ Fishes would +completely fill a net which could be cast by one man, and that the +miraculous element was twofold. + +Firstly, the complete filling of the net with large Fishes, whereas +six or seven small Fishes are the usual complement of a casting-net; +and, secondly, the fact that the net which was held merely by a single +rope in the middle, and which retained its contents simply by the +weight of the leads round its margin, did not give way, and allow the +enclosed Fish to escape. + +Indeed, the very fact that a casting-net took such a multitude of +Fishes at once opened the eyes of St. John, who exclaimed to his +fellow Apostles, "It is the Lord." St. Peter, with the impetuous zeal +of his nature, acknowledged the truth of the exclamation, and, too +impatient to wait until the boats could land, girt his fisher's tunic +upon him, leaped into the sea, and swam ashore. + +The third Greek word which is translated as "net" is _sagênê_ ([Greek: +sagênê]), a word which still survives in our term "Seine." + +The Sagene, or seine-net, was made in lengths, any number of which +could be joined together, so as to enclose a large space of water. The +upper edge was kept at the surface of the water by floats, and the +lower edge sunk by weights. + +This net was always taken to sea in vessels, and when "shot" the +various lengths were joined together, and the net extended in a line, +with a boat at each end. The boats then gradually approached each +other, so as to bring the net into a semicircle, and finally met, +enclosing thereby a vast number of Fishes in their meshen walls. The +water was then beaten, so as to frighten the Fishes and drive them +into the meshes, and the net was then either taken ashore, or lifted +by degrees on board the boats, and the Fish removed from it. + +As in a net of this kind Fishes of all sorts are enclosed, the +contents are carefully examined, and those which are unfit for eating +are thrown away. Even at the present day much care is taken in the +selection, but in the ancient times the fishermen were still more +cautious, every Fish having to be separately examined in order that +the presence both of fins and scales might be assured before the +captors could send it to the market. + +It is to this custom that Christ alludes in the well-known parable of +the net: "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that was +cast into the sea, and gathered of every kind; + +"Which, when it was full, they drew to shore, and sat down, and +gathered the good into vessels, but cast the bad away." Compare also +Habakkuk i. 14-17. + + +The important part taken by Fish in the earlier scriptural days is +shown by the fact that in Jerusalem there was not only a fish-market, +but that the gate which opened upon that market was called the +Fish-gate. See 2 Chron. xxxiii. 14: "Now after this he built a wall +without the city of David, on the west side of Gihon, in the valley, +even to the entering in at the fish-gate." + +Afterwards, when Nehemiah obtained permission from Artaxerxes to +rebuild the burnt and broken-down walls of Jerusalem, he restored the +Fish-gate as it had been before: "But the fish-gate did the sons of +Hassenaah build, who also laid the beams thereof, and set up the doors +thereof, the locks thereof, and the bars thereof" (Neh. iii. 3). + +About ten years afterwards, when the city had been rebuilt and +repeopled, the fish-market was again established, the dealers being +chiefly men of Tyre, who took advantage of the neglect of the law +which had been the result of the captivity among idolaters, and sold +their goods on the Sabbath day: "There dwelt men of Tyre also therein, +which brought fish, and all manner of ware, and sold on the Sabbath +unto the children of Judah, and in Jerusalem" (Neh. xiii. 16). + +It is evident that the Fish which these traders brought must have been +dried and salted, or otherwise they would not have borne the journey +to Jerusalem from Tyre. Dried Fish were, according to Herodotus, +largely used in Egypt, and it is probable that the Jews learned the +art of drying and salting Fish for future use during their captivity +in that land. + +There are one or two passages in the Scriptures which relate to Fish, +though in a less direct manner than those which have been quoted. One +of them refers to the times of drought which occasionally visit +Palestine, and which always bring with them terrible privations, and +sometimes cause actual famine. See, for example, Isa. 1. 2: "Behold, +at My rebuke I dry up the sea, I make the rivers a wilderness: their +fish stinketh, because there is no water, and dieth for thirst." These +words exactly express the condition of the country after a long +drought. The springs are gradually exhausted from the absence of rain, +the large rivers sink lower and lower in their beds, and the little +streams and tributaries dry up altogether, leaving their inhabitants +to perish for want of water. + +By way of contrast to this passage, we will take another, which +speaks, not of death, but of life. It occurs in Ezek. xlvii. 10, and +forms part of the vision in which the future of the Church was +foretold: + +"And it shall come to pass, that everything that liveth, which moveth, +whithersoever the rivers shall come, shall live: and there shall be a +very great multitude of fish, because these waters shall come thither: +for they shall be healed; and everything shall live whither the river +cometh. + +"And it shall come to pass, that the fishers shall stand upon it from +En-gedi even unto En-eglaim; they shall be a place to spread forth +nets; their fish shall be according to their kinds, as the fish of the +great sea, exceeding many." + +Now this is one of the many passages which might be passed over +lightly, because its general signification is so evident, and yet +which requires to be understood before its full force can be +comprehended. Both these places, En-gedi and En-eglaim, are on the +shores of the Dead Sea, in which no creature can live. Thousands of +small Fishes are daily carried into the Dead Sea from the Jordan, and +as soon as the fresh water of the river mingles with the poisonous +waves of the Dead Sea the Fishes die. Putting aside as foreign to the +purpose of this work the metaphorical signification of the passage, we +find that the prophet foretold a complete regeneration of the waters, +so that, instead of destroying every creature that entered them, the +Fishes should multiply so that fishermen should ply their trade from +one part of the Dead Sea to another. + +Again, in Hosea iv: 3, where the destruction of Fish is mentioned +among the plagues that would follow the continual disobedience of the +Israelites: "Because there is no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of +God in the land, .... + +"Therefore shall the land mourn, and every one that dwelleth therein +shall languish, with the beasts of the field, and with the fowls of +heaven: yea, the fishes of the sea also shall be taken away." + + +Lastly, we come to the religious, or rather superstitious, part played +by Fish in the ancient times. That the Egyptians employed Fish as +material symbols of Divine attributes we learn from secular writers, +such as Herodotus and Strabo. + +The Jews, who seem to have had an irrepressible tendency to idolatry, +and to have adopted the idols of every people with whom they came in +contact, resuscitated the Fish-worship of Egypt as soon as they found +themselves among the Philistines. We might naturally imagine that as +the Israelites were bitterly opposed to their persistent enemy, who +trod them under foot and crushed every attempt at rebellion for more +than three hundred years, they would repudiate the worship as well as +the rule of their conquerors. But, on the contrary, they adopted the +worship of Dagon, the Fish-god, who was the principal deity of the +Philistines, and erected temples in his honour. + +Their tendency to this Fish-worship is specially noticed in the +commandment that they were not to worship "the likeness of anything +that creepeth on the ground" (i.e. serpent-worship), "the likeness of +any fish that is in the waters beneath the earth" (Deut. iv. 18). + +We learn from 1 Sam. v. 4 the form of this idol: "When they arose +early on the morrow morning, behold, Dagon was fallen upon his face to +the ground before the ark of the Lord; and the head of Dagon and both +the palms of his hands were cut off upon the threshold; only the stump +of Dagon was left to him." + +If the reader will refer to this passage, he will see that the latter +part is rendered in the marginal reading as "the fishy part was left +to him." The Jewish Bible has nearly the same reading, "only a +fish-stump had remained of him." + +It is evident, therefore, that Dagon had the head, body, and arms of +a man, and that the figure terminated in a Fish's tail. In fact, there +is little doubt that to the various figures of this deity is owing the +wide-spread belief in mermen. We find the same image among the +Assyrians, who not only represented the god as half man and half fish, +but who dressed his priest in a garment representing the skin of a +Fish, with the head worn as a helmet, and the rest of the skin flowing +down the back. + +We find precisely the same worship at the present day in Siam, where +Dagon has exactly the same form as among the Philistines of old. There +is now before me a photograph of a great temple at Ayutia, the +entrance to which is guarded by two huge images of the Fish-god. They +are about sixty feet in height, and have both legs and feet like man, +but in addition the lower part of the body is modified into the tail +of a Fish, which, in common with the whole of the body, is covered +with gilded scales. + +It is conjectured that the Fish was chosen as an emblem of fecundity, +on account of the wonderful fertility of the Fish tribes. That the +Israelites were familiarly acquainted with this fact is shown by a +passage in the benediction of Jacob. In speaking of Joseph, he uses +these words: "The Angel which redeemed me from all evil, bless the +lads; and let my name be named on them, and the name of my fathers +Abraham and Isaac; and let them grow into a multitude" ("as fishes do +increase," marg. trans.) "in the midst of the earth" (Gen. xlviii. +16). + + +In order that the reader may see examples of the typical Fish which +are to be found in Egypt and Palestine, I have added three more +species, which are represented in the following illustration. + +The uppermost figure represents the NILE PERCH (_Lates Niloticus_). +This Fish is plentiful in the Nile, and in the mouths of many Asiatic +rivers. It is brown above, silvery white below, and may be +distinguished by the armed gill-covers, and the three strong spines of +the anal fin. The tongue is smooth. + +Immediately below the Nile Perch is the _Star-gazer_ (_Uranoscopus +scaber_). + +This Fish is found in the Mediterranean, and derives its name from the +singular mode in which the eyes are set in the head, so that it looks +upwards instead of sideways. It is one of the mud-lovers, a fact which +accounts for the peculiar position of the eyes. It is said to feed +after the fashion of the fishing-frog--_i.e._ by burying itself in the +mud and attracting other Fishes by a worm-like appendage of its mouth, +and pouncing on them before they are aware of their danger. + + [Illustration: FISH OF EGYPT AND PALESTINE. + + 1. NILE PERCH. 2. SURMULLET. 3. STAR-GAZER. + + "_We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely._"--NUMB. xi. + 5.] + +This is not a pretty Fish, and as it is very spiny, is not pleasant to +the grasp, but its flesh is very good, and it is much valued by those +who can obtain it. + +The last Fish to be noticed is the SURMULLET (_Mullus Surmuletus_), a +Fish that is equally remarkable for the beauty of its colours and the +excellence of its flesh. + + + + +INVERTEBRATES. + + + + +MOLLUSCS. + + The purple of Scripture--Various Molluscs from which it is + obtained--The common Dog-Whelk of England--The sac containing + the purple dye--Curious change of colour--Mode of obtaining the + dye--The Tyrian purple--The king of the Ethiopians and the + purple robe--The professional purple dyers--Various words + expressive of different shades of purple--Care taken to keep the + preparation of the dye secret. + + +Leaving the higher forms of animal life, we now pass to the +Invertebrated Animals which are mentioned in Scripture. + +As may be inferred from the extreme looseness of nomenclature which +prevails among the higher animals, the species which can be identified +are comparatively few, and of them but a very few details are given in +the Scriptures. + +Taking them in their zoological order, we will begin with the +MOLLUSCS. + + +We are all familiar with the value which was set by the ancients upon +the peculiar dye which may be called by the name of Imperial Purple. +In the first place, it was exceedingly costly, not only for its +richness of hue, but from the great difficulty with which a sufficient +quantity could be procured for staining a dress. Purple was +exclusively a royal colour, which might not be worn by a subject. +Among the ancient Romans, during the times of the Cæsars, any one who +ventured to appear in a dress of purple would do so at the peril of +his life. In the consular days of Rome, the dress of the consuls was +white, striped with purple; but the Cæsars advanced another step in +luxury, and dyed the whole toga of this costly hue. + +The colour of the dye is scarcely what we understand by the term +"purple," _i.e._ a mixture of blue and red. It has but very little +blue in it, and has been compared by the ancients to the colour of +newly-clotted blood. It is obtained from several Molluscs belonging +to the great Whelk family, the chief of which is the _Murex +brandaris_. Another species is _Murex trunculus_, another is _Purpura +hæmastoma_, and we have a fourth on our own coast, the common +Dog-Whelk, or Dog-Periwinkle (_Purpura lapillus_). + +The shell is shaped something like that of a whelk, but is very smooth +and porcelain-like, and is generally white, ornamented with several +coloured bands. It is, however, one of the most variable of shells, +differing not only in colour but in form. It always inhabits the belt +of the shore between tide-marks, and preys upon other Molluscs, such +as the mussel and periwinkle, literally licking them to pieces with +its long riband tongue. + +This tongue is beset with rows of hooked teeth, exactly like the +shark-tooth weapons of the Samoan and Mangaian Islanders, and with it +the creature is enabled to bore through the shells of mussels and +similar Molluscs, and to eat the enclosed animal. It is very +destructive to periwinkles, thrusting its tongue through the mouth of +the shell, piercing easily the operculum by which the entrance is +closed, and gradually scooping out the unfortunate inmate. + +Even the bivalves, which can shut themselves up between two shells, +fare no better, the tongue of the Dog-Whelk rasping a hole in the hard +shell in eight-and-forty hours. + +Any of my readers who desire to obtain a very fair specimen of the old +imperial purple can do so without difficulty. + +Let him go down to the sea-shore, and collect a number of +Dog-Whelks--a task of no difficulty, as a bushel may be obtained in a +very short time. Let him provide himself with a piece of perfectly +clean linen, or pure white woollen fabric, and a pair of fine scissors +or a sharp knife. + +In order to procure the animal, the shell must be broken with a sharp +blow of a small hammer, and the receptacle of the colouring matter can +then be seen behind the head, and recognised by its lighter hue. + +When it is opened, a creamy sort of matter exudes. It is yellowish, +and gives no promise of its future richness of hue. There is only one +drop of this matter in each animal, and it is about sufficient in +quantity to stain a piece of linen the size of a sixpence. + +The best mode of seeing the full beauty of the purple is to take a +number of the Molluscs, and to stain as large a surface as possible. +The piece of linen should then be exposed to the rays of the sun, when +it will go through a most curious series of colours. The yellow begins +to turn green, and, after a while, the stained portions of the linen +will be entirely green, the yellow having been vanquished by the blue. +By degrees the blue predominates more and more over the yellow, until +the linen is no more green, but blue. Then, just as the yellow yielded +to the blue, the blue yields to red, and becomes first violet, then +purple, and lastly assumes the blood-red hue of royalty. + +The colour is very permanent, and, instead of fading by time, seems +rather to brighten. Some two hundred years ago there was an +established trade in this dye in Ireland; but it has long ago been +crushed by the cheaper, though less permanent, dyes which have since +been invented. + +In some cases the ancients appear not to have troubled themselves with +the complicated operation of taking the animal out of the shell, +opening the receptacle, and squeezing the contents on the fabric to be +dyed, but simply crushed the whole of the Mollusc, so as to set the +colouring matter free, and steeped the cloth in the pulp. Tyre was one +of the most celebrated spots for this manufacture, the "Tyrian dye" +being celebrated for its richness. Heaps of broken shells remain to +the present day as memorials of the long-perished manufacture. + +The value which the ancients set upon this dye is shown by many +passages in various books. Among others we may refer to Herodotus. + +Cambyses, it appears, had a design to make war upon three nations, the +Ammonians, the Carthaginians, and the Ethiopians. He determined to +invade the first by land, and the second by sea; but, being ignorant +of the best method of reaching the Ethiopians, he dispatched +messengers to them, nominally as ambassadors, but practically as +spies. He sent to the King of Ethiopia valuable presents--namely, a +purple mantle, a golden necklace and bracelet, an elaborate box of +perfumed ointment, and a cask of palm-wine, these evidently being +considered a proof of imperial magnificence. + +The Ethiopian king ridiculed the jewels, praised the wine, and asked +curiously concerning the dye with which the purple mantle was stained. +On being told the mode of preparation, he refused to believe the +visitors, and, referring to the changing hues of the mantle and to the +perfume of the ointment, he showed his appreciation of their real +character by saying that the goods were deceptive, and so were the +bearers. + +This curious narrative occurs in the third book, chaps. 19-22. + +The same historian has in another place a passing allusion to the +trade of catching the purple-producing whelks. In his fourth book, +chap. 151, he mentions a man who was a purple-dyer by trade, the word +signifying equally one who procures the Molluscs as one who dyes the +threads of which the purple fabrics are woven. + +The dye-producing power is not restricted to the whelks, but is shared +by other Molluscs. For example, the Diadem Staircase Shell (_Scalaria +diadema_) secretes a substance which produces a purple hue, and the +_Cerithium telescopium_ produces a dye which retains its green hue, +instead of passing into blue and red. + +The Hebrew word _argaman_, which signifies the regal purple, occurs +several times in Scripture, and takes a slightly different form +according to the Chaldaic or Hebraic idiom. + +For example, we find it in Exod. xxv. 4: "This is the offering which +ye shall take of them: gold, and silver, and brass, + +"And blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen," &c. &c. + +It occurs again in 2 Chron. ii. 7: "Send me now therefore a man +cunning to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in iron, and +in purple, and crimson, and blue." These words are repeated in ver. +14. + +A very important use of this word is found in Dan. v. 7: "And the king +spake, and said to the wise men of Babylon, Whosoever shall read this +writing, and show me the interpretation thereof, shall be clothed with +scarlet" ("purple" in margin), "and have a chain of gold about his +neck, and shall be the third ruler in the kingdom." Here we find that +the dye in question was a regal one, that the wearing it was a matter +of sumptuary law, and that the fact of being allowed to wear it was a +sign that the wearer was of the very highest rank. + +The Jewish Bible invariably translates the word as "red-purple." + +That the preparers of the precious purple colour took care to preserve +their art a secret, is evident from the writings of the Talmudists, +who had the very vaguest ideas respecting the dye. They knew that it +was obtained from a marine Mollusc, but thought that the creature only +made its appearance once in seventy years, and that this scarcity was +the cause of its costliness. They said that the dye obtained from one +sea was blackish, evidently referring to the ink of the cuttle; that +when it was obtained from another it was violet, and that the +Phoenician waters alone produced the true red-purple hue. + +They accounted for its colour by saying that the animal took the +colour of the sea which it inhabited: the sea was like the sky which +it reflected, the sky was like the throne of God, and the throne of +God was like the sapphire. Therefore, the dye was like the sapphire. +It is not impossible even that the dyers exhibited specimens of the +Violet Snail, or Janthina, which is of a rich blue colour, and which +would readily be accepted as the source of the Tyrian dye. + + + + +THE SNAIL. + + The Snail which melteth--Rendering of the Jewish Bible--Theory + respecting the track of the Snail--The Hebrew word + _Shablul_--Various Snails of Palestine. + + +There is a very remarkable and not very intelligible passage in Ps. +lviii. 8: "As a snail which melteth, let every one of them pass away." +The Jewish Bible renders the passage in a way which explains the idea +which evidently prevailed at the time when the Psalms were composed: +"As a snail let him melt as he passeth on." + +The ancients had an idea that the slimy track made by a Snail as it +crawled along was subtracted from the substance of its body, and that +in consequence the farther it crept, the smaller it became, until at +last it wasted entirely away. The commentators on the Talmud took this +view of the case. The Hebrew word _shablul_, which undoubtedly does +signify a Snail of some kind, is thus explained: "The Shablul is a +creeping thing: when it comes out of its shell, saliva pours from +itself, until it becomes liquid, and so dies." + +Other explanations of this passage have been offered, but there is no +doubt that the view taken by these commentators is the correct one, +and that the Psalmist, when he wrote the terrible series of +denunciations in which the passage in question occurs, had in his mind +the popular belief regarding the gradual wasting away of the Snail as +it "passeth on." + +It is needless to say that no particular species of Snail is +mentioned, and almost as needless to state that in Palestine there are +many species of Snails, to any or all of which these words are equally +applicable. + + + + +THE ONYCHA. + + Ingredients of the sacred incense--The Onyx, or + Onycha--Derivation of the word--The Arabic Dofr--The Doofu of + Abyssinia--Odour of the perfume. + + +In Exod. xxx. 34 there occurs a remarkable word, _shecheleth_, which +is used to describe one of the ingredients of the incense to be used +in Divine worship. The Jewish Bible renders the word rightly, +"onycha," while Buxtorf renders it by "onyx," a word which is likely +to mislead the reader, and to cause him to believe it to be a mineral, +and not an animal substance. + +The Onycha is the operculum of one of the Strombi or Wing-shells, and +derives its name from the resemblance which it bears in those shells +to a nail or claw. The Greek word _onyx_ primarily signifies a nail, +and is indeed the origin of our own word. Secondarily, it is used to +denote a precious stone, partly because the white bands of the +sardonyx bear some resemblance to the white semi-lunar marks at the +base of human nails. In consequence of the resemblance of the +operculum to a claw or nail, the Arabs call the Wing-shell +"Dofr-el-afrit," or Afrit's (_i.e._ demon's) claw. + +The operculum of the Wing-shells has a sharp and powerful scent when +burned, and, when mixed with substances more fragrant but less +powerful, it has the effect of adding to their potency if not to their +fragrance. + +A remarkable corroboration of this rendering occurs in Mr. Mansfield +Parkyns's valuable "Life in Abyssinia." In the Appendix to vol. i. in +which the commerce of Abyssinia and the Red Sea is described, the +following entry occurs:--"_October 5, 1848._ Sailed for Suakim in a +native boat. Cargo: muslins, marawdi, Surat tobacco, sandal-wood, and +doofu. This article is the operculum or horny substance with which +some species of shell-fish are furnished to protect the mouth of their +shells. These in some parts of Nubia are used for perfume, being burnt +with sandal-wood." + +Here we have one or two points worthy of notice. In the first place, +it is evident that the Doofu of the Abyssinians is identical with the +Dofr of the Arabs. In the second place we find that it is not used +alone as a perfume, but is burned together with the fragrant +sandal-wood. Lastly, we find that the materials of the incense which +were ordained for the special use of the Jewish worship were derived +from North-Eastern Africa, and were in all probability familiar to the +Jews from their long residence in Egypt. + +The opercula of all the Strombidæ possess this powerful, though not +very fragrant odour, which has been compared to that of spices, or +castoreum, and probably acts the part which is played in many modern +perfumes by materials which in themselves possess an odour the reverse +of fragrant. + +The mineral onyx is represented by a different Hebrew word, namely, +_shoham_. + + + + +THE PEARL. + + The Pearl of Scripture--Wisdom compared to Pearl--Different + renderings of the Hebrew word--Opinions of the + Talmudists--Structure of Pearls--The Pearls of the marine and + aquatic mussels--Pearl-fisheries of the Conway--Metaphorical + uses of the Pearl--The Pearl of great price--Casting Pearls + before swine--An ancient proverb. + + +There is only one passage in the Old Testament in which can be found +the word which is translated as PEARL, and it is certain that the word +in question may have another interpretation. + +The word in question is _gabish_, and occurs in Job xxviii. 18. +Treating of wisdom, in that magnificent passage beginning, "But where +shall Wisdom be found, and where is the place of understanding?" the +sacred writer uses these words, "No mention shall be made of coral, or +of pearls: for the price of wisdom is above rubies." This is the only +passage in the Bible which contains the word in its simple form, but +there are two others in which it is found with the addition of the +syllable _el_, connected with the word _abne_, or stone. In this form, +it is translated in the Authorized Version as "hailstones." + +See Ezek. xiii. 11: "Say unto them which daub it with untempered +morter, that it shall fall: there shall be an overflowing shower; and +ye, O great Hailstones, shall fall; and a stormy wind shall rend it." +Also xxxviii. 22: "And I will plead against him with pestilence and +with blood; and I will rain upon him, and upon his bands, and upon the +many people that are with him, an overflowing rain, and great +Hailstones, fire, and brimstone." + +The Jewish Bible accepts the rendering of "hailstones" in both these +passages, but affixes the mark of doubt to the word, whereas in Job +xxviii. 18 it translates the word _gabish_ as "pearls" without using +any mark of doubt. In Buxtorfs Hebrew Lexicon, the word is translated +as "_Unio, Margarita pretiosa._" It is not, however, difficult to see +that the word _gabish_ may primarily signify either ice or Pearl, and +that the one may have been used metaphorically for the other. + +The Talmudical writers had much to say on the subject of Pearls, but, +before proceeding to their curious disquisitions, it will be as well +to describe briefly the Pearl and its origin. + +We are all familiar with the shining inner coating or "nacre" +possessed by many bivalve molluscs, such as the common mussels and +oysters. This coating is sometimes found upon extraneous substances +deposited on the "mantle" of the animal, and then takes the name of +"Pearl." Sometimes these are found in the common oyster. + +For example, I have before me some Pearls about as large as No. 5 +shot, that I took out of a single plateful of oysters. They are dull +in colour and irregular in form, but they are perfect Pearls. + +Then the common edible mussel frequently contains Pearls, which, +however, are almost invariably small, and comparatively valueless. It +is mentioned by Pliny that Julius Cæsar obtained in Britain a +sufficient number of Pearls to cover a breastplate, which he dedicated +to Venus, and hung in her temple. It is evident from Pliny's account +that the Pearls in question were small and comparatively valueless, +and it has been shrewdly suggested that Cæsar only presented them to +the goddess because the Roman ladies would not have worn them. + +These Pearls were in all probability obtained from the common edible +mussel which grows so abundantly on our coasts, and not, as has been +generally thought, from the river Pearl-mussel, which really produces +Pearls of considerable value. The celebrated pearl-fishers of the +Conway employ the edible mussel, and sell the Pearls at a certain +price per ounce. + +The scientific name of the river Pearl-shell is _Unio margaritiferus_, +which is found in best condition in rapid mountain streams. It is +plentiful in many of the Irish rivers, from which Pearls of +considerable value have been procured. One of these Pearls, seen by +Sir R. Redding set in a necklace, was purchased for thirty pounds by +the owner, who had refused nearly three times the sum for it. + +Perhaps the most celebrated Pearl-mussel is that of the Chinese, +_Dipsas plicatus_. This species attains a considerable size, a +specimen in my possession being seven inches in length and five in +width. + + [Illustration: PEARL OYSTER. + + "_And the twelve gates were twelve pearls._"--REV. xxi. 21.] + +The Chinese make a singular use of this mussel. They string a number +of globular pellets, and introduce them between the valves of the +mussel, so that in course of time the creature deposits a coating of +pearly substance upon them, and forms a very good imitation of real +Pearls. They also stamp little images, popularly called josses, out of +metal, and force the animal to cover them with nacre in a similar +manner. Six such josses are in my specimen. Frequently, however, these +incorrigible imitators actually counterfeit the sham pearls, merely +taking the josses and pellets, laying them in shells from which the +animal has been removed, and washing them with a solution which, when +dry, looks so like nacre that it cannot be distinguished from that +substance without much difficulty. + +The best Pearls are those which are procured from the well-known PEARL +OYSTER (_Meleagrina margaritifera_), which is found in several parts +of the world, and which constitutes the principal source of wealth to +the localities where it most abounds. + + +The Talmudical commentators wrote rather copiously about the Pearl, +respecting the nature of which they were somewhat perplexed, as it was +a gem and yet not a mineral. They thought that it lay at the bottom of +the sea, under flat, slab-like stones some of which had Pearls beneath +them, but the greater part were without them. In consequence of the +difficulty of diving and the precariousness of the search, a number of +proverbs were current. For example, a person who persevered in some +fruitless search was said to be a diver who brought up stones without +Pearls. If one person laboured and another took the credit, it was +said that the one would not have found the Pearl if the other had not +brought up the stone. + +In consequence of the labour and research required for seeking wisdom, +it was proverbially likened to a Pearl, and in this sense we must +understand the warning of our Lord, not to cast Pearls before swine. +The "pearl of great price" is another form of the same metaphor. + +This metaphor holds good in almost all Oriental languages. + +There is also a proverb which bears a curious resemblance to the +well-known "painting the lily and gilding refined gold:" "Whoso +praises a priceless pearl undervalues it." + + + + +INSECTS. + + Insects--Beetles not mentioned in Scripture--The Locust--Various + species of the insect, and different words used to signify + it--The Arbeh of Scripture, and its derivation--The two + migratory Locusts at rest and on the wing--The Locust + swarms--Gordon Cumming's account--Progress of the insect + hosts--Vain attempts to check them--Tossed up and down as a + Locust--Effect of the winds on the insect--The east and the west + winds--Locusts used for food--Ancient and modern travellers--The + food of St. John. + + +Considering the vast variety of insects which are found in Egypt, +Syria, and Palestine, it is somewhat remarkable that so few should be +mentioned by name. Not one single coleopteran is mentioned; for, +although the Hebrew word _chargol_, which occurs in Lev. xi. 21, 22, +is rendered in the Authorized Version as "beetle," the context shows +that it could not have been a coleopterous insect at all, but must +have belonged to the locusts. We will therefore pass to the insect +next in order. + + +THE LOCUST. + +Of the LOCUSTS there are several species in Palestine, two of which +are represented in the accompanying plate. Those on the ground are the +common Migratory Locusts (_OEdipoda migratoria_), while those on the +wing, which have long heads, are a species of _Truxalis_. + +At least four species of Locust are mentioned in the Scriptures, one +of them being the beetle of the Authorized Version; and it is probable +that one or two words which are differently rendered in the Authorized +Version are either names of different species of Locusts, or are +synonyms for the same species. + +We will first take the different Hebrew words which are translated as +"Locust," and then proceed to the description of the insects +themselves. + +The first of those words is _arbeh_, about the rendering of which +there is no doubt whatever. It occurs many times in the Scriptures, +and, even if its signification were doubtful, the context would be +sufficient to denote the proper rendering of the word. Take, for +example, the account in Exod. x. of the threatened plague of Locusts. +Nothing can be more terse and graphic than the description of the +Arbeh, its vast multitudes, its sudden arrival, and its destructive +power. + +In Judges vi. 5 the word is translated as "grasshopper." "For they +came up with their cattle and their tents, and they came as +grasshoppers for multitude; for both they and their camels were +without number: and they entered into the land to destroy it." +Translating the word rightly as "Locust," we see the real force of +this passage. Grasshoppers may inhabit a spot, and do no great harm, +but the Locusts invade whole districts, coming like destructive armies +upon it, and causing utter destruction as long as they remain. + +In 1 Kings viii. 37, Solomon speaks of the presence of the Arbeh among +the most terrible calamities that can befall a country, and classes it +with famine, drought, pestilence, and siege. In Prov. xxx. 27 the same +writer remarks on the curious fact that these creatures are gregarious +and migratory, and yet have no leader, as is mostly the case with +gregarious animals. "The locusts have no king, yet go they forth all +of them by hands." + +Allusion is made to the vast number of the Arbeh in Jer. xlvi.: "They +shall cut down her forest, saith the Lord, though it cannot be +searched; because they are more than the grasshoppers, and are +innumerable." The voracity of the Arbeh is mentioned in Joel i. 4 and +ii. 25. These are but a few passages selected out of the many in which +the Arbeh is mentioned, in order to show how completely the word +corresponds with the character of the Locust. The word is derived from +a Hebrew root signifying multitudes, and is therefore appropriately +used for these insects, which singly are so feeble, and collectively +are so terrible. + +Next comes the word _chagab_, which evidently signifies some migratory +and gregarious Locust, though we cannot say precisely to which species +it refers. The word is mostly translated as "grasshopper," and, from +the context of several passages, it seems to have been less in size +than the Arbeh, inasmuch as it is used as a metaphor to express +smallness. See, for example, Numb. xiii. 31-33, where is recorded the +false report of the spies whom Moses sent to inspect the land. "The +men that went up said, We be not able to go up against the people; for +they are stronger than we. + +"And they brought up an evil report of the land which they had +searched unto the children of Israel, saying, The land, through which +we have gone to search it, is a land that eateth up the inhabitants +thereof; and all the people that we saw in it are men of a great +stature. + +"And there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak, which come of the +giants: and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers" (_chagabim_), +"and so we were in their sight." + +A similar metaphor is employed by the Prophet Isaiah: "It is He that +sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are +as grasshoppers" (xl. 22). And in Eccles. xii. 5 extreme weakness is +forcibly indicated by the words, "the grasshopper" (_chagab_) "shall +be a burden." + +Now the two principal species of Locust which travel in bands and +devastate the country are the common Migratory Locust (_OEdipoda +migratoria_) and the _Acridium peregrinum_. If, therefore, the word +_arbeh_ expresses one of these insects, it is probable that the word +_chagab_ signifies the other. + +The Bald Locust of Lev. xi. 22 is probably some species of _Truxalis_, +the insects belonging to this genus having long and smooth heads. The +Hebrew word is _sallom_, and the Jewish Bible leaves it untranslated. +The word _chargol_ which also occurs in the same passage, and is +translated in the Authorized Version as "beetle," is in all +probability a species of Locust, as it is classed with those insects +which have "legs above their feet to leap withal." + +Besides these words, we find that others translated as "caterpillar," +"palmerworm," and "cankerworm" may be synonyms for the Locust, either +different species, or as expressing the same species in its various +stages of development. (See Lepidoptera, page 632.) + +We will now pass on to the insect and its habits, taking the Migratory +Locust as the type of its family. + +The Locust belongs to the great order of Orthoptera, or +straight-winged insects. They have, when fully developed, four wings, +the two front being thick and membraneous, while the two hinder wings +are large, delicate, translucent, and folded longitudinally under the +front pair of wings when the insect is at rest. In the Locusts these +characteristics are admirably shown. The appearance of a Locust when +at rest and when flying is so different that the creature is at first +sight scarcely recognisable as the same creature. When at rest, it is +a compact and tolerably stout insect, with a dull though delicately +coloured body; but when it takes flight it appears to attain twice its +previous dimensions. + +The front pair of wings, which alone were seen before they were +expanded, became comparatively insignificant, while the hinder pair, +which were before invisible, became the most prominent part of the +insect, their translucent folds being coloured with the most brilliant +hues, according to the species. The body seems to have shrunk as the +wings have increased, and to have diminished to half its previous +size, while the long legs that previously were so conspicuous are +stretched out like the legs of a flying heron. + +All the Locusts are vegetable-feeders, and do great harm wherever they +happen to be plentiful, their powerful jaws severing even the thick +grass stems as if cut by scissors. But it is only when they invade a +country that their real power is felt. They come flying with the wind +in such vast multitudes that the sky is darkened as if by +thunder-clouds; and when they settle, every vestige of green +disappears off the face of the earth. + +Mr. Gordon Cumming once saw a flight of these Locusts. They flew about +three hundred feet from the ground, and came on in thick, solid +masses, forming one unbroken cloud. On all sides nothing was to be +seen but Locusts. The air was full of them, and the plain was covered +with them, and for more than an hour the insect army flew past him. +When the Locusts settle, they eat with such voracity that the sound +caused by their jaws cutting the leaves and grass can be heard at a +great distance; and even the young Locusts, which have no wings, and +are graphically termed by the Dutch colonists of Southern Africa +"voet-gangers," or foot-goers, are little inferior in power of jaw to +the fully-developed insect. + +As long as they have a favourable wind, nothing stops the progress of +the Locusts. They press forward just like the vast herds of antelopes +that cover the plains of Africa, or the bisons that blacken the +prairies of America, and the progress of even the wingless young is +as irresistible as that of the adult insects. Regiments of soldiers +have in vain attempted to stop them. Trenches have been dug across +their path, only to be filled up in a few minutes with the advancing +hosts, over whose bodies the millions of survivors continued their +march. When the trenches were filled with water, the result was the +same; and even when fire was substituted for water, the flames were +quenched by the masses of Locusts that fell into them. When they come +to a tree, they climb up it in swarms, and devour every particle of +foliage, not even sparing the bark of the smaller branches. They +ascend the walls of houses that come in the line of their march, +swarming in at the windows, and gnawing in their hunger the very +woodwork of the furniture. + +We shall now see how true to nature is the terrible prophecy of Joel. +"A day of darkness and of gloominess, a day of clouds and of thick +darkness, as the morning spread upon the mountains: a great people and +a strong; there hath not been ever the like, neither shall be any more +after it, even to the years of many generations. + +"A fire devoureth before them; and behind them a flame burneth: the +land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate +wilderness; yea, and nothing shall escape them. + +"The appearance of them is as the appearance of horses; and as +horsemen, so shall they run. + +"Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall they leap, +like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble, as a +strong people set in battle array.... + +"They shall run like mighty men; they shall climb the wall like men of +war; and they shall march every one on his ways, and they shall not +break their ranks: + +"Neither shall one thrust another; they shall walk every one in his +path: and when they fall upon the sword, they shall not be wounded. + +"They shall run to and fro in the city; they shall run upon the wall, +they shall climb up upon the houses; they shall enter in at the +windows like a thief. + +"The earth shall quake before them; the heavens shall tremble: the sun +and the moon shall be dark, and the stars shall withdraw their +shining: + +"And the Lord shall utter His voice before His army: for His camp is +very great".(Joel ii. 2-11). + + [Illustration: THE LOCUST. + + "All thy trees shall the locust consume."--DEUT. xxviii. 42.] + +Nothing can be more vividly accurate than this splendid description of +the Locust armies. First we have the darkness caused by them as they +fly like black clouds between the sun and the earth. Then comes the +contrast between the blooming and fertile aspect of the land before +they settle on it, and its utter desolation when they leave it. Then +the poet-prophet alludes to the rushing noise of their flight, which +he compares to the sound of chariots upon the mountains, and to the +compact masses in which they pass over the ground like soldiers on the +march. The impossibility of checking them is shown in verse 8, and +their climbing the walls of houses and entering the chambers in verse +9. + +There is one passage in the Scriptures which at first sight seems +rather obscure, but is clear enough when we understand the character +of the insect to which it refers: "I am gone like the shadow when it +declineth: I am tossed up and down as the locust" (Ps. cix. 23). + +Although the Locusts have sufficient strength of flight to remain on +the wing for a considerable period, and to pass over great distances, +they have little or no command over the direction of their flight, and +always travel with the wind, just as has been mentioned regarding the +quail. So entirely are they at the mercy of the wind, that if a sudden +gust arises the Locusts are tossed about in the most helpless manner; +and if they should happen to come across one of the circular +air-currents that are so frequently found in the countries which they +inhabit, they are whirled round and round without the least power of +extricating themselves. + +The course then of the Locust-swarms depends entirely on the direction +of the wind. They are brought by the wind, and they are taken away by +the wind, as is mentioned in the sacred narrative. In the account of +the great plague of Locusts, the wind is mentioned as the proximate +cause both of their arrival and their departure. See, for example, +Exod. x. 12, 13: + +"And the Lord said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over the land of +Egypt for the locusts, that they may come up upon the land of Egypt, +and eat every herb of the land, even all that the hail hath left. + +"And Moses stretched forth his rod over the land of Egypt, and the +Lord brought an east wind upon the land all that day, and all that +night; and when it was morning, the east wind brought the locusts." + +Afterwards, when Moses was brought before Pharaoh, and entreated to +remove the plague which had been brought upon the land, the west wind +was employed to take the Locusts away, just as the east wind had +brought them. + +"He went out from Pharaoh, and entreated the Lord. + +"And the Lord turned a mighty strong west wind, which took away the +locusts, and cast them into the Red Sea; there remained not one locust +in all the coasts of Egypt" (Exod. x. 18, 19). + +Modern travellers have given accounts of these Locust armies, which +exactly correspond with the sacred narrative. One traveller mentions +that, after a severe storm, the Locusts were destroyed in such +multitudes, that they were heaped in a sort of wall, varying from +three to four feet in height, fifty miles in length, and almost +unapproachable, on account of the odour of their decomposing bodies. + + +We now come to the use of Locusts as food. + +Very few insects have been recognised as fit for human food, even +among uncivilized nations, and it is rather singular that the +Israelites, whose dietary was so scrupulously limited, should have +been permitted the use of the Locust. These insects are, however, +eaten in all parts of the world which they frequent, and in some +places form an important article of diet, thus compensating in some +way for the amount of vegetable food which they consume. + +Herodotus, for example, when describing the various tribes of Libyans, +mentions the use of the Locust as an article of diet. "The Nasamones, +a very numerous people, adjoin these Auschisæ westward.... When they +have caught locusts, they dry them in the sun, reduce them to powder, +and, sprinkling them in milk, drink them." (Melpomene, ch. 172.) + +This is precisely the plan which is followed at the present day by the +Bosjesmans of Southern Africa. + +To them the Locusts are a blessing, and not a plague. They till no +ground, so that they care nothing for crops, and they breed no cattle, +so that they are indifferent about pasture land. + +When they see a cloud of Locusts in the distance they light great +fires, and heap plenty of green boughs upon them, so as to create a +thick smoke. The Locusts have no idea of avoiding these smoke columns, +but fly over the fires, and, stifled by the vapour, fall to the +ground, where they are caught in vast numbers by the Bosjesmans. + +When their captors have roasted and eaten as many as they can manage +to devour, they dry the rest over the fires, pulverize them between +two stones, and keep the meal for future use, mixing it with water, +or, if they can get it, with milk. + +We will now take a few accounts given by travellers of the present +day, selecting one or two from many. Mr. W. G. Palgrave, in his +"Central and Eastern Arabia," gives a description of the custom of +eating Locusts. "On a sloping bank, at a short distance in front, we +discerned certain large black patches, in strong contrast with the +white glisten of the soil around, and at the same time our attention +was attracted by a strange whizzing, like that of a flight of hornets, +close along the ground, while our dromedaries capered and started as +though struck with sudden insanity. + +"The cause of all this was a vast swarm of locusts, here alighted in +their northerly wanderings from their birthplace in the Dahna; their +camp extended far and wide, and we had already disturbed their +outposts. These insects are wont to settle on the ground after sunset, +and there, half-stupified by the night chill, await the morning rays, +which warm them once more into life and movement. + +"This time, the dromedaries did the work of the sun, and it would be +hard to say which of the two were the most frightened, they or the +locusts. It was truly laughable to see so huge a beast lose his wits +for fear at the flight of a harmless, stingless Insect, for, of all +timid creatures, none equal this 'ship of the desert' for cowardice. + +"But, if the beasts were frightened, not so their masters. I really +thought they would have gone mad for joy. Locusts are here an article +of food, nay, a dainty, and a good swarm of them is begged of Heaven +in Arabia.... + +"The locust, when boiled or fried, is said to be delicious, and boiled +and fried accordingly they are to an incredible extent. However, I +never could persuade myself to taste them, whatever invitations the +inhabitants of the land, smacking their lips over large dishes full of +entomological 'delicatesses,' would make me to join them. Barakàt +ventured on one for a trial. He pronounced it oily and disgusting, nor +added a second to the first: it is caviare to unaccustomed palates. + +"The swarm now before us was a thorough godsend for our Arabs, on no +account to be neglected. Thirst, weariness, all were forgotten, and +down the riders leaped from their starting camels. This one spread out +a cloak, that one a saddle-bag, a third his shirt, over the unlucky +creatures, destined for the morning meal. Some flew away, whizzing +across our feet; others were caught, and tied up in sacks." + +Mr. Mansfield Parkyns, in his "Life in Abyssinia," mentions that the +true Abyssinian will not eat the Locust, but that the negroes and +Arabs do so. He describes the flavour as being something between the +burnt end of a quill and a crumb of linseed cake. The flavour, +however, depends much on the mode of cooking, and, as some say, on the +nature of the Locusts' food. + +Signor Pierotti states, in his "Customs and Traditions of Palestine," +that Locusts are really excellent food, and that he was accustomed to +eat them, not from necessity, but from choice, and compares their +flavour to that of shrimps. + +Dr. Livingstone makes a similar comparison. In Palestine, Locusts are +eaten either roasted or boiled in salt and water, but, when preserved +for future use, they are dried in the sun, their heads, wings, and +legs picked off, and their bodies ground into dust. This dust has +naturally a rather bitter flavour, which is corrected by mixing it +with camel's milk or honey, the latter being the favourite substance. + +We may now see that the food of St. John the Baptist was, like his +dress, that of a people who lived at a distance from towns, and that +there was no more hardship in the one than in the other. Some +commentators have tried to prove that St. John fed on the fruit of the +locust or carob tree--the same that is used so much in this country +for feeding cattle; but there is not the least ground for such an +explanation. The account of his life, indeed, requires no explanation; +Locust-dust, mixed with honey, being an ordinary article of food even +at the present day. + + + + +HYMENOPTERA. + +THE BEE. + + The Hebrew word _Debôrah_--The Honey Bee of Palestine--Abundance + of Bees in the Holy Land--Habitations of the wild Bee--Hissing + for the Bee--Bees in dead carcases--The honey of + Scripture--Domesticated Bees and their hives--Stores of wild + honey--The story of Jonathan--The Crusaders and the + honey--Butter and honey--Oriental sweetmeats--The Dibs, or + grape-honey, and mode of preparation--Wax, its use as a + metaphor. + + +Passing for the moment the order of insects called Neuroptera, which +may possibly be represented in the Scriptural writings by the +Termites, which would be classed with the ants, we come to the vast +order of Hymenoptera, of which we find several representatives. +Beginning with that which is most familiar to us, we will take the +Bee, an insect which is frequently mentioned in the Scriptures, and to +which indirect allusion is made in many passages, such as those which +mention honey, honeycomb, and wax. + + +Fortunately, there is no doubt about the rendering of the Hebrew word +_debôrah_, which has always been acknowledged to be rightly translated +as "Bee." There has, however, been a difference of opinion as to the +derivation of the word, some Hebraists thinking that it is derived +from a word which signifies departure, or going forth, in allusion to +its habit of swarming, while others derive it from the Hebrew dabar, a +word which signifies speech, and is appropriate to the Bee on account +of the varied sounds of its hum, which were supposed to be the +language of the insect. + +The Honey Bee is exceedingly plentiful in Palestine, and in some parts +of the country multiplying to such an extent that the precipitous +ravines in which it takes up its residence are almost impassable by +human beings, so jealous are the Bees of their domains. Although the +Bee is not exactly the same species as that of our own country, being +the Banded Bee (_Apis fasciata_), and not the _Apis mellifica_, the +two insects very much resemble each other in shape, colour, and +habits. Both of them share the instinctive dislike of strangers and +jealousy of intrusion, and the Banded Bee of Palestine has as great an +objection to intrusion as its congener of England. + + [Illustration: THE BEE. + + "_They shall rest all of them in the desolate valleys and in the holes + of the rocks._"--ISA. vii. 19.] + +Several allusions are made in the Scriptures to this trait in the +character of the Bee. See, for example, Deut. i. 44: "And the +Amorites, which dwelt in that mountain, came out against you, and +chased you, as bees do, and destroyed you in Seir, even unto Hormah." +All those who have had the misfortune to offend Bees will recognise +the truth of this metaphor, the Amorites swarming out of the mountain +like wild Bees out of the rocky clefts which serve them as hives, and +chasing the intruder fairly out of their domains. + +A similar metaphor is employed in the Psalms: "They compassed me +about; yea, they compassed me about; but in the name of the Lord I +will destroy them. + +"They compassed me about like bees, they are quick as the fire of +thorns, but in the name of the Lord I will destroy them." + +There is another passage in which the Bee is mentioned in the light of +an enemy: "And it shall come to pass in that day, that the Lord shall +hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt, +and for the bee that is in the land of Assyria. + +"And they shall come, and shall rest all of them in the desolate +valleys, and in the holes of the rocks, and upon all thorns, and upon +all bushes" (Isa. vii. 18, 19). Some commentators have thought that +the word which is translated as "Bee" may in this case refer to some +noxious fly, which, although it is not a Bee, and does not even belong +to the same order of insects, has a sufficiently Bee-like appearance +to cause it to be classed among the Bees by the non-zoological +Orientals. The context, however, sets the question at rest; for the +allusions to the resting of the insect in the holes of the rock, upon +the thorns, and on the bushes, clearly refers to the mode in which the +Honey Bee throws off its swarms. + +The custom of swarming is mentioned in one of the earlier books of +Scripture. The reader will remember that, after Samson had killed the +lion which met him on the way, he left the carcase alone. The various +carnivorous beasts and birds at once discover such a banquet, and in a +very short time the body of a dead animal is reduced to a hollow +skeleton, partially or entirely covered with skin, the rays of the sun +drying and hardening the skin until it is like horn. + +In exceptionally hot weather, the same result occurs even in this +country. Some years before this account was written there was a very +hot and dry summer, and a great mortality took place among the sheep. +So many indeed died that at last their owners merely flayed them, and +left their bodies to perish. One of the dead sheep had been thrown +into a rather thick copse, and had fallen in a spot where it was +sheltered from the wind, and yet exposed to the fierce heat of the +summer's sun. The consequence was that in a few days it was reduced to +a mere shell. The heat hardened and dried the external layer of flesh +so that not even the carnivorous beetles could penetrate it, while the +whole of the interior dissolved into a semi-putrescent state, and was +rapidly devoured by myriads of blue-bottles and other larvæ. + +It was so thoroughly dried that scarcely any evil odour clung to it, +and as soon as I came across it the story of Samson received a simple +elucidation. In the hotter Eastern lands, the whole process would have +been more rapid and more complete, and the skeleton of the lion, with +the hard and horny skin strained over it, would afford exactly the +habitation of which a wandering swarm of Bees would take advantage. At +the present day swarms of wild Bees often make their habitations +within the desiccated bodies of dead camels that have perished on the +way. + +As to the expression "hissing" for the Bee, the reader must bear in +mind that a sharp, short hiss is the ordinary call in Palestine, when +one person desires to attract the attention of another. A similar +sound, which may perhaps be expressed by the letters _tst_, prevails +on the Continent at the present day. Signor Pierotti remarks that the +inhabitants of Palestine are even now accustomed to summon Bees by a +sort of hissing sound. + +Whether the honey spoken of in the Scriptures was obtained from wild +or domesticated Bees is not very certain, but, as the manners of the +East are much the same now as they were three thousand years ago, it +is probable that Bees were kept then as they are now. The hives are +not in the least like ours, but are cylindrical vases of coarse +earthenware, laid horizontally, much like the bark hives employed in +many parts of Southern Africa. + +In some places the hives are actually built into the walls of the +houses, the closed end of the cylinder projecting into the interior, +while an entrance is made for the Bees in the other end, so that the +insects have no business in the house. When the inhabitants wish to +take the honey, they resort to the operation which is technically +termed "driving" by bee-masters. + +They gently tap the end within the house, and continue the tapping +until the Bees, annoyed by the sound, have left the hive. They then +take out the circular door that closes the end of the hive, remove as +much comb as they want, carefully put back those portions which +contain grubs and bee-bread, and replace the door, when the Bees soon +return and fill up the gaps in the combs. As to the wasteful, cruel, +and foolish custom of "burning" the Bees, the Orientals never think of +practising it. + +In many places the culture of Bees is carried out to a very great +extent, numbers of the earthenware cylinders being piled on one +another, and a quantity of mud thrown over them in order to defend +them from the rays of the sun, which would soon melt the wax of the +combs. + +In consequence of the geographical characteristics of the Holy Land, +which supplies not only convenient receptacles for the Bees in the +rocks, but abundance of thyme and similar plants, vast stores of +bee-comb are to be found in the cliffs, and form no small part of the +wealth of the people. + +Reference to this kind of property is made by the Prophet Jeremiah. +When Ishmael, the son of Nethaniah, had treacherously killed Gedaliah +and others, ten men tried to propitiate him by a bribe: "Slay us not, +for we have treasures in the field, of wheat, of barley, and of oil, +and of _honey_" (chap. xli. 8). References to the wild honey are +frequent in the Scriptures. For example, in the magnificent song of +Moses the Lord is said to have made Israel to "suck honey out of the +rock" (Deut. xxxii. 13). See also Psalm lxxxi. 16: "He should have fed +them also with the finest of the wheat: and with honey out of the rock +should I have satisfied thee." + +The abundance of wild honey is shown by the memorable events recorded +in 1 Sam. xiv. Saul had prohibited all the people from eating until +the evening. Jonathan, who had not heard the prohibition, was faint +and weary, and, seeing honey dripping on the ground from the abundance +and weight of the comb, he took it up on the end of his staff, and ate +sufficient to restore his strength. + +Thus, if we refer again to the history of St. John the Baptist and his +food, we shall find that he was in no danger of starving for want of +nourishment, the Bees breeding abundantly in the desert places he +frequented, and affording him a plentiful supply of the very material +which was needed to correct the deficiencies of the dried locusts +which he used instead of bread. + +The expression "a land flowing with milk and honey" has become +proverbial as a metaphor expressive of plenty. Those to whom the words +were spoken understood it as something more than a metaphor. In the +work to which reference has already been made Signor Pierotti writes +as follows:--"Let us now see how far the land could be said to flow +with milk and honey during the latter part of its history and at the +present day. + +"We find that honey was abundant in the time of the Crusades, for the +English, who followed Edward I. to Palestine, died in great numbers +from the excessive heat, and from eating too much fruit and honey. +(See M. Sanutus, '_Liber secretorum fidelium Crucis_,' lib. iii. p. +xii.) + +"At the present day, after traversing the country in every direction, +I am able to affirm that in the south-east and north-east, where the +ancient customs of the patriarchs are most fully preserved, and the +effects of civilization have been felt least, milk and honey may still +be said to flow, as they form a portion of every meal, and may even be +more abundant than water, which fails occasionally in the heat of +summer.... I have often eaten of the comb, which I found very good and +of delicious fragrance." + +A reference to sickness occasioned by eating too much honey occurs in +Prov. xxv. 16: "Hast thou found honey? Eat so much as is sufficient +for thee, lest thou be filled therewith, and vomit it." A similar +warning is given in verse 27: "It is not good to eat much honey: so +for men to search their own glory is not glory." + +So plentiful indeed was the wild honey that it was exported to other +countries, and in the palmy days of Israel formed part of a regular +trade with Tyre. See Ezek. xxvii. 17: "Judah and the land of Israel, +they were thy merchants: they traded in thy market wheat of Minnith, +and Pannag, and honey, and oil, and balm." + +In one or two passages honey is mentioned as being eaten with butter. +(See, for example, 2 Sam. xvii. 29.) When David and his followers were +wearied at Mahanaim, the people brought presents to him, among which +are specially mentioned butter and honey. + +Then there is the familiar prophecy, "Behold a virgin shall conceive +and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel. Butter and honey +shall he eat, that he may know to refuse the evil and choose the +good." The same image is repeated in the same chapter: "And it shall +come to pass for the abundance of milk that they shall give he shall +eat butter: for butter and honey shall every one eat that is left in +the land" (ver. 22). + +This mixture is at the present day a favourite one. All Orientals are +fond of sweets, and in the composition of many of their favourite +sweetmeats use honey instead of sugar. But an extemporized sweetmeat +is often made by mixing together honey and butter, and eating it +without further preparation. + + +It is right to mention here that there is a substance which is +sometimes called honey, but which is not made by Bees. This is still +used in Palestine under the name of "dibs," a word which is almost +identical with the Hebrew _d'bash_. A very excellent account of this +preparation is given by Mr. Urquhart in his "Lebanon." "The dibs, the +honey of Scripture, which Jacob sent to Joseph, is the inspissated +juice of the grape. It is of two sorts: one dark and liquid, +resembling molasses--this is the _racon_; the other is thick, and of a +yellow brown, and is called dibs (_jibes_). In every village there is +an establishment for making it, some of them bearing marks of great +antiquity. There are vats for pressing, and troughs cut in the rock +for holding the juice, and a furnace for boiling it. + +"The grapes are not trodden by the feet, but laid in a heap and +pressed by a beam, of which one end is fixed in the wall, and a heavy +stone attached to the other, as the oil seems anciently to have been +expressed, judging from the relics I observed near Tyre. The juice is +then boiled in the iron pan for an hour, then poured back into the +trough. After it has cooled it is again returned into the pan and +boiled--if for the racon for three hours, if for the jibes four. + +"The process is thus complete for the first; the second is still +liquid, and is conveyed home, where, during a month, it is daily for +an hour turned or beaten with a fresh branch of fig-tree, or botun. +This property of the fig-tree is curious.... The racon takes four okes +of grapes to make one oke; the jibes five. The first is worth forty +paras, and the second sixty." + + +The Hebrew word _donag_, which has been rightly interpreted as wax, +occurs very seldom in the Old Testament. No mention is made of any use +to which it was put, and in every instance it is employed simply as a +metaphor. + +Three examples occur in the Psalms: "I am poured out like water, and +all my bones are out of joint: my heart is like wax; it is melted in +the midst of my bowels" (Psa. xxii. 14). + +The word occurs again in Psa. lxviii. 2: "As smoke is driven away, so +drive them away: as wax melteth before the fire, so let the wicked +perish at the presence of God." It occurs for the third time in Psa. +xcvii. 5: "The hills melted like wax at the presence of the Lord, at +the presence of the Lord of the whole earth." + +The Prophet Micah uses a similar image: "Behold the Lord cometh forth +out of His place, and will come down, and tread upon the high places +of the earth. + +"And the mountains shall be molten under him, and the valleys shall be +cleft, as wax before the fire, and as the waters that are poured down +a steep place." (i. 3, 4.) + +The Bee represented on page 606 is the common Bee of Palestine, _Apis +fasciata_. The lowest figure in the corner, with a long body and shut +wings, is the queen. The central figure represents the drone, +conspicuous by means of his large eyes, that almost join each other at +the top of the head, and for his thicker and stouter body, while the +third figure represents the worker Bee. Near them is shown the +entrance to one of the natural hives which are so plentiful in the +Holy Land, and are made in the "clefts of the rocks." A number of Bees +are shown issuing from the hole. + + + + +THE HORNET. + + The Tzirah or Hornet of Scripture--Travellers driven away by + Hornets--The Hornet used as metaphor--Oriental symbolism--The + Talmudical writers--Sting of the Hornet. + + +Still keeping to the hymenopterous insects, we come to the Hornet. +There are three passages in which occurs the word _tzirah_, which has +been translated as Hornet. In every case when the word is mentioned +the insect is employed in a metaphorical sense. See, for example, +Exod. xxiii. 27, 28: "I will send my fear before thee, and will +destroy all the people to whom thou shalt come; and I will make all +thine enemies turn their backs unto thee. + +"And I will send hornets before thee, which shall drive out the +Hivite, the Canaanite, and the Hittite, from before thee." + +A similar use of the word is made in Deut. vii. 20: "Moreover the Lord +thy God will send the hornet among them, until they that are left, and +hide themselves from thee, be destroyed." + +The fulfilment of this promise is recorded in Josh. xxiv. 11, 12: "And +ye went over Jordan, and came unto Jericho: and the men of Jericho +fought against you, the Amorites, and the Perizzites, and the +Canaanites, and the Hittites, and the Girgashites, the Hivites, and +the Jebusites; and I delivered them into your hand. + +"And I sent the hornet before you, which drave them out from before +you, even the two kings of the Amorites; but not with thy sword, nor +with thy bow." + +It is most probable that in these passages the word is used rather as +a metaphor than as the statement of a fact, and that under the symbol +of the Hornet was signified some means whereby the people should be +driven out of the land as men are driven when chased by angry Hornets. +The reader may remember that the word "bee" is more than once used in +a similar manner. This view of the case is corroborated by such +passages as Deut. ii. 25: "This day will I begin to put the dread of +thee, and the fear of thee, upon the nations that are under the whole +heaven, who shall hear report of thee, and shall tremble, and be in +anguish because of thee." Also Josh. ii. 9-11: "I know that the Lord +hath given you the land, and that your terror is fallen upon us, and +that all the inhabitants of the land faint because of you. + + [Illustration: THE HORNET. + + "_I will send hornets before thee_."--EXOD. xxiii. 28.] + +"For we have heard how the Lord dried up the water of the Red Sea for +you, when ye came out of Egypt; and what ye did unto the two kings of +the Amorites, that were on the other side Jordan, Sihon and Og, whom +ye utterly destroyed. + +"And as soon as we had heard these things, our hearts did melt, +neither did there remain any more courage in any man, because of you." + +The Hornet affords a most appropriate image for such a promise as was +made to the Israelites, and was one which they must have thoroughly +comprehended. The Hornets of Palestine and the neighbouring countries +are far more common than our own Hornets in England, and they +evidently infested some parts to such an extent that they gave their +name to those spots. Thus the word _Zoreah_, which is mentioned in +Josh. xv. 33, signifies the "place of Hornets." + +They make their nests in various ways; some species placing them +underground, and others disposing them as shown in the illustration, +and merely sheltering them from the elements by a paper cover. Such +nests as these would easily be disturbed by the animals which +accompanied the Israelites on their journeys, even if the people were +careful to avoid them. In such a case, the irritated insects rush out +at the intruders; and so great is the terror of their stings, that men +and beasts fly promiscuously in every direction, each only anxious to +escape from the winged foes. + +The recollection of such scenes would necessarily dwell in the memory +of those who had taken part in them, and cause the metaphor to impress +itself strongly upon them. + +It is needless to say that the passages in question might be literal +statements of facts, and that the various nations were actually driven +out of their countries by Hornets. Let the insects be brought upon the +land in sufficient numbers, and neither man nor beast could stay in +it. It is not likely, however, that such a series of miracles, far +exceeding the insect-plagues of Egypt, would have been worked without +frequent references to them in the subsequent books of the Scriptures; +and, moreover, the quick, short, and headlong flight of the attack of +Hornets is a very different thing from the emigration which is +mentioned in the Scriptures, and the long journeys which such a +proceeding involved. + +The Talmudical writers inclined to the literal view of the passage, +and dilated on the terrible power of the Hornet, four of which could +destroy a horse, and one kill a boy nine years of age, or a man, +provided he were stung in the forehead. The sting of the Hornet is +very severe indeed, exceeding in virulence that of the wasp, to which +it is closely allied; and it is possible that a boy, or even a man, +might be in so feeble a state of health, or be naturally so sensitive +to poison, that the sting of a Hornet would be fatal. As a rule, +however, the sting of the Hornet, although exceedingly painful, is +scarcely more injurious than that of a bee or wasp. The Talmudists +stated that the Hornets mentioned in Joshua killed the people by +stinging them in the eye. + +The species of Hornet represented in the illustration is _Vespa +orientalis_, the insect and nest being drawn from specimens in the +British Museum. + + + + +THE ANT. + + The Ant of Scripture--Solomon's allusion to the Ant--Habit of + laying up stores of food--A controversy respecting the Ant--The + Ants of Palestine, and their habits--The Agricultural or + Mound-making Ant--Preparing ground, sowing, tending, reaping, + and storing the crop--Different habits of Ants--Development of + the insect--The winged Ants--An Arab proverb. + + +There are two short passages in the Old Testament, around which an +animated controversy has long raged. They both occur in the Book of +Proverbs. + +The first is found in chap. vi. 6-8: "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; +consider her ways, and be wise: + +"Which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, + +"Provideth her meat in the summer, and gathereth her food in the +harvest." + +The Jewish Bible renders the passage in almost exactly the same +manner: "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; see her ways, and be wise: + +"Which having no captain, bailiff, or ruler, + +"Provideth her bread in the summer, and gathereth her food in the +harvest." + +The second passage is of a similar character: "There be four things +which are little upon the earth, but they are exceeding wise. + +"The ants are a people not strong, yet they prepare their meat in the +summer." + +It has been objected to these passages that the Ant is a carnivorous +insect, and therefore could not gather her food in the harvest, and +that the very nature of that food would prevent it from being laid up +in store. The objectors thought that the sacred writer had been +deceived by appearances, and had mistaken the white cocoon of the +ant-pupæ (popularly called ant-eggs among ourselves) for grains of +corn which they were storing away for future use. + +Those who took the other side of the question answered that, in the +first place, it was necessary to be sure of the real translation of +the word which is rendered as "ant" in the Authorized Version; and +that, in the second place, the Ants of a warm country like Palestine +might have different habits from those which inhabit the comparatively +cold and changeable climate of England. + +As to the first point, there is no doubt that the rendering is the +right one, and that the word _nemâlah_ is correctly translated as +"ant." The Jewish Bible employs the word "ant," and does not add the +mark of doubt. Buxtorf, in his "Hebrew Lexicon," translates it as +"formica," and derives it from a root which signifies "to eat," +because it eat the seeds which it conveys to its dwelling. The +lexicographer here alludes to a belief that when the Ant carries a +grain of corn into its home, it bites off the germ, so as to prevent +it from sprouting. + +In Palestine Ants abound, and the species are tolerably numerous. +Among them are found some species which do convey seeds into their +subterranean home; and if their stores should be wetted by the heavy +rains which sometimes prevail in that country, bring them to the outer +air, as soon as the weather clears up, and dry them in the sun. + +The writer of the Proverbs was therefore perfectly right when he +alluded to the vegetable stores within the nest, and only spoke the +truth when he wrote of the Ant that it was exceeding wise. Any one who +wishes to test the truth of his words can easily do so by watching the +first Ants' nest which he finds, the species of the Ant not being of +much consequence. The nests of the Wood-Ant are perhaps the best +suited for investigation, partly because the insect and its habitation +are comparatively large, and, secondly, because so much of the work is +done above-ground. + +The most wonderful Ant in the world is one which hitherto is only +known in some parts of America. Its scientific name is _Atta +malefaciens_, and it has been called by various popular names, such as +the Mound-making Ant and the Agricultural Ant on account of its +habits, and the Stinging Ant on account of the pungency of its venom. +This characteristic has gained for it the scientific name of +_malefaciens_, or villanous. + +The habits of this Ant were studied in Texas by Dr. Lincecum for the +space of twelve years, and the result of his investigations was +communicated to the Linnæan Society by C. Darwin, Esq. His abstract of +Dr. Lincecum's observations may be found in the "Journal of the +Linnæan Society," vol. vi. No. 21, page 29. It is so extraordinary an +account that it must be given in the narrator's own words:-- + +"The following is merely an abstract of Dr. Lincecum's communication, +containing only what appears to be most remarkable and novel in it in +the way of observation. + +"The species which I have named 'Agricultural' is a large brownish +ant. It dwells in what may be termed paved cities, and, like a +thrifty, diligent, provident farmer, makes suitable and timely +arrangements for the changing seasons. It is, in short, endowed with +skill, ingenuity, and untiring patience sufficient to enable it +successfully to contend with the varying exigencies which it may have +to encounter in the life-confiict. + +"When it has selected a situation for its habitation, if on ordinary +dry ground, it bores a hole, around which it raises the surface three +and sometimes six inches, forming a low circular mound having a very +gentle inclination from the centre to the outer border, which on an +average is three or four feet from the entrance. But if the location +is chosen on low, flat, wet land liable to inundation, though the +ground may be perfectly dry at the time the ant sets to work, it +nevertheless elevates the mound, in the form of a pretty sharp cone, +to the height of fifteen to twenty inches or more, and makes the +entrance near the summit. Around the mound in either case the ant +clears the ground of all obstructions, levels and smooths the surface +to the distance of three or four feet from the gate of the city, +giving the space the appearance of a handsome pavement, as it really +is. + +"Within this paved area not a blade of any green thing is allowed to +grow, except a single species of grain-bearing grass. Having planted +this crop in a circle around, and two or three feet from, the centre +of the mound, the insect tends and cultivates it with constant care, +cutting away all other grasses and weeds that may spring up amongst it +and all around outside of the farm-circle to the extent of one or two +feet more. + +"The cultivated grass grows luxuriantly, and produces a heavy crop of +small, white, flinty seeds, which under the microscope very closely +resemble ordinary rice. When ripe, it is carefully harvested, and +carried by the workers, chaff and all, into the granary cells, where +it is divested of the chaff and packed away. The chaff is taken out +and thrown beyond the limits of the paved area. + +"During protracted wet weather, it sometimes happens that the +provision stores become damp, and are liable to sprout and spoil. In +this case, on the first fine day the ants bring out the damp and +damaged grain, and expose it to the sun till it is dry, when they +carry it back and pack away all the sound seeds, leaving those that +had sprouted to waste. + +"In a peach-orchard not far from my house is a considerable elevation, +on which is an extensive bed of rock. In the sand-beds overlying +portions of this rock are fine cities of the Agricultural ants, +evidently very ancient. My observations on their manners and customs +have been limited to the last twelve years, during which time the +enclosure surrounding the orchard has prevented the approach of cattle +to the ant-farms. The cities which are outside of the enclosure as +well as those protected in it are, at the proper season, invariably +planted with the ant-rice. The crop may accordingly always be seen +springing up within the circle about the 1st of November every year. + +"Of late years, however, since the number of farms and cattle has +greatly increased, and the latter are eating off the grass much closer +than formerly, thus preventing the ripening of the seeds, I notice +that the Agricultural ant is placing its cities along the turn-rows in +the fields, walks in gardens, inside about the gates, &c., where they +can cultivate their farms without molestation from the cattle. + +"There can be no doubt of the fact, that the particular species of +grain-bearing grass mentioned above is intentionally planted. In +farmer-like manner the ground upon which it stands is carefully +divested of all other grasses and weeds during the time it is growing. +When it is ripe the grain is taken care of, the dry stubble cut away +and carried off, the paved area being left unencumbered until the +ensuing autumn, when the same 'ant-rice' reappears within the same +circle, and receives the same agricultural attention as was bestowed +upon the previous crop; and so on year after year, as I _know_ to be +the case, in all situations where the ants' settlements are protected +from graminivorous animals." + +In a second letter, Dr. Lincecum, in reply to an inquiry from Mr. +Darwin, whether he supposed that the Ants plant seeds for the ensuing +crop, says, "I have not the slightest doubt of it. And my conclusions +have not been arrived at from hasty or careless observation, nor from +seeing the ants do something that looked a little like it, and then +guessing at the results. I have at all seasons watched the same +ant-cities during the last twelve years, and I know that what I stated +in my former letter is true. I visited the same cities yesterday, and +found the crop of ant-rice growing finely, and exhibiting also the +signs of high cultivation, and not a blade of any other kind of grass +or weed was to be seen within twelve inches of the circular row of +ant-rice." + +The economical habits of this wonderful insect far surpass anything +that Solomon has written of the Ant, and it is not too much to say +that if any of the Scriptural writers had ventured to speak of an Ant +that not only laid up stores of grain, but actually prepared the soil +for the crop, planted the seed, kept the ground free from weeds, and +finally reaped the harvest, the statement would have been utterly +disbelieved, and the credibility not only of that particular writer +but of the rest of Scripture severely endangered. We all know that +Solomon's statement concerning the Ant has afforded one of the stock +arguments against the truth of Scripture; and here we have his +statements not only corroborated to the very letter by those who have +visited Palestine for the express purpose of investigating its +zoology, but far surpassed by the observations of a scientific man who +had watched the insects for a series of years. One of the Ants of +Palestine, shown on page 621, belongs to the same genus as the +Agricultural Ant. + +As may be inferred from the above description, the habits of Ants vary +greatly according to their species and the climate in which they live. +All, however, are wonderful creatures; and whether we look at their +varied architecture, their mode of procuring food, the system of +slave-catching adopted by some, the "milking" of aphides practised by +others, their astonishing mode of communicating thought to each other, +and their perfect system of discipline, we feel how true were the +words of the royal naturalist, that the Ants are "little upon earth, +but are exceeding wise." + + [Illustration: ANT OF PALESTINE (Atta barbara). + + "_Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be + wise._"--PROV. vi. 6.] + +There is one point of their economy in which all known species agree. +Only those which are destined to become perfectly developed males and +females attain the winged state. Before they assume the transitional +or pupal condition, each spins around itself a slight but tough silken +cocoon, in which it lies secure during the time which is consumed in +developing its full perfection of form. + +When it is ready to emerge, the labourer Ants aid in freeing it from +the cocoon, and in a short time it is ready to fly. Millions of these +winged ants rise into the air, seeking their mates, and, as they are +not strong on the wing, and are liable to be tossed about by every +gust of wind, vast numbers of them perish. Whole armies of them fall +into the water and are drowned or devoured by fish, while the +insectivorous birds hold great festival on so abundant a supply of +food. As soon as they are mated they bend their wings forward, snap +them off, and pass the rest of their lives on the ground. + +In consequence of the destruction that takes place among the winged +Ants, the Arabs have a proverb which is applied to those who are +over-ambitious: "If God purposes the destruction of an ant, He permits +wings to grow upon her." + + + + +HOMOPTERA. + +THE CRIMSON WORM. + + The scarlet or crimson of Scripture--Signification of the word + _Tolââth_--The Coccus or Cochineal of Palestine compared with + that of Mexico--Difference between the sexes--Mode of preparing + the insect--The Arabic word _Kermes_. + + +We now come to another order of insects. + +Just as the purple dye was obtained from a mollusc, the scarcely less +valuable crimson or scarlet was obtained from an insect. The Hebrew +word _tolââth_ is translated in the Authorized Version either as +"crimson" or "scarlet," but its full signification is the +Crimson-worm. This is an insect scientifically named _Coccus ilicis_ +on account of its food. It is closely allied to the well-known +cochineal of Mexico, which gives a more brilliant dye, and has at the +present day nearly superseded the native insect. It is, however, +still employed as a dye in some parts of the country. + +As its name imports, it feeds on the holm oak (_Quercus coccifera_), a +tree which is very plentiful in Palestine, and attains a large size. + + [Illustration: THE CRIMSON WORM. + + "_Though your sins be as red as crimson, they shall be white as + snow._"--ISA i. 13.] + +Like the cochineal insect of Mexico, the female is very much larger +than her mate, and it is only from her that the dye is procured. At +the proper season of year the females are gathered off the trees and +carefully dried, the mode of drying having some effect upon the +quality of the dye. During the process of drying the insect alters +greatly, both in colour and size, shrinking to less than half its +original dimensions, and assuming a greyish brown hue instead of a +deep red. When placed in water it soon gives out its colouring matter, +and communicates to the water the rich colour with which we are +familiar under the name of carmine, or crimson. This latter name, by +the way, is only a corruption of the Arabic _kermes_, which is the +name of the insect. + +The reader will remember that this was one of the three sacred +colours--scarlet, purple, and blue--used in the vestments of the +priests and the hangings of the tabernacle, the white not taking rank +as a colour. + +The Coccus belongs to the Homoptera in common with the cicadæ, the +lantern flies, the hoppers, and the aphides. + +On page 623 the large females are shown on the prickly pear, and near +them are the tiny males, some flying and some on the leaves. + + + + +LEPIDOPTERA. + +THE CLOTHES MOTH. + + The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth--The Sâs and + the 'Ash--Similitude between the Hebrew _sâs_ and the Greek + _sês_--Moths and garments--Accumulation of clothes in the + East--Various uses of the hoarded robes--The Moths, the rust, + and the thief. + + +Only one Lepidopterous insect is mentioned by name in the Scriptures. +This is the MOTH, by which we must always understand some species of +Clothes Moth--in fact, one of the Tineidæ, which are as plentiful and +destructive in Palestine as in this country. + +Two words are used in the Old Testament to express the Moth, one of +which, _sâs_, only occurs once, and then in connexion with the other +word _'ash_. The resemblance of the Hebrew _sâs_ and the Greek _sês_ +is to be noted, both of them denominating the same insect. See Is. li. +8: "For the moth (_'ash_) shall eat them up like garment, and the worm +(_sâs_) shall eat them like wool." Buxtorf translates _sâs_ as _tinea, +blatta_. + +Several references are made to the Moth in the Scriptures, and nearly +all have reference to its destructive habits. The solitary exceptions +occur in the Book of Job, "Behold, He put no trust in His servants; +and His angels He charged with folly: how much less in them that dwell +in houses of clay, whose foundation is in the dust, which are crushed +before the moth?" (Ch. iv. 18, 19.) A similar allusion to the Moth is +made in the same book: "He buildeth his house as a moth, and as a +booth that the keeper maketh" (xxvii. 18). + +The Moth is mentioned in one of the penitential passages of the +Psalms: "When Thou with rebukes dost correct man for iniquity, Thou +makest his beauty to consume away like a moth: surely every man is +vanity" (Ps. xxxix. 11). + +The prophets also make use of the same image. "Behold, the Lord God +will help me; who is he that shall condemn me? lo, they all shall wax +old as a garment; the moth shall eat them" (Isa. l. 9). The image is +repeated in the next chapter (ver. 8), in which the 'Ash and the Sâs +are both mentioned. Hosea employs the word as a metaphor expressive of +gradual destruction: "Therefore will I be unto Ephraim as a moth, and +to the house of Judah as rottenness" (v. 12). + +In the New Testament reference is made several times to the Moth. "Lay +not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth +corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal" (Matt. vi. 19). +St. James, in a kind of commentary on this passage, writes as follows: +"Go to now, ye rich men, weep and howl for your miseries that shall +come upon you. + +"Your riches are corrupted, and your garments are moth-eaten. + +"Your gold and silver is cankered; and the rust of them shall be a +witness against you, and shall eat your flesh as it were fire. Ye have +heaped treasures together for the last days." (v. 1-3.) + +Even to ourselves these passages are significant enough, but to the +Jews and the inhabitants of Palestine they possessed a force which we +can hardly realize in this country. In the East large stores of +clothing are kept by the wealthy, not only for their own use, but as +presents to others. At a marriage feast, for example, the host +presents each of the guests with a wedding garment. Clothes are also +given as marks of favour, and a present of "changes of raiment," +_i.e._ suits of clothing, is one of the most common gifts. As at the +present day, there was anciently no greater mark of favour than for +the giver to present the very robe which he was wearing, and when that +robe happened to be an official one, the gift included the rank which +it symbolized. Thus Joseph was invested with royal robes, as well as +with the royal ring (Gen. xli. 42). Mordecai was clothed in the +king's robes: "Let the royal apparel be brought which the king useth +to wear, and the horse the king rideth upon, and the crown royal which +is set upon his head. + +"And let this apparel and horse be delivered to the hand of one of the +king's most noble princes, that they may array the man withal whom the +king delighteth to honour, and bring him on horseback through the +street of the city, and proclaim before him, Thus shall it be done to +the man whom the king delighteth to honour." (Esther vi. 8, 9.) + +The loose clothing of the East requires no fitting, as is the case +with the tight garments of the West; any garment fits any man: so that +the powerful and wealthy could lay up great stores of clothing, +knowing that they would fit any person to whom they were given. An +allusion to this practice of keeping great stores of clothing is made +in Job xxvii. 26: "Though he heap up silver as the dust, and prepare +raiment as the clay; + +"He may prepare it, but the just shall put it on, and the innocent +shall divide the silver." + +So large was the supply of clothing in a wealthy man's house, that +special chambers were set apart for it, and a special officer, called +the "keeper of the garments" (2 Chron. xxxiv. 22), was appointed to +take charge of them. + +Thus, when a man was said to have clothing, the expression was a +synonym for wealth and power. See Isa. iii. 6: "When a man shall take +hold of his brother of the house of his father, saying, Thou hast +clothing, be thou our ruler." + +The reader will now see how forcible was the image of the Moth and the +garments, that is used so freely in the Scriptures. The Moth would not +meddle with garments actually in use, so that a poor man would not +be troubled with it. Only those who were rich enough to keep stores +of clothing in their houses need fear the Moth, which would be +as destructive to that portion of their wealth represented by +their clothes as the "rust,"--_i.e._ the Grain Moth (_Tinea +granella_)--which consumed their stores, or the thief who came by +night and stole their gold and silver. + + + + +THE SILKWORM MOTH. + + Various passages wherein Silk is mentioned--The virtuous woman + and her household--Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted + with Silk--Present cultivation of the Silkworm--The Silk-farms + of the Lebanon--Signification of the word _Meshi_--Silkworms and + thunder--Luis of Grenada's sermon--The Hebrew word _Gâzam_, and + its signification--The Palmer-worm of Scripture. + + +In the Authorized Version there are several passages wherein silk is +mentioned, but it is rather doubtful whether the translation be +correct or not, except in one passage of the Revelation: "And the +merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her; for no man +buyeth their merchandise any more: + +"The merchandise of gold, and silver, and precious stones, and of +pearls, and fine linen, and purple, and silk." (xviii. 11, 12.) + +In Prov. xxxi. 22 Solomon writes of the virtuous woman "that she +maketh herself coverings of tapestry; her clothing is silk and +purple." The word which is here given as "silk" is translated in the +Jewish Bible as "fine linen." + +In the other two passages, however, in which the word occurs it is +rendered as "silk:" "I clothed thee also with broidered work, and shod +thee with badger's skin, and I girded thee about with fine linen, and +I covered thee with silk" (Ezek. xvi. 10). See also verse 13 of the +same chapter: "Thus wast thou decked with gold and silver, and thy +raiment was of fine linen and broidered work." + +That the Hebrews were acquainted with silk from very early times is +nearly certain, but it is probable that until comparatively late years +they only knew the manufactured material, and were ignorant of the +source whence it was derived. As to the date at which silk was +introduced into Palestine, nothing certain is known; but it is most +likely that Solomon's fleets brought silk from India, together with +the other valuables which are mentioned in the history of that +monarch. + +At the present day silk is largely cultivated, and the silk-farmers of +the Lebanon are noted for the abundance of the crop which is annually +produced. The greatest care is taken in rearing the worms. An +excellent account of these farms is given by Mr. G. W. Chasseaud in +his "Druses of the Lebanon:"-- + +"Proceeding onward, and protected from the fierce heat of the sun's +rays by the pleasant shade of mountain pines, we were continually +encountering horseloads of cocoons, the fruit of the industry of the +Druse silk-rearer. The whole process, from hatching the silkworms' +eggs till the moment that the worm becomes a cocoon, is one series of +anxiety and labour to the peasant. The worms are so delicate that the +smallest change of temperature exposes them to destruction, and the +peasant can never confidently count upon reaping a harvest until the +cocoon is fairly set." + +After a long and interesting description of the multiplied and +ceaseless labours of the silk-grower in providing food for the armies +of caterpillars and sheltering them from the elements, the writer +proceeds as follows:-- + +"The peasant is unwilling to permit of our remaining and watching +operations. Traditional superstition has inculcated in him a dread of +the evil eye. If we stop and admire the wisdom displayed by the worm, +it will, in his opinion, be productive of evil results; either the +cocoon will be badly formed, or the silk will be worthless. So, first +clearing the place of all intruders, he puts a huge padlock on the +door, and, locking the _khlook_ (room in which the silkworms are +kept), deposits the key in his _zinnar_, or waistband. + +"Next week he will come and take out the cocoons, and, separating them +from the briars, choose out a sufficiency for breeding purposes, and +all the rest are handed over to the women of his family. These first +of all disentangle the cocoon from the rich and fibrous web with which +it is enveloped, and which constitutes an article of trade by itself. +The cocoons are then either reeled off by the peasant himself or else +sold to some of the silk factories of the neighbourhood, where they +are immediately reeled off, or are suffocated in an oven, and +afterwards, being well aired and dried, piled up in the magazines of +the factory. + +"Such is a brief account or history of these cocoons, of which we were +continually encountering horseload after horseload. + +"As you will perceive, unless suffering from a severe cold in the +head, the odour arising from these cocoons is not the most agreeable; +but this arises partly from the neglect and want of care of the +peasants themselves, who, reeling off basketful after basketful of +cocoons, suffer the dead insects within to be thrown about and +accumulate round the house, where they putrefy and emit noxious +vapours." + +The Hebrew word _meshi_, which is the one that occurs in Ezek. xvi., +is derived from a root which signifies "to draw out," probably in +allusion to the delicacy of the fibre. + +Although our limits will not permit the cultivation of the Silkworm to +be described more fully, it may here be added that all silk-growers +are full of superstition regarding the welfare of the caterpillars, +and imagine that they are so sensitive that they will die of fear. The +noise of a thunderclap is, in their estimation, fatal to Silkworms; +and the breeders were therefore accustomed to beat drums within the +hearing of the Silkworms, increasing the loudness of the sound, and +imitating as nearly as possible the crash and roll of thunder, so that +the caterpillars might be familiar with the sound if the thunderstorm +should happen to break near them. + +A quaint use of this superstition is made by Luis of Grenada in one of +his discourses:-- + +_Dominica IV. post Pent., Concio 1._ + +"Sunt rursus alii, quorum pectora sic generis humani hostis obsedit, +ut nullius divinæ vocis fulminibus perterreantur, vel parum animo +commoveantur. + +"Quâ autem ratione eorundem aures obstruat, proposito hoc exemplo +indicabo. + +"Bombyces, hoc est vermes illi qui serica fìla nectunt, ita tonitruum +sonitu gravantur, ut interduin moriantur. Quo fit, ut qui eos nutriunt +tympana frequenter pulsent, ut sonitui molliori assueti a graviori +tonitrui sono non lædantur. Tales mihi multi sacrarum concionum +auditores hâc ætate esse videntur, qui quotidianis concionibus +audiendis sine ullo animi motu assueti, si quis concionator, a Deo +actus, gravius aliquid et formidibilius intonet, non idem magis animo +permoveantur; utpote qui negligenter audiendi consuetudine pene +insensibiles ad verbi Dei tonitrua affecti sint." + + +_Fourth Sunday after Pentecost, Sermon 1._ + +"Again, others there are of whose breasts the enemy of mankind hath +taken such possession, that they be terrified by the thunderbolts of +no Divine voice, or are in mind only a little disturbed thereby. + +"Now after what sort he stoppeth the ears of these same men I will, by +this example, propound and set forth. + +"The Bombyxes--that is to say, those worms which do spin the silk +threads--are by peals of thunder so troubled that sometimes they die. +Wherefore it comes to pass that the keepers of them do ofttimes beat +drums, to the end that, being used to the softer noise, they may take +no hurt from that sound of the thunder which is heavier. Of such a +sort do seem to me to be nowadays many hearers of sacred discourses. +For inasmuch as they be used to the hearing of common discourses, by +which their minds are nothing moved, if a preacher, urged of God, do +sound forth something in any wise solemn and dreadful, they are not, +therefore, any the more moved in mind, seeing that by their custom of +careless hearing they have grown well-nigh hardened to the thunders of +God's Word." + + +About the correct reading of the Hebrew word _gâzam_, which is +translated in the Authorized Version "palmer-worm," there has always +been some difficulty. It only occurs in three passages of Scripture, +and in each case reference is made to its destructive powers. + +The first is in Joel i. 4: "That which the palmer-worm hath left, hath +the locust eaten." + +The second is in chap. ii. 25 of the same book: "I will restore to you +the years that the locust hath eaten, the canker-worm, and the +caterpillar, and the palmer-worm, my great army which I sent among +you." + +The third is in Amos iv. 9: "I have smitten you with blasting and +mildew: when your gardens, and your vineyards, and your fig-trees, and +your olive-trees increased, the palmer-worm devoured them: yet have +ye not returned unto me, saith the Lord." + + [Illustration: BUTTERFLIES OF PALESTINE. + + SYRIAN GRAYLING (Hipparchia Persephone). SYRIAN ORANGE-TIP (Antocharis + Glauce). + + SYRIAN SWALLOW-TAIL (Papilio Virgatus). + + "_That which the palmer-worm hath left hath the locust eaten._"--JOEL + i. 4.] + + +The Jewish Bible retains the reading of palmer-worm, but affixes the +mark of doubt, as it does to the canker-worm. Some Hebraists have +thought that the word _gâzam_ is one of the names to designate the +locust, either some distinct species, or the same species in its +undeveloped condition. Others have thought that, as the Jews were very +loose in their nomenclature, they would not have made so great an +exception in favour of an insect as to apply two different names to +it. + +Buxtorf derives the word from a root signifying "to shave," or "to +shear," in allusion to the havoc which the _gâzam_ makes among the +vegetation. The reader will see that it is impossible to decide with +any certainty upon the precise species of insect signified by the word +_gâzam_; but there can be no harm in following the translation of the +Septuagint and Vulgate, both of which render it as "caterpillar." +Assuming, therefore, that it is a caterpillar of some kind, I have +inserted figures of some butterflies found in Palestine, together with +the caterpillar and chrysalis of one of them, namely the Papilio. + + + + +DIPTERA. + +FLIES. + + Flies of Scripture--Dead Flies and the apothecary's + ointment--Gadflies and their attacks--Annoyance caused by the + House-fly--Flies and ophthalmia--Signor Pierotti's account of + the Flies--The sovereign remedy against Flies--Causes of their + prevalence. + + +Next we come to the Dipterous or two-winged insects, which are very +sparingly mentioned in the Scriptures, and only one species is +definitely named. + +There are two Hebrew words which are translated as "fly." One is +_zebub_, so familiar in the compound word _Baal-zebub_--_i.e._ "Lord +of Flies." This word only occurs in two passages, one being the +well-known proverb, "Dead flies cause the ointment of the apothecary +to send forth a stinking savour" (Eccles. x. 1). + +This passage requires a little explanation. By the word "apothecary" +we must not understand a medical man, nor by the word "ointment" the +mollifying substance used as an application for wounds. The ointment +of Scripture signifies the various perfumed unguents used as scents +and cosmetics for the living, as part of the preparation of the dead +for the grave, and as an essential accessory to Jewish ritual. + +These ointments were most carefully made, and the person who prepared +and sold them was called the apothecary. If, therefore, the unguents +were carelessly stored, and the Flies permitted to enter, the perfume +would be destroyed by the odour of their dead bodies. + +The second passage is Isa. vii. 18: "The Lord shall hiss for the fly +that is in the uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt." No particular +species of fly is here indicated; but it is evident that some +peculiarly irritating and troublesome, not to say dangerous, insect is +signified. + +Many species of gadfly would produce that effect, and inflict direful +torments on those whom they assail. Even in England the gadflies are +more than troublesome to human beings. In the New Forest I have been +fairly driven back by the attack of the gadflies, which wounded me +through a thick woollen coat, while they attacked the uncovered +portions of the skin so fiercely that, before reaching shelter, my +neck was bathed in blood. + +Another word is _arôb_, which is applied to the flies which were +brought upon Egypt in the great plague. It is probable that some +different species is here signified, but there is no certainty in the +matter. Any species, however, would be a sufficient plague if they +exceeded the usual number which infest Egypt, and which at first make +the life of a foreigner a burden to him. They swarm in such myriads, +that he eats flies, drinks flies, and breathes flies. + +Not the least part of the nuisance is, that they cluster in the eyes +of those who are affected with the prevalent ophthalmia, which is so +fertile a cause of blindness, and so convey the infection with them. A +stranger is always struck with the appearance of the children, who +have quantities of these pests upon and about their eyes, and yet seem +perfectly unaffected by a visitation which would wellnigh drive a +European mad. + +Signor Pierotti writes feelingly on the subject:-- + +"These insects sometimes cause no slight suffering in Palestine, as I +can vouch from my own experience. However large or however small they +may be, a rabid and restless foe, they attack alike, and make +themselves insufferable in a thousand ways, in every season and place, +in the house and in the field, by day and by night. + +"Frequently in 1857 and 1860, while I was encamped near the tents of +the Bedawîn, in the neighbourhood of the Jordan, and to the south of +Hebron, flies were brought in such numbers by the east wind that all, +beasts and men, were in danger of being choked by them, as they crept +into our ears, noses, and mouths, and all over our bodies. My servant +and I were the first to fly from the pest, as we were spotted all over +like lepers with the eruption caused by their bites: the Bedawîn +themselves were not slow to follow our example. + +"I am not the only person who has experienced this nuisance, for +Eugene Roger, who travelled in Palestine during the seventeenth +century, informs us that during his stay at Nazareth a swarm of small +black flies, called _bargash_, invaded the plain of Esdraelon, where a +tribe of Bedawîn, to the number of six hundred tents, were encamped, +who suffered greatly from them. + +"The flies, therefore, still infest Palestine as they did of old, +except that they are not now so numerous as to compel the chiefs of +the villages or tribes (answering to the kings of the Pentateuch and +Joshua) to evacuate the country before them. + +"The Philistines had a special deity whom they invoked against these +pests, Baalzebub, the God of Flies, whose temple was at Ekron. The +reason of this is evident at the present day, for the ancient country +of the Philistines is infested with insect plagues, as I experienced +together with his Excellency Surraya Pasha in the summer of 1859. + +"As, however, we had no faith in Baalzebub, we were obliged to arm +ourselves with fly-traps and stoical patience. Many travellers bring +with them a perfect druggist's shop from Europe as a protection +against these nuisances, and leave behind them this only efficacious +remedy, patience. This I strongly recommend; it is very portable, very +cheap, and equally useful in all climates. + +"It is especially valuable in the case of the insects, as they are +found everywhere in greater or less numbers; especially in the +dwellings, where they are nourished by the carrion that lies about, +the heaps of rubbish, the filth of the streets, the leakage of +cesspools and sewers, the dirt in the houses, the filthy clothing worn +by the people, and the kind of food they eat. Though the country of +Baalzebub is deserted and enslaved, the flies are still abundant and +free, self-invited guests at the table, unasked assistants in the +kitchen, tasting everything, immolating themselves in their +gastronomic ardour, and forming an undesired seasoning in every dish." + + + + + +GNATS. + + The Gnat of Scripture--Straining out the Gnat and swallowing the + camel, a typographical error--Probable identity of the Gnat and + the mosquito. + + +It has already been stated that only one species of fly is mentioned +by name in the Scriptures. This is the Gnat, the name of which occurs +in the familiar passage, "Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat and +swallow a camel" (Matt. xxiii. 24). + + [Illustration: NOXIOUS FLIES OF PALESTINE. + + MOSQUITO (Culex). CAMEL FLY (Tabanus marocanus). + + "_He sent divers sorts of flies among them which devoured them._"--PSA + xxviii. 45.] + +I may again mention here that the words "strain at" ought to have been +printed "strain out," the substitution of the one for the other being +only a typographical error. The allusion is made to a custom which is +explained by reference to the preceding article on the fly. In order +to avoid taking flies and other insects into the mouth while drinking, +a piece of thin linen stuff was placed over the cup, so that if any +insects, as was usually the case, had got into the liquid, they would +be "strained out" by the linen. + +Whether or not any particular species of insect was signified by the +word "gnat" is very doubtful, and in all probability the word is only +used to express the contrast between the smallest known insects and +the largest known beasts. Gnats, especially those species which are +popularly known by the word "mosquito," are very plentiful in many +parts of Palestine, especially those which are near water, and are as +annoying there as in other lands which they inhabit. + + + + +APTERA AND APANIPTERA. + +THE LOUSE. + + Insect parasites--The plague of Lice--Its effect on the + magicians or priests--The Hebrew word _Chinnim_--Probability + that it may be represented by "tick"--Habits of the ticks, their + dwellings in dust, and their effects on man and beast. + + +We close the history of insects mentioned in Scripture with two +parasites of a singularly disagreeable character. + +With respect to the former of them, we find it mentioned in the +account of the great plagues of Egypt. After the two plagues of the +waters and the frogs, both of which were imitated by the magicians, +_i.e._ the priests, a third was brought upon Egypt, which affected the +magicians even more than the people, for a reason which we shall +presently see:-- + +"And the Lord said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch out thy rod, +and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice, throughout +all the land of Egypt. + +"And they did so; for Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod, and +smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man and in beast; +all the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land of Egypt. + +"And the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring forth lice, +but they could not: so there were lice upon man and upon beast." + +Now it is hardly possible to conceive a calamity which would have told +with greater effect upon the magicians, by whose advice Pharoah had +resisted the requests of Moses and Aaron. + +Living in a land where all, from the highest to the lowest, were +infested with parasites, the priests were so much in advance of the +laity that they were held polluted if they harboured one single +noxious insect upon their persons, or in their clothing. The clothing, +being linen, could be kept clean by frequent washing, while the +possibility of the body being infested by parasites was prevented by +the custom of shaving the whole of the body, from the crown of the +head to the sole of the foot, at least once in every three days. + +It may easily be imagined, therefore, how terrible this visitation +must have been to such men. As swine to the Pharisee, as the flesh of +cattle to the Brahmin, so was the touch of a parasite to the Egyptian +priest. He was degraded in his own estimation and in that of his +fellows. He could perform no sacred offices: so that, in fact, all the +idolatrous worship of Egypt ceased until this particular plague had +been withdrawn. + +We now come to a consideration of the insect which is signified by the +Hebrew word _chinnim_. Sir Samuel Baker is of opinion that the word +ought to have been translated as "ticks," and for the following +reasons:-- + +After quoting the passage which relates to the stretching of Aaron's +rod over the dust, and the consequence of that action, he proceeds as +follows: "Now the louse that infests the human body and hair has no +connexion whatever with dust, and, if subjected to a few hours' +exposure to the dry heat of the burning sand, it would shrivel and +die. But a tick is an inhabitant of the dust, a dry horny insect, +without any apparent moisture in its composition. It lives in hot sand +and dust, where it cannot possibly obtain nourishment until some +wretched animal should lie down upon the spot, and become covered with +these horrible vermin. + +"I have frequently seen dry desert places so infested with ticks that +the ground was perfectly alive with them, and it would have been +impossible to have rested upon the earth. In such spots, the passage +in Exodus has frequently seemed to me as bearing reference to these +vermin, which are the greatest enemy to man and beast. It is well +known that from the size of a grain of sand, in their natural state, +they will distend to the size of a hazel nut after having preyed for +some days on the body of an animal." ("Nile Tributaries," p. 122.) + +Granting that this suggestion be the correct one, as it certainly is +the most consistent both with actual facts and with the words of Holy +Writ, the plague would lose none of its intensity, but would, if +anything, be more horrible. Only those who have suffered from them can +appreciate the miseries caused by the attack of these ticks, which +cling so tightly that they can scarcely be removed without being torn +in pieces, and without leaving some portion of their head beneath the +skin of their victim. Man and beast suffer equally from them, as is +implied in the words of Scripture, and, unless they are very +cautiously removed, painful and obstinate is the result of their +bites. + + + + +THE FLEA. + + Prevalence of the Flea in the East, and the annoyance caused by + them to travellers--Fleas of the Lebanon--The Bey's + bedfellows--The Pasha at the bath--Use of the word in Scripture. + + +This active little pest absolutely swarms in the East. The inhabitants +are so used to the Fleas that either the insects do not touch them, or +by long custom they become so inured to their attack that the bites +are not felt. + +But every traveller in Eastern lands has a tale to tell about the +Fleas, which seem to be accepted as one of the institutions of the +country, and to be contemplated with perfect equanimity. Miss Rogers, +for example, in her "Domestic Life in Palestine," mentions how she was +obliged to stand upon a box in order to be out of the reach of a +large company of Fleas that were hopping about on the floor! + +Mr. Urquhart, experienced Orientalist as he was, found on one occasion +that the Fleas were too strong for him. He had forgotten his curtain, +and was invaded by armies of Fleas, that marched steadily up the bed +and took possession of their prey. The people were quite amused at his +complaints, and said that their Bey could not sleep without a couple +of hundred of them in his bosom. Mr. Urquhart suggests that these +little creatures act as a wholesome irritant to the skin, and says +that the last two mouthfuls of every meal are for the benefit of the +Fleas. + +In order to show the perfect indifference with which the presence of +these little pests is regarded, I quote a passage from Mr. Farley's +"Druses of the Lebanon." He was in a Turkish bath, and was much amused +at a scene which presented itself. + +"A man, whose skin resembled old discoloured vellum, was occupying +himself with the somewhat undignified pursuit of pursuing with great +eagerness something that, from the movement of his hands, seemed +continually to elude him, jumping about and taking refuge in the +creases and folds of his shirt, that was spread out over his lap as he +sat cross-legged on his bedstead like a tailor on his board. This +oddity was no less a dignitary than a Pasha." + +This extract also serves to illustrate the two passages in Scripture +wherein the word "flea" is mentioned, and in both of which it is used +as a metaphor to express weakness on the one side and power on the +other. + +The first occurs in 1 Sam. xxiv. 14:--"After whom is the king of +Israel come out? After whom dost thou pursue? After a dead dog, after +a flea?" The second is in chap. xxvi. of the same book, ver. 20: "Now +therefore ... the king of Israel is come out to seek a flea, as when +one doth hunt a partridge in the mountains." The reader will see how +completely the anecdote of the Pasha in the bath illustrates this +passage. + + + + +ARACHNIDA. + +THE SCORPION. + + The Scorpions of Palestine--Signification of the word + _Akrabbim_--Habits of the Scorpion--Dangers of mud walls--Venom + of the Scorpion--Scorpions at sea--The Scorpion whip, and its + use--The Scorpion Pass. + + +The Arachnida are represented in Scripture by the Scorpion and Spider. + +Scorpions are exceedingly common in Palestine, and to a novice are a +constant source of terror until he learns to be accustomed to them. +The appearance of the Scorpion is too well known to need description, +every one being aware that it is in reality a kind of spider that has +the venom claw at the end of its body, and not in its jaw. As to the +rendering of the word _akrabbim_ as "Scorpions," there has never been +any doubt. + +These unpleasant creatures always manage to insinuate themselves in +some crevice, and an experienced traveller is cautious where the +Scorpions are plentiful, and will never seat himself in the country +until he has ascertained that no Scorpions are beneath the stones on +or near which he is sitting. Holes in walls are favourite places of +refuge for the Scorpion, and are very plentiful, the mud walls always +tumbling down in parts, and affording homes for Scorpions, spiders, +snakes, and other visitors. + +The venom of the Scorpion varies much in potency according to the +species and size of the creature, some of the larger Scorpions being +able to render a man ill for a considerable time, and even to kill him +if he should be a sensitive subject. So much feared were the Scorpions +that one of the chief privileges of the Apostles and their immediate +followers was their immunity from the stings of Scorpions and the bite +of venomous serpents. + +It is said, however, that after a person has been stung once by a +Scorpion, he suffers comparatively little the second time, and that if +he be stung three or four times, the only pain that he suffers arises +from the puncture. Sailors also say that after a week at sea the +poison of the Scorpion loses its power, and that they care nothing for +the Scorpions which are sure to come on board inside the bundles of +firewood. + + [Illustration: THE SCORPION. + + "_And they had tails like unto scorpions: and there were stings in + their tails._"--REV. ix. 10.] + +We will now take a few of the Scriptural passages which allude to the +Scorpion. As may be expected, most of them refer to the poisonous +quality of its sting, though one or two allude to its habit of +dwelling in desert places. See, for example, Deut. viii. 15, which +forms part of the address that Moses delivered to the Israelites: +"Lest ... thou forget the Lord thy God, which brought thee forth out +of the land of Egypt, from the house of bondage; + +"Who led thee through that great and terrible wilderness, wherein were +fiery serpents, and scorpions, and drought, where there was no water." + +A similar image of desolation is found in Ezek. ii. 6: "And thou, son +of man, be not afraid of them, neither be afraid of their words, +though briars and thorns be with thee, and thou dost dwell among +scorpions." + +Those passages which mention the venom of the Scorpion are numerous, +though most, if not all, of them occur in the New Testament. See Rev. +ix. 5: "And to them it was given that they should not kill them, but +that they should be tormented five months, and their torment was as +the torment of a scorpion, when he striketh a man." Also ver. 10 of +the same chapter: "And they had tails like unto scorpions: and there +were stings in their tails: and their power was to hurt men five +months." + +The venom of the Scorpion is indirectly mentioned in other passages. +There is, for example, the well-known saying of our Lord, "If a son +shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?" (Luke xi. 12.) And in +the preceding chapter of the same Evangelist Scorpions are classed +with serpents in their power of injury: "Behold, I give unto you power +to tread on serpents and scorpions, and over all the power of the +enemy; and nothing shall by any means hurt you." + + +There is another reference to the Scorpion in the Old Testament, which +requires an explanation. It forms part of the rash counsel given to +Rehoboam by his friends: "My father made your yoke heavy, and I will +add to your yoke; my father also chastised you with whips, but I will +chastise you with scorpions." + +The general tenor of this passage is evident enough, namely, that he +intended to be far more severe than his father had been. But his words +assume a new force when we remember that there was a kind of whip +called a Scorpion. This terrible instrument was made for the express +purpose of punishing slaves, so that the mere mention of it was an +insult. It consisted of several thongs, each of which was loaded with +knobs of metal, and tipped with a metal hook, so that it resembled the +jointed and hooked tail of the Scorpion. This dreadful instrument of +torture could kill a man by a few blows, and it was even used in +combats in the amphitheatre, a gladiator armed with a Scorpion being +matched against one armed with a spear. + +The prevalence of the Scorpion in Palestine and its neighbourhood may +be inferred from the fact that a wady or pass between the south end of +the Dead Sea and Zion was named after it. The southern boundary of +Judah is said to be at Maaleh Akrabbim (Josh. xv. 3). Now the literal +translation of these words is "The Ascent of Scorpions," or The +Scorpion Pass. + + + + +THE SPIDER. + + Signification of the word _Semamith_--Various interpretations of + a Scriptural passage--Talmudical opinions respecting the + creature--The 'Akkabish and its web--Spiders of Palestine. + + +Although the word "spider" is mentioned three times in the Authorized +Version of the Bible, one of them must be excluded, namely Prov. xxx. +28: "The spider taketh hold with her hands, and is in kings' palaces." +There is much doubt whether the word _semamith_, which is here +translated a "spider," does not rather allude to the Gecko, a lizard +which has already been described. Moreover, the passage is rendered +very differently in the Jewish Bible: "A spider thou mayest catch with +the hands, and is in kings' palaces." + +Buxtorf mentions some curious Talmudical opinions regarding the Semam. +For example, there is a kind of proverb--"Dreaded as a Semam by a +scorpion," founded on the belief that the Semam, whatever it might be, +crept into the ears of the scorpion. Another proverb is, "A Semam +against a scorpion," the idea being that if a Semam was crushed on the +wound made by a scorpion, it would destroy the effect of the poison. + +He further mentions that the word has been translated as _araneus_ or +_aranea_, _i.e._ Spider, as _simia_, _i.e._ an ape, as _calamotes_, +which signifies a kind of fish, or as _kalabotes_ and _askalabotes_, +which is a kind of lizard. The Septuagint employs this rendering, to +which Buxtorf himself leans. + +The same word _'akkabish_ occurs twice, and certainly does signify +some kind of Spider. The Prophet Isaiah writes of the wicked that they +"weave the spider's web" (lix. 5), and there is a similar image in Job +viii. 14: "So are the paths of all that forget God; and the +hypocrite's hope shall perish. Whose hope shall be cut off, and whose +hope shall be a spider's web" (or house). In both instances reference +is made to the fragility of the Spider's web as a metaphor to express +the futility of evil devices. + +The reader will see that in neither of these passages is there +anything that indicates the species of Spider. There are very many +species of Spider in Palestine; some which spin webs, like the common +Garden Spider, some which dig subterranean cells and make doors in +them, like the well-known Trap-door Spider of Southern Europe, and +some which have no webs, but chase their prey upon the ground, like +the Wolf and Hunting Spiders. Notice is, however, only taken of those +which spin webs. + + + + +ANNELIDA. + +THE WORM. + + Various words translated as "Worm"--Probable confusion of the + words--The Rimmah and the Tole'ah--The Worm which destroyed + Jonah's gourd--The Earthworm. + + +The word "worm" occurs many times in the Authorized Version, and is a +rendering of three Hebrew words. One is _sâs_, which has been already +explained under the article Moth; the second is _rimmah_; and the +third _tole'ah_. There is very great difficulty in ascertaining the +real signification of these words, unless we assume that the Hebrews +were not aware of the distinction between actual Annelida and the +larvæ of various insects. + +Even at the present day we commit a similar error. We speak of the +wire-worm, which is the larva of one kind of beetle. We say that wood +is worm-eaten, signifying that it has been attacked by the larva of +another kind of beetle. Then we use the word "palmer-worm" to signify +the larva of a moth, "glow-worm" to signify a beetle, "tape-worm" to +signify an entozoon, and--strangest of all--"blindworm" to signify a +lizard which can see perfectly well. We therefore need not wonder that +the Hebrew language produces similar confusion of nomenclature. + +The other words are frequently used in connexion with each other. The +Rimmah is the "worm" that was bred in the manna when it had been kept +beyond the specified time, and it is evident that the larva of some +insect, such as the blow-fly, is signified. + +The word is evidently used in the same sense by Job. The "worm shall +feed sweetly on him" (xxiv. 20). "They shall lie down alike in the +dust, and the worms shall cover them" (xxi. 26). The same word is +employed in his lamentation over his evil case: "My flesh is clothed +with worms and clods of dust; my skin is broken, and become loathsome" +(vii. 5). In xxv. 6 he uses both words: "Man that is a worm, and the +son of man that is a worm." This passage is more correctly rendered in +the Hebrew Bible: "Man that is a worm (_rimmah_), and the son of man +which is a maggot" (_tole'ah_). Both words are also used in connexion +with each other by Isaiah: "The worm (_rimmah_) is spread under thee, +and the worms (_tola'im_) cover thee" (xiv. 11). + +The well-known passage in Job xix. 26 is altogether wrongly rendered +in the text, the marginal translation being much more correct. The +Worm is not mentioned at all in that passage, which the Jewish Bible +renders as follows: "Even after my skin shall have been stripped off +this [body] and flesh, I shall see God." + +The Worm which destroyed the gourd of Jonah was a Tolaeth (another +form of _tole'ah_). See Jonah iv. 7. + +The passage in Micah probably refers to the earthworm: "They shall +lick the dust like a serpent, they shall move out of their holes like +worms of the earth" (vii. 17). In this case, however, the expression +is a general one, and, as may be seen by reference to the marginal +translation, is more correctly rendered not as "worms," but as +"creeping things." + + + + +THE HORSE LEECH. + + Signification of the word Alukah--The Arabic word--Leeches in + Palestine--The horse and the Leech--Leeches in England. + + +In Prov. xxx. 15 there is a word which only occurs once in the +Scriptures. This is _alukah_, which is translated as horse-leech. "The +horseleech hath two daughters, crying, Give, give." + +The Hebrew Bible does not translate the word at all. There is, +however, no doubt that the translation is a correct one. Buxtorf +renders the word as _sanguisuga hirudo_, and it is worthy of remark +that the Arabic name for the Leech, Aluk, is identical with the Hebrew +Alukah. + +The Leeches are very common in Palestine, and infest the rivers to +such an extent that they enter the nostrils of animals who come to +drink, and cause great annoyance and even danger. The following +anecdote, related by Mr. H. Dixon in his "Holy Land," gives us a good +idea of the prevalence of the Leeches, and the tenacity with which +they retain their hold:-- + +"At Beit-Dejan, on a slight twist in the road, we find the wheel and +well, and hear a delicious plash and rustle in the troughs. To slip +from my seat to dip Sabeah's nose into the fluid is the work of a +second; but no sooner has she lapped up a mouthful of water, than one +sees that the refuse falling back from her lips into the tank is +dabbled and red. Opening her mouth, I find a gorged leech dangling +from her gum. But the reptile being swept off, and the mare's nose +dipt into the cooling stream, the blood still flows from between her +teeth, and, forcing them open, I find two other leeches lodged in the +roof of her mouth. + +"Poor little beast! how grateful and relieved she seems, how gay, how +gentle, when I have torn these suckers from her flesh, and soused the +water about her wounds; and how my hunting-whip yearns to descend upon +the shoulders of that laughing and careless Nubian slave!" + +Persons passing through the river are also attacked by them, and, if +they have a delicate skin, suffer greatly. Even in England this will +happen. While bathing in a Kentish stream, I have found, when coming +out of the water, that numbers of Leeches were adhering to me, and +have had considerable trouble in removing them. + + + + +PROTOZOA AND RADIATA. + + + + +SPONGE AND CORAL. + + Use of the Sponge in Scripture--Probability that the ancient + Jews were acquainted with it--Sponges of the Mediterranean--The + Coral, and its value--Signification of the word _Ramoth_. + + +There is little to be said on either of these subjects. + +Sponge is only mentioned with reference to the events of the +Crucifixion, where it is related that a soldier placed a sponge upon +hyssop, dipped it in vinegar (_i.e._ the acid wine issued to the Roman +soldiers), and held it to the Lord's lips. There is little doubt that +the ancient Hebrews were fully aware of the value of the Sponge, which +they could obtain from the Mediterranean which skirted all their +western coasts. + + +The Coral is mentioned in two passages of Scripture: "No mention shall +be made of coral, or of pearls" (Job xxviii. 18). The second +occurrence of the word is in Ezek. xxvii. 16: "They occupied in thy +fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and fine linen, and +coral, and agate." + +This Coral, which is described as being brought from Syria, was +probably that of the Red Sea, where the Coral abounds, and where it +attains the greatest perfection. The Hebrew word, _ramoth_, is +expressive of the peculiar growth of the Coral, and signifies high, or +lofty. + + [Illustration: CORAL. + + "_No mention shall be made of coral._"--REV. xviii. 18.] + + + + + + +INDEX. + + + A. + + Abou Hannes, 489. + Menzel, 489. + + _Accipiter nisus_, 365. + + _Acridium peregrinum_, 598. + + Acronotus bubalis, 144. + + Adas, 143. + + Addax, 141. + + Adder, 554. + + African Elephant, 311. + + _Akas_, 143. + + _Akbar_, 91. + + Ako, 207. + + Alpine ibex, 204. + + _Ammoperdix Heyii_, 427. + + Ammotragus, 186. + + Anakah, 69. + + Annelida, 644. + + Ant, 616. + Agricultural, 618. + Mound-making, 618. + Stinging, 618. + + Aoudad, 186. + + Ape, 1. + + Aphaniptera, 636. + + _Apis fasciata_, 612. + _mellifica_, 606. + + Aptera, 636. + + _Aquila chrysaëtos_, 354. + _mogilnik_, 355. + + Arachnida, 640. + + _Ardea cinerea_, 470. + + Ariel, 136. + + Arnebeth, 97. + + _Arvicola arvalis_, 93. + + _Asinus hemippus_, 280. + + Ashkoko, 316. + + Ass, 264. + Domesticated, 264. + Wild, 279. + + _Athene noctua_, 371. + _Persica_, 371. + + _Atta barbara_, 621. + _malefaciens_, 618. + + _Ayzal_, 208. + + _Ayzalah_, 208. + + Azel, 203. + + + B. + + Bactrian Camel, 244. + + Badger, 70. + + Barbel, 567. + Long-headed, 567. + + _Barbus longiceps_, 566. + + Bat, 11. + + Bear, 75. + + Beden, 203. + + Bee, 605. + Banded, 606. + Honey, 605. + + Behemoth, 318. + + Bhunder, 3. + + Bison, 131. + + Bittern, 80, 462. + + Black Vulture, 336. + + Blue Thrush, 398. + + Bog-bleater, 464. + + Bonasus, 131. + + Bonnet Monkey, 10. + + Boomah, 371. + + _Botaurus stellaris_, 462. + + Bubale, 143. + + _Bubalus buffelus_, 114. + + _Bubo ascalaphus_, 373. + _maximus_, 374. + _Virginianus_, 374. + + Buffalo, 114. + + Bull, 101. + Wild, 119. + + Butter, 203. + bump, 464. + + + C. + + _Caccabis saxatilis_, 429. + + Calf, 101. + + Camel, 216. + Arabian, 244. + + _Camelus Bactrianus_, 216. + _dromedarius_, 216. + + Capistrated Sphænops, 533. + + _Capra Angorensis_, 202. + _Mambrica_, 202. + _Nubiana_, 203. + _Syriaca_, 202. + + _Caprovis Musimon_, 188. + + Caspian Emys, 569. + + Cat, 36. + + Cattle, 101. + + Cerastes, 559. + + Chameleon, 534. + + Chamois, 185. + + Chasidah, 478. + + _Chephor-peroth_, 88. + + Chetah, 29. + + Choled, 68. + + Cicigna, 533. + + _Ciconia nigra_, 483. + + _Circaëtus gallicus_, 355. + + _Circus æruginosus_, 368. + _cyaneus_ 369. + + Climber, 203. + + Cobra, 544. + + Cockatrice, 554. + + _Columba ænas_, 419. + _livia_, 418. + _palumbus_, 419. + _Schimperi_, 418. + + Coney, 312. + + Cora, 136. + + Coral, 647. + + Corine Antelope, 135. + + Corinna, 135. + + Cormorant, 490. + + _Corvus agricola_, 447. + _corax_, 447. + _monedula_, 447. + _umbrinus_, 447. + + _Coryphæna hippurus_, 571. + + Corvphene, 571. + + Cow, 101. + + Crane, 474. + + _Cricetus frumentarius_, 94. + + Crocodile, 514. + + Crow, Hooded, 447. + + Cuckoo, 405. + + Culex, 635. + Great Spotted, 405. + + _Cyprinus_, 531. + + _Cypselus affinis_, 389. + _melba_, 389. + + + D. + + _Daboia xanthica_, 555. + + _Dasypus_, 97. + + Deer, 208. + + Deloul, 229. + + Deror, 384. + + Dhubb, 512. + + Diadem Staircase Shell, 588. + + Dibs, 611. + + _Dipsas plicatus_, 593. + + Diptera, 632. + + _Dipus_, 95. + + Dishon, 141. + + _Dôb_, 76. + + Dog, 39. + Periwinkle, 586. + Whelk, 586. + + Dor-hawk, 379. + + Dormouse, 96. + + Dove, 408. + Barbary, 421. + Blue Rock, 418. + Egyptian Rock, 418. + Ring, 419. + Stock, 419. + Wild Rock, 419. + + Duck, Hawk, 369. + + + E. + + Eagle, 354. + Fishing, 356. + Golden, 354. + Imperial, 355. + Short-toed, 355. + + _Echis arenicola_, 552. + _carinata_, 553. + + _Echeneis remora_, 570. + + Egyptian Mastigure, 512. + + Elephant, 302. + + _Elephas Indicus_, 311. + + _Emys caspica_, 509. + + _Entellus_, 3, 4. + + Epheh, 552. + + _Ephialtes Scops_, 377. + + _Erinaceus_, 83. + + + F. + + _Falco lanarius_, 362. + _peregrinus_, 362. + + Fallow-Deer, 143, 208. + + Fan-foot, 69. + + Father John, 489. + Sickle-bill, 489. + + _Felis maniculatus_, 37. + + Fern Owl, 378. + + Ferret, 69. + + Fichtall, 186. + + Field-mouse, 92. + + Fish, Sucking, 570. + + Fishes, 563. + + Flea, 638. + + Fly, 632. + Camel, 635. + + Fowl, Domestic, 421. + + Fox, 55. + + Francolin, 430. + + Frog, 557. + Edible, 559. + Green, 559. + + + G. + + _Gazella Dorcas_, 133. + + Gazelle, 133. + + Gecko, 534. + + Gier-Eagle, 339. + + Glass Snake, 531. + + Glede, 361. + + Gnat, 635. + + Goat, 189. + + Goatsucker, 379. + + Grayling, Syrian, 631. + + Great Shearwater, 407. + + Greyhound, 49. + + Griffon Vulture, 345. + + Groaner, 69. + + _Grus cinerea_, 476. + + _Gyps fulvus_, 345. + + + H. + + _Halicore hemprichii_, 72. + + Hamster, 94. + + Hare, 96. + + Harier Hawk, 367. + Hen, 369. + Marsh, 368. + + Hart, 208. + + Hawk, 364. + Blue, 369. + Dove, 369. + Ring-tailed, 369. + White, 369. + + Hedgehog, 80. + + Heifer, 101. + + Heirie, 229 + + Heron, 468 + + _Herpestes_, 68. + + Hind, 208. + + _Hircus ægragus_, 202. + + _Hirundo cahirica_, 388. + _rufula_, 388. + + Homoptera, 622. + + Honey, 609. + + Hoonuman, 3. + + Hoopoe, 392. + + Hornet, 613. + + Horse, 248. + + Hunting Leopard, 29. + + Hyacinthine Gallinule, 486. + + Hyæna, 62. + + _Hydrosaurus niloticus_, 539. + + Hymenoptera, 605. + + Hyrax, 312. + + _Hystrix_, 86. + + + I. + + Ibex, Arabian, 203. + + Ibis, 488. + _falcinellus_, 489. + Glossy or Green, 489. + _religiosa_, 488. + White or Sacred, 488. + + Insects, 596. + + Izab, 506. + + + J. + + Jachmur, 143. + + Jackal, 55. + + Jackdaw, 447. + + Jaela, 186, 204. + + Jar-Owl, 378. + + Jerboa, 95. + + + K. + + Kaath, 497. + + Kalong, 12. + + Kestrel, 365. + + Kevel, 136. + + Kevella Antelope, 135. + + Khopash, 15. + + Kippôd, 80. + + Kite, 357. + Black, 359. + Common, 358. + Egyptian, 360. + Red, 358. + + Klip-das, 315. + + _Kophim_, 2. + + + L. + + _Lacerta viridis_, 530. + + Lämmergeier, 334. + + Lanner Falcon, 362. + + Lapwing, 392. + + Leech, Horse, 646. + + Leopard, 29. + + Lepidoptera, 624. + + Lerwea, 186. + + Letââh, 529. + + Leviathan, 514. + + Lion, 18. + + Lizard, 529. + Green, 530. + Jersey, 530. + Scaly, 529. + + Locust, 596. + Migratory, 596. + + Long-horned Gazelle, 136. + + Louse, 636. + + + M. + + _Macacus Rhesus_, 3. + + Macaques, 3. + + Magpie, 448. + + Maharik, 229. + + Makur, 3. + + Manx Shearwater, 407. + + Martin, 388. + House, 388. + Sand, 388. + + _Meleagrina margaritifera_, 595. + + _Milvus atra_, 358. + _Egyptiacus_, 360. + _regalis_, 358. + + Mohair Goat, 200. + + Mole, 86. + + Molluscs, 585. + + Monitor, 534. + Land, 539. + Nilotic, 539. + + Monoceros, 123. + + Moor Buzzard, 369. + + Mosquito, 635. + + Moth, Clothes, 624. + Grain, 626. + Silkworm, 627. + + Mouflon, 188. + + Mouse, 91. + + Mule, 285. + + _Mullus sur muletus_, 552. + + Muræna, 567. + + _Muræna helena_, 566. + + _Murex brandaris_, 586. + _trunculus_, 586. + + _Mygale_, 69. + + + N. + + _Naja haje_, 544. + _tripudians_, 545. + + _Nates niloticus_, 581. + + _Nectarinia Oseæ_, 384. + + _Neophron percuopterus_, 341. + + Netz, 364. + + Night-hawk, 377. + -jar, 379. + + Nil-Bhunder, 6. + + Nile Perch, 581. + + Nubian Wild Goat, 204. + + + O. + + _OEdipoda migratoria_, 596. + + Onycha, 590. + + Orange-tip, Syrian, 631. + + Oreb, 449. + + Oryx, 120. + + Ospray, 356. + + Ossifrage, 334. + + Ostrich, 450. + + Ounce, 29. + + _Ovis Capensis_, 160. + _cauda obesa_, 160. + _laticaudatus_, 160. + _laticauda platycerus_, 160. + _steatopyga_, 160. + + Owl, 370. + Barn, 373. + Churn, 378. + Eagle, 374. + Egyptian Eagle, 373. + European Eagle, 374. + Great, 373. + Little, 371. + Little Night, 371. + Scops, 377. + Screech, 373. + Virginian Eared, 374. + White, 373. + + Ox, 101. + + _Oxylophus glandarius_, 406. + + + P. + + _Pandion haliaëtus_, 356. + + Parash, 245. + + Partridge, 426. + Black, 430. + Desert, 427. + Greek, 429. + + _Passer Cisalpinus_, 402. + _montanus_, 403. + _salicarius_, 404. + + Peacock, 425. + + Pearl, 592. + Mussel, 593. + Oyster, 595. + + Pelican, 495. + Crested, 502. + + _Pelicanus cristatus_, 502. + + _Petrocossyphus cyaneus_, 398. + + Pigeon, 418. + House, 419. + Rock, 418. + + _Plestiodon auratum_, 531. + + Porcupine, 85. + + _Porphyrio veterum_, 339, 486. + + Poultry, 421. + + _Presbytes entellus_, 4. + + Protozoa, 647. + + _Psammosaurus scincus_, 539. + + _Pseudopus pallasii_, 531. + + Pteropus, 16. + + _Puffinus Anglorum_, 407. + _cinereus_, 407. + + _Purpura hæmastoma_, 586. + _lapillus_, 586. + + Pygarg, 141. + + + Q. + + Quail, 430. + + _Quercus coccifera_, 623. + + + R. + + Radiata, 647. + + _Rana esculenta_, 559. + + Raven, 439. + Ashy-necked, 447. + World-wide, 447. + + Red Deer, 208. + + Reêm, 121. + + _Rhinopoma microphylla_, 18. + + _Rhesus_, 3. + + Rock Rabbit, 315. + + Roe, 133. + + Rook, 447. + + + S. + + Sand-rat, 96. + + Satyr, 10. + + _Scalaria diadema_, 588. + + Scheltopusic, 531. + + _Scincus officinalis_, 531. + + Scorpion, 640. + + Selâv, 534. + + Seps, 533. + + Serpents, 540. + + Shâlâk, 490. + + Sheat-fishes, 565. + + Sheep, 146. + + Shephiphon, 554. + + Shrew-mouse, 69. + + _Silenus veter_, 6. + + _Silurus macracanthus_, 566. + + Skink, 531. + + Snail, 589. + + Snake, Dart, 543. + Horatta-pam, 553. + + Solomon's fleet, 1. + + _Spalax_, 88. + + Sparrow, 395. + -hawk, 365. + House, 404. + + _Sphænops sepsoides_, 543. + + Spider, 443. + + Sponge, 647. + + Stannel Hawk, 365. + + Star-gazer, 581. + + Starling, 449. + + Steinbok, 203. + + Stork, 478. + Black, 483. + + _Strix flammea_, 373. + + Surmullet, 582. + + _Sus_, 248. + + Swallow, 381. + Oriental, 388. + Rufous or Russet, 388. + -tail, Syrian, 631. + White, 391. + + Swan, 485. + + Swine, 292. + + Swift, 388. + Alpine, 389. + Galilean, 389. + Marsh, 404. + Spanish, 404. + Tree, 403. + + Syrian Goat, 200. + Grayling, 631. + Orange-tip, 631. + Swallow-tail, 631. + + + T. + + _Tabanus marocanus_, 635. + + _Tachash_, 70. + + _Testudo Græca_, 507. + + _Thynnus thynnus_, 570. + + _Tinea granella_, 626. + + _Tinnunculus alaudarius_, 365. + + _Tinshemeth_, 87, 488. + + _Tô_, 116. + + Tones, Sacred, 175. + + Tortoise, 505. + + Toxicoa, 552. + + Trumpet, Ram's-horn, 175. + + _Truxalis_, 598. + + Tsebi, 133. + + Tunny, 570. + + Turtle Dove, 419. + Collared, 421. + Palm, 421. + + _Turtur risorius_, 421. + _Senegalensis_, 421. + + Tzippor-deror, 391. + + Tzirah, 612. + + + U. + + Unicorn, 121. + + _Unio margaritiferus_, 593. + + _Upupa epops_, 392. + + _Uranoscopus-scaber_, 581. + + _Ursus Isabellinus_, 76. + + Urus, 127. + + + V. + + _Vespa orientalis_, 616. + + Viper, 552. + Horned, 551. + Sand, 552. + Yellow, 555. + + Vulture, Arabian, 348. + Bearded, 36. + Egyptian, 339. + of Scripture, 357. + + + W. + + Wall-lizard, 69. + + Wanderoo, 6. + + Weasel, 68. + + Wheel-bird, 379. + + Wild Bull, 116. + Goat, 203. + Ox, 116. + + Wind-hover, 365. + + Wing-shell, 590. + + Wolf, 50. + + Worm, 644. + Canker, 630. + Crimson, 622. + Palmer, 630. + + + X. + + _Xantharpya ægyptiaca_, 16. + + + Y. + + Yanshûph, 373. + + + Z. + + Zamar, 186. + + _Zeëb_, 50. + + _Zootoca vivipara_, 529. + + + + +LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS + + + +Transcriber's note: + In the Chapter titled "Serpents" there are words with diacritical + marks not available in the Latin-1 character set: + se[~c]d[~m],--[~c] c with a tilde above it and [~m] m with + a tilde above it, + similitudin[~e].--[~e] e with a tilde above it, + [~s]pentis,--[~s] s with a tilde above it, + Þa[~i],--[~i] i with a tilde above it, + [~t]ned,--[~t] t with a tilde above it, + hi[~r],--[~r] r with a tilde above it, + Þai[~i]r,--[~r] r with a tilde above it, and + Þa[~i],--[~i] I with a tilde above it. + + In the Chapter titled "The Viper, or Epheh." is the word + [)a]k-shoob. The [)a] is an a with a breve accent above it. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Bible Animals;, by J. G. Wood + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42964 *** |