diff options
| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-07 20:40:55 -0800 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-07 20:40:55 -0800 |
| commit | 8aaf8a81e542b16dd46844bd5bad9159f4da858b (patch) | |
| tree | 667b55e42d32aa6de382bd152523fda5f89a2cf0 /42964-h | |
| parent | a58ffd4a2c69fc32bc61d6d298d823820b6ab070 (diff) | |
Diffstat (limited to '42964-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 42964-h/42964-h.htm | 1375 |
1 files changed, 475 insertions, 900 deletions
diff --git a/42964-h/42964-h.htm b/42964-h/42964-h.htm index cf7d7f8..ddb7b57 100644 --- a/42964-h/42964-h.htm +++ b/42964-h/42964-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg's eBook of Bible Animals, by J. G. Wood. @@ -214,51 +214,7 @@ hr.c25 </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Bible Animals;, by J. G. Wood - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Bible Animals; - Being a Description of Every Living Creature Mentioned in - the Scripture, from the Ape to the Coral. - -Author: J. G. Wood - -Illustrator: W. F. Keyl - T. W. Wood - E. A. Smith - -Release Date: June 17, 2013 [EBook #42964] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIBLE ANIMALS; *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Mary Akers and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42964 ***</div> <div class="transnote"> <p>Transcriber's note:<br /> @@ -470,17 +426,17 @@ were set on fire—The dread of fire inherent in wild beasts—The truth narrative proved—The Fox and Jackal destructive among grapes—Allusions to the Fox in the New Testament—Partially tamed Foxes<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_55"> 55</a></span></p> -<p class="center medium"><b>THE HYÆNA.</b></p> +<p class="center medium"><b>THE HYÆNA.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded to—Signification of -the word <em>Zabua</em>—Translated in the Septuagint as "Hyæna"—A scene described -by the Prophet Isaiah—The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the present day—Its -well-known cowardice and fear of man—The uses of the Hyæna, and the -services which it renders—The particular species of Hyæna—The Hyæna in -the burial-grounds—Hunting the Hyæna—Curious superstition respecting +<p class="hanging indent">The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded to—Signification of +the word <em>Zabua</em>—Translated in the Septuagint as "Hyæna"—A scene described +by the Prophet Isaiah—The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the present day—Its +well-known cowardice and fear of man—The uses of the Hyæna, and the +services which it renders—The particular species of Hyæna—The Hyæna in +the burial-grounds—Hunting the Hyæna—Curious superstition respecting the talismanic properties of its skin—Precautions adopted in flaying it—Popular -legends of the Hyæna and its magical powers—The cavern home of -the Hyæna—The Valley of Zeboim<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_62"> 62</a></span></p> +legends of the Hyæna and its magical powers—The cavern home of +the Hyæna—The Valley of Zeboim<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_62"> 62</a></span></p> <p class="center medium"><b>THE WEASEL.</b></p> @@ -514,16 +470,16 @@ the Bear, from the time of Samuel to that of St. John<span class="ralign"><a hre <p class="center medium"><b>THE HEDGEHOG, OR BITTERN.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">Various readings of the word <em>Kippôd</em>—The Jewish Bible and its object—The +<p class="hanging indent">Various readings of the word <em>Kippôd</em>—The Jewish Bible and its object—The Syrian Hedgehog and its appearance—Its fondness for dry spots—The prophecies of Isaiah and Zephaniah, and their bearing on the subject—The -Porcupine supposed to be the Kippôd—The Hedgehog and Porcupine called +Porcupine supposed to be the Kippôd—The Hedgehog and Porcupine called by the same name in Greek and Arabic—Habits of the Porcupine—Its quills, and the manner of their shedding<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_80"> 80</a></span></p> <p class="center medium"><b>THE PORCUPINE.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine—The same Greek name +<p class="hanging indent">Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine—The same Greek name applied to the Porcupine and Hedgehog—Habits of the Porcupine—The common Porcupine found plentifully in Palestine<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_85"> 85</a></span></p> @@ -573,21 +529,21 @@ names of cattle—The Indian buffalo<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_101" <p class="center medium"><b>THE WILD BULL.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament—Passages in which it is mentioned—The +<p class="hanging indent">The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament—Passages in which it is mentioned—The Wild Bull in the net—Hunting with nets in the East—The Oryx supposed -to be the Tô of Scripture—Description of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, -and habits—The points in which the Oryx agrees with the Tô—The +to be the Tô of Scripture—Description of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, +and habits—The points in which the Oryx agrees with the Tô—The "snare" in which the foot is taken, as distinguished from the net<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_116"> 116</a></span></p> -<p class="center medium"><b>THE REÊM, OR "UNICORN" OF SCRIPTURE.</b></p> +<p class="center medium"><b>THE REÊM, OR "UNICORN" OF SCRIPTURE.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">The Reêm evidently known to the Jews—Various theories concerning the Unicorn—Supposed +<p class="hanging indent">The Reêm evidently known to the Jews—Various theories concerning the Unicorn—Supposed identity with the Indian Rhinoceros—Passages of Scripture -alluding to the strength, violent and intractable temper of the Reêm—The -Reêm a two-horned animal—Its evident connexion with the Ox tribe—Its +alluding to the strength, violent and intractable temper of the Reêm—The +Reêm a two-horned animal—Its evident connexion with the Ox tribe—Its presumed identity with the now extinct Urus—Mr. Dawkins' treatise on the Urus—Enormous size and dangerous character of the Urus—Rabbinical legend -of the Reêm—Identity of the Urus with the modern varieties of cattle—The +of the Reêm—Identity of the Urus with the modern varieties of cattle—The Bull-hunts of Nineveh<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_121"> 121</a></span></p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">xii</a></span></p> @@ -807,19 +763,19 @@ Hippopotamus—The pitfall and the drop-trap<span class="ralign"><a href="#P <p class="title1">BIRDS.</p> -<p class="center medium"><b>THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE.</b></p> +<p class="center medium"><b>THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE.</b></p> <p class="hanging indent">Difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in Scripture—The Vultures -of Palestine—The Lämmergeier, or Ossifrage of Scripture—The Hebrew word +of Palestine—The Lämmergeier, or Ossifrage of Scripture—The Hebrew word <em>Peres</em>, and its signification—The Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker—Appearance of -the Lämmergeier—Its flight and mode of feeding—How the Lämmergeier kills +the Lämmergeier—Its flight and mode of feeding—How the Lämmergeier kills snakes and tortoises, and breaks marrow-bones—Mode of destroying the -chamois and mountain sheep—Nest of the Lämmergeier<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_333"> 333</a></span></p> +chamois and mountain sheep—Nest of the Lämmergeier<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_333"> 333</a></span></p> <p class="center medium"><b>THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE, OR GIER-EAGLE.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian Vulture—Its appearance -on the Egyptian monuments—Signification of the word <em>Râchâm</em>—Various +<p class="hanging indent">The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian Vulture—Its appearance +on the Egyptian monuments—Signification of the word <em>Râchâm</em>—Various translations of the word—The shape, size, and colour of the bird—Its value as a scavenger, and its general habits—The Egyptian Vultures and the griffons—Its fondness for the society of man—Nest of the Egyptian Vulture<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_339"> 339</a></span></p> @@ -833,7 +789,7 @@ its signification—Geographical range of the Griffon—Its mode of flig sociable habits—The featherless head and neck of the bird—The Vulture used as an image of strength, swiftness, and rapacity—Its powers of sight—How Vultures assemble round a carcase—Nesting-places of the Griffon—Mr. -Tristram's description of the Griffon—Rock caves of the Wady Hamâm—Care +Tristram's description of the Griffon—Rock caves of the Wady Hamâm—Care of the young, and teaching them to fly—Strength of the Griffon—Its emblematical use in Egypt and Assyria—The god Nisroch—Noble aspect of the Griffon—Its longevity—Various attitudes assumed by the bird<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_344"> 344</a></span></p> @@ -872,16 +828,16 @@ apparently unknown to the ancient Jews<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_364"> <p class="center medium"><b>THE OWL.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">The words which have been translated as "Owl"—The Côs, or Little Owl—Use +<p class="hanging indent">The words which have been translated as "Owl"—The Côs, or Little Owl—Use made of the Little Owl in bird-catching—Habits of the bird—The Barn, -Screech, or White Owl a native of Palestine—The Yanshûph, or Egyptian +Screech, or White Owl a native of Palestine—The Yanshûph, or Egyptian Eagle Owl—Its food and nest—The Lilith, or Night Monster—Various interpretations of the word—The Kippoz probably identical with the Scops Owl, or Marouf<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_370"> 370</a></span></p> <p class="center medium"><b>THE NIGHT-HAWK.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">Different interpretations of the word <em>Tachmâs</em>—Probability that it signifies the +<p class="hanging indent">Different interpretations of the word <em>Tachmâs</em>—Probability that it signifies the Nightjar—Various names of the bird—Its remarkable jarring cry, and wheeling flight—Mode of feeding—Boldness of the bird—Deceptive appearance of its size<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_377"> 377</a></span></p> @@ -927,10 +883,10 @@ various gulls, and other sea-birds<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_405"> 405< <p class="center medium"><b>THE DOVE.</b></p> <p class="hanging indent">Parallel between the lamb and the Dove—Derivation of the Hebrew word -<em>Yonâh</em>—The Dove and the olive branch—Abram's sacrifice, and its acceptance—The +<em>Yonâh</em>—The Dove and the olive branch—Abram's sacrifice, and its acceptance—The sacrifice according to the law of Moses—The Dove-sellers of the Temple—Talmudical zoology—The story of Ilisch—The Dove and the raven—The -Dove a type of Israel—The Beni-yonâh, or Sons of Pigeons—Home-finding +Dove a type of Israel—The Beni-yonâh, or Sons of Pigeons—Home-finding instinct of the pigeon—The Oriental Dove-cotes—Voice of the Dove—Its strength of wing—The Dove's dung of Samaria—Various pigeons of Palestine—The Rock Dove and its multitudes—The Dove and the Griffon—The @@ -963,7 +919,7 @@ Francolin and the Sand-grouse<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_426"> 426</a></ <p class="center medium"><b>THE QUAIL.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">Signification of the word <em>Selâv</em>—Various passages in which the word is mentioned—The +<p class="hanging indent">Signification of the word <em>Selâv</em>—Various passages in which the word is mentioned—The locust, the stork, and the sand-grouse—Spreading the birds around the camp—Migration of the Quail—Drying the Quails for food—Modes of catching the Quail in the East—The Quail-hunters of Northern Africa—Quarrelsome @@ -1039,7 +995,7 @@ Ibis, or Black Ibis—Veneration with which the bird was regarded<span class <p class="center medium"><b>THE CORMORANT.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">The word <em>Shâlâk</em> and its signification—The Greek Catarrhactes—Habits of the +<p class="hanging indent">The word <em>Shâlâk</em> and its signification—The Greek Catarrhactes—Habits of the Cormorant—The bird trained to catch fish—Mode of securing its prey—Nests and eggs of the Cormorant—Nesting in fir-trees—Flesh of the bird<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_490"> 490</a></span></p> @@ -1076,14 +1032,14 @@ Job's description—The Crocodile also signified by the word <em>Tannin</em> rod changed into a Tannin—Various passages in which the word occurs—Use of the word by the Prophet Jeremiah<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_514"> 514</a></span></p> -<p class="center medium"><b>THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD.</b></p> +<p class="center medium"><b>THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">Difficulty of identifying the Letââh—Probability that it is a collective and not a +<p class="hanging indent">Difficulty of identifying the Letââh—Probability that it is a collective and not a specific term—Various Lizards of Palestine—The Green or Jersey Lizard—The Cyprius, its appearance and habits—The Glass Snake or Scheltopusic—Translation of the word <em>Chomet</em>—Probability that it signifies the Skink—Medicinal uses of the Lizard—The Seps tribe—The common Cicigna, and the popular -belief concerning its habits—The Sphænops and its shallow tunnel<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_529"> 529</a></span></p> +belief concerning its habits—The Sphænops and its shallow tunnel<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_529"> 529</a></span></p> <p class="center medium"><b>THE CHAMELEON, MONITOR, AND GECKO.</b></p> @@ -1129,7 +1085,7 @@ Egyptians—The Edible Frog and its numbers—Description of the Species <p class="hanging indent">Impossibility of distinguishing the different species of fishes—The fishermen Apostles—Fish used for food—The miracle of the loaves and Fishes—The Fish broiled on the coals—Clean and unclean Fishes—The scientific writings of -Solomon—The Sheat-fish, or Silurus—The Eel and the Muræna—The Long-headed +Solomon—The Sheat-fish, or Silurus—The Eel and the Muræna—The Long-headed Barbel—Fish-ponds and preserves—The Fish-ponds of Heshbon—The Sucking-fish—The Lump-sucker—The Tunny—The Coryphene<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_563"> 563</a></span></p> @@ -1187,7 +1143,7 @@ and modern travellers—The food of St. John<span class="ralign"><a href="#P <p class="center medium"><b>THE BEE.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">The Hebrew word <em>Debôrah</em>—The Honey Bee of Palestine—Abundance of Bees in +<p class="hanging indent">The Hebrew word <em>Debôrah</em>—The Honey Bee of Palestine—Abundance of Bees in the Holy Land—Habitations of the wild Bee—Hissing for the Bee—Bees in dead carcases—The honey of Scripture—Domesticated Bees and their hives—Stores of wild honey—The story of Jonathan—The Crusaders and the honey—Butter @@ -1212,15 +1168,15 @@ of the insect—The winged Ants—An Arab proverb<span class="ralign"><a <p class="center medium"><b>THE CRIMSON WORM.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">The scarlet or crimson of Scripture—Signification of the word <em>Tolââth</em>—The +<p class="hanging indent">The scarlet or crimson of Scripture—Signification of the word <em>Tolââth</em>—The Coccus or Cochineal of Palestine compared with that of Mexico—Difference between the sexes—Mode of preparing the insect—The Arabic word <em>Kermes</em><span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_622"> 622</a></span></p> <p class="center medium"><b>THE CLOTHES MOTH.</b></p> -<p class="hanging indent">The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth—The Sâs and the 'Ash—Similitude -between the Hebrew <em>sâs</em> and the Greek <em>sês</em>—Moths and garments—Accumulation +<p class="hanging indent">The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth—The Sâs and the 'Ash—Similitude +between the Hebrew <em>sâs</em> and the Greek <em>sês</em>—Moths and garments—Accumulation of clothes in the East—Various uses of the hoarded robes—The Moths, the rust, and the thief<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_624"> 624</a></span></p> @@ -1230,7 +1186,7 @@ Moths, the rust, and the thief<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_624"> 624</a>< household—Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted with Silk—Present cultivation of the Silkworm—The Silk-farms of the Lebanon—Signification of the word <em>Meshi</em>—Silkworms and thunder—Luis of Grenada's sermon—The -Hebrew word <em>Gâzam</em>, and its signification—The Palmer-worm of +Hebrew word <em>Gâzam</em>, and its signification—The Palmer-worm of Scripture<span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_627"> 627</a></span></p> <p class="center medium"><b>FLIES.</b></p> @@ -1432,7 +1388,7 @@ of the word <em>Ramoth</em><span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_647"> 647</a></sp <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> </tr> <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Hyænas and Vultures.</span> (Ezek. xxix. 5)</td> + <td><span class="smcap">Hyænas and Vultures.</span> (Ezek. xxix. 5)</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> </tr> <tr> @@ -1548,7 +1504,7 @@ of the word <em>Ramoth</em><span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_647"> 647</a></sp <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td> </tr> <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Ossifrage, or Lämmergeier.</span> (Deut. xiv. 12)</td> + <td><span class="smcap">The Ossifrage, or Lämmergeier.</span> (Deut. xiv. 12)</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td> </tr> <tr> @@ -1673,7 +1629,7 @@ of the word <em>Ramoth</em><span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_647"> 647</a></sp <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_558">558</a></td> </tr> <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Fishes—Muræna, Barbel, and Sheat-fish.</span><br /> + <td><span class="smcap">Fishes—Muræna, Barbel, and Sheat-fish.</span><br /> <span class="i1h"> (Levit. xi. 10)</span></td> <td class="tdr2"><a href="#Page_566">566</a></td> </tr> @@ -2367,7 +2323,7 @@ signal whistle, all the party soon gathered to my help. B. suggested smoking them, so a fire of brushwood was kindled, and soon two or three rushed out. Two fell to our shot, and I was delighted to find myself the possessor of a couple of large fox-headed -bats of the genus Pteropus (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Xantharpya ægyptiaca</i>), and +bats of the genus Pteropus (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Xantharpya ægyptiaca</i>), and extending twenty and a half inches from wing to wing. As none of the bats of Palestine are yet known, this was a great prize, and another instance of the extension westward of the Indian @@ -2443,7 +2399,7 @@ on the buildings of ancient Nineveh.</p> <p>Of all the undomesticated animals of Palestine, none is mentioned so frequently as the <span class="smcap">Lion</span>. This may appear the more remarkable, because for many years the Lion has been extinct -in Palestine. The leopard, the wolf, the jackal, and the hyæna, +in Palestine. The leopard, the wolf, the jackal, and the hyæna, still retain their place in the land, although their numbers are comparatively few; but the Lion has vanished completely out of the land. The reason for this disappearance is twofold, first, @@ -3190,7 +3146,7 @@ those days the wild beasts of the forest would be extremely plentiful. Even at the present day they are not extinct, and a recent traveller, the Rev. J. L. Porter, states that considerable numbers of wild beasts still inhabit the retired glens of the -range of Lebanon, and that he himself has seen jackals, hyænas, +range of Lebanon, and that he himself has seen jackals, hyænas, wolves, bears, and Leopards.</p> <p>The remaining passages, in which a beast formed like a @@ -3557,7 +3513,7 @@ additional strength.</p> suffice for the subsistence of the canine armies, and their chief support consists of the offal, which is rather too plentifully flung into the streets. The Dogs of Palestine are, indeed, much like -hyænas of certain African towns, and act as scavengers, devouring +hyænas of certain African towns, and act as scavengers, devouring any animal substance that may fall in their way. If the body of any animal, not excluding their own kind, be found lying in the streets, the dogs will assemble round it, and tear it @@ -3595,11 +3551,11 @@ the body but the skull, the feet, and the hands.</p> <p>In Mr. Tristram's work, the author has recognised the true dog nature, though concealed behind an uninviting form: "Our -watch-dog, Beirût, attached himself instinctively to Wilhelm, +watch-dog, Beirût, attached himself instinctively to Wilhelm, though his canine instinct soon taught him to recognise every <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span> one of our party of fourteen, and to cling to the tents, whether -in motion or at rest, as his home. Poor Beirût! though the +in motion or at rest, as his home. Poor Beirût! though the veriest pariah in appearance, thy plebeian form encased as noble a dog-heart as ever beat at the sound of a stealthy step."</p> @@ -3708,7 +3664,7 @@ bark, and pitted against the yelping curs upon all the carts in London, they could have given any idea of the canine uproar that now first astonished me, would be to make the feeblest of images. The whole city rang with one vast riot. Down below -me, at Tophané—over-about Stamboul—far away at Scutari—the +me, at Tophané—over-about Stamboul—far away at Scutari—the whole sixty thousand dogs that are said to overrun Constantinople appeared engaged in the most active extermination of each other, without a moment's cessation. The yelping, howling, @@ -3772,7 +3728,7 @@ four are comely in going: a lion, which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not away for any; a greyhound; an he-goat also; and a king, against whom there is no rising up." But the word "Greyhound" is only employed conjecturally, inasmuch as -the signification of the Hebrew word <em>Zarzir-mathnâim</em> is "one +the signification of the Hebrew word <em>Zarzir-mathnâim</em> is "one girt about the loins." Some commentators have thought that the horse might be signified by this word, and that the girding about the loins referred to the trappings with which all Easterns love @@ -3792,7 +3748,7 @@ it takes its prey—its ravages among the flocks—Allusions to this hab shepherd and his nightly enemies—Mr. Tristram and the Wolf—A semi-tamed Wolf at Marsaba.</p> -<p>There is no doubt that the Hebrew word <em>Zeëb</em>, which occurs in +<p>There is no doubt that the Hebrew word <em>Zeëb</em>, which occurs in a few passages of the Old Testament, is rightly translated as <span class="smcap">Wolf</span>, and signifies the same animal as is frequently mentioned in the New Testament.</p> @@ -4014,7 +3970,7 @@ to the Fox in the New Testament—Partially tamed Foxes.</p> <p>There are several passages in the Old Testament in which the word <span class="smcap">Fox</span> occurs, and it is almost certain that the Hebrew word -<em>Shuâl</em>, which is rendered in our translation as Fox, is used rather +<em>Shuâl</em>, which is rendered in our translation as Fox, is used rather loosely, and refers in some places to the Jackal, and in others to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> the Fox. We will first take those passages in which the former @@ -4062,7 +4018,7 @@ hunger, and powerful by force of numbers, they keep aloof from towns and cities, and live in the uninhabited parts of the country. Therefore the prophet Jeremiah, in his Book of Lamentations, makes use of the following forcible image, when -deploring the pitiful state into which Judæa had fallen: "For +deploring the pitiful state into which Judæa had fallen: "For this our heart is faint; for these things our eyes are dim: because of the mountain of Zion, which is desolate, the foxes walk upon it" (Lam. v. 17). And Ezekiel makes use of a similar @@ -4269,19 +4225,19 @@ until their expected meal was given to them. Several companions generally accompanied them, but were always jealously driven away before the monks appeared with the bread.</p> -<h3>THE HYÆNA.</h3> +<h3>THE HYÆNA.</h3> -<p class="hanging indent">The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded to—Signification of -the word Zabua—Translated in the Septuagint as Hyæna—A scene described -by the Prophet Isaiah—The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the present day—its -well-known cowardice and fear of man—The uses of the Hyæna and the -services which it renders—The particular species of Hyæna—The Hyæna in -the burial-grounds—Hunting the Hyæna—Curious superstition respecting the +<p class="hanging indent">The Hyæna not mentioned by name, but evidently alluded to—Signification of +the word Zabua—Translated in the Septuagint as Hyæna—A scene described +by the Prophet Isaiah—The Hyæna plentiful in Palestine at the present day—its +well-known cowardice and fear of man—The uses of the Hyæna and the +services which it renders—The particular species of Hyæna—The Hyæna in +the burial-grounds—Hunting the Hyæna—Curious superstition respecting the talismanic properties of its skin—Precautions adopted in flaying it—Popular -legends of the Hyæna and its magical powers—The cavern home of the Hyæna—The +legends of the Hyæna and its magical powers—The cavern home of the Hyæna—The Valley of Zeboim.</p> -<p>Although in our version of the Scriptures the Hyæna is not +<p>Although in our version of the Scriptures the Hyæna is not mentioned by that name, there are two passages in the Old Testament which evidently refer to that animal, and therefore it is described in these pages. If the reader will refer to the @@ -4295,10 +4251,10 @@ her: come ye, assemble all the beasts of the field, come to devour." Now, the word <em>zabua</em> signifies something that is streaked, and in the Authorized Version it is rendered as a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span> -speckled bird. But in the Septuagint it is rendered as Hyæna, +speckled bird. But in the Septuagint it is rendered as Hyæna, and this translation is thought by many critical writers to be the true one. It is certain that the word <em>zabua</em> is one of the -four names by which the Talmudical writers mention the Hyæna, +four names by which the Talmudical writers mention the Hyæna, when treating of its character; and it is equally certain that such a rendering makes the passage more forcible, and is in perfect accordance with the habits of predacious animals.</p> @@ -4308,18 +4264,18 @@ familiar to him. First, we have the image of a deserted country, allowed to be overrun with wild beasts. Then we have the lion, which has struck down its prey, roaring with exultation, and defying any adversary to take it from him. Then, the lion -having eaten his fill and gone away, we have the Hyænas, vultures, +having eaten his fill and gone away, we have the Hyænas, vultures, and other carrion-eating creatures, assembling around the carcase, and hastening to devour it. This is a scene which has been witnessed by many hunters who have pursued their sport -in lands where lions, hyænas, and vultures are found; and all +in lands where lions, hyænas, and vultures are found; and all these creatures were inhabitants of Palestine at the time when Jeremiah wrote.</p> -<p>At the present day, the Hyæna is still plentiful in Palestine, +<p>At the present day, the Hyæna is still plentiful in Palestine, though in the course of the last few years its numbers have sensibly diminished. The solitary traveller, when passing by -night from one town to another, often falls in with the Hyæna, +night from one town to another, often falls in with the Hyæna, but need suffer no fear, as it will not attack a human being, and prefers to slink out of his way. But dead, and dying, or wounded animals are the objects for which it searches; and @@ -4329,7 +4285,7 @@ flesh with its long fangs, and lick the bones with its rough tongue until they are quite cleaned. The wolves and jackals will follow the lion, and eat every soft portion of the dead animal, while the vultures will fight with them for the coveted -morsels. But the Hyæna is a more accomplished scavenger +morsels. But the Hyæna is a more accomplished scavenger than lion, wolf, jackal, or vulture; for it will eat the very bones themselves, its tremendously-powerful jaws and firmly-set teeth enabling it to crush even the leg-bone of an ox, and its unparalleled @@ -4337,7 +4293,7 @@ digestive powers enabling it to assimilate the sharp and hard fragments which would kill any creature not constituted like itself.</p> -<p>In a wild, or even a partially-inhabited country, the Hyæna +<p>In a wild, or even a partially-inhabited country, the Hyæna <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span> is, therefore, a most useful animal. It may occasionally kill a crippled or weakly ox, and sometimes carry off a sheep; but, @@ -4350,26 +4306,26 @@ objects which would be offensive to sight and injurious to health.</p> <p>The species which is mentioned in the Scriptures is the Striped -Hyæna (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hyæna striata</i>); but the habits of all the species are +Hyæna (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hyæna striata</i>); but the habits of all the species are almost exactly similar. We are told by travellers of certain towns in different parts of Africa which would be unendurable -but for the Hyænas. With the disregard for human life which +but for the Hyænas. With the disregard for human life which prevails throughout all savage portions of that country, the rulers of these towns order executions almost daily, the bodies of the victims being allowed to lie where they happened to fall. No one chooses to touch them, lest they should also be added to the list of victims, and the decomposing bodies would soon cause a -pestilence but for the Hyænas, who assemble at night round +pestilence but for the Hyænas, who assemble at night round the bodies, and by the next morning have left scarcely a trace of the murdered men.</p> -<p>Even in Palestine, and in the present day, the Hyæna will +<p>Even in Palestine, and in the present day, the Hyæna will endeavour to rifle the grave, and to drag out the interred corpse. The bodies of the rich are buried in rocky caves, whose entrances -are closed with heavy stones, which the Hyæna cannot move; +are closed with heavy stones, which the Hyæna cannot move; but those of the poor, which are buried in the ground, must be defended by stones heaped over them. Even when this precaution -is taken, the Hyæna will sometimes find out a weak +is taken, the Hyæna will sometimes find out a weak spot, drag out the body, and devour it.</p> <p>In consequence of this propensity, the inhabitants have an @@ -4381,14 +4337,14 @@ wet, receiving a small sum of money from those to whom they show it. Afterwards the skin is dressed, by rubbing it with lime and salt, and steeping it in the waters of the Dead Sea. It is then made into sandals and leggings, which are thought to be powerful -charms, and to defend the wearer from the Hyæna's bite.</p> +charms, and to defend the wearer from the Hyæna's bite.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span></p> <div class="figcenter"> <img src="images/i_100.jpg" width="500" height="499" alt="" /> <div class="caption"> -<p>THE HYÆNA.</p> +<p>THE HYÆNA.</p> <p>"<i>I have given thee for meat to the beasts of the field and to the fowls of the heaven.</i>"—<span class="smcap">Ezek.</span> xxix. 5.</p> </div></div> @@ -4399,23 +4355,23 @@ leeward of the tents before they strip off the skin. Even in the animal which has been kept for years in a cage, and has eaten nothing but fresh meat, the odour is too powerful to be agreeable, as I can testify from practical experience when dissecting a -Hyæna that had died in the Zoological Gardens; and it is evident +Hyæna that had died in the Zoological Gardens; and it is evident that the scent of an animal that has lived all its life on carrion must be almost unbearable. The skin being removed, the carcase is burnt, because the hunters think that by this process the -other Hyænas are prevented from finding the body of their +other Hyænas are prevented from finding the body of their <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span> comrade, and either avenging its death or taking warning by its fate.</p> <p>Superstitions seem to be singularly prevalent concerning the -Hyæna. In Palestine, there is a prevalent idea that if a Hyæna +Hyæna. In Palestine, there is a prevalent idea that if a Hyæna meets a solitary man at night, it can enchant him in such a manner as to make him follow it through thickets and over rocks, until he is quite exhausted, and falls an unresisting prey; but that over two persons he has no such influence, and therefore a solitary traveller is gravely advised to call for help as soon as -he sees a Hyæna, because the fascination of the beast would be +he sees a Hyæna, because the fascination of the beast would be neutralized by the presence of a second person. So firmly is this idea rooted in the minds of the inhabitants, that they will never travel by night, unless they can find at least one companion @@ -4424,10 +4380,10 @@ in their journey.</p> <p>In Northern Africa there are many strange superstitions connected with this animal, one of the most curious of which is founded on its well-known cowardice. The Arabs fancy that -any weapon which has killed a Hyæna, whether it be gun, +any weapon which has killed a Hyæna, whether it be gun, sword, spear, or dagger, is thenceforth unfit to be used in warfare. "Throw away that sword," said an Arab to a French -officer, who had killed a Hyæna, "it has slain the Hyæna, and it +officer, who had killed a Hyæna, "it has slain the Hyæna, and it will be treacherous to you."</p> <p>At the present day, its numbers are not nearly so great in @@ -4440,9 +4396,9 @@ undoubtedly considerable influence.</p> <p>There is a very interesting account by Mr. Tristram of the haunt of these animals. While exploring the deserted quarries of Es Sumrah, between Beth-arabah and Bethel, he came upon a -wonderful mass of hyænine relics. The quarries in which were +wonderful mass of hyænine relics. The quarries in which were lying the half-hewn blocks, scored with the marks of wedges, -had evidently formed the resort of Hyænas for a long series of +had evidently formed the resort of Hyænas for a long series of years. "Vast heaps of bones of camels, oxen, and sheep had been collected by these animals, in some places to the depth of two or three feet, and on one spot I counted the skulls of seven @@ -4450,18 +4406,18 @@ camels. There were no traces whatever of any human remains. We had here a beautiful recent illustration of the mode of foundation of the old bone caverns, so valuable to the geologist. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span> -These bones must all have been brought in by the Hyænas, as +These bones must all have been brought in by the Hyænas, as no camel or sheep could possibly have entered the caverns alive, nor could any floods have washed them in. Near the entrance where the water percolates, they were already forming a soft breccia."</p> -<p>The second allusion to the Hyæna is made in 1 Sam. xiii. 18, +<p>The second allusion to the Hyæna is made in 1 Sam. xiii. 18, "Another company turned to the way of the border that looketh to the Valley of Zeboim towards the wilderness," <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i> to the -Valley of Hyænas.</p> +Valley of Hyænas.</p> -<p>The colour of the Striped Hyæna varies according to its age. +<p>The colour of the Striped Hyæna varies according to its age. When young, as is the case with many creatures, birds as well as mammals, the stripes from which it derives its name are much more strongly marked than in the adult specimen. The @@ -4475,10 +4431,10 @@ the face and on other parts of the body, whence they afterwards vanish. The fur is always rough; and along the spine, and especially over the neck and shoulders, it is developed into a kind of mane, which gives a very fierce aspect to the animal. The -illustration shows a group of Hyænas coming to feed on the +illustration shows a group of Hyænas coming to feed on the relics of a dead animal. The jackals and vultures have eaten as much of the flesh as they can manage, and the vultures are -sitting, gorged, round the stripped bones. The Hyænas are now +sitting, gorged, round the stripped bones. The Hyænas are now coming up to play their part as scavengers, and have already begun to break up the bones in their crushing-mills of jaws.</p> @@ -4547,7 +4503,7 @@ Mygale, or Shrew-mouse, and it is probable that this animal was accepted by the Jews as the Anakah. But, whether or not it was the Shrew-mouse, it is certain that it is not the animal which we call the Ferret. Mr. Tristram suggests that the etymology -of the name, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i> Anâkah, the Groaner, or Sigher, points to some +of the name, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i> Anâkah, the Groaner, or Sigher, points to some creature which utters a mournful cry. And as the animal in question is classed among the creeping things, he offers a conjecture that the Gecko, Wall-lizard, or Fan-foot, may be the @@ -4663,7 +4619,7 @@ signified by the word Tachash.</p> <p>A species of dugong (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Halicore hemprichii</i>) is the animal that has been selected as the Badger of the Scriptures. It is one of the marine mammalia, and always lives near the shore, where it -can find the various algæ on which it feeds. It is a gregarious +can find the various algæ on which it feeds. It is a gregarious animal, and, as it frequently ascends rivers for some distance, it may be captured in sufficient numbers to make both its flesh and skin useful. Moreover, it is of considerable size, fourteen @@ -4834,7 +4790,7 @@ name of Bear.</p> <p>"As a roaring lion and a ranging bear, so is a wicked ruler over the poor people."—<span class="smcap">Prov.</span> xxviii. 15.</p> </div></div> -<p>The Hebrew word is <em>Dôb</em>, and it is a remarkable fact that the +<p>The Hebrew word is <em>Dôb</em>, and it is a remarkable fact that the name of this animal in the Arabic language is almost identical with the Hebrew term, namely, <em>Dubh</em>. The peculiar species of Bear which inhabits Palestine is the Syrian Bear (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ursus @@ -5022,15 +4978,15 @@ like those of a Bear.</p> <h3>THE HEDGEHOG, OR BITTERN.</h3> -<p class="hanging indent">Various readings of the word <em>Kippôd</em>—The Jewish Bible and its object—The +<p class="hanging indent">Various readings of the word <em>Kippôd</em>—The Jewish Bible and its object—The Syrian Hedgehog and its appearance—Its fondness for dry spots—The prophecies of Isaiah and Zephaniah, and their bearing on the subject—The Porcupine -supposed to be the Kippôd—The Hedgehog and Porcupine called by the same +supposed to be the Kippôd—The Hedgehog and Porcupine called by the same name in Greek and Arabic—Habits of the Porcupine—Its quills, and the manner of their shedding.</p> <p>In our Authorized Bible, there are one or two passages where -the Hebrew word <em>Kippôd</em> is translated as <span class="smcap">Bittern</span>. For example, +the Hebrew word <em>Kippôd</em> is translated as <span class="smcap">Bittern</span>. For example, there is Isaiah xiv. 22, 23, "I will cut off from Babylon the name, and remnant, and son and nephew, saith the Lord. I will also make it a possession for the bittern, and pools of @@ -5050,7 +5006,7 @@ uncover the cedar-work."</p> <p>Now, in the "Jewish School and Family Bible," a new literal translation by Dr. A. Benisch, under the superintendence of -the Chief Rabbi, the word Kippôd is translated, not as Bittern, +the Chief Rabbi, the word Kippôd is translated, not as Bittern, but Hedgehog. As I shall have to refer to this translation repeatedly in the course of the present work, I will give a few remarks made by the translator in the preface.</p> @@ -5090,7 +5046,7 @@ be rendered with any amount of probability, they have not been translated at all, and to those about which there are good grounds of doubt a distinctive mark is affixed.</p> -<p>Now to the word Hedgehog, by which the Hebrew Kippôd +<p>Now to the word Hedgehog, by which the Hebrew Kippôd is rendered, no such marking is attached in either of the three quoted passages, and it is evident therefore that the rendering is satisfactory to the highest authorities on the Hebrew language. @@ -5101,18 +5057,18 @@ translator to be carried away by preconceived ideas, and to give to the word that rendering which may tend to establish his peculiar doctrinal ideas.</p> -<p>The Septuagint also translates Kippôd as εχινος (<em>echinus</em>) +<p>The Septuagint also translates Kippôd as εχινος (<em>echinus</em>) <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i> the Hedgehog, and this rendering is advocated by the eminent scholar Gesenius, who considers it to be formed from the Hebrew word <em>kaped</em>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i> contracted; reference being of course made to the Hedgehog's habit of rolling itself up when alarmed, and presenting only an array of bristles to the enemy. This derivation of the word is certainly more convincing than a -suggestion which has been made, that the Hebrew Kippôd may +suggestion which has been made, that the Hebrew Kippôd may signify the Hedgehog, because it resembles the Arabic name of the same animal, viz. Kunfod.</p> -<p>As therefore the word Kippôd is translated as Hedgehog in +<p>As therefore the word Kippôd is translated as Hedgehog in the Septuagint and Jewish Bible, and as Bittern in the authorized version, we very naturally ask ourselves whether either or both of these animals inhabit Palestine and the neighbouring countries. @@ -5141,13 +5097,13 @@ perfect ease, its jaws and teeth being much stronger than might be anticipated from the size of their owner.</p> <p>One or two objections that have been made to the translation -of the Kippôd as Hedgehog must be mentioned, so that the +of the Kippôd as Hedgehog must be mentioned, so that the reader may see what is said on both sides in dubious cases. -One objection is, that the Kippôd is (in Isaiah xiv. 23) mentioned +One objection is, that the Kippôd is (in Isaiah xiv. 23) mentioned in connexion with pools of water, and that, as the Hedgehog prefers dry places to wet, whereas the Bittern is essentially a marsh-dweller, the latter rendering of the word is -preferable to the former. Again, as the Kippôd is said by +preferable to the former. Again, as the Kippôd is said by Zephaniah to "lodge in the upper lintels," and its "voice to sing in the windows," it must be a bird, and not a quadruped. We will examine these passages separately, and see how they @@ -5156,12 +5112,12 @@ treats the passage as follows:—"And he will stretch out his hand against the north, and destroy Assyria; and will make Nineveh a desolation, and arid like the desert. And droves shall crouch in the midst of her, all the animals of nations: both pelican and -hedgehog (Kippôd) shall lodge nightly in the knobs of it, a voice +hedgehog (Kippôd) shall lodge nightly in the knobs of it, a voice shall sing in the windows; drought shall be in the thresholds, for he shall uncover the cedar-work."</p> <p>Now the reader will see that, so far from the notion of -marsh-land being connected with the Kippôd, the whole imagery +marsh-land being connected with the Kippôd, the whole imagery of the prophecy turns upon the opposite characteristics of desolation, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span> aridity, and drought. The same imagery is used in Isaiah @@ -5172,16 +5128,16 @@ shall be turned into pitch, and the dust thereof into brimstone, and the land thereof shall become burning pitch. It shall not go out night nor day; the smoke of it shall go up for ever; from generation to generation it shall lie waste; none shall pass -through it for ever and ever. Pelican and hedgehog (Kippôd) +through it for ever and ever. Pelican and hedgehog (Kippôd) shall possess it; owls also and ravens shall dwell in it; and he shall stretch over it the line of desolation, and the stones of emptiness." And to the end of the chapter the same idea of drought, desolation, and solitude is carried out.</p> <p>Thus, even putting the question in the simplest manner, we -have two long passages which directly connect the Kippôd with +have two long passages which directly connect the Kippôd with drought, aridity, and desolation, in opposition to one in which -the Kippôd and "pools of water" are mentioned in proximity to +the Kippôd and "pools of water" are mentioned in proximity to each other. Now the fact is, that the sites of Nineveh and Babylon fulfil both prophecies, being both dry and marshy—dry away from the river, and marshy among the reed-swamps @@ -5189,7 +5145,7 @@ that now exist on its banks.</p> <p>So much for the question of locality.</p> -<p>As to the second objection, namely, that the Kippôd was to +<p>As to the second objection, namely, that the Kippôd was to lodge in the upper lintels, and therefore must be a bird, and not a quadruped, it is sufficient to say that the allusion is evidently made to ruins that are thrown down, and not to buildings that @@ -5200,7 +5156,7 @@ reader may see, on reference to the English Bible, that the word "their" is printed in italics, showing that it does not exist in the original, and has been supplied by the translator. Taking the passage as it really stands, "Both the cormorant and the bittern -(Kippôd) shall lodge in the upper lintels of it; a voice shall sing +(Kippôd) shall lodge in the upper lintels of it; a voice shall sing in the windows," it is evident that the voice or sound which sings in the windows does not necessarily refer to the cormorant and Bittern at all. Dr. Harris remarks that "the phrase is @@ -5210,13 +5166,13 @@ elliptical, and implies 'the voice of birds.'"</p> <h3>THE PORCUPINE.</h3> -<p class="hanging indent">Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine—The same Greek name +<p class="hanging indent">Presumed identity of the Kippôd with the Porcupine—The same Greek name applied to the Porcupine and Hedgehog—Habits of the Porcupine—the common Porcupine found plentifully in Palestine.</p> <p>Although, like the hedgehog, the Porcupine is not mentioned by name in the Scriptures, many commentators think that the -word Kippôd signifies both the hedgehog and Porcupine.</p> +word Kippôd signifies both the hedgehog and Porcupine.</p> <p>That the two animals should be thought to be merely two varieties of one species is not astonishing, when we remember @@ -5620,7 +5576,7 @@ for this idea, and we may safely conjecture that it also is one of the smaller rodents which are grouped together under the appellation of Mouse.</p> -<p>The Common Jerboa (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dipus Ægyptiacus</i>) is plentiful in Palestine, +<p>The Common Jerboa (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dipus Ægyptiacus</i>) is plentiful in Palestine, and several other species inhabit the same country, known at once by their long and slender legs, which give them so curious a resemblance to the kangaroos of Australia. The Jerboas @@ -5868,7 +5824,7 @@ the better quality and greater quantity of the food.</p> has made any progress, Domesticated Cattle were, and still are, plentiful in Palestine. Even at the present time the cattle are in common use, though it is evident, from many passages of -Holy Writ, that in the days of Judæa's prosperity cattle were far +Holy Writ, that in the days of Judæa's prosperity cattle were far more numerous than they are now, and were treated in a better fashion.</p> @@ -6315,7 +6271,7 @@ and to be impressed with certain marks. His colour must be black, except a square spot on the forehead, a crescent-shaped white spot on the right side, and the figure of an eagle on his back. Under the tongue must be a knob shaped like the sacred -scarabæus, and the hairs of his tail must be double.</p> +scarabæus, and the hairs of his tail must be double.</p> <p>This representative animal was only allowed to live for a certain time, and when he had reached this allotted period, he @@ -6450,10 +6406,10 @@ by the richness of the quality for the lack of quantity.</p> <h3>THE WILD BULL.</h3> -<p class="hanging indent">The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament—Passages in which it is mentioned—The +<p class="hanging indent">The Tô, Wild Bull of the Old Testament—Passages in which it is mentioned—The Wild Bull in the net—Hunting with nets in the East—The Oryx supposed to -be the Tô of Scripture—Description of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, and -habits—The points in which the Oryx agrees with the Tô—The "snare" in +be the Tô of Scripture—Description of the Oryx, its locality, appearance, and +habits—The points in which the Oryx agrees with the Tô—The "snare" in which the foot is taken, as distinguished from the net.</p> <p>In two passages of the Old Testament an animal is mentioned, @@ -6478,7 +6434,7 @@ help us considerably. Addressing Jerusalem, the prophet uses these words, "By whom shall I comfort thee? Thy sons have fainted, they lie at the head of all the streets, as a wild bull in a net; they are full of the fury of the Lord, the rebuke of -thy God." We now see that the Tô or Teô must be an animal +thy God." We now see that the Tô or Teô must be an animal which is captured by means of nets, and therefore must inhabit spots wherein the toils can be used. Moreover, it is evidently a powerful animal, or the force of the simile would be lost. @@ -6601,7 +6557,7 @@ every man his brother with a net."</p> <p>"<i>They lie at the head of all the streets, like a wild bull in a net.</i>"—<span class="smcap">Isaiah</span> li. 21.</p> </div></div> -<p>Accepting the theory that the Tô is one of the large antelopes +<p>Accepting the theory that the Tô is one of the large antelopes that inhabit, or used to inhabit, the Holy Land and its neighbourhood, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> we may safely conjecture that it may signify the @@ -6669,15 +6625,15 @@ but, by the united influence of sharp spikes and the heavy log, it is soon forced to halt, and so becomes an easy prey to its pursuers.</p> -<h3>THE REÊM, OR "UNICORN" OF SCRIPTURE.</h3> +<h3>THE REÊM, OR "UNICORN" OF SCRIPTURE.</h3> -<p class="hanging indent">The Reêm evidently known to the Jews—Various theories concerning the Unicorn—Supposed +<p class="hanging indent">The Reêm evidently known to the Jews—Various theories concerning the Unicorn—Supposed identity with the Indian Rhinoceros—Passages of Scripture -alluding to the strength, violent and intractable temper of the Reêm—The -Reêm a two-horned animal—Its evident connection with the Ox tribe—Its +alluding to the strength, violent and intractable temper of the Reêm—The +Reêm a two-horned animal—Its evident connection with the Ox tribe—Its presumed identity with the now extinct Urus—Mr. Dawkins' treatise on the Urus—Enormous size and dangerous character of the Urus—Rabbinical legend -of the Reêm—Identity of the Urus with the modern varieties of cattle—The +of the Reêm—Identity of the Urus with the modern varieties of cattle—The Bull hunts of Nineveh.</p> <p>There are many animals mentioned in the Scriptures which @@ -6691,10 +6647,10 @@ endeavouring to identify it with any known animal, they may be excused for committing errors in their nomenclature. There <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span> is one animal, however, for which no such excuse can be found, -and this is the Reêm of Scripture, translated as Unicorn in the +and this is the Reêm of Scripture, translated as Unicorn in the authorized version.</p> -<p>Now the word Reêm is mentioned seven times in the Old +<p>Now the word Reêm is mentioned seven times in the Old Testament, and is found, not in one, but several books, showing that it was an animal perfectly well known to those for whom the sacred books were written. It is twice mentioned in the @@ -6704,7 +6660,7 @@ historical books. In these various passages, abundant details are given of its aspect and habits, so that there is very little doubt as to the identity of the animal.</p> -<p>The Septuagint translates Reêm by the word Monoceros, or +<p>The Septuagint translates Reêm by the word Monoceros, or the One-horned, which has been transferred to the Vulgate by the term Unicornis, a word having the same signification.</p> @@ -6799,24 +6755,24 @@ heavens."</p> <p>In late years, after the true origin of the Unicorn's horn was discovered, and the belief in its many virtues abandoned, the -Reêm, or Monoceros, was almost unhesitatingly identified with +Reêm, or Monoceros, was almost unhesitatingly identified with the rhinoceros of India, and for a long time this theory was the -accepted one. It is now, however, certain that the Reêm was +accepted one. It is now, however, certain that the Reêm was not the rhinoceros, and that it can be almost certainly identified with an animal which, at the time when the passages in question were written, was plentiful in Palestine, although, like the lion, it is now extinct.</p> <p>We will now take in their order the seven passages in which -the animal is mentioned, substituting the word Reêm for +the animal is mentioned, substituting the word Reêm for Unicorn.</p> <p>The first of these passages occurs in Numbers xxiii., where the remarkable prophecies of Balaam are recorded. "The Lord his God is with them, and the shout of a king is among them. God brought them out of Egypt, he hath as it were the strength of -Reêm:" (ver. 21, 22). From this passage we gain one piece of -information, namely, that the Reêm was an exceptionally powerful +Reêm:" (ver. 21, 22). From this passage we gain one piece of +information, namely, that the Reêm was an exceptionally powerful animal. Indeed, it was evidently the strongest animal that was known to the prophet and his hearers, or it would not have been mentioned as a visible type of Divine power.</p> @@ -6828,27 +6784,27 @@ prophet uses these words, "Let the blessing come upon the head <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span> of Joseph, and upon the top of the head of him that was separated from his brethren. His glory is like the firstling of his -bullock, and his horns are like the horns of Reêm: with them +bullock, and his horns are like the horns of Reêm: with them he shall push the people together to the ends of the earth; and they are the ten thousands of Ephraim, and they are the thousands of Manasseh" (ver. 16, 17).</p> <p>In this passage we gather more information. In the first -place it is to be noticed that the Reêm is mentioned in connexion +place it is to be noticed that the Reêm is mentioned in connexion with the domestic cattle, and that the name is used as one that is familiar to the hearers. Next, as the marginal reading gives -the word, Reêm is used in the singular and not in the plural +the word, Reêm is used in the singular and not in the plural number, so that the passage may be read, "his horns are like the horns of a Unicorn." Thus we come to the important point -that the Reêm was not a one-horned, but a two-horned animal.</p> +that the Reêm was not a one-horned, but a two-horned animal.</p> -<p>It may here be remarked that the Reêm horns were the +<p>It may here be remarked that the Reêm horns were the emblem of the two tribes that sprung from Joseph, Ephraim -and Manasseh, himself being typified by the Reêm, and his two +and Manasseh, himself being typified by the Reêm, and his two powerful sons by the horns.</p> <p>Next, in the Psalms, we find that the powerful, two-horned -Reêm was also a dangerous and violent animal. (See Psa. xxii. +Reêm was also a dangerous and violent animal. (See Psa. xxii. 19, 21.)</p> <p>"Be not Thou far from me, O Lord: O my strength, haste Thee @@ -6858,15 +6814,15 @@ to help me.</p> (or the hand) of the dog.</p> <p>"Save me from the lion's mouth: for Thou hast heard me -from the horns of Reêm."</p> +from the horns of Reêm."</p> <p>In Ps. xcii. there is another allusion to the powerful horns of -the Reêm. "For lo, Thine enemies, O Lord, for lo, Thine enemies +the Reêm. "For lo, Thine enemies, O Lord, for lo, Thine enemies shall perish; all the workers of iniquity shall be scattered. But -my horn shalt Thou exalt like the horn of Reêm."</p> +my horn shalt Thou exalt like the horn of Reêm."</p> <p>From these passages we gather the following important points. -First, the Reêm was an animal familiar to the people of Palestine, +First, the Reêm was an animal familiar to the people of Palestine, as is evident from the manner in which its name is introduced into the sacred writings; secondly, it was the most powerful animal known to the Israelites; thirdly, it was a two-horned @@ -6876,7 +6832,7 @@ fifthly, it had some connexion with the domesticated cattle.</p> <p>This last-mentioned point is brought out more strongly in the remaining passages of Scripture. In Job, for example, a parallel <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span> -is drawn between the wild and untameable Reêm and the beasts +is drawn between the wild and untameable Reêm and the beasts of draught and burden.</p> <p>In that magnificent series of passages in which the Lord @@ -6885,11 +6841,11 @@ worthy sequel to Elihu's impassioned discourse on the text that "God is greater than man," the wild animals are mentioned in evident contrast to the tame. First come the wild goats of the rock; then the wild ass, who "scorneth the multitude of the city, -neither regardeth the crying of the driver;" and then the Reêm, +neither regardeth the crying of the driver;" and then the Reêm, which is clearly contrasted with the tamed ox.</p> -<p>"Will Reêm be willing to serve thee, or abide by thy crib? -Canst thou bind Reêm with his band in the furrow? or will he +<p>"Will Reêm be willing to serve thee, or abide by thy crib? +Canst thou bind Reêm with his band in the furrow? or will he harrow the valleys after thee? Wilt thou trust him, because his strength is great? or wilt thou leave thy labour to him? Wilt thou believe him that he will bring home thy seed, and @@ -6898,16 +6854,16 @@ gather it in thy barn?" See chap. xxxix. 9-12.</p> <p>Now in these passages, the principal duties of the domesticated cattle are described—the ploughing the furrow, the drawing of the harrow, and the carrying home of the ripened -corn, for all which purposes the tameless spirit of Reêm renders +corn, for all which purposes the tameless spirit of Reêm renders him useless, in spite of his vast strength. The prophet Isaiah -has a passage in which the Reêm is evidently classed with the +has a passage in which the Reêm is evidently classed with the ox tribe. See chap. xxxiv. 6, 7.</p> <p>"The sword of the Lord is filled with blood; it is made fat with fatness, and with the blood of lambs and goats, with the fat of the kidneys of rams: for the Lord hath a sacrifice in Bozrah, and a great slaughter in the land of Idumea. And -Reêm shall come down with them, and the bullocks with the +Reêm shall come down with them, and the bullocks with the bulls; and their land shall be soaked with blood, and their dust made fat with fatness."</p> @@ -6916,12 +6872,12 @@ in Ps. xxix. 5, 6.</p> <p>"The voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars; yea, the Lord breaketh the cedars of Lebanon. He maketh them also to skip -like a calf; Lebanon and Sirion like a young Reêm."</p> +like a calf; Lebanon and Sirion like a young Reêm."</p> -<p>On turning to the Jewish Bible we find that the word Reêm +<p>On turning to the Jewish Bible we find that the word Reêm is translated as buffalo, and there is no doubt that this rendering is nearly the correct one, and at the present day naturalists are -nearly all agreed that the Reêm of the Old Testament must have +nearly all agreed that the Reêm of the Old Testament must have been the now extinct Urus. A smaller animal, the Bonassus or <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span> Bison, also existed in Palestine, and even to the present day @@ -6929,10 +6885,10 @@ continues to maintain itself in one or two spots, though it will probably be as soon completely erased from the surface of the earth as its gigantic congener.</p> -<p>That the Reêm was one of the two animals is certain, and +<p>That the Reêm was one of the two animals is certain, and that it was the larger is nearly as certain. The reason for deciding upon the Urus is, that its horns were of great size and -strength, and therefore agree with the description of the Reêm; +strength, and therefore agree with the description of the Reêm; whereas those of the Bonassus, although powerful, are short, and not conspicuous enough to deserve the notice which is taken of them by the sacred writers.</p> @@ -6967,7 +6923,7 @@ ancient and gigantic horns, remarkable for their double curvature, are carried in solemn procession.</p> <p>The presence of these horns affords a remarkable confirmation -to a well-known passage in Julius Cæsars familiar "Commentaries." +to a well-known passage in Julius Cæsars familiar "Commentaries." "The Uri are little inferior to elephants in size" <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span> ("magnitudine paullo infra elephantos"); "but are bulls in their @@ -6998,7 +6954,7 @@ is formed from two words, namely, Gau, or Ghoo, a cow, and Ur, so that the name signifies Wild Cow.</p> <p>As to the size of the animal Urus, it is evident, by measurement -of certain remains, that it must have well deserved Cæsar's +of certain remains, that it must have well deserved Cæsar's comparison with the elephant. A skull that is described by Cuvier gave the following measurements. Width of skull between the bases of the horn-cores (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i> the bony projections on @@ -7035,12 +6991,12 @@ though not in all, instead of presenting the regular double curvature with which we are so familiar in our domestic oxen, first curves outwards, then bends backwards or a little downwards and forwards. This peculiarity in the shape of the horns -is specially noted by Cæsar, and we may therefore receive with +is specially noted by Cæsar, and we may therefore receive with more security his account of their enormous size.</p> -<p>A curious rabbinical legend of the Reêm is given in Lewysohn's +<p>A curious rabbinical legend of the Reêm is given in Lewysohn's "Zoologie des Talmuds." When the ark was complete, -and all the beasts were commanded to enter, the Reêm was +and all the beasts were commanded to enter, the Reêm was unable to do so, because it was too large to pass through the door. Noah and his sons therefore were obliged to tie the animal by a rope to the ark, and to tow it behind; and, in order @@ -7048,7 +7004,7 @@ to prevent it from being strangled, they tied the rope, not round its neck, but to its horn.</p> <p>The same writer very justly remarks that the Scriptural and -Talmudical accounts of the Reêm have one decided distinction. +Talmudical accounts of the Reêm have one decided distinction. The Scripture speaks chiefly of its fierceness, its untameable nature, its strength, and its swiftness, as its principal characteristics, while the Talmud speaks almost exclusively of its size. @@ -7061,7 +7017,7 @@ animals unknown to them except by hearsay, they go off into the wildest extravagances, such, for example, as asserting that <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span> the leopard is a hybrid between the wild boar and the lioness. -The exaggerated statements concerning the Reêm show therefore +The exaggerated statements concerning the Reêm show therefore that the animal must have been extinct long before the time of the writers.</p> @@ -7072,7 +7028,7 @@ been shown, not characteristic of the animal in general, but only of certain individuals; while other variations in the shape and length of certain bones are of too little consequence to be accepted as bases whereon to found a new genus or even species, -and we may therefore assume that the Urus of Cæsar, the Reêm +and we may therefore assume that the Urus of Cæsar, the Reêm of Scripture, was nothing more than a very large variety of the ox, modified of course in aspect and habits by the locality in which it lived. This assumption is strengthened by the fact @@ -7081,7 +7037,7 @@ been made, has "traced the gigantic Urus from the earliest Pleistocene times through the pre-historic period at least as far as the twelfth century after Christ."</p> -<p>The reader may remember that in Cæsar's brief but graphic +<p>The reader may remember that in Cæsar's brief but graphic account of the Urus, he mentions that it was hunted by those who wished to distinguish themselves. Now, on many of the sculptures of Nineveh, there are delineations of bull hunts, @@ -7109,7 +7065,7 @@ the wolf—Its untameable disposition. </p> <p>A few words are now needful respecting the second animal -which has been mentioned in connexion with the Reêm; namely, +which has been mentioned in connexion with the Reêm; namely, the Bison, or Bonassus. The Bisons are distinguishable from ordinary cattle by the thick and heavy mane which covers the neck and shoulders, and which is more conspicuous in the male @@ -8334,15 +8290,15 @@ the difference between the breeds of Sheep; the names that are employed denoting the different ages and sexes of the Sheep, but having no reference to the breed.</p> -<p>For example, the word "Tâleh" signifies a very young sucking +<p>For example, the word "Tâleh" signifies a very young sucking lamb, such as is mentioned in 1 Sam. vii. 9: "And Samuel -took a sucking lamb (Tâleh), and offered it for a burnt offering +took a sucking lamb (Tâleh), and offered it for a burnt offering wholly unto the Lord." The same word is used in Isa. lxv. 25: <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span></p> -<p>"The wolf and the lamb (tâleh) shall feed together;" the +<p>"The wolf and the lamb (tâleh) shall feed together;" the force of this well-known passage being much increased by the -correct rendering of the word "tâleh." The Jewish Bible renders +correct rendering of the word "tâleh." The Jewish Bible renders the word as "a lamb of milk."</p> <p>The word "kebes," or "keves," (the e being pronounced @@ -8401,7 +8357,7 @@ in lambing time.</p> deposits its eggs in the nostrils of the unfortunate animal, was as well known in the ancient as in modern times. It is scarcely necessary to mention that the insect in question is -the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Æstrus ovis</i>. Instinctively aware of the presence of this +the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Æstrus ovis</i>. Instinctively aware of the presence of this insidious and dreaded enemy, which, though so apparently insignificant, is as formidable a foe as any of the beasts of prey, the Sheep display the greatest terror at the sharp, @@ -8414,7 +8370,7 @@ in their power to prevent the fly from accomplishing its purpose.</p> <p>When a gadfly succeeds in attaining its aim, it rapidly deposits an egg or two in the nostril, and then leaves them. The tiny eggs are soon hatched by the natural heat of the -animal, and the young larvæ crawl up the nostril towards the +animal, and the young larvæ crawl up the nostril towards the frontal sinus. There they remain until they are full-grown, when they crawl through the nostrils, fall on the ground, burrow therein, and in the earth undergo their changes into the pupal @@ -8565,7 +8521,7 @@ curdle the milk with great rapidity.</p> children, who, when accustomed to it, will very much prefer it to the milk in a fresh state. Two separate words are used in the Old Testament to distinguish fresh from curdled milk, the -former being called Châlâb, and the latter Chemhah.</p> +former being called Châlâb, and the latter Chemhah.</p> <p>For butter (if we may accept the rendering of the word) the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span> @@ -8582,14 +8538,14 @@ few passages, we will refer briefly to them. The first mention of butter occurs in Gen. xviii. 8, where we are told that Abraham "took butter, and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them." In this passage we find the -words "chemhah" and "châlâh" are used, the former being translated +words "chemhah" and "châlâh" are used, the former being translated in the Jewish Bible as "clotted cream." Abraham therefore gave his angelic guests their choice of milk, both fresh and curdled. In the passage from Deut. xxxii. 14, which has already been mentioned, the same words are used, as they are in the well-known passage in the history of Jael and Sisera (Judges v. 25): "He asked water, and she gave him milk -(châlâb); she brought forth butter (chemhah) in a lordly dish."</p> +(châlâb); she brought forth butter (chemhah) in a lordly dish."</p> <p>Again, the butter which Shobi, Machir, and Barzillai brought to David, together with honey, was the chemhah (2 Sam. xvii. @@ -8599,7 +8555,7 @@ to David, together with honey, was the chemhah (2 Sam. xvii. butter."</p> <p>But in Prov. xxx. 33, "Surely the churning (mitz) of milk -(châlâb) bringeth forth butter" (chemhah), we have a proof +(châlâb) bringeth forth butter" (chemhah), we have a proof that the chemhah, whatever it may be, is produced by the churning or pressure of the fresh milk. As to the exact force of the word "mitz" there is a little doubt, some persons translating @@ -8655,13 +8611,13 @@ slicing or cutting.</p> <p>Another word is used in 2 Sam. xvii. 29, where, among the provisions that Barzillai brought to David, is mentioned "cheese -of kine." The Hebrew word "shaphôth," which is translated as +of kine." The Hebrew word "shaphôth," which is translated as cheese, derives its origin from a root signifying to scrape.</p> <p>The third term translated as cheese is to be found in Job x. 10, "Hast thou not poured me out as milk, and curdled me like <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span> -cheese?" The word "gebînah," which is here translated as +cheese?" The word "gebînah," which is here translated as "cheese" both in the Authorized Version and the Jewish Bible, is derived from a root signifying to curdle.</p> @@ -8695,7 +8651,7 @@ with that which was expressed a few lines above, namely, that the Hebrews used one word to express both butter and cheese. The coagulated and dried buttermilk—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i> the "leben" of the Bedouins, and the "amasi" of the Kaffir tribe—may well be -the "shaphôth bâkâr," or "scrapings of the kine," as being +the "shaphôth bâkâr," or "scrapings of the kine," as being necessarily scraped off the stone or metal plate on which it was dried.</p> @@ -8784,7 +8740,7 @@ probably the former, the weaver standing at his work, beginning at the top, and so weaving down. The seamless coat or tunic of our Lord was thus made, being "woven from the top throughout," like the Roman garments of a similar character, called -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rectæ</i>, signifying that they were woven in an upright loom. +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rectæ</i>, signifying that they were woven in an upright loom. According to the Jewish traditions, the sacerdotal garments were thus made in one piece.</p> @@ -9013,8 +8969,8 @@ tones in their succession. By the kindness of Dr. Herman Beigel, I have been enabled to hear the tones, and to put them into musical notes,—I believe for the first time since they have been used. The tones are four in number, and are called -as follows: Tekeeah (the blowing), Shebârim (the repeated -notes), Terooah (the note of joy), and Tekeeah-gedôlah (the +as follows: Tekeeah (the blowing), Shebârim (the repeated +notes), Terooah (the note of joy), and Tekeeah-gedôlah (the lengthened blowing). It is not very easy exactly to express on paper these ancient tones, but the following notes will give a good idea of them.</p> @@ -9033,17 +8989,17 @@ order:—</p> </tr> <tr> <td>Tekeeah.</td> - <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> + <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> <td class="i1">Tekeeah.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Tekeeah.</td> - <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> + <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> <td class="i1">Tekeeah.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Tekeeah.</td> - <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> + <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> <td class="i1">Tekeeah.</td> </tr> <tr> @@ -9075,21 +9031,21 @@ order:—</p> </tr> <tr> <td>Tekeeah.</td> - <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> + <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> <td class="i1">Terooah.</td> <td class="i1">Tekeeah.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Tekeeah.</td> - <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> + <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> <td class="i1">Terooah.</td> <td class="i1">Tekeeah.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Tekeeah.</td> - <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> + <td class="i1">Shebârim.</td> <td class="i1">Terooah.</td> - <td class="i1">Tekeeah-gedôlah.</td> + <td class="i1">Tekeeah-gedôlah.</td> </tr> </table> @@ -9117,7 +9073,7 @@ exceeding loud." Sometimes fifths are used instead of octaves.</p> <p>The sounds of the shofar are very peculiar and harsh, quite unlike the notes of any modern instrument. In spite, however, of the wild and almost discordant harshness of the instrument, -and the abrupt and even startling character of the Shebârim +and the abrupt and even startling character of the Shebârim and Terooah, the sound of the shofar has a strangely solemn effect, carrying back the mind of the hearer to the time when the priests bore their rams'-horn trumpets before the ark, and @@ -9521,7 +9477,7 @@ wild sheep which we know under the name of Aoudad (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Am Tragelaphus</i>). This splendid sheep is known by various names. It is the Jaela of some authors, and the Bearded Sheep of others. It is also called the Fichtall, or Lerwea; and the French -zoologists describe it under the name of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mouflon à manchettes</i>, +zoologists describe it under the name of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mouflon à manchettes</i>, in allusion to the fringe of long hair that ornaments the fore limbs.</p> @@ -10067,7 +10023,7 @@ not venture to set his foot.</p> <p>In the evening, when the shepherds call their flocks to repose, they often make use of the caverns which exist at some height in the precipitous side of the hills, as being safe strongholds, -where the jackal and the hyæna will not venture to attack them. +where the jackal and the hyæna will not venture to attack them. When such is the case, the shepherds take their station by the mouth of the cave, and assist the sheep as they come sedately up the narrow path that leads to the cavern. The Goats, however, @@ -10216,7 +10172,7 @@ exceed a foot from root to tip. This variety has been described as a separate species under the name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capra Mambrica</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">C. Syriaca</i>, but, like the Mohair Goat, and twenty-three other so-called species, is simply a variety of the common Goat, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hircus -ægragus</i>.</p> +ægragus</i>.</p> <p>Reference is made to the long ears of the Syrian Goat in Amos iii. 12: "Thus saith the Lord: As the shepherd taketh @@ -10708,7 +10664,7 @@ fashion. "A Hart by his nose draweth a Serpent out of her hole, and therefore the grammarians derived <em>Elaphas</em>, or Hart, from <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">elaunein tous opheis</i>, that is, of driving away serpents.</p> -<p>"I cannot consent to the opinion of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ælianus</i>, that affirmeth +<p>"I cannot consent to the opinion of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ælianus</i>, that affirmeth the Serpents to follow the breath of a Hart like some philter, or amorous cup: for, seeing that all authors hold a hostility in natures betwixt them, it is not probable that the Serpent @@ -10727,7 +10683,7 @@ of a Serpent are opposite to a Hart, that there should be any love to that which killeth her.</p> <p>"For my opinion, I think that the manner of the Hart's -drawing the Serpent out of her den is not, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ælianus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pliny</i> +drawing the Serpent out of her den is not, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ælianus</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pliny</i> affirmeth, by sending into the cave a warm breath, which burneth and scorcheth the beast out of her den, but rather, when the Hart hath found the Serpent's nest, she draweth the air by @@ -10737,7 +10693,7 @@ broached or wrecked, the wine followeth the flying air; and as a cupping-glass draweth blood out of a scarified place of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span> body, so the Serpent is drawn unwillingly to follow her destroyer, -and not willingly, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ælianus</i> affirmeth. The Serpent being thus +and not willingly, as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ælianus</i> affirmeth. The Serpent being thus drawn forth, addeth greater force to her poyson, whereupon the proverbial admonition did arise, 'Beware thou meet not with a Serpent drawn out of her hole by the breath of a Hart, for at @@ -11844,7 +11800,7 @@ of the holes into which they sink. It is popularly thought that hills are impracticable to the Camel; but it is able to climb even rocky ground from which a horse would recoil. Mr. Marsh, an American traveller, was much surprised by seeing a caravan of -fifty camels pass over a long ascent in Arabia Petræa. The rock +fifty camels pass over a long ascent in Arabia Petræa. The rock was as smooth as polished marble, and the angle was on an average fifteen degrees; but the whole caravan passed over it without an accident.</p> @@ -13997,7 +13953,7 @@ sacred writer proceeds to mention the extent of the merchandise that was brought to this queen of ancient seaports: silver and other metals were from Tarshish, slaves and brass from Meshech, ivory and ebony from Dedan, jewellery and fine linen from -Syria; wheat, honey, and oil from Judæa; wine and white wool +Syria; wheat, honey, and oil from Judæa; wine and white wool from Damascus, and so forth. And, among all these riches, are prominently mentioned the horses and Mules from Togarmah. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span> @@ -14760,7 +14716,7 @@ account of the howdah, or wooden carriage on the back of the animal.</p> <p>The number of warriors, however, is evidently exaggerated, -though not to such an extent as the account of Julius Cæsar's +though not to such an extent as the account of Julius Cæsar's Elephants, which are said to have carried on their backs sixty soldiers, beside the wooden tower in which they fought. It is evident that, in the first place, no Elephant could carry a tower @@ -14770,7 +14726,7 @@ which would afford space for them to use their weapons.</p> <p>A good account of the fighting Elephant is given by Topsel (p. 157):—"There were certain officers and guides of the Elephants, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span> -who were called <em>Elephantarchæ</em>, who were the governors +who were called <em>Elephantarchæ</em>, who were the governors of sixteen Elephants, and they which did institute and teach them martial discipline were called <em>Elephantagogi</em>.</p> @@ -15265,7 +15221,7 @@ may be literally translated as "beasts," have thought that it was a collective term for all the largest beasts of the world, such as the elephant, the hippopotamus, the wild cattle, and their like. Others have thought that the elephant was signified by the word -Behemoth; and some later writers, acquainted with palæontology, +Behemoth; and some later writers, acquainted with palæontology, have put forward a conjecture that the Behemoth must have been some extinct pachydermatous animal, like the dinotherium, in which might be combined many of the qualities of @@ -15327,7 +15283,7 @@ The whole tenor of the passage shows that it must have been an animal then existing, and whose habits were familiar to Job and his friends. Now the date of the Book of Job could not have been earlier than about 1500 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and in, consequence, -the ideas of a palæozoic animal must be discarded.</p> +the ideas of a palæozoic animal must be discarded.</p> <p>We may also dismiss the elephant, inasmuch as it was most unlikely that Job should have known anything about the @@ -15354,7 +15310,7 @@ this point: "No hippopotamus is found in Asia, but there is no reason for asserting that it may not have had an eastern range as far as Palestine, and wallowed in the Jordan; for its bones are <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span> -found in the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> of the rivers of Algeria, flowing into the +found in the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i> of the rivers of Algeria, flowing into the Mediterranean, when tradition is quite silent as to its former existence.</p> @@ -15749,15 +15705,15 @@ that the member in question is stiff and inflexible as the cedar-stem.</p> <p><a id="Page_333"></a></p> <h3>THE<br /> -LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE.</h3> +LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE.</h3> <p class="hanging indent"> Difficulty of identifying the various birds mentioned in Scripture—The vultures -of Palestine—The Lämmergeier, or Ossifrage of Scripture—The Hebrew word +of Palestine—The Lämmergeier, or Ossifrage of Scripture—The Hebrew word Peres, and its signification—The Ossifrage, or Bone-breaker—Appearance of the -Lämmergeier—Its flight and mode of feeding—How the Lämmergeier kills +Lämmergeier—Its flight and mode of feeding—How the Lämmergeier kills snakes and tortoises, and breaks marrow-bones—Mode of destroying the -chamois and mountain sheep—Nest of the Lämmergeier. +chamois and mountain sheep—Nest of the Lämmergeier. </p> <p>It has already been mentioned that even the best Biblical @@ -15775,7 +15731,7 @@ Taking the birds as our first examples, how often do we not find the same word used to signify many distinct species, and, again, one species designated by several dissimilar words? The word Vulture, for example, is used to signify a great number of birds, -including the Lämmergeier, the Condors, the Griffons, the Caracaras, +including the Lämmergeier, the Condors, the Griffons, the Caracaras, and others; while the term Eagle has scarcely a less wide signification. Sometimes the name is applied in such a manner as to mislead those who are not scientific ornithologists, and we @@ -15795,13 +15751,13 @@ Hebrew word.</p> <div class="figcenter"> <img src="images/i_393.jpg" width="488" height="500" alt="" /> <div class="caption"> -<p>THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE.</p> +<p>THE LÄMMERGEIER, OR OSSIFRAGE OF SCRIPTURE.</p> <p>"<i>These are they of which ye shall not eat: the eagle, and the ossifrage, and the ospray.</i>"—<span class="smcap">Deut.</span> xiv. 12.</p> </div></div> <p>Following the arrangement which has been employed in this work, I shall begin with the bird which has been placed by -zoologists at the head of its class, namely, the <span class="smcap">Lämmergeier</span>, the +zoologists at the head of its class, namely, the <span class="smcap">Lämmergeier</span>, the bird which may be safely identified with the Ossifrage of Scripture. The Hebrew word is "Peres," a term which only occurs twice when signifying a species of bird; namely, in Lev. @@ -15861,10 +15817,10 @@ given to other rulers.</p> <p>The word <em>peres</em>, then, signifies a breaker; and the Latin term Ossifraga, or Bone-breaker, is a very good translation of -the word. How it applies to the Lämmergeier we shall presently +the word. How it applies to the Lämmergeier we shall presently see.</p> -<p>The Lämmergeier belongs to the vultures, but has much more +<p>The Lämmergeier belongs to the vultures, but has much more the appearance of an eagle than a vulture, the neck being clothed with feathers, instead of being naked or only covered with down. It may at once be known by the tuft of long, hair-like @@ -15885,18 +15841,18 @@ may be imagined from the possession of such wings, is equally grand and graceful, and it sweeps through the air with great force, apparently unaccompanied by effort.</p> -<p>The Lämmergeier extends through a very large range of +<p>The Lämmergeier extends through a very large range of country, and is found throughout many parts of Europe and Asia. It is spread over the Holy Land, never congregating in numbers, like ordinary vultures, but living in pairs, and scarcely any ravine being uninhabited by at least one pair of -Lämmergeiers.</p> +Lämmergeiers.</p> -<p>The food of the Lämmergeier is, like that of other vultures, +<p>The food of the Lämmergeier is, like that of other vultures, the flesh of dead animals, though it does not feed quite in the same manner that they do. When the ordinary vultures have found a carcase they tear it to pieces, and soon remove all the -flesh. This having been done, the Lämmergeier comes to the +flesh. This having been done, the Lämmergeier comes to the half-picked bones, eats the remaining flesh from them, and finishes by breaking them and eating the marrow. That a bird should be able to break a bone as thick and hard as the thigh-bone @@ -15922,7 +15878,7 @@ of which reptiles are found in the countries which it inhabits, it does not waste time and trouble by trying to peck the shell open, but carries its prey high in the air, drops it on the ground, and so breaks its shell to pieces. Tortoises are often very hard-shelled -creatures, and the Lämmergeier has been observed to +creatures, and the Lämmergeier has been observed to raise one of them and drop it six or seven times before the stubborn armour would yield. Snakes, too, are killed in a similar manner, being seized by the neck, and then dropped from @@ -15931,13 +15887,13 @@ be aware that the Hooded Crow of England breaks bones and the shells of bivalve molluscs in a similar manner.</p> <p>Mr. Tristram suggests, with much probability, that the -"eagle" which mistook the bald head of the poet Æschylus for +"eagle" which mistook the bald head of the poet Æschylus for a white stone, and killed him by dropping a tortoise upon it, was -in all likelihood a Lämmergeier, the bird being a denizen of the +in all likelihood a Lämmergeier, the bird being a denizen of the same country, and the act of tortoise-dropping being its usual mode of killing those reptiles.</p> -<p>We now see why the Lämmergeier is furnished with such +<p>We now see why the Lämmergeier is furnished with such enormous wings, and so great a power of flight, these attributes being needful in order to enable it to lift its prey to a sufficient height. The air, as we all know, becomes more and more @@ -15953,19 +15909,19 @@ somewhat different manner. The bird, as has already been mentioned, lives among mountain ranges, and it may be seen floating about them for hours together, watching each inch of ground in search of prey. Should it see a goat or other inhabitant -of the rocks standing near a precipice, the Lämmergeier +of the rocks standing near a precipice, the Lämmergeier sweeps rapidly upon it, and with a blow of its wing knocks the animal off the rock into the valley beneath, where it lies helplessly maimed, even if not killed by the fall.</p> <p>Even hares and lambs are killed in this manner, and it is from -the havoc which the Lämmergeier makes among the sheep that -it has obtained the name of Lämmergeier, or Lamb-Vulture. So +the havoc which the Lämmergeier makes among the sheep that +it has obtained the name of Lämmergeier, or Lamb-Vulture. So swift and noiseless is the rush of the bird, that an animal which has once been marked by its blood-red eye seldom escapes from the swoop; and even the Alpine hunters, who spend their lives in pursuit of the chamois, have occasionally been put in great -jeopardy by the sudden attack of a Lämmergeier, the bird having +jeopardy by the sudden attack of a Lämmergeier, the bird having mistaken their crouching forms for the chamois, and only turned aside at the last moment.</p> @@ -15982,7 +15938,7 @@ of the body, and could not perform its work were not the object which it tears previously shattered by the fall from a height.</p> -<p>The nest of the Lämmergeier is made of sticks and sods, and +<p>The nest of the Lämmergeier is made of sticks and sods, and is of enormous dimensions. It is almost always placed upon a lofty cliff, and contains about a wagon-load or so of sticks rudely interwoven, and supporting a nearly equal amount of sods @@ -15996,8 +15952,8 @@ beard-like tufts of the bill.</p> <h3>THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE OR GIER-EAGLE.</h3> -<p>The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian Vulture—Its appearance -on the Egyptian monuments—Signification of the word <em>Râchâm</em>—Various +<p>The Râchâm or Gier-Eagle identified with the Egyptian Vulture—Its appearance +on the Egyptian monuments—Signification of the word <em>Râchâm</em>—Various translations of the word—The shape, size, and colour of the bird—Its value as a scavenger, and its general habits—The Egyptian Vultures and the griffons—Its fondness for the society of man—Nest of the Egyptian Vulture.</p> @@ -16008,7 +15964,7 @@ difficulty, although there has been some little controversy about it. This is the so-called Gier-Eagle, which is named with the cormorant and the pelican as one of the birds which the Jews are forbidden to eat. The word which is translated as Gier-Eagle -is Râchâm, a name which is almost identical with the Arabic +is Râchâm, a name which is almost identical with the Arabic name of the <span class="smcap">Egyptian Vulture</span>, sometimes called Pharaoh's Chicken, because it is so often sculptured on the ancient monuments of Egypt. It is called by the Turks by a name which @@ -16016,7 +15972,7 @@ signifies White Father, in allusion to the colour of its plumage.</p> <p>Before proceeding to a description of the bird, we will examine the other interpretations which have been given to the word -<em>râchâm</em>.</p> +<em>râchâm</em>.</p> <p>In the first place, the word signifies "love," and is used in that sense in many passages of Scripture. According to Buxtorf, the @@ -16026,7 +15982,7 @@ nurtures them when hidden in the most lofty caves." Some of the Talmudists take it to be the woodpecker.</p> <p>Another rendering of the word which has received much -favour is, that the Râchâm is the hyacinthine gallinule, or +favour is, that the Râchâm is the hyacinthine gallinule, or sultana hen (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pophyrio veterum</i>). This bird is allied to the rails, and is remarkable for the great length of its toes, by means of which it can walk on floating herbage as it lies on the @@ -16044,7 +16000,7 @@ over many parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe.</p> <p>"<i>And the pelican, and the gier-eagle, and the cormorant.</i>"—<span class="smcap">Deut.</span> xiv. 17.</p> </div></div> -<p>The reading of <em>râchâm</em> as <em>porphyrio</em> is followed in the Septuagint, +<p>The reading of <em>râchâm</em> as <em>porphyrio</em> is followed in the Septuagint, and the reading has been defended on the ground that the bird must belong to the aquatic group, being placed between the pelican and cormorant. The Jewish Bible follows our @@ -16058,13 +16014,13 @@ on this subject. This bird, according to the authors whom he quotes, is the Schirkrek, and derives its name from its peculiar cry, which begins with a hiss (Schirk) and ends with a shriek (Rek). The bird utters its cry when the rising of the -Nile is expected, and so has earned the name of Râchâm, or +Nile is expected, and so has earned the name of Râchâm, or Love, this word being frequently used in the Scriptures as a metaphor for rain, dew, or any water that nourishes plants.</p> <p>Without adopting the process of reasoning employed in this case, we may safely accept the conclusion, and consider the -Râchâm as identical with the Egyptian Vulture (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Neophron +Râchâm as identical with the Egyptian Vulture (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Neophron perenopterus</i>).</p> <p>This bird is not a very large one, being about equal to a raven @@ -16093,7 +16049,7 @@ it is hardly possible to travel more than a mile or two without seeing a pair of Egyptian Vultures. Should more than two of these birds be seen together, the spectator may be sure that they have congregated over some food. It has been well suggested -that its Hebrew name of Râchâm, or Love, has been given to it +that its Hebrew name of Râchâm, or Love, has been given to it in consequence of this constant association of the male and female.</p> @@ -16158,7 +16114,7 @@ the road.</p> the ordinary range of vulture's food are said to be consumed by this bird. The first is the egg of the ostrich, the shell of which is too hard to be broken by the feeble beak of the -Egyptian Vulture. The bird cannot, like the lämmergeier, +Egyptian Vulture. The bird cannot, like the lämmergeier, carry the egg into the air and drop it on the ground, because its feet are not large enough to grasp it, and only slip off its round and polished surface. Therefore, instead of raising the egg into @@ -16206,7 +16162,7 @@ its signification—Geographical range of the Griffon—Its mode of flig sociable habits—The featherless head and neck of the bird—The Vulture used as an image of strength, swiftness, and rapacity—Its powers of sight—How Vultures assemble round a carcase—Nesting-places of the Griffon—Mr. -Tristram's description of the Griffon—Rock-caves of the Wady Hamâm—Care +Tristram's description of the Griffon—Rock-caves of the Wady Hamâm—Care of the young, and teaching them to fly—Strength of the Griffon—Its emblematical use in Egypt and Assyria—The god Nisroch—Noble aspect of the Griffon—Its longevity—Various attitudes assumed by the bird.</p> @@ -16424,16 +16380,16 @@ never penetrates, walls the rapid brook on each side so closely that we often had to ride in the bed of the stream. The cliffs are perforated with caves at all heights, wholly inaccessible to man, the secure resting-place of hundreds of noble griffons, some -lämmergeiers, lanner falcons, and several species of eagle.... +lämmergeiers, lanner falcons, and several species of eagle.... One day in the ravine well repaid us, though so terrific were the precipices, that it was quite impossible to reach any of the nests with which it swarmed.</p> -<p>"We were more successful in the Wady Hamâm, the southwest +<p>"We were more successful in the Wady Hamâm, the southwest end of the plain, the entrance from Hattin and the Buttauf, where we spent three days in exploration. The cliffs, though reaching the height of fifteen hundred feet, rise like terraces, -with enormous masses of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i>, and the wood is half a mile +with enormous masses of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">débris</i>, and the wood is half a mile wide. By the aid of Giacomo, who proved himself an expert rope-climber, we reaped a good harvest of griffons' eggs, some of the party being let down by ropes, while those above were @@ -16451,7 +16407,7 @@ the cliffs which form the limits of the celebrated Plain of Hattin, were the ruins of Irbid, the ancient Arbela, marked principally by the remains of a synagogue, of which some marble shafts and fragments of entablature, like those of Tell -Hûm, are still to be seen, and were afterwards visited by us.</p> +Hûm, are still to be seen, and were afterwards visited by us.</p> <p>"Hosea mentions the place apparently as a strong fortress: 'All thy fortresses shall be spoiled, as Shalman spoiled Beth-arbel @@ -16459,7 +16415,7 @@ in the day of battle' (Hos. x. 14). Perhaps the prophet here refers to the refuges in the rocks below.</p> <p>"The long series of chambers and galleries in the face of the -precipice are called by the Arabs Kulat Ibn Maân, and are +precipice are called by the Arabs Kulat Ibn Maân, and are very fully described by Josephus. These cliffs were the homes of a set of bandits, who resided here with their families, and for <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span> @@ -16686,10 +16642,10 @@ under the general title of Asniyeh—the word which in the Authorized Version of the Bible is rendered as Osprey. A similar confusion is observable in the modern Arabic, one word, <em>ogab</em>, being applied indiscriminately to all the Eagles and the -large <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">falconidæ</i>.</p> +large <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">falconidæ</i>.</p> <p>The chief of the true Eagles, namely, the Golden Eagle -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aquila chrysaëtos</i>), is one of the inhabitants of Palestine, and +(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aquila chrysaëtos</i>), is one of the inhabitants of Palestine, and is seen frequently, though never in great numbers. Indeed, its predacious habits unfit it for associating with its kind. Any animal which lives chiefly, if not wholly, by the chase, requires @@ -16720,7 +16676,7 @@ forest, and that does not care to leave the shelter of the trees. It is tolerably common in Palestine.</p> <p>Then there are several of the allied species, of which the best -example is perhaps the Short-toed Eagle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circaëtus gallicus</i>), a +example is perhaps the Short-toed Eagle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circaëtus gallicus</i>), a bird which is extremely plentiful in the Holy Land—so plentiful indeed that, as Mr. Tristram remarks, there are probably twice as many of the Short-toed Eagles in Palestine as of all the other @@ -16755,7 +16711,7 @@ of its feet—Its power of balancing itself in the air. <p class="right"><span class="smcap">Deut.</span> xiv. 12.</p> </div></div> -<p>We now come to the Osprey itself (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pandion haliaëtus</i>), which +<p>We now come to the Osprey itself (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pandion haliaëtus</i>), which was undoubtedly one of the birds grouped together under the collective term Asniyeh. This word occurs only in the two passages in Deut. xiv. and Lev. xi. which have been several @@ -16914,7 +16870,7 @@ nest as conspicuous as possible, and hangs it all over with bits of cloth, strips of bark, wings of birds, and even the cast skins of serpents.</p> -<p>Another species (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Milvus Ægyptiacus</i>) is sometimes called the +<p>Another species (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Milvus Ægyptiacus</i>) is sometimes called the Black Kite from the dark hue of its plumage, but ought rather to retain the title of Egyptian Kite. Unlike the black kite, this bird is a great thief, and makes as much havoc among @@ -17250,7 +17206,7 @@ case of a flood.</p> <p>At least five species of Hariers are known to exist in the Holy Land, two of which are among the British birds, namely, -the Marsh Harier (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circus æruginosus</i>), sometimes called the Duck +the Marsh Harier (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circus æruginosus</i>), sometimes called the Duck <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">369</a></span> Hawk and the Moor Buzzard, and the Hen Harier (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circus cyaneus</i>), sometimes called the White Hawk, Dove Hawk, or Blue @@ -17297,9 +17253,9 @@ are mentioned as employed in falconry.</p> <h3>THE OWL.</h3> <p class="hanging indent"> -The words which have been translated as Owl—The Côs, or Little Owl—Use made +The words which have been translated as Owl—The Côs, or Little Owl—Use made of the Little Owl in bird-catching—Habits of the bird—The Barn, Screech, -or White Owl a native of Palestine—The Yanshûph, or Egyptian Eagle Owl—Its +or White Owl a native of Palestine—The Yanshûph, or Egyptian Eagle Owl—Its food and nest—The Lilith, or Night Monster—Various interpretations of the word—The Kippoz probably identical with the Scops Owl, or Marouf. </p> @@ -17325,11 +17281,11 @@ leave them untranslated, the passages will run as follow: "And the Bath-haya'anah, and the night-hawk, and the cuckoo, and the hawk after his kind;</p> -<p>"And the Côs, and the cormorant, and the Yanshûph."</p> +<p>"And the Côs, and the cormorant, and the Yanshûph."</p> <p>Taking these words in order, we find in the first place that -the Jewish Bible accepts the translation of the words <em>côs</em> and -<em>yanshûph</em>, merely affixing to them the mark of doubt. But it +the Jewish Bible accepts the translation of the words <em>côs</em> and +<em>yanshûph</em>, merely affixing to them the mark of doubt. But it translates the word <em>bath-haya'anah</em> as Ostrich, without adding the doubtful mark. Now the same word occurs in several other passages of Scripture, the first being in Job xxx. 29: @@ -17345,10 +17301,10 @@ the owls.</p> <hr class="c15" /> <p>Coming now to the other words, we find in the passages -already quoted the words <em>côs</em> and <em>yanshûph</em>. Both those words +already quoted the words <em>côs</em> and <em>yanshûph</em>. Both those words occur in other parts of Scripture, and evidently are the names of nocturnal birds that haunt ruins and lonely places. Taking -them in order, we find the word <em>côs</em> to occur again in Ps. cii. 6: +them in order, we find the word <em>côs</em> to occur again in Ps. cii. 6: "I am like a pelican of the wilderness: I am like an owl of the desert." The Psalm in which this passage occurs is a penitential prayer, in which the writer uses many of the metaphors employed @@ -17358,16 +17314,16 @@ himself as left alone among men.</p> <p>The simile is equally just and feasible in this case, the Owl being essentially a bird of night, and associated with solitude and gloom. The particular species which is signified by the -word <em>côs</em> bears but very slightly on the subject, inasmuch as +word <em>côs</em> bears but very slightly on the subject, inasmuch as in general habits all the true Owls are very similar in hiding by day in their nests, and coming out at night to hunt for prey, their melancholy hoot, or startling shriek, breaking the silence of the night.</p> <p>Still it is necessary to identify, if we can, some species with -the word <em>côs</em>, and it is very likely that the Little Owl, or +the word <em>côs</em>, and it is very likely that the Little Owl, or Boomah of the Arabs (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athene Persica</i>), is the bird which is signified -by the word <em>côs</em>. This species is probably identical with +by the word <em>côs</em>. This species is probably identical with the Little Night Owl of England (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Athene noctua</i>). Though rare in England, it is very common in many parts of the Continent where it is much valued by bird-catchers, who employ it as a @@ -17419,7 +17375,7 @@ of wisdom.</p> <p>The common <span class="smcap">Barn Owl</span> of England (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Strix flammea</i>) also inhabits Palestine, and if, as is likely to be the case, the word -côs is a collective term under which several species are grouped +côs is a collective term under which several species are grouped together, the Barn or White Owl is likely to be one of them.</p> <p>Like the Little Owl, it affects the neighbourhood of man, @@ -17441,7 +17397,7 @@ made in the Scriptures.</p> <hr class="c15" /> -<p>Another name now rises before us: this is the Yanshûph, +<p>Another name now rises before us: this is the Yanshûph, translated as the Great Owl, a word which occurs not only in the prohibitory passages of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, but in the Book of Isaiah. In that book, ch. xxxiv. ver. 10, 11, we find @@ -17449,11 +17405,11 @@ the following passage: "From generation to generation it shall lie waste; none shall pass through it for ever and ever.</p> <p>"But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl -(<em>yanshûph</em>) also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall +(<em>yanshûph</em>) also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall stretch out upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of emptiness." The Jewish Bible follows the same reading.</p> -<p>It is most probable that the Great Owl or Yanshûph is the +<p>It is most probable that the Great Owl or Yanshûph is the <span class="smcap">Egyptian Eagle Owl</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bubo ascalaphus</i>), a bird which is closely <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">374</a></span> allied to the great Eagle Owl of Europe (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bubo maximus</i>), and @@ -17622,31 +17578,31 @@ the British Museum, is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ephialtes Scops</i>.</p> <h3>THE NIGHT-HAWK.</h3> <p class="hanging indent"> -Different interpretations of the word Tachmâs—Probability that it signifies the +Different interpretations of the word Tachmâs—Probability that it signifies the Nightjar—Various names of the bird—Its remarkable jarring cry, and wheeling flight—Mode of feeding—Boldness of the bird—Deceptive appearance of its size. </p> -<p>We next come to the vexed question of the word Tachmâs, +<p>We next come to the vexed question of the word Tachmâs, which is rendered in the Authorized Version as <span class="smcap">Night-hawk</span>.</p> <p>This word only occurs among the list of prohibited birds (see Lev. xi. 16, and Deut. xiv. 15), and has caused great controversies among commentators. Some Hebraists have thought -that the male ostrich was signified by <em>tachmâs</em>, the word <em>bath-haya'anah</em> +that the male ostrich was signified by <em>tachmâs</em>, the word <em>bath-haya'anah</em> being supposed by them to signify the female ostrich. It is hardly probable, however, that the sacred writer should have mentioned separately the sexes of the same species, and we must therefore look for some other interpretation.</p> <p>Going to the opposite extreme of size, some scholars have -translated <em>tachmâs</em> as Swallow. This again is not a very probable +translated <em>tachmâs</em> as Swallow. This again is not a very probable rendering, as the swallow would be too small a bird to be specially named in the prohibitory list. The balance of probability <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">378</a></span> seems to lie between two interpretations,—namely, that -which considers the word <em>tachmâs</em> to signify the Night-hawk, +which considers the word <em>tachmâs</em> to signify the Night-hawk, and that which translates it as Owl. For both of these interpretations much is to be said, and it cannot be denied that of the two the latter is perhaps the preferable. If so, the White @@ -17661,10 +17617,10 @@ is made.</p> </div></div> <p>Still, many commentators think that the Night-hawk or -Nightjar is the bird which is signified by the word <em>tachmâs</em>; +Nightjar is the bird which is signified by the word <em>tachmâs</em>; and, as we have already treated of the owls, we will accept the rendering of the Authorized Version. Moreover, the Jewish -Bible follows the same translation, and renders <em>tachmâs</em> as +Bible follows the same translation, and renders <em>tachmâs</em> as Night-hawk, but affixes the mark of doubt.</p> <p>It is not unlikely that the Jews may have reckoned this bird @@ -17744,10 +17700,10 @@ like the owls, looks larger than really is the case. It is between ten and eleven inches in length, with an expanse of wing of twenty inches, and yet weighs rather less than three ounces. Its large mouth, like that of the swallow tribe, opens as far as -the eyes, and is furnished with a set of <em>vibrissæ</em> or bristles, which +the eyes, and is furnished with a set of <em>vibrissæ</em> or bristles, which remind the observer of the "whale-bone" which is set on the jaw of the Greenland whale. The scientific name of the bird is -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caprimulgus Europæus</i>.</p> +<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caprimulgus Europæus</i>.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">381</a></span></p> @@ -17871,7 +17827,7 @@ joyousness, or mournfulness of the bird's song.</p> <p>We will now proceed to the words which have been translated as Swallow in the Authorized Version.</p> -<p>These are two in number, namely, <em>derôr</em> and <em>agar</em>. Hebraists +<p>These are two in number, namely, <em>derôr</em> and <em>agar</em>. Hebraists are, however, agreed that the latter word has been wrongly applied, the translators having interchanged the signification of two contiguous words.</p> @@ -17906,7 +17862,7 @@ may conjecture that the same is the case with the sunbirds, those bright-plumed little beings that take in the Old World the place occupied by the humming-birds in the New, and often mistaken for them by travellers who are not acquainted with -ornithology. One of these birds, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nectarinia Oseæ</i>, is described +ornithology. One of these birds, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nectarinia Oseæ</i>, is described by Mr. Tristram as "a tiny little creature of gorgeous plumage, rivalling the humming-birds of America in the metallic lustre of its feathers—green and purple, with brilliant red and @@ -18884,10 +18840,10 @@ distinction of species.</p> <p class="hanging indent"> Parallel between the lamb and the Dove—Derivation of the Hebrew word -<em>Yonâh</em>—The Dove and the olive branch—Abram's sacrifice, and its acceptance—The +<em>Yonâh</em>—The Dove and the olive branch—Abram's sacrifice, and its acceptance—The sacrifice according to the law of Moses—The Dove-sellers of the Temple—Talmudical zoology—The story of Ilisch—The Dove and the raven—The -Dove a type of Israel—The Beni-yonâh, or Sons of Pigeons—Home-finding +Dove a type of Israel—The Beni-yonâh, or Sons of Pigeons—Home-finding instinct of the pigeon—The Oriental Dove-cotes—Voice of the Dove—Its strength of wing—The Dove's dung of Samaria—Various pigeons of Palestine—The Rock-Dove and its multitudes—The Dove and the Griffon—The @@ -18910,12 +18866,12 @@ when the former were too expensive for the means of the offerer. As to the rendering of the Hebrew words which have been translated as Pigeon, Dove, and Turtle Dove, there has never <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">409</a></span> -been any discussion. The Hebrew word <em>yonâh</em> has always been -acknowledged to signify the Dove or Pigeon, and the word <em>tôr</em> +been any discussion. The Hebrew word <em>yonâh</em> has always been +acknowledged to signify the Dove or Pigeon, and the word <em>tôr</em> to signify the Turtle Dove. Generally, the two words are used -in combination, so that <em>tor-yonâh</em> signifies the Turtle Dove.</p> +in combination, so that <em>tor-yonâh</em> signifies the Turtle Dove.</p> -<p>Though the interpretation of the word <em>yonâh</em> is universally +<p>Though the interpretation of the word <em>yonâh</em> is universally accepted, there is a little difficulty about its derivation, and its signification apart from the bird. Some have thought that it is derived from a root signifying warmth, in allusion to the warmth @@ -19135,12 +19091,12 @@ man or woman could obtain the means of sacrifice.</p> <p>But the restrictive genius which was so sternly rebuked by our Lord soon made itself felt. All these birds, in order to be -fit for sacrifice, must be Beni-yonâh, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i> Sons of Doves. The +fit for sacrifice, must be Beni-yonâh, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">i.e.</i> Sons of Doves. The definition of this term is rather interesting, as it affords an excellent example of the hair-splitting character of these interpreters <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">414</a></span> of the Law. According to them, a pigeon could only be -ranked among the Beni-yonâh for a short period of its life, and, +ranked among the Beni-yonâh for a short period of its life, and, if it were too young or too old, it might not be offered as a sacrifice.</p> @@ -19149,9 +19105,9 @@ young that the feathers could be pulled out without drawing blood, it was considered as being below age. If, on the contrary, blood followed the feathers, but the plumage of the neck exhibited a metallic lustre, it was reckoned as having passed the -age of Beni-yonâh. It might be a father, and not the son, of +age of Beni-yonâh. It might be a father, and not the son, of pigeons. When these feathers are visible, the bird changes its -name, and is called Tôr—a word which will be presently +name, and is called Tôr—a word which will be presently explained.</p> <p>According to some of these old writers, the Dove was considered @@ -19353,7 +19309,7 @@ little smaller than our own Rock Dove, and has not the whitish plumage on the lower part of the back. This species is quite as numerous as the other, and builds in similar places. Mr. Tristram, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">419</a></span> -while visiting the Wady (or Valley) Seimûn, which lies +while visiting the Wady (or Valley) Seimûn, which lies near the Lake of Gennesaret, witnessed an amusing example of the vast number of these Pigeons.</p> @@ -19377,7 +19333,7 @@ as a cloud?" the sacred writer well knowing the force of his image when addressed to those who were familiar with the habits of the bird, whether it was the semi-domesticated House Pigeon or the wild Rock Dove. The Ring Dove (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Columba palumbus</i>) and -the Stock Dove (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Columba ænas</i>) are also found in Palestine.</p> +the Stock Dove (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Columba ænas</i>) are also found in Palestine.</p> <p>These birds are taken in nets, into which they are decoyed by a very effective though cruel device.</p> @@ -19395,17 +19351,17 @@ distressed companion.</p> the Holy Land; but, as they are similar in habits, we will confine ourselves to the common species (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Turtur auritus</i>), with which we are so familiar in this country. The Hebrew word -which is translated as Turtle, is <em>tôr</em>, a term which is usually -employed in connexion with the word <em>yônâh</em>, or Dove, thus, <em>tôr-yônâh</em>. +which is translated as Turtle, is <em>tôr</em>, a term which is usually +employed in connexion with the word <em>yônâh</em>, or Dove, thus, <em>tôr-yônâh</em>. The name is evidently derived from the note of the bird.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">420</a></span> The reader may remember that on page <a href="#Page_414">414</a>, a curious tradition -has been mentioned respecting the word <em>tôr</em>; namely, that +has been mentioned respecting the word <em>tôr</em>; namely, that it represented the age, and not the species of a Dove. There is but little doubt, however, that the word really does represent a species, and that the Turtle Dove is the bird signified by the -word <em>tôr</em>. For example, its migratory habits are noticed in the +word <em>tôr</em>. For example, its migratory habits are noticed in the sacred writings. See the following passage in the Song of Solomon.</p> @@ -19792,7 +19748,7 @@ classed by the unobservant Jews with the true Partridge.</p> <h3>THE QUAIL.</h3> <p class="hanging indent"> -Signification of the word <em>Selâv</em>—Various passages in which the word is mentioned—The +Signification of the word <em>Selâv</em>—Various passages in which the word is mentioned—The locust, the stork, and the sand-grouse—Spreading the birds around the camp—Migration of the Quail—Drying the Quails for food—Modes of catching the Quail in the East—The Quail-hunters of Northern Africa—Quarrelsome @@ -19804,14 +19760,14 @@ were brought to the Israelites. which has been translated in the Authorized Version of the Bible as <span class="smcap">Quail</span>.</p> -<p>The word is <em>selâv</em>, and in every case where it is mentioned it +<p>The word is <em>selâv</em>, and in every case where it is mentioned it is used with reference to the same occurrence; namely, the providing of flesh-meat in the wilderness, where the people could find no food. As the passages remarkably bear upon each other, it will be advisable to quote them in the order in which they come.</p> -<p>The first mention of the Selâv occurs in Exod. xvi. Only a +<p>The first mention of the Selâv occurs in Exod. xvi. Only a few days after the Israelites had passed the Red Sea, they began to complain of the desert land into which Moses had led them, and openly said that they wished they had never left the land @@ -19861,7 +19817,7 @@ this gift of the Quails and manna. "The people asked, and He brought quails, and satisfied them with the bread of heaven" (ver. 40).</p> -<p>We now have to ask ourselves what the word <em>selâv</em> really +<p>We now have to ask ourselves what the word <em>selâv</em> really means. Some commentators have thought that it signified a species of locust, insects which travel in vast multitudes, and are always carried with the wind, thus agreeing with the statement @@ -19870,7 +19826,7 @@ imagined that the Selavim were flying-fish, blown on shore as they rose from the sea after their fashion. Putting aside other reasons against these interpretations, the Psalms contain a passage which effectually contradicts them, and proves that the -Selâv was a bird of some kind.</p> +Selâv was a bird of some kind.</p> <p>"He had commanded the clouds from above, and opened the doors of heaven,</p> @@ -19892,18 +19848,18 @@ of wing," according to the literal sense of the Hebrew; so that the theory that they were insects or fish must be dismissed as <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">433</a></span> untenable. The question now remains, with what species of -bird are we to identify the Selâv?</p> +bird are we to identify the Selâv?</p> <p>Respecting this question, there has been great discussion, chiefly arising from the fact that the various commentators -endeavoured to show that the Selâv was not the Quail, but some +endeavoured to show that the Selâv was not the Quail, but some other bird. Some, for example, take it to be the white stork, which is very plentiful in Palestine, and sometimes flies in such numbers that the sky is darkened as the winged host passes by. They base this supposition on the stature of the bird, which is so tall that it stands about "two cubits high upon the face of the earth." So it does, but this is a very insufficient reason for -translating the word <em>selâv</em> as "stork."</p> +translating the word <em>selâv</em> as "stork."</p> <p>In the first place, the words "as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth" certainly do not refer to the stature of @@ -19932,7 +19888,7 @@ height from the ground at which the birds fly. Taken in this sense, the whole passage falls into harmony, whereas in any other it involves a difficulty.</p> -<p>If the ordinary interpretation of <em>selâv</em> by "Quail" be accepted, +<p>If the ordinary interpretation of <em>selâv</em> by "Quail" be accepted, the description is exactly correct. The Quails fly in vast flocks, and, being weak-winged birds, never fly against the direction of the wind. They will wait for days until the wind blows in the @@ -19949,7 +19905,7 @@ now see how needless it is to attribute the two cubits to the stature of the bird, or to the depth at which they lay on the ground.</p> -<p>There are other reasons why the Selâv could not be any +<p>There are other reasons why the Selâv could not be any species of stork. In the first place, all the stork tribe are included among the list of unclean birds, and it is not likely that the Almighty would have neutralized His own edicts by providing @@ -19957,9 +19913,9 @@ food which the Israelites were forbidden to eat. In the next place, even had the flesh of the stork been lawful, it is of so unpleasant a nature that the people could not have eaten it. For similar reasons we may dismiss the theories which consider -the Selâv to be a goose or water-fowl of any kind.</p> +the Selâv to be a goose or water-fowl of any kind.</p> -<p>Some persons have thought that the sand-grouse is the Selâv. +<p>Some persons have thought that the sand-grouse is the Selâv. In the first place, the flesh of this bird is hard, tasteless, and disliked by those who have tried it; so that the Israelites would not have been tempted to eat it. In the next, it is a strong-winged @@ -19975,7 +19931,7 @@ to death under a horse's feet.</p> <p>Moreover, the flesh of the Quail is peculiarly excellent, and would be a great temptation to men who had passed so long a time without eating animal food. Another corroboration of the -identity of the Quail and the Selâv is to be found in the mode +identity of the Quail and the Selâv is to be found in the mode in which the flesh is prepared at the present day. As soon as the birds have arrived, they are captured in vast multitudes, on account of their weariness. Many are consumed at once, but @@ -19986,11 +19942,11 @@ have spread out the Selavim "all abroad for themselves round about the camp."</p> <p>It is rather remarkable that the Arabs of the present day use -a word almost exactly resembling <em>selâv</em> to represent the Quail. +a word almost exactly resembling <em>selâv</em> to represent the Quail. The word is <em>salwa</em>, given by one of the older writers on the subject as <em>selaw</em>.</p> -<p>Accepting, therefore, the Selâv and Quail to be identical, we +<p>Accepting, therefore, the Selâv and Quail to be identical, we may proceed to the description of the bird.</p> <p>It is small, plump, and round-bodied, with the head set @@ -20107,7 +20063,7 @@ fly by night, and in this manner escape many of the foes which would make great havoc among their helpless columns if they were to fly by day.</p> -<p>The identity of the Selâv with the common Quail is now seen +<p>The identity of the Selâv with the common Quail is now seen to be established. In the first place, we have the name still surviving in the Arabic language. Next, the various details of the Scriptural narrative point so conclusively to the bird, that @@ -20173,7 +20129,7 @@ Palestine—The Rabbi perplexed—Solution of the difficulty. <p>It is more than probable that, while the Hebrew word <em>oreb</em> primarily signifies the bird which is so familiar to us under the name of <span class="smcap">Raven</span>, it was also used by the Jews in a much looser -sense, and served to designate any of the Corvidæ, or Crow tribe, +sense, and served to designate any of the Corvidæ, or Crow tribe, such as the raven itself, the crow, the rook, the jackdaw, and the like. We will first take the word in its restricted sense, and then devote a brief space to its more extended signification.</p> @@ -20291,20 +20247,20 @@ language.</p> <p>"Dominica XIV. post Pent. Concio 1:</p> -<p>"Nisi hæc enim omnia magnam nobis admirationis materiam -divinæque providentiæ notitiam præberent, nequaquam Dominus -inter cetera sapientiæ et providentiæ suæ argumenta hoc etiam -commemoraret, cum ad Job ait: 'Quis præparat corvo escam -suam, quando pulli ejus clamant ad Deum vagantes eò quòd +<p>"Nisi hæc enim omnia magnam nobis admirationis materiam +divinæque providentiæ notitiam præberent, nequaquam Dominus +inter cetera sapientiæ et providentiæ suæ argumenta hoc etiam +commemoraret, cum ad Job ait: 'Quis præparat corvo escam +suam, quando pulli ejus clamant ad Deum vagantes eò quòd non habeant cibos?'<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Et in Psal.: 'Qui dat jumentis escam ipsorum et pullis corvorum invocantibus eum.'<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> -<p>"Cur autem hoc in loco pullorum corvi præcipuè meminerit, -in causa est, quod in his miro modo singularis providentiæ cura +<p>"Cur autem hoc in loco pullorum corvi præcipuè meminerit, +in causa est, quod in his miro modo singularis providentiæ cura elucet. Ait enim interpres quidam corvorum pullos eum implumes -adhuc sunt, candorem præ se ferre: ideoque a parentibus +adhuc sunt, candorem præ se ferre: ideoque a parentibus ut nothos negligi, quod eorum non referant colorem. Quo -tempore divina providentia, quæ nusquam dormit, eos ad se +tempore divina providentia, quæ nusquam dormit, eos ad se clamantes alit. Vermiculos enim quosdam in nidulo nasci constituit, quorum esu sustentantur donec nono tandem die nascentibus plumis parentum colorem referant, atque ita demum @@ -20313,20 +20269,20 @@ ab illis nutriantur.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">443</a></span> "Cum igitur divina providentia nulla in re neque animalculis istis etiam si a patribus deserantur desit, quanta ilia diffidentia -est, quæ solis hominibus eam deesse profitetur? Si homo inter +est, quæ solis hominibus eam deesse profitetur? Si homo inter omnes inferioris hujus mundi creaturas nobilissimum et pulcherrimum animal est, si solus ipse Dei imagine insignitus, si ipse -hujus magnæ familiæ princeps ac dominus est, si ejus obsequio +hujus magnæ familiæ princeps ac dominus est, si ejus obsequio cuncta militant, si omnia rerum conditor subiecit pedibus ejus oves et boves universas, insuper et pecora campi, &c. qui fieri -potest ut cum hujus mundi moderator Dñs nullum neque animalculum -neque vermiculum a providentiæ suæ cura excludat, +potest ut cum hujus mundi moderator Dñs nullum neque animalculum +neque vermiculum a providentiæ suæ cura excludat, sed omnibus abunde omnia suppeditat, pium hominem (cujus obsequio cuncta destinavit) fame et inedia confici patiatur. Si pater aliquis filii sui familiam, servos, ancillas, et jumenta diligenter curaret, illisque necessaria abunde provideret, quomodo filium fame perire sineret, cujus familiam tanta cura fovet et -alit? Quis enim hoc in animum inducere possit? Hæc ijitur +alit? Quis enim hoc in animum inducere possit? Hæc ijitur altera ratio est qua celestis Magister diffidentiam nostram curare, et spem alere atque fulcire studet."</p> @@ -20585,7 +20541,7 @@ nurturing the young.</p> <hr class="c15" /> <p>The old writers of whom mention has been made admitted -that all the Corvidæ were signified by the word <em>oreb</em>. Sometimes +that all the Corvidæ were signified by the word <em>oreb</em>. Sometimes they drew a distinction between them, but, as a rule, the word <em>oreb</em> might mean any of those birds, from a Raven to a starling.</p> @@ -21142,7 +21098,7 @@ probably, if struck on the leg or arm, have the limb broken. The blow is never delivered backward, as is the kick of the horse, but forward, like that of the kangaroo. The natives of the countries where it resides say that it is able to kill by its kick -the jackal that comes to steal its eggs, and that even the hyæna +the jackal that comes to steal its eggs, and that even the hyæna and the leopard are repelled by the gigantic bird.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">462</a></span></p> @@ -21480,7 +21436,7 @@ other species of the bird, as is implied by the language of the law, which prohibited the Heron "after her kind." The Egrets are probably included in this category; and, if the word <em>kippod</em> be really the hedgehog, it is tolerably certain that the bittern was -included under the general term Anâphah, which is given in the +included under the general term Anâphah, which is given in the Authorized Version as Heron. The Jewish Bible follows the same reading, but affixes the mark of doubt to the word.</p> @@ -21592,7 +21548,7 @@ with a swamp so vast and utterly impenetrable. First there is an ordinary bog, which takes one up to one's knees in water; then, after half a mile, a belt of deeper swamp, where the yellow water lily (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nuphar lutea</i>) flourishes; then a belt of tall reeds; -the open water covered with white water-lily (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nymphæa alba</i>); +the open water covered with white water-lily (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nymphæa alba</i>); and beyond again an impenetrable wilderness of papyrus (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Papyrus antiquorum</i>), in the beautiful forest of which Dr. Thomson has not recognised the celebrated material of Egypt, @@ -21650,7 +21606,7 @@ can the flag grow without water?"</p> <hr class="c15" /> <p>The Egrets, which are probably included under the generic -title of Anâphah, are birds of passage, and at the proper season +title of Anâphah, are birds of passage, and at the proper season <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">474</a></span> are plentiful in Palestine. These pretty birds much resemble the heron in general form, and in general habits both birds are @@ -21869,7 +21825,7 @@ identified the crane and the heron.</p> as "Stork," and is undoubtedly right; though the Septuagint has no less than four different translations, reading it as "heron" in one place, "pelican" in another, "hoopoe" in another, and in the -fourth instance leaving the word untranslated, but Græcized into +fourth instance leaving the word untranslated, but Græcized into the form of <em>asida</em>. It would have been better if the last-mentioned plan had been followed throughout.</p> @@ -22350,7 +22306,7 @@ can be seen at the Zoological Gardens.</p> <h3>THE CORMORANT.</h3> <p class="hanging indent"> -The word <em>Shâlâk</em> and its signification—The Greek Catarrhactes—Habits of the +The word <em>Shâlâk</em> and its signification—The Greek Catarrhactes—Habits of the Cormorant—The bird trained to catch fish—Mode of securing its prey—Nests and eggs of the Cormorant—Nesting in fir-trees—Flesh of the bird. </p> @@ -22362,8 +22318,8 @@ Pelican, as we shall see when we come presently to the description of that bird.</p> <p>In the two parallel passages, Lev. xi. 17 and Deut. xiv. 17, -a creature called the Shâlâk is mentioned in the list of prohibited -meats. That the Shâlâk must be a bird is evident from the +a creature called the Shâlâk is mentioned in the list of prohibited +meats. That the Shâlâk must be a bird is evident from the context, and we are therefore only left to discover what sort of bird it may be. On looking at the etymology of the word we <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">491</a></span> @@ -22374,24 +22330,24 @@ which plunges or sweeps down upon its prey.</p> <p>All Hebraists have agreed that it is one of the sea-birds, and this view of the case seems to be taken in the Septuagint, where the word is rendered by Catarrhactes, a term that has the -same derivation in Greek as the Shâlâk in Hebrew. It is +same derivation in Greek as the Shâlâk in Hebrew. It is indeed the same word from which we form our term "cataract," to express the manner in which the water plunges or is hurled down from a height.</p> <p>In consequence of this derivation, several writers have -thought that the Shâlâk might be the Solan goose, or gannet, a +thought that the Shâlâk might be the Solan goose, or gannet, a bird which lives on fish, and always takes its prey by darting down upon it from a height. This bird, however, although it -certainly answers completely to the sense of the word <em>shâlâk</em>, is +certainly answers completely to the sense of the word <em>shâlâk</em>, is not common enough on the shores of Palestine to be specially mentioned among the unclean birds. Other writers, seeing this -difficulty, have thought that the Shâlâk might be one of the +difficulty, have thought that the Shâlâk might be one of the terns, or sea-swallows, forgetful of the fact that these are not plunging birds, although exceedingly swift of flight.</p> <p>Weighing, however, the opinions of the various Hebraists and -naturalists, we may safely determine that the word <em>shâlâk</em> has +naturalists, we may safely determine that the word <em>shâlâk</em> has been rightly translated in the Authorized Version. The Hebrew Bible gives the same reading, and does not affix the mark of doubt to the word, though there are very few of the long list of @@ -22544,7 +22500,7 @@ removing the whole of the interior, wrapping them in cloths, and burying them for some time in the ground.</p> <p>From the account of this bird, the reader will see that it may -well be the Shâlâk of the Old Testament. Owing to its size and +well be the Shâlâk of the Old Testament. Owing to its size and its peculiar habits, it is a very conspicuous bird, and therefore likely to be selected by name by the ancient lawgiver. And although its flesh is not very agreeable, it can be eaten; and, as @@ -22811,7 +22767,7 @@ shall possess it; the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it: and He shall stretch out upon it the line of confusion and the stones of emptiness."</p> -<p>These words form part of a prophecy concerning Idumæa or +<p>These words form part of a prophecy concerning Idumæa or Edom, in which the desolation that is to come upon the land is painted in the most vivid colours. The streams are to be turned into pitch, and the dust into brimstone; thorns are to @@ -22975,7 +22931,7 @@ examine it in both these senses.</p> weasel, and the mouse, and the tortoise after his kind</i>."—<span class="smcap">Levit.</span> xi. 29.</p> </div></div> -<p>The common Tortoise (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Testudo Græca</i>) is very common in +<p>The common Tortoise (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Testudo Græca</i>) is very common in Palestine, and is so plentiful that it would certainly have been used by the Israelites as food, had it not been prohibited by law. At the present day it is cooked and eaten by the inhabitants @@ -22997,7 +22953,7 @@ being that their small size and thick shell cause considerable trouble in eating them.</p> <p>The flesh of the Tortoise is eaten, not only by human beings, -but by birds, such as the lämmergeier. In order to get at the +but by birds, such as the lämmergeier. In order to get at the flesh of the Tortoise, they carry it high in the air and drop it on the ground so as to break the shell to pieces, should the reptile fall on a stone or rock. If, as is not often the case in such a @@ -23961,19 +23917,19 @@ breaketh it unto them."</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">529</a></span></p> -<h3>THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD.</h3> +<h3>THE LETÂÂH OR LIZARD.</h3> <p class="hanging indent"> -Difficulty of identifying the Letââh—Probability that it is a collective and not a +Difficulty of identifying the Letââh—Probability that it is a collective and not a specific term—Various Lizards of Palestine—The Green or Jersey Lizard—The Cyprius, its appearance and habits—The Glass Snake or Scheltopusic—Translation of the word <em>chomet</em>—Probability that it signifies the Skink—Medicinal uses of the Lizard—The Seps tribe—The common Cicigna, and the popular -belief concerning its habits—The Sphænops and its shallow tunnel. +belief concerning its habits—The Sphænops and its shallow tunnel. </p> <p>In Leviticus xi. 30, the word Lizard is used as the rendering of -the Hebrew word <em>letââh</em> (pronounced as L'tâh-âh). There are +the Hebrew word <em>letââh</em> (pronounced as L'tâh-âh). There are one or two difficulties about the word, but, without going into the question of etymology, which is beside the object of this work, it will be sufficient to state that the best authorities accept @@ -23981,7 +23937,7 @@ the rendering, and that in the Jewish Bible the word Lizard is retained, but with the mark of doubt appended to it.</p> <p>In all probability, the sacred lawgiver employs the word -<em>letââh</em> as a general term; so that, although he prohibits certain +<em>letââh</em> as a general term; so that, although he prohibits certain Lizards by name, as having been used for food by the various nations with whom the Israelites were necessarily brought in contact during their captivity, their wanderings, and their final @@ -24028,7 +23984,7 @@ or a rattlesnake would excite more horror than a Green Lizard.</p> <hr class="c15" /> <p>A very common species of Lizard, and therefore likely to be -one of those which are grouped under the common name of Letââh, +one of those which are grouped under the common name of Letââh, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">531</a></span> is the Cyprius (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Plestiodon auratum</i>). This handsome Lizard is golden-yellow in colour, beautifully spotted with orange and @@ -24120,12 +24076,12 @@ Lizards belonging to the Seps family may be included in the general term of Chomet.</p> <p>This theory is strengthened by the fact that those of the -Sepsidæ which have no visible feet, and which, after the custom +Sepsidæ which have no visible feet, and which, after the custom of such Lizards, burrow in the sand, are even at the present day eaten by Arabs, under the convenient title of Sand-fishes.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">533</a></span> -Several species of the Sepsidæ inhabit Egypt, Palestine, and +Several species of the Sepsidæ inhabit Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, and of these we will take two as examples.</p> <p>The first is the <span class="smcap">Common Seps</span> or <span class="smcap">Cicigna</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Seps tridactylis</i>), a @@ -24146,8 +24102,8 @@ burying itself when it suspects danger.</p> <hr class="c15" /> -<p>The second example of the Sepsidæ is one that has its chief -home in Egypt. This is the <span class="smcap">Capistrated Sphænops</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sphænops +<p>The second example of the Sepsidæ is one that has its chief +home in Egypt. This is the <span class="smcap">Capistrated Sphænops</span> (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sphænops sepsoides</i>). This reptile is also a burrower, but does not sink so deeply into the sand as those Lizards which have just been noticed. Indeed, it scarcely burrows deeply enough to cover it, @@ -24163,7 +24119,7 @@ of rice and other grain, and, as it prefers to follow the course of the ridges rather than leave them, it may be taken without much trouble. It is perfectly harmless, and, although when taken it struggles violently to escape, it never employs its teeth -on the hand that holds it. The colour of the Sphænops is pale +on the hand that holds it. The colour of the Sphænops is pale brown, diversified with a black stripe on either side of the muzzle, and a longitudinal series of black dots along the body. The tail is conical and pointed.</p> @@ -24351,11 +24307,11 @@ They take in their mouths a broad and strong stalk, under protection of which, as under a buckler, they defend themselves against their enemy the serpent, by reason that the stalk is broader than the serpent can gripe in his mouth, and the other -parts of the chamæleon so firm and hard as the serpent cannot +parts of the chamæleon so firm and hard as the serpent cannot hurt them: he laboureth but in vain to get a prey, so long as -the stalk is in the chamæleon's mouth.</p> +the stalk is in the chamæleon's mouth.</p> -<p>"But if the chamæleon at any time see a serpent taking the +<p>"But if the chamæleon at any time see a serpent taking the air, and sunning himself under some green tree, he climbeth up into that tree, and setteth himself directly over the serpent; then out of his mouth he casteth a thread, like a spider, at the end of @@ -24364,24 +24320,24 @@ string he letteth down the poyson upon the serpent, which, lighting upon it, killeth it immediately.</p> <p>"And Scaliger reporteth a greater wonder than this in the -description of the chamæleon; for he saith, if the boughs of the +description of the chamæleon; for he saith, if the boughs of the tree so grow as the perpendicular line cannot fall directly upon the serpent, then he so correcteth and guideth it with his fore-feet that it falleth upon the serpent within the mark of a hair's breadth.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">539</a></span> -"The raven and the crow are also at variance with the chamæleon, +"The raven and the crow are also at variance with the chamæleon, and so great is the adverse nature betwixt these twain, -that if the crow eat of the chamæleon being slain by him, he +that if the crow eat of the chamæleon being slain by him, he dyeth for it except he recover his life by a bay-leaf, even as the -elephant, after he hath devoured a chamæleon, saveth his life by +elephant, after he hath devoured a chamæleon, saveth his life by eating of the wilde olive-tree.</p> <p>"But the greatest wonder of all is the hostility which Pliny -reporteth to be betwixt the chamæleon and the hawk. For he -writeth that when a hawk flyeth over a chamæleon, she hath -no power to resist the chamæleon, but falleth down before it, +reporteth to be betwixt the chamæleon and the hawk. For he +writeth that when a hawk flyeth over a chamæleon, she hath +no power to resist the chamæleon, but falleth down before it, yeelding both her life and her limbs to be devoured by it, and thus that devourer that liveth upon the prey and blood of others hath no power to save her own life from this little beast."</p> @@ -24428,7 +24384,7 @@ the very end of the long tail. The general colour of the Nilotic Monitor is olive-grey, mottled with black. On the back of the neck are a series of curved bands of a whitish yellow.</p> -<p>It is mentioned on page <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, that the word <em>anâkah</em>, which is +<p>It is mentioned on page <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, that the word <em>anâkah</em>, which is translated as "ferret" in Levit. xi. 30, is certainly a lizard, and in all probability is one of the Geckos. I have therefore introduced into the same illustration on page <a href="#Page_535">535</a> the commonest species of @@ -24461,13 +24417,13 @@ can be identified with any certainty, four others being left to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">541</a></span> mere conjecture, and one being clearly a word which, like our snake or serpent, is a word not restricted to any particular -species, but signifying Serpents in general. This word is <em>nâchâsh</em> +species, but signifying Serpents in general. This word is <em>nâchâsh</em> (pronounced nah-kahsh). It is unfortunate that the word is so variously translated in different passages of Scripture, and we cannot do better than to follow it through the Old Testament, so as to bring all the passages under our glance.</p> -<p>The first mention of the Nâchâsh occurs in Gen. iii., in the +<p>The first mention of the Nâchâsh occurs in Gen. iii., in the well-known passage where the Serpent is said to be more subtle than all the beasts of the field, the wisdom or subtlety of the Serpent having evidently an allegorical and not a categorical @@ -24504,7 +24460,7 @@ several passages of Scripture; and it will be seen that the ancient Hebrews, like many modern Europeans, believed that the poison lay in the forked tongue. See, for example, Ps. lviii. 4: "Their <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">542</a></span> -poison is like the poison of a serpent" (<em>nâchâsh</em>). Also Prov. +poison is like the poison of a serpent" (<em>nâchâsh</em>). Also Prov. xxiii. 32, in which the sacred writer says of wine that it brings woe, sorrow, contentions, wounds without cause, redness of eyes, and that "at the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like @@ -24748,11 +24704,11 @@ formally initiated into the mysteries of snake-charming, and made ever afterwards impervious to the bite of venomous Serpents:—</p> -<p>"At Kóm Omboo, we met with a Rifáee darweesh with his +<p>"At Kóm Omboo, we met with a Rifáee darweesh with his basket of tame snakes. After a little talk, he proposed to initiate me: and so we sat down and held hands like people marrying. Omar [her attendant] sat behind me, and repeated -the words as my 'wakeel.' Then the Rifáee twisted a cobra +the words as my 'wakeel.' Then the Rifáee twisted a cobra round our joined hands, and requested me to spit on it; he did the same, and I was pronounced safe and enveloped in snakes. My sailors groaned, and Omar shuddered as the snakes put out @@ -24835,20 +24791,20 @@ in which it is evident that he fully concurred.</p> <p>"<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dominica XI. post Pent. Concio</i> 1:</p> <p>"'Furor illis secundum similitudinem serpentis sicut aspidis -et obturantis aures suas; quæ non exaudit vocem incantantium, +et obturantis aures suas; quæ non exaudit vocem incantantium, et venefici incantantis sapienter.'</p> <p>"Vulgo enim ferunt aspidem cum incantatur ne lethali veneno -homines inficiat, alteram aurem terræ affigere, alteram vero cauda +homines inficiat, alteram aurem terræ affigere, alteram vero cauda in eam immissa obstruere ut ita demum veneni vis intus latentis -illæsa maneat.</p> +illæsa maneat.</p> <p>"Ad hoc igitur modum cum sapiens incantatur, hoc est, divini verbi concionator obstinatos homines ad sanitatem perducere et lethale venenum peccati, quod in eorum mentibus -residet delere contendit; illi contra (dæmone id operante) sic -aures suas huic divinæ incantationi claudunt ut nihil prorsus -eorum quæ dicuntur advertant."</p> +residet delere contendit; illi contra (dæmone id operante) sic +aures suas huic divinæ incantationi claudunt ut nihil prorsus +eorum quæ dicuntur advertant."</p> <p>"<cite>Eleventh Sunday after Pentecost, Sermon</cite> 1:</p> @@ -24879,15 +24835,15 @@ It is taken from the MS. in Eton College Library, No. 10, date was translated into the Northern dialect.</p> <p>"'Furor illis sec̃dm̃ similitudinẽ s̃pentis: sicut aspidus surde -et obturantis aures suas.' ¶ Wodnes til Þase after Þe lykenying +et obturantis aures suas.' ¶ Wodnes til Þase after Þe lykenying of nedder: als of snake doumbe and stoppand hir erres. -¶ Rightly calles he Þaĩ wode for Þai haue na witt to se -whider Þai ga for Þai louke Þaire eghen and rennes til Þe fire -Þaire wodnes es domested Þat will not be t̃ned als of Þe -snake Þat festes Þe tane ere till Þe erther and Þe toÞer stopis with -hir̃ tayle swa Þai do Þat here noght godes worde Þai stoppe -Þair̃ erres with lufe of erthely thyng Þat Þai delite Þai one -and with Þaire tayle Þat es with aide synes Þat Þai will noght +¶ Rightly calles he Þaĩ wode for Þai haue na witt to se +whider Þai ga for Þai louke Þaire eghen and rennes til Þe fire +Þaire wodnes es domested Þat will not be t̃ned als of Þe +snake Þat festes Þe tane ere till Þe erther and Þe toÞer stopis with +hir̃ tayle swa Þai do Þat here noght godes worde Þai stoppe +Þair̃ erres with lufe of erthely thyng Þat Þai delite Þai one +and with Þaire tayle Þat es with aide synes Þat Þai will noght amende."</p> <p>It may be as well to remark, before passing to another of the @@ -25033,7 +24989,7 @@ is precisely equivalent to the word <em>acshub</em>.</p> <hr class="c15" /> <p>Another name of a poisonous snake occurs several times in -the Old Testament. The word is <em>tsepha</em>, or <em>tsiphôni</em>, and it is +the Old Testament. The word is <em>tsepha</em>, or <em>tsiphôni</em>, and it is sometimes translated as Adder, and sometimes as Cockatrice. The word is rendered as Adder in Prov. xxiii. 32, where it is said that wine "biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder." Even @@ -25095,7 +25051,7 @@ experience it found that the Cock doth sit on that Egge himself: whereof <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Serianus Semnius</i> in his twelfth book of the Hidden Animals of Nature hath this discourse, in the fourth chapter thereof. 'There happened,' saith he, 'within our memory, in -the city of Pirizæa, that there were two old Cocks which had +the city of Pirizæa, that there were two old Cocks which had laid Egges, and the common people (because of opinion that those Egges would engender Cockatrices) laboured by all meanes possible to keep the same Cocks from sitting on those Egges, but @@ -25300,7 +25256,7 @@ the same title.</p> Impossibility of distinguishing the different species of Fishes—The fishermen Apostles—Fish used for food—The miracle of the loaves and Fishes—The Fish broiled on the coals—Clean and unclean Fishes—The scientific writings of -Solomon—The Sheat-fish, or Silurus—The Eel and the Muræna—The Long-headed +Solomon—The Sheat-fish, or Silurus—The Eel and the Muræna—The Long-headed Barbel—Fish-ponds and preserves—The Fish-ponds of Heshbon—The Sucking-fish—The Lump-sucker—The Tunny—The Coryphene. </p> @@ -25446,7 +25402,7 @@ it is likely that they may answer as organs of touch.</p> <div class="figcenter"> <img src="images/i_641.jpg" width="500" height="502" alt="" /> <div class="caption"> -<p>1. <span class="smcap">Muræna</span> (Muræna helena).  +<p>1. <span class="smcap">Muræna</span> (Muræna helena).  2. <span class="smcap">Long-headed Barbel</span> (Barbus longiceps).</p> <p>3. <span class="smcap">Sheat-fish</span> (Silurus macracanthus).</p> <p>"<i>All that have not fins and scales ... shall be an abomination unto you.</i>"—<span class="smcap">Levit.</span> xi. 10.</p> @@ -25476,28 +25432,28 @@ rule excludes the whole of the lamprey tribe, although the excellence of their flesh is well known.</p> <p>Moreover, the Jews almost universally declare that the -Muræna and Eel tribe are also unclean, because, although it has +Muræna and Eel tribe are also unclean, because, although it has been proved that these Fishes really possess scales as well as fins, and are therefore legally permissible, the scales are hidden under a slimy covering, and are so minute as to be practically absent.</p> <p>The uppermost figure in the illustration represents the celebrated -Muræna, one of the fishes of the Mediterranean, in which +Muræna, one of the fishes of the Mediterranean, in which sea it is tolerably plentiful. In the days of the old Roman -empire, the Muræna was very highly valued for the table. The -wealthier citizens built ponds in which the Murænæ were kept +empire, the Muræna was very highly valued for the table. The +wealthier citizens built ponds in which the Murænæ were kept alive until they were wanted. This Fish sometimes reaches four feet in length.</p> <p>The rest of the Fishes which are shown in the three illustrations belong to the class of clean Fish, and were permitted as -food. The figure of the Fish between the Muræna and Sheat-fish +food. The figure of the Fish between the Muræna and Sheat-fish is the Long-headed Barbel, so called from its curious form.</p> <p>The Barbels are closely allied to the carps, and are easily known by the barbs or beards which hang from their lips. Like the sheat-fishes, the Barbels are fond of grubbing in the mud, -for the purpose of getting at the worms, grubs, and larvæ of +for the purpose of getting at the worms, grubs, and larvæ of aquatic insects that are always to be found in such places. The Barbels are rather long in proportion to their depth, a peculiarity which, owing to the length of the head, is rather exaggerated in @@ -25510,7 +25466,7 @@ answers nearly as well as a net.</p> <p>It has been mentioned that the ancient Romans were in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568">568</a></span> -habit of forming ponds in which the Murænæ were kept, and it is +habit of forming ponds in which the Murænæ were kept, and it is evident, from several passages of Scripture, that the Jews were accustomed to preserve fish in a similar manner, though they would not restrict their tanks or ponds to one species.</p> @@ -25569,7 +25525,7 @@ are wanted for consumption.</p> <div class="caption"> <p>FISHES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.</p> <p>1. <span class="smcap">Sucking-fish</span> (Echeneis remora).  -2. <span class="smcap">Tunny</span> (Thynnus thynnus).<br/>3. <span class="smcap">Coryphene</span> (Coryphæna hippuris). </p> +2. <span class="smcap">Tunny</span> (Thynnus thynnus).<br/>3. <span class="smcap">Coryphene</span> (Coryphæna hippuris). </p> <p>"<i>These shall ye eat of all that are in the waters.</i>"—<span class="smcap">Levit.</span> xi. 9.]</p> </div></div> @@ -25632,7 +25588,7 @@ that the silence of the Scriptures concerning its existence shows the utter indifference to specific accuracy that prevailed among the various writers.</p> -<p>The other figure represents the Coryphene (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coryphæna hippuris</i>), +<p>The other figure represents the Coryphene (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coryphæna hippuris</i>), popularly, though very wrongly, called the Dolphin, and celebrated, under that name, for the beautiful colours which fly over the surface of the body as it dies.</p> @@ -25853,11 +25809,11 @@ terms.</p> feeling of relief, because the three words used to signify different kinds of nets are easily understood.</p> -<p>There is, for example, the <em>amphiblêstron</em> (αμφίβληστρον), which +<p>There is, for example, the <em>amphiblêstron</em> (αμφίβληστρον), which is undoubtedly a casting net, as is signified by the etymology of the word, which is derived from two Greek words signifying to cast around. This word is used by Herodotus in a sort of -parable related by Cyrus to the Ionians and Æolians, who had +parable related by Cyrus to the Ionians and Æolians, who had refused to revolt from Crœsus when Cyrus asked them to do so; but, when they found he was sure to be their master, they sent <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_576" id="Page_576">576</a></span> @@ -25880,18 +25836,18 @@ piped to you, and ye have not danced."</p> <p>This is the net that is mentioned in Matt. iv. 18: "And Jesus, walking by the Sea of Galilee, saw two brethren, Simon -called Peter and Andrew his brother, casting a net (<em>amphiblêstron</em>) +called Peter and Andrew his brother, casting a net (<em>amphiblêstron</em>) into the sea."</p> <p>The second word, <em>diktuon</em> (δίκτυον), is derived from another word signifying to throw; so that if we use the expression -"casting-net" for the word <em>amphiblêstron</em>, and "throwing-net" +"casting-net" for the word <em>amphiblêstron</em>, and "throwing-net" for the word <em>diktuon</em>, we shall be tolerably accurate. Practically both words are used for the same net, as we find by proceeding further with the sacred narration.</p> <p>After mentioning that the future Apostles were casting a net -(<em>amphiblêstron</em>), St. Matthew proceeds as follows: "And He said +(<em>amphiblêstron</em>), St. Matthew proceeds as follows: "And He said unto them, Follow Me, and I will make you fishers of men.</p> <p>"And they straightway left their nets (<em>diktua</em>), and followed @@ -25939,7 +25895,7 @@ exclamation, and, too impatient to wait until the boats could land, girt his fisher's tunic upon him, leaped into the sea, and swam ashore.</p> -<p>The third Greek word which is translated as "net" is <em>sagênê</em> +<p>The third Greek word which is translated as "net" is <em>sagênê</em> (σαγήνη), a word which still survives in our term "Seine."</p> <p>The Sagene, or seine-net, was made in lengths, any number of @@ -26212,10 +26168,10 @@ costly, not only for its richness of hue, but from the great difficulty with which a sufficient quantity could be procured for staining a dress. Purple was exclusively a royal colour, which might not be worn by a subject. Among the ancient Romans, -during the times of the Cæsars, any one who ventured to appear +during the times of the Cæsars, any one who ventured to appear in a dress of purple would do so at the peril of his life. In the consular days of Rome, the dress of the consuls was white, -striped with purple; but the Cæsars advanced another step in +striped with purple; but the Cæsars advanced another step in luxury, and dyed the whole toga of this costly hue.</p> <p>The colour of the dye is scarcely what we understand by the @@ -26225,7 +26181,7 @@ the colour of newly-clotted blood. It is obtained from several <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586">586</a></span> Molluscs belonging to the great Whelk family, the chief of which is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Murex brandaris</i>. Another species is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Murex trunculus</i>, -another is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Purpura hæmastoma</i>, and we have a fourth on our +another is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Purpura hæmastoma</i>, and we have a fourth on our own coast, the common Dog-Whelk, or Dog-Periwinkle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Purpura lapillus</i>).</p> @@ -26475,7 +26431,7 @@ use of the Jewish worship were derived from North-Eastern Africa, and were in all probability familiar to the Jews from their long residence in Egypt.</p> -<p>The opercula of all the Strombidæ possess this powerful, +<p>The opercula of all the Strombidæ possess this powerful, though not very fragrant odour, which has been compared to that of spices, or castoreum, and probably acts the part which is played in many modern perfumes by materials which in themselves @@ -26548,12 +26504,12 @@ Pearls.</p> <p>Then the common edible mussel frequently contains Pearls, which, however, are almost invariably small, and comparatively -valueless. It is mentioned by Pliny that Julius Cæsar +valueless. It is mentioned by Pliny that Julius Cæsar obtained in Britain a sufficient number of Pearls to cover a breastplate, which he dedicated to Venus, and hung in her temple. It is evident from Pliny's account that the Pearls in question were small and comparatively valueless, and it -has been shrewdly suggested that Cæsar only presented them +has been shrewdly suggested that Cæsar only presented them to the goddess because the Roman ladies would not have worn them.</p> @@ -26957,7 +26913,7 @@ which they consume.</p> <p>Herodotus, for example, when describing the various tribes of Libyans, mentions the use of the Locust as an article of diet. -"The Nasamones, a very numerous people, adjoin these Auschisæ +"The Nasamones, a very numerous people, adjoin these Auschisæ westward.... When they have caught locusts, they dry them in the sun, reduce them to powder, and, sprinkling them in milk, drink them." (Melpomene, ch. 172.)</p> @@ -27019,7 +26975,7 @@ However, I never could persuade myself to taste them, whatever <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_604" id="Page_604">604</a></span> invitations the inhabitants of the land, smacking their lips over large dishes full of entomological 'delicatesses,' would make -me to join them. Barakàt ventured on one for a trial. He +me to join them. Barakà t ventured on one for a trial. He pronounced it oily and disgusting, nor added a second to the first: it is caviare to unaccustomed palates.</p> @@ -27069,7 +27025,7 @@ day.</p> THE BEE.</h3> <p class="hanging indent"> -The Hebrew word <em>Debôrah</em>—The Honey Bee of Palestine—Abundance of Bees in +The Hebrew word <em>Debôrah</em>—The Honey Bee of Palestine—Abundance of Bees in the Holy Land—Habitations of the wild Bee—Hissing for the Bee—Bees in dead carcases—The honey of Scripture—Domesticated Bees and their hives—Stores of wild honey—The story of Jonathan—The Crusaders and the honey—Butter @@ -27090,7 +27046,7 @@ and wax.</p> <hr class="c15" /> <p>Fortunately, there is no doubt about the rendering of the -Hebrew word <em>debôrah</em>, which has always been acknowledged +Hebrew word <em>debôrah</em>, which has always been acknowledged to be rightly translated as "Bee." There has, however, been a difference of opinion as to the derivation of the word, some Hebraists thinking that it is derived from a word which signifies @@ -27181,7 +27137,7 @@ mere shell. The heat hardened and dried the external layer of flesh so that not even the carnivorous beetles could penetrate it, while the whole of the interior dissolved into a semi-putrescent state, and was rapidly devoured by myriads of blue-bottles and -other larvæ.</p> +other larvæ.</p> <p>It was so thoroughly dried that scarcely any evil odour clung to it, and as soon as I came across it the story of Samson @@ -27567,7 +27523,7 @@ carnivorous insect, and therefore could not gather her food in the harvest, and that the very nature of that food would prevent it from being laid up in store. The objectors thought that the sacred writer had been deceived by appearances, and had mistaken -the white cocoon of the ant-pupæ (popularly called ant-eggs +the white cocoon of the ant-pupæ (popularly called ant-eggs among ourselves) for grains of corn which they were storing away for future use.</p> @@ -27580,7 +27536,7 @@ which inhabit the comparatively cold and changeable climate of England.</p> <p>As to the first point, there is no doubt that the rendering is -the right one, and that the word <em>nemâlah</em> is correctly translated +the right one, and that the word <em>nemâlah</em> is correctly translated as "ant." The Jewish Bible employs the word "ant," and does not add the mark of doubt. Buxtorf, in his "Hebrew Lexicon," translates it as "formica," and derives it from a root which @@ -27617,9 +27573,9 @@ for it the scientific name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">malefaciens</i>, or vil <p>The habits of this Ant were studied in Texas by Dr. Lincecum for the space of twelve years, and the result of his investigations -was communicated to the Linnæan Society by C. Darwin, Esq. +was communicated to the Linnæan Society by C. Darwin, Esq. His abstract of Dr. Lincecum's observations may be found in the -"Journal of the Linnæan Society," vol. vi. No. 21, page 29. It +"Journal of the Linnæan Society," vol. vi. No. 21, page 29. It is so extraordinary an account that it must be given in the narrator's own words:—</p> @@ -27788,7 +27744,7 @@ of an ant, He permits wings to grow upon her."</p> THE CRIMSON WORM.</h3> <p class="hanging indent"> -The scarlet or crimson of Scripture—Signification of the word <em>Tolââth</em>—The +The scarlet or crimson of Scripture—Signification of the word <em>Tolââth</em>—The Coccus or Cochineal of Palestine compared with that of Mexico—Difference between the sexes—Mode of preparing the insect—The Arabic word <em>Kermes</em>. </p> @@ -27797,7 +27753,7 @@ between the sexes—Mode of preparing the insect—The Arabic word <em>K <p>Just as the purple dye was obtained from a mollusc, the scarcely less valuable crimson or scarlet was obtained from an -insect. The Hebrew word <em>tolââth</em> is translated in the Authorized +insect. The Hebrew word <em>tolââth</em> is translated in the Authorized Version either as "crimson" or "scarlet," but its full signification is the Crimson-worm. This is an insect scientifically named <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coccus ilicis</i> on account of its food. It is closely @@ -27839,7 +27795,7 @@ of the priests and the hangings of the tabernacle, the white not taking rank as a colour.</p> <p>The Coccus belongs to the Homoptera in common with the -cicadæ, the lantern flies, the hoppers, and the aphides.</p> +cicadæ, the lantern flies, the hoppers, and the aphides.</p> <p>On page <a href="#Page_623">623</a> the large females are shown on the prickly pear, and near them are the tiny males, some flying and some on the @@ -27849,25 +27805,25 @@ leaves.</p> THE CLOTHES MOTH.</h3> <p class="hanging indent"> -The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth—The Sâs and the 'Ash—Similitude -between the Hebrew <em>sâs</em> and the Greek <em>sês</em>—Moths and garments—Accumulation +The Moth of Scripture evidently the Clothes Moth—The Sâs and the 'Ash—Similitude +between the Hebrew <em>sâs</em> and the Greek <em>sês</em>—Moths and garments—Accumulation of clothes in the East—Various uses of the hoarded robes—The Moths, the rust, and the thief. </p> <p>Only one Lepidopterous insect is mentioned by name in the Scriptures. This is the <span class="smcap">Moth</span>, by which we must always understand -some species of Clothes Moth—in fact, one of the Tineidæ, +some species of Clothes Moth—in fact, one of the Tineidæ, which are as plentiful and destructive in Palestine as in this country.</p> <p>Two words are used in the Old Testament to express the -Moth, one of which, <em>sâs</em>, only occurs once, and then in connexion +Moth, one of which, <em>sâs</em>, only occurs once, and then in connexion with the other word <em>'ash</em>. The resemblance of the -Hebrew <em>sâs</em> and the Greek <em>sês</em> is to be noted, both of them +Hebrew <em>sâs</em> and the Greek <em>sês</em> is to be noted, both of them denominating the same insect. See Is. li. 8: "For the moth -(<em>'ash</em>) shall eat them up like garment, and the worm (<em>sâs</em>) shall -eat them like wool." Buxtorf translates <em>sâs</em> as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tinea, blatta</i>.</p> +(<em>'ash</em>) shall eat them up like garment, and the worm (<em>sâs</em>) shall +eat them like wool." Buxtorf translates <em>sâs</em> as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tinea, blatta</i>.</p> <p>Several references are made to the Moth in the Scriptures, and nearly all have reference to its destructive habits. The @@ -27889,7 +27845,7 @@ surely every man is vanity" (Ps. xxxix. 11).</p> the Lord God will help me; who is he that shall condemn me? lo, they all shall wax old as a garment; the moth shall eat them" (Isa. l. 9). The image is repeated in the next chapter -(ver. 8), in which the 'Ash and the Sâs are both mentioned. Hosea +(ver. 8), in which the 'Ash and the Sâs are both mentioned. Hosea employs the word as a metaphor expressive of gradual destruction: "Therefore will I be unto Ephraim as a moth, and to the house of Judah as rottenness" (v. 12).</p> @@ -27974,7 +27930,7 @@ Various passages wherein Silk is mentioned—The virtuous woman and her household—Probability that the Hebrews were acquainted with Silk—Present cultivation of the Silkworm—The Silk-farms of the Lebanon—Signification of the word <em>Meshi</em>—Silkworms and thunder—Luis of Grenada's sermon—The -Hebrew word <em>Gâzam</em>, and its signification—The Palmer-worm of Scripture. +Hebrew word <em>Gâzam</em>, and its signification—The Palmer-worm of Scripture. </p> <p>In the Authorized Version there are several passages wherein silk @@ -28089,17 +28045,17 @@ in one of his discourses:—</p> <p class="title2"><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dominica IV. post Pent., Concio 1.</i></p> <p>"Sunt rursus alii, quorum pectora sic generis humani hostis -obsedit, ut nullius divinæ vocis fulminibus perterreantur, vel +obsedit, ut nullius divinæ vocis fulminibus perterreantur, vel parum animo commoveantur.</p> -<p>"Quâ autem ratione eorundem aures obstruat, proposito hoc +<p>"Quâ autem ratione eorundem aures obstruat, proposito hoc exemplo indicabo.</p> -<p>"Bombyces, hoc est vermes illi qui serica fìla nectunt, ita +<p>"Bombyces, hoc est vermes illi qui serica fìla nectunt, ita tonitruum sonitu gravantur, ut interduin moriantur. Quo fit, ut qui eos nutriunt tympana frequenter pulsent, ut sonitui molliori -assueti a graviori tonitrui sono non lædantur. Tales mihi multi -sacrarum concionum auditores hâc ætate esse videntur, qui +assueti a graviori tonitrui sono non lædantur. Tales mihi multi +sacrarum concionum auditores hâc ætate esse videntur, qui quotidianis concionibus audiendis sine ullo animi motu assueti, si quis concionator, a Deo actus, gravius aliquid et formidibilius <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_630" id="Page_630">630</a></span> @@ -28133,7 +28089,7 @@ to the thunders of God's Word."</p> <hr class="c15" /> -<p>About the correct reading of the Hebrew word <em>gâzam</em>, which +<p>About the correct reading of the Hebrew word <em>gâzam</em>, which is translated in the Authorized Version "palmer-worm," there has always been some difficulty. It only occurs in three passages of Scripture, and in each case reference is made to its @@ -28165,7 +28121,7 @@ Lord."</p> <p>The Jewish Bible retains the reading of palmer-worm, but affixes the mark of doubt, as it does to the canker-worm. Some -Hebraists have thought that the word <em>gâzam</em> is one of the names +Hebraists have thought that the word <em>gâzam</em> is one of the names to designate the locust, either some distinct species, or the same species in its undeveloped condition. Others have thought that, as the Jews were very loose in their nomenclature, they would @@ -28174,10 +28130,10 @@ apply two different names to it.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_632" id="Page_632">632</a></span> Buxtorf derives the word from a root signifying "to shave," or -"to shear," in allusion to the havoc which the <em>gâzam</em> makes among +"to shear," in allusion to the havoc which the <em>gâzam</em> makes among the vegetation. The reader will see that it is impossible to decide with any certainty upon the precise species of insect -signified by the word <em>gâzam</em>; but there can be no harm in following +signified by the word <em>gâzam</em>; but there can be no harm in following the translation of the Septuagint and Vulgate, both of which render it as "caterpillar." Assuming, therefore, that it is a caterpillar of some kind, I have inserted figures of some @@ -28233,7 +28189,7 @@ gadflies, which wounded me through a thick woollen coat, while they attacked the uncovered portions of the skin so fiercely that, before reaching shelter, my neck was bathed in blood.</p> -<p>Another word is <em>arôb</em>, which is applied to the flies which were +<p>Another word is <em>arôb</em>, which is applied to the flies which were brought upon Egypt in the great plague. It is probable that some different species is here signified, but there is no certainty in the matter. Any species, however, would be a sufficient @@ -28260,21 +28216,21 @@ every season and place, in the house and in the field, by day and by night.</p> <p>"Frequently in 1857 and 1860, while I was encamped near -the tents of the Bedawîn, in the neighbourhood of the Jordan, +the tents of the Bedawîn, in the neighbourhood of the Jordan, and to the south of Hebron, flies were brought in such numbers by the east wind that all, beasts and men, were in danger of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_634" id="Page_634">634</a></span> being choked by them, as they crept into our ears, noses, and mouths, and all over our bodies. My servant and I were the first to fly from the pest, as we were spotted all over like lepers -with the eruption caused by their bites: the Bedawîn themselves +with the eruption caused by their bites: the Bedawîn themselves were not slow to follow our example.</p> <p>"I am not the only person who has experienced this nuisance, for Eugene Roger, who travelled in Palestine during the seventeenth century, informs us that during his stay at Nazareth a swarm of small black flies, called <em>bargash</em>, invaded the plain of -Esdraelon, where a tribe of Bedawîn, to the number of six hundred +Esdraelon, where a tribe of Bedawîn, to the number of six hundred tents, were encamped, who suffered greatly from them.</p> <p>"The flies, therefore, still infest Palestine as they did of old, @@ -28689,12 +28645,12 @@ Earthworm. </p> <p>The word "worm" occurs many times in the Authorized Version, -and is a rendering of three Hebrew words. One is <em>sâs</em>, which +and is a rendering of three Hebrew words. One is <em>sâs</em>, which has been already explained under the article Moth; the second is <em>rimmah</em>; and the third <em>tole'ah</em>. There is very great difficulty in ascertaining the real signification of these words, unless we assume that the Hebrews were not aware of the distinction -between actual Annelida and the larvæ of various insects.</p> +between actual Annelida and the larvæ of various insects.</p> <p>Even at the present day we commit a similar error. We speak of the wire-worm, which is the larva of one kind of beetle. @@ -28892,7 +28848,7 @@ signifies high, or lofty.</p> <li>Aptera, <a href="#Page_636">636</a>.</li> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aquila chrysaëtos</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>. +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aquila chrysaëtos</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">mogilnik</i>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> <li>Arachnida, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>.</li> @@ -29005,7 +28961,7 @@ signifies high, or lofty.</p> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Camelus Bactrianus</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">dromedarius</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> -<li>Capistrated Sphænops, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> +<li>Capistrated Sphænops, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Capra Angorensis</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mambrica</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>. @@ -29038,9 +28994,9 @@ signifies high, or lofty.</p> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ciconia nigra</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circaëtus gallicus</i>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circaëtus gallicus</i>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circus æruginosus</i>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>. +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Circus æruginosus</i>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cyaneus</i>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> <li>Climber, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> @@ -29049,7 +29005,7 @@ signifies high, or lofty.</p> <li>Cockatrice, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Columba ænas</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>. +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Columba ænas</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">livia</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">palumbus</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Schimperi</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> @@ -29071,7 +29027,7 @@ signifies high, or lofty.</p> <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">monedula</i>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">umbrinus</i>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coryphæna hippurus</i>, <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li> +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coryphæna hippurus</i>, <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li> <li>Coryphene, <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li> @@ -29127,7 +29083,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li>Dishon, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> -<li><i>Dôb</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> +<li><i>Dôb</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> <li>Dog, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>. Periwinkle, <a href="#Page_586">586</a>. @@ -29303,7 +29259,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li>Hind, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hircus ægragus</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hircus ægragus</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hirundo cahirica</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">rufula</i>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> @@ -29324,7 +29280,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li>Hyacinthine Gallinule, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li> -<li>Hyæna, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> +<li>Hyæna, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hydrosaurus niloticus</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li> @@ -29391,7 +29347,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li>Khopash, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> -<li>Kippôd, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> +<li>Kippôd, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> <li>Kite, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>. Black, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>. @@ -29412,7 +29368,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lacerta viridis</i>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li> -<li>Lämmergeier, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> +<li>Lämmergeier, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li> <li>Lanner Falcon, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> @@ -29426,7 +29382,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li>Lerwea, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> -<li>Letââh, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> +<li>Letââh, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> <li>Leviathan, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li> @@ -29501,9 +29457,9 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mullus sur muletus</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li> -<li>Muræna, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li> +<li>Muræna, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Muræna helena</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Muræna helena</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Murex brandaris</i>, <a href="#Page_586">586</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">trunculus</i>, <a href="#Page_586">586</a>.</li> @@ -29522,7 +29478,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nates niloticus</i>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a>.</li> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nectarinia Oseæ</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nectarinia Oseæ</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Neophron percuopterus</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> @@ -29593,7 +29549,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <div class="left20"> <ul> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pandion haliaëtus</i>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pandion haliaëtus</i>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> <li>Parash, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> @@ -29644,7 +29600,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Puffinus Anglorum</i>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">cinereus</i>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Purpura hæmastoma</i>, <a href="#Page_586">586</a>. +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Purpura hæmastoma</i>, <a href="#Page_586">586</a>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lapillus</i>, <a href="#Page_586">586</a>.</li> <li>Pygarg, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> @@ -29677,7 +29633,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li>Red Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> -<li>Reêm, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> +<li>Reêm, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhinopoma microphylla</i>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> @@ -29708,13 +29664,13 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li>Scorpion, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>.</li> -<li>Selâv, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> +<li>Selâv, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li> <li>Seps, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li> <li>Serpents, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li> -<li>Shâlâk, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> +<li>Shâlâk, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li> <li>Sheat-fishes, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>.</li> @@ -29743,7 +29699,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> -hawk, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>. House, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sphænops sepsoides</i>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sphænops sepsoides</i>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li> <li>Spider, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li> @@ -29800,7 +29756,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li><i>Tachash</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Testudo Græca</i>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Testudo Græca</i>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Thynnus thynnus</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li> @@ -29810,7 +29766,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li><i>Tinshemeth</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li> -<li><i>Tô</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> +<li><i>Tô</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> <li>Tones, Sacred, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> @@ -29913,7 +29869,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <div class="left20"> <ul> -<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Xantharpya ægyptiaca</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> +<li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Xantharpya ægyptiaca</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> </ul> </div> @@ -29922,7 +29878,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <div class="left20"> <ul> -<li>Yanshûph, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> +<li>Yanshûph, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> </ul> </div> @@ -29933,7 +29889,7 @@ Deer, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> <li>Zamar, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> -<li><i>Zeëb</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> +<li><i>Zeëb</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> <li><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Zootoca vivipara</i>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li> @@ -29957,387 +29913,6 @@ Ps. cxlvii.</p> </div></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Bible Animals;, by J. G. Wood - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIBLE ANIMALS; *** - -***** This file should be named 42964-h.htm or 42964-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/9/6/42964/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Mary Akers and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at -http://gutenberg.org/license). - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at -http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at -809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email -business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact -information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official -page at http://pglaf.org - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit http://pglaf.org - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - http://www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - -</pre> - +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42964 ***</div> </body> </html> |