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diff --git a/42949.txt b/42949.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6bda470..0000000 --- a/42949.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4851 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Manual of Wood Carving, by Charles G. Leland - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: A Manual of Wood Carving - -Author: Charles G. Leland - -Release Date: June 15, 2013 [EBook #42949] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MANUAL OF WOOD CARVING *** - - - - -Produced by eagkw, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - A MANUAL OF WOOD-CARVING. - - - - - [Illustration: PANEL. _P. 124._] - - - - - A MANUAL OF WOOD - CARVING - - BY - - CHARLES G. LELAND, F.R.L.S., M.A. - - _Late Director of the Public Industrial Art School of Philadelphia; - Member (Committee) of the Home Arts and Ind. Assn.; also Comm. Member - of the French-American and Hungarian Folk Lore Societies; Pres. - British Gypsy Lore Soc., &c.; Author of "The Minor Arts," "Twelve - Manuals of Arts," "Practical Education," "Album and Handbook of - Retousse Work," &c. &c._ - - - REVISED BY - - JOHN J. HOLTZAPFFEL - - _Associate Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers, London; - Corresponding Member of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia; Member - of the British Horological Institute; Examiner, City and Guilds of - London; Institute for the Advancement of Technical Education, &c. &c._ - - - NEW YORK - CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS - 1909 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1891, BY - CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS - - - - -PUBLISHERS' NOTE. - - -This manual, like that on Drawing and Designing, previously published, -is intended to form one of a series in furtherance of the principles -set forth in Mr. Leland's work on "Practical Education." It has rarely -happened that a volume such as this latter, proposing (as one critic -declared) nothing less than a complete revolution in Education, has -been so favourably received by the public, and so highly approved by -competent authorities, as was the case with it. Should it be unknown -to any friends of educational reform into whose hands this handbook -may fall, it is to be hoped that they will think it worth while to -make themselves acquainted with the principles upon which Mr. Leland's -practical manuals are based. - -As regards this in particular, it may be observed that it is almost the -only one which treats Wood-carving in a general and extended sense, and -regards it as an art widely applicable to ornamentation, and not one -confined to small _chefs-d'oeuvre_ and prize toys, facsimiles of fruit -and leaves, or the like. It is the first book in which the sweep-cut, -which is the very soul of all good and bold carving, has ever been -described. It may be added that the work has derived great advantage -from the friendly interest taken in it by Mr. John J. Holtzapffel, for -which the thanks of both author and publishers are due. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - INTRODUCTION. - Woods, Tools, and Sharpening 1 - - FIRST LESSON. - Indenting and Stamping 15 - - SECOND LESSON. - Cutting Grooves with a Gouge 22 - - THIRD LESSON. - Flat Patterns made with cuts and lines--Cavo Relievo or Intaglio - Rilevato (Cavo-cutting) 28 - - FOURTH LESSON. - Cutting out a Flat Panel with a Ground 34 - - FIFTH LESSON. - Cutting Simple Leaves--Carving with the Left Hand--Modelling or - Rounding--Shaded Patterns and Modelling--Progress towards Relief 39 - - SIXTH LESSON. - Cutting with the Grain--Turning the Tool--the Drill--Bold - Carving--and large work 44 - - SEVENTH LESSON. - The Sweep-cut or Free-hand Carving--Cutting Notches in - Leaves--the Round-cut 49 - - EIGHTH LESSON. - Further application of the Sweep-cut to Higher Relief 53 - - NINTH LESSON. - Carving Simple Figures or Animal Forms--Figurini for - Cabinets--Simple Rounded Edges and approach to Modelling 59 - - TENTH LESSON. - Finishing off--Imitation of old and worn work--Where Polishing - is required 64 - - ELEVENTH LESSON. - Diaper-work--Stamped Diaper-patterns--Cutting Diapers 69 - - TWELFTH LESSON. - Building-up, or Applique work 75 - - THIRTEENTH LESSON. - Carving in the Round 79 - - APPENDIX TO THIRTEENTH LESSON. - On the Use of the Saw 83 - - FOURTEENTH LESSON. - Incised, Intaglio, or Sunk Carving 86 - - FIFTEENTH LESSON. - Carving Curved Surfaces: Cocoa-nuts, Bowls, Horns, Casks, - Tankards, etc. 93 - - SIXTEENTH LESSON. - Bosses, Knobs, Bars, and Polished Ornaments 101 - - SEVENTEENTH LESSON. - To Repair Wood-Carving--Glue--Nitric Acid Glue--Preparing - Decayed Wood--Artificial Wood--Fillers--Spraying--To make Glue - "take" 105 - - EIGHTEENTH LESSON. - Colouring Wood-work--Oiling--Soda--Stains and Dyes--Ivorying - Surfaces--Black Dyes and Ink 110 - - NINETEENTH LESSON. - Making Moulds or Squeezes for Wood-Carvers 115 - - TWENTIETH LESSON. - Spot Cutting 118 - - APPENDIX. - Objects for Wood-Carving 121 - - - - -LIST OF PLATES. - - - DECORATIVE PANEL _Frontispiece_ - PANEL IN LOW-RELIEF _to face page_ 40 - HIGHLY-FINISHED STUDIES OF FOLIAGE " " 48 - CIRCULAR PANEL IN HIGHER RELIEF " " 56 - HEAD BY CIVITALE " " 82 - MINIATURE FRAME " " 128 - - - - -Wood-Carving. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - -WOODS, TOOLS, AND SHARPENING. - - -Skill in wood-carving, as in every other art, is to be attained only by -thoroughness. Let the pupil therefore bear in mind that he or she must -be careful to master the _first_ lessons, and to go no further until -these can be executed with ease and accuracy. This will be greatly aided -if the book is read with care, and not used for mere reference. - -TEACHERS will please observe that the work is in a regular series of -progressive lessons, the first being extremely easy; and that these -lessons lead so gradually one to another that the last are no harder -than the first to one who has gone on carefully from the beginning. This -will be found to aid teaching and self-instruction greatly. - -Every item of information will be found under its proper head, and not -scattered here and there through different chapters: for every lesson -is complete in itself, and from the first the pupil is taught how to -produce some satisfactory work of its kind. Thus, indenting or stamping, -which can be learned at once, and grooving with a gouge, which is not -more difficult, are capable of producing very beautiful decoration even -if the worker goes no further. No writer has, indeed, ever seriously -considered what valuable and varied results may be produced by these -simple processes. - -Finally, the author has endeavoured in these pages to treat wood-carving -not merely as a fine art, whose chief aim is to produce specimens -of fancy work for exhibitions, and facsimiles of flowers, never to -be touched, but also to qualify the learner for a calling, and what -nine-tenths of all practical wood-carving really consists of, that is, -house and other large decoration, and of work which is to be perhaps -painted, and exposed to the air. There is no reason why the artist -should not be prepared to undertake figure-heads for ships, garden -gates, cornices for roofs and rooms, dados, door panels, and similar -work, as well as mere drawing-room toys, which should have no finish -save the delicate touch of the cutting tool. - -The author would observe as regards this work that he has been under -very great obligation to Mr. John J. HOLTZAPFFEL, Assoc. M. Inst. -C.E., whose name is so well known to all workers in wood and metal, -for revisions, suggestions, and addition of the chapter on the use -of the saw in carving. He is also indebted to Mr. CADDY, teacher of -wood-carving in Brighton for valuable suggestions. - -TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS. The first and most important is a strong, and, if -possible, a _heavy_ table or bench. If the pupil cannot afford this, -an ordinary small kitchen table must be found. It should be used for -carving alone, as it will be necessary to bore holes and drive screws -into it. But if a table cannot be spared for this, the pupil must make -shift by putting a board at least an inch in thickness on a common table -and fastening it with clamps. At a more advanced stage he will carve -standing up at a higher bench, or with his work on a stand. Pupils in -wood-carving "shops" often carve standing from the beginning. - -[Illustration: _a_ _b_] - -_Carving Tools_ are generally divided into two classes: chisels, which -are flat at the end and in the blade; and gouges, which are hollow. -Among professional wood-carvers the former is generally known as a -_firmer_, in order to distinguish it from the chisel used by carpenters. -A carver's chisel is always ground on _both_ sides, so as to form a -wedge like a very high, steep roof (_a_), while that of the carpenter is -a stouter implement, its edge being like a wedge which is flat on _one_ -side (_b_), as it is only ground on the other. The object of grinding -carvers' chisels on _both_ sides is that there are many cuts which -cannot be executed by a carpenter's chisel at all, or at least not with -ease, for one would be obliged, while using it, to continually turn it -around. - - [Illustration: Fig. 1 _a_. - - GOUGE. - - FIRMER.] - -_Carvers Chisels or Firmers_, Fig. 1 _b_, are of many and all sizes, -from an inch in breadth down to the "pick," which, across the end or -edge, is no wider than a small hyphen (-). To these may be added the -"skew-chisels," also called "skews" or "corner-firmers," which are -firmers ground off diagonally, so that the point is on one side. These -are also sharpened on both sides. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1 _b_. FIRMERS.] - -[Illustration: Figs. 2-5. GOUGES.] - -_Gouges_, Figs. 2-5, are chisels more or less rounded. These, of all -widths, vary from the _extra flat_, which is so slightly curved that -it might at a casual glance be taken for an ordinary chisel, to the -ordinary "flat." A little more bend or convexity gives the _scroll -gouge_. A semi-circle or any narrower portion of the same curve is a -_hollow gouge_, the smaller sizes of which are called _veiners_, the -very smallest of the latter being known as _eye-tools_. There are some -differences of names for these among writers, as well as workmen, but -for all practical purposes the terms here used may be accepted, and are -understood by all who sell the tools. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6. BENT TOOLS.] - -_Bent Tools._ Both chisels and gouges are made straight, or bent or -curved in the shank. It often happens that in deep cutting, or in -hollowed spaces, it is impossible to cut with an implement having a -straight shaft, while with one differently shaped the wood can be easily -removed, Fig. 6. - -_Holdfasts._--_Carver's Screws_, and _Clamps_, _Hand Screws_, _Bench -Screws_, _&c._ As the carver holds his tool with one hand and directs it -with the other, it is evident that some means must be taken to secure in -place the piece of work which he cuts. - -I. The simplest method of doing this is to drive three or four nails or -screws into the table at a convenient distance. The work may be held -between these to prevent its slipping. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7. HOLDFAST AND SAW TABLE.] - -II. HOLDFASTS.--_Clamps_ or _Cramps_, Fig. 7. These cramps are small -iron frames, like three sides of a square, with a screw in the under -limb. They are used on the edge of the table to hold the work firmly -down to its surface; two or more are always employed. Their fault is -that they indent and damage the work; a piece of waste wood may be -interposed between the work and the upper limb to prevent this, but -such a guard is generally in the way and otherwise objectionable. _Hand -Screws_, Figs. 8 and 9, are a far better tool, entirely free from the -above-named objection. They consist of two strips of hard wood rounded -at the one end, or jaws, and two screws, also of wood, one of which -passes through both jaws, and the other through only one; the end of -this second screw entering a recess made in the other jaw to retain -it in position. To use them the handles are grasped firmly in the two -hands, and the hands are revolved around one another away from you, -which causes the jaws to open exactly parallel with one another. When -the opening between the jaws equals the thickness of the work and the -table, the hand screws are slipped over them, and the second screw then -alone receives an extra half turn, this throws the jaws slightly out of -parallelism, and effects a powerful grip upon the work at their points. -They are exceedingly powerful also in holding work for gluing together -and other purposes, and are made of all sizes. - - [Illustration: Fig. 8. Fig. 9. - - HAND SCREWS.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10. CARVERS' SCREWS.] - -III. _Carvers' Screws_, Fig. 10. These are iron screws about 12 or 14 -in. long, with a finer pointed screw, like that of a gimlet, at the one -end, and a square at the other; on the screw is a winged or fly nut. To -use them the point is screwed firmly into the under side of the work, -with the fly nut removed and used as a lever by one of the holes in -its wings placed on the square on the end of the shaft. The shaft is -then passed through a hole made through the top of the bench or table, -and the fly nut replaced on the screw below the table to fix the work -down to it. The screws are long, which is sometimes convenient, but if -the work be thin it is usual to put a block of waste wood on the shaft -before the fly nut, to avoid the tedium of having to screw the latter up -a long way. Slackening the nut enables the work to be turned round to -any required position, and there is nothing above the table except the -work. - -IV. _Snibs or Dogs_, Figs. 11, 12. These are pieces of wood screwed -down to the table, which hold the panel or other piece of work by a -projection. They are easily made by simply sawing out a piece of wood -fairly corresponding in thickness to the panel. - - [Illustration: Fig. 11. Fig. 12. - - SNIBS OR DOGS.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.] - -V. Take an ordinary "button," Fig. 13, such as is common on cupboards in -country cottages to fasten the door. Saw out a piece of the panel, one -or more inches square. Put the screw through the button and turn it over -the panel and the little waste piece of wood. Two or more of these will -hold the work perfectly fast. - -VI. The simplest method of all is to leave about an inch at either end -of the panel and pass screws through these extra portions into the -table. When the work is carved these ends may be sawn off. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14. SCRATCH.] - -_The Scratch_, Fig. 14. This is a very convenient and ingenious tool. -"It is used," says J. S. Gibson ("The Wood-Carver," Edinburgh, 1889), -"for running small mouldings and hollows. Where the lines are long -and straight it makes finer work than is possible by means of gouges. -The cutters are made from pieces of steel barely 1-16th of an inch -thick. Broken pieces of saws are generally used for cutters. They must -be tightly fixed in the stock. It is worked backwards and forwards -gently. When the cutters are filed to the required shape, they have -to be finished with a slip stone to take out the file marks. They are -sharpened straight across the edges." - -[Illustration: Fig. 15. ROUTER.] - -_The Router_, Fig. 15. This is a small copy of the joiner's plane of the -same name. It consists of a block of wood with a perfectly flat sole; a -hole through it at an angle carries the cutter and the wedge by which it -is fixed. It is employed for flattening the groundwork after that has -been partially excavated with the chisels. The sole of the router rests -upon any margins left of the original surface, and being worked about -over the ground, the fixed projection of the cutter rapidly reduces the -latter to one true level. These routers are made from about nine inches -long in the sole to about three inches, the smallest, which little tools -have cutters about 1-8th of an inch wide. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16. FRET BOW SAW.] - -_Saws._ These are of various kinds; perhaps the most useful is the Fret -Bow Saw, Fig. 16. This consists of a light thin steel frame with screw -jaws, at the open end in which the thin saw-blades are clamped. The -handle is also formed as a screw, by which its jaw can be advanced about -an inch towards its fellow. To place the saw in position for work, the -end of the handle is screwed round until its jaw has advanced about an -inch, the saw is then fixed in the opposite jaw by its thumb-screw, -then in the handle jaw in the same way, after which the handle is turned -until its jaw has travelled back again the distance it had previously -advanced, thus straining the saw by the tension of the steel spring -saw-frame. This saw is very useful for removing superfluous pieces from -the outline, both in flat works and when carving in the round, as will -be explained; its primary purpose is for cutting out pierced and buhl -and fretwork, but for such work, as the apertures cut do not always cut -out to the edges, a drill is required to pierce holes to thread the -saw through the work before it is placed in the second jaw to strain -it. Fig. 16 is required for pierced work laid down on a ground and -then carved, a style of carving which will be described. The ordinary -joiners "dovetail" or "tenon" saws, their blades with stiff backs, are -required, and are almost indispensable for cutting off portions of the -work and trimming it to shape; these saws are too well known to require -description. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17. KNUCKLE-BEND.] - -In addition to the tools already described, the pupil will need for -more and varied work the following:--I. _The Spade Chisel_, and _Spade -Gouge_. These are very light, and are used for finishing by hand, as, -for instance, in cutting around grapes or plums or in fine work. II. -_Knuckle-bends_, Fig. 17. These are gouges scooped or bent in a curve -like a knuckle. III. _The Macaroni Tool_, Fig. 18. This is like the -three sides of a square. It is for removing wood on each side of a vein -or leaf, or similar delicate work. It is not very commonly used. IV. -_The Parting Tool or _V_, straight or curved_. This is a useful -tool for outlining a pattern or veining leaves. Beginners find it, like -the Macaroni, rather difficult to sharpen, or to keep an edge on it. It -must not be used recklessly for carving, as it is apt to break unless -handled with care. It should be kept with a cork on the end. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18. MACARONI TOOLS.] - -It is a question among experts as to whether the tools for beginners -should have long or short handles, which is as sensible as if they -should debate whether the pupils should have large or small hands. -General Seaton, who is in other matters a good authority, declares that -"small, short, neatly-turned boxwood handles must be avoided; they are -nearly useless. Get good-sized beech or ash handles quite five inches -long, and if the steel is four or four and a half inches long you will -have a really serviceable tool." Common sense teaches that between a -child or a young lady who has a palm "the size of a cardinal's seal" -(to borrow a simile from Benvenuto Cellini), and a workman who would -burst a number ten glove, there must be very great differences in the -size of handles, and it is certain that for young beginners short ones -are to be advised. If they are not to be obtained ready made, then take -an ordinary long handle, saw it off to the requisite length, say from -three to three and a half inches, round the sharp edge of the wood, -firstly with a knife or chisel, then with a rasp, and finish it off with -glass-paper. See that the tools when set into the handles are _well -ringed_ and _firm_. In most shops it is usual to sharpen them if it be -required. After becoming accustomed to such handles the pupil may, as he -progresses, familiarize himself with those which are in general use. - -There is really only one _trouble_ in wood-carving. This is the -sharpening the tools, and keeping them in good condition. For this the -grindstone and oilstone are indispensable, and the beginner must take -pains to learn to sharpen his tools well and readily. - -SHARPENING. Tools which are as yet unground, or which have had the -edge broken, may, with patience and care, be sharpened on a harsh flat -stone, but round grindstones which revolve with a handle are not dear; -you can, however, always get your tools ground by any carpenter. Every -carver should therefore, if possible, own one of these grindstones. It -will serve as well for a large class as for an individual. The next -indispensable is the _oilstone_. This is to be found of different -kinds; the ordinary Turkey stone, set in a block of wood, will answer -for firmers, skews, and flat gouges, for finer tools the best Arkansas -stones may be employed. Before using one, let fall on it a few drops -of oil, which is to be kept in a small can with a narrow spout, made -expressly for such dropping. Have a coarse rag, and when you have done -with the stone, always wipe it clean of the oil. Take great care not to -wear a hollow in the middle of the stone. It is by far the best plan to -get some wood-carver or carpenter to show you how to sharpen the tools. -There are very few places where there is not somebody who can teach -this art. It is usual to have a box-cover to the oilstone, which should -always be over it when not in use, to prevent dust from settling on the -surface. A very little dust indeed combined with the oil is a great -hindrance to sharpening. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19. SLIP HOLDER.] - -_Slips._ These are pieces of Arkansas, Turkey, and other stones, made -of a variety of shapes, to fit the inside of such tools as cannot be -sharpened on a flat surface, like that of oil-stone. They require great -care in handling lest the fingers be cut. To avoid this, take a piece -of wood, and cut a deep groove in it, exactly adapted to hold the stone -firmly, leaving as much of it projecting as may be required for use, -Fig. 19. If you cannot obtain a slip exactly suited to any particular -tool, then grind or cut it to shape on the grindstone or with a file; -some carvers use a very coarse whetstone adapted to this purpose. The -safe method of using a slip when not mounted in wood is to "lay the back -of the gouge at an inch and a half from the edge on the edge of the -table; the edge of the tool must be slightly raised, and the slip can -then be applied with perfect safety and with great effect." (Seaton.) -The V, or parting tool, is difficult to sharpen because, until one -has had practice with it, it is hard to cut down each side in _exact_ -uniformity with the other. For this it is necessary to have a slip -ground to a V edge, so as to exactly fit the inside of the tool. - -_The Strap._ This is a piece of hard, smooth leather, glued on a flat -bit of board. This may be prepared with sweet oil and emery powder, or -Tripoli, to be renewed as occasion requires, or with a preparation of -lard and crocus powder. Emery paste sold at the tool-shop will answer -for all ordinary work. When no strap is at hand a final sharp, or a -razor edge, may be given even on a smooth pine board, especially if a -very little fine air-dust be on it. - -Sharpening the tools is like threading the needle in sewing, or putting -a point on lead pencils when drawing, something which is a great -trouble, and a constant interruption to earnest work, yet which must be -constantly seen to. Never go on carving for a second if you find that a -tool is growing in the least dull or "scratchy." There can be no good -work whatever without really good tools in perfect order. - -It may be observed that tools are never ground quite so much _inside_ -as they are externally. Also that this double grinding gives a sharper -cutting-edge; but gouges require very little edging _inside_. - -Should the carver be unable to obtain a Turkey or Arkansas stone, he may -use smooth slate, or almost any stone which is tolerably hard. - -WOOD. All wood for carving should be of the best quality, well seasoned, -and free as possible from cracks, knots, or other irregularities. -Fine white pine or deal, being very easy to cut, is suitable for a -beginner. Lime and pear-tree wood, like pine, are even in the grain. -American walnut is also easy to cut. It is of a beautiful dark colour, -which is much improved by oiling and age. With this, but tougher than -the preceding, are beech, elm, and oak. Poplar, yellow deal, and the -so-called American wood (known as poplar in America, Middle States) are -useful for many kinds of work. The carver should accustom himself, as -soon as possible, to oak, as a hard wood is by no means hard to carve as -soon as a little skill is acquired. Bone, ivory, and pearl-shell, which -at the first effort seems to be almost impenetrable, after a few days -are "worked" with great ease. - -[Illustration] - - - - -FIRST LESSON. - -INDENTING AND STAMPING. - - -The first stage in wood-carving is to decorate a flat surface in very -low relief by a process which, strictly speaking, is not carving at -all. Let the beginner take a panel or thin flat board, let us say -one of six inches in breadth, twelve in length, and half an inch or -less in thickness. For this kind of work a finely grained, even, and -light-coloured wood, such as holly or beech, is preferable. Draw the -pattern on paper, of the size intended with a very black and soft lead -or crayon pencil, place it with the face to the wood, and turning -the edges over, gum them down to the edge of the panel. Then with -some very smooth hard object, such as an agate or steel burnisher, an -ivory paper-knife, or the end of a rounded and glossy penknife handle, -carefully rub the back of the pattern. When this is done remove the -paper, and the pattern will be found transferred to the wood. If -imperfect, touch it up. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.] - -The pupil may now, with a pattern-wheel or tracer, indent or mark a line -or narrow groove in the outline of the pattern. The tracer is the same -implement of the same name which is used in _repousse_ or brass-sheet or -metal-work. Its end is exactly like that of a screw-driver. To manage -it properly hold it upright, and run it along, tapping it as it goes -with a hammer of iron or wood, Fig. 20. In some countries a stick of -wood about six inches in length, and an inch broad at the butt, is used. -Where the wheel cannot be employed, as in small corners, use the tracer. -The pointed tracer, Fig. 21, used in leather-work, and in carpentry, is -often indispensable for the smaller pattern-work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21. POINTED AND EDGED TRACER.] - -When the outline is all marked out in a groove, take one of the -_stamps_, or grounding punches, shown on Fig. 23, and with the hammer -indent the whole background, Fig. 24. If there be corners too small to -admit the stamp or stamps for the same pattern, then finish them up with -a pointed nail or any point, such as a bodkin. The result will be like -the simple design in Fig. 23. When this is done, coat the whole with -oil, rub it in, and wipe it off with care. Then with a piece of very -soft wood polish only the pattern, and finally rub it off by hand or -with a stiff brush. This kind of ornamentation is adapted to the covers -of books or albums, as it can be applied to the thinnest sheets of wood. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23. STAMPS.] - -Another way to improve this work is to take the tracer, and smooth down -and depress the ground, especially near the pattern edge. This gives -an improved relief. Then the ground may be stamped or "matted," Fig. -24. It may be borne in mind that the pupil who masters this process of -indenting with wheel, tracers, and stamps, will be quite able to work -patterns in damp sheet-leather, since the latter is effected in the -same way with the same tools. Nor does the first step in _repousse_ -or sheet-brass work differ greatly from it. All the minor arts have a -great deal in common; many of the tools used in one being applicable to -others. The pupil who begins with some knowledge of drawing will soon -find it easy to work in any material. - -The pupil having done this, has an idea of how a pattern is _placed_ -or _spaced_ and contrasted with the ground. He may now take another -panel, and having drawn the pattern, cut out the outline in a light -groove with a very small gouge or a V tool, or a _firmer_. Let him be -very careful to hold the handle in his right hand, and guide the blade -with the fingers of the left, _and never to let the latter get before -the point_. Do not cut deeply or too rapidly. Before beginning on the -pattern, practise cutting grooves on waste wood. Unless this is done the -panel will almost certainly be spoiled. It is usual among carvers to -begin with cutting the groove with a V tool, but it is well to prepare -for this by using the tracer or wheel. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.] - -Fig. 27 represents the effect of a ground which is indented, and to -a degree ornamented, by using round stamps of different patterns and -sizes. Very good effects may be produced in this way, which resembles -diaper-work. - -To clearly recapitulate the process, let me observe: That to begin, -the pupil must have a smooth panel without knots or imperfections. The -pattern is drawn on this or transferred to it. This pattern should be -entirely in outline, without any inside lines or drawing between the -outside edges, Fig. 24. Take a wheel or tracer and indent the whole -pattern very carefully and rather deeply, not all at one pressure, but -by going twice or thrice over the line. Then with a stamp and hammer -indent all the background and the spaces between the edges of the -pattern. Having done this once, take another panel and pattern, and -instead of _pressing in_ the outline with a wheel or tracer, cut it with -a parting tool or gouge--not too deeply. Then indent as before, Fig. 25. - -This stamping the grounds is often miscalled _diaper_ carving, but -the diaper is, correctly speaking, a small pattern multiplied to make -a ground, and not roughly corrugating or dotting with a bodkin, or -pricking. This latter is, of course, indenting. Diapers may be either -stamped or carved like any other patterns. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.] - -This process of flattening, wheeling, tracing, and stamping wood, -though little practised now, was so common in the Middle Ages, that -there are very few galleries containing pictures with gold backgrounds -in which there are not specimens of it. Very great masters in painting -frequently practised it. After gilding the ground, they outlined the -pattern with a prick-wheel, which is quite like the rowel of a spur, and -often traced dotted patterns with the wheel itself on the flat gold. -Black or dark brown paint was then rubbed into the dots. Sometimes -the stamp was also used, and its marks or holes filled in the same -manner. It is not necessary to gild the background to produce a fine -effect. First apply a coat of varnish, polish it when dry with finest -glass-paper, then apply a coat or two of white oil paint, toned with -Naples yellow, and when it is dry work it with wheel-tracers and stamps. -When dry polish it again, and rub dark brown paint into all the lines -and dots. Cover it with two coats of fine retouching varnish, and the -effect will be that of old stamped ivory. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26. GOUGE LINES.] - -This first lesson may be omitted by those who wish to proceed at once to -carving. It is given here because it sets forth the easiest and least -expensive manner of ornamenting wood, and one which forms a curious and -beautiful art by itself. With it one can acquire a familiarity with the -method of transferring patterns to wood, and with the management of the -tracer and stamp. The pattern-wheel should be held in the right hand, -and guided by the forefinger of the left, which is a good preparatory -practice for the chisel and gouge. - -While the tools requisite for this work are few and inexpensive, it -may be observed that tolerable substitutes may be obtained for them -anywhere. Almost any knife-blade, eraser, or screw-driver can be ground -into a dull edge which may serve to trace and press the wood, while a -spike or very large nail can, with a file, be so crossed at the end as -to make a stamp. - -[Illustration: Fig. 27. INDENTED GROUND.] - - - - -SECOND LESSON. - -CUTTING GROOVES WITH A GOUGE. - - -We will now suppose that the pupil has a piece of smooth pine wood, at -least six inches by six in size, and half an inch in thickness, fastened -to the table before him. Let him draw on it two lines with a lead -pencil, across the grain, one-fourth of an inch distant from each other. -Then taking a _fluter_ or gouge of semi-circular curve, also one-fourth -of an inch in diameter, let him carefully cut away the wood between the -lines so as to form a semi-circular groove, Fig. 28 _a_. This is not to -be effected by cutting all the wood away at once. A very little should -be removed at first, so as to make a shallow groove, then this may be -cut over again till the incision is perfect. Hold the handle of the tool -firmly in the right hand, with the wrist and part of the forearm resting -on the bench; place the two first fingers of the left hand on the face -of the blade about an inch from the cutting edge, to direct and act as -a stop to prevent the tool advancing too fast. Some place the thumb -below the blade, so that it is held between the thumb and the two first -fingers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28 _a_. STRAIGHT GROOVES.] - -"Keep your mind on your work--a careless movement may cause a slip of -the tool and ruin it." Let every stroke of chisel or gouge be made and -regulated by purpose and design, not haphazard, or at random. Think -_exactly_ what you wish to cut or mean to do, and leave nothing to -involuntary action. The habit of doing this may be acquired in the first -few lessons, if you try, and when it is acquired all the real difficulty -of carving is mastered. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28 _b_. CROSS GROOVES.] - -_Never attempt to carve anything unless it is fastened to the table._ -Pupils who do this fall into the habit of holding the panel down with -the left hand, and the result is that the tool slips sooner or later, -and inflicts a wound which may be serious. Always keep both hands on the -tool. - -When the pupil shall have cut perhaps twenty straight grooves with great -care with the gouge, he may then cut cross-barred grooves, Fig. 28 _b_, -and then curved ones as in Fig. 29 _a_, _b_, _c_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29. CURVED AND CROSSING GROOVES.] - -Two sections of a circle thus intersecting form, as may be seen, a -leaf. One, two, or even three lessons may be devoted to this, _but let -the pupil go no further until he can cut these grooves perfectly_. He -will then find it excellent practice at odd intervals to carve grooves -in circles, spirals, or other forms. Groove-carving may be regarded as -line-drawing, for any pattern which can be drawn in simple lines can be -of course imitated with a gouge. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.] - -Very pretty decorative work may be effected by this gouge-grooving -alone, and in fact it was very common in the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries, as is shown by specimens in the museums of South Kensington, -Munich, Vienna, and Salzburg. The wood chosen was generally a -highly-grained or strongly-marked pine, the natural yellow colour of -which was somewhat heightened by staining, oiling, or age. The pattern, -generally a leafy one, was then outlined with a narrow, say one-third -inch gouge, and the grooves painted in with black or brown. This was -applied in many ways, but especially to large cabinets or wardrobes. It -is a very rapid and effective kind of work. - -Celtic or Irish (or Runic) patterns, which resemble ropes or ribbons -crossing one another, can be very well imitated by running these lines -with a gouge, Fig. 30. No writer on wood-carving ever seems to have -noticed what beautiful, complicated, and valuable work can be executed -in this manner alone. These lines can be painted in black, dark colours, -or red, so as to make fine effects in decorative furniture or friezes. -It may also be observed, that when cut they may be used for moulds for -plaster of Paris, papier-mache, and leather. The pupil would do well -to pass a few days in developing simple groove-work, which is worth -perfectly understanding. There are few who cannot with care learn to cut -grooves very well with a gouge after a few days' practice. I urge that -the pupil shall do this with ease before going further. _Secondly_, that -he shall actually realize what a great amount of beautiful work can be -made with one gouge of from one-fourth to one-third of an inch diameter; -as, for instance, in inscriptions, interlacing bands or any kind of -design formed of _lines_ or cords, Celtic decoration, interlacing ropes -or ribbons, etc. The artist who proposes to master carving for general -decoration should pay particular attention to this simple work. - -Beginners in carving are, without exception, so anxious to get ornaments -or leaves in relief, and to produce some kind of high-class art work, -that they pass over grooving and curve-carving or flat-cutting as of -very little consequence, when in fact it would be in every way much -more to their advantage to develop it to the utmost. The great reason -why there is at present so little decoration of broad spaces in panels, -scrolls, or furniture, by means of carving, is because all carvers are -devoted almost exclusively to more ambitious work, and ignore what may -be done with a few tools by the simplest methods. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - -THIRD LESSON. - -FLAT PATTERNS MADE WITH CUTS AND LINES--CAVO RELIEVO OR INTAGLIO -RILEVATO (CAVO-CUTTING). - - -There is an easy kind of flat or hollow carving, if it can be so called, -which is executed with a gouge or V tool, or a firmer alone, but which -produces flat patterns. Make the design, and as it is to be executed -almost entirely with lines or grooves, or small hollows, it must be -so designed that the patterns are close fitting, or separated only by -lines. Now and then, or here and there, a small corner or larger space -or cavity may be removed by a touch of the tool, but as a rule there is -little work in it beyond mere lines. However, as in the gouge-work of -the previous lesson, although anybody can learn in a day or two to "run" -the lines, yet if good patterns be available, remarkably beautiful and -valuable work may be produced by it. It is as applicable to cabinets, -chests, panels for chairs, or other kinds of decoration. Of course the -lines, or hollows, or excavations may, as in all cases, be filled in -with colour, Fig. 31. - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.] - -This work can often be very well executed with the firmer (or flat -carver's chisel) alone, and it will afford good practice to acquire -familiarity with that greatly neglected tool. - -Flat or cavo-cutting of this kind _as work_ is only a little advance on -grooving with a gouge, but its results may be very much more artistic. -It occupies a position between gouge grooving and cutting out the -ground. Each of these are as separated as so many distinct arts, but -they lead one to the other, Figs. 31-35. - -The easiest way to prepare this work is to execute the pattern on the -wood in Indian ink, and then simply cut away all the black. The lines in -leaves, etc., must be very carefully run with the V tool; all the larger -hollows should be cut with a gouge. If very large hollows, or spaces, or -grounds are left, they must be executed as described in the next lesson. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.] - -FLAT PATTERNS. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.] - -FLAT PATTERNS. - -Observe in Figs. 31 to 35 that all the carving is confined to simply -cutting away the parts indicated by the black ground. The fine lines -can be best executed with a parting or V tool, and in many instances -with the smallest gouge or veiner. Though not usual, it is excellent -practice, when possible, to learn to do this with a small _firmer_, or -carver's chisel. - -These cavo relievo or _cut-out flat patterns_ are as easy of execution -as gouge-work to any one who has learned the latter. They are not now -much studied, but they are capable of a wide application in large -decorative art. The lines and cavities look best when painted or dyed. -It is the next step beyond gouge-work, which represents simple drawing -of lines in design, and corresponds to _sketching_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.] - -Contour or rounding and modelling of course correspond to light and -shade, but plain gouge and cavo-cutting is simple _sketching_. Any -animal, or a human figure, a vase, flowers, or vines may be thus carved, -the only further condition being that the outlines shall always be -broad and bold. Great care should be exercised not to make too many -lines, especially fine ones, and in all cases to avoid detail, and make -the design as simple as you can. When in thus outlining an animal you -have clearly indicated, with as few lines as possible, what it is meant -to be, you have done enough, as in all sketching the golden rule is to -give as much representation with as little work as possible, Fig. 36. - -It may be observed that familiar and extensive practice of the very -easy gouge-groove work, and of simple flat or cavo-cutting in hollows, -if carried out on a _large_ scale, as for instance in wall and door -patterns, gives the pupil far more energy and confidence, and is more -conducive to free-hand carving and the sweep-cut, than the usual method -of devoting much time in the beginning to chipping elaborate leaves and -other small work. Therefore it will be well for the pupil to perfect -himself in such simple groove and hollow work. This was the first step -in mediaeval carving, and it was the proper one for general decoration. -It was in this manner that the old carvers of England and their masters, -the Flemings, taught their pupils. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - -FOURTH LESSON. - -CUTTING OUT A FLAT PANEL WITH A GROUND. - - -Let the pupil take a panel and draw on it a pattern, Fig. 37 _a_. He is -to cut this out in what is called flat carving, and sometimes "ribbon -work." He begins by _outlining_, which may be effected in different -ways. I. By taking a small _fluter_ or veiner, or a tooling-gouge -one-tenth of an inch in diameter, and cutting a groove all around the -pattern just outside of it, but accurately close to it. If perfect in -Lesson II. this will be very easy for him. II. He may do this also with -a V or parting tool, but the gouge is better for a _first_ attempt. III. -The outline cutting may be effected by taking a _firmer_ or carver's -chisel, one-third of an inch broad, and placing it "up and down" close -to the pattern, but sloping outwardly, give it a tap with the mallet so -as to sink it a very little way into the wood. Do not cut "straight up -and down," but so as to make a sloping bank. IV. There is yet another -way, which is more difficult and seldom practised, yet which if mastered -gives great skill in carving. Take the firmer or flat chisel, and -holding it with great care run it along the edge, sloping outwards, so -as to cut the line accurately. By means of this method the whole work -may be very well outlined. It is not urged as absolutely necessary at a -first lesson, but it is advisable to practise it sooner or later. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37 _a_.] - -When the outlining is done, let the pupil take a flat gouge (if he has -cut the line with a small gouge), and very carefully shave away the -wood from the ground. Let him cut at first very little at a time, for -his object is now not to make something to show, _but to learn how to -manage his tools_. Do not finish all the cutting in one part at once, -leaving the rest untouched, but go all over it gradually several times, -until it is nearly perfect. Let every touch tell. Remove the wood at -every cut, and leave no edges or splinters. To do this well you must -also always watch and consider the grain of the wood at the particular -spot you are operating upon; it is easy enough to see whether you are -cutting with, that is in the same direction, as the grain, or across -the grain; but it is something beyond this that has to be looked to. -It is invariable that all wood, whether cut with the grain or partly -across the grain, will be found to work better, smoother, and with less -tendency to splinter either in the one or the other direction, that -is to say, when cut from right to left, or the reverse, from left to -right. The required direction in which it will cut the smoothest is at -once shown by the behaviour of the wood itself and the quality of the -results; hence, should the work or surface show a tendency to splinter, -if possible cut it from the opposite direction, and turn the work round -on the bench should that be necessary to enable you to do it, that is, -if you cannot use the tool in either hand. Beware above all things of -letting the hands work mechanically. _Think_ of what you are about. By -learning to cut clean and flat you are taking the first step towards -the "_sweep-cut_," which will come afterwards, and which requires both -deliberation and dexterity. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37 _b_.] - -When all is cut out nicely and carefully, take an extra flat gouge and -clean "the floor," removing every trace of unevenness. Then take a -French round nail or bodkin, and with the mallet fill the ground with -little holes so as to make a rough surface; or you may use one of the -_stamps_ for this. This requires care, so that the shape of the stamp -may not be apparent. It is advisable to trim with a very sharp small -chisel, and with great care, the edge of the pattern. For this lesson it -will be best not to cut away more than one-fourth of an inch to form the -ground. - -If the outlining is done with a chisel and mallet, before cutting away -the ground, go over the outline and cut at a little distance from -the line already cut towards it, so as to remove the wood and form a -V-shaped groove, as one digs with a spade. - -Teachers or pupils are begged to remember that the sole object of this -lesson is to learn how to handle and manage the tools; that is, to -become familiar with them, and how to learn to _cut_ a ground with skill -and confidence. To do this _there should be much occasional practice on -bits of waste wood_. Therefore it is earnestly urged that no beginner -shall go further than the work described in this lesson until he or she -can execute it with accuracy and ease. When this is gained all that -remains to be done is easy. - -The reason why the "parting" or V tool is not specially recommended to -_beginners_ for outlining is, that it is the most difficult of all tools -in ordinary use to sharpen. The small gouge answers every purpose for -the work in hand. - -To recapitulate, first, we have the cutting away from between the -outlines of the pattern: If the panel be half an inch in thickness, it -should not be more than a quarter of an inch in depth. Cut over the -whole very lightly at first, and then go over it again and again. Do -not dig or cut out the whole quarter of an inch in one place at once, -leaving the rest as yet untouched. Should you do this you will be led -to cutting too deeply in some places. When the hard work is effectively -executed, and nearly all the wood is roughly cut away, the work is said -to be _bosted_ or sketched, a word supposed to be derived from the -French _ebauche_ or the Italian _abozzo_, meaning the same thing. - -After cutting Fig. 37 _a_, the pupil may proceed to 37 _b_, which is -simply an amplification of the same. - -[Illustration] - - - - -FIFTH LESSON. - -CUTTING SIMPLE LEAVES--CARVING WITH THE LEFT HAND--MODELLING OR -ROUNDING--SHADED PATTERNS AND MODELLING--PROGRESS TOWARDS RELIEF. - - -It will be very much to the advantage of the pupil, so soon as he can -cut confidently and correctly with the gouge or chisel, to practise -with the _left_ hand as well as the right. The younger he is the easier -will it be to form this habit. A carving tool is sharpened from both -sides because the edge, so made, enables the artist to cut from many -positions without turning the wood, and when he can use both hands he -has the same advantage to a greater degree. Try, therefore, to acquire a -perfect command of the tools, so as to cut with both hands, and in many -directions and ways, the greatest care being always taken, however, that -you do not turn the point towards yourself, lest an unwary slip should -produce a wound. When you can _cut_ with confidence, and do not rely -under any circumstance on splitting, digging, prizing up, "wriggling," -or rocking with the gouge to remove wood, then you can tell beforehand -what you are about to do. To attain this skill you must frequently -practise cutting on waste wood, and not spend all your time on perfectly -finished work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.] - -The pupil has been instructed in Lesson IV. how to cut out the ground -from a flat panel, leaving the pattern in relief. Very beautiful -patterns may be executed with very little finish; and a vast proportion -of beautiful old Gothic wood-carving depended far more on outline than -on modelling for its effect. Modelling is the rounding or shaping a -pattern to give it form. Now _leaves_, in one shape or another, more or -less natural, form a great proportion of all decorative design. When -they are simplified from the original type, and made merely ornamental, -yet still preserving so much of the original shape that we can plainly -see what that type was, they are said to be "conventionalized." It is, -therefore, very important that the wood-carver should know how to carve -leaves well. He has already learned how to make the simple outline -or groove of one or many with a gouge, and how to remove the wood -surrounding them. He may now go a step further and cut with great care -the elementary pattern, Fig. 38. Use a flat gouge for gradually rounding -and carving the surface, beginning with the outer or lower edge, and -working up to the stem. The pupil will do this as well again, and with -far greater confidence and ease, should he begin firstly by making a -shaded copy of a leaf in pencil, then modelling it in clay, and then -copying this in wood. The time thus spent will be gained in the end -many times over by the skill and dexterity and eye-training acquired. - -[Illustration: Panel in Low-relief] - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.] - -The first step in rounding a leaf is effected simply by "wasting" or -chipping away little by little by straightforward cutting. This is -the same for convexities and hollows. Such rounding and undulation is -performed by skilled artists with very few tools, including gouges, -skew-chisels, rasps, files, and the double-bent gouge. - -The student may, in the beginning, round and scoop his leaves with any -tools which seem fit, if he will only cut with the utmost caution, -and keep the implements well sharpened. A very important and rather -difficult part of this work is the cutting the ribs or stems which -run through the leaf. One implement for this purpose is the so-called -"macaroni tool," but at present it is really very little used, owing to -the great difficulty of keeping it sharp, and its liability to break. -Nearly all veining can be executed with the fluter or large veiner, the -hollow gouge, the V tool, or the flat gouge, according to circumstances. - -"The wood," as Eleanor Rowe remarks, "should be taken off in short, -sharp touches, and not by deep and long cuts, and no attempt should be -made to obtain a smooth surface until the form and general modelling of -the leaf is done." The edge of the leaf may be a little under-cut to -give relief; this effect should be given by a V tool or small veiner. -When the leaf is correct in form, proceed with flat gouges to remove the -tool marks, holding the tool very firmly, and inclining it to an angle -of about 45 deg.. - -It is advisable for the beginner to cut several simple leaves with great -care, Fig. 39, and, if possible, let him draw, shade carefully, and -model them all in clay before carving them. He will be astonished to -find how much easier the latter process is, and with what confidence it -can be carried out, after the two former have been executed. Having for -several years had under my supervision large classes in wood-carving, -both with and without modelling in clay, I speak from experience on this -subject. - -It is to be observed that, as leaves and sprays involve every possible -curve, he who can design, model, and carve them well, will find no -difficulty in executing birds, animals, or the human face or figure. In -their simplest forms, or in flat work, these are all extremely easy. -Then they may be a little rounded, or modelled, and so going on, step by -step, the carver may come to full relief. Oak leaves are, perhaps, the -most graceful of all objects, and lend themselves to as many forms as -the acanthus, but they are also very difficult in their more advanced -developments. Therefore they form an admirable subject for study. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SIXTH LESSON. - -CUTTING WITH THE GRAIN--TURNING THE TOOL--THE DRILL--BOLD CARVING--AND -LARGE WORK. - - -In both large and small carving there is one common difficulty, the -frequent resistance of the grain of the wood and defects incidental to -it. This question has already been touched upon in the Fourth Lesson, -where the pupil has been told that he will usually find the wood cut -more readily from the one side towards the other. To this may be added, -that as he progresses and carves in higher relief he will not only -find the same thing in working leaves and other ornament, but he will -also find that some portions about these will always cut better, more -smoothly, and without splintering, when the tool cuts downwards, that -is, from the surface towards the background, but with other and quite -adjacent portions when the tool is made to cut the reverse way or -upwards. As a first rule, therefore, so soon as there is the smallest -sign of splintering, try the cut from an opposite direction to remove -it, and it should cease. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.] - -Further, if the edge of the gouge or firmer cut in certain directions -_against_ the grain of the wood, it will "catch," or tear, or splinter. -As another precaution against this, the carver may shift the position of -the wood by unscrewing it, if it is held by a clamp or holdfast. This -is more easily effected if he have, in the French fashion, only three -or four nails driven into the table, in which case he has only to pick -his work up and put it into a different position; or he may shift his -own position. But it is best of all to be able to carve with both hands, -a feat which, after all, is not difficult to acquire, and which comes -very soon with a little practice; and to master the art of _turning the -tool about and cutting in any position_, which also comes with practice -to an incredible extent. He who can do this, can manage to cut with the -grain in most cases without shifting the block. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.] - -Wood should _never_ be torn or ripped; everything should be done by -clean, smooth cutting. To make sure of this you must first of all keep -every tool as sharp as a razor all the time, and always cut with the -grain. Cutting diagonally, or partly across, is still cutting with the -grain, and is easier and surer than going parallel with it. - -Mark out the pattern, Figs. 40 or 41, and outline it. The Greek and -Roman workmen, and very often those of later but early times, with a -gimlet, or drill, or centre-bit, bored out holes here and there, both -in wood-carving and in stone, and worked up to, or around these. They -formed beginnings, as it were, to guide the gouge or chisel. These -were often of great practical utility wherever a small round cavity -occurred, but their chief use in wood was to aid and direct the tool in -certain places where there were difficulties of grain to contend with, -or sharp points or corners of ornaments likely to be broken off. I was -once puzzled to know why the drill was so much more used in ancient than -in modern carving, but reflection convinced me that where decorative -work must be done expeditiously or cheaply, and a little coarseness of -execution did not signify, it was a very great aid. - -In the pattern, Fig. 38, the leaf is easy to cut; that is to say, one -single leaf. Cutting it once more, or repeating it, is only doing the -same work over again; yet if this same leaf, or another not a bit more -difficult, be repeated twenty-five or thirty times in a wreath, it -will seem to be a very difficult piece of work. Now, it is a matter -of importance to understand that if you can do a very small, simple -piece of wood-carving really well, you can also by mere patience -and repetition execute a piece of work which would seem to be very -remarkable, or quite beyond your power. The illustration to this -lesson, Fig. 40, shows what I mean. Almost any one with care could -cut out a leaf, and he who has done one can _repeat_ it in any other -arrangement. Now a vast proportion of all decorative patterns in flat -or ribbon-work, and even in higher relief, are formed on this principle -of repetition, or of so-called "lobes," so that he who can carve even a -little neatly may be confident almost from the beginning of being able -to execute even valuable work. - -Such a panel as Fig. 41, when once carved, may serve for the lid or -sides of a box, the cover of an album, or any object with a smooth, -flat surface. But I cannot repeat too often this injunction, to -constantly practise cutting on waste wood, so as to acquire facility -of hand, before attempting anything which is to be shown or sold. It -is unfortunately true that, left to himself or herself, there is not -a pupil in a thousand who would not devote all the time or work to -producing show-pieces, even at the first cutting, instead of practising -so as to learn how to produce them. - -When pupils have teachers who are practical and workmanlike, it is -probable that as soon as they can handle the tools they will be set at -_bold, large work_. This is fortunate for them, since it is the greatest -advantage one can have, be it in Design, Modelling, Wood-carving, or any -other art of the kind, to be made familiar with free-hand, large, and -vigorous execution. - -[Illustration] - - [Illustration: HIGHLY FINISHED STUDIES OF FOLIAGE. _P. 48._] - - - - -[Illustration] - -SEVENTH LESSON. - -THE SWEEP-CUT OR FREE-HAND CARVING--CUTTING NOTCHES IN LEAVES--THE -ROUND-CUT. - - -Boldness in cutting is a matter of very great importance, since no -one can carve really well till he gets beyond chipping or "wasting." -To carve boldly we must use the sweep-cut. It may be observed that in -modelling in clay there are certain methods of shaping the material, -which are quite peculiar; as, for instance, when we press the modelling -tool down or up, and at the same time turn it to the left or right. This -makes an inclination upwards or a depression downwards, yet sloping to -one side or the other. It is made by two movements in one; so in cutting -with a sword or long knife, if we chop, yet at the same instant _draw_ -the blade, the result is a much deeper incision. This is called the -draw-cut, and by means of it a man may cut a sheep in two, or sever a -handkerchief or lace veil thrown into the air. - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.] - -Very much like this is the double motion of the hand in the _sweep-cut_, -which must be acquired by all who would learn to carve leaves well. It -is not quite true that all work must go through the three stages of -blocking out, bosting, and finishing; for when leaves are carved with -the sweep-cut they are generally finished at one operation. With this -cut, which is usually performed with a flat gouge, the wood is removed -so as to give a peculiar form or curve--as when a leaf slopes down and -sideways--by a single but compound movement; that is, we must, while -pressing the edge, also move it or give it a slight lateral motion. -This sweep or side-cut is developed more fully in sloping larger and -especially rounded surfaces, like whole leaves, which rise and fall, -or undulate, Figs. 41, 42. This cut, by means of which one can carve -with confidence the most brittle and difficult wood, requires a tool -of very good quality, which must be kept scrupulously sharp. It must -be practised on waste wood till the pupil is a master of it, but when -it is once acquired, wood-carving, as regards all large and effective -work, may be said to really have no further difficulties. With some it -seems to come all at once, by inspiration. - -The simplest or first form of the sweep-cut occurs in making leaves. -Every one who has tried this knows that the cutting the notches or -making lobes in the wood, but especially the shaping the points, is -a difficult matter, for if we simply shove or press the edge of the -cutter, as in ordinary or _plane_ work, the leaf will probably break, -especially if the wood be "splitty," uneven, or brittle. Having marked -out a circle to include the lobes of the leaf, we cut a notch half way -between the proposed points, and by shaving first from one side and then -the other, bring the leaf or its lobes into shape, Fig. 43. Of course, -in doing this we cut _from_ the point to the corners. - -For the present it will suffice to apply it in its simplest and easiest -form to cutting groups of leaves. In the previous lesson the pupil -has been told how to cut out a single plain leaf in relief by simply -"wasting" or chipping away the wood little by little with a flat gouge. -In like manner it might be filed, or rasped, or scraped like metal, -into shape. Let the pupil now sketch Fig. 43, and then bost it out, by -cutting round and clearing away as already described. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.] - -The dotted lines indicate the original shape or circles in which the -leaves are cut. When it is "all done but the finishing," or bosted, then -cut the notches backwards in the manner already described. And, as I -have said, if the pupil has practised the sweep-cut, and keeps his flat -gouge perfectly sharp, he may cut the finest notches in the smallest -leaves in the splittiest wood without once breaking away a piece. - -The sweep-cut gives perfect confidence, and he who has acquired it, and -knows how to apply it so as to make any curve or boss or involution -which he pleases, may be said to have passed from the amateur stage to -that of the artist, or at least of the clever workman. By means of it -one can model the most refractory wood into any shape, and to any one -who is expert at it oak is as easy to carve as pine. Therefore the pupil -should spare no pains to acquire it; and it will come sooner perhaps -than he expects if he first of all takes all pains to understand what it -really is, and secondly to practise it for a few hours on waste wood. -There are, however, many carvers who pass months or years in "wasting" -away wood by simple straight cutting or chipping before they get any -idea of what a sweep-cut is--if indeed they ever learn it. But if the -pupil has previously acquired skill, that is to say, ease and confidence -in running gouge lines and hollow cutting and shaping simple leaves -by straight cutting, he will without doubt find that the free-hand -sweep-cut comes as by inspiration. - -[Illustration] - - - - -EIGHTH LESSON. - -FURTHER APPLICATION OF THE SWEEP-CUT TO HIGHER RELIEF. - - -When a leaf is in its ordinary natural condition it is generally flat, -but while growing or fading it often curls and twists into remarkable -and graceful shapes, which are extensively employed in decoration. -Before going further I would impress it on the intelligent student that -the mere literal imitation of any kind of leaf, so that it would look -exactly like a _real_ leaf if it were only coloured, should seldom or -never enter within the province of wood-carving as a general decorative -art. - -What the pupil should do in copying leaves and flowers, etc., or in -modelling them for carving, is to observe their characteristic shape and -contour, to follow all their graceful lines and bends, depressions and -swellings, and give the general expression and spirit of these without -striving _too_ accurately to make a mere leaf. He should not make it so -thin that it would break with a slight blow. A great deal of the most -admired work of the present day is of this kind, which will hardly bear -dusting. A leaf may always be cut, as we see it done in classical and -in ancient work, so solidly and firmly as to resist the wear and tear of -centuries. As nobody is expected to believe that it is a real leaf when -it is palpably cut out of wood or stone, we may as well conventionalize -it (that is, keep only a general likeness to a leaf), and make it -attractive by grace and skilful combination. And this can be done if we -only cut out the leaf in its _general_ form and leave a strong base for -it to rest on, so that it may be safely dusted or rubbed against. The -student should try to understand this, for it will enable him to make -all effects necessary in decorative work, and save him much needless -petty labour. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.] - -If the pupil has practised the sweep-cut, and can with confidence work -in any direction, with both hands, he may now attempt oak-leaves in -which there are varied slopes, cavities, and swellings, Figs. 44 and 45. -These seem to have been the favourite subjects of the old modellers and -carvers. Perhaps the best designing of the kind in existence is that -by Adam Kraft, in Nuremberg. I repeat here, that the more difficult and -varied a leaf is the more necessity is there for the pupil to model it -in clay, or at least to draw and shade it carefully, before beginning. -The reason is this, that, having its principal points in the memory, -it is much easier to reproduce them when cutting in wood; we know then -when and where to turn the hand or the tool. And it is well to bear in -mind that this practical and necessarily accurate, though often hasty, -sketching and shading of the workshop grows very rapidly on the pupil, -so that, being driven to it, he learns to do such drawing more promptly -and vigorously than he would in a school or class. - -In making the sweep-cut it is necessary _to get the bend_ or movement, -which is directing the gouge in the proper route. In ordinary cutting we -only push the blade forward; in the sweep-cut there is a "draw" or side -movement as well as a push. But the _bend_ or direction constitutes, so -to speak, a third movement, and this is the most difficult to determine. -To get a certain symmetrical turn or curve we cut _without seeing_, -whereas in ordinary cutting or "wasting" we see clearly just what we are -going to slice off, and take it away with confidence. But with a little -practice on waste wood, the sweep or draw-cut will become so familiar -that one can execute the most difficult curves, not by chipping away, -but by a bold sweep. Amateurs who have taught themselves can generally -cut or chip only straightforwards; they cannot turn or curve a leaf with -a sweep. The combined movement given to the tool in making the sweep-cut -may be thus analyzed, and if the three distinct forces applied to the -tool be first understood and then kept in mind in making such cuts, -success will soon and easily result. Suppose we are engaged upon the -surface of a leaf which slopes generally downwards and off to one side, -but also has a rise or mound somewhere in the course of the slope, and -most leaves have one or more such undulations. With the gouge, straight -or bent, grasped firmly in the right hand, and the two fingers of the -left hand pressed on the surface _and side_ of the blade about an inch -from the cutting edge--the position already described: the tool is -pushed straight forward for the entire length of the cut by the right -hand; at the same time the blade is pushed to the right or pulled to the -left by the two fingers of the left hand to the extent, and as the slope -may travel to the right or the left; and thirdly, the right wrist is -raised or lowered to cause the tool to travel over the intended mounds -or undulations on the leaf. Now these three distinct movements or forces -exerted on the tool merge into one another, and may be said to be used -simultaneously, and are really one continuous movement, which gives -the sweep-cut; but the extent to which any one preponderates of course -depends upon the particular shape of the leaf or scroll being carved, -and is soon found out by but little practice upon different forms. - -In commencing or bosting out this pattern, Fig. 44, and all others in -high relief, the pupil will do well to observe that he should select -a gouge whose sweep will fit the curve of the leaf in the part it is -intended to begin upon, and placing the edge of the gouge outside, but -quite close to the line, and holding the tool at a slope so as to cut -away from it outwards, give it a moderate blow with the mallet. Take -care not to drive the gouge in too deeply. This is the _blocking out_ of -the leaf, or outlining in the solid. And in doing this, begin by making -or cutting the general outline only. Leave the second-sized interstices -or hollows for a second cutting, and the smaller notches of the leaves -and fine corners for a final finishing. In this pattern, Fig. 44, also -Figs. 42 and 45, the leaves should be of the natural size, or from three -to five inches in length. - - [Illustration: Fig. 45. - - CIRCULAR PANEL IN HIGHER RELIEF.] - -Most beginners cut too closely under the leaf, so as to get at once to -relief, which looks like finish. As a rule it is better, whatever the -pattern be, in flat ribbon-work or high relief, to always rather slant -outwards. For in the first place, when we come to finish in ribbon-work, -the pupil may find it necessary to cut so much away to bevel or round -or undercut the pattern, that (especially when it is in narrow lines) -the _thinning_ away will quite destroy their proportions. But it is -well on yet another account to be very sparing of this paring away and -undercutting. There are far too many wood-carvers who cut away under in -order to make leaves thin and natural, till they are like paper, and -much more fragile. This is greatly admired as indicating "skill," and it -certainly demands skill of a common order to effect. But it requires a -much higher and nobler kind of _art_ and will to make the leaves strong -and firm, even if we conventionalize them--so that their curves are -really beautiful. And this may be done, and at the same time all the -most beautiful and characteristic features of leaves be preserved. - -In ribbon or flat carving, a strong shadow or relief may be got as -follows. In cutting, slant the chisel or gouge outwards at an angle of -45 deg., thus /. When the grounding is finished, cut under the slope, half -way up. The outline will then be like a =<=. This sharp edge may -be cut away a very little, such as [symbol], or even into a rounded =(=, -in which case there will be a marked line of shadow all round -the edge. - -Having blocked out the whole quasi-perpendicularly, that is, in one -direction or on one side, proceed to cut away the most apparent hollows -or depressions. With care and measurement even the beginner will soon -find his leaves beginning to assume shape. If he has not learned as yet -to cut and sweep boldly, he may finish the whole by simply wasting the -wood away with straight cutting, aided by the file, riffler, or rasp. -In fact, for many beginners, and especially for those who are slow to -learn, this straight cutting and rasping is really advisable, because -it at least makes them familiar with handling tools, and teaches them -how to model and hollow out. Beginners always experience great dread or -hesitation as regards hollowing and curving "in the round," but when -they perceive that an object is beginning to assume shape they take -heart, and when they have succeeded with one or two by easy, certain -work, even with the help of rasps, they will carve with more confidence. - -[Illustration: ORNAMENT FROM THE DUOMO, FLORENCE.] - - - - -[Illustration] - -NINTH LESSON. - -CARVING SIMPLE FIGURES OR ANIMAL FORMS--FIGURINI FOR CABINETS--SIMPLE -ROUNDED EDGES AND APPROACH TO MODELLING. - - -When the pupil has had some practice in carving leaves and similar -ornaments in relief, he soon learns to deepen or to cut them higher and -higher, and then to model them into form. He may now, if he chooses, -attempt some simple animal forms. A bird, a duck, or a hare hanging up, -will present no special difficulty to him, firstly, if he will obtain -one of Swiss work, already carved in wood, and imitate it. There are few -towns where he cannot obtain something of the kind. It is true that -much Swiss wood-carving is not at all to be recommended as regards style -or finish, but it will do very well for a beginning. The best method -would of course be to model a hare in clay after a dead one. In any case -he can make a beginning by buying some toy animals, carved in wood and -not painted. These are made by being sawn or turned out of wood into -the profile section. This is then sliced into many pieces and each of -these carved, sometimes fairly well, into an animal. The wool or hair is -imitated in the very small gouges or V tools, and sometimes scraped with -a rasp, comb, or other tool. After the blocking out such work presents -no peculiar difficulty. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.] - -The process is quite as easy as regards the ordinary or grotesque -animals in Gothic carving. Draw such an animal, Fig. 46 or 48 _a_ or -_b_, and having fairly bosted it out, proceed to very gradually round -away the edges. If it be, for instance, a serpent, which is everywhere -round, this process is very simple, especially if after the cutting we -smooth it with files and glass-paper. It will shape itself. Now the -limbs of animals, and even of human beings in low relief, may be rounded -in this manner to approximate correctness; or to correctness enough -for initial ornamental processes. As the pupil proceeds, and improves -in modelling and advances to copying--let us say excellent patterns of -Renaissance and classic work--he will go far beyond such beginning. -But there is in itself absolutely no reason why, if he only draws his -outlines correctly, he should not begin by this simple Gothic work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.] - -Whatever a pupil can draw from life or a block, _that_ he can shadow; -and whatever he can draw and shadow he can model (or _vice versa_); and -whatever he can model, he can execute in wood; nor would the working it -out in sheet brass or leather trouble him at all. This is the best way -to work, so much the best that, under all circumstances, and in spite -of all drawbacks, every wood-carver should strive with all his heart to -learn to draw and model; for in so doing he will learn a great deal more -than all three of these cuts put together, for he will most assuredly -have acquired a faculty which will help him in anything which he may -undertake. - -Having learned to sketch out, bost, and round simple figures, I advise -the pupil to execute a number of them, with or without leaves and -ornaments. He may thus sketch and cut fishes, animals of all kinds, -human figures in outline, until he feels a certain confidence and ease -as regards their execution. - -What the pupil must do, therefore, in this lesson, is to draw, bost out, -and round easy animal forms. At this stage let him pay more attention -to the few points which constitute general correctness in a sketch than -to minor details. I refer to the general distances of the eyes, joints, -outlines of legs and back in a horse, deer, hog, etc. - -[Illustration: Fig. 48 _a_.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 48 _b_.] - -Simple figures may be executed in flat or ribbon-work, or in the lowest -relief, as well as in any other work. - -The Italian carvers, for cabinet making, in the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries, made great use of _figurini_, Fig. 49, also the ornament on -page 60. These were little statues, generally of human beings, from -three to five inches in length. They were, in ordinary work, rather -sketched out than elaborately carved, but the effect was good; sometimes -a hundred of them would be worked into a single cabinet. These -_figurini_ were also very freely used in later Roman and Roman Byzantine -stone and ivory work, generally as rows of saints or scriptural -personages, every one filling a niche under a round arch. These latter -were often as rudely and simply shaped as it is possible to conceive, -yet, owing to their "making up" or disposition, as subordinate parts -they were in good taste. Any carver with a little practice can produce -them. Rows of _figurini_ in niches were frequently used for borders, or -to surround caskets. - -[Illustration: HANGING BOX FOR A CORNER.] - - - - -[Illustration] - -TENTH LESSON. - -FINISHING OFF--IMITATION OF OLD AND WORN WORK--WHERE POLISHING IS -REQUIRED. - - -The finishing off of wood-carving depends on what the work in hand may -be. If it is a piece of carefully executed foliage, or leaves (and -leaves, like _crochets_ in decorative art, is a term widely applied to -all shooting out or growing ornaments), it is of course the best plan to -finish only with the gouge or chisel, so that the skill of the artist in -clean cutting may be evident. But it has become the fashion for writers -on wood-carving to insist on it, as a law without exception, that all -wood-carving must be finished by cutting; that glass-paper and files -should on no account be used, and that a carver should not seek to -smooth over the surface of his carving, as if to conceal how his work -has been executed. In wood-carving, as in everything else, a true artist -does not go by mere rule. He uses what tools he pleases, and finishes as -he pleases. He does not confine his work to a single kind, and declare -that everything should be limited to that in which he or certain experts -excel. An examination of the beautiful and curious wood-carving in the -great hall in Venice will convince any one that other things as well -as leaves may be carved in wood; and that when these represent, for -instance, old books with metal clasps, or household utensils, or arms, -imitation may be legitimately carried so far as to polish the surface. -Again, it may very often occur to the artist to imitate old and worn -objects, such as a pilgrim's bottle, a casket or horn, for age in this -way often gives very beautiful and curious effects of light and shadow, -polish or roughness, differing very much and very advantageously from -the stereotyped uniformity of style of too many schools. All of this -requires a wide departure from the no-polish theory. - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.] - -The truth is that the beginner should indeed _learn_ to cut clean and -well, and to do all his work with an edge, without files or glass-paper, -but there is no law why he should go no further. A great deal of the -beauty of many old objects comes from a certain worn look, by which they -have lost some crude defects. We will now consider how such polish may -be given. - -Draw on a panel half an inch thick, more or less, Fig. 49. Having bosted -it out, _very_ slightly undercut the figure, not completely, but by -rounding the edge a little. Do this firstly with the chisel, as neatly -as possible; then take files. For many places in your work, especially -for smoothing grounds where the work is difficult and the curved tool -not available, a bent file is most useful, and these may be had of -every shape and curve. For rough finishing you may use rasps and large -rifflers, for finer work small files. Having brought your work into -shape, you may scrape the ground flat with pieces of broken glass or a -tool made for the purpose, or a chisel. Then take glass or glass-paper, -the former being greatly preferable, and with care finish still more. It -may now be advisable to oil all the carving, if oil is to be applied. -Lay the oil on with a broad flat brush, but if there are any places -which it will not reach, use a smaller paint or camel's hair pencil. -Let the oil soak in for a few days in a warm room. Then with a piece -of very soft pine wood, rub with great care. The harder you rub the -better the polish will be, but also the greater the risk of bending or -indenting the surface of the carving; therefore great care is necessary. -The longer this polishing is continued the better the effect will be. -Workmen often spend as much time in polishing a piece of work intended -to be handled as it took to carve it. - -It may be observed that in using the glass-paper it is often very -difficult to get into certain holes or cavities. These are reached -either by making a bit of the paper into a roll, or by folding or -rolling it around the end of a stick cut for the purpose. But the -most effective way of all is to take a stick, say of the size of a -lead pencil, or according to the cavity, round the end with a gouge -and glass-paper, dip the end into glue, and, while it is moist, into -powdered glass. When dry these make admirable finishers, and they can be -again dipped when the glass begins to wear off. Glass may in this manner -be put on the ends of old bent files. - -When there are figures of animals, or leaves, or bands intended to be -thus finished and polished _all'antico_, or to resemble worn work, it is -not advisable to put in them too much inside work or _in-lines_. Inside -work is, for instance, the feathers on a bird, the hair on an animal, -the scales on a fish, the middle lines and veins of leaves. A very few -lines to serve as indications must suffice. But the student of old and -time-worn carving cannot fail to draw all these conclusions for himself. - -The last finish to be given to such work may be executed by rubbing -with the hand. This communicates to certain kinds of wood and other -substances a peculiar polish, which nothing else can really give. - -In a very large proportion of simple flat or ribbon-work the effect is -very much increased or improved by polishing the pattern, and leaving -the ground rough or indenting it. This is not only perfectly legitimate, -but commonly done in marble or metal _repousse_ of every kind, as well -as leather-work, and yet every writer on wood-carving repeats as a -duty the injunction that there must be "no polishing," and nothing but -cutting. This is, indeed, equivalent to prohibiting the application of -wood-carving to furniture, objects to be handled, house and many other -kinds of decoration. But, in fact, there are instances in decoration in -which paint or dyes, French polish, nails or other metal work, may be -most artistically and beautifully combined with wood-carving, as many -thousands of relics of the Middle Ages and Renaissance prove. - -Polishing a pattern makes it shine, while roughing or dotting a surface -darkens it. Therefore, when we want in decoration bold effects of light -and shade, we may legitimately polish the parts which are in relief. -Elaborately cut work which is to be studied by itself in detail, and not -simply as a part of a whole, need not be polished or rough; its finish -will depend on the conditions of its design. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - -ELEVENTH LESSON. - -DIAPER-WORK--STAMPED DIAPER-PATTERNS--CUTTING DIAPERS. - - -That which is called diaper-work is where the ground consists of one -generally small pattern frequently repeated at regular intervals. It -is so called from the well-known diaper or figured linen cloth, from -the Old French _diapre_, meaning the same, from the verb _diaprez_, -to diaper, or "diversifie with flourishings" (Cotgrave). The verb, -according to Skeat, is from the Old French _diaspre_, later _jasper_, a -stone much used for ornamental jewellery. Italian, _diaspro_, a jasper. -"_Diaper_, to decorate with a variety of colours, or to embroider on a -rich ground" (Anglo-Norman). "There was a rich figured cloth so called" -(Strutt, ii. 6), as "also a kind of printed linen" (Halliwell). The -latter are still common. It is, however, most probable that the word -really comes, as Fairholt asserts, from Ypres, _i.e._, d'Ypres, which -was famous for such work. Some writers apply the term to merely dotting, -indenting, or roughening a ground, but it is properly applicable to -small figures. - -STAMPED DIAPER PATTERNS. These may be produced firstly and most readily -by means of wood, stamped or punched, Fig. 23 and 27, and a hammer or -mallet. Practise with these first on waste wood. It is not at first -easy to repeat them at perfectly regular intervals, making one the same -as the other. The work is greatly facilitated by drawing lines like -a chequer or chess-board on the ground, and making a stamp or diaper -in every dot, or all along the lines. Punches for this purpose may be -had in great variety. This class of stamped work is very effective for -narrow edgings and borders, and on fillets, which would otherwise be -tedious and difficult to carve. With but little practice this work can -be executed with great rapidity. - -CUTTING DIAPERS. There are some patterns which are very easily cut with -a single tool, as, for instance, squares, diamonds, and triangles. For -these a firmer or chisel is sufficient. The reader will observe that one -square, etc., is removed alternately, and another left. In designing or -selecting these, or any diapers, care must be taken to choose such as -fit together exactly. But any figures of this kind, whatever they are, -are well adapted for grounds. - -A more advanced style of diaper-work is made by cutting lines with the -parting-tool or smallest gouge, unless, indeed, you are expert enough to -do it with a chisel or firmer. - - [Illustration: Fig. 50. - - A SINGLE DIAPER REPEATED.] - -This was the commonest kind of diapering on caskets in the Middle Ages. -A very pretty effect was often produced by filling these lines with -dark brown or black paint. In any case, when oiled, or as they grew old, -and dust and oil or moisture worked into them, they became dark. It has -already been said that any kind of mere _line_-work can be executed on -a smooth wooden surface by means of a V tool, or generally by a small -gouge. It may also be effected with a tracing-wheel, or with a tracer, -or with any rather dull-pointed instrument. In hard wood of a light -colour very beautiful effects may thus be produced. - -The next step is to cut lines, and combine with these cutting out and -excavating spaces, as in ordinary carving. Nevertheless, it is not, as -a rule, a good plan to make diapers too ornamental or elaborate; for -this will lead to making them large, and then they will draw attention -from the pattern, if there is one, or the main figures. When the whole -surface is all diaper, as in a carpet, the diapers may be as large and -as elaborate as one chooses to make them. - -There is but one general rule for designing the diaper. Draw a -chess-board, and then by diagonals convert these into "points up and -down," squares, or triangles; or fill the equal spaces with equilateral -triangles, hexagons, circles, or pentagons, etc.[1] These may be filled -in with any suitable decoration. In Fig. 50 portions of the original -surface of the panel have been left as ridges to separate the diapers, -and then every one of the latter has been carved with the same ornament; -a rather advanced example, but cut only in moderate relief. Another -plate, Fig. 52, gives a variety of suitable figures in low relief; some -two or three of these should be chosen and repeated in regular order in -neighbouring spaces. - - [1] To draw these and ornament them, consult "Drawing and - Designing," by C. G. Leland; London, Whittaker and Co. - - [Illustration: Fig. 51. - - A VARIETY OF DIAPER PATTERNS.] - -Where the main object is simple decoration of surfaces, plain -diaper-cutting is an important industry, and one by means of which, with -no very great degree of skill, beautiful results may be obtained. Thus, -large pieces of furniture, chests, and especially walls or wainscoats, -may be expeditiously adorned by means of it, even by one who is far -from being able to carve in the round or cut leaves. It may be very -much facilitated in many ways. One of these is to cut out the patterns -in duplicate, many at once in paper, paste them on the wood, and carve -round them. Then wet the paper, and thoroughly remove it with a stiff -brush. Another plan is to cut out the pattern in card-board, thin brass, -or wood, and stencil it with a lead pencil or colour which will wash -off. Then cut away as before. It is extremely easy, when we have once -cut a certain figure a few times, to go on repeating it, and beginners -can, therefore, with great advantage, be set at diaper-cutting, since -they thereby acquire not only a familiarity with the use of the tools, -but by dint of repetition familiarize themselves perfectly with at least -one process; for the greatest trouble in all arts and studies is, that -they do not, at any early step, sufficiently master any one thing. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - -TWELFTH LESSON. - -BUILDING-UP, OR APPLIQUE WORK. - - -It will often happen that in carving, while most of the work is on a -level, some portion, generally the centre, will rise above the rest, or -project beyond it, illustrated by Fig. 52. It would often be a waste of -wood and time to cut this out of a single piece. In such cases we merely -glue an extra piece of wood on, and carve it into shape. Sometimes in -carving a face, only the nose, and perhaps the chin, require to be -added. It is said that this method of gluing wood on to wood to obtain -additional relief was first extensively practised by Grinling Gibbons. - -In Germany this addition of a central "boss" is so well understood, -that in many shops they sell heads or faces of men, women, or animals, -wreaths, and similar centres or bosses for carvers who can execute -flat or ribbon-work, but not high relief. In this way very ornamental -or showy pieces of work may be executed with the least possible pains -and expense. In the same manner a piece of old carving, or, it may -be, several pieces, are taken or saved from some half-ruined ancient -specimen, and well glued on a sound piece of old wood exactly like them -in colour and texture. This is then carved in the same style. In this -way really valuable work may be easily made, for such half-decayed -pieces of old carving are too often thrown away, and may often be -purchased for a trifle. - -Still, this method of _applique_, or applied wood on wood, though it -may be resorted to in certain cases to save a great deal of cutting -and material, may be carried too far, when it degenerates into mere -manufacture. - -_Applique_ work of this kind falls still further into manufacture when -it consists of thin boards, cut into patterns with a fret or scroll-saw, -worked up with gouges, and then glued on wood. This is plain imitation. -Yet it may be borne in mind, though most writers on the subject deny it, -that while it is absolutely _not_ high or legitimate art, there is no -law and no reason against it; and if a man can contrive no better way -to ornament his house, he is perfectly in the right in doing so, if he -thinks fit. And if he can afford the time, skill, and materials, he will -probably advance from _applique_ work to something better. In any case -he will have learned something by it, and it is worth learning. It is -too often the case with high art critics, that they exact that everybody -_must_ have finished taste and _high_ perceptions all at once, with no -regard to expense. - - [Illustration: Fig. 52. APPLIQUE WORK. - - DRAGON IN THIN WOOD, APPLIQUE ON A DIAPER GROUND.] - -The pupil may now attempt an easy piece of _applique_ work. Take a -panel, Fig. 52, and trace on it the pattern. Leave a blank flat space -of the original surface, called the "seat," for the figures, of their -precise size, and then work out the ground. Where this consists of -a _diaper_, it may be made either by carving or by stamping. Having -finished the diapered ground, saw or cut out the figures, glue them -into their places, and carve them; or the carving may be executed before -the application. - -_Applique_ work is liable to the objection, especially where large -surfaces are laid on, that two pieces of wood are seldom of _precisely_ -the same quality and texture, and that, therefore, they may sometimes -afterwards shrink or swell in different directions, with the natural -result of warping and splitting. This is sometimes remedied by using -screws as well as glue; but the best preventive of such accidents is to -cut both the ground and the piece glued on to it from the same piece of -wood, of course perfectly seasoned. - -In many cases frames or borders may be _applique_ or glued on. If the -work be intended for an album or book-cover, the frame may be made -a trifle higher than the central ornament, to protect it from being -scratched when lying with the face on any surface. This will not be -necessary if it be used for a panel in the side of a box or in a wall. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - -THIRTEENTH LESSON. - -CARVING IN THE ROUND. - - -Carving in the round is cutting an object which is finished on every -side, as a bust or statue. It is in fact "statuary." It seems to be -very difficult work to a beginner, but the pupil who has mastered the -rudiments which are laid down in this book, and who can measure and -cut a low relief of an inch, or a high relief pattern of two or three -inches, will find no trouble whatever in carving something small in the -round, and in progressing from this to something larger. The steps in -wood-carving from hammering an indented pattern to carving a statue are -perfectly defined, and very easy if they are thoroughly mastered one at -a time. - -Carving in the round will be least difficult to the one who can model -his work in clay or modelling-wax. This is especially easy if he -alternates carving with designing and modelling; it is, in fact, so -great an aid to carving, that there should be little of the latter -without it. He who has modelled anything in clay or wax has, in a way, -carved it in a soft material, while true carving is only modelling with -gouges and chisels. - -There is no difficulty for one who has mastered the first six lessons of -this book, in carving half a duck or fish in relief. If he could carve -the other side and join them he would have the animal complete. From -blocking out simple forms, such as ducks, fish, hares, or game, in high -relief, the carver soon learns how to "rough" almost anything. Having -made a bust in clay, he knows where a bit is to be removed or cut away -here or there. He studies it as he proceeds, alternately in profile or -full-face, and continually measures with callipers and compasses to see -that he is preserving all the proportions. The practice which he has -had in delicately carving, grooving, sweeping, and modelling leaves, -in cutting the hair of game, imitating basket-work, etc., will all now -come into play. As regards fitting certain tools to form the eye-balls, -eye-lids, etc., if the pupil does not as yet know the measure and -capacity of his tools, he has worked to little purpose. If he should -be in doubt from time to time, let him just carve an eye, or a lip, -or mouth, on a piece of waste wood, and he will have no difficulty in -repeating it; and he who grudges the time for such practice will never -make an artist, Fig. 53. - -The great difficulty in carving in deep relief and in the round, is to -get the general sweep and contour and proportions of the _whole_, and -this is difficult for a pupil who does not design, and shade, and model, -while it is a mere trifle to one who does. The cutting and blocking out, -which seems to be the great difficulty, is a merely mechanical process, -performed with compasses, carving tools, and rasps, and sometimes with -a steel bow-saw, here and there. And it presents no difficulties to any -intelligent person who has carefully executed all that is described -in the previous lessons, especially to one who has carved animals and -simple figures, or faces, in high relief. - -[Illustration: Fig. 53. HIGH RELIEF. Design by C. G. Leland.] - -It is true that in shops where much large and coarse work is executed, -as, for instance, great pieces for ceilings, figures for facades, and -the like, the sculptor, trained from the beginning to the sweep-cut and -to bold chipping, makes little account of any difficulty, and proceeds -to carve with great confidence. Now what the student must endeavour to -attain is some of the confidence of the mere workman with the culture -and knowledge of the artist. And he should, whenever an opportunity -presents itself, try to see practical carvers of all kinds at work, for -in this way he will learn much which no books give. - -It is to be recommended that the first attempts at carving in the round -be made in soft pine wood, as it is of course most easily modelled. No -one should be discouraged because a first or second effort has turned -out a failure. - -I have observed that many writers on the art treat carving in high -relief, or in the round, as if the first effect in it must necessarily -be a human head or figure, that is to say, the most difficult of all -objects. But he who can cut out a wooden shoe, or a rabbit, or a fish, -or the simplest object, on a large scale, on all its sides, will, if -he repeats this till he can do it easily, have mastered the greatest -difficulty which alarms beginners, that of _blocking out_ from all -sides. - -In the head by Civitale, full half-round, which may easily be made -full round, the carver may begin by modelling the whole. If this is -not convenient, let him mark out with the compasses the different -dimensions, and carefully bring the whole into form by first rounding -all into a rude shape, and then very gradually cut away the hollows. -No detailed descriptions of exactly what tools to choose for certain -places, or how to work, would be of any real use to the pupil who -has carefully executed the previous lessons, as he will not have -a single cut which he has not made before, and in this instance a -little voluntary ingenuity and reflection will do more good than any -instruction. - - [Illustration: HEAD, BY CIVITALE. _P. 82._] - - - - -APPENDIX TO LESSON XIII. - -ON THE USE OF THE SAW. - -(_By John J. Holtzapffel._) - - -The steel buhl saw-frame (Fig. 16) may be very usefully employed for -removing many of the superfluous portions of the material in the -earliest stages of carving in the round, as in large or small figurini, -and for those parts which have to be cut away to leave the outlines or -margins between leaves and other ornaments in flat works. In such cases -it is to be recommended, for its use not only saves much time, but also -the risk of breakages, to which the work is very liable when these -portions have to be removed entirely with the carving-tool. - -In round carving, the block, more or less roughly marked out on its -surfaces to some approach to its ultimate form with thick pencil or -crayon lines, may be held on the work-bench by the carver's screw (Fig. -10), or if that be not convenient, or if it be flat work, it can be -held in the vice. A coarse strong buhl saw-blade is employed; this is -first fixed in the screw jaw at the further side of the saw-frame; the -handle of the latter is then unscrewed until it projects its jaw about -half-an-inch, and at the moment the other end of the blade is fixed -therein, the two jaws are also made to approach one another by pressing -the further side of the saw-frame against the work-bench, with the -handle against the workman's chest; after this, the handle is screwed -back again until its jaw returns home to its former position. The back -of the saw-blade is towards the back of the saw-frame, and the teeth -of the blade should point away from the handle, easily discovered by -passing the finger along them, and when the saw is properly strained for -use it should ring like a harp string. - -In use, the handle of the frame is grasped by all the fingers of the -hand, except the forefinger, which is stretched straight out along it -in the direction of the saw; the latter is pushed straight forward and -withdrawn with moderate pressure, just sufficient to cause it to cut, -and is twisted about to follow the directions of the lines or curves of -the piece to be removed. During the sawing the outstretched forefinger -is an unerring guide for the direction of the cut. - -When a piece has to be removed from between others which have to be -left, as between the body and the bend of the arm, or between the legs -of a figure, a small hole is first drilled through the block and the -saw threaded through it before it is strained; and the only necessary -precaution throughout in using the saw, is to leave sufficient material -everywhere for perfect freedom in the subsequent carving by not cutting -anywhere too close. - -An entirely different method is followed in cutting out moulds, the -pieces to be used for _applique_ carving, and for the outlines of -fretwork or panels pierced with many interstices of which the surface is -afterwards to be carved. These works cannot be held fast in the vice or -otherwise, not only because they are often thin and liable to fracture, -but because, if so held, it is impossible to attain the desired true, -easy-flowing outlines required at once without subsequent correction, -which can be produced without difficulty when the work is perfectly -free. - -The professional hand fret-cutter, who produces the best and most -elaborate work, such objects as the long, thin, pierced panels to be -backed with silk for the fronts of pianofortes, uses a similar, but -much deeper, yet light saw-frame made of wood, with the same steel -screw-jaws, hung to the ceiling by a cord. He sits astride a bench -called "a horse," which has two tall vertical jaws in front of him, -their upper edges lined with brass, or sometimes with cork. The further -jaw is fixed to withstand the thrust of the saw, the other is notched -below and springs open when left to itself, but is closed by a diagonal -strut resting loosely in mortises made in the face of the bench and in -that of the movable jaw; the strut is pulled downwards to close the jaw -on the work by means of a cord passing from it through a hole in the -bench to a treadle beneath the workman's foot. The surfaces of his work -are, therefore, vertical, and the work itself is very lightly held, so -that he can twist it about in all directions with the left hand, while -he keeps the saw steadily traversing backwards and forwards in the same -plane horizontally, with the right. - -A simpler support, called a "saw table," Fig. 7 _b_, is used, and -thoroughly answers every purpose for the smaller class of works which -we are considering. This tool consists of an oblong piece of wood, -perfectly flat, smooth and polished on its upper surface, at the one end -of which there is a slot of about an inch wide; beneath, it has a cross -piece of wood to keep the implement steady on the bench or table on -which it is placed, and a clamp and screw to fix it there. - -The work, first pierced with the holes for threading the saw through -all its intended interstices, has the saw placed through one of them, -strained as before, and is then laid down, pattern uppermost, on the saw -table, upon which it is lightly held and twisted about by the points of -all five fingers of the left hand planted vertically upon it; the saw is -worked up and down vertically in the slot by the right hand, the handle -below the saw table. The aim here is to keep the saw working always in -the same place, and to let the curve or line result from the perfectly -free movement of the work alone. The saw-blades employed are much finer -than those previously referred to; they are tightly strained in the same -way as before, but they are placed in the frame so that the teeth now -point the reverse way, towards the handle, and the cut, therefore, takes -place at the downward stroke. - -The saws in ordinary use, such as the brass-backed tenon and dove-tail -saws and the key-hole saws of the carpenter, also find constant -employment in first roughly shaping and preparing the blocks and panels -to be subsequently carved; in their use it is only necessary, as in all -sawing upon carved works, to cut just sufficiently wide of the lines -marked to ensure that all saw-marks will be removed by the carving tool. - - - - -[Illustration] - -FOURTEENTH LESSON. - -INCISED, INTAGLIO, OR SUNK CARVING. - - -Deep carving, as it is termed by certain writers, is now known among -artists as incised, sunk, or intaglio. It is an advanced form of -gouge-cutting. - -It is a very beautiful yet easy kind of work, which was extensively -practised in Italy in early times, and which is deserving special -attention because of its applicability not only to bold, large, and -even coarse decoration--which was, however, very effective--but to the -most delicate and minute objects. "It may," says General Seaton, who -was the first to describe it, which he does with much enthusiasm, "be -called sunk carving, for, contrary to the usual method, the carving is -sunk, while the ground is left at its original level." Like engraving -on metal, it cuts into the ground, and depends entirely on outline, or -drawing, and shadow for its effects. It is suitable for book-covers, or -to be employed wherever the carving is liable to be handled or rubbed, -because, being sunk beneath the ground, it cannot be rubbed or injured -till the ground itself is worn down. - -Take any wood except a coarse one,--holly, beech, oak, poplar, pear, or -walnut,--and let the surface be well planed, or perhaps polished. If it -be a wood of light colour, draw your pattern with a very soft pencil, -say _B B B_, on paper, lay it face down on the wood, and rub the back -carefully with an ivory or other polisher. The work is chiefly executed -with bent gouges and grainers, flat and hollow, with two or three bent -chisels and stamps, and it often happens that a good piece of incised -carving can be executed with very few tools. It is executed almost -entirely by hand, or without hammering. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54. INCISED CARVING.] - -Choose some simple pattern, your object being to learn how to cut and -not to produce something startling at a first effort. If the wood -be dark, such as American walnut, mark the pattern through with the -prick-wheel or dot, Fig. 54. If the pupil has not perfect eyesight, or -expects to carve at night, it is advisable to outline this dot line with -a very fine camel's hair brush and Chinese white. This prevents many -mistakes. Take, to begin, a small gouge, a little less than the stem to -be cut in diameter, and run it along the line. When you cut leaves, get -gradually towards the centre. Then take a larger gouge and finish the -stems. - -Keep by you a piece of clay or putty, or moist kneaded bread, and from -time to time take an impression of your work. This is important, for the -real excellence of intaglio carving consists in its being exactly like -relief carving reversed. In this way you will at once perceive, without -any special directions, what tools to use in your work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55. INCISED BORDER: CENTRE IN LOW RELIEF.] - -Fig. 55 is a rather advanced example of this class of carving. The whole -of the foliage is cut in cavo relievo, or cavities, with gouges and -chisels, both straight and bent, and the lines upon them with bent V -tools. The duck in the centre may be in ordinary low relief, to give an -effective contrast. - -There is another reason for thus learning to make your work perfect. If -you carve in hard wood, you can always use a piece of sunk or intaglio -carving for a mould. When it is finished take a piece of russet leather, -soak it in water till it is quite soft, press it with your fingers and -a sponge for some time with great care into the mould, and then take it -off. If your wood be well cut, the leather when dry will be quite as -attractive as the carving itself, and may be used in many ways. The wood -will not be injured in the least if you wipe it dry after taking the -impression. With such moulds _papier-mache_ casts can also be taken. I -have now before me a beautiful specimen of old Byzantine work made in -this manner. - -[Illustration: Egyptian Cutting.] - -There is a peculiar kind of intaglio carving which may be called -Egyptian, because the ancient Egyptians used it very extensively -on their monuments. It consisted of cutting out the outline of a -figure in the following manner. On the _outside_ the carver cut down -perpendicularly, while the inside pattern was not cut away, but only had -its edges rounded. - -The result of this peculiar groove or cut, straight on one side and -rounded or curved on the other, was a very strong relief and shadow. It -was in fact a simple combination of relief and incised or cavo carving, -by means of which a strong relief was attained by little work. The main -object was to make the inscription solid and durable, and at the same -time very legible. The principle, as I have shown, is quite applicable -to ornament, and requires much less labour than even intaglio carving. -It is something more, in fact much more, than mere outlining, and it is -particularly applicable to mural or wall decoration. - -Incised carving is often much improved by being painted, and sometimes -varnished. That is to say, the sunken portion is thus coloured. I have -seen white and vermilion used with good effect, but black and dark brown -are generally preferred. Gilding seems peculiarly rich when thus applied -in the hollow, as the shadow gives it a fine tone. - -Though the imitation of engravings is not within the range of -wood-carving, there is, however, a very pretty and easy art by which -drawing and painting are very ingeniously combined with a kind of -carving. Take a panel of firm wood of lightish colour, well planed and -polished. Draw on it any pattern, or even an animal, or human figures. -Incise the principal lines with a V tool, or, according to its size, -small gouges may be used. For the fine lines and shading, a tracer, or -any point to indent, not so sharp as to scratch; this is a matter of -great importance; and the wood, which, if possible, should be of box, -sycamore, beech, or holly, must be adapted or prepared to take a mark -without breaking. When all the lines are well in, take a miniature fitch -pencil, and fill in every line with colour, taking care not to let the -paint spread beyond the lines. Different colours may be used. This is -hardly wood-carving at all, but in skilful hands it produces beautiful -and remarkable effects. It is very effective indeed when applied to -leather. As the colour is _sunk_ in the lines, it is well protected; -this kind of ornamentation is therefore well adapted to book-covers. I -have applied it successfully to heavy card-board panels prepared for -artists to paint on in oil. - -As I have said, incised cutting will be found useful to workers in -leather, papier-mache, clay, or plaster of Paris, because by means of it -they can make moulds. Another kind of mould is made as follows: Cut out -with a saw the outline of the pattern in a piece of board thick enough -to give the requisite depth. Then glue the perforated board to another -board, the surfaces of both being of course first planed and smoothed. -This gives the mould in the rough. Then fill in the angles of the -hollows with a composition of clay and size, or putty, or rice and lime -with white of egg, or any other suitable cement, and while it is soft -shape it with fingers and tools to the details of the pattern required. -When perfectly dry go over it carefully, taking proofs here and there -with putty, and correct with bent files. Then smooth it where it is at -all rough, oil it all, and make your cast. - -[Illustration: BOXWOOD POWDER FLASK. OLD GERMAN.] - - - - -[Illustration] - -FIFTEENTH LESSON. - -CARVING CURVED SURFACES: COCOA-NUTS, BOWLS, HORNS, CASKS, TANKARDS, ETC. - - -Carving concave or convex surfaces, such as the exterior of a horn or -the interior of a bowl, is often very difficult work, and though an -ingenious artist will readily find out for himself some way to get over -such difficulties, it is well to know at once how the work may be done. - -HORNS. The first difficulty is to fix the object so as to cut it. -A beginner who undertakes to carve such a very hard, slippery, and -unmanageable object as a horn, will, if he hold it with one hand while -he carves with the other, inevitably damage his pattern or wound -himself. It is very dangerous to hold the work in one hand or between -the knees. One way to secure such an object is to take a board, nail -cross-pieces on it over the ends of the horn so that a portion may be -exposed on which to work, and in this manner one can cut with safety. -Again, holdfasts and clamps may be employed, but the utmost care should -be taken lest these slip away whenever too great pressure is brought -to bear on them. A very good means to keep the horn firm is to have a -piece of wood fast to the table in which there is a hole, into which -the lesser end of the horn fits, while the butt rests, and is fixed, on -the table. Having secured it, outline the pattern with a V tool or very -small graining-gouge, and then cut away the ground with quarter-flat, -and finally with flat gouges. The bent file may be freely used for a -horn, and it will be necessary in many places. When bosted, finish with -careful touching or fine files and glass-paper. - -If you wish to colour the horn, select one which is chiefly white. -Take a solution of nitrate of silver, which any chemist will prepare -for you. Be very careful indeed how you handle it, for it will burn -clothes, carpets, or flesh, and at least stain your fingers for a long -time. With a _glass brush_, if you can get one, if not, with a glass -point, or pen, or agate point, or wax, apply the acid carefully to the -pattern. If you use wood for this purpose it will answer, but it is very -speedily consumed by the acid. This will make a yellow, or brown, or -sometimes a black stain, according to the strength of the solution, the -number of times it is applied, and the hardness of the horn. When the -horn is covered with diaper-work, or a great many small figures, or a -close pattern, then always put the acid into the hollows, and leave the -design in white. A black dye for horn, as well as for metal, is made by -combining ammonia with sulphur. It is very malodorous, but is effective. -Any chemist will make it, and will also prepare for you the dyes used -for ivory and horn. It is better and cheaper for the amateur to buy -these than to attempt to make them for himself. In most cases black and -brown are the best colours to use. - -If a horn is boiled in hot water, or steamed, it will become so soft -that it may be flattened. Then it is very easy to carve. The author has -in his possession two very ancient and singularly ornamented Italian -horns which were thus shaped. Horn, when treated with quick-lime and -hot water, can be reduced to a paste which can be made into any shape -like a cement or plaster. It becomes hard again in cold water. All -old horns were not used for gunpowder; many of them were for wine or -other liquors; others were used for blowing; they all make effective -ornaments. Carved horns are handsome ornaments when hung up with cord -and tassels. I have made them very attractive by gilding the raised -patterns on them. - -TO CARVE A BOWL. The exterior of a bowl presents no special difficulty, -if it be well clamped down. It may be secured with blocks and nails, -or screws. But the _interior_ is harder to get at and much harder to -cut. This is, of course, chiefly done with bent gouges and chisels. It -requires care and patience in cases of special trouble. I have, however, -easily succeeded in wearing or wasting away the ground by the process -which will be described in carving cocoa-nuts. Wooden bowls, which are -well adapted to carving, may be bought cheaply at household furnishing -shops. They are of the kind used in every kitchen. They may be mounted -on bases, such as any turner can make, to which the bowl should be -fastened with a screw and glue. Bowls may be coloured or gilded like -horns. They are very useful for many purposes, chiefly to contain -visitors' cards or other small objects on the writing, work, or toilet -table. - -COCOA-NUTS. If it is to be used as a cup, begin by sawing away the end -on which is the "monkey face," or so much as is desirable. Sometimes -the whole nut is left, to be hung up as an amulet, ornament, or charm, -as ostrich eggs are hung up in the East. Then clean it smooth with a -large rasp till fit to carve. Draw the pattern on this with Chinese -white, that there may be no mistakes. Then fix the nut to the board or -table, as with the bowl (_vide_ p. 100). - -The ground may, with patience, be cut away with flat gouges, and, with -practice, this becomes really easy, and more expeditious than one would -at first suppose. Or it may be done chiefly with files. But the most -rapid manner of working is by a "cut" which is described as follows by -Gen. Seaton, who, however, limits it to mere decoration for a ground. - -"There is a species of ornament most useful for the bend of branches, -and which is to be seen in Swiss carved brackets. This may be called -the _zigzag_ pattern or ornament. It is intended to represent the -cross-fissures and marks that are seen in the bark of some trees at the -end of the branches. It is done with a flat or quarter-round gouge, -the hand swaying from side to side, and at the same time advancing by -alternate steps each corner of the tool." - -[Illustration: Small zigzag] - -That is to say, put the tool straight up and down, and _rock_ it from -side to side, and it will require little practice to learn it. But -to use it, not for ornament, but a cut, or rather dig, a _firmer_ or -chisel is better than a gouge; nor need we be very particular as to -the appearance of the marks made, as they are all, in the end, to be -cut or smoothed out. Rock up and down with the firmer, pressing a -little flatter than if the object were to only make lines, or so as to -scrape away some of the ground. Then from another direction go over -this ground, digging and scraping away again. In this manner a shell -may be bosted rapidly, and by it one can work at the bottom of a bowl -when even the bent tools are of little or no use. When the whole ground -is excavated by this process it may be easily smoothed with files or -carving tools. The cuttings from cocoa-nut shell, or waste bits, may be -kept, and when pounded to a fine powder, and mixed with glue, they make -an admirable cement for repairing walnut or other dark wood work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.] - -CASKS. A cask when carved is an admirable object for waste-papers, or -holding canes and umbrellas, Fig. 56. It should be of wood at least one -inch in thickness. If held together by broad brass or copper hoops it -will be much handsomer. A bucket or pail may be carved in like manner; -and when lions' heads or other carved ornaments are _applied_, it will -be found that a very ornamental object may be made with little trouble -or expense. It is easiest to carve casks, kegs, buckets, or firkins, up -and down, or in a perpendicular position, and to stand up while at the -work, as a true carver is sure in the end to do at all his work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.] - -TANKARDS AND WASTE-PAPER BOXES. Tankards, if small, may be turned from -solid wood, but, when large, it is best to have them made by the cooper, -of several pieces, and hooped with metal. To make the design for all -such cylindrical objects, take a piece of paper which will _exactly_ go -round, or correspond to the surface, and be sure to make the pattern -continuous, that is, without breaks, unless it be designed in divisions. -Wooden measures, such as are used by dealers in nuts, fruit, etc., are -well adapted to carving for tankards. They may be bought at general -furnishing shops. - - [Illustration: Fig. 58. - - OLD IRISH TANKARD.] - -The old Irish, and sometimes the Danes, made a rude kind of tankard, -Fig. 58, by fastening together with nails, glue, or screws, four pieces -of oak panel or thin board. It was like drinking from a box. It makes a -useful receptacle for many purposes. - -[Illustration: COCOA-NUT GOBLET.] - - - - -[Illustration] - -SIXTEENTH LESSON. - -BOSSES, KNOBS, BARS, AND POLISHED ORNAMENTS. - - -There are several small effects in ornament which the carver should -study with care; they are generally applicable to most kinds of -decorative art. The first of these is the employment of bosses or knobs, -some left plain, and some carved, hemi-spherical or less. They may be -almost flat, but are always smooth at the edge and polished. They were -very extensively used in early carving and metal-work, and the reader -may see many illustrations of them in the works of Hulme. Sometimes the -knob becomes a small spot or a mere dot, employed to introduce light -into a dark ground. The practical theory is that the knob represents -the plain or ornamental head of a nail used to hold the work to the -wall, or the rivets of armour, which the Goths transferred from coats of -mail to linen and woollen. But the real reason is to introduce points of -light. - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.] - -Knobs or bosses may be placed wherever there are wide spaces between -patterns. The rule of employing them is either a few large points or -many small ones; they must, however, be used sparingly. The principle of -introducing them is of very wide extension. Thus, in all kinds of work, -especially metal, grapes, melons, and other fruit are introduced solely -that, by their roundness and polish, they may make points of light or -"shiners." Old embossed work in leather and wood-carving often owes its -chief beauty to the polish, which time and use have given to the reliefs -on it. Of course the employment of "shiners" or bosses, and of all -kinds of smooth polished relief, should, as a general rule, be sparing, -subordinate, and judicious. - -Nevertheless, in certain kinds of work, especially in much -flat-carving, which is intended to simply ornament a surface, at no -great expenditure of labour, just as tiles or tapestry might do, the -stems and portions of the leaves, or sometimes all the pattern, may be -polished as highly as possible, so as to make a relief against the dark -ground. Grounds are pricked or punched or dotted to make them dark, -and when the oil soaks into the holes they become permanently darker. -Therefore the pattern is to be in contrast; and when the object is no -more than to make a general decorative effect, not perfectly finished, -but like a sketch, it may be polished. - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.] - -There is another curious effect given by crossing the pattern alone, or -the ground alone, with bars, lines, or stripes. It was very common at -one time. In carving, it may be produced with a small gouge or fluter; -though not natural, except where it is given in long and short lines to -represent the graining of wood, it has a good effect simply because it -distributes shadow evenly. It was probably derived from the effect of -"ribs" in cloths, which were much admired by the Venetian painters. - -Door-knobs are effectively bosses, that is to say, the same -ornamentation may be applied to both, as to handles for bureaus, -cabinets, and other furniture. Figs. 59 to 62 will give the pupil some -examples and ideas for carving knobs and bosses. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - -SEVENTEENTH LESSON. - -TO REPAIR WOOD-CARVING--GLUE--NITRIC ACID GLUE--PREPARING DECAYED -WOOD--ARTIFICIAL WOOD--FILLERS--SPRAYING--TO MAKE GLUE "TAKE." - - -It will sometimes happen to a carver that, owing to bad wood or -inadvertence, he splits away or breaks off a piece from his work. In -this case he must have recourse to glue. This should be of the very best -quality, perfectly light and clean. Glue is made in what alchemists used -to call a _balneum mariae_, that is, of a vessel containing hot water, -within which is a smaller vessel. The glue, which is in the inner pot, -is therefore to be boiled by the heat of warm water, and not of the fire -directly. Before setting it to boil, break it into very small pieces, -say of the size of a hazel nut, and let it stand in cold water for -twelve hours. It will now be like a thick jelly. Pour off all the water -not absorbed, and put the jelly into the inner pot, fill the outer with -water and let it boil till the glue is like a thick cream. Use it while -in this state. - -If you add to the glue, while thus liquid, some nitric acid, say about -a tea-spoonful to half a pint of glue, you will have a very superior -cement, which holds faster than the plain glue, and is much less liable -to crack or split. It dries more slowly, which makes it very valuable -for veneering and for large surfaces, where glue often dries before the -whole can be applied. Again, when an article fastened with common glue -is detached, it is often almost impossible to stick it on again with the -same. But with the acidulated glue this is easy. - -The greatest advantage of this glue is, that if it be kept excluded from -the air it will remain in a liquid state for at least a year, and can be -used cold. Its disadvantages are a very pungent and not agreeable smell, -and the fact that, when corked up, the cork is most certain to get glued -to the bottle, and requires to be broken to get it out, rendering a new -one necessary. This may be avoided, however, with great care. Stir the -acid into the glue with a glass rod or tube. - -It may happen that a rotten, broken place is found even in the best -wood; or the carver may obtain possession of a piece of ancient, -worm-eaten, half-decayed carving, and with a very little skill such -pieces can be perfectly repaired. Take a piece of similar wood, and -reduce it to fine sawdust by means of a rasp. For this purpose American -walnut and dark old oak, or cocoa-nut shell, which is easily pulverized -in a mortar, is excellent. Make this into a paste with glue, and repair -with it any broken places. This, if properly made, is quite like wood -itself, and may be moulded into any shape. It "takes hold" of the -ground, and when dry it may be filed into uniformity with the rest. It -may also be cut with ease or trimmed to shape, or, in fact, carved. If -there is too little glue in it it will break too easily, if there is too -much it will be too glazy. But a proper mixture makes it quite like -wood. - -Scratches and chance cuts may be remedied by merely melting them with -hot water. But for such small defects a _filler_ is useful. This is a -kind of paint or liquid cement, the object of which is to fill up the -pores of certain coarse woods and make the surface fine. The squeezing -wax, described in the chapter on making moulds, is a filler. Others -are made by mixing flour with varnish, etc. Any dealer in paints and -varnishes will supply a filler suitable to any special work. - -When a piece of wood-work is so decayed that it is absolutely dropping -to pieces, and cannot even be handled, it may be preserved and -rehabilitated by the following process. Take some thin glue and water, -or mucilage, or size of any kind, and a _spray_, that is, one of those -articles such as are used for spraying perfumes, etc., and which are -for sale in most chemist's shops. Spray or sprinkle the glue over the -figure, and, if necessary, gradually throw on it fine sawdust or other -powder. As it dries it may be shaped and worked more freely. - -We read continually in the newspapers of the opening of old tombs and -ancient subterranean caves, in which are discovered dead bodies, bones, -dresses, implements of bone and wood or leather, or even of baked earth, -which gradually dropped into dust a few hours after being exposed to the -air. And I have never known a case in which these objects could not have -been preserved; certainly all which I have ever seen could have been. -All that is necessary to do is to make a thin size, and very gradually -spraying or sprinkling it on the objects, allow it to dry, little by -little. There are very few cases in which, indeed, the spray cannot be -successfully used. It was by the application of this principle that Sir -Joseph Hooker preserved the ivory articles brought from Nineveh by Sir -Austen H. Layard, and which would have perished but for him. He advised -that they should be boiled in gelatine. The student who becomes an -expert in such repairing will find plenty to do, and it will be his own -fault if it is not profitable. Nineteen people out of twenty have not -the least conception of the degree to which repairs may be carried. -Some years ago a gentleman in America had a very curious and valuable -vase from the pyramid of Cholula in Mexico. It was very fragile, being -made of the weakest terra-cotta, and having been broken to pieces, the -owner was about to throw it away, but gave it to me. Some months after I -repaired it so perfectly that the closest observation could not detect a -flaw in it. I did this by fastening pieces of paper on the inside with -gum, and so gradually bringing the fragments together, edge to edge, -and fastening them with the acidulated glue. When all were together, -there was, of course, a lining of paper. Where there was a fault or a -deficiency outside, I filled it in with plaster of Paris, rubbed it all -even, and coloured by "rubbing in" paint. This process would have been -much easier with decayed wood. - -In gluing ordinary wood together, heat the two pieces first. This -renders them more inclined to "take" the glue. Sometimes it is a -difficult thing to hold them together till they "set," that is, adhere -so firmly that they will hold. For this the clamp, Fig. 7_a_, may often -be used. In other cases, take two pieces of wood, put one on each side -of the parts to be glued, and tie them tightly together; sometimes -clamps may be used to connect the binding pieces, when they are not -applicable to what is to be glued. Strong indiarubber rings or gummed -paper strips may be used in some cases. But with thought, ingenuity can -generally be awakened so as to help one out of any such difficulty. - -A very perfect resemblance to carved wood may be made by taking -cocoa-nut powder or fine sawdust and mixing it with the acidulated glue, -so as to make a paste as already described. Then, having ready a mould, -either of plaster of Paris or of sunk or incised wood, and oiling it, -take the impression. These casts, retouched and glass-papered, are quite -like wood, and they may be used for decoration in doors. - -The following are also excellent recipes for glue. - -_Liquid glue._ Take of best glue three parts, place them in eight -parts of water, allow them to soak for some hours. Take half a part of -hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid), three-quarters of a part of sulphate -of zinc, add to these the glue, and keep the whole at a moderately high -temperature till fluid. - -_Exceedingly strong cement_ for glass and china. Take gum arabic and -dissolve it in acetic acid instead of water. It must be melted in a -hottish place; it will be much stronger if this be done. The finest -quality of sheet gelatine makes a transparent glue. - -[Illustration] - - - - -[Illustration] - -EIGHTEENTH LESSON. - -COLOURING WOOD-WORK--OILING--SODA--STAINS AND DYES--IVORYING -SURFACES--BLACK DYES AND INK. - - -Carved or any other wood is often dyed, stained, or toned. Sometimes -this is done to make one piece or part match with another; or it may be -to imitate the effect of age, or to give light woods a colour which will -prevent them from showing defects. This is effected in many ways. - -_Oiling_ alone is a kind of colouring, for all oiled wood becomes much -darker before long. The more frequently it is rubbed in with a pine -stick the harder and darker the surface becomes. I have seen walnut -tables which had been thus rubbed with a stick or a hard scrubbing -brush, until a tea-cup wet with hot water on the outside would make no -mark on them. Had they been only softly oiled or painted, or varnished, -an indelible stain must have resulted. Care should be taken that the oil -is pure, and that _no wax_ has been boiled in it. A table which has had -wax on it for a polish will always show marks or stains from hot water. - -_Soda_ dissolved in water, and applied to oak with a sponge or -brush, will give it a darker tone, which may be increased by several -applications. Dark tea with a little alum is also useful, also porter -or beer, also a decoction of walnut leaves. In America butternut gives -a very rich indelible dye. Let it be carefully observed that in using -these, or any other colours, the following rules must be strictly -observed. I. Use a sponge or brush and do not apply the dye profusely or -pour it on, as you will run great risk of warping the wood, or causing -it to split. II. It may be advisable to dry it near a fire, but in this -case exercise great care that the heat be not too great. III. When dry, -rub the dye off with a rag or soft old newspaper, or chamois skin. Do -this very carefully, and do not be disappointed if it seem very light -and to have taken but little dye. Apply the dye again, giving it plenty -of time to dry between the coatings. Of course this depends on the dyes -used, and the degree of colour required. - -_Stephens' stains_ of different kinds, to imitate all kinds of wood, -or those of _Mander_ (Oxford Street, London), are very good, and may -now be purchased in every town. As a rule, most of these dyes are very -strong, and it is therefore necessary to dilute them with water and make -several applications, instead of putting on the whole strength at once. -The diluted dye is carefully painted over the entire surface with a -full flat camel's hair brush, and a smaller round brush is used in the -corners and smaller recesses. After using dyes, and when perfectly dry, -the wood should be oiled. - -_Ammonia._ Wood, and especially oak, may be not only stained of a very -dark rich colour, giving the effect of age, by washing it carefully with -ammonia or spirits of hartshorn, and then exposing it for some time in a -chimney, or otherwise to the fumes of smoke, especially of a wood-fire -if it be possible. Strong spirits of ammonia, according to Rowe, may be -placed in an open vessel and then shut up with the panel in an airtight -chamber or box, the wood darkening according to the length of time it is -left in. The ammonia may have to be renewed, as it quickly evaporates. -For small work a glass shade may be used, or a box can be made with a -glass lid, and after the panel and saucer of ammonia have been placed -inside, the crevices can be pasted over with brown paper. When the -depth of colour is obtained, which can be seen through the glass, the -panel can be taken out. The wood must be so placed that the ammonia can -pass quite round the parts which require darkening. But for ordinary -purposes, it will be found quite sufficient to apply strong ammonia with -a brush or sponge, and expose it to smoke. - -_Umber._ Common powdered umber, which is used by the house painter, is -much preferable to the Swiss brown liquid stain to produce an antique -brown appearance. The Swiss dye is entirely too rich and uniform, making -everything exactly alike, or similar to chocolate. But the umber must be -properly applied. Mix it with beer or porter; strong coffee is also very -good; and apply it with a brush. When dry rub it very carefully, clean, -and apply it again. If it be desirable to make the wood very dark, add -lamp-black to the dye, mixing and shaking it very thoroughly. But always -let the first applications be of umber alone. By adding the lamp-black -one can darken the wood almost to blackness, and if it be very carefully -done, and not in a hurry, and exposed at intervals to smoke in a warm -place, a colour second to none may be thus given. - -_Paint._ Wood which is to be exposed to the air must of course be -painted in the ordinary way. But there is another method of applying oil -paint which is not so generally known or practised, yet which gives very -good results. This consists of _rubbing_ paint with the hand into wood -or on plaster of Paris, papier-mache, or stone. As it is much thinner -than with coats laid on with a brush, it appears more like an innate -or natural colour. This was the finger painting of the old Venetian -artists. The appearance thus produced, when it is skilfully done, is -very different indeed from that of an ordinary coat of paint, and in -most cases it is much more attractive. - -_Ivorying._ Take a panel, the pattern may be carved, or even produced -in the lowest relief by simply indenting the outline with a wheel or -tracer. Any degree of relief will, however, do just as well. Apply a -coat of thick ordinary copal varnish. When perfectly dry smooth it with -finest glass or emery-paper. Then apply the paint; two or three coats -are better than one. See that the last is perfectly smooth. Then work on -the dry surface with tracer and stamps, as you would on wood or brass. -When finished, take a very small fitch-brush and paint Vandyke brown -into all the dots, lines, scratches, and irregularities. Let there be a -dark line of brown close to the outline of the pattern. Sometimes the -entire ground may be _rubbed_ with brown, allowing an indication or a -few dots of white yellow to show here and there. When dry give two coats -of retouching varnish (that of Soehnee Freres, No. 19, Rue des Filles du -Calvaire, Paris, is specially suited to this work). By using olive, dark -and light greens, a beautiful imitation of bronze can be thus obtained. -In fact, by studying the effects of colour in many kinds of old objects, -we may obtain hints for converting very ordinary wood-carving into -beautiful objects. - -_Bichromate of Potash_, diluted with water to the required shade, is a -good dark dye, but great care should be taken not to spill a drop of it -on the clothing, or to get it on the hands, or even to inhale its fumes, -as it is a poison. Apply it with a brush. - -_Black Dyes._ Of late years black dyes have been so much improved -that ebony is imitated with holly, hickory, and beech, to absolute -perfection. The best way for the carver, as regards these and all kinds -of dyes, such as red, yellow, green, etc., is to go to a chemist or -colourman, who will obtain them for him. For black the following recipes -may be used. - -I. - - White vinegar 1 pint. - Iron filings 2 ounces. - Antimony (powdered) 2 ounces. - Vitriol 1 ounce. - Logwood 3 ounces. - -Steep it in a corked bottle for eight days. - -II. - - Gall nuts coarsely broken 2 ounces. - Rain water 1 quart. - -Boil down to one half. (_Seaton._) - -To stain wood, first apply No. II., when nearly dry put on No. I. and -then No. II. again. It will occur to the reader that this is really -ink, and, in fact, if he cannot get a stain, good common ink applied a -few times and well dried will answer quite as well. After it has been -thoroughly put on, and quite dry, oil the surface, and rub it well, and -it will be found that it will not wash off from any casual application -of water. Some of the writing inks now made are intensely black and -almost indelible. - - - - -NINETEENTH LESSON. - -MAKING MOULDS OR SQUEEZES FOR WOOD-CARVERS. - - -It will very soon become apparent to every wood-carver that it is easier -to copy from a model than a drawing, and that this ease is very much -increased when he has made that model in clay himself. However, it is -also very advisable that he shall, after a time, practise carving from -drawings and sketches also, as this of itself gives great skill and -accuracy of perception. But he will very often need or wish to have -copies of carvings or casts, and these he may obtain with ease, if -the relief be not too great or the object too large. This is called -"taking a squeeze," and it may be done in two ways. Firstly, by means -of squeezing or modelling wax, which is sold by dealers in artists' -materials. The use of this and the casting in plaster of Paris is, -however, generally tiresome to beginners in carving. For all practical -purposes squeezes in paper are quite sufficient. - -_Paper squeezes._ Take any pieces of soft newspaper. Oil the wood -or plaster cast which you wish to copy; soak, and then press on the -paper and, with your fingers and a sponge or a very stiff brush, poke -and squeeze it into every cranny of the original. If this be done -_thoroughly_, the hardest part of the work is accomplished. Now give the -paper a brush of flour-paste or gum or mucilage, or paste strengthened -with glue, and press on new pieces of paper. To merely copy the -original, a few thicknesses will suffice. Take the squeeze off and let -it dry; if necessary, touch it up with colour. For this the first coat -should be of _white_ paper. To make a cast, keep adding paper till the -whole is at least half an inch in thickness. Press it as hard as you can -while forming the mould. When it is dry you can paint or rub the inside -with any dry powder, such as whiting, or varnish it, and then make a -cast with the same material, _i.e._ paper and paste, or with plaster of -Paris. Papier-mache casts, when rubbed by hand with brown paint, form -perfect facsimiles of old wood-work. Rubbed with bronze-powders they -resemble metals, or they may be ivoried, by the process described in the -chapter on dyes. - -Plaster-casts are very easily broken, and are heavy and difficult to -transport. Wax is spoiled almost by a touch, and it readily yields -to heat. Papier-mache, when properly managed, with a little practice -gives a mould which is equal to either for all surfaces except the most -minutely delicate. When dry, such casts may be let fall, or really -thrown about, without sustaining any injury, and they are very portable. -It is very often possible to easily copy an object with paper when -plaster or wax cannot be used at all. The reason why it is not more -generally used is because few persons have taken the pains to treat -it as a plastic material suitable to the arts, or are sufficiently -practised in it to know what can really be done with it. The wood-carver -should do this, because it is a very important thing for him to keep -copies of his works, or to get those of others to use in his designs. -With a little practice, and at no expense, he can make such casts in a -material which is almost as durable as wood itself. - -In large manufactories of papier-mache the pulp of paper is simply mixed -with the paste or size, and put into the moulds in large masses, and -then subjected to pressure. When a good surface is secured with fine -white paper, it is not of much consequence how coarse the paper for the -_backing_ may be. For this purpose it may be mixed with tow or fibre of -any kind, plaster, or fine sawdust, etc., so long as the _binder_ or -size be only strong enough to hold all together. But for all ordinary -purposes waste-paper and paste, thickened with common glue, will -suffice. - -[Illustration: CASE FOR PAPERS OR MUSIC.] - - - - -TWENTIETH LESSON. - -SPOT CUTTING. - - -This is a manner of ornamenting which can hardly be called carving, -and which would not deserve special mention were it not that it is so -extensively used, it being the chief method of decoration in all the -islands of the Pacific, and still extensively practised in Sweden and -Norway. It consists of small incised triangles, or "diamonds," made with -a skew or ordinary chisel, which are arranged in rows or lines. Simple -as the work may seem, it is very effective when artistically employed; -and it has this peculiarity, that no other kind of cutting is so well -adapted, with very little labour, to relieve flat surfaces, such as -paddles, tankards, spoons, war clubs, and scoops or dippers. - -The triangular incision is made with three cuts; by adding two more -from the opposite direction we make a diamond, or the latter may be -produced at once with only four cuts, Fig. 63. To these we may add the -hemi-spherical or cup hollow, which is made with a gouge, and which, -in Scotland at least, seems to have been the earliest pre-historic -beginning of ornamentation of flat surfaces. - -When these triangles and diamonds are tastefully arranged in lines, and -filled in with a composition, or paint, which contrasts in colour with -the wood, the effect is often excellent. Ordinary putty, into which a -little mastic has been well worked, or plaster of Paris with size and -a little flour paste, with one drop of oil to an ounce, makes a good -filler for such a purpose. This may be applied to any incised cutting. -An ivory-like filling, which may be stained of any colour, and which was -once extensively used in Florence, is made with rice, lime, and size. - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.] - -Any pattern which can be drawn in lines may be executed with good effect -in triangular spots, the base of every spot being on the line. They may -either join one another or be separated; both methods produce a good -effect. The spots may be of all sizes, and are generally not larger than -those at the top in the above illustration. - -Large triangles may of course be used as well as small ones. Owing to -the ease with which these spots are made, and the good effect which they -produce when blackened, it is not remarkable that so simple a method of -decorating wood is extensively practised. - -By placing a gouge vertically and turning it, as already mentioned, a -cup-like cavity is easily cut. A row of these is often very effective. - -[Illustration] - - - - -APPENDIX. - -OBJECTS FOR WOOD-CARVING. - - "The most difficult part of making is to know what to make." - - -In no circumstances should the wood-carver be at a loss for a subject -to work on, yet this is the commonest source of complaint, especially -among young artists, that they "do not know what to take up." One result -of this is the wearisome production of panels or "fancy pieces" without -any definite aim, and a constant imitation of one another's work. -Unfortunately there are a great many who cannot understand or form any -idea how a pattern would look when executed. They will pass it over in -an engraving, but when they see it actually carved and made up they -appreciate it. Now the tutor should teach the pupils, and the students -teach themselves, to think of subjects, to invent them, to sketch -and execute them. I have found that all workers are invariably more -defective in this respect than in any other, and that it is one in which -the direction of almost every art school in the world is either utterly -wanting, or else leaves much to be desired. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.] - -Pupils should be encouraged to look at every object with an eye to -ornamenting or decorating it, so far as that can be done without -detracting from its usefulness. In every school a list of objects for -carving should be hung up, and the workers be frequently requested to -think of subjects to add to the list; outline sketches of furniture -and other objects should be supplied. It is not at all understood -that even a very little frequent employment of the mind inventing and -planning, no matter at what, stimulates _all_ the mental faculties to an -extraordinary degree. - -I therefore seriously urge that the wood-carver shall earnestly study -the following list of subjects, add to it, and at times take one or -the other of them and sketch it with variations. He may remember while -doing this, that any of the ornaments given may be varied and applied to -different things, as, for instance, the vine on a circular panel may be -easily adapted to a square. Full directions for doing this may be found -in "The Manual of Design,"[2] price one shilling, which also contains -many patterns perfectly adapted to carving. - - [2] London: Whittaker and Co. Chicago: Rand, McNally and Co. - -The first subject to be considered is: What to design or make; how its -surface can be appropriately ornamented; and, how to produce the best -effect with the least work. Mere elaboration is admired only by the -ignorant, and the less cultivated a pupil is, the more inclined he will -be to densely crowded petty patterns. - -If the pupil wants a design for any of the objects described in this -chapter, and if he can draw at all, and has any skill in adapting or -changing a pattern, as, for instance, to make one which fills a triangle -or a square "set" into a circle, or extend to a long panel or a border, -he will find something for any of them, either in this book, or in the -"Manual of Design" already referred to. Let him also take pains to -collect as many patterns as he can of all kinds, and keep them in a -portfolio for reference. - -Every student of wood-carving should remember that if he has a folding -looking-glass, which he can make for himself by cutting in two a square -mirror of, say, six inches by twelve, he can, out of any pattern in this -book, or from any simple ornament whatever, make (with the least effort -of ingenuity or adaptiveness) a border by repeating it in succession, -or a centre ornament which may be multiplied in whole or in part _ad -infinitum_. That is to say, he can fill any given space, be it a panel, -ceiling, circle, triangle, or hexagon. Or he can fill such spaces by -simply cutting out ornaments from card-board, and placing them together -to form vines or outgrowths from one another. - -_Panels._ A panel is defined as a board with a surrounding frame. The -word is derived from the old English _panel_, a piece of cloth, Latin -_pannus_, "a cloth or patch"; from the same word we have _pane_. In -wood-carving we practically apply it to small boards intended to be -set in furniture, or walls, or ceilings, or made into book-covers -or box-lids. The uses of panels are without limit, as they may be -introduced into almost every kind of furniture, such as the backs and -sides of chairs, chests, bedsteads, caskets, window-garden boxes, doors, -or wherever a flat surface can be adorned. When surrounded with a frame -or several strips of moulding, any panel becomes improved when the outer -frame is not overdone. As a rule the border of a panel should be plain, -so as to distinctly define or set forth the pattern. For this reason -many very ordinary and even rude subjects "come out" or look well when -thus "mounted." A series of carved panels makes a beautiful frieze for -any room. A good general size for most work is a panel six inches by -twelve, more or less, and half an inch thick. In _spacing_ a panel for -ornament the pupil may begin by making one circle in the centre and one -in each corner, so that the five may fill up the whole space. Convert -these into a vine and apply ornaments. There are of course endless -variations of this principle. (Consult the "Manual of Design.") - -_Chairs._ Take any chair, copy it, and then fill the spaces with -ornaments to be carved. Large, square, high-backed, old-fashioned chairs -admit of the most panelling, and can be made up by any cabinet-maker or -carpenter, _vide_ Fig. 69. It is a very good plan to always have such -objects made up in pieces, carve them separately, and then have them -put together. It may be observed for beginners, and those who are not -much practised in cabinet-making, that there is a very substantial kind -of furniture once made very commonly in Germany, and which has been -much revived of late years. It is made entirely without glue, nails, or -screws, by simply cutting holes into which tenons or _ends_ project, -which ends are fastened on the other side by holes and pins. - -[Illustration: Fig. 65.] - -On this principle every kind of furniture can be made by any man who is -ingenious enough to simply measure boards, cut square holes, and adapt -pins to them. Such articles as are made by this process are very much -stronger than any others, and they have the great advantage that they -can be easily taken apart, packed, or be stored in very small space -when not in use; and the style is of course more adapted to carving -than ordinary furniture. The writer has in his possession chairs 250 -years old made on this principle. The seat is a square nearly two inches -thick, in which four holes are bored, into which the legs are simply -set, as in a milking-stool. Between the hind legs two square holes are -cut, into which similar tenons made in the lower end of the back are -fitted. In these tenons two square holes are cut, just exactly on the -other side of the seat, into which square pins are driven, Fig. 65. With -a very little ingenuity or will, anybody can contrive to make any piece -of furniture on the same principle. The seats of chairs and stools, or -the faces of tables, should never be carved, for very apparent reasons. -There is plenty of space for the carver to work at on the edges and -legs, and this may be made striking enough by means of colouring and -gilding, Figs. 64 and 66. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66. CONSOLE OR BRACKET.] - -_Boxes._ These have formed in all ages favourite subjects for -decoration. They vary from the smallest casket to the chest. A box -with the lid forms five panels, or, seen from any point, three. In -Italy, of old, they were often carved without and within. Boxes may -be made by simply gluing, nailing, or screwing together, but they -may be so dovetailed by an expert workman that the juncture is quite -imperceptible. _Vide_ "Forty Lessons in Carpentry Practice," by C. F. -Mitchell. Cassell and Co. It is a feat in cabinet-making to do this -_perfectly_, and boxes thus joined are very expensive. The appearance -of boxes is much improved by the addition of moulding-strips, bases, -and projecting ornaments. The student is advised to carve or buy a few -bosses, such as heads of animals or faces, and rosettes, and try the -experiment of fitting them to a box or carving them on one, Fig. 67. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.] - -_Caskets for Cigars._ This applies also to receptacles into which -glasses for flowers may be put. Take a cylinder of wood, turned, or made -up like a barrel, and fit a base to it, and a lid. They may be made of -very large joints of bamboo, which may also be beautifully carved, and -partly coloured in the lines, as is common in China. It is best for -turned cylinders and bamboo to have them surrounded with metal rings to -prevent their splitting. They may also be made square, that is, as -boxes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68. TRAY FOR CIGAR ASHES.] - -_Trays for Cigar Ashes._ These are best when carved from hard wood, -such as box, though any other may be used. It is much better that -they be made rather larger and deeper than many in use, as ashes are -continually being knocked out of small and shallow ones. They may be -round or square, like a fish or a small book (with a lid), a shell, a -tortoise, or a scooped hand, a face, or a figure of any animal or human -being, Fig. 68. - -_Basket-work._ This is very easily imitated in wood, and it forms a -very pretty and fanciful style for many kinds of objects. Take any kind -of basket-work, either that of split osiers, which are half-round, or -Italian rush-work, or American Indian, which is made of flat strips -of ash or pine-bark interwoven, or Indian rattan, and imitate it with -flat gouges or firmers. It is very easy work, and beginners soon become -expert in it. It improves the effect, when the work is finished, if -dark colour be painted into the depressions. Basket-work may be used -for diaper ground. The American Indian basket-work, in flat strips from -one-third of an inch to an inch in breadth, is easiest to imitate, and -may be executed with a single V tool or firmer. - -_Casks, Small Barrels, Kegs._ These are useful for waste-paper boxes, or -to contain canes and umbrellas. When carved and coloured they form very -attractive articles of furniture. They may be used for garden seats. -Heads of animals _applique_ to these, some for handles to lift them, or -else holes must be cut in them for this purpose, _vide_ Fig. 56. - -_Frames for Pictures or Looking-glasses._ These give a wide range to -the wood-carver, for all borders are suitable to frames. Heads may be -_applique_ to corners and centres of frames. It is very much to be -desired that designers and carvers would exert their inventiveness and -endeavour to break up the monotony and feebleness which characterize -most frames, _vide_ borders and photograph frames. - - [Illustration: MINIATURE FRAME. _P. 128._] - -_Horns._ Horns may be carved, as previously described, and imitations of -them in wood are easily made. They are ornamental objects, and useful -when hung up to contain small objects. They can, by steeping in hot -water, be softened and flattened, _vide_ initial to Fifteenth Lesson. - -_Tiles._ These are really panels. They are pieces of wood from half an -inch to an inch in thickness, the size of ordinary tiles, carved in bold -relief with free hand, coloured or not, and are very useful for house -decoration, chimney-piece borders, cornices, and corners. The tile when -employed with much repetition becomes the diaper ornament. - -_Window Gardens_ to contain flower-pots. These are square chests, as -long as the window is wide, and from a foot to eighteen inches in depth. -They may be made with two or three panels, or one long panel in front, -with one at each end. They form admirable subjects for decoration. - -_Albums, Portfolios, Book-covers._ These are panels, and afford an -infinite range of design and effects in wood-carving. They may be very -beautifully and easily ornamented in mere stamping and outlining (_vide_ -Lesson II.), or by putting in diaper grounds, or basket-work, or by very -low relief carving, in which case there should be a border in a little -higher relief to protect the pattern from being rubbed, Fig. 70. - -_Canoes._ In many countries large or real canoes are made from one piece -of wood and elaborately carved. Very pretty miniature canoes may be made -from one to three feet in length from any kind of wood, and covered with -any kind of ornamentation. It is not necessary to excavate them from a -single block or log, as they may be made from two or more pieces. They -form useful receptacles for many objects. - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.] - -_Panels of Doors._ These might be generally ornamented. Every kind of -wood-carving is applicable to them, but it should be remembered that -for all such decoration a large, free, and bold style is absolutely -necessary, and that it is unwise to make mural work, which should be -visible at great distances, out of pretty flowers or too delicate work. -A room with good bold door-panels, wainscot, or dado and a frieze, -seems half furnished, while trifling and feeble ornaments detract from -such appearance. The great secret of the attractiveness of mediaeval and -savage decoration is its energy. Even eccentricity and grotesqueness -lose all that is repulsive in them when they are simply and vigorously -set forth. - -Carved patterns in low relief may be applied to door-panels. - -[Illustration: Fig. 70. ALBUM COVER.] - -_Foot-stools._ These are really small panelled boxes, unless made with -supports or legs. - -_Benches._ Simple benches are seldom decorated, but they are admirably -adapted to it. Never carve the seats, unless they are made to fold up -to protect them from the rain, in which case the under ornaments of -choir-seats or misereres may be appropriately used. When the bench has -a back it becomes a rude sofa or settee or settle (Anglo-Saxon _setl_, -a seat). Properly speaking a settle is a _long_ bench with a high back. -This may be carved in panels. There was an old Saxon and early English -double chair made to seat two, which is like a short settle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 71. HANGING BOX.] - -_Hanging Boxes._ These are boxes generally made with a back, which is -the longest piece, and which goes above and below the receptacle part. -They are useful for newspapers or letters. Every kind of carving is -applicable to them, Fig. 71. - -_Key Boxes._ These are small hanging cabinets. In every family there are -many loose keys of trunks and furniture lying about loose, and hard to -find when wanted. If there were a key box they would always be readily -found. Make a box or frame, let us say eighteen inches in length by -ten inches width, of four strips of deal or any wood. These strips may -be half an inch in thickness by an inch in width. Nail or glue them -together so as to form the four sides of a box. Then take one or two or -three strips of thin planed board, and neatly nail them on to form a -back to the shallow box. Now take a panel, which is to form the lid or -door of the cabinet. It will be better to make a narrow frame of four -strips, and set the panel in this, as a door, with hinges and lock. -This is to be hung up on the wall. It will very much improve the whole -if the interior and outside of the cabinet, or all the deal, be stained -to match the door, which, as it is to be carved, should be of walnut -or oak, or some better class of wood. Then get some small silver or -plated-headed nails and drive them in rows in the cabinet. The keys are -to be hung up on these. - -_Cabinets._ These may be in the nature of upright boxes with doors, with -three sides ornamented, the fourth being placed against the wall, or -three-sided for a corner. The forms of cabinets are extremely varied, -and the artist should pass much time in designing them. They are of all -sizes, from great _armoires_ for clothing down to caskets. The word -cabinet is derived from the French _cabane_, a cabin. The earliest -dwellers in Italy made the receptacles for the ashes of the dead exactly -like the cabins in which they dwelt. - -_Sabots or Wooden Shoes._ These serve admirably to carve, and are very -pretty when coloured or ivoried, bronzed in antique style, or otherwise -ornamented. Sabots are useful to contain small articles, and may be -turned into cigar-ash holders. - -_Umbrella Handles._ These offer an inexhaustible field for the designer -and carver of small objects. - -_Tankards._ These and all kinds of cylindrical objects are the same -as regards design as panels, only that the pattern when not in set -divisions must be continuous, or going round without a break. They have -been already described. - -_Pen and Pencil Boxes._ A very convenient form is that of a round-turned -wood, plain, upright jar. Small square or round carved boxes for such a -purpose are not hard to make. They may be made like towers or castles, -the trunks of trees, barrels, or almost any hollow objects. - -[Illustration: Fig. 72. FLASK.] - -_Pilgrim Bottles and Powder Flasks._ Take two pieces of board, each -one inch thick, plane them smooth, and saw both into ovals exactly -matching, of, say, six inches by ten. Cut away the centre from both. Fit -them exactly. Then round each half in such a manner that, when brought -together, they form a round ring, like a French loaf. Then carefully -hollow out the centre of both, including the neck, and glue the halves -together. Carve the outside, Figs. 72 and 73. During the Middle Ages -such bottles were made of many sizes to contain gunpowder. They were -carved from ivory or hard wood, and were covered with a very great -variety of subjects, such as deer, dogs, wild boars, birds, cupids, -scenes from the heathen mythology and the Bible, as well as ordinary -grotesques. - -[Illustration: Fig. 73. PILGRIM BOTTLE.] - -_Shrines or Reliquaries._ This is the conventional name for boxes or -caskets made exactly in the form of houses, the lid being one side of -the roof. The shape is a convenient one for a box. They were covered -with ornaments of the most varied or grotesque kinds. - -_Mummies._ The Egyptian mummy or its outward box or sarcophagus forms -an excellent subject for a useful box. Take two pieces of wood, adapt -them to make a box, like the Egyptian type, that is, the lid being about -one-fourth as thick as the box. _Applique_ or glue more wood on to the -lid, in the centre. The whole may be then smoothed into shape, painted -and gilt, or else carved in low relief, or simply stamped. It may also -be all gilt, and the dot work and shadows painted in brown or ivoried. -Take for model a real sarcophagus. The work is not difficult, and the -result will be a very handsome object. - -_Roman Sarcophagus._ This is simply a square box carved in very high -relief, after the pattern of a Roman tomb. The ornaments may be -_applique_. These sarcophagi are very beautiful when ivoried. - -_Books._ A very pretty pattern for a box is an old book of the twelfth -or thirteenth century, with its clasps and other ornaments in high -relief. One of the covers is set on hinges, and forms the lid. Care -should be taken to polish and ornament the whole so as to look like -an original. It was very common to make the sides of old books of -wooden panels, which were carved in high relief. Silver and brass or -iron clasps and studs taken from such old books may be bought in many -bric-a-brac shops. - -_Staves or Alpenstocks._ A staff four or five feet in length is more -useful for a pedestrian going a great distance than a cane, and it -is remarkable that it should have fallen into such disuse. In old -times in northern countries they were often made square, the corners -being slightly rounded, and were then covered with Runic inscriptions -and ornaments. These were very often almanacks, so that a man wishing -to know what was the day of the week or month had only to consult -his staff, or to "up stick." These were called clogs. They might be -acceptable and useful to many tourists. They were commonly carved by the -peasants, and a few may possibly still be found in Suffolk. - -_Spoons._ Wooden spoons are easily carved and ornamented. It is very -curious, that quite apart from any modern slang attached to the words -"spooney" or "to spoon," two spoons, from their fitting together -exactly, are considered in many countries as a type of matrimony and -perfect agreement. In Wales, as in Sweden and Algeria, it is usual to -present a newly married couple with a piece of wood carved into the -form of two spoons, and I myself possess specimens of such. If anyone -wishes to establish the custom in England he would probably find that -the present would be generally welcome. Two spoons in one cup are, it -is well known, the sign of a happy marriage. I have seen large wooden -spoons carved and painted and varnished, or gilt; two of these tied -together with a ribbon were hung up as an amulet to secure peace. - -_Bellows._ These are carved in low relief, and may be ornamented by -simple indentation or outlining and stamping. It is the easiest course -to get the wood and saw it out, half or one-third inch walnut or oak, -and then carve it, and have the bellows made up, Figs. 74 and 75. - -_Platters._ Take a piece of panel, one-third to half of an inch in -thickness, and saw it out into any shape, such as that of a fish, a wild -boar, a pig, a cat, a rabbit, tortoise, hare, etc., care being taken -that the shape always approach that of a circle, an oval, or at least -a diamond. Most animals can be drawn fitting into a circular border, -as you can ascertain for yourself by putting a cat or a hare, etc., -into a hoop. Indent with stamped work or carve in ribbon-work, low -relief, finish and polish with care, dye black, and then oil or varnish. -These are useful for interposing between cups, vases, etc., and the -table-cloth. Very pretty effects may be produced by inlaying small discs -of pearl or ivory to form the eyes, etc. - -[Illustration: Fig. 74. THE WIND-FLOWER, OR ANEMONE.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 75. A SALAMANDER.] - -_Lunettes and Spaces._ It will often happen that there is over a -chimney-piece or door, or under or over a window, a space like a -semi-circle, or half an ellipse or oval, or square or rectangle of any -kind, which might very well be filled in, and it will be found that, in -most cases, there is nothing more appropriate than wood-carving. It will -be an easy matter for anyone in the least familiar with drawing to adapt -the designs in this work, or in the "Manual of Design," to such spaces. - -_False Sofa-backs._ When a plain flat lounge or sofa is placed against a -wall its appearance may be greatly improved in one of two ways. Firstly, -a carpet or cloth may be hung on the wall, just matching it in size and -meeting it. Secondly, and this is very effective, get boards or panels -made into a piece, just as broad as the sofa is long, and from two feet -to any height you please. It may reach down to the ground, or begin with -the sofa. Carve it. This will seem to be the back of the sofa, or a -guard for the wall; in any case it will appear very well. It may be made -of separate panels, say six or eight inches by twelve or sixteen, made -up into a frame. Such pieces may be placed to back any kind of furniture -which rests permanently against the wall. - -_Door Pieces._ Panels just as long as the door is wide, and from one -to two, three, or even four feet across, when carved, form handsome -decorations to place _above_ a door; they may also be used to place -above windows. Inscriptions, or simple figures with ornament, look very -well on them. - -_Outside or Facade Pieces._ Many a house, be it mansion or cottage, -which seems utterly prosaic and plain, might be greatly improved if -between its windows, on the outside, there could be set ornamental -panels. These may be painted, carved in stone, moulded of Portland -cement or other artificial stone, and in many cases carved of wood. -Ornamented inscriptions in old English, and simple figures, are suitable -for these panels; in any case let those who adopt them try not to have -the commonplace cupids and ornaments generally seen in mural decoration. -It may not be in good form to be grotesque, but those who entirely avoid -it are almost always commonplace. Fig. 76. - -[Illustration: Fig. 76.] - -_Wood or Coal Boxes._ These are square boxes with lids, to be placed -by the fireplace. The coal-scuttle, with the coals, may be placed in -them. In carving everything of the kind it is a good idea to introduce -ornamental lettering and appropriate mottoes. - -_Bread Platters._ These may be seen in every fancy or furnishing shop -where wooden wares are sold. They can be much improved by carving to -serve as round panels. - -_Chimney-pieces._ These generally consist of pilaster panels and strips, -and anybody who can execute these in detail can have them made up. It is -desirable for the pupil to copy a few or many chimney-pieces, great or -small, from real ones, and adopt the ornaments from them. And as they -are articles which receive a great deal of wear and tear and rubbing, -it may be well to remember that too delicate finish is misplaced where -scrubbing with soap and sand is sure to set in some day, and where, at -any rate, dusting and other processes are inevitable. After a few years -the foliage or flowers undercut to the last degree, begin to shed their -leaves, and appear broken or ragged. Good flat-carving, which endures -anything, is better than this, and the roses, even if in high relief, -would look none the worse for being solidly though conventionally cut. A -good chimney-piece and a handsome high-backed armchair can be very well -executed by anybody who can do ordinary panel carving. - -There is no fireplace in even the humblest cottage for which a -chimney-piece may not be made. Its upper portion can in most cases be -made to support shelves or a cabinet; when in a corner these of course -are triangular. Gothic or ornamented lettering may be used in the -ornament. For this, proverbs or quotations relative to the fireplace are -appropriate. - -_Beams._ When the beams which support the floor above are left exposed, -the room is improved by being made higher. If these beams are carved, -even if it be done rudely, the whole room seems to be adorned. This is -strikingly the case when the beams are stained a dark brown, and then -touched up a little on the prominent points with gilding. If it be -too difficult to carve the beams _in situ_ or in place, it is easy to -ornament them with applied carved ornaments. Pains should be taken to -make these appear to be uniform with the wood. - -_Racks._ These may be for umbrellas, hats, garments, pipes weapons, and -other purposes. Great ingenuity and taste can be developed in designing -them. Of one thing let the designer be very careful. Let him see that -the pegs or hooks are strongly fixed and are not ornamented. I have seen -such pieces of furniture, in which a four-cornered sharp-edged flower is -placed once and even twice on a hook, while on others there is at the -end a projection more than an inch in diameter, which is flat on the -back or under side, with a sharp edge. The result is, that when a coat -is hung by the loop on such a peg and is then turned or twisted once or -twice, as often happens, it is almost impossible at times to get it off. - -_The Boss_ or round central projection formed a very important part -or speciality in mediaeval wood-carving. It can be advantageously used -as a centre, and sets off to good effect surrounding flat or plain -carving. It is sometimes used as a handle for chests. It is, when a -simple half-circle, very easily sketched into shape. It may be formed -into the head of an animal, a flower, a single curling leaf, or several -leaves. The student is specially urged to copy as many as he can from -Gothic designs. A boss at the bottom of a bowl, or in a saucer or -_plaque_, produces a good effect, the concave surface round it making -a beautiful effect of shade, which might be more frequently employed -by picture-frame makers. This ornament, which is very easily made and -very striking, is thus prepared. Get a bowl or a shallow round platter; -any turner will make one for you. Then carve from a hemisphere of wood -a head or a boss of leaves or flowers, or a dragon. Round the bottom -with a file to fit, and with glue and a screw fasten it to the bowl. The -interior of the bowl may be polished, varnished, gilded, or ivoried. - -_Clock Cases._ A common clock is not very expensive, and when it is -properly repainted and set in a well-carved frame its value will be very -much enhanced. A tower is a very good subject for a clock case. - -_Vestibule._ The small ante-hall, between the first and second door, -common in very many houses. This can be ornamented with a wainscot or -dados in long panels. It is very often thus decorated in America. For -cottages and country houses, or even for town mansions, such panels -may be beautifully and fitly decorated with gouge-work in grooves, a -flat pattern in simple cutting-in, such as any person may learn how to -execute in a few hours. Fill in the pattern or cuts with dark paint, -and if exposed to changes of temperament or rubbing, let it be oiled or -varnished. The same work is of course as appropriate to halls as any -other rooms, but the vestibule, being small, may serve for a beginning. - -_Staircase Balusters._ These afforded inexhaustible work for the artists -of the olden time, and they should be tempting to every wood-carver. -It is not at all necessary that they should be strictly of open work, -in lattices or rails, as beautiful objects of the kind were once often -made in panels. But the carver should especially be aware of projecting -leaves or crochets, as they are very apt to "catch" garments. - -_Garden-work._ Much bold wood-carving may be executed for gardens in a -great variety of forms. Stands or tables for potted flowers and tubs -may be decorated, panels placed in walls, and summer-houses made in far -greater variety than they are at present. Poetry supplies an infinite -variety of inscriptions appropriate to gardens, which may be carved -and ornamented. It is worth noting that statues of Flora and Pomona -and Vertumnus in simple archaic forms were used to protect gardens and -orchards among the Romans, and it would be an easy matter to carve these -in low relief in panels. - -_Gates._ The gates of country places, gardens, etc., afford a wide scope -for the skill of the carver, and as they are the first objects generally -seen about a house they may be most appropriately ornamented. In this, -as in much other work, the art of the carpenter is combined with that of -the carver. It should be, however, remembered, as regards gates, as of -all decoration whatever, that anything which can ever be in any manner -in the way is not beautiful, sensible, or proper. There should never be -a jagged or pointed ornament wherever it can "catch" clothing. - -_Bedsteads._ The bedstead was of old considered so appropriate for -carving, that I find in an excellent old Italian work on furniture more -illustrations of this article than any other. Even very simple and cheap -ones may be redoubled in value by a little judicious carving. - -_Trays._ These may be made in great variety, to contain many kinds of -objects. As a rule the tray is a long shallow box, but it may be carved -from one piece of wood, and is then used to carry objects in, the single -piece being necessary to give it strength. If ornamented with carving -the tray forms an attractive object when hung up on the wall. And it -may be here remarked that one great object of all carving is, that most -objects which are useful in some way shall be ornamental when not in -use. We do not wish to have trays and coal-boxes in the way if they are -plain, but when decorated they serve as well as pictures to ornament a -room. - -_Coal or Wood Boxes. See Wood or Coal Boxes._ - -_Salt Boxes, Collection Boxes._ These very useful articles need not -be limited as regards contents, nor confined to the kitchen or to -"collection." If the part of the box which goes against the wall, or -its back, be lengthened, the salt box becomes a kind of bracket. _Vide -Hanging Boxes._ - -_Shelf-boards._ It very often happens that a literary man, or -draughtsman, or architect, though his work-table may be large, finds -it crowded with books, etc. To find place for these the shelf-board is -very convenient. It is simply a board, let us say one foot wide, placed -on two supports, which lift it twelve or fifteen inches from the table. -To economize room these supports may each be a square open box, in -which books may be placed. The advantage of this shelf is that it may -be displaced at any time when the table is cleared. A plain board in a -room is not an attractive object, its edge, or even one side of it, may -therefore be carved. - -_Brackets and Bracket Shelves._ These useful objects may be made in a -great variety of forms. The simplest is merely three pieces of board -fastened together in a triangle. In the illustration, Fig. 77, there -are five pieces. The centre of _b_ slopes at an angle of 45 deg.. Bracket -shelves are made by hanging two brackets and laying a board across them. -A bracket may be made on a longer board, and have two or more shelves, -it then becomes a hanging rack or cabinet. Or the support may be a long -strip in which pegs of wood or metal are placed, on which objects are -hung. A very great variety of carved or stamped ornament may be adapted -to brackets. - -[Illustration: Fig. 77. BRACKET. THE TANNHAeUSER.] - -_Violin and Guitar Cases._ In the old times these were often elaborately -carved, and thus formed an ornament, instead of being, like all now -used, anything but attractive. - -_Handles for Drawers._ The hanging or hinge style of old-fashioned -handles, now so prevalent, has the drawbacks of not being always easy to -open or "find," and of frequently breaking. The knob, which was screwed -on, was always wearing out and getting out of order. The best and most -practical kind is made with a square shank which passes through a square -hole in the drawer. It has also in itself a square hole into which a -square pin is driven, which holds it fast. Carving in very low relief -may be applied to ornament these handles, but it should never be such as -to produce positive inequalities, such as press into, or may hurt the -hand. If the pin be slightly wedge-shaped, it can never wear out, nor -can the handle become loose, since when it does, all that is required is -to drive it in further. A very plain chest of drawers may be made much -more attractive with a handsome set of handles. Handles are another form -of bosses. - -_Applied Ornaments._ Old Roman bronze coins, such as may be bought for -two or three pence, are often quite handsome enough to be applied with -beautiful effect in caskets, tankards, or boxes. Lay the coin on the -wood, draw its exact circle with a pin, and do this until the line is -rather deeply scratched. Cut out the disc with great care, so that the -coin may fit tightly into it. For this purpose very thick coins are -preferable. Let it project a little from the surface. Fasten it in with -diamond or Turkey cement. Of course, medals or coins of any kind may be -used. Make a border in the wood round the coin, and if you like, apply -other ornament to this border. Large nails with circular boss heads are -very effective in furniture. Chests may be beautifully ornamented with -them. - -_Waste-Paper Box._ A carved box is much more "sightly" and solid than an -ordinary waste-paper basket. The box may be carved in a basket pattern, -and made rather wider at the top than the bottom. - -_Borders._ Any ornament continued in a line or strip forms a border. A -wave line, or one made of hemi-circles, joined or not with ornaments -in every compartment, is a good plan for a border. So is a vine of any -kind. When the hemi-circles are squared and joined, it becomes the basis -for the Greek Meander or Wall of Troy. Angles and other forms are also -used. Any diaper may be repeated so as to form a border. Borders around -panels and other margins, and all along the edges of boards for shelves, -brackets and most of the works mentioned in this list, may be executed -in highly decorative effect, and with an ease and precision difficult -to attain by carving, with the hammer and stamps mentioned in the first -lesson. Lines are first drawn on the work as guides to place the punches -to insure regularity. - -[Illustration: Fig. 78. LECTERN.] - -_Pilaster._ Though this term is generally applied to what may be -called a flat-sided pillar against a wall, or a flat half pillar, in -wood-carving it means quite as often a perpendicular border in relief. -Like borders, pilasters are used in many ways in decoration, as on -walls, bureaux, cabinets, sideboards, tables, or wherever a long "strip" -is to be filled. - -_Base Moulding._ This is generally a border which is the lower portion -of a piece of furniture, etc. Thus, if there is a panel and frame, -and under this, just over the "feet," a carved strip, it is a base -moulding. Narrow fillets on these may be also decorated by stamping. - -_Sideboard or Buffet._ A piece of furniture eminently adapted to -ornament. It may be made with a back or with shelves, niches, or a -cabinet placed on it instead of a back. - -_Alms Boxes, Money Boxes._ These are made up for churches, generally -after Gothic designs, and afford a wide range of design. - -_Lectern._ A church reading desk. This has always been a favourite -subject with wood-carvers, Fig. 78. - -_Ends of Pews._ A favourite subject for carvers in the days of old, -_vide_ Fig. 80. - -_Porte-papier._ A very useful article to carry paper, or a sketchbook, -or to press leaves and flowers and convey them home. Take two pieces of -board, from one-third to one-half an inch in thickness, and six inches -by eight in size, more or less as may be desired. The paper is placed -between these boards and the whole secured with a hand-strap. It is -usual to carve a flower pattern on these. - -_Ring or Circular Boxes._ Take a board, of any thickness, _e.g._ one of -two inches, and make of it a disc or circle, using the steel fret saw, -Fig. 16; then marking out another circle within this, saw out a ring -about three-quarters of an inch in thickness. Adapt to this a bottom -and lid, both, of course, also circular. It will be like what is known -as a cheese box. To double the depth saw out two rings and glue them -together. This will give four inches depth. Boxes may thus be made of -any shape, such as a fish, and then carved. - -_Photograph or Mirror Frames, or Mounts._ Take a piece of thin board, -six inches by four or five, or any size required. Cut out of one corner -of this as much as will be required for the photograph or mirror, -leaving enough wood for a pattern. These have become very popular of -late, Fig. 79. - -[Illustration: Fig. 79. FRAME FOR A PHOTOGRAPH, LOOKING GLASS, ETC.] - -_Triptych._ Two folding covers or boards on hinges, intended to cover a -picture or carved or enamelled or inlaid work. These triptychs may be -used reversed as writing desks, or else carved on both sides, and then -when open hung on the wall as ornaments. When there are only two boards, -as in an album, it is called a diptych. - -_Encoignures._ Tables made with an angle to fit into a corner of a room. - -_Shields._ Carved in wood, these form beautiful ornaments. - -_Incitega._ A kind of stand or table for flowers. It was generally made -of rods or strips, but it may be very easily formed like a box, that is, -a truncated pyramid reversed. The sides are carved. - -_Monopodium or Centre-table._ A small circular table supported on a -central stem or foot, used by the ancients at social entertainments. - -_Orb._ A globe covered with ornaments carved in low relief. They form -very effective decorations. - -_Finial._ A terminating ornament, corresponding to a flower as a crochet -does to a side leaf, Fig. 80, etc. - -_Coin-brackets._ Brackets made to fit into the corner of a room. - -_Corner-cabinets._ Cabinets adapted to a corner of a room. There are -also coin or corner objects of furniture of all kinds. - -_Mouldings._ These are narrow borders or strips, and are very effective -in giving relief in long spaces. A good effect for a full border, -a diaper ground or a broad pattern, may often be made by doubling, -trebling, etc., mouldings. By using the folding mirror a segment of any -moulding or border may be converted into an ornament to fill up any -given space, of any shape. There are several tools specially made for -cutting figures in mouldings. - -[Illustration: Fig. 80. POPPY-HEAD.] - -_Poppy-heads._ There are many cases where carving may be applied with -good effect to relieve bareness. "Such ornaments, generally small groups -of foliage" (though often figures with leaves), "were formerly placed on -the summits of bench-ends desks, and other clerical wood-work" (F. W. -Fairholt). Poppy-heads can be placed, however, or adapted, to all kinds -of furniture, with a variation in form, Fig. 80. - -_Sconce._ A wall candlestick, which usually takes the form of a -projecting bracketed support in wood or metal. They originated in the -fifteenth century, and were generally of enriched design. They may be -sawed out of boards, or carved in many forms. - -_Trellis-screens._ These are thin boards of open lattice-work, generally -made by fret-sawing and subsequent carving. They are useful to place -behind windows, and for many purposes. - -_Tympanum._ A triangular space, which may be filled in with carved -ornament. - -_Verge or Barge-board._ The gable ornament of wood-work, used -extensively for houses in the fifteenth century. It affords a wide field -for decoration. - -_Wreaths._ Carved circles or rings of wood, which form beautiful -ornaments, especially when hung up at intervals. They may be used for -picture-frames, Fig. 81. - -_Acerra._ A square box, on legs or supports. - -_Heads and Legs._ When a cylinder, or square stick, or horn, or oval -box, is made to rudely resemble a figure by adding to it a head and -legs, this is so called. - -_AEdicula._ A small house or tower, generally used as a box. Very -effective and beautiful articles are thus made. - -_Ante-fix._ Ornament carved in stone or wood, or made from terra-cotta, -"to give an ornamental finish or to conceal unsightly junctions in -masonry" (Fairholt). There are few country houses or cottages where they -cannot be applied. - -_Ciborium, Synedoche._ Very richly adorned receptacles in which the -Host is kept. They may be imitated for cabinets. In Spanish churches -they are called _custodia_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81. RING-BOX, WREATH, OR BREAD PLATTER.] - -_Cyma._ A moulding consisting of a round and hollow conjoined, termed -_cyma recta_ when hollow above, and _cyma reversa_ when the cavity is -below. - -_Modillons._ Brackets in Gothic architecture, the lower portion often in -the form of a grotesque animal or human being. - -[Illustration: Fig. 82. HAND MIRROR.] - -_Hand Mirrors._ These afford an endless field for design. Fig. 82. - -_Echinus._ The egg and tongue or egg and anchor moulding, much like the -heart and dart ornament. It is easily made and is very effective. Faces -may be cut on the "eggs." - -_Outlines._ Figures of men, animals, etc., cut or sawed out of boards, -and either painted or carved. They are common in Italian churches. They -form very effective hanging ornaments. Birds can be adapted to beautiful -outlines. - -_Hammer Beam._ The projecting end of a beam, often carved. - -_Hood Moulding._ The moulding which covers or surmounts a door or -window on the outside, forming a sort of hood or weather-guard. It is -also called a dripstone or weather moulding. It can be beautifully -ornamented, and thus becomes a striking decoration. - -_Impost._ The horizontal moulding on the summit of a pillar from which -the arch springs. - -_Console._ (French.) Brackets in furniture. - -_Perfume Chests._ Boxes with perforated lids in which is kept -_pot-pourri_ of rose leaves, or a mixture of powdered orris-root and -spice. - -_Churns._ A carved churn is a fanciful ornament, used to contain papers, -etc. The handle is fixed to the cover and serves to lift it. - -_Handles for Bowls, Cups, or Boxes._ These are sawn from board from one -half to an inch in thickness, and then fastened to the bowl or box, -generally with screws. When gracefully or quaintly shaped they convert -any ordinary bowl or tankard, with very little trouble, to an attractive -ornament. They are almost peculiar to Sweden and Norway, where they may -be seen in museums in very great variety. - -_Bark Frames._ A curious and striking ornament may be made in this -manner. Take a piece of cork, oak, or other bark, which may be a foot in -length by six inches. Make in it an oval or circle, in which carve any -subject. The writer once had an image of the Virgin thus carved, which -was much admired. Dark brown bark is much improved by having gilding -roughly spread on its projecting points. If the ground of the carving be -gilt and the bark left in its natural condition the effect will also be -good. - -_Three-legged_, or _Milking Stools_. These are commonly carved on the -seat. Ornaments may be carved and better applied as in Fig. 83. - -[Illustration: Fig. 83. THREE-LEGGED STOOL.] - - - - -INDEX. - - - Acerra, 151 - - AEdicula, 151 - - Album-covers, 129, 131 - - Alms boxes, 148 - - Alpenstocks, carved, 136 - - Ammonia as a wood stain, 112 - - Animal forms, carving, 59 - - Antefix, 151 - - _Applique_ work, 75, 84; - it may be carried too far, 76 - - Art, "high," and carving, 64, 76. - _See also_ Conventional, the, Rule, etc. - - Artist, the, and the workman in wood-carving, 82 - - - Balusters, carving, 142 - - Barge-board, 151 - - Bark frames, 154 - - Bars, and other ornaments, 101 - - Base moulding, 147 - - Basket-work, imitation of, 128 - - Beam, hammer, 154 - - Beams, carving, 141 - - Bedsteads, carved, 143 - - Bellows, carving, 137, 138 - - Bench, the working, 3; - screws, 5 - - Benches, carving, 132 - - Bend, getting the, 55 - - Bent tools, 5, 95 - - Bichromate of Potash as a dye, 113 - - Black dyes, 114 - - Blocking-out, 50, 56 - - Bold, large work, 48, 49 - - Bone, ivory, etc., carving, 14 - - Book-box, 136 - - Book-covers, carved, 88, 91, 129 - - Books and authorities, quoted and referred to: - Caddy, Mr., 3; - Fairholt's Dictionary, 151; - Gibson's "Wood Carver," 8; - Holtzapffel, J. J., 2, 83; - Leland's "Drawing and Designing," 72, 122; - Mitchell's "Lessons in Carpentry," 126; - Rowe, Eleanor, 42, 112; - Seaton, General, 11, 88, 96, 114. - _See also_ under names, as Gibbons, Grinling. - - Borders, carved, 78, 146 - - Bosses, or centres, 75, 101, 141 - - Bosting, 38, 50, 56 - - Bowl, to carve a, 95, 142, 154 - - Boxes, carving, 125, 136, 144, 148; - hanging, 132, 133; - pen and pencil, 134. - _See also_ Cabinets, Caskets, Perfume, etc. - - Brackets, 125, 144, 145; - coin (or corner), 150 - - Bread platters, 137, 140, 152 - - Buffets, 148 - - Building-up, or _applique_ work, 75 - - Butternut as a dye, 111 - - - Cabinet-making, 124 - - Cabinets, 133, 152; - Figurini for, 59, 62; - corner, 150 - - Caddy, Mr., his suggestions, 3 - - Canoes, carving, 129 - - Carpentry, C. F. Mitchell's Lessons in, 126 - - Carving, early, 33, 54, 68, 70, 101, 130, 134, 141; - objects for, 121. - _See also_ Cabinets, Horns, Italian work, etc. - - Carvings, decayed, restoration of, 106 - - Carvings, imitation of, 108 - - Case for papers or music, 117 - - Caskets, 136; - for cigars, 127. - _See also_ Boxes, etc. - - Casks, carving, 97, 128 - - Casts. _See_ Moulds, etc. - - Cavo-cutting, 28 - - Cavo Relievo cutting, 28, 32 - - Cellini, Benvenuto, 11 - - Celtic patterns, 26 - - Cement, for glass and china, 109; - for wood, 97, 106, 146. - _See also_ Fillers, Glue, etc. - - Centres, or bosses, 75, 89 - - Chairs for carving, 124 - - Chimney-pieces, decoration of, 140. - _See also_ Lunettes, etc. - - Chipping, or wasting, 42 - - Chisels, 3, 10 - - Churns, ornamental, 154 - - Ciborium, Synedoche, 151 - - Clamps, or Cramps. _See_ Holdfasts. - - Clock-cases, 142 - - Coal boxes, etc., 140 - - Cocoa-nut goblet, 100 - - Cocoa-nut shell cement, 97; - powder, etc., 108 - - Cocoa-nuts, carving, 95 - - Coin (or corner) brackets, 150 - - Coins as ornaments, 146 - - Collection boxes, 144 - - Colouring and staining wood, 110 - - Common-place, the, _v._ the grotesque, 140 - - Console, or bracket, 125, 154 - - Conventional, the, preferable to the real, 54, 57 - - Corner-cabinets, 150; - firmers, 4 - - Cramps, or Clamps. _See_ Holdfasts. - - Crossing the pattern, 103 - - Cups, handles for, 154 - - Curve carving, 26 - - Curved surfaces, carving, 93 - - _Custodia_, Spanish, 152 - - Cyma, 152 - - - Decoration, early, 130; - of rooms, 130 - _See also_ Rooms, etc. - - Deep carving. _See_ Intaglio. - - "Design, Manual of." _See_ Leland. - - Diaper cutting, 18, 69, 70, 76; - patterns, 70, 129, 147 - - Diptych, 150 - - Dogs, or snibs, 8 - - Door-knobs, 104; - pieces, 139 - - Doors, panels of, 129 - - Drawers, handles for, 145 - - Drawing, 61, 72 - - Drill, use of the, 47 - - Dripstone, 154 - - Dyes for wood, 110 - - - Ebony and other black dyes, 114 - - Echinus, 154 - - Egyptian intaglio, 90 - - Egyptian Mummies (boxes), 136 - - Encoignures, 150 - - Engravings, imitation of, 91 - - Eye-tools, 5 - - - Facade pieces, 139 - - Figures, carving simple, 59 - - Figurini, 62, 83 - - Files for finishing, 64 - - Fillers, or cements for wood, 106, 119 - - Finger painting, Venetian, 113 - - Finial, 150 - - Finishing off, 50, 64 - - Firmer, the, 3 - - Flasks, carving, 134 - - Flat-cutting, 26, 35, 48 - - Flat patterns, 28, 30, 31 - - Flemish carvers, the old, 33 - - Florence, ornament from, 58 - - Fluter, the, 22, 34 - - Foot-stools, 132 - - Frames, bark, 154; - or borders, 78; - picture, etc., 128, 148, 149, 151 - - Free-hand carving, 49 - - Fret bow saw, the, 9. - _See also_ under Saw. - - Fret-cutting, 84 - - Furniture, carving for, 74; - old and German, 124, 125. - _See also_ under Cabinets, Chairs, Foot-stools, etc. - - - Gable ornaments, 151 - - Garden-work, 143 - - Gardens, window, 129 - - Gates, carving, 143 - - Gelatine as a preservative, 107 - - Gelatine glue, 109 - - German furniture, 124 - - Gibbons, Grinling, his work, 75 - - Gibson, Mr. J. S., his "Wood-Carver" quoted, 8 - - Gilding, 141, 155. - _See also_ under Finishing. - - Glass, and glass-paper, for finishing, 64, 66 - - Glue, making and use of, 105, 108; - acidulated and liquid, 106, 108, 109 - - Gothic wood-carving, 40 - - Gouge lines, 20; - work, 22 - - Gouges, 3, 4, 10 - - Grain, cutting with the, 44 - - Greek, ancient, work, 47 - - Grindstones, etc., 12 - - Grooving, 2, 22 - - Grotesque, the, _v._ the commonplace, 140 - - Ground punches, 16, 17 - - Grounds, cutting, 34 - - - Hammer beam, 154 - - Handles of tools, 11; - for drawers, 145; - Swedish, 154 - - Hand screws, 5, 7 - - Hanging boxes, 63, 132 - - Heads and legs, in ornament, 151 - - Holdfasts, or clamps, 5, 44, 94 - - Hollow gouge, the, 5 - - Holtzapffel, Mr. John J., on the Use of the Saw in wood-carving, 83 - - Hood moulding, 154 - - Hooker, Sir Joseph, 107 - - Horn, how to colour, 94; - how to soften, 95 - - Horns, carving, 93, 128 - - House, outside ornament of the, 139 - - Hulme, works of, 101 - - - Imitation of old work, etc., 64 - - Implements. _See_ Tools, etc. - - Impost, 154 - - Incised work, 86 - - Incitega, 150 - - Indenting, or stamping, 2, 15 - - Ink as a dye, 114 - - Intaglio, or sunk carving, 86; - Rilevato cutting, 28 - - Irish (Runic) patterns, 26; - tankard, old, 99 - - Italian, early, work, 62, 86, 143 - - Ivory and horn, dyes, etc., for, 95 - - Ivorying, 113 - - - Key boxes, 133 - - Knobs and bosses, 101 - - Knuckle-bends, 10 - - Kraft, Adam, his work, 55 - - - Layard, Sir A. H., his antiquities from Nineveh, 107 - - Leather work and carving, 90, 91 - - Leaves, cutting, 39, 51, 53, 64 - - Lecterns, 147, 148 - - Left hand, carving with the, 39, 46 - - Leland, Mr. C. G., his "Drawing and Designing," 72, 122; - design in high relief by, 81 - - Lunettes and spaces, filling, 139 - - - Macaroni tool, the, 10, 42 - - Mander's stains for wood, 111 - - Metal work, _repousse_, 15, 17 - - Mirrors, hand, 153 - - Mitchell, C. F., his "Lessons in Carpentry," 126 - - Modelling, 39, 49, 55, 61, 79; - or rounding, 39 - - Modillons, 153 - - Monopodium, or centre-table, 150 - - Mottoes, 140 - - Moulding, hood, 154 - - Mouldings and borders, 147, 150 - - Moulds, carving for, 90, 92; - making, 115 - - Mummies (boxes), 136 - - Mural decoration, 140 - - - Nails, headed, as ornaments, 146 - - Nineveh antiquities, the, 107 - - Norway, ornament in, 154; - spot cutting there, 118 - - Notches in leaves, cutting, 51 - - - Oak, treatment of, 111, 112; - leaves, 43, 54 - - Objects for wood-carvers, 121 - - Oiling in finishing, 66, 110 - - Oilstones, etc., 12 - - Orbs, carving, 150 - - Ornament, pre-historic, 118 - - Ornamentation, art of, 121. - _See also_ Decoration. - - Ornaments, applied, 146 - - Outlines, 154 - - Outlining, 34 - - - Pacific islands, spot cutting there, 118 - - Paint, etc., in finishing, 68, 91, 113 - - Painting, finger, of the old Venetians, 113 - - Panels for carving, 123, 129, 132 - - Paper squeezes, 115 - - _Papier-mache_ work, etc., and carving, 90, 92, 116 - - Parting tool, the, 10, 13. - _See also_ V tool. - - Patterns for carvers, 74, 122 - - Pattern-wheel, or tracer, the, 15 - - Pegs and hooks, 141 - - Pen and pencil boxes, 134 - - Perfume chests, 154 - - Pew-ends, 148 - - Pick, the, 3 - - Pilasters, 147 - - Pilgrim bottles, 134, 135 - - Plaster casts, 116 - - Platters, carved, 137, 140 - - Polished ornaments, 102 - - Polishing wood-carvings, 66, 111. - _See also_ Finishing. - - Poppy-heads, 150, 151 - - _Porte-papier_, 148 - - Portfolio-covers, 129 - - Powder-flasks, 134 - - Practice, 40, 48 - - - Racks, carved, 141 - - Rasps for finishing, 66 - - Real, the, not to be sought too strictly, 54 - - Relics, ancient, preservation of, 107 - - Relief, high, design by C. G. Leland, 81; - higher, 53; - low, 89; - progress towards, 39 - - Reliquaries (boxes), 136 - - Repairing wood-carvings, 105 - - _Repousse_ work, 15, 17 - - Ribbon carving, 34, 48, 57. - _See also_ Flat carving. - - Ring boxes, 148, 152 - - Roman Sarcophagus (box), 136 - - Roman work, early, 47 - - Rooms, decoration of, 130, 139. - _See also_ Vestibule, etc. - - Round, carving in the, or statuary, 79 - - Rounding. _See_ Modelling. - - Router, the, 9 - - Rowe, Eleanor, quoted, 42, 112 - - Rule, "high art," and wood-carving, 65, 76 - - Runic ornaments, 26, 137 - - - Sabots, or wooden shoes, for carving, 133 - - Salamander, a, 138 - - Salt boxes, 144 - - Saw table, the, 6, 85 - - Saws, and their use, 9, 83 - - Sconces, 151 - - Scotland, early ornamentation in, 118 - - Scratch, the, 8 - - Screens, trellis, 151 - - Screws, carvers', 5, 7 - - Scroll gouge, the, 5 - - Seaton, General, quoted, 11, 88, 96, 114 - - Settee, or settle, the, 132 - - Shaded patterns and modelling, 39 - - Sharpening tools, 11, 12 - - Shelf-boards, 144 - - Shelves and brackets, 144 - - Shields, in ornament, 150 - - Shiners, or bosses, 102 - - Shrines or Reliquaries (boxes), 136 - - Sideboards, 148 - - Side-cut, the. _See_ Sweep-cut. - - Skew-chisels, 4 - - Slip-holder, 12 - - Slips, for sharpening tools, 12 - - Snibs, or dogs, 8 - - Soda as a dye for wood, 111 - - Sofa-backs, false, 139 - - Soehnee Freres, their varnish, 113 - - Spaces, filling, 139, 150, 151 - - Spade chisel, the, 10 - - Spade gouge, the, 10 - - Splintering of wood, 36, 44, 51, 105 - _See also_ Wood. - - Spoons, carved, 137 - - Spot-cutting, 118 - - Spray, use of the, in preserving decayed objects, 107 - - Squeezes, and "taking a squeeze," 107, 115 - - Staining wood, 110 - - Staircase balusters, carving, 142 - - Stamping, or indenting, 2, 15. - _See also_ Diaper. - - Statuary. _See_ Round, carving in the. - - Staves, or alpenstocks, carved, 136 - - Stephens' stains for wood, 111 - - Stools, 155. - _See also_ Foot-stool. - - Strap, the, 13 - - Sunk carving. _See_ Intaglio. - - Sweden, ornament in, 154; - spot cutting there, 118 - - Sweep-cut, the, 37, 49, 53, 55 - - Swiss dye for wood, 112 - - Swiss work, 59, 96 - - - Tables, 150 - - Tankards, carving, 98, 134 - - Tannhaeuser bracket, 145 - - Tea as a dye, 111 - - Tiles, 129 - - Tool, the, art of turning it about, 35, 37, 46 - - Tools, 1, 3, 82, 150; - sharpening, 11, 12 - - Tracer, the, 15, 16 - - Trays, carving, 143; - for cigar ashes, 127 - - Trellis-screens, 151 - - Triptych, 150 - - Tympanum, 151 - - - Umber stain for wood, 112 - - Umbrella-handles, 134 - - Under-cutting, 57 - - - V or parting tool, the, 11, 13, 28, 35, 37. - _See also_ Parting tool. - - Varnish and carving, 91, 113. - _See also_ Polishing, etc. - - Veiners, 5 - - Venetian finger painting, 113 - - Venice, wood-carving at, 66 - - Verge or barge-board, 151 - - Vestibule, ornamenting a, 142 - - Violin and guitar cases, 145 - - - Wainscots, etc., carving for, 74 - - Walnut wood, treatment of, 110 - - Waste-paper boxes, carving, 98, 146 - - Wasting, or chipping, 42 - - Wax, for moulds, 107, 115, 116; - as a polish for wood, 111 - - Window gardens, 129 - - Wood, for carving, 14, 36, 88, 106 (_see also_ Grain, Oak, - Splintering, Walnut, etc.); - colouring and staining, 110; - decayed, treatment of, 106; - imitation of, 106, 108; - oiling, 66 - - Workman, the, and the artist in wood-carving, 82 - - Wreaths, in ornament, 151, 152 - - - Zigzag ornament, the Swiss, 96 - - - - -Transcriber's note - - -Text in italics was surrounded with _underscores_, bold with =signs=, -and small capitals were changed to all capitals. A symbol looking like -a knotted point on the side was represented with [symbol] on page 57. - -In the original Fig. 22 did not exist. - -Errors in punctuation and misplaced spaces were corrected silently. -Also the following corrections were made, on page - - 10 "lways" changed to "always" (do not always cut out to the edges) - 35 "latter" changed to "later" (sooner or later.) - 42 The second "Fig. 38." changed to "Panel in Low-relief" (See list - of Plates.) - 49 "boldy" changed to "boldly" (To carve boldly we must use) - 75 "12" changed to "52" (or project beyond it, illustrated by Fig. - 52.) - 90 "Egpytian" changed to "Egyptian" (Egyptian Cutting.) - 113 "Freres" changed to "Freres" (that of Soehnee Freres) - 143 "Vertemnus" changed to "Vertumnus" (Flora and Pomona and - Vertumnus in simple archaic forms). - -Otherwise the original was preserved, including inconsistencies in -spelling and hyphenation. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's A Manual of Wood Carving, by Charles G. 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