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diff --git a/42936-h/42936-h.htm b/42936-h/42936-h.htm index 41a72b6..22e7ad1 100644 --- a/42936-h/42936-h.htm +++ b/42936-h/42936-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Engraving: Its Origin, Processes, and History, by Le Vicomte Henri Delaborde. @@ -259,48 +259,7 @@ span.locked {white-space:nowrap;} </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Engraving: Its Origin, Processes, and -History, by Henri Delaborde - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Engraving: Its Origin, Processes, and History - -Author: Henri Delaborde - -Translator: R. A. M. Stevenson - -Release Date: June 13, 2013 [EBook #42936] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGRAVING *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42936 ***</div> <div class="figcenter"> <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="382" height="600" alt="" /> @@ -489,14 +448,14 @@ printing ink to the proof.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span> This method, earlier than that of the incised line, -led to engraving "in camaïeu," which was skilfully +led to engraving "in camaïeu," which was skilfully practised in Italy and Germany during the sixteenth -century. As in camaïeu engraving those lines which +century. As in camaïeu engraving those lines which define the contours are left as ridges by the cutting away of the surrounding surface, we may say that in this method (which the Italians call "chiaroscuro") the usual processes of engraving in relief are employed. -But it is a further object of camaïeu to produce +But it is a further object of camaïeu to produce on the paper flat tints of various depths: that is to say, a scale of tones somewhat similar to the effect of drawings washed in with Indian ink or @@ -525,7 +484,7 @@ from the hollows.</p> <p>We just mention by way of note the process which produced those rare specimens called "<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">empreintes -en pâte</i>." All specimens of this work are +en pâte</i>." All specimens of this work are anterior in date to the sixteenth century, and belong less strictly to art than to industry, as the process only consisted in producing on paper embossed @@ -579,7 +538,7 @@ subject, but actually in conjunction with the burin.<span class="pagenum"><a nam Many important works owe their existence to the mixture of the two processes, among others the fine portraits of Jean Morin, and the admirable "Batailles -d'Alexandre," engraved by Gérard Audran, after +d'Alexandre," engraved by Gérard Audran, after Lebrun. But at present we are only occupied with etching as practised separately and within the limits of its own resources.</p> @@ -670,7 +629,7 @@ the old resources of the graphic arts by the multiplication of engravings in the printing press. And we may therefore spare ourselves the trouble of going back to doubtful or remote information, to -archæological speculations, more or less excused by +archæological speculations, more or less excused by certain passages in Cicero, Quintilian, and Petronius<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span> or by a frequently quoted phrase of Pliny on the books, ornamented with figures, that belonged to @@ -723,7 +682,7 @@ reappear. It is more prudent, in default of any means of verification, to withhold our belief in the precocious ability of the Ravenna twins, their xylographic attempts, and the assertions of their admirers, -although competent judges, such as the Abbé <span class="locked">Zani<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></span> +although competent judges, such as the Abbé <span class="locked">Zani<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></span> and after him Emeric David, have not hesitated to admit the authenticity of the whole story.</p> @@ -765,7 +724,7 @@ with engraving with its first elements and its first examples. It would be unbecoming in every way to pretend to enter here on a detailed history of the origin of printing. The number of exhaustive -works on the subject, the explanations of M. Léon +works on the subject, the explanations of M. Léon de Laborde, M. Auguste Bernard, and more recently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span> of M. Paeile, would render it a mere lesson in repetition or a too easy parade of borrowed learning. Anyhow, @@ -877,7 +836,7 @@ to Holland.</p> <p>One of the oldest collections of engravings with subject matter printed by this process is the "Speculum -Humanæ Salvationis," mentioned by Adrian Junius +Humanæ Salvationis," mentioned by Adrian Junius in his "Batavia"—written, it would seem, between the years 1560 and 1570, but not published till 1588, many years after his death. Therein it is @@ -993,7 +952,7 @@ teacher with so notable an influence, or so fertile a teaching? Whilst, on the banks of the Rhine, artists unworthy of the name and painters destitute of talent were continuing the Gothic traditions and -the formulæ of their predecessors, the school of +the formulæ of their predecessors, the school of Bruges was renewing, or rather founding, a national art. By the beginning of the fifteenth century the revolution was accomplished in this school, which @@ -1093,7 +1052,7 @@ long after the industrial revolution was accomplished at its side. And it was long before the "wood-cutting" engravers acquired anything like the skill of the printers employed by Gutenberg and -by Füst.</p> +by Füst.</p> <p>In the Low Countries, on the other hand, the regeneration of art preceded mechanical improvement. @@ -1124,7 +1083,7 @@ of engraving, at the time of the Incunabuli.</p> <p>In our endeavour to prove the relative antiquity of wood engraving in the Low Countries, we have intentionally -rather deferred the purely archæological +rather deferred the purely archæological question, and have sought the first signs of talent instead of the bold beginnings of the art. The origin of wood engraving, materially considered, cannot @@ -1252,7 +1211,7 @@ too far, we may take the liberty of supposing that engravers first drew their inspiration from the same source as illuminators, painters on glass, and sculptors. Besides, we know well that art was then -only the naïve expression of religion and the emblem +only the naïve expression of religion and the emblem of Christian thought. Why should the cutters of xylographic figures have been an exception to the general rule? and what strange freak would have led @@ -1308,7 +1267,7 @@ first to give types to be multiplied in proofs by printing.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span> -M. Léon de Laborde, one of the clearest and best +M. Léon de Laborde, one of the clearest and best informed writers on the origins of engraving and typography, considers, on the other hand, that engraving in relief on metal, rather than the xylographic process, @@ -1343,7 +1302,7 @@ product of an art already modified.</p> <p>Engraving in the Dot Manner (1406).</p></div></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span> -The opinion expressed some time ago by M. Léon +The opinion expressed some time ago by M. Léon de Laborde has recently been supported by the discovery of two engravings, in the early dot manner, belonging, we think, to the year 1406, and on which @@ -1361,7 +1320,7 @@ practically beyond question.</p> <p>Now, the oldest of the dated engravings in relief on metal is the "St. Bernardino of Siena," wrongly -called the "St. Bernard," belonging to the Bibliothèque +called the "St. Bernard," belonging to the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. This engraving in the dot manner bears the date 1454. It is, therefore, later than the "St. Christopher" engraved on wood, and later even, as we @@ -1413,7 +1372,7 @@ of a public naturally attracted elsewhere. The fact is, however, that in this matter, as well as in questions relating to the origin of wood engraving and printing, national self-respect was at stake, and writers sought -in the narrow field of archæology a victory over rival +in the narrow field of archæology a victory over rival claims which they might less easily have achieved on other grounds.</p> @@ -1482,7 +1441,7 @@ forms, which distinguished the productions of the German school from its beginnings. The least feeble of these specimens, such as the "Saint Barbara," in the Brussels Library, or the "St. George on Horseback," -preserved in the Print Department of the Bibliothèque +preserved in the Print Department of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, do indeed occasionally suggest some @@ -1544,7 +1503,7 @@ return to the origin of the process of intaglio engraving, as we have already done with the origin of engraving in relief. This part of our subject must be briefly and finally disposed of; we may then altogether -abandon the uncertain ground of archæological +abandon the uncertain ground of archæological hypothesis.</p> <hr /> @@ -1698,7 +1657,7 @@ their weakness, must be distinctly laid down, even at the risk of scandalising some of the learned. He has the same right to celebrity as Gutenberg, who, like him, was but the discoverer of a decisive advance; -the same right also as Nicolò Pisano and Giotto, the +the same right also as Nicolò Pisano and Giotto, the real founders of the race of the Great Masters, and, truly speaking, the first painter and the first sculptor who appeared in Italy, although neither sculpture @@ -1817,7 +1776,7 @@ impunity the ordeal of being enlarged a hundred times and transferred to a canvas or a wall. Its -claims as an archæological +claims as an archæological specimen, and the value that four centuries have added to this small piece of perishable paper, must assuredly neither be forgotten nor misunderstood @@ -1915,7 +1874,7 @@ of its own domain. There are still to be remarked, of course, a certain timidity and a certain lack of experience in the handling of the tool, an execution at once summary and strangely careful, a mixture of -naïve intentions and conventional modes of expression. +naïve intentions and conventional modes of expression. But the burin, though only able as yet imperfectly to treat lines in mass and vary the values of shadows, has mastered the secret of representing life @@ -1971,7 +1930,7 @@ the commentaries of the scholar.</p> <div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_074" src="images/i_074.jpg" width="364" height="492" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">BACCIO BALDINI.</span></p> -<p>The Sibyl of Cumæ.</p></div></div> +<p>The Sibyl of Cumæ.</p></div></div> <p>The prints due to the Florentine painter-engravers who followed Finiguerra mark a transitional epoch @@ -2051,7 +2010,7 @@ hand and the fever of the struggle with his material.</p> <p>Jesus Christ, St. Andrew, and St. Longinus.</p></div></div> <p>And yet the handling alone of such works as the -"Entombment" and the "Triumph of Cæsar" bears +"Entombment" and the "Triumph of Cæsar" bears witness to the talent of an engraver already more experienced than any of his Italian predecessors and more alive to the real resources of his art. The burin @@ -2073,7 +2032,7 @@ Italian masters before the time of Marc Antonio.</p> <div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_082" src="images/i_082.jpg" width="463" height="461" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">MANTEGNA.</span></p> -<p>From the Triumph of Julius Cæsar.</p></div></div> +<p>From the Triumph of Julius Cæsar.</p></div></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span> Mantegna had soon many imitators. Some of @@ -2173,7 +2132,7 @@ to exaggerate their value, a want of technical experience was as evident as extreme poverty of -conception. These archæological +conception. These archæological curiosities can have no legitimate place amongst works of @@ -2271,8 +2230,8 @@ progress of art and the talent of artists was more extended and decided in Germany itself. Amongst those who most obediently submitted to, and who best knew how to profit by, that example, we -need only mention Bartholomew Schön, Franz von -Bocholt, Wenceslas of Olmütz, Israel van Mechenen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span> +need only mention Bartholomew Schön, Franz von +Bocholt, Wenceslas of Olmütz, Israel van Mechenen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span> Glockenton, and lastly, the engraver with the monogram "B M," whose most important work, the "Judgment of Solomon," was perhaps engraved from a @@ -2298,7 +2257,7 @@ he helped to foster, did so much, and so greatly honoured his country, that it is only just to regard him as one of the most glorious representatives of national art, and to place his name beside those of -Albert Dürer and Holbein, as the three men in whom +Albert Dürer and Holbein, as the three men in whom the essential qualities and characteristics of the German genius have been most typically represented.</p> @@ -2333,7 +2292,7 @@ wood-cuts interpolated in the text.</p> work in the same process, yet they are far from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span> good. They scarcely hold out a promise of the advance in skill made some years later by wood-cutters -under the influence of Albert Dürer, and if +under the influence of Albert Dürer, and if they are compared with the illustrations which adorn Italian books of the same period—the "Decameron" of 1492, for instance, and especially the "Hypnerotomachia @@ -2342,20 +2301,20 @@ Though they are not of much value in themselves, the prints which accompany the writings in the "Casket" and the "Nuremberg Chronicle" deserve attention. They were done from designs supplied -by Albert Dürer's master, Michael Wolgemut; and +by Albert Dürer's master, Michael Wolgemut; and the gulf between the rather feeble talent of the older man, and the profound knowledge and powerful originality of his illustrious pupil, can thus be easily measured.</p> -<p>Albert Dürer was the son of a Hungarian goldsmith +<p>Albert Dürer was the son of a Hungarian goldsmith established at Nuremberg. He tells us himself how, at the age of fifteen, he left his father's shop for Wolgemut's studio: not that he wished to free himself from parental authority, but simply to hasten the time when he might do his share towards satisfying the wants of a numerous family. "My father," -says Albert Dürer, in his autobiographical notes, +says Albert Dürer, in his autobiographical notes, "could only supply himself, his wife, and <span class="locked">children<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a></span> with the strict necessaries of life; and spent his life in great hardship and severe hard work. He @@ -2378,7 +2337,7 @@ lost in learning his trade. However, he gave in to me, and on St. Andrew's Day, 1486, he apprenticed me to Master Michael."</p> -<p>Albert Dürer's progress was indeed rapid, at least +<p>Albert Dürer's progress was indeed rapid, at least his progress in engraving, for he drew with remarkable talent before he entered Wolgemut's studio. The charming portrait of himself at the age of thirteen, @@ -2403,7 +2362,7 @@ the "Sposalizio" in the manner and under the eyes of his master, in secret already obeyed the mind of Raphael.</p> -<p>Meanwhile Albert Dürer, whose fame had begun +<p>Meanwhile Albert Dürer, whose fame had begun to spread beyond the walls of Nuremberg, undertook a tour through Germany, and was absent for four years; and when he returned to settle in his native town, he @@ -2417,7 +2376,7 @@ at work, and how, as prints paid better than pictures, she would not allow him to sacrifice the burin to the brush. Dreading the reproaches and accusations of idleness to which she gave vent on the smallest provocation, -Dürer bent beneath the yoke and rarely +Dürer bent beneath the yoke and rarely left his studio. One day, for instance, they relate that he was discovered in the street by his wife, whom he believed to be at the other end of the town, and was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span> @@ -2428,7 +2387,7 @@ hateful widow only regretted his death because it set a term to his earnings.</p> <p>Such is the account in all the books that deal with -Dürer, from the work of the German Sandrart, in the +Dürer, from the work of the German Sandrart, in the seventeenth century, down to the biographical dictionaries published in our own time by French writers; such is the story which has served as text @@ -2437,7 +2396,7 @@ and to so many elegies upon her victim. But the facts of the case were not carefully examined. The result of Herr Thausing's scrupulous investigation of the subject, and the authentic testimony he has -adduced, show, on the contrary, that Albert Dürer +adduced, show, on the contrary, that Albert Dürer and his wife lived on pretty good terms till his death; so that we may banish as idle fables the torments which he was supposed to have suffered, @@ -2445,13 +2404,13 @@ and the sorrows that were said to have shortened his life.</p> <p>The story so frequently repeated after Vasari, -of Dürer's quarrels with a certain forger of his works +of Dürer's quarrels with a certain forger of his works at Venice, where copies signed with his monogram were publicly sold as originals, rests on a surer basis. The said forger was a young man of no reputation who had conceived this idea of commanding a sale for his works, and of thus -quickly realising a profit on the renown of Dürer +quickly realising a profit on the renown of Dürer and the simplicity of his customers. It was not long, however, before the fraud was discovered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span> when he tried, it is said, to turn it into a joke; @@ -2470,19 +2429,19 @@ more than once doubted, at least in so far as the legal consequences are concerned, for the forgery itself cannot be denied. The plates of the "Life of the Virgin," engraved by Marc Antonio from Albert -Dürer, and bearing the monogram of the latter, are +Dürer, and bearing the monogram of the latter, are known to every one; but it has been objected as an argument against the sentence that, in the state of morals and legislation in the sixteenth century, to affix another person's signature to these plates did not constitute a misdemeanour; and that Marc Antonio, by appropriating the name and the works of Albert -Dürer, did no worse than many imitators of Martin +Dürer, did no worse than many imitators of Martin Schongauer had done before him, no worse, indeed, than was presently to be done with regard to his own works by imitators as unscrupulous as himself. This is quite true; but it is no less so that Albert -Dürer's signature, so deliberately added by Marc +Dürer's signature, so deliberately added by Marc Antonio to the copies he engraved of the "Life of the Virgin," is not to be found on the plates of the "History of the Passion," engraved later on by Marc<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span> @@ -2492,13 +2451,13 @@ judgment of some sort was passed, obliging the copyist to appear under his true colours.</p> <p>The just satisfaction accorded to the demands of -Albert Dürer was not, however, to preserve him from +Albert Dürer was not, however, to preserve him from the injury afterwards done him by imitators of another kind. Some Venetian painters followed the example of Marc Antonio, and, adding insult to injury, energetically abused the very man whose works they impudently copied. "If you saw these men," wrote -Dürer to his friend Pirkheimer, "you would take +Dürer to his friend Pirkheimer, "you would take them for the best people in the world. For my part, I can never help laughing at them when they speak to me. They are quite aware that one knows @@ -2512,13 +2471,13 @@ am ruining art by departing from the antique."</p> <p>The Jester and the Lovers.</p></div></div> -<p>Albert Dürer, however, found in the welcome he +<p>Albert Dürer, however, found in the welcome he received from the most celebrated Italian artists a compensation for the bad conduct to which he was a victim. Old Giovanni Bellini himself overwhelmed his young rival with praise, and begged for one of his works, for which he declared himself "eager to pay -well." Lastly, when Dürer was once more in his own +well." Lastly, when Dürer was once more in his own country, and might have considered himself forgotten by the Italian painters, Raphael, the greatest of all, sent him as a token of his admiration some proofs @@ -2529,13 +2488,13 @@ did not dream of copying the works of his old imitator as a sort of <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">quid pro quo</i>; but, as he really appreciated them at their true value, he did not hesitate to show them to his pupils, and to recommend -them to their imitation. Aldegrever, Hans Schaüflein, -Baldung Grün, Hans Sebald Beham, indeed, the +them to their imitation. Aldegrever, Hans Schaüflein, +Baldung Grün, Hans Sebald Beham, indeed, the greater part of the so-called "Little Masters," who were destined all their lives to remain faithful to tradition, were content to admire without any thought of imitation; but those who were younger and less -fixed simply took Albert Dürer at his word. Perhaps +fixed simply took Albert Dürer at his word. Perhaps he scarcely welcomed such excessive docility. But their master having thus almost acknowledged a superior, these young men hurriedly left him to put @@ -2550,7 +2509,7 @@ German pupils, these latter returned to their own country to finish the revolution already begun, by spreading still further the taste for the Italian manner; so -that the school of Dürer, the +that the school of Dürer, the only one known in Germany some years before, was, after the second generation, almost entirely @@ -2564,7 +2523,7 @@ Italians.</p> <p>The Three Soldiers.</p></div></div> <p>The engravings of Albert -Dürer, even those produced in +Dürer, even those produced in the full force of his talents, for a long time obtained but little favour in France and England. @@ -2576,7 +2535,7 @@ school, of which Cornelius and Kaulbach were the chiefs, that the Nuremberg master seems to have exerted the most important influence, and one which is, even in some respects, to be regretted. It would, -however, be unjust to Dürer to saddle him with the +however, be unjust to Dürer to saddle him with the burden of errors of which he was but the involuntary cause. However exaggerated may have been the reaction produced by his followers three centuries @@ -2597,23 +2556,23 @@ skill and vigour; no one ever cut outlines on the metal with such absolute certainty, or so carefully reproduced every detail of modelling.</p> -<div class="figcenter"><img id="Fig_40" src="images/i_104.jpg" width="324" height="510" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ALBERT DÜRER.</span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img id="Fig_40" src="images/i_104.jpg" width="324" height="510" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ALBERT DÃœRER.</span></p> <p>Willibald Pirkheimer.</p></div></div> -<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_106" src="images/i_106.jpg" width="290" height="434" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ALBERT DÜRER.</span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_106" src="images/i_106.jpg" width="290" height="434" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ALBERT DÃœRER.</span></p> <p>The Holy Face.</p></div></div> -<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_107" src="images/i_107.jpg" width="309" height="494" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ALBERT DÜRER.</span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_107" src="images/i_107.jpg" width="309" height="494" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ALBERT DÃœRER.</span></p> <p>The Standard Bearer.</p></div></div> -<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_108" src="images/i_108.jpg" width="348" height="500" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ALBERT DÜRER.</span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_108" src="images/i_108.jpg" width="348" height="500" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ALBERT DÃœRER.</span></p> <p>The Ride.</p></div></div> -<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_109" src="images/i_109.jpg" width="351" height="343" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ALBERT DÜRER.</span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_109" src="images/i_109.jpg" width="351" height="343" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ALBERT DÃœRER.</span></p> <p>The Pommel of Maximilian's Sword.</p></div></div> @@ -2639,7 +2598,7 @@ whilst in the middle distance a child, doubtless an image of youthful illusions, is attentively writing, and contrasts in its serenity with the troubled countenance and despairing attitude of the principal figure. -Had Dürer only engraved this one extraordinary +Had Dürer only engraved this one extraordinary plate, had he only produced this one work, as strikingly original in execution as in intention, it would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> be enough to mark his position for ever in the history @@ -2667,7 +2626,7 @@ and prejudices of the period, and in part to that national taste for excessive analysis which has been a characteristic of the German -mind in every age. That Dürer's merits, on the other +mind in every age. That Dürer's merits, on the other hand, are entirely his own, may easily be seen by comparing his works not only with those of former engravers, but with those of foreign contemporary @@ -2676,7 +2635,7 @@ possible to find in the sixteenth century an engraver of such original inspiration and possessing so much knowledge and technical skill. Even Marc Antonio, superior though he may be in sentiment and -majesty of style, cannot dispossess Dürer of his lawful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span> +majesty of style, cannot dispossess Dürer of his lawful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span> renown, nor take from his art its peculiar virtue and authority.</p> @@ -2690,7 +2649,7 @@ Francesco Francia, and was still only an unknown worker in niello, and the author of some rather indifferent plates engraved from his own or his master's <span class="locked">designs<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a></span> when a journey to Venice and the -careful study of Albert Dürer's engravings showed +careful study of Albert Dürer's engravings showed him the inmost possibilities of an art of which he had till then known little more than the mere mechanical processes. Unfortunately, as we have seen, the young @@ -2719,7 +2678,7 @@ have never been surpassed. These are the qualities, and these only, which we must look for and admire unreservedly; to seek for more, as to regret its absence, would be superfluous. To complain of the absence -of colour and of aërial perspective would be as unjust<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span> +of colour and of aërial perspective would be as unjust<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span> as to expect from Rembrandt the style and types of the Italian school. Rembrandt's prints are impregnated with poetry in their tone and in the harmony @@ -2805,7 +2764,7 @@ men and the name of artists.</p> the most numerous and active of all. We have seen that the Germans themselves crowded to Rome, and surrounded the master who had caused them to forget -Albert Dürer. Engravers came to learn or to perfect +Albert Dürer. Engravers came to learn or to perfect their knowledge in the same school from every part of Italy. There were Marco da Ravenna, Agostino Veniziano, Giovanni Caraglio da Verona, Il Vecchio @@ -2858,7 +2817,7 @@ reproduced almost exclusively.</p> <p>The connection of the two artists resulted in the publication of some fine engravings, amongst others -the "Hercules and Antæus," but it unfortunately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span> +the "Hercules and Antæus," but it unfortunately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span> terminated in a disgraceful business. Giulio Romano, following the dissolute manners of the day, rather than the example and traditions of the noble leader of the @@ -2913,14 +2872,14 @@ and even during Marc Antonio's life, a particular sort of engraving was making rapid progress in Italy. It consisted in the employment of a process, popularised by Ugo da Carpi, for obtaining from several -wooden blocks proofs of engravings in camaïeu: that +wooden blocks proofs of engravings in camaïeu: that is, as we explained at the beginning of this book, proofs in two, three, or four tones, offering almost the same appearance as drawings washed in with water-colour: a process which Ugo did not really invent, but only improved from the first attempts made at Augsburg in 1510 by Jobst Necker, which -were destined to be still further improved by Nicolò +were destined to be still further improved by Nicolò Vicentino, Andrea Andreani, Antonio da Trento, and many others.</p> @@ -2942,18 +2901,18 @@ the author." What would he have thought of Luca Cambiaso, the Genoese, whose talent consisted in painting with both hands at once?</p> -<p>The practice of engraving in camaïeu was not continued +<p>The practice of engraving in camaïeu was not continued in Italy and Germany beyond the last years of the sixteenth century. Even before then wood engraving, properly so called, had reached a stage of considerable importance in both countries; and it had distinguished itself by decided enough progress to -cause engraving in camaïeu to lose much of the favour +cause engraving in camaïeu to lose much of the favour with which at first it was welcomed.</p> <p>We said at the beginning of this chapter that a real regeneration in wood engraving took place in -Germany under the influence of Albert Dürer. We +Germany under the influence of Albert Dürer. We have plates from the drawings of the master, engraved, if not entirely by himself, at any rate to a certain extent with his practical co-operation; we have others—for @@ -2974,16 +2933,16 @@ can only be produced in true line engraving, but with an energetic exactness quite, in accordance with the special conditions and resources of the process. The "Triumphal Arch of the Emperor Maximilian," by -Hans Burgkmair and to some extent by Albert Dürer; +Hans Burgkmair and to some extent by Albert Dürer; the "Theuerdannck," an allegorical history of the same -prince by Hans Schaüfflein; the "Passion of Jesus -Christ;" and the "Illustrium Ducum Saxoniæ Effigies," +prince by Hans Schaüfflein; the "Passion of Jesus +Christ;" and the "Illustrium Ducum Saxoniæ Effigies," by Lucas Cranach, as well as many other collections published at Nuremberg, Augsburg, Weimar, or Wittenberg, deserve mention as remarkable examples of the peculiar skill of the German artists of the time. Indeed, when, a little later, the "Dance of Death," -by Lützelburger, from Holbein, made its appearance, +by Lützelburger, from Holbein, made its appearance, this masterpiece in wood engraving closed the period of progress which had gone on in Germany from the beginning of the sixteenth century, and marked in its @@ -2992,7 +2951,7 @@ its last secret, and attained perfection.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span></p> -<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_123" src="images/i_123.jpg" width="303" height="400" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">LÜTZELBURGER.</span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_123" src="images/i_123.jpg" width="303" height="400" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">LÃœTZELBURGER.</span></p> <p>The Miser. After Holbein.</p></div></div> @@ -3019,7 +2978,7 @@ and other printers established at Venice.</p> <div class="figcenter"><div class="caption"><p>PROVER. XXI.</p></div> <img id="if_i_124" src="images/i_124.jpg" width="290" height="380" alt="" /><br /> <div class="caption"> -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">LÜTZELBURGER.</span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">LÃœTZELBURGER.</span></p> <p>The Rich Sinner. After Holbein.</p></div></div> @@ -3033,7 +2992,7 @@ publish, in larger dimensions than the size of a book, prints reproducing separate drawings and sometimes even pictures. The works of Titian specially served as models to skilful wood engravers, some of whom, -Domenico delle Greche and Nicolò Boldrini amongst +Domenico delle Greche and Nicolò Boldrini amongst others, are said to have worked in the studio, even under the master's own eye. According to the careful testimony of Ridolphi, confirmed by Mariette, @@ -3056,8 +3015,8 @@ exercised by the engravers of both countries. Without ceasing to be Italian in their real preferences, their tastes, and their innate love of majesty of style, Marc Antonio and his disciples understood how to -improve their practical execution by Albert Dürer's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> -example, exactly as Dürer's pupils and their followers, +improve their practical execution by Albert Dürer's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> +example, exactly as Dürer's pupils and their followers, while continuing to be German as it were in spite of themselves, tried to become Italianised as best they might.</p> @@ -3065,7 +3024,7 @@ might.</p> <p>But it is time to speak of the school of the Low Countries, which appeared to stand aloof, as much from the progress in Germany initiated by Martin -Schongauer and Albert Dürer, as from the more +Schongauer and Albert Dürer, as from the more recent advance in Italy. Apparently unaffected by external influences, it was content to rely on its own powers, and to make use of its own resources, whilst @@ -3086,7 +3045,7 @@ dates but from the early years of the sixteenth century: that is, from the appearance of the prints of Lucas van Leyden (1494–1533). Before that time certain line engravers, such as the so-called -<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Maître aux Banderoles</i>, the "Master of the Streamers," +<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Maître aux Banderoles</i>, the "Master of the Streamers," and those other anonymous artists of the fifteenth century who composed the group called "the Dutch primitives," had attempted to widen the domain @@ -3125,7 +3084,7 @@ draw more abundantly from the source he had discovered.</p> <p>The principal feature of the works of Lucas van Leyden, and in general of all those belonging to his school, is a keen feeling for the phenomena of light. -Albert Dürer, and even Marc Antonio, despised or +Albert Dürer, and even Marc Antonio, despised or misunderstood this essential quality of art. In their works there is hardly any gradation of tone to suggest atmospheric distance, and we might mention engravings @@ -3160,7 +3119,7 @@ the Italian engraver. Nor do they exhibit the determination to pursue the truth even in minute details, and to sternly insist on the portrayal of such truth when recognised, which distinguishes the work of -Albert Dürer. They are to be specially praised for delicacy +Albert Dürer. They are to be specially praised for delicacy of handling, and for the skilful application of the processes of engraving to the picturesque representation of reality. Thus, instead of surrounding with an @@ -3232,7 +3191,7 @@ of the future school of the seventeenth century are to be found in embryo in his works, which tend less to initiate us into the mysteries of the invisible, than to place before us the faithful image of what really exists. -"It was the fate of Holland," as Eugène Fromentin +"It was the fate of Holland," as Eugène Fromentin has well <span class="locked">said<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></span> "to like <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">ce qui ressemble</i>, to return to it one day or other, to outlive all besides, and to survive and be saved itself by portraiture." Taking the word @@ -3273,7 +3232,7 @@ beauty of form which is apparent in this great master, so far-reaching in moral vision, so pre-eminently sagacious and profound among painters of the soul; it sums up and reveals the innate disposition -and æsthetic temperament of a whole race.</p> +and æsthetic temperament of a whole race.</p> <p>In his brief career Lucas van Leyden had the happiness to see his efforts rewarded and his credit @@ -3281,7 +3240,7 @@ universally established, and of this authority and influence he ever made the noblest use. Looked upon as a leader by the painters of his country; in friendly relations with the German engravers, who, -like Albert Dürer, sent him their works, or came +like Albert Dürer, sent him their works, or came themselves to ask advice; possessing greater wealth than usually fell to the share of the artists of his time; he never employed his riches or his influence except @@ -3334,9 +3293,9 @@ Lesueur, and Mozart.</p> art of engraving was seconded, even during his life, by several Dutch artists who imitated his method more or less successfully. Amongst others, Alart -Claessen, an anonymous engraver called the "Maître -à l'Écrevisse," and Dirck Star, or Van Staren, generally -called the "Maître à l'Étoile." The movement did +Claessen, an anonymous engraver called the "Maître +à l'Écrevisse," and Dirck Star, or Van Staren, generally +called the "Maître à l'Étoile." The movement did not slacken after the death of the leader of the school. The engravers of the Low Countries, accentuating more and more the qualities aimed at from the @@ -3353,7 +3312,7 @@ of form, and certainly not without a deplorable exaggeration in the use of means.</p> <p>The workmanship of Hendrik Goltzius, for instance, -and still more that of his pupil, Jan Müller, is +and still more that of his pupil, Jan Müller, is strained and feeble owing to their affectation of ease. The constant use of bent and parallel lines unreasonably prolonged imparts to the plates of these two @@ -3363,7 +3322,7 @@ caligraphical specimens of the present day, in which the faces of Henri IV. or of Napoleon are drawn entirely with the curves of a single stroke. Still, in spite of this extremely affected workmanship, -the prints of Goltzius, of Müller, and even of +the prints of Goltzius, of Müller, and even of Saenredam, are characterised by a comparative intensity of tone, as well as by singular skill in cutting the copper. This abuse of method, however, had @@ -3713,33 +3672,33 @@ existed.</p> with a certain success, as early as the beginning of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span> the sixteenth century, and even a little before that. The "Danses macabres"—those aids to morality so -popular in mediæval times—the illustrated "Books +popular in mediæval times—the illustrated "Books of Hours," and other compilations besides, printed with figures and tail-pieces, in Lyons or Paris, give earnest of the unborn masterpieces of Geofroy Tory, of Jean Cousin himself, and of sundry other draughtsmen -and wood-cutters of the reigns of François I. +and wood-cutters of the reigns of François I. and Henri II. But, as practised by goldsmiths, such -as Jean Duvet and Étienne Delaune, and by painters -of the Fontainebleau school like René Boyvin and +as Jean Duvet and Étienne Delaune, and by painters +of the Fontainebleau school like René Boyvin and Geofroy Dumonstier, line engraving and etching were still no more than a means of popularising extravagant imitations of Italian work. The prints of Nicolas Beatrizet, who had been the pupil of Agostino Musi at Rome, and those of another engraver of Lorraine, whose name has been Italianised into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span> -Niccolò della Casa, appear to have been produced +Niccolò della Casa, appear to have been produced with the one object of deifying the spirit of sham, and converting French engravers to that religion to which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span> French painters had apostatised with so much ill-fortune under the influence of the Italians brought in by Francis I.</p> -<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_162" src="images/i_162.jpg" width="544" height="361" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ÉTIENNE DELAUNE.</span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_162" src="images/i_162.jpg" width="544" height="361" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ÉTIENNE DELAUNE.</span></p> <p>Adam and Eve driven from Paradise.</p></div></div> -<div class="figcenter"><img id="Fig_72" src="images/i_163.jpg" width="270" height="501" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ÉTIENNE DELAUNE.</span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img id="Fig_72" src="images/i_163.jpg" width="270" height="501" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ÉTIENNE DELAUNE.</span></p> <p>Mirror.</p></div></div> @@ -3769,7 +3728,7 @@ until after some years of thraldom could the French engravers shake off the yoke of Italian art, create a special style, and constitute themselves a school. The revolution was prepared by Thomas de Leu and -Léonard Gaultier, engravers of portraits and of historical +Léonard Gaultier, engravers of portraits and of historical subjects; but the hero of the French school is Jacques Callot.</p> @@ -3820,11 +3779,11 @@ given currency to all sorts of second-rate qualities, and in painting had substituted prettiness for beauty. The result was an invasion of frivolity, alike in manners and beliefs, which was destined to find its -least dubious expression in the works of Le Josépin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span> +least dubious expression in the works of Le Josépin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span> and later on in those of an artist of kindred tastes with the Lorraine engraver—the fantastical Salvator Rosa. When Callot settled in Rome in 1609, Le -Josépin had already reached the climax of fame and +Josépin had already reached the climax of fame and fortune; Salvator, at an interval of nearly thirty years, was on the heels of his first success. Coming, as he did, to take a place among the dexterous and the @@ -3879,7 +3838,7 @@ in the caricatures and pamphlets of the League.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span> Etching, but little practised in Germany after the -death of Dürer, had found scarcely greater favour in +death of Dürer, had found scarcely greater favour in Italy. As to the Dutch Little Masters, spoken of in the preceding chapters, the time was not yet come for most of their charming works. Claude Lorraine's @@ -3967,8 +3926,8 @@ century.</p> in the construction of printing-presses, the composition of varnishes, and all the practical parts of the art; to him some technical studies are also -due, the most interesting of which, the "Traité des -Manières de Graver sur l'Airain par le Moyen des +due, the most interesting of which, the "Traité des +Manières de Graver sur l'Airain par le Moyen des Eaux-fortes," is, if not the first, at least one of the first books on engraving published in France. We may add that the works of Abraham Bosse, like those of @@ -4029,10 +3988,10 @@ triumphant.</p> <div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_178" src="images/i_178.jpg" width="361" height="493" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">ABRAHAM BOSSE.</span></p> -<p>From the Set entitled "Le Jardin de la Noblesse Française."</p></div></div> +<p>From the Set entitled "Le Jardin de la Noblesse Française."</p></div></div> <p>After the Little Masters, inheritors of some of -the genius, skill, and renown of Albert Dürer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span> +the genius, skill, and renown of Albert Dürer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span> Germany had given birth to a fair number of clever engravers, the majority of whom had left their country. Some of them, indistinguishable to-day from the @@ -4041,7 +4000,7 @@ as we said, abandoned the national style for the Italian; others had settled in France or in the Low Countries. The Thirty Years' War accomplished the ruin of German art, which before long was represented -only in Frankfort, where Matthew Mérian of Basle, +only in Frankfort, where Matthew Mérian of Basle, and his pupils, with certain engravers from neighbouring countries, had taken refuge.</p> @@ -4196,7 +4155,7 @@ only for form's sake need they be mentioned.</p> engraving ends about the middle of the seventeenth century. We have seen that the influence of Marc Antonio, though combated at first by the influence of -Albert Dürer, easily conquered, and prevailed without +Albert Dürer, easily conquered, and prevailed without a rival in Italy, Germany, and even France, until the appearance of Callot and his contemporaries. Meanwhile, in the Low Countries the art presented a physiognomy @@ -4218,7 +4177,7 @@ regard them in our mind's eye as a master might figure them. In the centre is Finiguerra, the father of the race; next to him, on the one side, are the Master of 1466, Martin Schongauer, and Albert -Dürer; on the other, Mantegna and Marc Antonio, +Dürer; on the other, Mantegna and Marc Antonio, surrounded, like the three German masters, by their disciples, amongst whom they maintain an attitude of command. Between the two groups, but rather @@ -4241,7 +4200,7 @@ results of past progress by instancing a few prints of perfect beauty. Our own selection would be Mantegna's "Entombment;" Marc Antonio's "Massacre of the Innocents;" the "Death of the Virgin," by -Martin Schongauer; Dürer's "Melancholia;" the +Martin Schongauer; Dürer's "Melancholia;" the "Calvary" of Lucas van Leyden; Rembrandt's "Christ Healing the Sick;" Bolswert's "Crown of Thorns;" the "Portrait of Rubens," by Paul Pontius, @@ -4282,7 +4241,7 @@ masters of the seventeenth century. The engravings produced under the direct influence of Rubens only remained the finest specimens of the science of colour and effect until the appearance of the plates -engraved in Paris by Gérard Audran. Finally, +engraved in Paris by Gérard Audran. Finally, though the older engravers had set themselves the task of accentuating a certain kind of beauty, suitable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span> to the peculiar tastes and capacities of the schools @@ -4309,7 +4268,7 @@ resolutely along an open path, and marked its course by still more significant improvements. To say nothing of Thomas de Leu—who for that matter was not, perhaps, born in <span class="locked">France<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a></span>—and nothing of -Léonard Gaultier, who, like De Leu, principally +Léonard Gaultier, who, like De Leu, principally worked in the reign of Henri IV., Jean Morin, whose method, at once so picturesque and so firm, was the result of a peculiar combination of acid, dry-point<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span> @@ -4341,7 +4300,7 @@ frontispiece to his own philosophical thesis.</p> <div class="figcenter"><img id="Fig_82" src="images/i_190.jpg" width="335" height="491" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">JEAN MORIN.</span></p> -<p>Antoine Vitré. After Philippe de Champagne.</p></div></div> +<p>Antoine Vitré. After Philippe de Champagne.</p></div></div> <p>It was in those days the custom to ornament such writings with figures and symbols appropriate to the @@ -4420,7 +4379,7 @@ establishment at the Gobelins became virtually a school of engraving. Whilst Lebrun, its first director-in-chief, assembled therein an army of painters, draughtsmen, and even sculptors, and wrought from -his own designs the tapestries of the "Éléments" +his own designs the tapestries of the "Éléments" and the "Saisons," Sebastien Leclerc superintended the labours of a large body of native and foreign engravers, entertained at the king's expense.</p> @@ -4438,7 +4397,7 @@ assimilated, and sometimes even improved upon, the style of those painters whom he reproduced, and adopted a new sentiment with every new original. He began, in France, with an engraving of Raphael's -"Holy Family," the so-called "Vierge de François I.," +"Holy Family," the so-called "Vierge de François I.," which is severe in aspect, and altogether Italian in drawing; and he followed this up with plates of the "Madeleine" of Lebrun, his "Christ aux Anges," @@ -4521,16 +4480,16 @@ the arts, the number of practical engravers in France was already considerable. Jean Pesne, the special interpreter of Poussin, had published several of those vigorous prints which even now shed honour on -the name of the engraver of the "Évanouissement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> +the name of the engraver of the "Évanouissement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> d'Esther," of the "Testament d'Eudamidas," and of the "Sept Sacrements." Claudine Bouzonnet, surnamed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span> Claudia Stella, who by the force of her extraordinary gift has won her way to the highest rank -among female engravers, Étienne Baudet, and Gantrel—all +among female engravers, Étienne Baudet, and Gantrel—all these, like Jean Pesne, applied themselves almost exclusively to the task of reproducing the compositions of the noble painter of Les Andelys. On -the other hand, François de Poilly, Roullet, and +the other hand, François de Poilly, Roullet, and Masson (the last so celebrated for his portrait of Count d'Harcourt, and his "Pilgrims of Emmaus," after Titian), and many others equally well known, had @@ -4569,7 +4528,7 @@ but, once examined with attention, they discover that highest and rarest form of merit which is concealed under an appearance of simplicity.</p> -<p>If the "Turenne," the "Président de Bellièvre," +<p>If the "Turenne," the "Président de Bellièvre," the "Van Steenberghen" (called the "Avocat de Hollande"), the "Pierre de Maridat," the "Lamothe Le Vayer," the "Loret," and others, are masterpieces @@ -4585,11 +4544,11 @@ studied.</p> arranged at varying distances, according to the force of colouring required, in combination with short strokes of exceeding fineness. Sometimes—as, for -instance, in the "Christine de Suède," altogether +instance, in the "Christine de Suède," altogether engraved in this manner—the process suffices him not only to model such parts as verge upon his lights, but even to construct the masses of his shadows.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span> -The "Edouard Molé" is, on the contrary, in pure +The "Edouard Molé" is, on the contrary, in pure line. The soft silkiness of hair he often expresses by free and flowing lines, some of which, breaking away from the principal mass, are relieved against the @@ -4617,7 +4576,7 @@ Edelinck had recourse; he still further improved his style by studying his countryman, Nicolas Pitau (whom Colbert had also summoned from Antwerp to the Gobelins), and afterwards by acquiring the secret -of brilliant handling from François de Poilly. To +of brilliant handling from François de Poilly. To which of these engravers he was most indebted is a point which cannot be exactly determined. After investing himself with qualities from each, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span> @@ -4632,7 +4591,7 @@ Rheims as soon as he found himself in a fair way to success and fortune; but he had also in some degree returned to the habits of his youth. A shining light in society, and as intimate with the cultured set at -Mlle. de Scudéry's as with the devotees of pleasures +Mlle. de Scudéry's as with the devotees of pleasures less strictly intellectual, his career of dissipation in the salons and fashionable taverns of the day contrasts strangely with the sober quality of his talent, and @@ -4659,7 +4618,7 @@ solicited by Edelinck, but it was by no means the first he owed to the protection of Louis XIV. Before the churchwardenship he held the title of "Premier<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span> Dessinateur du Cabinet." Like Lebrun, like Mansart -and Le Nôtre, he was a Knight of St. Michael<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span> +and Le Nôtre, he was a Knight of St. Michael<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span> and the Academy of Painting elected him as one of its council. His old age, like the rest of his days, was quiet and laborious; and when he died (1707) his @@ -4668,7 +4627,7 @@ been his pupils, inherited a fortune as wisely husbanded as it had been honourably acquired.</p> <p>Edelinck survived the principal engravers of the -reign of Louis XIV. François de Poilly, Roullet, +reign of Louis XIV. François de Poilly, Roullet, Masson, and Jean Pesne, had more or less closely followed Nanteuil to the grave. At the Gobelins, once so rich in ability of the first order, students had @@ -4676,18 +4635,18 @@ taken the place of masters, and clever craftsmen succeeded to artists of genuine inspiration. Van Schuppen had followed Nanteuil, as Mignard had Lebrun, from necessity rather than right. And last of all, -Gérard Audran, the most distinguished engraver of the +Gérard Audran, the most distinguished engraver of the time—whom, for the sake of clearness in our narrative, we have not yet mentioned—had died in 1703; and though members of his family did honour to the name he had distinguished, none of them were able to sustain the full weight of its glory.</p> -<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_204" src="images/i_204.jpg" width="294" height="529" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">GÉRARD AUDRAN.</span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_204" src="images/i_204.jpg" width="294" height="529" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">GÉRARD AUDRAN.</span></p> <p>"La Noblesse." After Raphael.</p></div></div> -<p>One would hardly venture to say that Gérard +<p>One would hardly venture to say that Gérard Audran was an engraver of genius, because it does not seem permissible to apply the term to one whose business it is to interpret the creations of others, and @@ -4695,7 +4654,7 @@ subordinate himself to models he has not himself designed; yet how else can one characterise a talent so full of life, so startling a capacity for feeling, and a method at once so large, so unstudied, and so original? -Do not the plates of Gérard Audran bear witness +Do not the plates of Gérard Audran bear witness to something more than mere superficial skill? Do <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span>they not rather reveal qualities more subtle—a something personal and living, which raises them @@ -4712,11 +4671,11 @@ had her Raphael, when, in reality, allowing for difference of manner, she could only glory in another Marc Antonio.</p> -<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_206" src="images/i_206.jpg" width="217" height="515" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">GÉRARD AUDRAN.</span></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_206" src="images/i_206.jpg" width="217" height="515" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">GÉRARD AUDRAN.</span></p> <p>"Navigation." After Raphael.</p></div></div> -<p>Gérard Audran was born in Lyons in 1640, and +<p>Gérard Audran was born in Lyons in 1640, and there obtained from his father his first lessons in art. Afterwards he went to Paris, and placed himself under the most famous masters of the day, by whose aid @@ -4724,7 +4683,7 @@ he was soon introduced to Lebrun, and at once commissioned to engrave one of Raphael's compositions. When Audran undertook the work, he had not the picture before him, as Edelinck had when he engraved -the "Vierge de François I." His original was only a +the "Vierge de François I." His original was only a pencil copy which Lebrun had brought back from Italy; hence no doubt the modern character and the French style which are stamped on the engraving. @@ -4795,19 +4754,19 @@ with no more certainty; the Flemings themselves had no deeper knowledge of chiaroscuro; the French<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span> engravers, not excepting even <span class="locked">Edelinck<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a></span> have never treated historical engraving with such ease and -<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">mäestria</i>. In a word, none of the most famous engravers +<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">mäestria</i>. In a word, none of the most famous engravers of Europe have been, we believe, so richly endowed with all artistic instincts, nor have better understood their use.</p> <p>The "Batailles d'Alexandre" finished, Audran engraved Lesueur's "Martyre de Saint Protais;" -several Poussins, amongst others the "Pyrrhus Sauvé," -the "Femme Adultère," and the radiant "Triomphe -de la Vérité," one of the most beautiful (if not the +several Poussins, amongst others the "Pyrrhus Sauvé," +the "Femme Adultère," and the radiant "Triomphe +de la Vérité," one of the most beautiful (if not the most beautiful) historical engravings ever published; -and, after Mignard, the "Peste d'Égine," and the -paintings in the cupola at Val-de-Grâce.</p> +and, after Mignard, the "Peste d'Égine," and the +paintings in the cupola at Val-de-Grâce.</p> <p>These several works, where elevation of taste and sentiment are no less triumphantly manifest than in @@ -4849,7 +4808,7 @@ even in his company, and helped to increase the renown of the master who had trained <span class="locked">them.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></span></p> <p>Towards the close of his life Audran laid by -the burin for the pen. Following Albert Dürer's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span> +the burin for the pen. Following Albert Dürer's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span> example, he proposed to put together, in the form of treatises, his life-long observations on the art he had so successfully practised. Unfortunately, this @@ -4867,9 +4826,9 @@ began to make collections. At first they confined themselves to real masterpieces; after which they began to covet the complete achievement of peculiar engravers. The mania for rare prints became fashionable; -and we learn from La Bruyère that, before the +and we learn from La Bruyère that, before the end of the century, some amateurs had already come -to prefer engravings "presque pas tirées"—engravings +to prefer engravings "presque pas tirées"—engravings "fitter to decorate the Petit-Pont or the Rue Neuve on a holiday than to be hoarded in a collection"—to the most perfect specimens of the art. Others were @@ -4882,8 +4841,8 @@ inasmuch as he would harbour nothing in his portfolios but round engravings of exactly the same circumference, he was used to cut ruthlessly to his pattern whatever came into his hands. We must add that, side by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span> -side with such maniacs, intelligent men like the Abbé -de Marolles and the Marquis de Béringhen increased +side with such maniacs, intelligent men like the Abbé +de Marolles and the Marquis de Béringhen increased their collections to good purpose, and were content to bring together the most important specimens of ancient engraving and such as best served to illustrate @@ -4894,7 +4853,7 @@ of engraving that were considered. On the heels of the great engravers there followed a crowd of second-rate workmen. Besides history and portrait, every variety of print was published: domestic -scenes, architecture and topography, costumes, fêtes, +scenes, architecture and topography, costumes, fêtes, and public celebrations. The engraving of maps greatly improved under the direction of Adrian and Guillaume Sanson, sons of the famous Geographer in @@ -4915,8 +4874,8 @@ of His Majesty," with a luxury justified at any rate by the importance of the artists participating in the work. The very almanacs bear the stamp of talent, and are not unfrequently inscribed with the names<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span> -of celebrated engravers, such as Lepautre, François -Spierre, Chauveau, Sébastien Leclerc, and De Poilly.</p> +of celebrated engravers, such as Lepautre, François +Spierre, Chauveau, Sébastien Leclerc, and De Poilly.</p> <p>In the days of Henri IV. and Louis XIII. almanacs were printed on a single sheet, with a border sometimes @@ -4925,7 +4884,7 @@ simply of the attributes of the seasons. It was under Louis XIV. that they at first appeared on larger paper, and then in several sheets, wherein were represented the most important events of the year, or, it -might be, some ceremony or court fête. In one is +might be, some ceremony or court fête. In one is pictured the Battle of Senef, or the signing of the Treaty of Nimeguen; in another, perhaps, the king is represented dancing the Strasbourg minuet, or offering @@ -4961,7 +4920,7 @@ the reign of Henri IV.</p> <p>When Louis XIII. came to the throne, the wit of the caricaturists was little keener, if we may judge by the coarse pictorial <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">lazzi</i> inspired by the disgrace and -death of the Maréchal d'Ancre, and the Dutch and +death of the Maréchal d'Ancre, and the Dutch and Spanish prints designed in ridicule of the French; but some years later, when Callot had introduced into the treatment of burlesque a keenness and delicacy which @@ -4984,7 +4943,7 @@ truth, these jokes about Spanish manners and Spanish food recall those presently to be made in England<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span> about Frenchmen, who are there invariably represented as frog-eaters and dancing-masters. Yet comparing the -<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">facetiæ</i> of that period with the exaggerated or obscene +<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">facetiæ</i> of that period with the exaggerated or obscene humours which preceded them, it seems as though the domain of caricature were even then being opened up to worthy precursors of the lively draughtsmen of @@ -5035,12 +4994,12 @@ of their own works) were established in Paris on the Quai de l'Horloge, or, like Abraham Bosse, in the interior of the Palace. Rather later than this, the most popular shops were to be found in -the neighbourhood of the Church of St. Sèverin. +the neighbourhood of the Church of St. Sèverin. If we examine the prints then published in Paris, we may count as many as thirty publishers living in the Rue St. Jacques alone, and amongst the -number are many famous names: as Gérard Audran, -"at the sign of the Two Golden Pillars;" François +number are many famous names: as Gérard Audran, +"at the sign of the Two Golden Pillars;" François de Poilly, "at the sign of St. Benedict," and so forth.</p> @@ -5048,14 +5007,14 @@ forth.</p> which attributes to engravers of the greatest talent the production of bad plates, to which they would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span> never have put finger except to take proofs. For -instance, the words "<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Gérard Audran excudit</i>," to be +instance, the words "<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Gérard Audran excudit</i>," to be found at the bottom of many such, do not mean that they were engraved by the master, but only published by him. Often, too, pseudonyms—not always in the best possible taste—concealed the name of the publisher and the place of publication: a precaution easily understood, as it was generally applied to -obscenities, and particularly to those called "pièces à +obscenities, and particularly to those called "pièces à surprise," which were then becoming common, and continued to increase indefinitely during the following century. True art, however, is but little concerned @@ -5077,13 +5036,13 @@ originals. Thus, the portraits engraved by the German Johann Hainzelmann from Ulrich Mayer and Joachim Sandrart, scarcely differ from those he had formerly engraved from French artists: the "Michel -Le Tellier," for instance, and the "Président Dufour." +Le Tellier," for instance, and the "Président Dufour." The historical plates published about the same time<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span> in Germany prove the same lively zeal in imitation. In them art appears as, so to speak, a French subject; and Gustave Ambling, Bartholomew <span class="locked">Kilian<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a></span> and many more of their countrymen—pupils, like these -two, of François de Poilly—might be classed amongst +two, of François de Poilly—might be classed amongst the engravers of the French school, if the style of their work were the only thing to be considered.</p> @@ -5186,7 +5145,7 @@ affectation.</p> <div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_222" src="images/i_222.jpg" width="366" height="498" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">LAURENT CARS.</span></p> -<p>"L'Avare." From Boucher's "Molière."</p></div></div> +<p>"L'Avare." From Boucher's "Molière."</p></div></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span> The French engravers of the time of Louis XV. @@ -5227,7 +5186,7 @@ for the eye.</p> <div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_224" src="images/i_224.jpg" width="353" height="493" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">LAURENT CARS.</span></p> -<p>"Le Dépit Amoureux." From Boucher's "Molière."</p></div></div> +<p>"Le Dépit Amoureux." From Boucher's "Molière."</p></div></div> <p>From the point of view of engraving alone, the prints published in France at this time are for the @@ -5238,19 +5197,19 @@ frivolous forms affected by French engraving in the eighteenth century, something not unfrequently survives of the masterly skill and science of the older men. It is to be supposed that Laurent Cars remembered -the example of Gérard Audran, and, in his own +the example of Gérard Audran, and, in his own way, succeeded in perpetuating it when he engraved -Lemoyne's "Hercule et Omphale," and "Délivrance -d'Andromède." Even when he was reproducing such -fantasies as the "Fête vénitienne" of Watteau, or +Lemoyne's "Hercule et Omphale," and "Délivrance +d'Andromède." Even when he was reproducing such +fantasies as the "Fête vénitienne" of Watteau, or scenes of plain family life, like Chardin's "Amusements -de la Vie privée," and "La Serinette," he had +de la Vie privée," and "La Serinette," he had the art of supplementing from his own taste whatever strength and dignity his originals might lack. Was it not, too, by appropriating the doctrine, or at least the method, of Audran—his free alliance of the burin with the needle—that Nicolas de Larmessin, Lebas, -Lépicié, Aveline, Duflos, Dupuis, and others, produced +Lépicié, Aveline, Duflos, Dupuis, and others, produced their charming transcripts of Pater, Lancret, Boucher himself—in spite of his impertinences of manner and his unpleasant falseness of colour—and, above all, @@ -5277,7 +5236,7 @@ description—the general aspect of which so strongly bears witness to the fertility and grace of French art at that time. It is difficult to omit the names of those agreeable engravers of dainty subjects, not -seldom of their own design: those <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">poetæ minores</i>, the +seldom of their own design: those <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">poetæ minores</i>, the vaudevillists of the burin, who, from the interpreters of Gravelot, Eisen, and Gabriel de St. Aubin to Choffard, from Cochin to Moreau, have left us so @@ -5349,7 +5308,7 @@ every point. The painter Petitot, a fervent Calvinist, whose life presents a curious contrast with the worldly character of his work, had the honour to attract the attention of Bossuet, who, it is said, attempted to -convert him. He was imprisoned at For-l'Evêque +convert him. He was imprisoned at For-l'Evêque after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and only quitted it to devote himself to solitude and study. Ficquet, for his part, took no interest whatever in @@ -5408,7 +5367,7 @@ he engraved a set of illustrations for an edition of "Daphnis et Chloe," and his initiative was followed by crowds of all ranks: great lords like the Duc de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span> Chevreuse and the Marquis de Coigny; gentlemen of -the gown, like the Président de Gravelle; financiers, +the gown, like the Président de Gravelle; financiers, scholars, and men of letters, like Watelet, Count Caylus, and <span class="locked">D'Argenville.<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></span> Court ladies and the wives of plain citizens joined the throng; from the @@ -5439,7 +5398,7 @@ to engraving.</p> <p>Moreover, it was not art only that these prints began to injure. Prompted by gallantry, as understood -by the younger Crébillon and Voisenon when +by the younger Crébillon and Voisenon when they wrote their experiences, they often presented to the eyes of women scenes to the description of which they would not have listened: as a certain lady is reported @@ -5457,15 +5416,15 @@ Arts Protecting France," she set no very dangerous example, and only proved one thing—that the said Genius did not so carefully protect the kingdom as to exclude the possibility of platitude. But when the -<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">habitués</i> of Mme. d'Épinay and D'Holbach set themselves +<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">habitués</i> of Mme. d'Épinay and D'Holbach set themselves in their little prints to attack certain so-called mental superstitions, they unconsciously opened the door to people of a more radical turn of mind. Before the end of the century prints a good deal more crudely energetic appeared on the same subject; and the pothouse -engravers, in their turn, illustrated the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Père -Duchêne</i>, as the drawing-room engravers had illustrated -the "Essai sur les Mœurs" and the "Encyclopédie."</p> +engravers, in their turn, illustrated the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Père +Duchêne</i>, as the drawing-room engravers had illustrated +the "Essai sur les Mœurs" and the "Encyclopédie."</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span> Although the engraving of illustrations, or at @@ -5481,7 +5440,7 @@ of all nations those teachings they had received in their youth. The Germans, Joseph Wagner, Martin Preisler, Schmidt, John George Wille; the Italian, Porporati; the Spaniards, Carmona and Pascal -Molés; the Englishmen, Strange, Ingram, Ryland, +Molés; the Englishmen, Strange, Ingram, Ryland, and others, came, at close intervals, for instruction or improvement in this school. In Paris they published plates of various degrees of excellence; but, in the @@ -5495,12 +5454,12 @@ after Terburg, or the "Dutchwoman Knitting," after Mieris—might just as well, for anything one sees to the contrary, have been the work of a French engraver of the same period. They only differ from plates bearing -the name of Beauvarlet or of Daullé in a certain +the name of Beauvarlet or of Daullé in a certain Teutonic excess of coldness in the handling; in a somewhat staid, and, as it were, metallic stiffness of -arrangement. Carmona's "François Boucher," and his +arrangement. Carmona's "François Boucher," and his "Colin de Vermont," after Roslin, and Porporati's -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span>"Tancrède et Clorinde," after Carle Vanloo, have still +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span>"Tancrède et Clorinde," after Carle Vanloo, have still less of the stamp of originality.</p> <div class="figcenter"><img id="Fig_92" src="images/i_236.jpg" width="393" height="508" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">PORPORATI.</span></p> @@ -5540,24 +5499,24 @@ important series of prints were being published in commemoration of public events, or in illustration of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span> famous collections of painting and sculpture. The first of the latter order was the "Galerie de Versailles," -begun by Charles Simoneau, continued by Massé, +begun by Charles Simoneau, continued by Massé, and only finished in 1752 after twenty-eight consecutive years of labour. It was speedily succeeded by the "Cabinet de Crozat" and the "Peintures de -l'Hôtel Lambert;" and a little later the example of +l'Hôtel Lambert;" and a little later the example of France was followed by other countries, and one after the other there appeared, in Italy, Germany, and England, the "Museo Pio Clementino," the "Dresden Gallery," the catalogue of the Bruhl collection, and the publications of Boydell—all such magnificent works as do honour to the second half of the -eighteenth century. Finally, thanks to Vivarès and +eighteenth century. Finally, thanks to Vivarès and Balechou, the engraving of landscape began to rival historical engraving, to which it had before been considered as merely accessory. The honour of having created it belongs to the French. It is too often forgotten that they were the first to excel in -it, and that but for the practice of Vivarès, England +it, and that but for the practice of Vivarès, England to whom the merit of initiative is usually attributed might never have boasted of Woollett and his pupils.</p> @@ -5586,31 +5545,31 @@ him, Joseph Vernet was more capable than any other painter of giving a happy impulse to the art of engraving; and, indeed, the landscape engravers formed by him were masters of the genre. We have -mentioned Balechou and Vivarès. The former, at -first a pupil of Lépicié, began by engraving portraits, +mentioned Balechou and Vivarès. The former, at +first a pupil of Lépicié, began by engraving portraits, the best known of which, a full-length of Augustus III., King of Poland, brought upon its author the shame of a fitting punishment. Convicted of having detained a certain number of the first proofs for his own profit; Balechou was struck off the list of the -Académie, and obliged to retire to Arles, his native +Académie, and obliged to retire to Arles, his native town, and thence to Avignon, where he took to landscape engraving. There it was that he executed after Joseph Vernet his "Baigneuses," his "Calme," and his -"La Tempête." In his latter years he returned to +"La Tempête." In his latter years he returned to history, and executed after Carle Vanloo his tiresome -"Sainte Geneviève," which was once so loudly vaunted, +"Sainte Geneviève," which was once so loudly vaunted, which even now is not unadmired, and which really might be a masterpiece, if technical skill and excessive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span> ease of handling were all the art. Though, unlike -Vivarès, he did not teach the practice of landscape +Vivarès, he did not teach the practice of landscape in England, Balechou contributed enormously by his works to the education of the English engravers; and the best of them, Woollett, confessed that he produced his "Fishing" with a proof of the Frenchman's -"La Tempête" always before his eyes.</p> +"La Tempête" always before his eyes.</p> -<p>As for Vivarès, he engraved in Paris a number of +<p>As for Vivarès, he engraved in Paris a number of plates after Joseph Vernet and the Old Masters, and then, preceding De Loutherbourg and many others of his nation, he migrated to London. He took with @@ -5660,7 +5619,7 @@ his primary idea to nothingness, by directing the attention elsewhere, Hogarth strikes home, and compasses most powerful effects. His series of prints, in which are storied the actions of one or more persons—his "Marriage -à la Mode," his "Rake's Progress," his "Harlot's +à la Mode," his "Rake's Progress," his "Harlot's Progress," his "Industry and Idleness"—the last a sort of double biography representing the different lives of two apprentices, one of whom becomes Lord @@ -5758,7 +5717,7 @@ subscribed for before publication, and the illustrated editions of the travels of Cook and Sir Joseph Banks were taken up in a few days. Finally, when it was proposed to engrave Copley's "Death of Chatham," -the subscription at once ran up to £3,600; and when, +the subscription at once ran up to £3,600; and when, the first proofs having been taken, the plate was returned to the engraver, he made almost as much more in less than two years. Nor did the fever of protection @@ -5788,7 +5747,7 @@ and even completeness of outline.</p> to the general execution of a work of a process adopted long before by etchers and line engravers as a means of partial execution. Jean Morin, Boulanger, -Gérard Audran himself, and many others, had +Gérard Audran himself, and many others, had habitually made use of dots to supplement the work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span> of the burin or the needle, or to effect transitions between their lights and shadows, or the larger of @@ -5828,7 +5787,7 @@ England, where the example of Bartolozzi and Ryland had been followed with such eager diligence. Such, too, somewhat later, was the fate of a somewhat similar process—the "crayon engraving," of -which Gilles Demarteau, born in Liège, but bred +which Gilles Demarteau, born in Liège, but bred and trained in Paris, may be considered, if not the inventor, at least the most active, skilful, and popular <span class="locked">practitioner.<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a></span></p> @@ -5857,14 +5816,14 @@ has done its part, the work, if necessary, is resumed with the same tools on the bare metal.</p> <p>The first specimens of crayon engraving were presented -in 1757 to the Académie Royale de Peinture, +in 1757 to the Académie Royale de Peinture, which, an official document informs <span class="locked">us<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></span> "highly approved of the method, as being well fitted to perpetuate the designs of good masters, and multiply copies of the best styles of drawings." For the reproduction of drawings, the new process was certainly better than etching, at least as practised to that end -by the Count de Caylus and the Abbé de Saint-Non. +by the Count de Caylus and the Abbé de Saint-Non. The misfortune was, that in the eighteenth century as in the first years of the nineteenth, the crayon engravers appear to have thought far less of "perpetuating @@ -5888,13 +5847,13 @@ their predecessors in the days of Louis XV. and XVI.</p> great while was applied to the production of drawing-copies, once the monopoly of crayon engraving. Nor was this the only quarter from which the method of -François and Demarteau was assailed. By degrees +François and Demarteau was assailed. By degrees it fell out of use for the production not only of drawing-copies, but of fac-similes of drawings by the masters for artists and amateurs; or, if occasionally practised, it was—as in the subjects engraved some thirty years back from drawings in the Louvre -and the Musée de Lille—with so many modifications, +and the Musée de Lille—with so many modifications, and in combination with such a number of other processes, as reduced it from supremacy to the rank, till worse should befall, of a mere auxiliary. @@ -5914,7 +5873,7 @@ the one condition imposed upon the copyist of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pa drawing or an engraving—that of perfect fidelity in imitation.</p> -<p>The object attempted by François, Demarteau, +<p>The object attempted by François, Demarteau, Bonnet, and others—the production by engraving of a sort of optical illusion, the exact fac-simile of a drawing—had been started before them by Jean Christophe Leblond, @@ -6007,8 +5966,8 @@ sensibly diminished.</p> <p>In spite of the value of these results, and the personal skill of the inventor; in spite, too, of the technical explanations contained in the "Plan du -Traité de la Gravure au Lavis" presented by him -(1750) to the Académie Royale, it was evident that +Traité de la Gravure au Lavis" presented by him +(1750) to the Académie Royale, it was evident that the French engravers thought lightly of Leprince's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span> discovery, and did not care to investigate its capabilities. It only got a fresh start in France when, @@ -6024,7 +5983,7 @@ contributed greatly to the triumph of aquatint in France, by applying it, from the first years of the Restoration, to the interpretation of the works of Horace Vernet. Such plates as "Le Bivouac du -Colonel Moncey," the "Barrière de Clichy," the +Colonel Moncey," the "Barrière de Clichy," the "Soldat Laboureur," and many others, were tolerated among Frenchmen for the sake of the associations they awakened at least as much as for their artistic @@ -6038,13 +5997,13 @@ rapid and facile method, and has sacrificed the ideal of delicacy and correctness to the enhancement of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span> a reputation for fertility. Certain it is that Jazet, as is proved by his early engravings, and especially -the "Barrière de Clichy," was more capable than +the "Barrière de Clichy," was more capable than any one else of raising work in aquatint to the level of art; and it is much to be regretted that his somewhat careless ease should have hindered the full development of his talent. It is still more to be regretted that, in spite of the laudable efforts -of Messrs. Prévost, Girard, and others to maintain +of Messrs. Prévost, Girard, and others to maintain the process in the better way, it should have been dishonoured and deprived of all but a purely commercial importance by the production of multitudes @@ -6086,7 +6045,7 @@ the most celebrated artists of the French school of painting belonged, by the nature of their talent as well as by the date of their chief successes, to the ante-revolutionary period. Greuze, Fragonard, Moreau, -Mme. Vigée-Lebrun, Vien even, notwithstanding his +Mme. Vigée-Lebrun, Vien even, notwithstanding his intentions of reform, Regnault and Vincent, in spite of their influence as professors on the new generation—all seemed rather to recall the past than to herald @@ -6119,7 +6078,7 @@ the memory of the old manner than submission to the requirements of the newer style.</p> <p>The most talented of these new artists, Boucher-Desnoyers, -when working at his "Belle Jardinière," +when working at his "Belle Jardinière," after Raphael, or his "Vierge aux Rochers," after Leonardo, probably thought much less of contemporary work than of the French engravers of the @@ -6161,7 +6120,7 @@ in drawing. There is in them no trace either of the precise manner of David, or of the large method of the old school; it is therefore not in these commonplace works, and still less in the barren engravings -composing the great "Commission d'Égypte," that +composing the great "Commission d'Égypte," that we must look for signs of such talent as then existed in France.</p> @@ -6177,13 +6136,13 @@ pictures were not generally reproduced in engraving<span class="pagenum"><a name and thus could do little for the progress of the art. Some, however, of Prud'hon's drawings and pictures<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> met, under the Directory and the Empire, with excellent -interpreters in Copia and in Barthélemy Roger; +interpreters in Copia and in Barthélemy Roger; while in the last years of the eighteenth century Bervic's -engraving of Regnault's "Éducation d'Achille" +engraving of Regnault's "Éducation d'Achille" had obtained at least as much success as the original had won in the Salon of 1783. To give a companion to this justly celebrated piece, Bervic soon after published -his "Enlèvement de Déjanire," after Guido. +his "Enlèvement de Déjanire," after Guido. This work, to which the judges of the Decennial Competition awarded the prize in preference to any engraving published in France from 1800 to 1810, @@ -6207,7 +6166,7 @@ inspiring.</p> <div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_262" src="images/i_262.jpg" width="402" height="517" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">BERVIC.</span></p> -<p>"L'Éducation d'Achille." After Regnault.</p></div></div> +<p>"L'Éducation d'Achille." After Regnault.</p></div></div> <p>From the engraving it is hard to suspect the mediocrity of Callet's picture. This, now at Versailles, @@ -6250,7 +6209,7 @@ I should do nothing I have done." There he wronged himself. As happens often in tardy repentances, he remembered past errors only to exaggerate them; but we must be juster to the engraver of the "Louis -XVI." and "L'Éducation d'Achille" than he was to +XVI." and "L'Éducation d'Achille" than he was to himself, and not forget that much of his work should be excluded from the sweeping condemnation which he launched upon the whole.</p> @@ -6346,7 +6305,7 @@ of public regret or enthusiasm, celebrated "the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pa undying glory of the illustrious engraver of 'The Last Supper.'"</p> -<p>Johann Godard Müller, who early in life had had +<p>Johann Godard Müller, who early in life had had nearly as widespread a recognition in Germany as Morghen in Italy, departed this world in lonely misery three years before the Neapolitan. Beyond @@ -6360,7 +6319,7 @@ he was about to become one of the most distinguished engravers of his country.</p> <p>From childhood this son, Christian Frederick -Müller, had been devoted to his father's art. His +Müller, had been devoted to his father's art. His first attempts were successful enough to warrant his early admittance to the school of engraving recently founded at Stuttgart by Duke Charles of Wurtemberg. @@ -6373,21 +6332,21 @@ the institution of a school of engraving in Stuttgart was one result of their expulsion. But by 1802 many of the fugitives were already back in Paris, and the studios, closed for ten years, once more opened their -doors to numerous pupils. Frederick Müller, then +doors to numerous pupils. Frederick Müller, then barely twenty, followed his father's example, and in his turn went to perfect himself under French masters.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span> Commended to the good offices of Wille, then past eighty, who felt it an honour to have taught Johann -Godard Müller, and introduced by him, the young +Godard Müller, and introduced by him, the young man was soon in relation with Bervic, Tardieu, and Desnoyers; and without constituting himself a thorough-going imitator of these fine craftsmen, he yet borrowed enough from them to be considered, if not their rival, at least one of their most faithful -disciples. The plates he engraved for the "Musée -Français," published by Laurent and <span class="locked">Robillard<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></span> show +disciples. The plates he engraved for the "Musée +Français," published by Laurent and <span class="locked">Robillard<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></span> show laudable submission to the principles of the masters and an already sound experience of art; but it is in the "Madonna di San Sisto," in which he seems to @@ -6407,7 +6366,7 @@ renown came too slowly for the engraver, and unhappily he lacked the patience to await its coming.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span> -When Müller had finished his work, he determined +When Müller had finished his work, he determined to publish it himself, hoping to gain not only honour but legitimate profit. He was exhausted by hard work, but he trusted to meet with the reward which @@ -6423,7 +6382,7 @@ of which, in the expectation of its author, should have had all the importance of a public event. So many disappointments completed the ruin of his health, and at last affected his reason. In a paroxysm -of excitement, Müller stabbed himself with a burnisher. +of excitement, Müller stabbed himself with a burnisher. Shortly after his "Sistine Madonna" obtained that great success which the poor artist had fondly anticipated. The publisher grew rich upon the @@ -6432,7 +6391,7 @@ had made too great haste to sell them was with justice acclaimed throughout Europe.</p> <p>The works of Bervic, of Desnoyers, of Morghen and -of Müller, may be said to represent the state of engraving +of Müller, may be said to represent the state of engraving in France, in Italy, and in Germany during the early years of the nineteenth century. They show that at that time the three schools professed the same @@ -6443,7 +6402,7 @@ modified by the influence of new ideas, and the German engravers (taking the lead in this change of aim) entered the path which they are still following.</p> -<p>At the time of Müller's death, the influence +<p>At the time of Müller's death, the influence of Goethe and Schiller on German literature had begun to extend to the pictorial arts. Passionate study of the Middle Ages took the place of the @@ -6454,7 +6413,7 @@ from Christian tradition and national legend. This was a happy reaction in so far as it reinvested art with that ethereal character which is indispensable to its higher developments; but, on the other hand, -rapidly degenerating into mere archæology, the movement +rapidly degenerating into mere archæology, the movement ended by oppressing and imprisoning talent under invariable formulas. A few years sufficed to reduce German art to such a condition that asceticism @@ -6491,7 +6450,7 @@ extreme reticence of execution, it is sufficient to mention the "Apostolical Scenes" engraved, after Overbeck, by Franz Keller, Ludy, and Steinfensand; the plates after Cornelius, published at Carlsruhe and -Munich, by Schäffer, Merz, and others; and lastly, +Munich, by Schäffer, Merz, and others; and lastly, Thaeter's big "Battle of the Huns," after Kaulbach.</p> <p>Although subdivided into smaller classes, the @@ -6500,7 +6459,7 @@ as historical painting and engraving are concerned—of a group of kindred talents, inspired by abstract reflection rather than the study of reality. Nevertheless this main idea has not everywhere been carried -out with the same logical rigour. The Düsseldorf +out with the same logical rigour. The Düsseldorf engravers, for instance, have not always confined themselves, like those of Munich, to the representation of figures and their accessories, as mere silhouettes, @@ -6570,7 +6529,7 @@ of the Pre-Raphaelites, it would seem as if the school were neither able nor willing to change.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span> -The æsthetic formula accepted and used, from +The æsthetic formula accepted and used, from one generation to another, by the English painters has influenced—and, perhaps naturally, with still more authority—their compatriots the engravers. @@ -6634,7 +6593,7 @@ Rent-Day," and "The Village Politicians," deserve to be classed amongst the most agreeable works of modern engraving. Samuel William Reynolds, in his portraits after many English painters, and his -plates from Géricault, Horace Vernet, and Paul +plates from Géricault, Horace Vernet, and Paul Delaroche, and Samuel Cousins, in his engravings of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span> Lawrence's "Master Lambton," "Pius VII.," and "Lady Gower and her Son," have succeeded in getting @@ -6715,7 +6674,7 @@ to such purpose as to redeem the honour of the school. The plates by Toschi and his pupils, from pictures and frescoes by Correggio at Parma; Calamatta's "Vœu de Louis Treize," after Ingres; Mercuri's -"Moissonneurs," after Léopold Robert, and many +"Moissonneurs," after Léopold Robert, and many prints besides, either by the same artists or others of their race, assuredly deserve to rank with the most important achievements of French engraving in the @@ -6808,8 +6767,8 @@ the word: a master, too, of the stamp of those in the<span class="pagenum"><a na past of whom the French have the greatest right to be proud. The masters of the seventeenth century have scarcely left us plates at once so largely and -so delicately treated, as his "Hémicycle du Palais -des Beaux-Arts," his "Moïse Exposé sur le Nil," and +so delicately treated, as his "Hémicycle du Palais +des Beaux-Arts," his "Moïse Exposé sur le Nil," and his "Strafford," after Paul Delaroche; his admirable sketch in etching of the "Pilgrims of Emmaus," after Veronese; and the portrait of M. Bertin, after Ingres; @@ -6826,9 +6785,9 @@ delicate touch of the needle: the "Pasta," the botanist "Desfontaines," "Desenne" the draughtsman, the "Brongniart," the "Tardieu," the "Carle Vernet," the "Sauvageot," the "Scheffer," the "Mansard et -Perrault," the "Mirabeau à la Tribune," the +Perrault," the "Mirabeau à la Tribune," the "Rathier," and, latest of all, the charming little -"Père Petétot."</p> +"Père Petétot."</p> <div class="figcenter"><img id="if_i_282" src="images/i_282.jpg" width="356" height="450" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">HENRIQUEL.</span></p> @@ -6845,10 +6804,10 @@ crayon—Henriquel proves himself not only a trained draughtsman and finished executant, but, as it were, still more a painter than any of his immediate predecessors. Bervic—whose pupil he became, after -some years in the studio of Pierre Guérin—was able +some years in the studio of Pierre Guérin—was able to teach him to overcome the practical difficulties of the art, but the influence of the engraver of the -"Laocoon" and the "Déjanire" went no further +"Laocoon" and the "Déjanire" went no further than technical initiation. Even the example of Desnoyers, however instructive in some respects, was not so obediently followed by Henriquel as to cause @@ -6882,16 +6841,16 @@ of contemporary art.</p> <p>Several of his most distinguished pupils are dead: Aristide Louis, whose "Mignon," after Scheffer, won -instant popularity; Jules François, who is to be +instant popularity; Jules François, who is to be credited, among other fine plates, with a real masterpiece -in the "Militaire Offrant des Pièces d'Or à une +in the "Militaire Offrant des Pièces d'Or à une Femme," after the Terburg in the Louvre; and Rousseaux, perhaps the most gifted engraver of his generation, whose works, few as they are, are yet enough to immortalise him. Who knows, indeed, if some day the "Portrait d'Homme" from the picture in the Louvre attributed to Francia, and the "Madame de -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span>Sévigné" from Nanteuil's pastel, may not be sought +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span>Sévigné" from Nanteuil's pastel, may not be sought for with the eagerness now expended on the search for the old masters of engraving?</p> @@ -6904,9 +6863,9 @@ of other countries. Where, save in France could equivalents be found, for instance, of the "Coronation of the Virgin," after Giovanni da Fiesole, and the "Marriage of Saint Catherine," after Memling, by -Alphonse François; of the "Antiope," by Blanchard, +Alphonse François; of the "Antiope," by Blanchard, after Correggio; of the "Vierge de la Consolation," -after Hébert, by Huot; of Danguin's "Titian's +after Hébert, by Huot; of Danguin's "Titian's Mistress," or Bertinot's "Portement de Croix," after Lesueur; of several other plates, remarkable in different ways, and bearing the same or other names? @@ -6914,10 +6873,10 @@ What rivalry need Gaillard fear, in the sort of engraving of which he is really the inventor, and which he practises with such extraordinary skill? Whether he produces after Van Eyck, Ingres, or -Rembrandt, such plates as the "Homme à l'Œillet," +Rembrandt, such plates as the "Homme à l'Œillet," the "Œdipus," and the "Pilgrims of Emmaus," or gives us, from his own drawings or paintings, such -portraits as his "Pius IX." and his "Dom Guéranger," +portraits as his "Pius IX." and his "Dom Guéranger," he, in every case, arrests the mind as well as surprises the eye, by the inconceivable subtlety of his work. Even when translating the works of @@ -7020,7 +6979,7 @@ technical knowledge.</p> <div class="figcenter"><img id="Fig_101" src="images/i_292.jpg" width="309" height="521" alt="" /><br /><div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">JULES JACQUEMART.</span></p> -<p>Tripod, by Gouthière.</p></div></div> +<p>Tripod, by Gouthière.</p></div></div> <p>Mezzotint and aquatint have been not nearly so fortunate. The former appears to have fallen, almost @@ -7055,7 +7014,7 @@ should rather, in accordance with the nature of the process at their disposal, be satisfied with rapid suggestions of effect and modelling and a summary imitation of form and colour. The illustrations after -Holbein, by Lützelburger and other Germans of +Holbein, by Lützelburger and other Germans of the sixteenth century, and the portraits and subjects cut on wood by Italian artists, or by Frenchmen of the same epoch, as Geofroy Tory and Salomon @@ -7254,7 +7213,7 @@ to make drawings of the fortifications and surroundings of the town of Tangiers, he meets with Algerine corsairs on his way back, from which he escapes with difficulty. On his return, it is only after delay and -vexation that he can obtain £100 from the impecunious +vexation that he can obtain £100 from the impecunious king for his two years' labours and expenses. He travels through England, making drawings and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span> etchings of abbeys, churches, ruins, and cathedrals, @@ -7326,7 +7285,7 @@ few isolated instances in other countries, mezzotint should have been practically confined to England; the very name is not recognised elsewhere. Germany uses the word "Schabkunst," scraping art; the French, -"La manière noire," the black manner; and Italy, +"La manière noire," the black manner; and Italy, "L'incisione a fumo," engraving in smoke or <span class="locked">black<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a></span></p> <p>Before the discovery of the new method, all engraving @@ -7629,7 +7588,7 @@ terribly realistic representation of a "Scene in the French Revolution on the 10th of May, 1793," and his "Life School at the Royal Academy," Wright of Derby's "Blacksmith's Shop" and "Iron Forge," and -the six plates after Hogarth, "Marriage à la Mode."</p> +the six plates after Hogarth, "Marriage à la Mode."</p> <p>The renown acquired by the works of English mezzotinters gradually attracted the notice of other nations—particularly @@ -7953,7 +7912,7 @@ modifications of the style.</p> at Venice by Joseph Wagner, and like Cipriani, who had preceded him, came over to England in 1764. His reputation was already established there; he was -appointed engraver to the king with a salary of £300 +appointed engraver to the king with a salary of £300 a year, became one of the first forty full members of the Royal Academy (1768), and was the only engraver admitted to the honour down to the year @@ -8074,7 +8033,7 @@ recalling his memory, saying, "He was the prince<span class="pagenum"><a name="P of engravers." He gave lessons in drawing to the daughters of George III., who wished to make him their equerry, and afterwards an important post with -a salary of £900 a year was offered him, but both +a salary of £900 a year was offered him, but both these offers were refused.</p> <p>It is from the technical skill and firm daring which @@ -8108,7 +8067,7 @@ after painters whose productions partook of a frivolous and somewhat free character. Reynolds, however, left more permanent marks of his stay in the French capital by executing there the large plates -of Géricault's "Wreck of the Medusa," Horace Vernet's +of Géricault's "Wreck of the Medusa," Horace Vernet's "Mazeppa," and the masterly representations of Charlet's characteristic types, the "Village Barber" and the "Rag Picker." In the last two the technical @@ -8334,7 +8293,7 @@ the art of wood engraving at the commencement of the present century was carried onwards by his distinguished pupils Luke Clennell, Charlton Nesbitt, and William Harvey, the latter of whom, in 1821, cut -the large block of the death of Dentatus (15 in. × 11¼ in.) +the large block of the death of Dentatus (15 in. × 11¼ in.) from the picture of the erratic genius B. R. Haydon, under whom he was at that time studying drawing. Robert Branston, John Thompson and his brother @@ -8402,10 +8361,10 @@ W. E. Marshall, J. W. Casilear, M. J. Danforth, Gideon Fairman, and Jacob Perkins, the latter of whom, with Fairman and the ingenious Asa Spencer, came over to England in 1818 to compete for the -premium of £20,000 offered by the Bank of England +premium of £20,000 offered by the Bank of England for a bank-note which could not be counterfeited. Although not successful, the Bank allowed them the -sum of £5,000 in consideration of their ingenuity and +sum of £5,000 in consideration of their ingenuity and the trouble and expense which they had incurred in the matter. While Asa Spencer is to be credited with inventing the method of applying the geometric @@ -8631,7 +8590,7 @@ TO THE BRITISH SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.</p> <td class="tdl w1"><span class="smcap">Bickham</span>, George.</td> <td class="tdl w2">d. 1769. Line and etching, draughtsman. Published "The Universal Penman;" father of George, also an engraver and draughtsman.</td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl w1">*<span class="smcap">Ravenet</span>, François Simon, A.E.<br />(Pupil of Le Bas.)</td> + <td class="tdl w1">*<span class="smcap">Ravenet</span>, François Simon, A.E.<br />(Pupil of Le Bas.)</td> <td class="tdl w2">b. Paris 1706; d. Hampstead Road 1774. Line. Came to England a little before 1745, and settled in London.</td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl w1"><span class="smcap">Frye</span>, Thomas.</td> @@ -8734,7 +8693,7 @@ TO THE BRITISH SCHOOL OF ENGRAVING.</p> <td class="tdl w2">b. London 1738; d. London 1783. Line and stipple; also a printseller. Visited Paris c. 1760, and is said to have studied under Le Bas. Was hanged for forgery.</td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl w1"><span class="smcap">Green</span>, Valentine, A.E.</td> - <td class="tdl w2">b. near Birmingham 1739; d. London 1813. Mezzotint. Engraved over twenty plates from Düsseldorf Gallery.</td></tr> + <td class="tdl w2">b. near Birmingham 1739; d. London 1813. Mezzotint. Engraved over twenty plates from Düsseldorf Gallery.</td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl w1"><span class="smcap">Hall</span>, John.<br />(Pupil of Ravenet.)</td> <td class="tdl w2">b. near Colchester 1739; d. London 1797. Line.</td></tr> @@ -9220,7 +9179,7 @@ the number of proofs that can be taken.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Papillon, "Traité de la Gravure en Bois," 1766, vol. i., ch. 1.</p></div> +<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Papillon, "Traité de la Gravure en Bois," 1766, vol. i., ch. 1.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9233,7 +9192,7 @@ following.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> That is the "Treatises on Latin Syntax" by Ælius Donatus, a +<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> That is the "Treatises on Latin Syntax" by Ælius Donatus, a grammarian of the fourth century. In the Middle Ages these treatises were much used in schools.</p></div> @@ -9267,7 +9226,7 @@ of the original edition.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> "Ideé générale d'une Collection d'Estampes, 1771," p. 305.</p></div> +<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> "Ideé générale d'une Collection d'Estampes, 1771," p. 305.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9276,13 +9235,13 @@ of the original edition.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> See in "L'Artiste," 1839, an article entitled "La plus ancienne -Gravure du Cabinet des Estampes de la Bibliothèque royale est-elle +Gravure du Cabinet des Estampes de la Bibliothèque royale est-elle ancienne?"</p></div> <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> "Notice sur deux Estampes de 1406, et sur les Commencements de -la Gravure en Criblé." "Gazette des Beaux-arts," t. I^{er}, 2^e période, 1869.</p></div> +la Gravure en Criblé." "Gazette des Beaux-arts," t. I^{er}, 2^e période, 1869.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9290,12 +9249,12 @@ la Gravure en Criblé." "Gazette des Beaux-arts," t. I^{er}, 2^e période, 1869.</ <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> "Une Passion de 1446. Suite de Gravures au Burin, les premières +<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> "Une Passion de 1446. Suite de Gravures au Burin, les premières avec Date." Montpellier, 1857.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> "Archiv für die Zeichnenden Künste," 1858.</p></div> +<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> "Archiv für die Zeichnenden Künste," 1858.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9337,7 +9296,7 @@ third.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> Herr Moriz Thausing has treated this question exhaustively in -his important work on Albert Dürer.</p></div> +his important work on Albert Dürer.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9363,7 +9322,7 @@ obscene intention. The Bolognese artist, like his celebrated countryman, seems to have wished to display at once his science and his shamelessness. The one only serves to make the other more inexcusable, and it is even still more difficult to tolerate this austere immodesty than -the licentiousness, without æsthetic pretension, which characterises the +the licentiousness, without æsthetic pretension, which characterises the little French prints sold under the rose in the eighteenth century.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9372,7 +9331,7 @@ little French prints sold under the rose in the eighteenth century.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> "Les Maîtres d'Autrefois," p. 165.</p></div> +<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> "Les Maîtres d'Autrefois," p. 165.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9420,7 +9379,7 @@ Flanders.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> It represents a "Holy Family," with this inscription on a stone, -to the right: "R. Nanteuil Philosophiæ Auditor Sculpebat Rhemis +to the right: "R. Nanteuil Philosophiæ Auditor Sculpebat Rhemis An^o dni 1645."</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9428,9 +9387,9 @@ An^o dni 1645."</p></div> <p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> These flights were not Nanteuil's last. There is extant a sort of petition in verse, which he one day presented to Louis XIV. to excuse himself for not having finished in time a portrait ordered by the king. -These rhymes, quoted by the Abbé Lambert in his "Histoire Littéraire -du Règne de Louis XIV.," and some others composed by Nanteuil in -praise of Mlle. de Scudéry, are not such to make us regret that he did +These rhymes, quoted by the Abbé Lambert in his "Histoire Littéraire +du Règne de Louis XIV.," and some others composed by Nanteuil in +praise of Mlle. de Scudéry, are not such to make us regret that he did not more frequently lay aside the graver for the pen.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9449,7 +9408,7 @@ shown.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> "Édit de Saint Jean-de-Luz," 1660.</p></div> +<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> "Édit de Saint Jean-de-Luz," 1660.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9503,7 +9462,7 @@ on that account.</p></div> <p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> In his landscapes, Woollett makes use of etching, line, and the dry-point, all three. Philippe Le Bas was the first to make use of dry-point to render the misty tones of distances and the clearness of skies. This -mode of engraving, improved by Vivarès, was carried to its highest perfection +mode of engraving, improved by Vivarès, was carried to its highest perfection by Woollett. Certain English artists of the same period tried to apply the process of mezzotint to landscape engraving; but the landscapes engraved in this way by Watson and Brookshaw, after the German @@ -9521,16 +9480,16 @@ all over Europe.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> The credit of the invention is really due to Jean Charles François, -born at Nancy in 1717. But the application that François made of his +<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> The credit of the invention is really due to Jean Charles François, +born at Nancy in 1717. But the application that François made of his discovery was—if we consider the improvements introduced soon afterwards by Demarteau—still so incomplete that it seems only fair to attribute to the latter a principal share in the original success.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> "Lettre de Cochin, Secrétaire perpétuel de l'Académie, au Sieur -François," 26th November, 1757.</p></div> +<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> "Lettre de Cochin, Secrétaire perpétuel de l'Académie, au Sieur +François," 26th November, 1757.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9556,7 +9515,7 @@ the top of the spire.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> The tear-shaped pieces of glass (Lachrimæ Vitreæ), which resist +<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> The tear-shaped pieces of glass (Lachrimæ Vitreæ), which resist hard blows applied at the thick end, yet fly to pieces the moment a fragment is broken off the fine end, were first brought to England by Prince Rupert, and are called popularly "Prince Rupert's drops."</p></div> @@ -9570,7 +9529,7 @@ John the Baptist.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> Other names given to mezzotint out of England are: Schwarzkunst, -black art; La manière anglaise, L'incisione a foggia nera, +black art; La manière anglaise, L'incisione a foggia nera, engraving in black fashion or manner.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9703,7 +9662,7 @@ seen on the back of watch-cases.</p></div> <p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> It is also necessary to point out that no impression damaged from course of time or printed from a worn-out plate can give any idea of the original engraving as a work of art. Other things being equal, proofs -are primâ facie likely to be the best impressions, but a good print (that +are primâ facie likely to be the best impressions, but a good print (that is a later impression), if in good condition, is far more valuable than a damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> </div> @@ -9757,7 +9716,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Aveline</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Audran, Gérard</td> + <td class="tdl">Audran, Gérard</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>–<a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></td></tr> <tr> @@ -9782,7 +9741,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Battista del Porto</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Baudet, Étienne</td> + <td class="tdl">Baudet, Étienne</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Beatrizet, Nicolas</td> @@ -9848,7 +9807,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Bochelt, Franz von</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Boldrini, Nicolò</td> + <td class="tdl">Boldrini, Nicolò</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Bolswert</td> @@ -9881,7 +9840,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Boydell</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Boyvin, René</td> + <td class="tdl">Boyvin, René</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Branston, R.</td> @@ -10057,7 +10016,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Danguin</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Daullé</td> + <td class="tdl">Daullé</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">David, Emeric</td> @@ -10081,10 +10040,10 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">De Kaiser</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Delaram, François</td> + <td class="tdl">Delaram, François</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Delaune, Étienne</td> + <td class="tdl">Delaune, Étienne</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Fig_72">154</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">De Leu, Thomas</td> @@ -10159,7 +10118,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Durand</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Dürer, Albert</td> + <td class="tdl">Dürer, Albert</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>–<a href="#Fig_40">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>–<a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Duveneck</td> @@ -10221,19 +10180,19 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Franck</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">François, Alphonse</td> + <td class="tdl">François, Alphonse</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">François, Jean Charles</td> + <td class="tdl">François, Jean Charles</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_239">239</a>–<a href="#Page_242">242</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">François, Jules</td> + <td class="tdl">François, Jules</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Frye, Thomas</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Füst</td> + <td class="tdl">Füst</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> <tr> @@ -10324,7 +10283,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Greuze</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Grün, Baldung</td> + <td class="tdl">Grün, Baldung</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Gutenburg</td> @@ -10361,7 +10320,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Hogarth, William</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_231">231</a>–<a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Hogenberg, François</td> + <td class="tdl">Hogenberg, François</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Hogenberg, Remigius</td> @@ -10437,7 +10396,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="p1 tdl">Laborde, Léon</td> + <td class="p1 tdl">Laborde, Léon</td> <td class="p1 tdr bot"><a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>–<a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Landseer, John</td> @@ -10476,13 +10435,13 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Legat, F.</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Le Joséphin</td> + <td class="tdl">Le Joséphin</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Lepautre</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Lepicié</td> + <td class="tdl">Lepicié</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Leprince, J. B.</td> @@ -10530,17 +10489,17 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Lutma, Jan</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Lützelburger</td> + <td class="tdl">Lützelburger</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_113">113</a>–<a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Luynes, Duchess of</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="p1 tdl">"Maitre à l'Écrevisse"</td> + <td class="p1 tdl">"Maitre à l'Écrevisse"</td> <td class="p1 tdr bot"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">"Maitre à l'Étoile"</td> + <td class="tdl">"Maitre à l'Étoile"</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Major, Thomas</td> @@ -10573,7 +10532,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Massard</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Massé</td> + <td class="tdl">Massé</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Masson</td> @@ -10630,7 +10589,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Mocetto</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Molés, Pascal</td> + <td class="tdl">Molés, Pascal</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Montenay, Georgette de</td> @@ -10654,13 +10613,13 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Moser</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Müller, Christian Fred</td> + <td class="tdl">Müller, Christian Fred</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_258">258</a>–<a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Müller, Jan</td> + <td class="tdl">Müller, Jan</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Müller, John Godard</td> + <td class="tdl">Müller, John Godard</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Musi, Agostino</td> @@ -10673,10 +10632,10 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Nesbitt</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Niccoló della Casa</td> + <td class="tdl">Niccoló della Casa</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Niccoló, of Pisa</td> + <td class="tdl">Niccoló, of Pisa</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Nicoletto da Modena</td> @@ -10723,7 +10682,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Pitau, Nicolas</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Poilly, François de</td> + <td class="tdl">Poilly, François de</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Pollajuolo, Antonio</td> @@ -10753,7 +10712,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Prestel, Katherine</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Prévost</td> + <td class="tdl">Prévost</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr> <tr> @@ -10777,7 +10736,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Regnesson</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Régnier, Mathurin</td> + <td class="tdl">Régnier, Mathurin</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Rembrandt</td> @@ -10810,7 +10769,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Robinson</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Roger, Barthélemy</td> + <td class="tdl">Roger, Barthélemy</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Rogers, William</td> @@ -10847,7 +10806,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="p1 tdl">St. Aubin, Augustin</td> <td class="p1 tdr bot"><a href="#Page_218">218</a>–<a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">St. Non, Abbé de</td> + <td class="tdl">St. Non, Abbé de</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Saint-Ygny</td> @@ -10868,16 +10827,16 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Say, William</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Schäffer</td> + <td class="tdl">Schäffer</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Schaüflein, Hans</td> + <td class="tdl">Schaüflein, Hans</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Schmidt</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Schön, Bartholomew</td> + <td class="tdl">Schön, Bartholomew</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Schongauer, Martin</td> @@ -10945,7 +10904,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Spencer, Asa</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Spierre, François</td> + <td class="tdl">Spierre, François</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Spilsbury, John</td> @@ -11045,13 +11004,13 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Vermeulen, Cornelius</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Vicentino, Nicolò</td> + <td class="tdl">Vicentino, Nicolò</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Vissher, Cornelius</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_135">135</a>–<a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Vivarès</td> + <td class="tdl">Vivarès</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_229">229</a>–<a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Volpato</td> @@ -11103,7 +11062,7 @@ damaged or rubbed proof, however early the state may be.</p> <td class="tdl">Weber</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl">Wenceslas, of Olmütz</td> + <td class="tdl">Wenceslas, of Olmütz</td> <td class="tdr bot"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">Weirotter</td> @@ -11170,384 +11129,6 @@ the flow of text.</p> but it is on page 287. Corrected here.</p> </div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Engraving: Its Origin, Processes, and -History, by Henri Delaborde - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGRAVING *** - -***** This file should be named 42936-h.htm or 42936-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/9/3/42936/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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