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diff --git a/42854.txt b/42854.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f844ab8..0000000 --- a/42854.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19356 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 17, Slice 4, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 17, Slice 4 - "Magnetite" to "Malt" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: June 1, 2013 [EBook #42854] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 17 SL 4 *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE MAGNETOMETER: "... the determination of the magnetic - elements on board ship is a matter of very considerable - importance." 'determination' amended from 'determinaton'. - - ARTICLE MAGNETO-OPTICS: "The relation of the magnetic rotation to - chemical constitution has been studied in great detail by Perkin, - Wachsmuth, Jahn and Schonrock." 'constitution' amended from - 'consitution'. - - ARTICLE MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV: "... ('Magnus's green salt' is - PtCl2, 2NH3), of sulphovinic ..." 'PtCl2' amended from 'Ptll2'. - - ARTICLE MAHOMET: "With this change we may perhaps couple the - adoption of the name Allah for the Deity ..." 'Deity' amended from - 'Diety'. - - ARTICLE MAHOMMEDAN LAW: "It was rather the Moslem leaders who were - compelled to abandon their ideas and for the sake of the spread of - Islam to accept and incorporate much that was diametrically opposed - to the original legislation either of the Koran or of Mahomet's - recorded decisions." 'decisions' amended from 'decisons'. - - ARTICLE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO: "In 1611 the headquarters of the Dutch - was changed from Bantam to Jakarta, which in 1619 was renamed - Batavia, and was thenceforward the Dutch capital." 'Jakarta' - amended from 'Jakatra'. - - ARTICLE MALAYS: "When the first Europeans visited the Malay - Archipelago the Malays had already acquired the art of - manufacturing gunpowder and forging cannon." 'cannon' amended from - 'canon'. - - ARTICLE MALAY STATES: "The country is mountainous except close to - the coast. The principal rivers are the Patani and the Teloban, - long, winding and shallow, and navigable for small boats only." - 'the' amended from 'tle'. - - ARTICLE MALOCELLO, LANCILOTO: "This was a Genoese expedition, which - about 1270 seems to have sailed into the Atlantic, re-discovered - the 'Fortunate Islands' or Canaries" 'Atlantic' amended from - 'Alantic'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XVII, SLICE IV - - Magnetite to Malt - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - MAGNETITE MAJOR, JOHN - MAGNETOGRAPH MAJOR - MAGNETOMETER MAJORCA - MAGNETO-OPTICS MAJORIAN - MAGNOLIA MAJORITY - MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV MAJUBA - MAGNY, CLAUDE DRIGON MAKALAKA - MAGO MAKARAKA - MAGPIE MAKART, HANS - MAGWE MAKING-UP PRICE - MAGYARS MAKO - MAHABALESHWAR MAKRAN - MAHAFFY, JOHN PENTLAND MAKSOORA - MAHALLAT MALABAR - MAHAN, ALFRED THAYER MALABARI, BEHRAMJI - MAHANADI MALABON - MAHANOY CITY MALACCA - MAHAR MALACHI - MAHARAJPUR MALACHITE - MAHAVAMSA MALACHOWSKI, STANISLAW - MAHAYANA MALACHY, ST - MAHDI MALACOSTRACA - MAHDIA MALAGA (province of Spain) - MAHE MALAGA (city of Spain) - MAHESHWAR MALAKAND PASS - MAHI MALALAS, JOHN - MAHI KANTHA MALAN, SOLOMON CAESAR - MAHMUD I. MALAR - MAHMUD II. MALARIA - MAHMUD NEDIM PASHA MALATIA - MAHMUD OF GHAZNI MALAYALAM - MAHOBA MALAY ARCHIPELAGO - MAHOGANY MALAIR - MAHOMET MALAY PENINSULA - MAHOMMED AHMED IBN ABDULLAH MALAYS - MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS MALAY STATES (British) - MAHOMMEDAN LAW MALAY STATES (Siamese) - MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION MALCHIN - MAHONY, FRANCIS SYLVESTER MALCOLM - MAHOUT MALCOLM, SIR JOHN - MAHRATTAS MALDA - MAHSEER MALDEN - MAI, ANGELO MALDIVE ISLANDS - MAIA MALDON - MAIDA MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS - MAIDAN MALER KOTLA - MAIDEN MALESHERBES, CHRETIEN DE LAMOIGNON DE - MAIDENHAIR MALET, LUCAS - MAIDENHEAD MALHERBE, FRANCOIS DE - MAID MARIAN MALIBRAN, MARIE FELICITE - MAIDSTONE MALIC ACID - MAIHAR MALIGNANT - MAIL MALIK IBN ANAS - MAILLY, LOUISE JULIE MALINES - MAIMANA MALLANWAN - MAIMAND MALLARME, FRANCOIS RENE AUGUSTE - MAIMBOURG, LOUIS MALLARME, STEPHANE - MAIMING MALLECO - MAIMON, SALOMON MALLEMUCK - MAIMONIDES MALLESON, GEORGE BRUCE - MAIN (river of Germany) MALLET, DAVID - MAIN (power or strength) MALLET, PAUL HENRI - MAINA and MAINOTES MALLET, ROBERT - MAINE, ANNE LOUISE DE BOURBON MALLET DU PAN, JACQUES - MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER MALLING, EAST and WEST - MAINE (French province) MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL - MAINE (U.S. state) MALLOW (town of Ireland) - MAINE DE BIRAN, FRANCOIS-GONTHIER MALLOW (botanical genus) - MAINE-ET-LOIRE MALMEDY - MAINPURI MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS - MAINTENANCE MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS - MAINTENON, FRANCOISE D'AUBIGNE MALMESBURY - MAINZ MALMO - MAIRET, JEAN DE MALMSEY - MAISTRE, JOSEPH DE MALOCELLO, LANCILOTO - MAISTRE, XAVIER DE MALOLOS - MAITLAND, EDWARD MALONE, EDMOND - MAITLAND, FREDERIC WILLIAM MALONE - MAITLAND, SIR RICHARD MALONIC ACID - MAITLAND, WILLIAM MALORY, SIR THOMAS - MAITLAND, EAST and WEST MALOT, HECTOR HENRI - MAITREYA MALOU, JULES EDOUARD XAVIER - MAIWAND MALOUET, PIERRE VICTOR - MAIZE MALPIGHI, MARCELLO - MAJESTY MALPLAQUET - MAJLATH, JANOS MALSTATT-BURBACH - MAJOLICA MALT - - - - -MAGNETITE, a mineral forming the natural magnet (see MAGNETISM), and -important also as an iron-ore. It is an iron-black, opaque mineral, with -metallic lustre; hardness about 6, sp. gr. 4.9 to 5.2. When scratched, -it yields a black streak. It is an oxide of iron having the formula -Fe3O4, corresponding with 72.4% of metal, whence its great value as an -ore. It may be regarded as a ferroso-ferric oxide, FeO.Fe2O3, or as iron -ferrate, Fe"Fe2"'O4. Titanium is often present, and occasionally the -mineral contains magnesium, nickel, &c. It is always strongly magnetic. -Magnetite crystallizes in the cubic system, usually in octahedra, less -commonly in rhombic dodecahedra, and not infrequently in twins of the -"spinel type" (fig. 1). The rhombic faces of the dodecahedron are often -striated parallel to the longer diagonal. There is no distinct cleavage, -but imperfect parting may be obtained along octahedral planes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -Magnetite is a mineral of wide distribution, occurring as grains in many -massive and volcanic rocks, like granite, diorite and dolerite. It -appears to have crystallized from the magma at a very early period of -consolidation. Its presence contributes to the dark colour of many -basalts and other basic rocks, and may cause them to disturb the -compass. Large ore-bodies of granular and compact magnetite occur as -beds and lenticular masses in Archean gneiss and crystalline schists, in -various parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Urals; as also in the -states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Michigan, as well as in -Canada. In some cases it appears to have segregated from a basic -eruptive magma, and in other cases to have resulted from metamorphic -action. Certain deposits appear to have been formed, directly or -indirectly, by wet processes. Iron rust sometimes contains magnetite. An -interesting deposit of oolitic magnetic ore occurs in the Dogger -(Inferior Oolite) of Rosedale Abbey, in Yorkshire; and a somewhat -similar pisolitic ore, of Jurassic age, is known on the continent as -chamoisite, having been named from Chamoison (or Chamoson) in the -Valais, Switzerland. Grains of magnetite occur in serpentine, as an -alteration-product of the olivine. In emery, magnetite in a granular -form is largely associated with the corundum; and in certain kinds of -mica magnetite occurs as thin dendritic enclosures. Haematite is -sometimes magnetic, and A. Liversidge has shown that magnetite is -probably present. By deoxidation, haematite may be converted into -magnetite, as proved by certain pseudomorphs; but on the other hand -magnetite is sometimes altered to haematite. On weathering, magnetite -commonly passes into limonite, the ferrous oxide having probably been -removed by carbonated waters. Closely related to magnetite is the rare -volcanic mineral from Vesuvius, called magnoferrite, or magnesioferrite, -with the formula MgFe2O4; and with this may be mentioned a mineral from -Jakobsberg, in Vermland, Sweden, called jakobsite, containing MnFe2O4. - (F. W. R.*) - - - - -MAGNETOGRAPH, an instrument for continuously recording the values of the -magnetic elements, the three universally chosen being the declination, -the horizontal component and the vertical component (see TERRESTRIAL -MAGNETISM). In each case the magnetograph only records the variation of -the element, the absolute values being determined by making observations -in the neighbourhood with the unifilar magnetometer (q.v.) and -inclinometer (q.v.). - - _Declination._--The changes in declination are obtained by means of a - magnet which is suspended by a long fibre and carries a mirror, - immediately below which a fixed mirror is attached to the base of the - instrument. Both mirrors are usually concave; if plane, a concave lens - is placed immediately before them. Light passing through a vertical - slit falls upon the mirrors, from which it is reflected, and two - images of the slit are produced, one by the movable mirror attached to - the magnet and the other by the fixed mirror. These images would be - short lines of light; but a piano-cylindrical lens is placed with its - axis horizontal just in front of the recording surface. In this way a - spot of light is obtained from each mirror. The recording surface is a - sheet of photographic paper wrapped round a drum which is rotated at a - constant speed by clockwork about a horizontal axis. The light - reflected from the fixed mirror traces a straight line on the paper, - serving as a base line from which the variations in declination are - measured. As the declination changes the spot of light reflected from - the magnet mirror moves parallel to the axis of the recording drum, - and hence the distance between the line traced by this spot and the - base line gives, for any instant, on an arbitrary scale the difference - between the declination and a constant angle, namely, the declination - corresponding to the base line. The value of this constant angle is - obtained by comparing the record with the value for the declination as - measured with a magnetometer. The value in terms of arc of the scale - of the record can be obtained by measuring the distance between the - magnet mirror and the recording drum, and in most observations it is - such that a millimetre on the record represents one minute of arc. The - time scale ordinarily employed is 15 mm. per hour, but in modern - instruments provision is generally made for the time scale to be - increased at will to 180 mm. per hour, so that the more rapid - variations of the declination can be followed. The advantages of using - small magnets, so that their moment of inertia may be small and hence - they may be able to respond to rapid changes in the earth's field, - were first insisted upon by E. Mascart,[1] while M. Eschenhagen[2] - first designed a set of magnetographs in which this idea of small - moment of inertia was carried to its useful limit, the magnets only - weighing 1.5 gram each, and the suspension consisting of a very fine - quartz fibre. - - _Horizontal Force._--The variation of the horizontal force is obtained - by the motion of a magnet which is carried either by a bifilar - suspension or by a fairly stiff metal wire or quartz fibre. The upper - end of the suspension is turned till the axis of the magnet is at - right angles to the magnetic meridian. In this position the magnet is - in equilibrium under the action of the torsion of the suspension and - the couple exerted by the horizontal component, H, of the earth's - field, this couple depending on the product of H into the magnetic - moment, M, of the magnet. Hence if H varies the magnet will rotate in - such a way that the couple due to torsion is equal to the new value of - H multiplied by M. Since the movements of the magnet are always small, - the rotation of the magnet is proportional to the change in H, so long - as M and the couple, [theta], corresponding to unit twist of the - suspension system remain constant. When the temperature changes, - however, both M and [theta] in general change. With rise of - temperature M decreases, and this alone will produce the same effect - as would a decrease in H. To allow for this effect of temperature a - compensating system of metal bars is attached to the upper end of the - bifilar suspension, so arranged that with rise of temperature the - fibres are brought nearer together and hence the value of [theta] - decreases. Since such a decrease in [theta] would by itself cause the - magnet to turn in the same direction as if H had increased, it is - possible in a great measure to neutralize the effects of temperature - on the reading of the instrument. In the case of the unifilar - suspension, the provision of a temperature compensation is not so - easy, so that what is generally done is to protect the instrument from - temperature variation as much as possible and then to correct the - indications so as to allow for the residual changes, a continuous - record of the temperature being kept by a recording thermograph - attached to the instrument. In the Eschenhagen pattern instrument, in - which a single quartz fibre is used for the suspension, two magnets - are placed in the vicinity of the suspended magnet and are so arranged - that their field partly neutralizes the earth's field; thus the - torsion required to hold the magnet with its axis perpendicular to the - earth's field is reduced, and the arrangement permits of the - sensitiveness being altered by changing the position of the deflecting - magnets. Further, by suitably choosing the positions of the deflectors - and the coefficient of torsion of the fibre, it is possible to make - the temperature coefficient vanish. (See Adolf Schmidt, _Zeits. fur - Instrumentenkunde_, 1907, 27, 145.) The method of recording the - variations in H is exactly the same as that adopted in the case of the - declination, and the sensitiveness generally adopted is such that 1 - mm. on the record represents a change in H of .00005 C.G.S., the time - scale being the same as that employed in the case of the declination. - - _Vertical Component._--To record the variations of the vertical - component use is made of a magnet mounted on knife edges so that it - can turn freely about a horizontal axis at right angles to its length - (H. Lloyd, _Proc. Roy. Irish Acad._, 1839, 1, 334). The magnet is so - weighted that its axis is approximately horizontal, and any change in - the inclination of the axis is observed by means of an attached - mirror, a second mirror fixed to the stand serving to give a base line - for the records, which are obtained in the same way as in the case of - the declination. The magnet is in equilibrium under the influence of - the couple VM due to the vertical component V, and the couple due to - the fact that the centre of gravity is slightly on one side of the - knife-edge. Hence when, say, V decreases the couple VM decreases, and - hence the north end of the balanced magnet rises, and vice versa. The - chief difficulty with this form of instrument is that it is very - sensitive to changes of temperature, for such changes not only alter M - but also in general cause the centre of gravity of the system to be - displaced with reference to the knife-edge. To reduce these effects - the magnet is fitted with compensating bars, generally of zinc, so - adjusted by trial that as far as possible they neutralize the effect - of changes of temperature. In the Eschenhagen form of vertical force - balance two deflecting magnets are used to partly neutralize the - vertical component, so that the centre of gravity is almost exactly - over the support. By varying the positions of these deflecting magnets - it is possible to compensate for the effects of changes of temperature - (A. Schmidt, loc. cit.). In order to eliminate the irregularity which - is apt to be introduced by dust, &c., interfering with the working of - the knife-edge, W. Watson (_Phil. Mag._, 1904 [6], 7, 393) designed a - form of vertical force balance in which the magnet with its mirror is - attached to the mid point of a horizontal stretched quartz fibre. The - temperature compensation is obtained by attaching a small weight to - the magnet, and then bringing it back to the horizontal position by - twisting the fibre. - - The scale values of the records given by the horizontal and vertical - force magnetographs are determined by deflecting the respective - needles, either by means of a magnet placed at a known distance or by - passing an electric current through circular coils of large diameter - surrounding the instruments. - - The width of the photographic sheet which receives the spot of light - reflected from the mirrors in the above instruments is generally so - great that in the case of ordinary changes the curve does not go off - the paper. Occasionally, however, during a disturbance such is not the - case, and hence a portion of the trace would be lost. To overcome this - difficulty Eschenhagen in his earlier type of instruments attached to - each magnet two mirrors, their planes being inclined at a small angle - so that when the spot reflected from one mirror goes off the paper, - that corresponding to the other comes on. In the later pattern a third - mirror is added of which the plane is inclined at about 30 deg. to the - horizontal. The light from the slit is reflected on to this mirror by - an inclined fixed mirror, and after reflection at the movable mirror - is again reflected at the fixed mirror and so reaches the recording - drum. By this arrangement the angular rotation of the reflected beam - is less than that of the magnet, and hence the spot of light reflected - from this mirror yields a trace on a much smaller scale than that - given by the ordinary mirror and serves to give a complete record of - even the most energetic disturbance. - - See also Balfour Stewart, _Report of the British Association_, - Aberdeen, 1859, 200, a description of the type of instrument used in - the older observatories; E. Mascart, _Traite de magnetisme terrestre_, - p. 191; W. Watson, _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1901, 6, 187, describing - magnetographs used in India; M. Eschenhagen, _Verhandlungen der - deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft_, 1899, 1, 147; _Terrestrial - Magnetism_, 1900, 5, 59; and 1901, 6, 59; _Zeits. fur - Instrumentenkunde_, 1907, 27, 137; W. G. Cady, _Terrestrial - Magnetism_, 1904, 9, 69, describing a declination magnetograph in - which the record is obtained by means of a pen acting on a moving - strip of paper, so that the curve can be consulted at all times to see - whether a disturbance is in progress. - - The effects of temperature being so marked on the readings of the - horizontal and vertical force magnetographs, it is usual to place the - instruments either in an underground room or in a room which, by means - of double walls and similar devices, is protected as much as possible - from temperature changes. For descriptions of the arrangements adopted - in some observatories see the following: U.S. observatories, - _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1903, 8, 11; Utrecht, _Terrestrial - Magnetism_, 1900, 5, 49; St Maur, _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1898, 3, 1; - Potsdam, _Veroffentlichungen des k. preuss. meteorol. Instituts_, - "Ergebnisse der magnetischen Beobachtungen in Potsdam in den Jahren - 1890 und 1891;" Pavlovsk, "Das Konstantinow'sche meteorologische und - magnetische Observatorium in Pavlovsk," _Ausgabe der kaiserl. Akad. - der Wissenschaften zu St Petersburg_, 1895. (W. Wn.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Report British Association_, Bristol, 1898, p. 741. - - [2] _Verhandlungen der deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft_, 1899, - 1, 147; or _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1900, 5, 59. - - - - -MAGNETOMETER, a name, in its most general sense, for any instrument used -to measure the strength of any magnetic field; it is, however, often -used in the restricted sense of an instrument for measuring a particular -magnetic field, namely, that due to the earth's magnetism, and in this -article the instruments used for measuring the value of the earth's -magnetic field will alone be considered. - -The elements which are actually measured when determining the value of -the earth's field are usually the declination, the dip and the -horizontal component (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL). For the instruments -and methods used in measuring the dip see INCLINOMETER. It remains to -consider the measurement of the declination and the horizontal -component, these two elements being generally measured with the same -instrument, which is called a unifilar magnetometer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Unifilar Magnetometer, arranged to indicate -declination.] - - _Measurement of Declination._--The measurement of the declination - involves two separate observations, namely, the determination of (a) - the magnetic meridian and (b) the geographical meridian, the angle - between the two being the declination. In order to determine the - magnetic meridian the orientation of the magnetic axis of a freely - suspended magnet is observed; while, in the absence of a distant mark - of which the azimuth is known, the geographical meridian is obtained - from observations of the transit of the sun or a star. The geometrical - axis of the magnet is sometimes defined by means of a mirror rigidly - attached to the magnet and having the normal to the mirror as nearly - as may be parallel to the magnetic axis. This arrangement is not very - convenient, as it is difficult to protect the mirror from accidental - displacement, so that the angle between the geometrical and magnetic - axes may vary. For this reason the end of the magnet is sometimes - polished and acts as the mirror, in which case no displacement of the - reflecting surface with reference to the magnet is possible. A - different arrangement, used in the instrument described below, - consists in having the magnet hollow, with a small scale engraved on - glass firmly attached at one end, while to the other end is attached a - lens, so chosen that the scale is at its principal focus. In this case - the geometrical axis is the line joining the central division of the - scale to the optical centre of the lens. The position of the magnet is - observed by means of a small telescope, and since the scale is at the - principal focus of the lens, the scale will be in focus when the - telescope is adjusted to observe a distant object. Thus no alteration - in the focus of the telescope is necessary whether we are observing - the magnet, a distant fixed mark, or the sun. - - The Kew Observatory pattern unifilar magnetometer is shown in figs. 1 - and 2. The magnet consists of a hollow steel cylinder fitted with a - scale and lens as described above, and is suspended by a long thread - of unspun silk, which is attached at the upper end to the torsion head - H. The magnet is protected from draughts by the box A, which is closed - at the sides by two shutters when an observation is being taken. The - telescope B serves to observe the scale attached to the magnet when - determining the magnetic meridian, and to observe the sun or star when - determining the geographical meridian. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Unifilar Magnetometer, arranged to show - deflexion.] - - When making a determination of declination a brass plummet having the - same weight as the magnet is first suspended in its place, and the - torsion of the fibre is taken out. The magnet having been attached, - the instrument is rotated about its vertical axis till the centre - division of the scale appears to coincide with the vertical cross-wire - of the telescope. The two verniers on the azimuth circle having been - read, the magnet is then inverted, i.e. turned through 180 deg. about - its axis, and the setting is repeated. A second setting with the - magnet inverted is generally made, and then another setting with the - magnet in its original position. The mean of all the readings of the - verniers gives the reading on the azimuth circle corresponding to the - magnetic meridian. To obtain the geographical meridian the box A is - removed, and an image of the sun or a star is reflected into the - telescope B by means of a small transit mirror N. This mirror can - rotate about a horizontal axis which is at right angles to the line of - collimation of the telescope, and is parallel to the surface of the - mirror. The time of transit of the sun or star across the vertical - wire of the telescope having been observed by means of a chronometer - of which the error is known, it is possible to calculate the azimuth - of the sun or star, if the latitude and longitude of the place of - observation are given. Hence if the readings of the verniers on the - azimuth circle are made when the transit is observed we can deduce the - reading corresponding to the geographical meridian. - - The above method of determining the geographical meridian has the - serious objection that it is necessary to know the error of the - chronometer with very considerable accuracy, a matter of some - difficulty when observing at any distance from a fixed observatory. - If, however, a theodolite, fitted with a telescope which can rotate - about a horizontal axis and having an altitude circle, is employed, so - that when observing a transit the altitude of the sun or star can be - read off, then the time need only be known to within a minute or so. - Hence in more recent patterns of magnetometer it is usual to do away - with the transit mirror method of observing and either to use a - separate theodolite to observe the azimuth of some distant object, - which will then act as a fixed mark when making the declination - observations, or to attach to the magnetometer an altitude telescope - and circle for use when determining the geographical meridian. - - The chief uncertainty in declination observations, at any rate at a - fixed observatory, lies in the variable torsion of the silk - suspension, as it is found that, although the fibre may be entirely - freed from torsion before beginning the declination observations, yet - at the conclusion of these observations a considerable amount of - torsion may have appeared. Soaking the fibre with glycerine, so that - the moisture it absorbs does not change so much with the hygrometric - state of the air, is of some advantage, but does not entirely remove - the difficulty. For this reason some observers use a thin strip of - phosphor bronze to suspend the magnet, considering that the absence of - a variable torsion more than compensates for the increased difficulty - in handling the more fragile metallic suspension. - - _Measurement of the Horizontal Component of the Earth's Field._--The - method of measuring the horizontal component which is almost - exclusively used, both in fixed observatories and in the field, - consists in observing the period of a freely suspended magnet, and - then obtaining the angle through which an auxiliary suspended magnet - is deflected by the magnet used in the first part of the experiment. - By the vibration experiment we obtain the value of the product of the - magnetic moment (M) of the magnet into the horizontal component (H), - while by the deflexion experiment we can deduce the value of the ratio - of M to H, and hence the two combined give both M and H. - - In the case of the Kew pattern unifilar the same magnet that is used - for the declination is usually employed for determining H, and for the - purposes of the vibration experiment it is mounted as for the - observation of the magnetic meridian. The time of vibration is - obtained by means of a chronometer, using the eye-and-ear method. The - temperature of the magnet must also be observed, for which purpose a - thermometer C (fig. 1) is attached to the box A. - - When making the deflection experiment the magnetometer is arranged as - shown in fig. 2. The auxiliary magnet has a plane mirror attached, the - plane of which is at right angles to the axis of the magnet. An image - of the ivory scale B is observed after reflection in the magnet mirror - by the telescope A. The magnet K used in the vibration experiment is - supported on a carriage L which can slide along the graduated bar D. - The axis of the magnet is horizontal and at the same level as the - mirror magnet, while when the central division of the scale B appears - to coincide with the vertical cross-wire of the telescope the axes of - the two magnets are at right angles. During the experiment the mirror - magnet is protected from draughts by two wooden doors which slide in - grooves. What is known as the method of sines is used, for since the - axes of the two magnets are always at right angles when the mirror - magnet is in its zero position, the ratio M/H is proportional to the - sine of the angle between the magnetic axis of the mirror magnet and - the magnetic meridian. When conducting a deflexion experiment the - deflecting magnet K is placed with its centre at 30 cm. from the - mirror magnet and to the east of the latter, and the whole instrument - is turned till the centre division of the scale B coincides with the - cross-wire of the telescope, when the readings of the verniers on the - azimuth circle are noted. The magnet K is then reversed in the - support, and a new setting taken. The difference between the two sets - of readings gives twice the angle which the magnetic axis of the - mirror magnet makes with the magnetic meridian. In order to eliminate - any error due to the zero of the scale D not being exactly below the - mirror magnet, the support L is then removed to the west side of the - instrument, and the settings are repeated. Further, to allow of a - correction being applied for the finite length of the magnets the - whole series of settings is repeated with the centre of the deflecting - magnet at 40 cm. from the mirror magnet. - - Omitting correction terms depending on the temperature and on the - inductive effect of the earth's magnetism on the moment of the - deflecting magnet, if [theta] is the angle which the axis of the - deflected magnet makes with the meridian when the centre of the - deflecting magnet is at a distance r, then - - r^3H P Q - ---- sin [theta] = 1 + --- + --- + &c., - 2M r r^2 - - in which P and Q are constants depending on the dimensions and - magnetic states of the two magnets. The value of the constants P and Q - can be obtained by making deflexion experiments at three distances. It - is, however, possible by suitably choosing the proportions of the two - magnets to cause either P or Q to be very small. Thus it is usual, if - the magnets are of similar shape, to make the deflected magnet 0.467 - of the length of the deflecting magnet, in which case Q is negligible, - and thus by means of deflexion experiments at two distances the value - of P can be obtained. (See C. Borgen, _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1896, - i. p. 176, and C. Chree, _Phil. Mag._, 1904 [6], 7, p. 113.) - - In the case of the vibration experiment correction terms have to be - introduced to allow for the temperature of the magnet, for the - inductive effect of the earth's field, which slightly increases the - magnetic moment of the magnet, and for the torsion of the suspension - fibre, as well as the rate of the chronometer. If the temperature of - the magnet were always exactly the same in both the vibration and - deflexion experiment, then no correction on account of the effect of - temperature in the magnetic moment would be necessary in either - experiment. The fact that the moment of inertia of the magnet varies - with the temperature must, however, be taken into account. In the - deflexion experiment, in addition to the induction correction, and - that for the effect of temperature on the magnetic moment, a - correction has to be applied for the effect of temperature on the - length of the bar which supports the deflexion magnet. - - See also Stewart and Gee, _Practical Physics_, vol. 2, containing a - description of the Kew pattern unifilar magnetometer and detailed - instructions for performing the experiments; C. Chree, _Phil. Mag._, - 1901 (6), 2, p. 613, and _Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1899, 65, p. 375, - containing a discussion of the errors to which the Kew unifilar - instrument is subject; E. Mascart, _Traite de magnetisme terrestre_, - containing a description of the instruments used in the French - magnetic survey, which are interesting on account of their small size - and consequent easy portability; H. E. D. Fraser, _Terrestrial - Magnetism_, 1901, 6, p. 65, containing a description of a modified Kew - pattern unifilar as used in the Indian survey; H. Wild, _Mem. Acad. - imp. sc. St Petersbourg_, 1896 (viii.), vol. 3, No. 7, containing a - description of a most elaborate unifilar magnetometer with which it is - claimed results can be obtained of a very high order of accuracy; K. - Haufsmann, _Zeits. fur Instrumentenkunde_, 1906, 26, p. 2, containing - a description of a magnetometer for field use, designed by M. - Eschenhagen, which has many advantages. - -_Measurements of the Magnetic Elements at Sea._--Owing to the fact that -the proportion of the earth's surface covered by sea is so much greater -than the dry land, the determination of the magnetic elements on board -ship is a matter of very considerable importance. The movements of a -ship entirely preclude the employment of any instrument in which a -magnet suspended by a fibre has any part, so that the unifilar is -unsuited for such observations. In order to obtain the declination a -pivoted magnet is used to obtain the magnetic meridian, the geographical -meridian being obtained by observations on the sun or stars. A carefully -made ship's compass is usually employed, though in some cases the -compass card, with its attached magnets, is made reversible, so that the -inclination to the zero of the card of the magnetic axis of the system -of magnets attached to the card can be eliminated by reversal. In the -absence of such a reversible card the index correction must be -determined by comparison with a unifilar magnetometer, simultaneous -observations being made on shore, and these observations repeated as -often as occasion permits. To determine the dip a Fox's dip circle[1] is -used. This consists of an ordinary dip circle (see INCLINOMETER) in -which the ends of the axle of the needle are pointed and rest in -jewelled holes, so that the movements of the ship do not displace the -needle. The instrument is, of course, supported on a gimballed table, -while the ship during the observations is kept on a fixed course. To -obtain the _strength_ of the field the method usually adopted is that -known as Lloyd's method.[2] To carry out a determination of the total -force by this method the Fox dip circle has been slightly modified by E. -W. Creak, and has been found to give satisfactory results on board ship. -The circle is provided with two needles in addition to those used for -determining the dip, one (a) an ordinary dip needle, and the other (b) a -needle which has been loaded at one end by means of a small peg which -fits into one of two symmetrically placed holes in the needle. The -magnetism of these two needles is never reversed, and they are as much -as possible protected from shock and from approach to other magnets, so -that their magnetic state may remain as constant as possible. Attached -to the cross-arm which carries the microscopes used to observe the ends -of the dipping needle is a clamp, which will hold the needle _b_ in such -a way that its plane is parallel to the vertical circle and its axis is -at right angles to the line joining the two microscopes. Hence, when the -microscopes are adjusted so as to coincide with the points of the -dipping needle _a_, the axes of the two needles must be at right angles. -The needle _a_ being suspended between the jewels, and the needle _b_ -being held in the clamp, the cross-arm carrying the reading microscopes -and the needle _b_ is rotated till the ends of the needle a coincide -with the cross-wires of the microscopes. The verniers having been read, -the cross-arm is rotated so as to deflect the needle _a_ in the opposite -direction, and a new setting is taken. Half the difference between the -two readings gives the angle through which the needle a has been -deflected under the action of the needle _b_. This angle depends on the -ratio of the magnetic moment of the needle _b_ to the total force of the -earth's field. It also involves, of course, the distance between the -needles and the distribution of the magnetism of the needles; but this -factor is determined by comparing the value given by the instrument, at -a shore station, with that given by an ordinary magnetometer. Hence the -above observation gives us a means of obtaining the _ratio_ of the -magnetic moment of the needle _b_ to the value of the earth's total -force. The needle _b_ is then substituted for _a_, there being now no -needle in the clamp attached to the microscope arm, and the difference -between the reading now obtained and the dip, together with the weight -added to the needle, gives the product of the moment of the needle _b_ -into the earth's total force. Hence, from the two observations the value -of the earth's total force can be deduced. In an actual observation the -deflecting needle would be reversed, as well as the deflected one, while -different weights would be used to deflect the needle _b_. - - For a description of the method of using the Fox circle for - observations at sea consult the _Admiralty Manual of Scientific - Inquiry_, p. 116, while a description of the most recent form of the - circle, known as the Lloyd-Creak pattern, will be found in - _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1901, 6, p. 119. An attachment to the - ordinary ship's compass, by means of which satisfactory measurements - of the horizontal component have been made on board ship, is described - by L. A. Bauer in _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1906, 11, p. 78. The - principle of the method consists in deflecting the compass needle by - means of a horizontal magnet supported vertically over the compass - card, the axis of the deflecting magnet being always perpendicular to - the axis of the magnet attached to the card. The method is not - strictly an absolute one, since it presupposes a knowledge of the - magnetic moment of the deflecting magnet. In practice it is found that - a magnet can be prepared which, when suitably protected from shock, - &c., retains its magnetic moment sufficiently constant to enable - observations of H to be made comparable in accuracy with that of the - other elements obtained by the instruments ordinarily employed at sea. - (W. Wn.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Annals of Electricity_, 1839, 3, p. 288. - - [2] Humphrey Lloyd, _Proc. Roy. Irish Acad._, 1848, 4, p. 57. - - - - -MAGNETO-OPTICS. The first relation between magnetism and light was -discovered by Faraday,[1] who proved that the plane of polarization of a -ray of light was rotated when the ray travelled through certain -substances parallel to the lines of magnetic force. This power of -rotating the plane of polarization in a magnetic field has been shown to -be possessed by all refracting substances, whether they are in the -solid, liquid or gaseous state. The rotation by gases was established -independently by H. Becquerel,[2] and Kundt and Rontgen,[3] while -Kundt[4] found that films of the magnetic metals, iron, cobalt, nickel, -thin enough to be transparent, produced enormous rotations, these being -in iron and cobalt magnetized to saturation at the rate of 200,000 deg. -per cm. of thickness, and in nickel about 89,000 deg. The direction of -rotation is not the same in all bodies. If we call the rotation positive -when it is related to the direction of the magnetic force, like rotation -and translation in a right-handed screw, or, what is equivalent, when it -is in the direction of the electric currents which would produce a -magnetic field in the same direction as that which produces the -rotation, then most substances produce positive rotation. Among those -that produce negative rotation are ferrous and ferric salts, -ferricyanide of potassium, the salts of lanthanum, cerium and didymium, -and chloride of titanium.[5] - - The magnetic metals iron, nickel, cobalt, the salts of nickel and - cobalt, and oxygen (the most magnetic gas) produce positive rotation. - - For slightly magnetizable substances the amount of rotation in a space - PQ is proportional to the difference between the magnetic potential at - P and Q; or if [theta] is the rotation in PQ, [Omega]_P, [Omega]_Q, - the magnetic potential at P and Q, then [theta] = R([Omega]_P - - [Omega]_Q), where R is a constant, called Verdet's constant, which - depends upon the refracting substance, the wave length of the light, - and the temperature. The following are the values of R (when the - rotation is expressed in circular measure) for the D line and a - temperature of 18 deg. C.:-- - - Substance. R X 10^5. Observer. - - Carbon bisulphide / 1.222 Lord Rayleigh[6] and Kopsel.[7] - \ 1.225 Rodger and Watson.[8] - Water / .377 Arons.[9] - \ .3808 Rodger and Watson.[8] - Alcohol .330 Du Bois.[10] - Ether .315 Du Bois.[10] - Oxygen (at 1 atmosphere) .000179 Kundt and Rontgen (_loc. cit._) - Faraday's heavy glass 1.738 - - The variation of Verdet's constant with temperature has been - determined for carbon bisulphide and water by Rodger and Watson (_loc. - cit._). They find if R_t, R0 are the values of Verdet's constant at t - deg.C and 0 deg.C. respectively, then for carbon bisulphide R_t = R0 - (1 - .0016961), and for water R_t = R0 (1 - .0000305t - .00000305t^2). - - For the magnetic metals Kundt found that the rotation did not increase - so rapidly as the magnetic force, but that as this force was increased - the rotation reached a maximum value. This suggests that the rotation - is proportional to the intensity of magnetization, and not to the - magnetic force. - - The amount of rotation in a given field depends greatly upon the wave - length of the light; the shorter the wave length the greater the - rotation, the rotation varying a little more rapidly than the inverse - square of the wave length. Verdet[11] has compared in the cases of - carbon bisulphide and creosote the rotation given by the formula - - c^2 / di \ - [theta] = mc[gamma] ---------- ( c - [lamda] --------- ) - [lambda]^2 \ d[lambda]/ - - with those actually observed; in this formula [theta] is the angular - rotation of the plane of polarization, m a constant depending on the - medium, [lambda] the wave length of the light in air, and i its index - of refraction in the medium. Verdet found that, though the agreement - is fair, the differences are greater than can be explained by errors - of experiment. - -Verdet[12] has shown that the rotation of a salt solution is the sum of -the rotations due to the salt and the solvent; thus, by mixing a salt -which produces negative rotation with water which produces positive -rotation, it is possible to get a solution which does not exhibit any -rotation. Such solutions are not in general magnetically neutral. By -mixing diamagnetic and paramagnetic substances we can get magnetically -neutral solutions, which, however, produce a finite rotation of the -plane of polarization. The relation of the magnetic rotation to chemical -constitution has been studied in great detail by Perkin,[13] -Wachsmuth,[14] Jahn[15] and Schonrock.[16] - -The rotation of the plane of polarization may conveniently be regarded -as denoting that the velocity of propagation of circular-polarized light -travelling along the lines of magnetic force depends upon the direction -of rotation of the ray, the velocity when the rotation is related to the -direction of the magnetic force, like rotation and translation on a -right-handed screw being different from that for a left-handed rotation. -A plane-polarized ray may be regarded as compounded of two oppositely -circularly-polarized rays, and as these travel along the lines of -magnetic force with different velocities, the one will gain or lose in -phase on the other, so that when they are again compounded they will -correspond to a plane-polarized ray, but in consequence of the change of -phase the plane of polarization will not coincide with its original -position. - -_Reflection from a Magnet._--Kerr[17] in 1877 found that when -plane-polarized light is incident on the pole of an electromagnet, -polished so as to act like a mirror, the plane of polarization of the -reflected light is rotated by the magnet. Further experiments on this -phenomenon have been made by Righi,[18] Kundt,[19] Du Bois,[20] -Sissingh,[21] Hall,[22] Hurion,[23] Kaz[24] and Zeeman.[25] The simplest -case is when the incident plane-polarized light falls normally on the -pole of an electromagnet. When the magnet is not excited the reflected -ray is plane-polarized; when the magnet is excited the plane of -polarization is rotated through a small angle, the direction of rotation -being opposite to that of the currents exciting the pole. Righi found -that the reflected light was slightly elliptically polarized, the axes -of the ellipse being of very unequal magnitude. A piece of gold-leaf -placed over the pole entirely stops the rotation, showing that it is not -produced in the air near the pole. Rotation takes place from magnetized -nickel and cobalt as well as from iron, and is in the same direction -(Hall). Righi has shown that the rotation at reflection is greater for -long waves than for short, whereas, as we have seen, the Faraday -rotation is greater for short waves than for long. The rotation for -different coloured light from iron, nickel, cobalt and magnetite has -been measured by Du Bois; in magnetite the direction of rotation is -opposite to that of the other metals. When the light is incident -obliquely and not normally on the polished pole of an electromagnet, it -is elliptically polarized after reflection, even when the plane of -polarization is parallel or at right angles to the plane of incidence. -According to Righi, the amount of rotation when the plane of -polarization of the incident light is perpendicular to the plane of -incidence reaches a maximum when the angle of incidence is between 44 -deg. and 68 deg., while when the light is polarized in the plane of -incidence the rotation steadily decreases as the angle of incidence is -increased. The rotation when the light is polarized in the plane of -incidence is always less than when it is polarized at right angles to -that plane, except when the incidence is normal, when the two rotations -are of course equal. - -_Reflection from Tangentially Magnetized Iron._--In this case Kerr[26] -found: (1) When the plane of incidence is perpendicular to the lines of -magnetic force, no rotation of the reflected light is produced by -magnetization; (2) no rotation is produced when the light is incident -normally; (3) when the incidence is oblique, the lines of magnetic force -being in the plane of incidence, the reflected light is elliptically -polarized after reflection, and the axes of the ellipse are not in and -at right angles to the plane of incidence. When the light is polarized -in the plane of incidence, the rotation is at all angles of incidence in -the opposite direction to that of the currents which would produce a -magnetic field of the same sign as the magnet. When the light is -polarized at right angles to the plane of incidence, the rotation is in -the same direction as these currents when the angle of incidence is -between 0 deg. and 75 deg. according to Kerr, between 0 deg. and 80 deg. -according to Kundt, and between 0 deg. and 78 deg. 54' according to -Righi. When the incidence is more oblique than this, the rotation of the -plane of polarization is in the opposite direction to the electric -currents which would produce a magnetic field of the same sign. - -The theory of the phenomena just described has been dealt with by -Airy,[27] C. Neumann,[28] Maxwell,[29] Fitzgerald,[30] Rowland,[31] H. -A. Lorentz,[32] Voight,[33] Ketteler,[34] van Loghem,[35] Potier,[36] -Basset,[37] Goldhammer,[38] Drude,[39] J. J. Thomson,[40] and -Leatham;[41] for a critical discussion of many of these theories we -refer the reader to Larmor's[42] British Association Report. Most of -these theories have proceeded on the plan of adding to the expression -for the electromotive force terms indicating a force similar in -character to that discovered by Hall (see MAGNETISM) in metallic -conductors carrying a current in a magnetic field, i.e. an electromotive -force at right angles to the plane containing the magnetic force and the -electric current, and proportional to the sine of the angle between -these vectors. The introduction of a term of this kind gives rotation of -the plane of polarization by transmission through all refracting -substance, and by reflection from magnetized metals, and shows a fair -agreement between the theoretical and experimental results. The simplest -way of treating the questions seems, however, to be to go to the -equations which represent the propagation of a wave travelling through a -medium containing ions. A moving ion in a magnetic field will be acted -upon by a mechanical force which is at right angles to its direction of -motion, and also to the magnetic force, and is equal per unit charge to -the product of these two vectors and the sine of the angle between them. -For the sake of brevity we will take the special case of a wave -travelling parallel to the magnetic force in the direction of the axis -of z. - - Then supposing that all the ions are of the same kind, and that there - are _n_ of these each with mass _m_ and charge _e_ per unit volume, - the equations representing the field are (see ELECTRIC WAVES):-- - - dX0 d[xi] d[beta] - K0 --- + 4[pi]ne ----- = -------; - dt dt dz - - dX[0] d[beta] - ----- = -------; - dz dt - - dY0 d[eta] d[alpha] - K0 --- + 4[pi]ne ------ = - -------- - dt dt dz - - dY0 d[alpha] - --- = - --------; - dz dt - - d^2[xi] d[xi] / 4[pi] \ d[eta] - m ------- + R1 ----- + a[xi] = ( X0 + ----- ne[xi] ) e + He ------ - dt^2 dt \ 3 / dt - - d^2[eta] d[eta] / 4[pi] \ d[xi] - m -------- + R1 ------ + a[eta] = ( Y0 + ----- ne[eta] ) e - He -----; - dt^2 dt \ 3 / dt - - where H is the external magnetic field, X0, Y0 the components of the - part of the electric force in the wave not due to the charges on the - atoms, [alpha] and [beta] the components of the magnetic force, [xi] - and [eta] the co-ordinates of an ion, R1 the coefficient of resistance - to the motion of the ions, and [alpha] the force at unit distance - tending to bring the ion back to its position of equilibrium, K0 the - specific inductive capacity of a vacuum. If the variables are - proportional to [epsilon]^[l(pt - qz)] we find by substitution that q - is given by the equation - - 4[pi]ne^2p^2P 4[pi]ne^3Hp^3 - q^2 - K0p^2 - --------------- = [+-] ---------------, - P^2 - H^2e^2p^2 P^2 - H^2e^2p^2 - - where - - P = (a - (4/3)[pi]ne^2) + R1[iota]p - mp^2, - - or, by neglecting R, P = m(s^2 - p^2), where s is the period of the - free ions. If, q1^2, q2^2 are the roots of this equation, then - corresponding to q1 we have X0 = [iota]Y0 and to q2 X0 = -[iota]Y0. We - thus get two oppositely circular-polarized rays travelling with the - velocities p/q1 and p/q2 respectively. Hence if v1, v2 are these - velocities, and v the velocity when there is no magnetic field, we - obtain, if we neglect terms in H^2, - - 1 1 4[pi]ne^3Hp - ---- = --- + ----------------, - v1^2 v^2 m^2(s^2 - p^2)^2 - - 1 1 4[pi]ne^3Hp - ---- = --- - ----------------. - v2^2 v^2 m^2(s^2 - p^2)^2 - - The rotation r of the plane of polarization per unit length - - / 1 1 \ 2[pi]ne^3Hp^2v - = (1/2)p ( --- - --- ) = ----------------. - \ v1 v2 / m^2(s^2 - p^2)^2 - - Since 1/v^2 = K0 + 4[pi]ne^2/m(s^2 - p^2), we have if [mu] is the - refractive index for light of frequency p, and v0 the velocity of - light in vacuo. - - [mu]^2 - 1 = 4[pi]ne^2v0^2 / m(s^2 - p^2) (1) - - So that we may put - - r = ([mu]^2 - 1)^2p^2H / s[pi][mu]ne v0^3 (2) - - Becquerel (_Comptes rendus_, 125, p. 683) gives for r the expression - - e H d[mu] - (1/2) --- ---- ---------, - m v0 d[lambda] - - where [lambda] is the wave length. This is equivalent to (2) if [mu] - is given by (1). He has shown that this expression is in good - agreement with experiment. The sign of r depends on the sign of e, - hence the rotation due to negative ions would be opposite to that for - positive. For the great majority of substances the direction of - rotation is that corresponding to the negation ion. We see from the - equations that the rotation is very large for such a value of p as - makes P = 0: this value corresponds to a free period of the ions, so - that the rotation ought to be very large in the neighbourhood of an - absorption band. This has been verified for sodium vapour by Macaluso - and Corbino.[43] - - If plane-polarized light falls normally on a plane face of the medium - containing the ions, then if the electric force in the incident wave - is parallel to x and is equal to the real part of A[epsilon]^[l(pt - - qz)], if the reflected beam in which the electric force is parallel to - x is represented by B[epsilon]^[l(pt + qz)] and the reflected beam in - which the electric force is parallel to the axis of y by - C[epsilon]^[l(pt + qz)], then the conditions that the magnetic force - parallel to the surface is continuous, and that the electric forces - parallel to the surface in the air are continuous with Y0, X0 in the - medium, give - - A B [iota]C - ----------------- = ------------ = ---------- - (q + q1) (q + q2) (q^2 - q1q2) q(q2 - q1) - - or approximately, since q1 and q2 are nearly equal, - - [iota]C q(q2 - q1) ([mu]^2 - 1)pH - ------- = ----------- = -----------------. - B q^2 - q1^2 4[pi][mu]ne V0^2 - - Thus in transparent bodies for which [mu] is real, C and B differ in - phase by [pi]/2, and the reflected light is elliptically polarized, - the major axis of the ellipse being in the plane of polarization of - the incident light, so that in this case there is no rotation, but - only elliptic polarization; when there is strong absorption so that - [mu] contains an imaginary term, C/B will contain a real part so that - the reflected light will be elliptically polarized, but the major axis - is no longer in the plane of polarization of the incident light; we - should thus have a rotation of the plane of polarization superposed on - the elliptic polarization. - -_Zeeman's Effect._--Faraday, after discovering the effect of a magnetic -field on the plane of polarization of light, made numerous experiments -to see if such a field influenced the nature of the light emitted by a -luminous body, but without success. In 1885 Fievez,[44] a Belgian -physicist, noticed that the spectrum of a sodium flame was changed -slightly in appearance by a magnetic field; but his observation does not -seem to have attracted much attention, and was probably ascribed to -secondary effects. In 1896 Zeeman[45] saw a distinct broadening of the -lines of lithium and sodium when the flames containing salts of these -metals were between the poles of a powerful electromagnet; following up -this observation, he obtained some exceedingly remarkable and -interesting results, of which those observed with the blue-green cadmium -line may be taken as typical. He found that in a strong magnetic field, -when the lines of force are parallel to the direction of propagation of -the light, the line is split up into a doublet, the constituents of -which are on opposite sides of the undisturbed position of the line, and -that the light in the constituents of this doublet is circularly -polarized, the rotation in the two lines being in opposite directions. -When the magnetic force is at right angles to the direction of -propagation of the light, the line is resolved into a triplet, of which -the middle line occupies the same position as the undisturbed line; all -the constituents of this triplet are plane-polarized, the plane of -polarization of the middle line being at right angles to the magnetic -force, while the outside lines are polarized on a plane parallel to the -lines of magnetic force. A great deal of light is thrown on this -phenomenon by the following considerations due to H. A. Lorentz.[46] - - Let us consider an ion attracted to a centre of force by a force - proportional to the distance, and acted on by a magnetic force - parallel to the axis of z: then if m is the mass of the particle and e - its charge, the equations of motion are - - d^2x dy - m ---- + ax = -He --; - dt^2 dt - - d^2y dx - m ---- + ay = He --; - dt^2 dt - - d^2z - m ---- + ax = 0. - dt^2 - - The solution of these equations is - - x = A cos (p1t + [beta]) + B cos (p2t + [beta]1) - - y = A sin (p1t + [beta]) - B sin (p2t + [beta]1) - - z = C cos (pt + [gamma]) - - where - - a - mp1^2 = - He p1 - - a - mp2^2 = He p2 - - p^2 = [alpha]/m, - - or approximately - - He He - p1 = p + (1/2) ---, p2 = p - (1/2) ---. - m m - - Thus the motion of the ion on the xy plane may be regarded as made up - of two circular motions in opposite directions described with - frequencies p1 and p2 respectively, while the motion along z has the - period p, which is the frequency for all the vibrations when H = 0. - Now suppose that the cadmium line is due to the motion of such an ion; - then if the magnetic force is along the direction of propagation, the - vibration in this direction has its period unaltered, but since the - direction of vibration is perpendicular to the wave front, it does not - give rise to light. Thus we are left with the two circular motions in - the wave front with frequencies p1 and p2 giving the circularly - polarized constituents of the doublet. Now suppose the magnetic force - is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the light; then - the vibration parallel to the magnetic force being in the wave front - produces luminous effects and gives rise to a plane-polarized ray of - undisturbed period (the middle line of the triplet), the plane of - polarization being at right angles to the magnetic force. The - components in the wave-front of the circular orbits at right angles to - the magnetic force will be rectilinear motions of frequency p1 and p2 - at right angles to the magnetic force--so that they will produce - plane-polarized light, the plane of polarization being parallel to the - magnetic force; these are the outer lines of the triplet. - -If Zeeman's observations are interpreted from this point of view, the -directions of rotation of the circularly-polarized light in the doublet -observed along the lines of magnetic force show that the ions which -produce the luminous vibrations are _negatively_ electrified, while the -measurement of the charge of frequency due to the magnetic field shows -that e/m is of the order 10^7. This result is of great interest, as this -is the order of the value of e/m in the negatively electrified particles -which constitute the Cathode Rays (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC III. -_Through Gases_). Thus we infer that the "cathode particles" are found -in bodies, even where not subject to the action of intense electrical -fields, and are in fact an ordinary constituent of the molecule. Similar -particles are found near an incandescent wire, and also near a metal -plate illuminated by ultra-violet light. The value of e/m deduced from -the Zeeman effect ranges from 10^7 to 3.4 X 10^7, the value of e/m for -the particle in the cathode rays is 1.7 X 10^7. The majority of the -determinations of e/m from the Zeeman effect give numbers larger than -this, the maximum being about twice this value. - -A more extended study of the behaviour of the spectroscopic lines has -afforded examples in which the effects produced by a magnet are more -complicated than those we have described, indeed the simple cases are -much less numerous than the more complex. Thus Preston[47] and Cornu[48] -have shown that under the action of a transverse magnetic field one of -the D lines splits up into four, and the other into six lines; Preston -has given many other examples of these quartets and sextets, and has -shown that the change in the frequency, which, according to the simple -theory indicated, should be the same for all lines, actually varies -considerably from one line to another, many lines showing no appreciable -displacement. The splitting up of a single line into a quartet or sextet -indicates, from the point of view of the ion theory, that the line must -have its origin in a system consisting of more than one ion. A single -ion having only three degrees of freedom can only have three periods. -When there is no magnetic force acting on the ion these periods are -equal, but though under the action of a magnetic force they are -separated, their number cannot be increased. When therefore we get four -or more lines, the inference is that the system giving the lines must -have at least four degrees of freedom, and therefore must consist of -more than one ion. The theory of a system of ions mutually influencing -each other shows, as we should expect, that the effects are more complex -than in the case of a single ion, and that the change in the frequency -is not necessarily the same for all systems (see J. J. Thomson, _Proc. -Camb. Phil. Soc._ 13, p. 39). Preston[49] and Runge and Paschen have -proved that, in some cases at any rate, the change in the frequency of -the different lines is of such a character that they can be grouped into -series such that each line in the series has the same change in -frequency for the same magnetic force, and, moreover, that homologous -lines in the spectra of different metals belonging to the same group -have the same change in frequency. - -A very remarkable case of the Zeeman effect has been discovered by H. -Becquerel and Deslandres (_Comptes rendus_, 127, p. 18). They found -lines in iron when the most deflected components are those polarized in -the plane at right angles to the magnetic force. On the simple theory -the light polarized in this way is not affected. Thus the behaviour of -the spectrum in the magnetic field promises to throw great light on the -nature of radiation, and perhaps on the constitution of the elements. -The study of these effects has been greatly facilitated by the invention -by Michelson[50] of the echelon spectroscope. - -There are some interesting phenomena connected with the Zeeman effect -which are more easily observed than the effect itself. Thus Cotton[51] -found that if we have two Bunsen flames, A and B, coloured by the same -salt, the absorption of the light of one by the other is diminished if -either is placed between the poles of a magnet: this is at once -explained by the Zeeman effect, for the times of vibration of the -molecules of the flame in the magnetic field are not the same as those -of the other flame, and thus the absorption is diminished. Similar -considerations explain the phenomenon observed by Egoroff and -Georgiewsky,[52] that the light emitted from a flame in a transverse -field is partially polarized in a plane parallel to the magnetic force; -and also Righi's[53] observation that if a sodium flame is placed in a -longitudinal field between two crossed Nicols, and a ray of white light -sent through one of the Nicols, then through the flame, and then through -the second Nicol, the amount of light passing through the second Nicol -is greater when the field is on than when it is off. Voight and Wiechert -(_Wied. Ann._ 67, p. 345) detected the double refraction produced when -light travels through a substance exposed to a magnetic field at right -angles to the path of the light; this result had been predicted by -Voight from theoretical considerations. Jean Becquerel has made some -very interesting experiments on the effect of a magnetic field on the -fine absorption bands produced by xenotime, a phosphate of yttrium and -erbium, and tysonite, a fluoride of cerium, lanthanum and didymium, and -has obtained effects which he ascribes to the presence of positive -electrons. A very complete account of magneto- and electro-optics is -contained in Voight's _Magneto- and Elektro-optik_. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Experimental Researches_, Series 19. - - [2] _Comptes rendus_, 88, p. 709. - - [3] _Wied. Ann._ 6, p. 332; 8, p. 278; 10, p. 257. - - [4] _Wied. Ann._ 23, p. 228; 27, p. 191. - - [5] _Wied. Ann._ 31, p. 941. - - [6] _Phil. Trans._, A. 1885, Pt. 11, p. 343. - - [7] _Wied. Ann._ 26, p. 456. - - [8] _Phil. Trans._, A. 1895, Pt. 17, p. 621. - - [9] _Wied. Ann._ 24, p. 161. - - [10] _Wied. Ann._ 31, p. 970. - - [11] _Comptes rendus_, 57, p. 670. - - [12] _Comptes rendus_, 43, p. 529; 44, p. 1209. - - [13] _Journ. Chem. Soc._ 1884, p. 421; 1886, p. 177; 1887, pp. 362 - and 808; 1888, p. 561; 1889, pp. 680 and 750; 1891, p. 981; 1892, p. - 800; 1893, pp. 75, 99 and 488. - - [14] _Wied. Ann._ 44, p. 377. - - [15] _Wied. Ann._ 43, p. 280. - - [16] _Zeitschrift f. physikal. Chem._ 11, p. 753. - - [17] _Phil. Mag._ [5] 3, p. 321. - - [18] _Ann. de chim. et de phys._ [6] 4, p. 433; 9, p. 65; 10, p. 200. - - [19] _Wied. Ann._ 23, p. 228; 27, p. 191. - - [20] _Wied. Ann._ 39, p. 25. - - [21] _Wied. Ann._ 42, p. 115. - - [22] _Phil. Mag._ [5] 12, p. 171. - - [23] _Journ. de Phys._ 1884, p. 360. - - [24] _Beiblatter zu Wied. Ann._ 1885, p. 275. - - [25] _Messungen uber d. Kerr'sche Erscheinung._ Inaugural Dissert. - Leiden, 1893. - - [26] _Phil. Mag._ [5] 5, p. 161. - - [27] _Phil. Mag._ [3] 28, p. 469. - - [28] _Die Magn. Drehung d. Polarisationsebene des Lichts_, Halle, - 1863. - - [29] _Electricity and Magnetism_, chap. xxi. - - [30] _Phil. Trans._ 1880 (2), p. 691. - - [31] _Phil. Mag._ (5) 11, p. 254, 1881. - - [32] _Arch. Neerl._ 19, p. 123. - - [33] _Wied. Ann._ 23, p. 493; 67, p. 345. - - [34] _Wied. Ann._ 24, p. 119. - - [35] _Wied. Beiblatter_, 8, p. 869. - - [36] _Comptes rendus_, 108, p. 510. - - [37] _Phil. Trans._ 182, A. p. 371, 1892; _Physical Optics_, p. 393. - - [38] _Wied. Ann._ 46, p. 71; 47, p. 345; 48, p. 740; 50, p. 722. - - [39] _Wied. Ann._ 46, p. 353; 48, p. 122; 49, p. 690. - - [40] _Recent Researches_, p. 489 et seq. - - [41] _Phil. Trans._, A. 1897, p. 89. - - [42] _Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1893. - - [43] _Comptes rendus_, 127, p. 548. - - [44] _Bull. de l'Acad. des Sciences Belg._ (3) 9, pp. 327, 381, 1885; - 12 p. 30, 1886. - - [45] _Communications from the Physical Laboratory_, Leiden, No. 33, - 1896; Phil. Mag. 43, p. 226; 44, pp. 55 and 255; and 45, p. 197. - - [46] _Arch. Neerl._ 25, p. 190. - - [47] _Phil. Mag._ 45, p. 325; 47, p. 165. - - [48] _Comptes rendus_, 126, p. 181. - - [49] _Phil. Mag._ 46, p. 187. - - [50] _Phil. Mag._ 45, p. 348. - - [51] _Comptes rendus_, 125, p. 865. - - [52] _Comptes rendus_, pp. 748 and 949, 1897. - - [53] _Comptes rendus_, 127, p. 216; 128, p. 45. - - (J. J. T.) - - - - -MAGNOLIA, the typical genus of the botanical order Magnoliaceae, named -after Pierre Magnol (1638-1715), professor of medicine and botany at -Montpellier. It contains about twenty species, distributed in Japan, -China and the Himalayas, as well as in North America. - -Magnolias are trees or shrubs with deciduous or rarely evergreen -foliage. They bear conspicuous and often large, fragrant, white, rose or -purple flowers. The sepals are three in number, the petals six to -twelve, in two to four series of three in each, the stamens and carpels -being numerous. The fruit consists of a number of follicles which are -borne on a more or less conical receptacle, and dehisce along the outer -edge to allow the scarlet or brown seeds to escape; the seeds however -remain suspended by a long slender thread (the funicle). Of the -old-world species, the earliest in cultivation appears to have been _M. -Yulan_ (or _M. conspicua_) of China, of which the buds were preserved, -as well as used medicinally and to season rice; together with the -greenhouse species, _M. fuscata_, it was transported to Europe in 1789, -and thence to North America, and is now cultivated in the Middle States. -There are many fine forms of _M. conspicua_, the best being -_Soulangeana_, white tinted with purple, _Lenne_ and _stricta_. Of the -Japanese magnolias, _M. Kobus_ and the purple-flowered _M. obovata_ were -met with by Kaempfer in 1690, and were introduced into England in 1709 -and 1804 respectively. _M. pumila_, the dwarf magnolia, from the -mountains of Amboyna, is nearly evergreen, and bears deliciously scented -flowers; it was introduced in 1786. The Indian species are three in -number, _M. globosa_, allied to _M. conspicua_ of Japan, _M. -sphenocarpa_, and, the most magnificent of all magnolias, _M. -Campbellii_, which forms a conspicuous feature in the scenery and -vegetation of Darjeeling. It was discovered by Dr Griffith in Bhutan, -and is a large forest tree, abounding on the outer ranges of Sikkim, 80 -to 150 ft. high, and from 6 to 12 ft. in girth. The flowers are 6 to 10 -in. across, appearing before the leaves, and vary from white to a deep -rose colour. - -The first of the American species brought to Europe (in 1688 by John -Banister) was _M. glauca_, a beautiful evergreen species about 15 ft. -high with obtuse leathery leaves, blue-green above, silvery underneath, -and globular flowers varying from creamy white to pale yellow with age. -It is found in low situations near the sea from Massachusetts to -Louisiana--more especially in New Jersey and the Carolinas. _M. -acuminata_, the so-called "cucumber tree," from the resemblance of the -young fruits to small cucumbers, ranges from Pennsylvania to Carolina. -The wood is yellow, and used for bowls; the flowers, 3 to 4 in. across, -are glaucous green tinted with yellow. It was introduced into England -from Virginia about 1736. _M. tripetala_ (or _M. umbrella_), is known as -the "umbrella tree" from the arrangement of the leaves at the ends of -the branches resembling somewhat that of the ribs of an umbrella. The -flowers, 5 to 8 in. across, are white and have a strong but not -disagreeable scent. It was brought to England in 1752. _M. Fraseri_ (or -_M. auriculata_), discovered by John Bartram in 1773, is a native of the -western parts of the Carolinas and Georgia, extending southward to -western Florida and southern Alabama. It grows 30 to 50 ft. high, has -leaves a foot or more long, heart-shaped and bluntly auricled at the -base, and fragrant pale yellowish-white flowers, 3 to 4 in. across. The -most beautiful species of North America is _M. grandiflora_, the "laurel -magnolia," a native of the south-eastern States, and introduced into -England in 1734. It grows a straight trunk, 2 ft. in diameter and -upwards of 70 ft. high, bearing a profusion of large, powerfully -lemon-scented creamy-white flowers. It is an evergreen tree, easily -recognized by its glossy green oval oblong leaves with a rusty-brown -under surface. In England it is customary to train it against a wall in -the colder parts, but it does well as a bush tree; and the original -species is surpassed by the Exmouth varieties, which originated as -seedlings at Exeter from the tree first raised in England by Sir John -Colliton, and which flower much more freely than the parent plant. Other -fine magnolias now to be met with in gardens are _M. cordata_, a North -American deciduous tree 40 to 50 ft. high, with heart-shaped leaves, -woolly beneath, and yellow flowers lined with purple; _M. hypoleuca_, a -fine Japanese tree 60 ft. high or more, with leaves a foot or more long, -6 to 7 in. broad, the under surface covered with hairs; _M. -macrophylla_, a handsome deciduous North American tree, with smooth -whitish bark, and very large beautiful green leaves, 1 to 3 ft. long, 8 -to 10 in. broad, oblong-obovate and heart-shaped at the base; the open -sweet-scented bell-shaped flowers 8 to 10 in. across, are white with a -purple blotch at the base of the petals; _M. stellata_ or _Halleana_, a -charming deciduous Japanese shrub remarkable for producing its pure -white starry flowers as early as February and March on the leafless -stems; and _M. Watsoni_, another fine deciduous Japanese bush or small -tree with very fragrant pure white flowers 5 to 6 in. across. - -[Illustration: _Magnolia grandiflora_, shoot with flower; rather less -than 1/2 nat. size. - - 1. Flower after removal of the sepals and petals, showing the - indefinite stamens, s, and carpels, c. - - 2. Fruit--the ripe carpels are splitting, exposing the seeds, some of - which are suspended by the long funicle. - - 3. Floral diagram, b, bract.] - -The tulip tree, _Liriodendron tulipifera_, a native of North America, -frequently cultivated in England, is also a member of the same family. -It reaches a height of over 100 ft. in a native condition, and as much -as 60 to 80 ft. in England. It resembles the plane tree somewhat in -appearance, but is readily recognized by lobed leaves having the apical -lobe truncated, and by its soft green and yellow tulip-like -flowers--which however are rarely borne on trees under twenty years of -age. - - For a description of the principal species of magnolia under - cultivation see J. Weathers, _Practical Guide to Garden Plants_, pp. - 174 seq., and for a detailed account of the American species see C. S. - Sargent, _Silva of North America_, vol. i. - - - - -MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870), German chemist and physicist, was -born at Berlin on the 2nd of May 1802. His father was a wealthy -merchant; and of his five brothers one, Eduard (1799-1872), became a -celebrated painter. After studying at Berlin, he went to Stockholm to -work under Berzelius, and later to Paris, where he studied for a while -under Gay-Lussac and Thenard. In 1831 he returned to Berlin as lecturer -on technology and physics at the university. As a teacher his success -was rapid and extraordinary. His lucid style and the perfection of his -experimental demonstrations drew to his lectures a crowd of enthusiastic -scholars, on whom he impressed the importance of applied science by -conducting them round the factories and workshops of the city; and he -further found time to hold weekly "colloquies" on physical questions at -his house with a small circle of young students. From 1827 to 1833 he -was occupied mainly with chemical researches, which resulted in the -discovery of the first of the platino-ammonium compounds ("Magnus's -green salt" is PtCl2, 2NH3), of sulphovinic, ethionic and isethionic -acids and their salts, and, in conjunction with C. F. Ammermuller, of -periodic acid. Among other subjects at which he subsequently worked were -the absorption of gases in blood (1837-1845), the expansion of gases by -heat (1841-1844), the vapour pressures of water and various solutions -(1844-1854), thermo-electricity (1851), electrolysis (1856), induction -of currents (1858-1861), conduction of heat in gases (1860), and -polarization of heat (1866-1868). From 1861 onwards he devoted much -attention to the question of diathermancy in gases and vapours, -especially to the behaviour in this respect of dry and moist air, and to -the thermal effects produced by the condensation of moisture on solid -surfaces. - -In 1834 Magnus was elected extraordinary, and in 1845 ordinary professor -at Berlin. He was three times elected dean of the faculty, in 1847, 1858 -and 1863; and in 1861, rector magnificus. His great reputation led to -his being entrusted by the government with several missions; in 1865 he -represented Prussia in the conference called at Frankfort to introduce a -uniform metric system of weights and measures into Germany. For -forty-five years his labour was incessant; his first memoir was -published in 1825 when he was yet a student; his last appeared shortly -after his death on the 4th of April 1870. He married in 1840 Bertha -Humblot, of a French Huguenot family settled in Berlin, by whom he left -a son and two daughters. - - See _Allgemeine deutsche Biog._ The Royal Society's _Catalogue_ - enumerates 84 papers by Magnus, most of which originally appeared in - _Poggendorff's Annalen_. - - - - -MAGNY, CLAUDE DRIGON, MARQUIS DE (1797-1879), French heraldic writer, -was born in Paris. After being employed for some time in the postal -service, he devoted himself to the study of heraldry and genealogy, his -work in this direction being rewarded by Pope Gregory XVI. with a -marquisate. He founded a French college of heraldry, and wrote several -works on heraldry and genealogy, of which the most important were -_Archives nobiliaires universelles_ (1843) and _Livre d'or de la -noblesse de France_ (1844-1852). His two sons, Edouard Drigon and -Achille Ludovice Drigon, respectively comte and vicomte de Magny, also -wrote several works on heraldry. - - - - -MAGO, the name of several Carthaginians, (1) The reputed founder of the -military power of Carthage, fl. 550-500 B.C. (Justin xviii. 7, xix. i). -(2) The youngest of the three sons of Hamilcar Barca. He accompanied -Hannibal into Italy, and held important commands in the great victories -of the first three years. After the battle of Cannae (216 B.C.) he -sailed to Carthage to report the successes gained. He was about to -return to Italy with strong reinforcements for Hannibal, when the -government ordered him to go to the aid of his other brother, Hasdrubal, -who was hard pressed in Spain. He carried on the war there with varying -success in concert with the two Hasdrubals until, in 209, his brother -marched into Italy to help Hannibal. Mago remained in Spain with -Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco. In 207 he was defeated by M. Junius -Silanus, and in 206 the combined forces of Mago and Hasdrubal were -scattered by Scipio Africanus in the decisive battle of Silpia. Mago -maintained himself for some time in Gades, but afterwards received -orders to carry the war into Liguria. He wintered in the Balearic Isles, -where the harbour Portus Magonis (Port Mahon) still bears his name. -Early in 204 he landed in Liguria, where he maintained a desultory -warfare till in 203 he was defeated in Cisalpine Gaul by the Roman -forces. Shortly afterwards he was ordered to return to Carthage, but on -the voyage home he died of wounds received in battle. - - See Polybius iii.; Livy xxi.-xxiii.; xxviii., chs. 23-37; xxix., xxx.; - Appian, _Hispanica_, 25-37; T. Friedrich, _Biographie des Barkiden - Mago_; H. Lehmann, _Der Angriff der drei Barkiden auf Italien_ - (Leipzig, 1905); and further J. P. Mahaffy, in _Hermathena_, vii. - 29-36 (1890). - -(3) The name of Mago is also attached to a great work on agriculture -which was brought to Rome and translated by order of the senate after -the destruction of Carthage. The book was regarded as a standard -authority, and is often referred to by later writers. - - See Pliny, _Nat. Hist_, xviii. 5; Columella, i. 1; Cicero, _De - oratore_, i. 58. - - - - -MAGPIE, or simply PIE (Fr. _pie_), the prefix being the abbreviated form -of a human name (Margaret[1]), a bird once common throughout Great -Britain, though now nearly everywhere scarce. Its pilfering habits have -led to this result, yet the injuries it causes are exaggerated by common -report; and in many countries of Europe it is still the tolerated or -even the cherished neighbour of every farmer, as it formerly was in -England if not in Scotland also. It did not exist in Ireland in 1617, -when Fynes Morison wrote his _Itinerary_, but it had appeared there -within a hundred years later, when Swift mentions its occurrences in his -_Journal to Stella_, 9th July 1711. It is now common enough in that -country, and there is a widespread but unfounded belief that it was -introduced by the English out of spite. It is a species that when not -molested is extending its range, as J. Wolley ascertained in Lapland, -where within the last century it has been gradually pushing its way -along the coast and into the interior from one fishing-station or -settler's house to the next, as the country has been peopled. - -Since the persecution to which the pie has been subjected in Great -Britain, its habits have altered greatly. It is no longer the merry, -saucy hanger-on of the homestead, but is become the suspicious thief, -shunning the gaze of man, and knowing that danger may lurk in every -bush. Hence opportunities of observing it fall to the lot of few, and -most persons know it only as a curtailed captive in a wicker cage, where -its vivacity and natural beauty are lessened or wholly lost. At large -few European birds possess greater beauty, the pure white of its -scapulars and inner web of the flight-feathers contrasting vividly with -the deep glossy black on the rest of its body and wings, while its long -tail is lustrous with green, bronze, and purple reflections. The pie's -nest is a wonderfully ingenious structure, placed either in high trees -or low bushes, and so massively built that it will stand for years. Its -foundation consists of stout sticks, turf and clay, wrought into a deep, -hollow cup, plastered with earth, and lined with fibres; but around this -is erected a firmly interwoven, basket-like outwork of thorny sticks, -forming a dome over the nest, and leaving but a single hole in the side -for entrance and exit, so that the whole structure is rendered almost -impregnable. Herein are laid from six to nine eggs, of a pale -bluish-green freckled with brown and blotched with ash-colour. -Superstition as to the appearance of the pie still survives even among -many educated persons, and there are several versions of a rhyming adage -as to the various turns of luck which its presenting itself, either -alone or in company with others, is supposed to betoken, though all -agree that the sight of a single pie presages sorrow. - -The pie belongs to the same family of birds as the crow, and is the -_Corvus pica_ of Linnaeus, the _Pica caudata_, _P. melanoleuca_, or _P. -rustica_ of modern ornithologists, who have recognized it as forming a -distinct genus, but the number of species thereto belonging has been a -fruitful source of discussion. Examples from the south of Spain differ -slightly from those inhabiting the rest of Europe, and in some points -more resemble the _P. mauritanica_ of north-western Africa; but that -species has a patch of bare skin of a fine blue colour behind the eye, -and much shorter wings. No fewer than five species have been -discriminated from various parts of Asia, extending to Japan; but only -one of them, the _P. leucoptera_ of Turkestan and Tibet, has of late -been admitted as valid. In the west of North America, and in some of its -islands, a pie is found which extends to the upper valleys of the -Missouri and the Yellowstone, and has long been thought entitled to -specific distinction as _P. hudsonia_; but its claim thereto is now -disallowed by some of the best ornithologists of the United States, and -it can hardly be deemed even a geographical variety of the Old-World -form. In California, however, there is a permanent race if not a good -species, _P. nuttalli_, easily distinguishable by its yellow bill and -the bare yellow skin round its eyes; on two occasions in the year 1867 a -bird apparently similar was observed in Great Britain (_Zoologist_, ser. -2, pp. 706, 1016). (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] "Magot" and "Madge," with the same origin, are names, frequently - given in England to the pie; while in France it is commonly known as - _Margot_, if not termed, as it is in some districts, _Jaquette_. - - - - -MAGWE, a district in the Minbu division of Upper Burma. Area, 2913 sq. -m.; pop. (1901), 246,708, showing an increase of 12.38% in the decade. -Magwe may be divided into two portions: the low, flat country in the -Taungdwingyi subdivision, and the undulating high ground extending over -the rest of the district. In Taungdwingyi the soil is rich, loamy, and -extremely fertile. The plain is about 45 m. from north to south. At its -southern extremity it is about 30 m. wide, and lessens in width to the -north till it ends in a point at Natmauk. On the east are the Pegu -Yomas, which at some points reach a height of 1500 ft. A number of -streams run westwards to the Irrawaddy, of which the Yin and the Pin, -which form the northern boundary, are the chief. The only perennial -stream is the Yanpe. Rice is the staple product, and considerable -quantities are exported. Sesamum of very high quality, maize, and millet -are also cultivated, as well as cotton in patches here and there over -the whole district. - - In this district are included the well-known Yenangyaung petroleum - wells. The state wells have been leased to the Burma Oil Company. The - amount of oil-bearing lands is estimated at 80 sq. m. and the portion - not leased to the company has been demarcated into blocks of 1 sq. m. - and offered on lease. The remaining land belongs to hereditary Burmese - owners called _twinsa_, who dig wells and extract their oil by the - rope and pulley system as they have always done. Lacquered wood trays, - bowls and platters, and cart-wheels, are the only manufactures of any - note in the district. - - The annual rainfall averages about 27 inches. The maximum temperature - rises to a little over 100 deg. in the hot season, and falls to an - average minimum of 53 deg. and 54 deg. in the cold season. - - The town of Magwe is the headquarters of the district; pop. (1901), - 6232. It is diagonally opposite Minbu, the headquarters of the - division, on the right bank of the Irrawaddy. - - - - -MAGYARS, the name of the dominant race in Hungary, or Hungarians proper. -Though they have become physically assimilated to the western peoples, -they belong in origin and language to the Finno-Ugrian (q.v.) division -of the Ural-Altaic race. They form barely half of the population of -Hungary, but are by far the largest and most compact of all its racial -groups. Magyar is the official language of Hungary, the official name of -which (_Magyarorzag_, or "country of the Magyars") enshrines the Magyar -claim to predominance. While all Magyars are properly Hungarians, all -Hungarians are not necessarily Magyars. "Hungarian" may be used as a -generic term covering all the various races of Hungary, while "Magyar" -is strictly specific to a single group. The Magyars themselves, indeed, -sometimes apply the name _Magyarorzag_ to Hungary "proper," excluding -Croatia-Slavonia, the whole kingdom being called _Magyarbirodalom_, the -Magyar monarchy or realm. See HUNGARY. - - - - -MAHABALESHWAR, or MALCOLMPETH, a hill station in Satara district, and -the principal sanatorium in the Bombay presidency, India. Pop. (1901), -5299. It is reached by carriage from Wathar railway station (39 m.) or -by motor car from Poona (119 m.). Mahabaleshwar occupies the summit of a -ridge of the Western Ghats, with a general elevation of 4500 ft. above -sea-level. It was established in 1828 by Sir John Malcolm, governor of -Bombay, who obtained the site from the raja of Satara in exchange for -another patch of territory. The superior elevation of Mahabaleshwar -renders it much cooler than Matheran (2460 ft.), a sanatorium about 50 -m. E. of Bombay, but its heavy rainfall (292 in. annual average) makes -it almost uninhabitable during the rainy season. The mean annual -temperature is 67 deg. F. In the hottest season (March-April) an extreme -of a little over 90 deg. is reached during the day. Mahabaleshwar forms -the retreat usually during spring, and occasionally in autumn, of the -governor of Bombay, and the chief officers of his establishment, and has -the usual public buildings of a first-class sanatorium. - - - - -MAHAFFY, JOHN PENTLAND (1839- ), Irish classical scholar, was born in -Switzerland on the 12th of July 1839. He received his early education in -Switzerland and Germany, and later at Trinity College, Dublin, where he -held the professorship of ancient history. Mahaffy, a man of great -versatility, published numerous works, some of which, especially those -dealing with what may be called the Silver age of Greece, became -standard authorities. The following deserve mention: _History of -Classical Greek Literature_ (4th ed., 1903 seq.); _Social Life in Greece -from Homer to Menander_ (4th ed., 1903); _The Silver Age of the Greek -World_ (1906); _The Empire of the Ptolemies_ (1896); _Greek Life and -Thought from Alexander to the Roman Conquest_ (2nd ed., 1896); _The -Greek World under Roman Sway from Polybius to Plutarch_ (1890). His -translation of Kuno Fischer's _Commentary on Kant_ (1866) and his own -exhaustive analysis, with elucidations, of Kant's critical philosophy -are of great value. He also edited the Petrie papyri in the _Cunningham -Memoirs_ (3 vols. 1891-1905). - - - - -MAHALLAT, a province of central Persia, situated between Kashan and -Irak. Pop. about 20,000; yearly revenue about L2500. Until 1890 it was -one of the five "central provinces" (the other four being Irak, Ferahan, -Kezzaz, and Savah), which were under a governor appointed by the shah; -since then it has formed part of the Isfahan government. It is traversed -by the Anarbar or Kum River, and comprises the city of Mahallat, divided -into upper and lower, or Rivkan and Zanjirvan, and twenty-two -flourishing villages. It was known in former times as Anar, the Anarus -of Peutinger's tables. The city, capital of the province, is situated at -an elevation of 5850 ft. in 33 deg. 51' N., 50 deg. 30' E.; pop. about -9000. - - - - -MAHAN, ALFRED THAYER (1840- ), American naval officer and historian, -was born on the 27th of September 1840 at West Point, New York. His -father, Dennis Hart Mahan (1802-1871) was a professor in the military -academy, and the author of textbooks on civil and military engineering. -The son graduated at the naval academy in 1859, became lieutenant in -1861, served on the "Congress," and on the "Pocahontas," "Seminole," and -"James Adger" during the Civil War, and was instructor at the naval -academy for a year. In 1865 he was made lieut.-commander, commander in -1872, captain in 1885. Meanwhile he saw service in the Gulf of Mexico, -the South Atlantic, the Pacific, and Asia, and did shore duty at Boston, -New York and Annapolis. In 1886-89 he was president of the naval war -college at Newport, Rhode Island. Between 1889 and 1892 he was engaged -in special service for the bureau of navigation, and in 1893 was made -commander of the "Chicago," of the European squadron. In 1896 he retired -from active service, but was a member of the naval board of strategy -during the war between the United States and Spain. He was a member of -the peace congress at the Hague in 1899. This long and varied service -gave him extensive opportunities for observation, which he supplemented -by constant study of naval authorities and reflection on the -interpretation of the problems of maritime history. His first book was a -modest and compact story of the affairs in _The Gulf and Inland Waters_ -(1883), in a series of volumes by various writers, entitled _The Navy in -the Civil War_; in 1890 he suddenly acquired fame by the appearance of -his masterly work entitled _The Influence of Sea Power upon History, -1660-1783_. Having been impressed by the failure of historians to allow -for the influence of sea power in struggles between nations, he was led -to make prolonged investigations of this general theme (see SEA POWER). -The reception accorded the volume was instant and hearty; in England, in -particular, it was deemed almost an epoch-making work, and was studied -by naval specialists, cabinet ministers and journalists, as well as by a -large part of the general public. It was followed by _The Influence of -Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire_ (2 vols. 1892); _The -Life of Nelson, the Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain_ -(1897); and _Sea Power in its Relations to the War of 1812_ (1905). The -author's general aim in these works--some of which have been translated -into French, German and Japanese--was to make the consideration of -maritime matters paramount to that of military, political or economic -movements, without, however, as he himself says "divorcing them from -their surroundings of cause and effect in general history, but seeking -to show how they modified the latter, and were modified by them." He -selected the year 1660 as the beginning of his narrative, as being the -date when the "sailing-ship era, with its distinctive features, had -fairly begun." The series as a whole has been accepted as finally -authoritative, supplanting its predecessors of similar aim, and -almost--in the words of Theodore Roosevelt--founding a new school of -naval historical writing. - - Other works by Mahan are a _Life of Admiral Farragut_ (1892); _The - Interest of America in Sea Power_ (1897); _Lessons of the War with - Spain_ (1899); _The Story of the War with South Africa_ and _The - Problem of Asia_ (1900); _Types of Naval Officers drawn from the - History of the British Navy_ (1901); _Retrospect and Prospect_, - studies of international relations (1902). - - - - -MAHANADI, or MAHANUDDY ("The Great River"), a river of India. It rises -in 20 deg. 10' N., 82 deg. E., 25 m. S. of Raipur town, in the wild -mountains of Bastar in the Central Provinces. At first an insignificant -stream, taking a northerly direction, it drains the eastern portion of -the Chhattisgarh plain, then a little above Seorinarayan it receives the -waters which its first great affluent, the Seonath, has collected from -the western portion of the plain; thence flowing for some distance due -E., its stream is augmented by the drainage of the hills of Uprora, -Korba, and the ranges that separate Sambalpur from Chota Nagpur. At -Padampur it turns towards the south, and struggling through masses of -rock, flows past the town of Sambalpur to Sonpur. From Sonpur it pursues -a tortuous course among ridges and rocky crags towards the range of the -Eastern Ghats. This mountain line it pierces by a gorge about 40 m. in -length, overlooked by forest-clad hills. Since the opening of the -Bengal-Nagpur railway, the Mahanadi is little used for navigation. It -pours down upon the Orissa delta at Naraj, about 7 m. west of Cuttack -town; and after traversing Cuttack district from west to east, and -throwing off numerous branches (the Katjori, Paika, Biropa, Chitartala, -&c.) it falls into the Bay of Bengal at False Point by several channels. - - The Mahanadi has an estimated drainage area of 43,800 sq. m., and its - rapid flow renders its maximum discharge in time of flood second to - that of no other river in India. During unusually high floods - 1,500,000 cub. ft. of water pour every second through the Naraj gorge, - one-half of which, uncontrolled by the elaborate embankments, and - heavily laden with silt, pours over the delta, filling the swamps, - inundating the rice-fields, and converting the plains into a sea. In - the dry weather the discharge of the Mahanadi dwindles to 1125 cub. - ft. per second. Efforts have been made to husband and utilize the vast - water supply thrown upon the Orissa delta during seasons of flood. - Each of the three branches into which the parent stream splits at the - delta head is regulated by a weir. Of the four canals which form the - Orissa irrigation system, two take off from the Biropa weir, and one, - with its branch, from the Mahanadi weir. On the 31st of December 1868 - the government took over the whole canal works from the East Indian - Irrigation Company, at a cost of L941,368. The canals thus taken over - and since completed, are the high-level canal, the Kendrapara canal, - the Taldanda canal and the Machgaon canal, irrigating 275,000 acres. - - - - -MAHANOY CITY, a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 56 -m. N.E. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890), 11,286; (1900), 13,504, of whom 3877 -were foreign-born, mostly Slavs; (1910 census) 15,936. It is served by -branches of the Lehigh Valley and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. -The borough is situated in the valley of Mahanoy Creek, and has an -elevation of 1240 ft. above the sea; Broad Mountain (1795 ft.), a ridge -extending through Schuylkill county, overlooks it on the S.E. The valley -is a part of the anthracite coal region of Pennsylvania, fire clay -abounds in the vicinity, and the borough's principal industries are the -mining and shipping of coal, and the manufacture of shirts and foundry -products. Mahanoy City, originally a part of Mahanoy township (pop. in -1910, 6256), was incorporated as a borough in 1863. - - - - -MAHAR, the name of a servile caste in the Deccan, India. Their special -function, apart from that of scavenger, is to act as village watchman, -as guardian of the village boundaries, and as public messenger. In some -parts they are also weavers of coarse cotton cloth. In 1901 their total -number in all India was just under three millions. - - - - -MAHARAJPUR, a village in Gwalior state, Central India. Pop. (1901), 366. -It was the scene of a battle (Dec. 29, 1843) in which Sir Hugh Gough, -accompanied by the governor-general, Lord Ellenborough, defeated the -insurgent army of the Gwalior state. - - - - -MAHAVAMSA, the _Great Chronicle_, a history of Ceylon from the 5th -century B.C. to the middle of the 5th century A.D., written in Pali -verse by Mahanama of the Dighasanda Hermitage, shortly after the close -of the period with which it deals. In point of historical value it -compares well with early European chronicles. In India proper the -decipherment of early Indian inscriptions was facilitated to a very -great extent by the data found only in the Mahavamsa. It was composed on -the basis of earlier works written in Sinhalese, which are now lost, -having been supplanted by the chronicles and commentaries in which their -contents were restated in Pali in the course of the 5th century. The -particular one on which our Mahavamsa was mainly based was also called -the Mahavamsa, and was written in Sinhalese prose with Pali memorial -verse interspersed. The extant Pali work gives legends of the Buddha and -the genealogy of his family; a sketch of the history of India down to -Asoka; an account of Buddhism in India down to the same date; a -description of the sending out of missionaries after Asoka's council, -and especially of the mission of Mahinda to Ceylon; a sketch of the -previous history of Ceylon; a long account of the reign of Devanam-piya -Tissa, the king of Ceylon who received Mahinda, and established Buddhism -in the island; short accounts of the kings succeeding him down to Duttha -Gamiin (Dadagamana or Dutegemunu); then a long account, amounting to an -epic poem, of the adventures and reign of that prince, a popular hero, -born in adversity, who roused the people, and drove the Tamil invaders -out of the island. Finally we have short notices of the subsequent kings -down to the author's time. The Mahavamsa was the first Pali book made -known to Europe. It was edited in 1837, with English translation and an -elaborate introduction, by George Turnour, then colonial secretary in -Ceylon. Its vocabulary was an important part of the material utilized in -Childer's _Pali Dictionary_. Its relation to the sources from which it -drew has been carefully discussed by various scholars and in especial -detail by Geiger. It is agreed that it gives a reasonably fair and -correct presentation of the tradition preserved in the lost Sinhalese -Mahavamsa; that, except in the earliest period, its list of kings, with -the years of each reign, is complete and trustworthy; and that it gives -throughout the view, as to events in Ceylon, of a resident in the Great -Minster at Anuradhapura. - - See _The Mahavamsa_, ed. by Geo. Turnour (Colombo, 1837); ed. by W. - Geiger (London, 1908); H. Oldenberg, in the introduction to his - edition of the _Dipavamsa_ (London, 1879); O. Franke, in _Wiener - Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes_ (1907); W. Geiger, - _Dipavamsa und Mahavamsa_ (Leipzig, 1905, trans. by Ethel M. - Coomaraswamy, Colombo, 1908). (T. W. R. D.) - - - - -MAHAYANA ("Great Vehicle"), the name given to the later Buddhism, the -popular religion which embraced all the people and had its pantheon of -Buddhas and Bodhisatvas, with attendant deities and demons, spacious -temples and images, pompous ceremonial and noisy festivals. It was thus -contrasted with the Hinayana ("Little Vehicle") of the primitive -Buddhism which had been only for the select few. (See BUDDHISM.) - - - - -MAHDI (Arab. "he who is guided aright"), a title assumed by the third -Abbasid caliph (see CALIPHATE: _Abbasids_, S 3). According to Moslem -traditionists Mahomet declared that one of his descendants, the imam of -God, who would fill the earth with equity and justice, would bear the -name of al-mahdi. The Sunnis hold that this mahdi has not yet appeared. -The name of mahdi is also given by the Shi'ite Mahommedans to the last -of the imams of the house of 'Ali. It was under the name of al-mahdi -that Mokhtar proclaimed 'Ali's son Mahommed as the opponent of the -caliph Abdalmalik, and, according to Shahrastani, the doctrine of the -mahdi, the hidden deliverer who is one day to appear and fill the -oppressed world with righteousness, first arose in connexion with a -belief that this Mahommed had not died but lived concealed at Mount -Radwa, near Mecca, guarded by a lion and a panther. The hidden imam of -the common Shi'ites is, however, the twelfth imam, Mahommed Abu'I-Qasim, -who disappeared mysteriously in 879. The belief in the appearance of the -mahdi readily lent itself to imposture. Of the many pretenders to this -dignity known in all periods of Moslem history the most famous was the -first caliph of the Fatimite dynasty in North Africa, 'Obaidallah -al-Mahdi, who reigned 909-933. After him was named the first capital of -the dynasty, the once important city of Mahdia (q.v.). Another great -historical movement, headed by a leader who proclaimed himself the mahdi -(Mahommed ibn Abdallah ibn Tumart), was that of the Almohades (q.v.). In -1881 Mahommed Ahmed ibn Seyyid Abdullah (q.v.), a Dongolese, proclaimed -himself al-mahdi and founded in the eastern Sudan the short-lived empire -overthrown by an Anglo-Egyptian force at the battle of Omdurman in 1898. -Concurrently with the claim of Mahommed Ahmed to be the mahdi the same -title was claimed by, or for, the head of the Senussites, a -confraternity powerful in many regions of North Africa. - - - - -MAHDIA (also spelt _Mehdia_, _Mehedia_, &c.), a town of Tunisia, on the -coast between the gulfs of Hammamet and Gabes, 47 m. by rail S.S.E. of -Susa. Pop. about 8000. Mahdia is built on a rocky peninsula which -projects eastward about a mile beyond the normal coast line, and is not -more than a quarter of a mile wide. The extremity of the peninsula is -called Ras Mahdia or Cape Africa--Africa being the name by which Mahdia -was designated by Froissart and other European historians during the -middle ages and the Renaissance. In the centre of the peninsula and -occupying its highest point is a citadel (16th century); another castle -farther west is now used as a prison and is in the centre of the native -town. The European quarter and the new port are on the south-west side -of the peninsula. The port is available for small boats only; steamers -anchor in the roadstead about a quarter of a mile from the shore. On the -south-east, cut out of the rock, is the ancient harbour, or _cothon_, -measuring about 480 ft by 240 ft., the entrance being 42 ft. wide. There -are manufactories of olive oil, but the chief industry is sardine -fishing, largely in the hands of Italians. - -Mahdia occupies the site of a Phoenician settlement and by some -authorities is identified with the town called Turris Hannibalis by the -Romans. Hannibal is said to have embarked here on his exile from -Carthage. After the Arab conquest of North Africa the town fell into -decay. It was refounded in 912 by the first Fatimite caliph, -'Obaidallah-al-Mahdi, after whom it was named. It became the port of -Kairawan and was for centuries a city of considerable importance, -largely owing to its great natural strength, and its position on the -Mediterranean. It carried on an active trade with Egypt, Syria and -Spain. The town was occupied by the Normans of Sicily in the 12th -century, but after holding it for about twelve years they were driven -out in 1159 by the Almohades. In 1390 a joint English and French force -vainly besieged Mahdia for sixty-one days. In the early part of the 16th -century the corsair Dragut seized the town and made it his capital, but -in 1550 the place was captured by the Spaniards, who held it until 1574. -Before evacuating the town the Spaniards dismantled the fortifications. -Under the rule of the Turks and, later, the beys of Tunis Mahdia became -a place of little importance. It was occupied by the French in 1881 -without opposition, and regained some of its former commercial -importance. - - During 1908 numbers of bronzes and other works of art were recovered - from a vessel wrecked off Mahdia in the 5th century A.D. (see - _Classical Review_, June 1909). - - - - -MAHE, a French settlement in the Malabar district of Madras, India, -situated in 11 deg. 43' N. and 75 deg. 33' E., at the mouth of a river -of the same name. Area, 26 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 10,298. It is the only -French possession on the west coast of India, and is in charge of a -_chef de service_, subordinate to the governor-general at Pondicherry. -It is now a decaying place. - - - - -MAHESHWAR, a town in Indore state, Central India, on the N. bank of the -Narbada (Nerbudda). Pop. (1901), 7042. Though of great antiquity and -also of religious sanctity, it is chiefly noted as the residence of -Ahalya Bai, the reigning queen of the Holkar dynasty during the last -half of the 18th century, whose ability and munificence are famous -throughout India. Close by her cenotaph stands the family temple of the -Holkars. - - - - -MAHI, a river of western India, which rises in Central India and, after -flowing through south Rajputana, enters Gujarat and falls into the sea -by a wide estuary near Cambay; total length, 300 m.; estimated drainage -area, 16,000 sq. m. It has given its name to the Mahi Kantha agency of -Bombay, and also to the mehwasis, marauding highlanders often mentioned -in Mahommedan chronicles. - - - - -MAHI KANTHA, a political agency or collection of native states in India, -within the Gujarat division of Bombay. Over half the territory is -covered by the native state of Idar. There are eleven other chiefships, -and a large number of estates belonging to Rajput or Koli thakurs, -formerly feudatories of Baroda. Several of the states are under British -administration. Total area, 3125 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 361,545, showing a -decrease of 38% in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue, -L76,000; tribute (mostly to the gaekwar of Baroda), L9000. Many of the -inhabitants belong to the wild tribes of Bhils and Kolis. In 1897 a -metre-gauge railway was opened from Ahmedabad through Parantij to -Ahmednagar. At Sadra is the Scott College for the education of the sons -of chiefs on the lines of an English public school. There are also -Anglo-vernacular schools at Sadra, Idar and Mansa. The famine of -1899-1900 was severely felt in this tract. - - - - -MAHMUD I. (1696-1754), sultan of Turkey, was the son of Mustafa II., and -succeeded his uncle Ahmed III. in 1730. After the suppression of a -military revolt the war with Persia was continued with varying success, -and terminated in 1736 by a treaty of peace restoring the _status quo -ante bellum_. The next enemy whom Turkey was called upon to face was -Russia, later joined by Austria. War went on for four years; the -successes gained by Russia were outweighed by Austria's various -reverses, terminating by the defeat of Wallis at Krotzka, and the peace -concluded at Belgrade was a triumph for Turkish diplomacy. The sultan, -throughout desirous for peace, is said to have been much under the -influence of the chief eunuch, Haji Beshir Aga. In 1754 Mahmud died of -heart-disease when returning from the Friday service at the mosque. He -had a passion for building, to which are due numberless kiosques, where -nocturnal orgies were carried on by him and his boon companions. In this -reign the system of appointing Phanariote Greeks to the principalities -of Moldavia and Wallachia was instituted. (See PHANARIOTES.) - - - - -MAHMUD II. (1785-1839), sultan of Turkey, was the son of Abu-ul-Hamid -I., and succeeded his brother, Mustafa IV., in 1808. He had shared the -captivity of his ill-fated cousin, the ex-sultan, Selim III., whose -efforts at reform had ended in his deposition by the janissaries. Mahmud -was thus early impressed with the necessity for dissembling his -intention to institute reforms until he should be powerful enough to -carry them through. The reforming efforts of the grand vizier Bairakdar, -to whom he had owed his life and his accession, broke on the opposition -of the janissaries; and Mahmud had to wait for more favourable times. -Meanwhile the empire seemed in danger of breaking up. Not till 1812 was -the war with Russia closed by the treaty of Bucharest, which restored -Moldavia and the greater part of Wallachia to the Ottoman government. -But though the war was ended, the terms of the treaty left a number of -burning questions, both internal and external, unsettled. This was -notably the case with the claim of Russia to Poti and the valley of the -Rion (Phasis), which was still outstanding at the time of the congress -of Vienna (1814-1815) and prevented the question of a European guarantee -of the integrity of Turkey from being considered. - -Meanwhile, within the empire, ambitious valis were one by one attempting -to carve out dominions for themselves at the expense of the central -power. The ambitions of Mehemet Ali of Egypt were not yet fully -revealed; but Ali (q.v.) of Jannina, who had marched to the aid of the -sultan against the rebellious pasha Pasvan Oglu of Widdin, soon began to -show his hand, and it needed the concentration of all the forces of the -Turkish empire to effect his overthrow and death (1822). The -preoccupation of the sultan with Ali gave their opportunity to the -Greeks whose disaffection had long been organized in the great secret -society of the _Hetaeria Philike_, against which Metternich had in vain -warned the Ottoman government. In 1821 occurred the abortive raid of -Alexander Ypsilanti into the Danubian principalities, and in May of the -same year the revolt of the Greeks of the Morea began the war of Greek -Independence (see GREECE: _History_). The rising in the north was easily -crushed; but in the south the Ottoman power was hampered by the -defection of the sea-faring Greeks, by whom the Turkish navy had -hitherto been manned. After three abortive campaigns Mahmud was -compelled, infinitely against his will, to summon to his assistance the -already too powerful pasha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, whom he had already -employed to suppress the rebellious Wahhabis in Arabia. The disciplined -Egyptian army, supported by a well organized fleet, rapidly accomplished -what the Turks had failed to do; and by 1826 the Greeks were practically -subdued on land, and Ibrahim was preparing to turn his attention to the -islands. But for the intervention of the powers and the battle of -Navarino Mahmud's authority would have been restored in Greece. The news -of Navarino betrayed Mahmud into one of those paroxysms of rage to which -he was liable, and which on critical occasions were apt fatally to cloud -his usual good sense. After in vain attempting to obtain an apology for -"the unparalleled outrage against a friendly power" he issued on the -20th of December a solemn _hatti sheriff_ summoning the faithful to a -holy war. This, together with certain outstanding grievances and the -pretext of enforcing the settlement of the Greek Question approved by -the powers, gave Russia the excuse for declaring war against Turkey. -After two hardly fought campaigns (1828, 1829) Mahmud was at length, on -the 14th of September 1829, compelled to sign the peace of Adrianople. -From this moment until his death Mahmud was, to all intents and -purposes, the "vassal of Russia," though not without occasional -desperate efforts to break his chains. (For the political events of the -period between the first revolt of Mehemet Ali (Sept. 1832) and the -death of Mahmud see MEHEMET ALI.) The personal attitude of the sultan, -which alone concerns us here, was determined throughout by his -overmastering hatred of the upstart pasha, of whom he had stooped to ask -aid, and who now defied his will; and the importance of this attitude -lies in the fact that, as the result of the success of his centralizing -policy, and notably of the destruction of the janissaries (q.v.), the -supreme authority, hitherto limited by the practical power of the -ministers of the Porte and by the turbulence of the privileged military -caste, had become concentrated in his own person. It was no longer the -Porte that decided, but the Seraglio, and the sultan's private secretary -had more influence on the policy of the Ottoman empire than the grand -vizier. - -This omnipotence of the sultan in deciding the policy of the government -was in striking contrast with his impotence in enforcing his views on -his subjects and in his relations with foreign powers. Mahmud, in spite -of--or rather because of--his well-meant efforts at reform, was hated by -his Mussulman subjects and stigmatized as an "infidel" and a traitor to -Islam. He was, in fact, a victim to those "half-measures" which -Machiavelli condemns as fatal to success. Ibrahim, the conqueror of -Syria, scoffed at the sultan's idea "that reform consisted in putting -his soldiers into tight trousers and epaulettes." The criticism is not -entirely unjust. Mahmud's policy was the converse of that recommended by -Machiavelli, viz. in making a revolution to change the substance while -preserving the semblance of the old order. Metternich's advice to Mahmud -to "remain a Turk" was sound enough. His failure to do so--in -externals--left him isolated in his empire: _rayahs_ and true believers -alike distrusted and hated him. Of this hatred he was fully conscious; -he knew that his subjects, even many of his own ministers, regarded -Mehemet Ali as the champion of Islam against the "infidel sultan;" he -suspected the pasha, already master of the sacred cities, of an -intention to proclaim himself caliph in his stead. This, together with -the weakness due to military reforms but recently begun, drove him to -rely on foreign aid; which, in the actual conditions of Europe, meant -the aid of Russia. The long tradition of French friendship for Turkey -had been broken, in 1830, by the conquest of Algiers. Austria was, for -the time, but the faithful ally of the tsar. On the 9th of August 1832 -Mahmud made, through Stratford Canning, a formal proposal for an -alliance with Great Britain, which Palmerston refused to consider for -fear of offending France. Mahmud bitterly contrasted the fair -professions of England with the offers of effective help from Russia. -His old ally having deserted him, he accepted the aid of his hereditary -foe. The Russian expedition to the Bosporus, the convention of Kutaiah, -and the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (July 8, 1833) followed. Mahmud was -under no illusion as to the position in which the latter placed him -towards Russia; but his fear of Mehemet Ali and his desire to be -revenged upon him outweighed all other considerations. He resented the -action of France and England in forcing the settlement of Kutaiah upon -him, and remained shut up in his palace, inaccessible to all save his -favourites and the representative of Russia. With his single aim in view -he busied himself with the creation of a national militia, with the aid -of Moltke and other German officers. In 1834 the revolt of Syria against -Ibrahim seemed to give him his opportunity. He pleaded the duty of a -sultan to go to the aid of his subjects when oppressed by one of his -servants; but the powers were obdurate, even Russia, much occupied in -affairs nearer home, leaving him in the lurch. He was astute enough to -take advantage of the offence given to the powers by Mehemet Ali's -system of monopolies, and in 1838 signed with Great Britain, and -afterwards with others, a commercial treaty which cut at the root of the -pasha's system. A few months later his passionate impatience overcame -his policy and his fears. The hand of death was upon him, and he felt -that he must strike now or never. In vain the powers, now united in -their views, warned him of the probable consequences of any aggressive -action on his part. He would rather die, he exclaimed, or become the -slave of Russia, than not destroy his rebellious vassal. On his sole -initiative, without consulting his ministers or the council of the -empire, he sent instructions to Hafiz Pasha, commanding the Ottoman -troops concentrated at Bir on the Euphrates, to advance into Syria. The -fatal outcome of the campaign that followed he did not live to hear. -When the news of Ibrahim's overwhelming victory at Nessib (June 24, -1839) reached Constantinople, Mahmud lay dying and unconscious. Early in -the morning of the 1st of July his proud and passionate spirit passed -away. - -Mahmud II. cannot be reckoned among the great sultans, neither had he -any of the calculating statecraft which characterized Abd-ul-Hamid II.; -but his qualities of mind and heart, none the less, raised him far above -the mass of his predecessors and successors. He was well versed in state -affairs and loyal to those who advised and served him, personally brave, -humane and kindly when not maddened by passion, active and energetic, -and always a man of his word. Unhappily, however, the taint of the -immemorial corruption of Byzantium had fallen upon him too, and the -avenue to his favour and to political power lay too often through -unspeakable paths. In view of the vast difficulty of the task before him -at his succession it is less surprising that he failed to carry out his -ideas than that he accomplished so much. When he came to the throne the -empire was breaking up from within; one by one he freed the provinces -from the tyrannical rulers who, like Ali of Jannina, were carving out -independent, or quasi-independent, empires within the empire. If he -failed in his wider schemes of reform, this was only one more -illustration of a truth of which other "enlightened" sovereigns besides -himself had experienced the force, namely, that it is impossible to -impose any system, however admirable, from above on a people whose -deepest convictions and prejudices it offends. - - There is a great deal of valuable material for the history of Mahmud - and his policy in the unpublished F.O. records (1832-1839), volumes of - correspondence marked _Turkey.--From Sir Stratford Canning.--From Mr. - Mandeville.--From Lord Ponsonby._ See further works mentioned under - TURKEY: _History_; and MEHEMET ALI. (W. A. P.) - - - - -MAHMUD NEDIM PASHA (c. 1818-1883), Turkish statesman, was the son of -Nejib Pasha, ex-governor-general of Bagdad. After occupying various -subordinate posts at the Porte he became successively under-secretary of -state for foreign affairs, governor-general of Syria and Smyrna, -minister of commerce, and governor-general of Tripoli; minister -successively of justice and of marine (1869); grand vizier from 1871 to -1872 and from 1875 to 1876. He was high in favour with Sultan -Abd-ul-Aziz and fell much under the influence of General Ignatiev, the -forceful Russian ambassador before the war of 1877-78, his subserviency -to Russia earning for him the nickname of "Mahmudoff." His -administration was most unsuccessful from every point of view, and he -was largely responsible for the issue of the decree suspending the -interest on the Turkish funds. He was minister of the interior from 1879 -to 1883. - - - - -MAHMUD[1] OF GHAZNI (971-1030), son of Sabuktagin, Afghan conqueror, was -born on the 2nd of October 971. His fame rests chiefly on his successful -wars, in particular his numerous invasions of India. His military -capacity, inherited from his father, Nasir-ud-din Sabuktagin, was -strengthened by youthful experience in the field. Sabuktagin, a Turki -slave of Alptagin, governor of Khorasan under Abdalmalik I. b. Nuh of -the Samanid dynasty of Bokhara, early brought himself to notice (see -SAMANIDS). He was raised to high office in the state by Alptagin's -successor, Abu Ishak, and in A.H. 366 (A.D. 977), by the choice of the -nobles of Ghazni, he became their ruler. He soon began to make conquests -in the neighbouring countries, and in these wars he was accompanied by -his young son Mahmud. Before he had reached the age of fourteen he -encountered in two expeditions under his father the Indian forces of -Jaipal, raja of Lahore, whom Sabuktagin defeated on the Punjab frontier. - -In 994 Mahmud was made governor of Khorasan, with the title of Saif -addaula (ud-daula) ("Sword of the State") by the Samanid Nuh II. Two -years later, his father Sabuktagin died in the neighbourhood of Balkh, -having declared his second son, Ismail, who was then with him, to be his -successor. As soon as Ismail had assumed the sovereignty at Balkh, -Mahmud, who was at Nishapur, addressed him in friendly terms, proposing -a division of the territories held by their father at his death. Ismail -rejected the proposal, and was immediately attacked by Mahmud and -defeated. Retreating to Ghazni, he there yielded, and was imprisoned, -and Mahmud obtained undisputed power as sovereign of Khorasan and Ghazni -(997). - -The Ghaznevid dynasty is sometimes reckoned by native historians to -commence with Sabuktagin's conquest of Bost and Kosdar (978). But -Sabuktagin, throughout his reign at Ghazni, continued to acknowledge the -Samanid suzerainty, as did Mahmud also, until the time, soon after -succeeding to his father's dominions, when he received from Qadir, -caliph of Bagdad (see CALIPHATE, C. S 25), a _khilat_ (robe of honour), -with a letter recognizing his sovereignty, and conferring on him the -titles _Yamiin-addaula_ ("Right hand of the State"), and -_Amin-ul-Millat_ ("Guardian of the Faith"). From this time it is the -name of the caliph that is inscribed on Mahmud's coins, together with -his own new titles. Previously the name of the Samanid sovereign, Mansur -II. b. Nuh is given along with his own former title, Saif addaula -Mahmud. The earliest of those of the new form gives his name Mahmud bin -Sabuktagin. Thereafter his father's name does not appear on his coins, -but it is inscribed again on his tomb. - -The new honours received from the caliph gave fresh impulse to Mahmud's -zeal on behalf of Islam, and he resolved on an annual expedition against -the idolaters of India. He could not quite carry out this intention, but -a great part of his reign was occupied with his Indian campaigns. In -1000 he started on the first of these expeditions, but it does not -appear that he went farther than the hill country near Peshawar. The -hostile attitude of Khalaf ibn Ahmad, governor of Seistan, called Mahmud -to that province for a short time. He was appeased by Khalaf's speedy -submission, together with the gift of a large sum of money, and further, -it is said, by his subdued opponent addressing him as _sultan_, a title -new at that time, and by which Mahmud continued to be called, though he -did not formally adopt it, or stamp it on his coins. Four years later -Khalaf, incurring Mahmud's displeasure again, was imprisoned, and his -property confiscated. - -Mahmud's army first crossed the Indus in 1001, opposed by Jaipal, raja -of Lahore. Jaipal was defeated, and Mahmud, after his return from this -expedition, is said to have taken the distinctive appellation of _Ghazi_ -("Valiant for the Faith"), but he is rarely so-called. On the next -occasion (1005) Mahmud advanced, as far as Bhera on the Jhelum, when his -adversary Anang-pal, son and successor of Jaipal, fled to Kashmir. The -following year saw Mahmud at Multan. When he was in the Punjab at this -time, he heard of the invasion of Khorasan by the Ilek Khan Nasr I. -ruler of Transoxiana whose daughter Mahmud had married. After a rapid -march back from India, Mahmud repelled the invaders. The Ilek Khan, -having retreated across the Oxus, returned with reinforcements, and took -up a position a few miles from Balkh, where he was signally defeated by -Mahmud. - -Mahmud again entered the Punjab in 1008, this time for the express -purpose of chastising Sewah Pal, who, having become a Mussulman, and -been left by Mahmud in charge of Multan, had relapsed to Hinduism. The -Indian campaign of 1009 was notable. Near the Indus Mahmud was opposed -again by Anang-pal, supported by powerful rajas from other parts of -India. After a severe fight, Anang-pal's elephants were so terror-struck -by the fire-missiles flung amongst them by the invaders that they turned -and fled, the whole army retreating in confusion and leaving Mahmud -master of the field. Mahmud, after this victory, pushed on through the -Punjab to Nagar-kot (Kangra), and carried off much spoil from the Hindu -temples to enrich his treasury at Ghazni. In 1011 Mahmud, after a short -campaign against the Afghans under Mahommed ibn Sur in the hill country -of Ghur, marched again into the Punjab. The next time (1014) he advanced -to Thanesar, another noted stronghold of Hinduism, between the Sutlej -and the Jumna. Having now found his way across all the Punjab rivers, he -was induced on two subsequent occasions to go still farther. But first -he designed an invasion of Kashmir (1015), which was not carried out, as -his progress was checked at Loh-kot, a strong hill fort in the -north-west of the Punjab. Then before undertaking his longer inroad into -Hindustan he had to march north into Khwarizm (Khiva) against his -brother-in-law Mamun, who had refused to acknowledge Mahmud's supremacy. -The result was as usual, and Mahmud, having committed Khwarizm to a new -ruler, one of Mamun's chief officers, returned to his capital. Then in -1018, with a very large force, he proceeded to India again, extending -his inroad this time to the great Hindu cities of Mathra on the Jumna -and Kanauj on the Ganges. He reduced the one, received the submission of -the other, and carried back great stores of plunder. Three years later -he went into India again, marching over nearly the same ground, to the -support, this time, of the raja of Kanauj, who, having made friendship -with the Mahommedan invader on his last visit, had been attacked by the -raja of Kalinjar. But Mahmud found he had not yet sufficiently subdued -the idolaters nearer his own border, between Kabul and the Indus, and -the campaign of 1022 was directed against them, and reached no farther -than Peshawar. Another march into India the following year was made -direct to Gwalior. - -The next expedition (1025) is the most famous of all. The point to which -it was directed was the temple of Somnath on the coast of the Gujarat -peninsula. After an arduous journey by Multan, and through part of -Rajputana, he reached Somnath, and met with a very vigorous but -fruitless resistance on the part of the Hindus of Gujarat. Moslem feet -soon trod the courts of the great temple. The chief object of worship it -contained was broken up, and the fragments kept to be carried off to -Ghazni. The story is often told of the hollow figure, cleft by Mahmud's -battle-axe, pouring out great store of costly jewels and gold. But the -idol in this Sivite temple was only a tall block or pillar of hewn -stone, of a familiar kind. The popular legend is a very natural one. -Mahmud, it was well known, made Hindu temples yield up their most -precious things. He was a determined idol-breaker. And the stone block -in this temple was enriched with a crown of jewels, the gifts of wealthy -worshippers. These data readily give the Somnath exploit its more -dramatic form. For the more recent story of the Somnath gates see -SOMNATH. - -After the successes at Somnath, Mahmud remained some months in India -before returning to Ghazni. Then in 1026 he crossed the Indus once more -into the Punjab. His brilliant military career closed with an expedition -to Persia, in the third year after this, his last, visit to India. The -Indian campaigns of Mahmud and his father were almost, but not -altogether, unvarying successes. The Moslem historians touch lightly on -reverses. And, although the annals of Rajputana tell how Sabuktagin was -defeated by one raja of Ajmere and Mahmud by his successor, the course -of events which followed shows how little these and other reverses -affected the invader's progress. Mahmud's failure at Ajmere, when the -brave raja Bisal-deo obliged him to raise the siege but was himself -slain, was when the Moslem army was on its way to Somnath. Yet Mahmud's -Indian conquests, striking and important in themselves, were, after all, -in great measure barren, except to the Ghazni treasury. Mahmud retained -no possessions in India under his own direct rule. But after the -repeated defeats, by his father and himself, of two successive rajas of -Lahore, the conqueror assumed the right of nominating the governors of -the Punjab as a dependency of Ghazni, a right which continued to be -exercised by seven of his successors. And for a time, in the reign of -Masa'ud II. (1098-1114), Lahore was the place of residence of the -Ghaznevid sovereign. - -Mahmud died at Ghazni in 1030, the year following his expedition to -Persia. He is conspicuous for his military ardour, his ambition, strong -will, perseverance, watchfulness and energy, combined with great courage -and unbounded self-reliance. But his tastes were not exclusively -military. His love of literature brought men of learning to Ghazni, and -his acquaintance with Moslem theology was recognized by the learned -doctors. - - The principal histories of Mahmud's reign are--_Kitab-i-Yamini_ - (Utbi); _Tarikh-us-Subuktigin_ (Baihaki); _Tabakat i Nasiri_ (Minhaj - el-Siraj); _Rauzat-us-Safa_ (Mir Khond); _Habib-us-Sivar_ (Khondamir). - See Elliot, _History of India_; Elphinstone, _History of India_; and - Roos-Keppel's translation of the _Tarikh-i-Sultan Mahmud-i-Ghaznavi_ - (1901). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The name is strictly Mahmud. - - - - -MAHOBA, an ancient town in India, in Hamirpur district of the United -Provinces. Pop. (1901), 10,074. As the capital of the Chandel dynasty, -who ruled over Bundelkhand from the 9th to the 13th century, the -neighbourhood is covered with architectural antiquities, prominent among -which are artificial lakes, formed by banking up valleys with masonry -dams. The largest of these is more than 4 m. in circuit. - - - - -MAHOGANY, a dark-coloured wood largely used for household furniture, the -product of a large tree indigenous to Central America and the West -Indies. It was originally received from Jamaica; 521,300 ft. were -exported from that island in 1753. It is known botanically as _Swietenia -Mahogani_, and is a member of the order _Meliaceae_. It bears compound -leaves, resembling those of the ash, and clusters of small flowers, with -five sepals and petals and ten stamens which are united into a tube. The -fruit is a pear-shaped woody capsule, and contains many winged seeds. -The dark-coloured bark has been considered a febrifuge, and the seeds -were used by the ancient Aztecs with oil for a cosmetic, but the most -valuable product is the timber, first noticed by the carpenter on board -Sir Walter Raleigh's ship in 1595 for its great beauty, hardness and -durability. Dr Gibbons brought it into notice as well adapted for -furniture in the early part of the 18th century, and its use as a -cabinet wood was first practically established by a cabinet-maker named -Wollaston, who was employed by Gibbons to work up some mahogany brought -to England by his brother. It was introduced into India in 1795, and is -now cultivated in Bengal and as far north as Saharunpur. - - The timber of species of _Cedrela_ and _Melia_, other members of the - order _Meliaceae_, are used as Mahogany, and the product of the West - African _Khaya senegalensis_ is known as African mahogany. There is - some confusion between the product of these various trees. Herbert - Stone (_The Timbers of Commerce_, 1904) says: "The various species of - mahogany and cedar are so confusing that it is difficult to make - precise statements as to their structure or origin. I know of no - convincing proof that any of the American kinds met with on the - English market are the wood of _Swietenia Mahogani_, nor that those - shipped from Africa are the wood of _Khaya senegalensis_. These two - genera are very nearly allied to _Cedrela_ and _Melia_, and it is - difficult to separate any of the four from the rest by the characters - of the wood. After giving the most careful attention to every detail, - I lean to the view that most if not all of the mahoganies commonly met - with are Cedrelas." - - _Kiggelaria Dregeana_ (natural order _Bixineae_), a native of South - Africa, is known as Natal mahogany. - - - - -MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED), founder of the -religious system called in Europe after him Mahommedanism, and by -himself Islam or Hanifism. He died, according to the ordinary -synchronism, on the 7th of June 632 (12 Rabia, A.H. 11), and his -birthday was exactly sixty-three or sixty-five years earlier, the latter -number being evidently an interpretation in lunar years of a number -thought to refer to solar years. The lunar system was introduced into -Arabia by Mahomet himself quite at the close of his career; that which -existed before was certainly solar, as it involved a process of -intercalation--which, however, seems to have been arbitrarily -manipulated by priests, whence certain synchronisms cannot be got for -the events in the Prophet's career. The number 63 for the years of his -life may rest on tradition, though it is unlikely that such matters were -accurately noted; it can also be accounted for by a priori combination. -A Meccan, it is said, became a full citizen at the age of 40; this then -would be the age at which the mission might be started. The Medina -period (of which count was kept) lasted ten to eleven years; for the -Meccan period ten years would seem a likely length. Finally it was known -that for some years--about three--the mission had been conducted -secretly. The only event in contemporary history to which the Koran -alludes in its earlier parts is the Persian conquest of Palestine in -616. Clearly Mahomet had begun to prophesy at that date. - - - His Country. - -Before the rise of Islam, Mahomet's native place, Mecca, appears to -figure nowhere in historical records, unless there be a reference to it -in the "valley of Baca" (Psalm lxxxiv. 6). Its sacred, and therefore -archaic, name is _Bakkah_; hence the identification of the name with -that of the sanctuary Makoraba, known to the Greek geographers, is not -philologically tenable; although so eminent a linguist as Dozy evolved a -theory of the origin of the city from this name, which appears to be -South Arabian for "sanctuary," and has no connexion with Hebrew (as Dozy -supposed). In the 3rd century of Islam the mythology of Mecca was -collected and published in book form, but we learn little more from it -than names of tribes and places; it is clear that there was no record of -the mode in which the community inhabiting the place had got there, and -that little was remembered with accuracy of the events which preceded -the rise of its prophet. The city had a sanctuary, called the _Cube_ -(_ka'ba_), of which the nucleus was the "Black Stone," probably to be -identified with Allah, the god of the community; both still exist, or -rather their legitimate substitutes, as the Ka'ba has been repeatedly -reconstructed, and the original Black Stone was stolen by the -Carmathians in the 4th century of Islam; they afterwards returned one, -but it may or may not have been the same as that which they removed. At -some time in the 6th century--said to have been the birth-year of the -Prophet, but really much earlier--an Abyssinian invader raided Mecca -with the view of abolishing this sanctuary; but for some reason had to -desist. This expedition, known as the "Raid of the Elephant," one of -these animals being employed in it, seems to be of great importance for -explaining the rise of Islam; for a sanctuary which can repel an invader -acquires tremendous reputation. Some verses in the Koran which are -perhaps not genuine, record the miracle whereby Allah repelled the -"People of the Elephant." The sanctuary was apparently in the possession -of the tribe Koreish (Quraish), the origin of whose name is unknown, -said to have come originally from Cutha in Mesopotamia. They were known -(we are told) as the people of Allah, and, by wearing a badge, were -sacrosanct throughout Arabia. If this be true, it was probably a -privilege earned by the miraculous defence of the Ka'ba, and is -sufficient to account for the rise of Meccan commerce of which we hear -much in the biography of the Prophet, and to which some verses of the -earliest part of the Koran allude; for merchants who were safe from -attacks by bandits would have an enormous advantage. The records seem, -however, to be inconsistent with this assertion; and the growth of the -Meccan commerce is sufficiently accounted for by the fact that after the -Abyssinian invasion pilgrimage to the Ka'ba became the practice of -numerous Arab tribes, and for four months in the year (selected by -Meccan priests) raiding was forbidden, in order to enable the pilgrimage -to be safely made. In addition to this it would seem that all Mecca -counted as sanctuary--i.e. no blood might under any circumstances be -shed there. The community lived by purveying to pilgrims and the -carrying trade; and both these operations led to the immigration of -strangers. - - - Mahomet's Family. - -There seems to be no doubt that Mahomet was himself a member of the -tribe Koreish, and indeed too many of his relatives figure in history to -permit of his parentage being questioned. His cousin 'Ali, fourth -caliph, was the son of Abu Talib, whose name attests the historical -character of the kindred name 'Abd al-Mottalib, Mahomet's grandfather: -for the fact that this name is in part enigmatical is certainly no -argument against its genuineness. In the 3rd century of Islam a document -was shown in which a man of San'a in Yemen acknowledged that he had -borrowed from 'Abd al-Mottalib 1000 silver dirhems of the Hudaida -standard, and Allah with the two "angels" (probably a euphemism for the -goddesses Al-lat and al-'Uzza) served as witness; it is difficult to see -why such a document should have been forged. The name Hashim (for 'Abd -al-Mottalib's father) may or may not be historical; here, as in the -ascending line throughout, we have subjects without predicates. The name -of 'Abd al-Mottalib's son, who was Mahomet's father, is given as -'Abdallah; the correctness of this has been questioned, because "Servant -of Allah" would seem to be too appropriate, and the name was often given -by the Prophet to converts as a substitute for some pagan appellation. -This, however, is hypercritical, as the name of the father could not -easily be altered, when relatives abounded, and it would seem that at -one time the Prophet made no theological use of the name Allah, for -which he intended to substitute Rahman. The name of his mother is given -as Aminah, and with this one of his own titles, Amin, agrees; although -the Arabs do not appear to bring the two into connexion. Her father's -name is given as Wahb, and she is brought into relation with a Medinese -tribe called the Banu 'Adi b. al-Najjar, to whom she is said to have -brought her son in his early infancy. The circumstances may have been -suggested by his later connexion with that place; yet in what seems a -historical narrative her grave is mentioned as known to be at Abwa, -midway between the two cities, whence this early bond between the -Prophet and his future home may have really existed. - -His own name is given in the Koran in the forms Ahmad and the familiar -Muhammad; in contemporary poetry we also find the form Mahmud. Similar -variation between derivatives from the same root is found in proper -names which occur in early poetry; the meaning of all would be "the -praised," if the root be given its Arabic signification--"the desired" -if interpreted from the Hebrew. - - The form Muhammad (ordinarily transliterated Mohammed; Mahomet, - Mehmet, &c., represent the Turkish pronunciation) is found in a - pre-Islamic inscription, and appears to have been fairly common in - Arabia. In Hag. ii. 7 a derivative of the Hebrew equivalent root - occurs in the prophecy "and the desired of all nations shall come," - and this passage has suggested the idea that the name may have been - taken by the Prophet as the equivalent of "Messiah," while the Moslems - themselves find its equivalent in the _Paraclete_ of the Fourth - Gospel, though this identification requires more ingenuity. His - _kunyah_ (i.e. the Arab title of respect, in which a man is called - after his son) is Abu'l-Qasim; other names by which he is called are - titles of honour, e.g. Mustafa "chosen." (See further the genealogical - table, _ad fin._) - - - Early Life. - -In the Koran, Allah says that He found the Prophet an orphan, poor and -astray; it is possible that all these expressions should be understood -figuratively, like the "poor, naked, blind" of Christian hymns; the -Arabs, however, take them literally, and Mahomet is said to have been a -posthumous child, whose mother died a few months or years after his -birth, and who was brought up first by his grandfather, and then by his -uncle Abu Talib, one of the poorer members of the family; in the -controversy between the Alid and Abbasid pretenders of the 2nd century -of Islam the Abbasid Mansur claims that his ancestor fed the ancestor of -'Ali, i.e. Abu Talib, otherwise he would have had to beg. There was -evidently an apparent inconsistency between Mahomet's being a poor -orphan and the favourite grandchild of the eminent and wealthy 'Abd -al-Mottalib; and it was solved in this way. There was a tradition that -in his early years he was sent into the desert to acquire the habits and -the language of the Bedouins; and this seems to have been attested by -the Prophet himself. In a tribal fight he is said to have acted as -armour-bearer to one of his uncles, Zubair. There seems no doubt that he -often accompanied Meccan caravans to the countries with which the -Meccans had trade relations; such especially were Syria and south -Arabia, and perhaps Egypt and Mesopotamia. It is conceivable that he may -have visited Abyssinia by sea. For though accurate knowledge is nowhere -to be found in the Koran, it exhibits a large amount of miscellaneous -information, such as a trader might well pick up. His career as a -caravan-conductor appears to have terminated with his marriage to -Khadija, daughter of Khuwailid, represented by the tradition as a -wealthy widow, fifteen years his senior and forty years of age at the -time of the union. As she became the mother of a numerous family, a -special rule was discovered by Moslem physiologists extending the -child-bearing period of Korashite women beyond that of others. Since it -is claimed for Mahomet that he first gave Arab women the right to -inherit property, the difficulty noticed is not the only one connected -with this marriage; and Robertson Smith has called attention to some -others, unconnected with his theory of "marriage and kinship in early -Arabia." After his marriage Mahomet appears to have been partner in a -shop in Mecca; where he apparently sold agricultural produce. His style -is strongly marked by phrases and metaphors drawn from trade, though as -a statesman he never displayed any financial ability. - - - Education. - -Writing in the monumental script of South Arabia had been known for -centuries in the peninsula; and shortly before the rise of Islam a -cursive script--the parent of the ordinary Arabic character--had been -started in the Christian state of Hira, with which the beginnings of -modern Arabic literature are connected. A modification of this had been -introduced into Mecca, and was probably used for contracts and similar -documents. The word _ummi_, literally "popular" or "plebeian" (according -to one etymology), applied to Mahomet in the Koran, is said to mean "one -who can neither read nor write," and the most generally accepted view is -that he could do neither, a supposition which enters into the doctrine -of the miraculous nature of the Koran. According to another -interpretation the word means "Meccan," i.e. native of "the Mother of -the Villages" (_Umm al-Qura_); and the most probable theory is that he -could do both, but unskilfully. Indeed on one historic occasion he -erased certain words in a document; and where in the Koran he rebuts the -charge of "taking notes," he does not employ the obvious retort that he -could not write, but gives a far less convincing answer. For poetry, -which seems to have been cultivated in Arabia long before his time, he -possessed no ear; but we have little reason for supposing that either -writing or versification had yet entered into Arabian education. The -former would be acquired by those who needed it, the latter was regarded -as a natural gift. There is reason for thinking the language of the -Koran incorrect and ungrammatical in parts, but as it afterwards became -the ultimate standard of classical Arabic, this point is not easy to -prove. On the whole then his early life seems to have been such as was -normal in the case of a man belonging to one of the more important -families in a community which had not long been started on a career of -prosperity. - - - Social System. - -Of the organization of that community we unfortunately know very little, -though we hear of a council-chamber, and, as has been seen, of an -age-qualification for admission to it. It is, however, certain that the -theory of decision by majority was absolutely unknown to Mahomet's -second successor, whence we learn little from this tradition (even if it -be authentic) of the mode whereby the tribes who together formed the -Meccan population managed their common concerns, whether commercial or -political. The form of government seems to have been a rudimentary -oligarchy, directed by some masterful individual; before the Flight we -read of various prominent personages, after the Flight and the battle of -Badr (A.H. 2) one chieftain, Abu Sofian (see CALIPHATE, _ad init._), -appears to take the lead whether in war or in policy. It would seem, -however, that the right of independent action belonged to the individual -tribes, even to the extent of refusing to take part in a campaign. For -the settlement of ordinary disputes recourse was had (it appears) rather -to soothsayers, near or distant, than to any regularly constituted -authority or tribunal. On the other hand we are furnished with a list of -officials who were concerned with different parts of the festal -performances and the ordinary worship. Of these we may mention the -Custodian of the Ka'ba, and the official whose duty was _siqayah_ -("watering"), said to mean furnishing the pilgrims with water, but more -ingeniously interpreted in recent times as "rain-bringing," a function -which even in the 2nd century of Islam the governor in some places was -supposed to exercise. - - - Beginnings of the Mission. - -Of Arabian paganism we possess no trustworthy or complete account; since -we hear of no theological literature belonging to it, probably no such -account could have been given. There were doubtless a variety of -practices, many of which have been continued to this day in the -ceremonies of the pilgrimage, and offerings of different sorts to -various deities, interpreted variously by the worshippers in accordance -with their spiritual, intellectual and moral levels; e.g. as actual -stones, or as men (or more often women) residing in the stones or -otherwise connected with them, or bearing a similar relation to trees, -or stars, &c. In general every tribe had its patron of the kind, and -where there were aggregations of tribes, connexions were established -between these deities, and affiliation-theories excogitated; hence the -theory attributed in the Koran to the Meccans that the goddesses -al-'Uzza, &c. were the daughters of Allah, may well represent the -outcome of such speculation. These, however, were known to few, whereas -the practices were familiar to all. Some of these were harmless, others -barbarous; many offensive, but not very reprehensible, superstitions. - - - External Influences. - -Before Mahomet's time Arabian paganism had already been attacked both -from the outside and from the inside. On the one hand the northern -tribes had gradually been christianized, owing to the influence of the -Byzantine empire; on the other hand south Arabia had fallen successively -under Jewish, Abyssinian and Persian influence; and the last, though -little is known of Persian rule, is unlikely to have favoured pagan -cults. Christianity had also some important representation in Najran far -south of Mecca, while Jewish settlements were prospering north of Mecca -in the Prophet's future home Yathrib and its neighbourhood. Power, -civilization and learning were thus associated with monotheism -(Judaism), dualism (Mazdaism) and tritheism (as the Arabs interpreted -Christianity); paganism was the religion of ignorance (_jahiliyyah_, -interpreted by Goldziher as "barbarism," but the difference is not very -considerable). Mecca itself and the neighbouring and allied Taif are -said to have produced some monotheists or Christians, who identified the -_Allah_ of Mecca with the _Allaha_ or God of the Syrian Christians, -called by the Abyssinian Christians "Lord of the Regions," and by the -Jews "the Merciful" (_Rahmana_); one such is said to have been a cousin -of Khadija, Mahomet's wife; his name is given as Waraqah, son of Naufal, -and he is credited with copying or translating a Gospel. We even hear of -flagellant monks and persons vowed to total abstinence among the -precursors of Islam. - -With these persons Mahomet had little in common, since they do not -appear to have claimed to enforce their views upon others, or to have -interfered with politics. He appears mainly to have been struck by the -personality of the founders of the systems dominant in the civilized -world, and to have aspired from the first to occupy the place of -legislator or mouthpiece of the Deity; and that he was this was and is -the main proposition of the Mahommedan creed. The "Prophet" or "Apostle" -(at different times he employed both the Jewish and the Christian -phrase) was the divinely appointed dictator of his community; if he were -not obeyed, divine vengeance would overtake the disobedient. At this -proposition Mahomet arrived by induction from the records of the -Biblical prophets, as well as others who seem to have figured in Arabian -mythology, e.g. the destruction of the tribe Thamud (mentioned by Pliny, -and therefore historical) for their disobedience to their prophet Salih, -and of 'Ad (probably mythical) for their similar treatment of Hud. The -character of the message did not affect the necessity for obedience; at -times it was condemnation of some moral offence, at others a trivial -order. Divine vengeance overtook those who disobeyed either. - - - The Prophet's Call. - -This is the theory of the prophetic office which pervades the Koran, -wherein the doctrine is formulated that every nation had its divine -guide and that Mecca before Mahomet's time had none. This place, then, -Mahomet felt a divine call to fill. But we are never likely to ascertain -what first put the idea into his mind. The fables which his biographers -tell on this subject are not worth repeating; his own system, in which -he is brought into direct communication with the Deity, though at a -later period the angel Gabriel appears to have acted as intermediary, -naturally leaves no room for such speculations; and since his -dispensation was thought to be absolutely new, and to make a _tabula -rasa_ of the pagan past, his first followers, having broken with that -past, left no intelligible account of the state of affairs which -preceded their master's call. Some generations therefore elapsed before -that past was studied with any sort of sympathy, and details could not -then be recovered, any more than they can now be supplied by conjecture. - -So far as Mahomet may be said from the first to have formulated a -definite notion of his work, we should probably be right in thinking it -to be the restoration of the religion of Abraham, or (as the Koran calls -him) Ibrahim. Though we have no reason for supposing the name of Abraham -or Ishmael to have been known in Mecca generally before Mahomet's time, -the Biblical ethnology was not apparently questioned by those who were -told of it, and there are stories, not necessarily apocryphal, of -precursors of Mahomet going abroad in search of the "religion of -Abraham." One feature of that system, associated in the Bible with the -name of Ishmael as well, was circumcision, which was actually observed -by the Meccan tribes, though it would appear with technical differences -from the Jewish method; the association of monotheism with it would seem -reasonable enough, in view of Jewish traditions, such as Mahomet may -have heard on his travels; why the doctrine of the future life should be -coupled with it is less obvious. That the Meccan temple and its rites -had been founded by these two patriarchs appears to have been deduced by -Mahomet himself, but perhaps at a later stage of his career. That these -rites, so far as they were idolatrous, were in flagrant defiance of the -religion of Abraham must have struck any one who accepted the accounts -of it which were current among Jews and Christians. The precursors, -however, appear to have felt no call to reform their fellow-citizens; -whereas it is evident that Mahomet regarded himself as charged with a -message, which he was bound to deliver, and which his God would in some -way render effective. - -As it was obvious that the claim to be God's mouthpiece was to claim -autocracy, Mahomet employed the utmost caution in his mode of asserting -this claim; on the question of his sincerity there have been different -opinions held, and it is not necessary to take any view on this matter. -For three years his followers were a secret society; and this period -appears to have been preceded by one of private preparation, the first -revelation being received when the Prophet was in religious -retirement--a ceremony called _tahannuth_, of which the meaning is -uncertain, but which can have no connexion with the Hebrew _tehinnoth_ -("supplications")--on Mount Hira, near Mecca. - - - The Koran. - -If the traditional dates assigned to the _suras_ (chapters) of the Koran -(q.v.) are correct, the earliest revelations took the form of pages or -rolls which the Prophet was to read by the "grace of God," as Joseph -Smith, the founder of the Mormon community, said of the power given him -to read the "Egyptian" characters on the gold plates which he had found. -The command to read is accompanied by the statement that "his most -generous Lord had taught man by the pen (_calamus_) that which he did -not know." Waraqah, to whom the event is said to have been communicated -by Khadija, called these communications "the Greater Law (_nomos_)." The -Prophet was directed to communicate his mission at the first only to his -nearest relatives. The utterances were from the first in a sort of -rhyme, such as is said to have been employed for solemn matter in -general, e.g. oracles or prayers. At an early period the production of a -written communication was abandoned for oral communications, delivered -by the Prophet in trance; their delivery was preceded by copious -perspiration, for which the Prophet prepared (in accordance with -instructions found in the Koran) by wrapping himself in a blanket. -Trusty followers were instructed to take these utterances down, but the -phenomena which accompanied their delivery at least in one case -suggested imposture to the scribe, who apostatized in consequence. It is -extraordinary that there is no reason to suppose that any official -record was ever kept of these revelations; the Prophet treated them -somewhat as the Sibyl did her leaves. This carelessness is equally -astounding whether the Prophet was sincere or insincere. - -If the matter afterwards collected in the Koran be genuine, the early -revelations must have been miscellaneous in content, magical, historical -and homiletic. To some strange oaths are prefixed. Apparently the -purpose to be compassed was to convince the audience of their miraculous -origin. The formulation of doctrines belongs to a later period and that -of jurisprudence to the latest of all. In that last period also, when -Mahomet was despot of Medina, the Koran served as an official chronicle, -well compared by Sprenger to the leading articles on current events in a -ministerial organ. Where the continuous paragraph is substituted for the -ejaculation, the divine author apologizes for the style. - -Certain doctrines and practices (e.g. washing of the person and the -garments) must have been enjoined from the first, but our authorities -scarcely give us any clear notion what they were. The doctrines to which -the Prophet himself throughout assigned most value seem to have been the -unity of God and the future life, or resurrection of the body. The -former necessitated the abandonment of the idolatrous worship which -formed part of the daily life of Mecca, and in which Mahomet and Khadija -had been accustomed to take their part. Yet it seems to have been due to -the initiative of the proselytes themselves rather than to the Prophet's -orders that the Meccan worship was actually flouted by them; for the -anecdote which represents the Prophet and his young cousin attempting to -pull down the images in or about the Ka'ba appears to be apocryphal. The -first Moslem ceremony would appear to have been the religious meeting -for the purpose of hearing the delivery of revelations, of which after -the Prophet's death the sermon (_khutbah_) took the place. After various -provisional meeting-places, the house of one al-Arqam on Mt. Safa was -adopted for this purpose; and here proselytes were initiated. - - - Growth of the Early Community. - -The names which the new community received from its founder are both -philological puzzles; for the natural sense of Moslem (_Muslim_) appear -to be "traitors," and to this a contemporary war-song of Mahomet's -enemies alludes; while _Hanif_ (especially applied in the Koran to -Abraham) seems to be the Hebrew word for "hypocrite." The former is -explained in the Koran to mean "one who hands over his face or person to -God," and is said to have been invented by Abraham; of the latter no -explanation is given, but it seems to signify from the context -"devotee." Since the divine name _Rahman_ was at one time favoured by -Mahomet, and this was connected with one Maslama of the tribe Hanifa, -who figures in politics at the end of Mahomet's career but must have -been a religious leader far earlier, it has been suggested that the -names originally belonged to Maslama's community. The honour of having -been Mahomet's first convert is claimed for three persons: his wife -Khadija, his cousin Ali, who must have been a lad at the commencement of -the mission, and Abu Bekr, son of Abu Quhafah, afterwards Mahomet's -first successor. This last person became Mahomet's _alter ego_, and is -usually known as the _Siddiq_ (Heb. word signifying "the saint," but to -the Arabs meaning "faithful friend)". His loyalty from first to last was -absolutely unswerving; he was selected to accompany Mahomet on the most -critical occasion of his life, the Flight from Mecca; Mahomet is said to -have declared that had he ever made a confidant of any one, that person -would have been Abu Bekr; implying that there were things which were not -confided even to him. The success of the Prophet's enterprise seems to -have been very largely due to the part played by this adherent, who -possessed a variety of attainments which he put at Mahomet's service; -who when an intermediary was required was always ready to represent him, -and who placed the commendation of the Prophet above every other -consideration, private or public. The two appear to have regularly laid -siege to those persons in Mecca whose adherence was desirable; and the -ability which many of the earlier converts afterwards displayed, whether -as statesmen or generals, is a remarkable testimony to their power of -gauging men. It seems clear that the growth of wealth in Mecca had led -to the accentuation of the difference between persons of different -station, and that many were discontented with the oligarchy which -governed the city. Converts could, therefore, be won without serious -difficulty among the aliens and in general those who suffered under -various disqualifications. Some members of the Jewish community seem -also to have joined; and some relics of the Abyssinian expedition (i.e. -descendants of the invaders). Among the most important converts of the -Meccan period were Mahomet's uncle Hamza, afterwards for his valour -called "the Lion of God"; 'Abd al-Rahman (Abdar-rahman) son of 'Auf; -Othman, son of 'Affan, who married two of the Prophet's daughters -successively, and was Mahomet's third successor; and, more important -than any save Abu Bekr, Omar, son of al-Khattab, a man of extraordinary -force of character, to whom siege seems to have been laid with -extraordinary skill. At some time he received the honourable title -_Faruq_ ("Deliverer"); he is represented as regularly favouring force, -where Abu Bekr favoured gentle methods; unlike Abu Bekr, his loyalty was -not always above suspicion. His adherence is ascribed to the period of -publicity. - -The secrecy which marked its early years was of the greatest value for -the eventual success of the mission; for when Mahomet came forward -publicly he was already the head of a band of united followers. His own -family appear to have been either firm adherents, or violent enemies, or -lukewarm and temporizing--this is the best which can be said for 'Abbas, -eponymus of the Abbasid dynasty; or finally espousers of his cause, on -family grounds, but not as believers. - - - First Period of Publicity. - -Rejecting accounts of Mahomet's first appearance as a public preacher, -which are evidently comments on a text of the Koran, we have reason for -supposing that his hand was forced by ardent followers, who many times -in his career compelled him to advance. The astute rulers of the -community perceived that the claim made by Mahomet was to be dictator or -autocrat; and while this was naturally ridiculed by them, some appear to -have been devoted adherents of the gods or goddesses whom he attacked. -The absence of dated documents for the period between this open -proclamation (which in any case commenced before 616) and the Flight to -Medina in 622 renders the course of events somewhat conjectural, though -certain details appear to be well established. Apparently there was a -war of words, followed by a resort to diplomacy and then to force; and -then a period in which Mahomet's attention was directed to foreign -conversions, resulting in his being offered and accepting the -dictatorship of Yathrib. - -Of the war of words we have an imperfect record in the Meccan suras of -the Koran, which occasionally state the objections urged by the -opponents. In the course of the debate the theological position of both -parties seems to have shifted, and the knowledge of both was probably -increased in various ways. The miracle of the Koran, which at first -consisted in its mode of production, was transformed into a marvel -connected with its contents; first by Mahomet's claiming to tell -historical narratives which had previously been unknown to him; -afterwards by the assertion that the united efforts of mankind and Jinn -would be unable to match the smallest passage of the Koran in sublimity. -Probably the first of these claims could not be long maintained, though -A. J. Davis, "the Seer of Poughkeepsie," in our own time brought a -similar one in regard to his _Principles of Nature_. Indeed both parties -evidently resorted to external aid. To those who undertook to name the -man who dictated stories of the ancients to Mahomet day and night, he -replied that the individual whom they had in mind was a foreigner, -whereas the Koran was in pure Arabic. This was obviously a quibble, for -it was scarcely asserted that he delivered the matter dictated to him -without alteration. The purity of the Arabic also appears to have been -very questionable; for several expressions appear to be Ethiopic rather -than Arabic, and the person whom the Meccans had in mind is likely to -have been an Abyssinian Christian, since the Christian technicalities of -the Koran are mainly derived from the Ethiopic Gospels and Acts. On one -occasion when some questions suggested by learned foreigners had been -propounded to the Prophet he required a fortnight's delay before the -revelation which solved them came; the matter contained in his reply was -certainly such as required research. His sources of information seem at -all times to have been legendary rather than canonical; and the -community which seemed to his opponents to agree best with his views was -that of the Sabians or Mandaeans (qq.v.). - -It has been suggested that Mahomet first threatened the Meccans with -temporal punishment, and only when this threat failed to take effect -resorted to the terrors of the Day of Judgment and the tortures of Hell; -it seems however a mistake to distinguish between the two. These threats -provided the Prophet with his most powerful sermons. The boasts of -incomparable eloquence which the Koran contains are evidence that his -oratorical power was effective with his audiences, since the more -successful among the Arabic poets talk of their compositions somewhat in -the same way. These discourses certainly led to occasional conversions, -perhaps more frequently among women than men. - - - The Exiles in Axum. - -The diplomatic war seems to have been due to the Prophet's increasing -success, which led to serious persecution of Mahomet's less influential -followers, though, as has been seen, no blood could be shed in Mecca. -Abu Talib, moreover, prevented him from being exiled, though he probably -had to endure many personal insults. Something however had to be done -for the persecuted Moslems, and (perhaps at the suggestion of his -Abyssinian helper) Mahomet endeavoured to find a refuge for them in the -realm of Axum. Abyssinia was doubtless connected in every Meccan mind -with the "Expedition of the Elephant"; and such an alliance secured by -Mahomet was a menace to the existence of the Meccan community. A -deputation was therefore sent by the Meccan leaders to demand -extradition of the exiles; and as chief of this expedition the future -conqueror of Egypt, 'Amr b. al-'As (see 'AMR IBN EL-ASS), first figures -in history. To frustrate his efforts Mahomet sent his cousin Ja'far -armed with an exposition of the Prophet's beliefs and doctrines -afterwards embodied in the Koran as the Sura of Mary (No. XIX.; though -with the addition of some anti-Christian matter). The original document -contained an account of the Nativity of Christ with various miracles not -known to either the canonical or even the apocryphal gospels which have -been preserved, but which would be found edifying rather than unorthodox -by a church one of whose most popular books is _The Miracles of the -Virgin Mary_. To this there were added certain notices of Old Testament -prophets. The Abyssinian king and his ecclesiastical advisers took the -side of Mahomet and his followers, whom they appear to have regarded as -persecuted Christians; and an attempt made probably by the astute 'Amr -to embroil them with the Abyssinians on the difficult question of the -Natures of Christ failed completely. There seems reason for thinking -that the Abyssinian king contemplated bringing back the exiles by force, -but was diverted from this purpose by frontier wars; meanwhile they were -safely harboured, though they seem to have suffered from extreme -poverty. The want of an Abyssinian chronicle for this period is a -serious disadvantage for the study of Islamic origins. The sequel shows -that regular correspondence went on between the exiles and those who -remained in Mecca, whence the former were retained within the fold of -Islam, with occasional though rare apostasies to Christianity. - -Mahomet's diplomatic victory roused the Meccan leaders to fury, and they -decided on the most vigorous measures to which they could rise; Abu -Talib, Mahomet's protector, and the clan which acknowledged him as -_sheikh_, including the Prophet and his family, were blockaded in the -quarter which they occupied; as in other sanctuaries, though blood might -not be shed, a culprit might be starved to death. That this did not -occur, though the siege appears to have lasted some months at least, was -due to the weak good nature of the Meccans, but doubtless also to the -fact that there were enlisted on Mahomet's side many men of great -physical strength and courage (as their subsequent careers proved), who -could with impunity defy the Meccan embargo. After a time however the -besieged found the situation intolerable, and any assistance which they -might have expected from the king of Axum failed to come. The course -adopted by Mahomet was retractation of those of his utterances which had -most offended the Meccans, involving something like a return to -paganism. A revelation came acknowledging the effectiveness of the -Meccan goddesses as well as Allah, and the Meccans raised the siege. -News of the reconciliation reached the Abyssinian exiles and they -proceeded to return. - -By the time they reached the Arabian coast the dispute had recommenced. -The revelation was discovered to be a fabrication of the Devil, who, it -appears, regularly interpolates in prophetic revelations; such at least -is the apology preserved in the Koran, whence the fabricated verses have -been expunged. Since our knowledge of this episode (regarded as the most -disgraceful in the Prophet's career) is fragmentary, we can only guess -that the Prophet's hand had once more been forced by the more earnest of -his followers, for whom any compromise with paganism was impossible. The -exiles went back to Abyssinia; and about this time both Abu Talib and -Khadija died, leaving the Prophet unprotected. - -He fled to the neighbouring oasis of Taif, where wealthy Meccans had -possessions, and where the goddess al-'Uzza was worshipped with special -zeal--where she is said still to exist in the form of a block of stone. -He had but little success there in proselytizing, and indeed had to -cease preaching; but he opened negotiations with various Meccan magnates -for a promise of protection in case of his return. This was at last -obtained with difficulty from one Mot'im b. 'Adi. It would appear that -his efforts were now confined to preaching to the strangers who -assembled at or near Mecca for the ceremonies connected with the feasts. -He received in consequence some invitations to come and expound his -views away from Mecca, but had to wait some time before one came of a -sort which he could wisely accept. - - - The Flight to Yathrib. - -The situation which led to Mahomet's Flight (_hijra_, anglicized -incorrectly _hejira_, q.v.) was singularly favourable to Mahomet's -enterprise, and utilized by him with extraordinary caution and skill. At -the palm plantation called Yathrib, afterwards known as _al-Medina_, -Medina, "the City" (i.e. of the Prophet), there were various tribes, the -two most important, called Aus and Khazraj, being pagan, and engaged in -an internecine feud, while under their protection there were certain -Jewish tribes, whose names have come down to us as Qainuqa, Nadir and -Quraiza--implying that the Israelites, as might be expected, imitated -the totem nomenclature of their neighbours. The memory of these -Israelites is exclusively preserved by the Moslem records; the main -stream of Jewish history flowed elsewhere. In the series of combats -between the Aus and Khazraj the former had generally been worsted; the -Jews, as usual, had avoided taking any active part in the fray. Finally, -owing to an act of gross perfidy, they were compelled to fight in aid of -the Aus; and in the so-called battle of Bu'ath the Aus aided by the Jews -had won a victory, doubtless attributed to the God of the Jews. As has -been seen, the divine name employed by Mahomet (_Rahman_) was one -familiar to the Jews; and the Yathribites who visited Mecca at -feast-time were naturally attracted by a professed representative of -al-Rahman. The first Yathribite converts appear to have been -Khazrajites, and one As'ad, son of Zurarah, is the most prominent -figure. Their idea may have been in the first place to secure the aid of -the Israelitish Deity in their next battle with the Aus, and indeed the -primary object of their visit to Mecca is said to have been to request -assistance for their war. For this the plan was substituted of inviting -the Prophet to come to Mecca as dictator, to heal the feud and restore -order, a procedure to which Greek antiquity offers parallels. The new -converts were told to carry on secret propaganda in Yathrib with this -end in view. At the next feast some of the rival faction embraced Islam. -A trusty follower of Mahomet, Mus'ab b.'Umair, who resembled Mahomet in -personal appearance, was sent to Yathrib to assist in the work. The -correspondence between this person and the Prophet would, if we -possessed it, be of the greatest value for the study of Islamic -antiquity. We first hear at this time of _the conditions of Islam_, i.e. -a series of undertakings into which the convert entered: namely, to -abstain from adultery, theft, infanticide and lying, and to obey Mahomet -_in licitis et honestis_. The wholesale conversion of Yathrib was -determined by that of two chieftains, Usaid b. Huraith and Sa'd b. -Mu'adh, both Ausites. The example of these was quickly followed, and -iconoclasm became rife in the place. At the next Meccan feast a -deputation of seventy Yathribites brought Mahomet a formal invitation, -which he accepted, after imposing certain conditions. The interviews -between Mahomet and the Yathribites are known as the _'Aqabah_ (probably -with reference to a text of the Koran). The attitude of the Jews towards -the project appears to have been favourable. - - - The Refugees. - -Among the conditions imposed by Mahomet on his new adherents appears to -have been the protection and harbouring of the older proselytes, whom -Mahomet most wisely determined to send before him to Yathrib, where, in -the event of the Yathribite loyalty wavering, they could be counted on -with certainty. The welcome given these refugees (_muhajirun_), as they -were from this time known in contra-distinction to the helpers (_ansar_) -or allies from Yathrib, is said to have been of the warmest; a Helper -with two wives would hand one over to a wifeless Refugee. A yet more -important condition which preceded the Flight was readiness to fight men -of all colours in defence of the faith. - -Although the transactions with the people of Yathrib had been carried on -with profound secrecy, the nature of Mahomet's contract with his new -adherents was somewhat divulged to the Meccan magnates, and the danger -of allowing an implacable enemy to establish himself on the high-road of -their north-bound caravans flashed upon them. The rule which forbade -bloodshed in the sacred city had at last to be suspended; but elaborate -precautions were to be taken whereby every tribe (except Mahomet's own -clan) should have their share in the guilt, which would thus be spread -over the whole community fairly. When the committee appointed to -perpetrate the crime reached Mahomet's house, they found that it was too -late; Mahomet had already departed, leaving Ali in his bed. - -The actual Flight from Mecca to Yathrib has naturally been a favourite -subject for romance, and indeed appears to have been executed with the -greatest cunning. Accompanied by Abu Bekr only, Mahomet took refuge in a -cave of Mt Thaur, in the opposite direction to that which he intended to -take finally, and there remained for three days; provision had been made -of every requisite, food, powerful camels, a trusty and competent guide. -The date at which he reached Kuba, on the outskirts of Yathrib, where -there was already some sort of Moslem oratory, is given as 8 Rabia I., -of the year A.H. 1; the fact that he arrived there on the Jewish Day of -Atonement gives us the date September 20, 622. The Meccans, who had -employed professional trackers to hunt down the fugitives, proceeded to -confiscate the houses and goods of Mahomet and of his followers who had -fled. - - - Mahomet as Despot of Yathrib. - -The safe arrival of Mahomet at his destination marks the turning-point -in his career, which now became one of almost unbroken success; his -intellectual superiority over both friends and enemies enabling him to -profit by defeat little less than by victory. His policy appears to have -been to bind his followers to himself and them to each other by every -possible tie; he instituted brotherhoods between the Refugees and -Helpers, which were to count as relationships for legal purposes, and -having himself no sons, he contracted numerous marriages partly with the -same end in view; e.g. with the infant daughter of Abu Bekr, Ayesha -('A'ishah), whose ability he appears to have discerned; and the -unamiable Hafsa, daughter of Omar. Of his own daughters three were given -to faithful allies, the one by whom his line is supposed to have been -continued to our time, Fatima, was reserved for his cousin Ali. Owing to -his efforts the alliance between the Refugees and Helpers resisted -numerous attempts on the part of enemies to break it up, and only -towards the end of the Prophet's life, when he appeared to favour -Meccans unduly, do we hear of any bitterness between the two -communities. - - - The Medina Community. - -The population of Yathrib, or, as it may now be called, Medina, soon -divided into three groups: Mahomet's united followers; the Jews; and a -party known as the "Hypocrites," i.e. professing Moslems, who were -lukewarm, or disaffected, among whom the most prominent is 'Abdallah b. -Ubayy, a Khazrajite chieftain, who is said to have himself aspired to be -despot of Yathrib, and who till nearly the end of Mahomet's career -figures somewhat as a leader of the opposition; of his importance there -is no question, but the reason for it and the mode whereby he made it -felt are often obscure. It would seem that the pagans remaining in -Yathrib speedily adopted Islam after the Prophet's arrival, whence we -hear little of serious opposition on their part. Coming in the capacity -of prophet of the Israelitish God, Mahomet at first seems to have -courted alliance with the Jews, and to have been ready to adopt their -system with very slight modifications--similar to those which, according -to his opinion, Jesus had come to introduce. The Jews met these advances -by submitting him to examination in the intricacies of the _Torah_, and, -finding him very poorly equipped, proceeded to denounce him as an -imposter; one of his examiners is said to have even translated the -_Torah_ into Arabic with a view of convicting him of ignorance and -imposture. They are' further charged with exercising their magical arts -on the Prophet and his followers, and to have succeeded thereby in -producing barrenness among the Moslem women. Their conduct must not of -course be judged by the statement of their enemies; it is however clear -that Mahomet soon found that there was no possibility of compromising -with them on religious questions, or of obtaining their loyal support; -meanwhile he discovered that they were incapable of united and -persistent action, and useless as warriors except against each other. He -therefore resolved on their extermination. His ruthlessness in their -case compared with his patience and forbearance in the case of the -"Hypocrites" was consistent with his principle (always faithfully -observed) that no inquiry was permissible into the motives of -conversion, and with his division of mankind into the two antagonistic -factions Believers and Unbelievers. The latter principle, as will be -seen, was somewhat modified before the end of his life. - - - Development of Islam. - -Mahomet's failure to effect a compromise with the Jews caused a reaction -in his mind towards paganism, and after about a year's residence at -Medina the direction of prayer, which had till then been towards -Jerusalem, was turned southward to the pagan temple at Mecca. With this -change we may perhaps couple the adoption of the name _Allah_ for the -Deity; in the Moslem formula "in the Name of Allah the Rahman the -Merciful," the translation attached to the word _Rahman_, and the -prefixing to it of the name _Allah_ furnish clear evidence of -theological transition, though the stages are not recorded; we know, -however, that the Meccans approved of the name _Allah_, but objected to -the name _Rahman_. Prayer (_salat_), said to have been prescribed on the -occasion of the Prophet's ascent into heaven after a miraculous journey -from Mecca to Jerusalem, began to assume a stereotyped form in the place -of assembly built by Mahomet immediately after his arrival; the -attitudes of prayer in use among many communities (e.g. the Jewish -standing, the prostration of some Christian sects) were combined. In -general it was Mahomet's principle, while taking over a practice from -some other sect, to modify it so as to render the Moslem method -absolutely distinct; thus when a summons to prayer became requisite, a -new mode (by the voice of a crier called _muaddhin_ or _muezzin_) was -preferred to the Christian hammer; a new sacred day was adopted, in lieu -of the Jewish Saturday and the Christian Sunday, in the weekday on which -he had safely reached Kuba, Friday; but the sanctity was reduced to the -actual time occupied by public worship. On the subject of food he was -satisfied with the regulations of the Council of Jerusalem, recorded in -Acts xv.; which were observed by few if any Christian sects. The -prohibition of wine, which was enacted in A.H. 3, is said to have been -occasioned by the riotous conduct of one of his followers when under the -influence of liquor; Palgrave saw in it (perhaps with justice) a -deliberate attempt to prevent harmony between Moslems and Christians, in -whose most sacred rite wine is used. The Fast of Ramadan, in which food -both liquid and solid is forbidden from sunrise to sunset, is said to be -a pagan or semi-pagan institution; its importance for military training -and discipline is not likely to have been overlooked by the Prophet. -When the direction of prayer was altered, it is probable that Mahomet -already intended to introduce into his system the whole of the pagan -pilgrimage with its antique ceremonial (with, of course, a new -interpretation); before this he is supposed to have aimed at the -abolition of the Ka'ba and all that appertained to it. - -The difference between religious and civil law has never been recognized -by Islamic jurists, whose manuals deal equally with the law of contract -and the amount of the body to be washed before prayer; the Prophet's -ordinances on both subjects were suggested by the occasion in each case, -and it would seem that the opinions of trusted advisers were regularly -heard before a revelation was issued. Even when this had been done the -ordinance might be cancelled by an abrogating revelation; it being "easy -for Allah" to substitute for a text already revealed another that was -better or at least as good. - -As Islam began to spread outside the limits of Medina both conversion to -Islam and persistence therein were reduced to simple tests; the -pronunciation of the double formula of belief in Allah and Mahomet was -sufficient to indicate conversion, whilst payment of an income-tax, -called by the Jewish names for alms (_zakat_ and _sadaqah_), was -evidence of loyalty. This income-tax, of which the definite assessment -perhaps belongs to a later period, was for the support of necessitous -converts--an element in the community whose presence accounts for the -mode in which the development of the Islamic state proceeded. - - - First Campaigns of Mahomet. - -The industries in which the Meccan Refugees had been engaged were not of -a sort which they could exercise at Medina, where the palm took the -place of the camel as the basis of society. Moreover the Prophet seems -to have given some disastrous advice on the subject of palmiculture, and -thereby to have accentuated the poverty of the place. He had, therefore, -to find some fresh source of revenue in order to deal with this -difficulty, and one of the Helpers is said to have suggested the plan -which he adopted, viz. of attacking the Meccan caravans. With this view -he organized a series of expeditions, taking the lead himself sometimes, -while at others he gave it to one of his veteran followers; and at first -only Refugees took part in them. The leaders of the caravans, however, -were expert in evading attacks of this sort, which were doubtless -regularly attempted by the desert tribes; and in the first year of his -despotism Mahomet did not score a single success of the kind intended. -The attempts were not wholly fruitless; for while on the one hand he -accustomed his followers to campaigning, on the other he made a series -of agreements with the chieftains of the tribes through whose territory -the caravans ordinarily passed. Finding continued failure intolerable, -he resolved to take advantage of his power to bind and to loose by -sending an expedition of seven men under his cousin 'Abdallah b. Jahsh -to attack a caravan at the beginning of the sacred month Rajab, when, as -raiding during such a season was unknown, success was practically -certain. The commander on this, the Nakhlah raid, was given sealed -orders, to be opened after two days' march; the men were then to be -given the option of retiring, if they disapproved. Of this no one seems -definitely to have availed himself, and the raid ended successfully, for -considerable booty was captured, while of the four persons who escorted -the caravan two were made prisoners, one escaped, and one, 'Amr b. -al-Hadrami, was killed; he was the first person slain fighting against -an Islamic force. The violation of the sacred month seems to have caused -considerable scandal in Arabia, but led to no serious consequence; on -the other hand the shedding of blood created a feud between the people -of Mecca and the Refugees, with whom the Meccans long declined to -identify the people of Medina. The fact that the man who had been killed -was a client, not a citizen, made no difference. The circumstance that -booty had been actually acquired appears to have helped the Prophet's -cause very considerably. - - - Attack on Meccan Caravan. - -Both these consequences, the Meccan desire to avenge the blood that had -been shed and the anxiety of the Medinese to take part in a successful -raid, manifested themselves a few months later, when an expedition was -organized by Mahomet to attack a caravan returning from Syria, which had -escaped him the previous year. Many desired to take part in the raid, -and finally some 300 persons were selected, including a large number of -"Helpers." The leader of the caravan learned somehow that an attack was -being organized by Mahomet on a large scale, and sent to Mecca for aid, -while hurrying home by forced marches. This is the first historical -appearance of Abu Sofian (the leader of the caravan), who now for some -years played the part of president in the Meccan opposition to Mahomet, -and whose son was destined to found the second Mahommedan dynasty (see -CALIPHATE, B). The day before the battle to be fought at Badr, near the -point where the northern road leaves the coast to turn eastwards to -Mecca, the Moslem army learned that the Meccan succour (some 1000 -strong) was near, but that the caravan had escaped. The Meccans, it is -asserted, would have returned home now that their object was secured, -but the patrons of the man who had been killed in the former raid were -compelled to strike for vengeance. - -The battle (Ramadan 19, A.H. 2, usually made to synchronize with March -17, 624) ended in a complete victory for Mahomet, whose followers killed -seventy of the enemy and took seventy prisoners--if we may trust what -seem to be round numbers; it was attributed by him to divine -co-operation, taking the form of an illusion wrought on the enemy, and -the despatch of a regiment of angels to the assistance of the Believers, -while on the other hand the treachery of the Devil did mischief to the -Meccans. The popular tradition attributed it to the prowess of some of -Mahomet's followers, especially his uncle Hamza and his cousin Ali. In -the narratives which have come down and which seem to be authentic the -result is amply accounted for by the excellence of the Moslem discipline -and the complete absence of any on the Meccan side. Mahomet himself is -said to have fainted at the first sight of blood, and to have remained -during the battle in a hut built for him to which swift camels were -tied, to be used in case of a defeat; yet these accounts make him -responsible for the tactics, whilst assigning the credit for the -strategy to one Hobab b. al-Mondhir. Several of Mahomet's old enemies -and friends of Meccan days perished on this occasion; notably one Abu -Jahl, his uncle, but represented as an implacable enemy; another hostile -uncle, Abu Lahab, who is cursed in the Koran, was not present but died -shortly after the battle. - -The day is called in the Koran by a Syriac expression the "Day of -Deliverance," and both for internal and external politics it was of -incalculable advantage to Islam. The booty and the ransoms of the -prisoners provided the means for dealing with distress; the story of -supernatural aid soothed the feelings of the defeated Meccans and had a -tendency to disarm resistance elsewhere; whilst Mahomet in the -popularity acquired by his victory was able to strike forcibly at his -enemies in Medina. One of the sequels to the victory was a series of -assassinations whereby critics of his actions were removed. - - - The Taking of Mecca. - -The defeat at Badr naturally led to efforts on the part of the Meccans -to avenge their dead and besides to secure the commerce, by which they -lived, from an enemy who was gradually getting all the seaboard that lay -between Jeddah and Yanbo within his sphere of influence; and the year -after Badr (A.H. 3) Abu Sofian was able to lead a force said to be three -times as great as that which had been defeated, and so numbering some -3000 men, against Medina itself; part of it was under Khalid b. -al-Walid, one of the greatest of Arab captains, afterwards conqueror of -Syria. It is said that Mahomet's plan was to remain in Medina itself, -and leave it to the Meccan commander to discover some way of taking the -place; but that his hand was forced by his more ardent followers. -Others, however, assign this advice to Abdallah b. Ubayy, and make the -Prophet anxious to fight from the first. A battle was in consequence -fought under Mt Uhud (or Ohod), north-west of Medina, wherein Khalid -succeeded in inflicting a severe defeat on Mahomet's forces; his uncle -Hamza, hero of Badr, was killed on this occasion. Fortunately for the -Moslems, the Meccans considered that they had finished their task when -they discovered that they had killed a number of the former equal to -those who had fallen at Badr on their own side; instead therefore of -pursuing their victory they went home. The immediate effect on Arabia -appears to have been to dissipate the illusion that the Prophet could -count on supernatural assistance in his wars; and we hear of some blows -being dealt him from outside. Meanwhile his relations towards the -Medinese Jews had grown more and more hostile, and these are credited -with doing their best to rouse the Meccans to a sense of the danger -which threatened them in the continuance of the Prophet's power, and in -general to stir up hostility against him in Arabia. Whether this part -was played by them or not, in the fifth year of the Prophet's stay at -Medina a fresh invasion of the territory took place by a vast -confederate force of Meccans with their allies, the tribes Fazarah, -Asad, Murrah, &c., to the number, it is said, of 10,000. This time the -intention of the leaders was undoubtedly to stamp out Islam. For the -first time in Arab warfare Mahomet resorted to the expedient of -defending his city by a trench, called by a Persian name, and suggested -by a Persian convert. But he also employed agents to sow dissension -among the confederates, and succeeded with this no less than with the -other expedient. After a brief stay, and scarcely striking a blow, the -confederacy dispersed, leaving the Jews who still remained in Medina to -the summary vengeance of the Prophet. The want of records written from -the Meccan standpoint renders the abortiveness of this last attempt at -storming the Prophet's stronghold scarcely intelligible. - -From this time, however, the road towards the eventual taking of Mecca -became easy, and we are told that such was the importance attached to -that city throughout Arabia that its acquisition meant for the Prophet -the acquisition of the whole peninsula. The next year (A.H. 6) he deemed -it advisable to make a truce with the Meccans (the Truce of Hodaibiyah), -whereby he secured for his followers the right of performing the -pilgrimage in the following year; on this occasion he even consented to -forgo his title "Prophet of Allah," when the Meccans refused to sign a -deed in which it was employed, greatly to the scandal of his more -earnest followers, including Omar; they were however too deeply -committed to Islam to be able to defy the Prophet. When the pilgrimage -was performed (A.H. 7), Mahomet not only won important converts in the -persons of Khalid and the no less able 'Amr b. al-'As, but in general -impressed the population with the idea that his was the winning side. An -excuse was easily found for invading Mecca itself in the following year, -when Abu Sofian took the opportunity of embracing Islam before it was -too late. Very little resistance was now made by the Meccans, whose -chiefs were already in Mahomet's camp, and Mahomet used his victory with -great moderation; his proscription list was finally reduced to two. The -theory that all offences were cancelled by conversion was loyally -observed. Moreover the Prophet incurred the displeasure of his Medinese -friends by the anxiety which he displayed to soothe the feelings of his -former enemies and antagonists. The Medinese, however, prevailed upon -him to maintain their city as his political capital, while making Mecca -the religious centre of his system; and this arrangement accounts -perhaps more than anything else for the persistence of the system amid -so many dynastic changes. - -In the main he appears to have introduced little alteration into the -government of Mecca, and it is said that he even declined to retaliate -on those who had confiscated the possessions of the Refugees. Even the -Ka'ba was left in the keeping of its former custodian, though of course -its interior as well as its precincts were cleansed of all that could -offend monotheists. In the following year the pilgrimage was for the -first time conducted by a Moslem official, Abu Bekr. A proclamation was -made on that occasion, forbidding idolaters in future to take part in -the pilgrimage, and giving all Arabs who were not as yet converted four -months' grace before force was to be brought to bear upon them. In the -following year Mahomet conducted the Pilgrimage himself. This solemn -occasion (the "Farewell Pilgrimage") was also employed for the delivery -of an important proclamation, wherein the Prophet declared that God had -completed their religion. The principle whereon he specially insisted -was the brotherhood of Islam; but there is some difficulty in -enucleating the original sermon from later additions. - - - Conquest of Arabia. - -It would seem that Mahomet's enterprise originally comprised the -conversion of Mecca only, and that he thought of himself as sent to his -fellow-citizens only, as had been the case with earlier prophets, whose -message was for their "brethren." His views took a somewhat different -direction after his brief exile to Taif, and the conquest of Arabia was -in a way forced upon him in the course of his struggle with the Meccans. -It is not indeed perfectly clear by what process he arrived at the -resolution to exclude paganism from Arabia; at first he appears to have -tolerated it at Medina, and in some of his earlier contracts with -neighbouring tribes he is represented as allowing it, though some of our -texts make him reserve to himself the right of enforcing Islam if he -chose; only the Meccans were at first, according to the most authentic -documents, excluded from all truce or treaty. At the battle of Badr he -appears to have formulated the rule that no one might fight on his side -who had not embraced Islam; and when once he had won fame as a -successful campaigner, those who wished to share his adventures had to -pass the Islamic test. After the battle of Uhud (Ohod) we hear of a -tribe demanding missionaries to instruct them in Islamic principles; and -though in the case recorded the demand was treacherous, the idea of -sending missionaries appears not to have been unfamiliar even then, -albeit the number sent (70), if rightly recorded, implies that the -Prophet suspected the good faith of the applicants. After the taking of -Mecca, whereby the chief sanctuary at any rate of north Arabia had been -cleared of all idolatrous associations, and consecrated to monotheism, -paganism in general was conscious of being attacked; and the city had -scarcely been brought under the new regime before the Prophet had to -face a confederation of tribes called Hawazin and Thaqif. The battle -which ensued, known as the Day of Honain, was near ending disastrously -for Islam; some of Mahomet's sturdiest followers fled; but the terrible -danger of a defeat in the neighbourhood of recently conquered Mecca -roused the Prophet and Ali to heroism, and they saved the day. -Emissaries were now sent far and wide demanding the destruction of -idols, and only Taif appears to have made any considerable resistance; -against this place for the first time the Prophet made use of siege -artillery, such as was employed by the Byzantines; though compelled by -the bravery of the inhabitants to raise the siege, he was afterwards -able to take the city by capitulation. It has been observed that here -only do we read of much attachment to the old deities; in most places -they were discarded with few regrets when once their impotence had been -found out. After the taking of Mecca and the victory of Honain there -appears to have been a general desire, extending even to the extreme -south of Arabia, to make the best terms with the conqueror so soon as -possible; iconoclasm became general. Flatterers of various kinds, -including poets, came to seek the favour of the sovereign; and a mock -war of words appears to have been substituted by some tribes for more -serious fighting, to terminate in surrender. For warfare of his sort -Mahomet had a powerful helper in the poet Hassan b. Thabit, for whose -effusions a pulpit was erected in the Medina mosque, and whose verses -were said to be inspired by the Holy Spirit; though, as has been seen, -Mahomet was not himself able to judge of their artistic merit. It was -not, however, found easy to enforce the payment of the alms on these new -converts; and this taxation caused an almost general revolt so soon as -Mahomet's death had been ascertained. - - - Plan of World-conquest. - -Although the central portions of the peninsula in Mahomet's time were -practically independent, large portions of the north-west and south-east -were provinces of the Byzantine and Persian empires respectively, whence -any scheme for the conquest of Arabia would necessarily involve the -conqueror in war with these great powers. The conquest of Persia is said -to have been contemplated by the Prophet as early as A.H. 5, when the -famous Trench was being dug; but it was not till the year A.H. 7, on the -eve of the taking of Mecca, that the Prophet conceived the idea of -sending missives to all known sovereigns and potentates, promising them -safety if, but only if, they embraced Islam. The text of these letters, -which only varied in the name of the person addressed, is preserved -(doubtless faithfully) by the Moslem Oral Tradition; in the middle of -the last century a French explorer professed to discover in Egypt the -original of one of them--addressed to the mysterious personage called -the Muqauqis (Mukaukis) of Egypt--and this, it appears, is still -preserved amid other supposed relics of the Prophet in Constantinople, -though there is little reason for believing it to be genuine. The -anecdotes dealing with the reception of these letters by their -addressees are all fabulous in character. Two appear to have sent -favourable replies: the king of Axum, who now could send the exiles whom -he had so long harboured to their successful master; and the Egyptian -governor, who sent Mahomet a valuable present, including two Coptic -women for his harem. The emperor Heraclius is claimed as a secret -convert to Islam, on whom pressure had to be put by his advisers to -conceal his convictions. The Persian king is said to have sent orders to -have Mahomet arrested; his messengers arrived in Medina, but were unable -to carry out the commands of their master, who died while they were -there. Two of the letters are said to have had important results. One -was addressed to the Himyarite chiefs (called by the south Arabian -appellation _qail_) in Yemen, and effected their conversion; another to -the governor of Bostra in Roman Arabia, who put the bearer of this -insolent message to death; a force was despatched by Mahomet immediately -afterwards (beginning of A.H. 8) to avenge this outrage; and though the -Moslems were defeated in their first encounter with the Byzantine forces -at Mutah, they appear to have given a good account of themselves; it was -here that Ja'far, cousin of the Prophet, met his death. In A.H. 9 a -successful expedition was led by the Prophet himself northward, in -which, though no Byzantine force was encountered, a considerable region -was withdrawn from the Byzantine sphere of influence, and made either -Islamic or tributary to Islam. At the time of his death (of fever, after -a short illness) he was organizing an expedition for the conquest of -Syria. - - - Jewish and Christian Communities. - -The Prophet claimed throughout that his revelation confirmed the Jewish -and Christian Scriptures, and this claim is on the whole reasonable, -though his acquaintance with both was in the highest degree vague and -inaccurate. Still he reproduced the Old Testament as faithfully as he -could, and though he patriotically endeavours to shed some lustre on his -supposed ancestor Ishmael, he does not appear to have questioned the -Biblical theory according to which the founder of the north Arabian -nations was the son of a slave girl. On neither the truth of the -Biblical history and miracles nor the validity of the Mosaic legislation -does he appear to have cast any doubt. He even allows that Israel was -the chosen people. The Gospel was known to him chiefly through -apocryphal and heretical sources, which cannot certainly be identified; -but he accepted the doctrine of the Virgin-birth, the miracles of -healing the sick and raising the dead, and the ascension; the -crucifixion and resurrection were clearly denied by the sect from whom -he had received his information, and rejected by him, though certainly -not because of any miracle which the latter involved. His quarrel with -the Jews at Medina appears to have been by no means of his own seeking, -but to have arisen unavoidably, owing to his particular view of his -office being such as they could not accept; and his attempt to -discredit, not the Mosaic Law, but the form in which they presented it, -was an expedient to which he resorted in self-defence. An attempt was -made shortly after his arrival at Medina to settle the relations between -the two communities by a treaty, according to which, while their -equality was guaranteed there should be little interference between the -two; this, however, was found unworkable, and each victory of Mahomet -over the Meccans was followed by violent measures against the Medinese -Israelites. When experience had shown him their military incompetence he -appears to have been unable to resist the temptation to appropriate -their goods for the benefit of his followers; and his attack on the -flourishing Jewish settlement of Khaibar, after the affair of -Hodaibiyah, appears to have been practically unprovoked, and designed to -satisfy his discontented adherents by an accession of plunder. Yet the -consciousness that this process was economically wasteful suggested to -him an idea which Islamic states are only now abandoning, viz. that of a -tolerated caste, who should till the soil and provide sustenance for the -Believers who were to be the fighting caste. Whereas then his former -plan in dealing with Israelites had been to banish or massacre, he now -left the former owners of Khaibar (who had survived the capture of the -place) in possession of the soil, of whose produce they were to pay a -fixed proportion to the Islamic state. The same principle was adopted in -the case of later conquests of Jewish settlements. - -Disputes with Christians occur somewhat later in the Prophet's career -than those with Jews, for neither at Mecca nor Medina were the former to -be found in any numbers; individuals are likely to have been found in -both cities, and we hear of one Medinese "Abu'Amir the Monk," who after -Mahomet's arrival at Medina branded him as an impostor, and, going -himself into exile, made many an abortive attempt to discredit and -injure Mahomet's cause. The notices of him are meagre and obscure. -Mahomet's manifesto to the world, about the time of the taking of -Khaibar, appears to represent his definite breach with Christianity; and -when in the "year of the embassies" the Christians of Najran sent a -deputation to him, they found that the breach between the two systems -was not to be healed. Of the three alternatives open to -them--conversion, internecine war, and tribute, they chose the last. The -Christian tribes of north Arabia showed greater inclination towards the -first. The Prophet's policy was to give Christians lighter terms than -Jews, and though the Koran reflects the gradual adoption by the Prophet -of an attitude of extreme hostility to both systems, its tone is on the -whole far more friendly to the former than to the latter. Some other -communities are mentioned in the Koran, but merely in casual allusions: -thus we know that Mahomet's sympathy was with the Byzantines in their -struggle with Persia, but in his most tolerant utterance the Magians or -Mazdians as well as the Sabians (with whom his followers were identified -by the Meccans) are mentioned with respect. - - - Mahomet's Administration. - -The financial requirements of Mahomet's state were of the simplest kind, -for there is no trace of any form of governmental department having been -instituted by him, even when he was master of the peninsula; nor can we -name any permanent officials in his employ except his _muaddhin_ Bilal, -and perhaps his court-poet Hassan. A staff of scribes was finally -required both to take down his revelations and to conduct -correspondence; but although he encouraged the acquisition of penmanship -(indeed some of the prisoners at Badr are said to have been allowed to -ransom themselves by teaching it to the Medinese), we know of no regular -secretaries in his employ. As despot of Medina he combined the functions -of legislator, administrator, general and judge; his duties in the last -three capacities were occasionally delegated to others, as when he -appointed a governor of Medina during his absence, or leaders for -expeditions, with provision for successors in case of their falling, but -we hear of no permanent or regular delegation of them. Till near the end -of his career at Medina he maintained the principle that migration to -that city was a condition of conversion; but when, owing to the -extension of his power, this was no longer practicable, his plan was in -the main to leave the newly converted communities to manage their -internal affairs as before, only sending occasional envoys to discharge -special duties, especially instruction in the Koran and the principles -of Islam, and to collect the Alms; quite towards the end of his life he -appears to have sent persons to the provinces to act as judges, with -instructions to judge according to the Koran, and where that failed, -_the practice_ (_sunna_), i.e. the practice of the community, for which -a later generation substituted the practice of the Prophet. There were, -therefore, no regular payments to permanent officials; and the taxation -called _Alms_, which developed into an income-tax, but was at first a -demand for voluntary contributions, was wholly for the support of the -poor Moslems; it might not be used for the maintenance of the state, -i.e. Mahomet and his family. For them, and for public business, e.g. the -purchase of war material and gratuities to visitors, provision was made -out of the booty, of which Mahomet claimed one-fifth (the chieftain's -share had previously, we are told, been one-fourth), while the -remainder--or at least the bulk of it--was distributed among the -fighting men; the Prophet appears to have prided himself on the justice -of his distribution on these occasions, and doubtless won popularity -thereby, though we hear occasionally of grumbling; for difficulties -occurred when a defeated tribe embraced Islam, and so could claim -equality with their conquerors, or when portions of the spoil were -irregularly employed by Mahomet to allay resentment: the persons whose -allegiance was thus purchased were euphemistically termed "those whose -hearts were united." What afterwards proved the main source of revenue -in Islamic states dates from the taking of Khaibar; for the rent paid to -the state by tolerated communities for the right to work their land -developed long after Mahomet's time into a poll-tax for Unbelievers (see -CALIPHATE, e.g. B. S 8 and MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS), and a land-tax for -all owners of land. Immediately after the taking of Khaibar certain -communities, of which the most notable was Fadak, sent tribute before -they had been attacked and reduced; their land was regarded by Mahomet -as his private domain, but after his death it was withdrawn from his -heirs by his successor Abu Bekr, in virtue of a maxim that Prophets left -no inheritance, which in the opinion of Fatima was contrary to Koranic -doctrine, and invented by Ayesha's father expressly for the purpose of -excluding her and her husband from their rights; and this is likely to -have been the case. - -As a military organizer Mahomet, as has been seen, was anxious to adopt -the most advanced of contemporary methods, and more than once is said to -have scandalized the Arabs by foreign innovations, as at a later time -the Moslem chiefs who first used gunpowder scandalized their -co-religionists. The unit in his armies seems to have been, as of old, -the tribe, under its natural leader; that he introduced no more -scientific division, and nothing like a hierarchy of officers was -perhaps due to the difficulty of reconciling such a system with the -equality of all Moslems. - -As has been seen, the Koran only assumed the character of a civil code -as the need for one arose; and for some time after Mahomet's arrival at -Medina old-fashioned methods of settling disputes continued in use, and -doubtless in accordance with precedent where such was known. For -difficult cases, even in Arab opinion, divine inspiration was required; -and since Mahomet naturally claimed to be in sole enjoyment of this, his -utterances soon became the unique source of law, though he did not at -first think of organizing a code. Such a plan is said to have occurred -to him, and he even wished to dictate a code upon his deathbed; but his -friends supposed or professed to suppose him to be delirious. A table -regulating the "Alms" was left by him, it is said, in the possession of -Abu Bekr; but other traditions assign another origin to this document. - -Just as there were no regular officials for the arrangement of business, -so there were none for its execution; when punishment was to be -administered, any follower of Mahomet might be called upon to administer -it. In the case of the massacre of the Banu Quraizah care was taken to -see that some of the heads were struck off by their former allies, in -order that the latter might be unable at any time to bring a demand for -vengeance. The Prophet hoped by the mere terror of his name to make -complete security reign throughout Arabia, and there is no evidence that -any system of policing either it or even Medina occurred to him. - - - Domestic Life. - - Until the death of Khadija the Prophet's private life seems to have - been normal and happy, for though the loss of his sons in infancy is - said to have earned him a contemptuous epithet, he was fortunate in - his adoption of Zaid b. Harithah, apparently a prisoner ransomed by - Khadija or one of her relatives, who appears as dutiful almost to - excess and competent in affairs. The marriages of his daughters seem - all to have been happy, with, curiously, the exception of that between - Fatima and Ali. His domestic troubles, to which an unreasonable amount - of space seems to be devoted, even in the Koran, began after the - Migration, when, probably in the main for political reasons, he - instituted a royal harem. One of these political motives was the - principle which long survived, that the conquest of a state was - consummated by possession of the former monarch's wife, or daughter; - another, as has been seen, the desire to obtain the securest possible - hold on his ministers. In his marriage with the daughter of his - arch-enemy Abu Sofian, before the latter's conversion, we can see a - combination of the two. Few, therefore, of these marriages occasioned - scandal; yet public morality seemed to be violated when the Prophet - took to himself the wife of his adopted son Zaid, whose name has in - consequence the honour of mention in the Koran in the revelation which - was delivered in defence of this act. Its purpose was, according to - this, to establish the difference between adoptive and real filiation. - Serious trouble was occasioned by a charge of adultery brought against - the youthful favourite Ayesha, and this had to be refuted by a special - revelation; the charge, which was backed up apparently by Ali, seems - to have been connected with some deeper scheme for causing dissension - between the Prophet and his friends. Yet another revelation is - concerned with a mutiny in the harem organized by Omar's daughter - Hafsa, owing to undue favour shown to a Coptic concubine (Mary, mother - of a son called Ibrahim, who died in infancy; his death was marked by - an eclipse, January 27, 632); and various details of factions within - the harem are told us by Mahomet's biographers. - - Of the members of this harem the only prominent one is Ayesha, married - to the Prophet shortly after the Flight, when she had scarcely passed - the period of infancy, but who appears to have been gifted with - astuteness and ambition that were quite beyond her years, and who - maintained her ascendancy over the Prophet in spite of the fact that - many carping criticisms of his revelations are attributed to her. Some - of this may have been due to the obligations (including pecuniary - obligations) under which her father had laid Mahomet; but her - reputation seems to have been greatly enhanced by the sending down of - a revelation to exonerate her (A.H. 6), for which she thanked God and - not the Prophet. Each accession to the harem rendered the building of - a house or room necessary for the newcomer's accommodation; a fact in - which Robertson Smith perhaps rightly saw a relic of the older system - whereby the tent was the property of women. The trouble noticed above - seems to have arisen from the want of a similar arrangement in the - case of slave girls, with whom Mahomet's system permits cohabitation. - When Mahomet, whether in consequence of the fatigue incurred by the - "Farewell Pilgrimage," or, as others thought, by the working of some - poison put into his food some years before by a Jewess of Khaibar, was - attacked by the illness which proved fatal, it was to the house of - Ayesha that he was transferred (from that of another wife) to be - nursed; and he apparently died in the arms of the favourite, on whose - statements we have to rely for what we know of his last hours. - - - General Characteristics. - - The traditional description of Mahomet is "of middle height, greyish, - with hair that was neither straight nor curly; with a large head, - large eyes, heavy eyelashes, reddish tint in the eyes, thick-bearded, - broad-shouldered, with thick hands and feet"; he was in the habit of - giving violent expression to the emotions of anger and mirth. The - supposition that he at any time suffered from physical weakness seems - absolutely refuted by his career as a leader of difficult, dangerous - and wearisome expeditions, from his migration to Medina until his - death; indeed, during his last years he exhibited a capacity for both - physical and intellectual activity which implies a high degree of both - health and strength; and without these the previous struggle at Mecca - could scarcely have been carried on. The supposition that he was - liable to fits (epileptic or cataleptic) was intended to account for - certain of the phenomena supposed to accompany the delivery of - revelations; some of these however rest on very questionable - authority: and the greater number of the revelations give evidence of - careful preparation rather than spontaneity. - - The literary matter ascribed to the Prophet consists of (1) the Koran - (q.v.); (2) certain contracts, letters and rescripts preserved by his - biographers; (3) a number of sayings on a vast variety of topics, - collected by traditionalists. The references in the Koran to a form of - literature called "Wisdom" (_hikmah_) suggest that even in the - Prophet's time some attempts had been made to collect or at least - preserve some of the last; the general uncertainty of oral tradition - and the length of time which elapsed before any critical treatment of - it was attempted, and the variety of causes, creditable and - discreditable, which led to the wilful fabrication of prophetic - utterances, render the use to which No. 3 can be put very limited. - Thus the lengthy description of the journey to heaven which Sprenger - was inclined to accept as genuine is regarded by most critics as a - later fabrication. It is very much to be regretted that the number of - _pieces justificatives_ (No. 2) quoted by the biographers is so small, - and that for these oral tradition was preferred to a search for the - actual documents, some of which may well have been in existence when - the earliest biographies were written. Their style appears to have - been plain and straightforward, though the allusions which they - contain are not always intelligible. - - In his personal relations with men Mahomet appears to have been able - to charm and impress in an extraordinary degree, whence we find him - able to control persons like Omar and Khalid, who appear to have been - self-willed and masterful, and a single interview seems to have been - sufficient to turn many an enemy into a devoted adherent. Cases - (perhaps legendary) are quoted of his being able by a look or a word - to disarm intending assassins. - - Although the titles which he took were religious in character, and his - office might not be described as sovereignty, his interests appear to - have lain far more in the building up and maintenance of empire than - in ecclesiastical matters. Thus only can we account for the violent - and sudden changes which he introduced into his system, for his - temporary lapse into paganism, and for his ultimate adoption of the - cult of the Black Stone, which, it is said, gave offence to some of - his sincere adherents (e.g. Omar), and seems hard to reconcile with - his tirades against fetish-worship. The same is indicated by his - remarkable doctrine that the utterance of the creed constituted a - Moslem and not its cordial acceptance, and his practice of at times - buying adhesion. Even an historian so favourable to the Prophet as - Prince Caetani recognizes that ultimately what he regarded as most - important was that his subjects should pay their taxes. And in general - his system was not favourable to fanaticism (_al-ghulu fi'l-din_); he - repeatedly gave permission for concealment of faith when the - profession of it was dangerous; he took care to avoid institutions - which, like the Jewish Sabbath, interfered seriously with military - expeditions and the conduct of business, and permitted considerable - irregularity in the matters of prayer and fasting when circumstances - rendered it desirable. In his theory that Koranic texts could be - abrogated he made wise provision against the danger of hasty - legislation, though some of its usefulness was frustrated by his - failure to provide for such abrogation after his death. - - - Mahomet's Reforms. - -As has been seen, Mahomet claimed to introduce a wholly new -dispensation, and a maxim of his law is that Islam cancels all that -preceded it, except, indeed, pecuniary debts; it is not certain that -even this exception always held good. Hence his system swept away a -number of practices (chiefly connected with the camel) that were -associated with pagan superstitions. The most celebrated of these is the -arrow-game, a form of gambling for shares in slaughtered camels, to -which poetic allusions are very frequent. More important than this was -his attitude towards the blood-feud, or system of tribal responsibility -for homicide (whether intentional or accidental), whereby one death -regularly led to protracted wars, it being considered dishonourable to -take blood-money (usually in the form of camels) or to be satisfied with -one death in exchange. This system he endeavoured to break down, chiefly -by sinking all earlier tribal distinctions in the new brotherhood of -Islam; but also by limiting the vengeance to be demanded to such as was -no more than the equivalent of the offence committed, and by urging the -acceptance of money-compensation instead, or complete forgiveness of the -offence. The remembrance of pre-Islamic quarrels was visited by him with -condign punishment on those who had embraced Islam; and though it was -long before the tribal system quite broke down, even in the great cities -which rose in the new provinces, and the old state of things seems to -have quickly been resumed in the desert, his legislation on this subject -rendered orderly government among Arabs possible. - -Next in importance to this is the abolition of infanticide, which is -condemned even in early Suras of the Koran. The scanty notices which we -have of the practice are not altogether consistent; at times we are told -that it was confined to certain tribes, and consisted in the burying -alive of infant daughters; at other times it is extended to a wider -area, and said to have been carried out on males as well as females. -After the taking of Mecca this prohibition was included among the -conditions of Islam. - -In the laws relating to women it seems likely that he regulated current -practice rather than introduced much that was actually new, though, as -has been seen, he is credited with giving them the right to inherit -property; the most precise legislation in the Koran deals with this -subject, of which the main principle is that the share of the male -equals that of two females. Our ignorance of the precise nature of the -marriage customs prevalent in Arabia at the rise of Islam renders it -difficult to estimate the extent to which his laws on this subject were -an improvement on what had been before. The pre-Islamic family, unless -our records are wholly misleading, did not differ materially from the -Islamic; in both polygamy and concubinage were recognized and normal; -and it is uncertain that the text which is supposed to limit the number -of wives to four was intended to have that meaning. The "condition of -Islam" whereby adultery was forbidden is said to have been ridiculed at -the time, on the ground that this practice had never been approved. Yet -it would seem that certain forms of promiscuity had been tolerated, -though the subject is obscure. Against these services we must set the -abrogation of some valuable practices. His unfortunate essay in -astronomy, whereby a calendar of twelve lunar months, bearing no -relation to the seasons, was introduced, was in any case a retrograde -step; but it appears to have been connected with the abrogation of the -sanctity of the four months during which raiding had been forbidden in -Arabia, which, as has been seen, he was the first to violate. He also, -as has been noticed, permitted himself a slight amount of bloodshed in -Mecca itself, and that city perhaps never quite recovered its sacrosanct -character. Of more serious consequences for the development of the -community was his encouragement of the shedding of kindred blood in the -cause of Islam; the consequences of the abrogation of this taboo seem to -have been felt for a great length of time. His assassinations of enemies -were afterwards quoted as precedents in books of Tradition. No less -unfortunate was the recognition of the principle whereby atonement could -be made for oaths. On the question how far the seclusion of women was -enjoined or countenanced by him different views have been held. - - - Sources. - - Besides the contemporary documents enumerated above (Koranic texts, - rescripts and authentic traditions) many of the events were celebrated - by poets, whose verses were ostensibly incorporated in the standard - biography of Ibn Ishaq; in the abridgment of that biography which we - possess many of these are obelized as spurious, and, indeed, what we - know of the procedure of those who professed to collect early poetry - gives us little confidence in the genuineness of such odes. A few, - however, seem to stand criticism, and the _diwan_ (or collection of - poems) attributed to Hassan b. Thabit is ordinarily regarded as his. - Though they rarely give detailed descriptions of events, their - attestation is at times of value, e.g. for the story that the bodies - of the slain at Badr were cast by the Prophet into a pit. Besides - this, the narratives of eyewitnesses of important events, or of those - who had actually taken part in them, were eagerly sought by the second - generation, and some of these were committed to writing well before - the end of the 1st century. The practice instituted by the second - Caliph, of assigning pensions proportioned to the length of time in - which the recipient had been a member of the Islamic community, led to - the compilation of certain rolls, and to the accurate preservation of - the main sequence of events from the commencement of the mission, and - for the detailed sequence after the Flight, which presently became an - era (beginning with the first month of the year in which the Flight - took place). The procedure whereby the original dates of the events - (so far as they were remembered) were translated into the Moslem - calendar--for something of this sort must have been done--is unknown, - and is unlikely to have been scientific. - - Mahomet's conduct being made the standard of right and wrong, there - was little temptation to "whitewash" him, although the original - biography by Ibn Ishaq appears to have contained details which the - author of the abridgment omitted as scandalous. The preservation of so - much that was historical left little room for the introduction of - miraculous narrations; these therefore either belong to the obscure - period of his life or can be easily eliminated; thus the narratives of - the Meccan council at which the assassination of Mahomet was decided, - of the battles of Badr, Uhud and Honain, and the death of Sad'b. Mu - 'adh, would lose nothing by the omission of the angels and the devil, - though a certain part is assigned the one or the other on all these - occasions. We should have expected biographies which were published - when the 'Abbasids were reigning to have falsified history for the - purpose of glorifying 'Abbas, their progenitor; the very small extent - to which this expectation is justified is a remarkable testimony to - their general trustworthiness. - - - RELATIVES OF THE PROHET[1] - - 1. _Family of 'Abd al-Mottalib_, Mahomet's maternal - grandfather:--*'Abbas (d. A.H. 32 or 34), *Hamza (d. A.H. 3), - 'Abdallah, father of the Prophet, *Abu Talib (said to be named 'Abd - Manaf), ? *Zubair, Harith, Hajal, Moqawwam, Dirar, *Abu Lahab (said to - be named 'Abd al-'Uzza, d. A.H. 2), *_Safiyyah_ (d. A.H. 20), _Umm - Hakim_, _al-Baida_, _'Atikah_, _Umaimah_, _Arwa_, _Barrah_. - - 2. _Family of Abu Talib_:--*'Aqil (d. after A.H. 40), *Ja'far (d. A.H. - 8), Talib, Tulaiq, 'Ali, the caliph, _Umm Hani'_, _Jumanah_, _Raitah_. - - 3. _Family of Mahomet. Wives_:--*_Khadija_ (Children:--Qasim; ? 'Abd - Manaf (Tahir, Tayyib); *_Zainab_ m. Abu'l-'As b. Rabi', d. A.H. 7; - *_Ruqayyah_, m. 'Othman b. 'Affan, d. A.H. 2; *_Umm Kulthum_ m. - 'Othman b. 'Affan, d. A.H. 9; *_Fatimah_, m. 'Ali, d. A.H. 11): - *_Saudah bint Zam'ah_,? d. A.H. 54, *_'A'ishah (Ayesha) bint Abi Bekr_ - (d. A.H. 56), *_Hafsa bint 'Omar_ (d. A.H. 45 or 47), *_Zainab bint - Khuzaimah_, d. before A.H. 11, *_Zainab bint Jahsh_, d. A.H. 20, *_Umm - Salimah_, d. A.H. 59, *_Maimunah_, d. A.H. 38, *_Juwairiyah_, d. A.H. - 56, *_Umm Habibah Ramlah bint Abi Sofian_, d. A.H. 44. - - _Concubines_:--*_Safiyyah bint Huyyay_, d. A.H. 36, *_Raihanah bint - Zaid_, *_Mariyah the Copt_, d. A.H. 15 or 16, mother of Ibrahim. - (Other names given by Ibn Sa'd, vol. viii.) - - _Chronological Table of Chief Events in the Life of Mahomet._[2] - - ? 570 Birth. - ? 595 Marriage with Khadija. - ? 610 Commencement of call. - ? 613 Public appearance. - 616 Persian conquest of the nearer East. - ? 617 Flight of his followers to Abyssinia. - ? 618-619 Siege in Mecca. Retractation and subsequent repudiation. - Death of Abu Talib and Khadija. - ? 620 Flight to Taif. - 622 July 16. Beginning of the Moslem era. - Sept. 20. Arrival at Kuba after the Flight. - 632 Jan. 27. Death of his son Ibrahim. - 632 June 7. Death of Mahomet. - - The following dates are given by the Arabic historians according to - their own calendar. For the reasons which have been seen it is - impossible to obtain certain synchronisms. - - A.H. - - 2. Rajab 1. Raid of 'Abdallah b. Jahsh to Nakhlah. - Ramadan 19. Battle of Badr. - Shawwal 15. Attack on the Banu Qainuqa. - - 3. Rabia I. 14. Assassination of Ka'b b. al-Ashraf. - Shawwal 7. Battle of Uhud. - - 4. Saphar. Massacre of Mahomet's 70 missionaries at Bi'r Ma'unah. - Rabia I. Attack on the Banu Nadir. - Dhu'l-Qa'da. Abortive raid called "the lesser Badr." - - 5. Shaaban 2. Attack on the Banu'l-Mustaliq (according to Waqidi). - Dhu'l-Qa'da. Battle of the Trench. - Massacre of the Banu Quraizah. - - 6. Jomada i. Capture of a caravan by Zaid b. Harithah. - Futile attempt to assassinate Abu Sofian. - Dhu'l-Qa'da. Affair of Hodaibiyah. - - 7. Jomada i. Taking of Khaibar. Mission extended to the world. - Dhu'l-Qa'da. Pilgrimage to Mecca (called _'umrat al-qadiyyah_) - - 8. Jomada i. Expedition to Mutah. - Ramadan 20. Taking of Mecca. - Shawwal. Battle of Honain. - Attack on Ta'if. - - 9. Muharram. Tax-gatherers sent over Arabia. - Rajab. Expedition to Tabuk. - Rival Mosque built at Kuba, destroyed on Mahomet's return - to Medina. - Dhu'l-Hijja. Pilgrimage conducted by Abu Bekr. - Abolition of idolatry in Arabia. - - 10. Ramadan. Expedition of 'Ali to Yemen. - Dhu'l-Qa'da. "Farewell Pilgrimage." - - 11. Saphar. Expedition ordered against the Byzantines. - - - _Companions of the Prophet._ - - The _sahabah_, as they are called, are the subject of a vast - literature, and the biographical dictionaries devoted to them, of - which the best known are the _Usd ul-ghaba_ of the historian Ibn Athir - and the _Isabah_ of Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, enumerate many thousands. - The following two lists are of special groups. - - (a) _Naqibs_, i.e. leaders selected by Mahomet from the Medinese - tribes: i. _Khazrajites_:--As'ad b. Zurarah, Sa'd b. al-Rabi', - 'Abdallah b. Rawahah, al-Bara' b. Ma'rur, 'Abdallah b. 'Amr b. Haram, - 'Ubadah b. al-Samit, Sa'd b. 'Ubadah, al-Mondhir b. 'Amr; ii. - _Ausites_: Usaid b. Hudair, Sa'd b. Khaithamah, Rifa'ah b. 'Abd - al-Mondhir. - - (b) _Commanders of Expeditions_: names occurring in (a) are not - repeated: 'Abdallah b. Jahsh, 'Abd ar-Rahman b. 'Auf, Abu Bekr, Abu - Qatadah, Abu 'Ubaidah b. al-Jarrah, 'Ali, 'Alqamah b. Mujazziz, 'Amr - b. al-'As (ibn el-Ass), Bashir b. Sa'd, Dahhak b. Sofian, Ghalib b. - 'Abdallah, Ibn Abi'l-Auja, Ka'b b. 'Umair, Khalid b. al-Walid, Kurz b. - Jabir, Marthad b. Abi Marthad, Muhammad b. Maslamah, Qutbah b. 'Amir, - Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, Sa'd d. Zaid, Salama b. 'Abd al-Asad, Shuja' b. - Wahb, 'Ubaidah b. al-Harith, 'Ukkashah b. Mihsan, 'Umar b. al-Khattab, - Usamah b. Zaid, 'Uyainah b. Hisn, Zaid b. Harithah. - - AUTHORITIES.--The biography of Ibn Ishaq was before the world long - before the two chief causes for the falsification of tradition had - begun to have serious effects; these were the need for legal - precedents, and the concept of saintliness, combining those of - asceticism and thaumaturgy. These gave rise to the classical works on - the _Evidences of Mohammed's Mission_ by Abu Nu'aim (d. A.D. - 1012-1013) and Baihaqi (d. A.D. 1066). - - _Lives of the Prophet_ ([+] indicates that the work is lost); - [+]'Urwah b. Zubair (d. 712-713); [+]Musa b. 'Ukbah (d. 758-759); - [+]Mohammed b. Ishaq (d. 768); Mohammed b. Hisham (d. 828-829), ed. - Wustenfeld (Gottingen, 1860); reprinted in Egypt by Zubair Pasha, a - series of excerpts from the last; Mohammed b. Omar al-Waqidi (d. 823), - portion published by Kremer (Calcutta, 1855), abridged trans. of a - fuller copy by Wellhausen, _Muhammad in Medina_ (Berlin, 1882); - Mohammed b. Sa'd (d. 844-845), an encyclopaedic work on the history of - Mahomet and his followers, called _Tabaqat_, ed. Sachau and others - (Berlin, foll.); Mohammed b. Jarir al-Tabari (see TABARI). Many more - writers on this subject are enumerated in the _Fihrist_, cf. - Sprenger's _Leben Muhammads_, iii. 54-76. - - Among the most popular compilers of later times are: Ibn al-Athir - (q.v.) al Jazari, the historian (d. 1233); Ahmad b. Ali al Kastalani - (d. A.D. 1517), whose _al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah_ was published with - commentary (Cairo, 1278); Hosain b. Mohammed al Diyarbakri (d. 1574) - whose work _Ta'rikh al-Khamis_ was published in Cairo, A.H. 1382; 'Ali - b. Burhan al-din al-Halabi (d. A.D. 1634), whose biography called - _Insan al-'uyun_ was published in Cairo, A.H. 1292. To these must be - added all the collections of Tradition. - - _Modern Authorities._--The critical study of the Life of Mahomet - begins in Europe with the publication by Th. Gagnier in 1723 of the - Life by Abulfeda (q.v.). Presently there appeared an apologetic - biography by Henri Cmte. de Boulainvilliers (2nd ed., Amsterdam, - 1731), to which Gagnier replied in 1732 (_La Vie de Mahomet, - traduite_, &c. ibid.). The next considerable advance in the treatment - of the subject is marked by the biography of G. Weil (_Muhammed der - Prophet_, Stuttgart, 1843), which is wholly without religious bias; - the popular life by Washington Irving (London, 1849) is based on this. - That by J. L. Merrick (the _Life and Religion of Mohammed_, Boston, - U.S.A., 1850) rests on Shi'ite sources. The search for MSS. in India - conducted by A. Sprenger led to the discovery of fresh material, which - was utilized by Sprenger himself in his unfinished _Life of Mohammad_ - (Pt. 1, Allahabad, 1851), and his more elaborate _Das Leben und die - Lehre des Mohammad_ (Berlin, 1861-1865), and by Sir William Muir in - his _Life of Mahomet_, (London, 1858-1861) 4 vols.: afterwards - abridged in one volume and reprinted. These are still the standard - treatises on the subject; the pro-Christian bias of Muir is very - marked, while Sprenger has hazarded numerous conjectures on subjects - with which he had little familiarity. The biography by S. W. Koelle, - _Mohammed and Mohammedanism_ (London, 1889), is pro-Christian, the - popular work of Syed Ameer Ali _The Spirit of Islam_, (London, 1896) - an apology for Mahommedanism. Later treatises, resting on original - authorities, are those by H. Grimme _Mohamed_, (Munster, 1892, and - Munich, 1904), F. Buhl, _Mohameds Liv_ (Copenhagen, 1903--Danish: - since translated into German), D. S. Margoliouth _Mohammed and the - Rise of Islam_ (N.Y., 1905, &c.), and Prince Caetani _Annali del - Islam_, i. ii. (Milan, 1905-1907). For the direction of public opinion - in Mahomet's favour the Lecture on _The Hero as Prophet_ in Carlyle's - _Heroes and Hero-worship_ (London, 1846) was singularly effective; his - views were enforced by R. Bosworth Smith _Mohammed and Mohammedanism_, - (London, 1873, &c.). A somewhat similar line was taken in France by J. - Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, _Mahomet et le Coran_, (Paris, 1865), while - the _Vie de Mahomet d'apres la Tradition_ of E. Lamairesse and G. - Dujarric (Paris, 1897) is written entirely from the Moslem standpoint. - - See further CALIPHATE, _ad init._; MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS; MAHOMMEDAN - LAW; MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. (D. S. M.*) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] * is prefixed to names which figure on occasions which seem to be - historical. Female names are in italics. - - [2] Dates are given A.D. - - - - -MAHOMMED AHMED IBN SEYYID ABDULLAH (1848-1885), Sudanese tyrant, known -as "the Mahdi," was born in Dongola. His family, known as excellent -boat-builders, claimed to be _Ashraf_ (or _Sherifs_), i.e. descendants -of Mahomet. His father was a _fiki_ or religious teacher, and Mahommed -Ahmed devoted himself early to religious studies. When about twenty -years old he went to live on Abba Island on the White Nile about 150 m. -above Khartum. He first acquired fame by a quarrel with the head of the -brotherhood which he had joined, Mahommed asserting that his master -condoned transgression of the divine law. After this incident many -dervishes (religious mendicants) gathered round the young sheikh, whose -reputation for sanctity speedily grew. He travelled secretly through -Kordofan, where (with ample justification) he denounced to the villagers -the extortion of the tax-gatherer and told of the coming of the mahdi -who should deliver them from the oppressor. He also wrote a pamphlet -summoning true believers to purify their religion from the defilements -of the "Turks" i.e. the Egyptian officials and all non-native -inhabitants of the Sudan. The influence he gained at length aroused the -anxiety of the authorities, and in May 1881 a certain Abu Saud, a -notorious scoundrel, was sent to Abba Island to bring the sheikh to -Khartum. Abu Saud's mission failed, and Mahommed Ahmed no longer -hesitated to call himself al-Mahdi al Montasir, "The Expected Guide." In -August he defeated another force sent to Abba Island to arrest him, but -thereafter deemed it prudent to retire to Jebel Gedir, in the Nuba -country south of Kordofan, where he was soon at the head of a powerful -force; and 6000 Egyptian troops under Yusef Pasha, advancing from -Fashoda, were nearly annihilated in June 1882. By the end of 1882 the -whole of the Sudan south of Khartum was in rebellion, with the exception -of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the Equatorial Provinces. In January 1883 El -Obeid, the capital of Kordofan, was captured. In the November following -Hicks Pasha's force of 10,000 men was destroyed at Kashgil, and in the -same year the mahdi's lieutenant, Osman Digna, raised the tribes in the -eastern Sudan, and besieged Sinkat and Tokar, near Suakin, routing -General Valentine Baker's force of 2500 men at El Teb in February 1884. -The operations undertaken by Great Britain in face of this state of -affairs are narrated under EGYPT: _Military Operations_. It need only be -added that General Gordon (q.v.) was besieged at Khartum by the mahdi -and was killed there when the town was captured by the mahdists on the -25th-26th of January 1885. The mahdi himself died at Omdurman a few -months later (June 22, 1885), and was succeeded in power by his khalifa -Abdullah. - -When he announced his divine mission Mahommed Ahmed adopted the Shi'ite -traditions concerning the mahdi, and thus put himself in opposition to -the sultan of Turkey as the only true commander of the faithful. To -emphasize his position the mahdi struck coins in his own name and set -himself to suppress all customs introduced by the "Turks." His social -and religious reforms are contained in various proclamations, one of -which is drawn up in the form of ten commandments. They concern, -chiefly, such matters as ritual, prayers, soberness in food and raiment, -the cost of marriage and the behaviour of women. How far the mahdi was -the controller of the movement which he started cannot be known, but -from the outset of his public career his right-hand man was a Baggara -tribesman named Abdullah (the khalifa), who became his successor, and -after his flight to Jebel Gedir the mahdi was largely dependent for his -support on Baggara sheikhs, who gratified one of his leading tastes by -giving him numbers of their young women. In the few months between the -fall of Khartum and his death the mahdi, relieved from the incessant -strain of toil, copied in his private life all the vices of Oriental -despots while maintaining in public the austerity he demanded of his -followers. His death is variously attributed to disease and to poisoning -by a woman of his harem. On the occupation of Omdurman by the British -(Sept. 1898) the mahdi's tomb was destroyed, his body burnt and the -ashes thrown into the Nile (see SUDAN: _Anglo-Egyptian_). - - See _Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan_ by F. R. Wingate (1891); _Ten - Years' Captivity in the Mahdi's Camp_ (1882-1892) from the MS. of - Father Joseph Ohrwalder by F. R. Wingate (1892) and _Fire and Sword in - the Sudan_ (1879-1895) by Slatin Pasha (trans. F. R. Wingate, 1896). - Both Ohrwalder and Slatin were personally acquainted with the mahdi, - and their narratives contain much first-hand information. Wingate - prints many translations of the proclamations and correspondence of - the mahdi. - - - - -MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS. - - The Caliphate. - -Of all the institutions of Islam the caliphate is the oldest, the most -fundamental, and in essence the most enduring. For its history see -CALIPHATE; the present subject is its origin and nature. Mahomet enjoyed -absolute rule over his people as a divinely inspired and guided prophet. -He led the public prayers; he acted as judge; he ruled. If he consulted -with others or paid attention to public feeling or local usage, it was -as a matter of policy; the ultimate decision lay with himself. He was -the state. On his death a leader was put in his place of similar -authority, though without the divine prophetic guidance. He was called -the "successor" (_khalifa_, caliph) of the Prophet, later also the -_amir-al-mu'minin_, commander of the faithful, and was elected by the -Moslems, just as the Arab tribes had always elected their chiefs. He was -thus an absolute ruler, but was democratically elected; and such is the -essence of the caliphate among Sunnite Moslems to this day. For them it -has been a matter of agreement (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW) from the earliest -times that the Moslem community must appoint such a leader (see IMAM). -The Shi'ites, on the other hand, hold that the appointment lies with -God, and that God always has appointed, though his appointment may not -always have been known and accepted. Their position may be called a -legitimist one. Some few heretical sects have held that the necessity of -a leader was based on reason, not on the agreement of the community. -But, for all, the rule of the leader thus appointed is absolute, and all -authority is delegated from him and, in theory, can be resumed by him at -any time. Just as God can require unreasoning obedience from his -creatures (his "slaves" in Arabic), so can the caliph, his -representative on earth. - -But Abu Bekr, the first caliph, nominated his successor, Omar, and that -nomination was accepted and confirmed by the people. So a second -precedent was fixed, which was again carried a step farther, when -Moawiya I., the first Omayyad caliph, nominated his son, Yazid I., as -his successor, and caused an oath of allegiance to be taken to him. The -hereditary principle was thus introduced, though some relics of the form -of election persisted and still persist. The true election possible in -the early days of the small community at Medina became first a formal -acceptance by the populace of the capital; then an assertion, by the -palace guard, of their power; and now, in the investiture of the sultans -of the Ottoman Turks, who claim the caliphate, a formal ceremony by the -'ulema (q.v.) of Constantinople. The Ottoman claim is based on an -asserted nomination by the last Abbasid, who died in exile in Egypt in -1538, of the Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Great, as his successor. Such -a nomination in itself was a perfectly legal act, but in this case had a -fatal flaw. It is an absolute condition, laid down in tradition, that -the caliph must be of the tribe of Koreish (Quraish), that of the -Prophet. - -The duties of this democratically elected autocrat are, in theory, -generally stated as follows. He shall enforce legal decisions and -maintain the divinely revealed restrictive ordinances; guard the -frontiers and equip armies; receive the alms; put down robberies, -thieving, highwaymen; maintain the Friday services and the festivals; -decide disputes and receive evidence bearing on legal claims; marry -minors, male and female, who have no guardians; divide booty. He must be -a free, male, adult Moslem; must have administrative ability; must be an -effective governor and do justice to the wronged. So long as he fulfils -these conditions he is to be absolutely obeyed; private immorality or -even tyranny are not grounds for deposing him. This is a position -reached by Islam practically. But a caliph who openly denied the faith -would be as impossible as an unbelieving pope. The caliph, therefore, is -the highest executive officer of a system assumed to be definite and -fixed. He, in a word, administers Islam; and the content of Islam is -determined by the agreement of the Moslem people, expressed immediately -through the 'ulema, and ultimately, if indirectly and half-consciously, -by the people. To depose him a _fatwa_ (see MUFTI) would be required--in -Turkey from the Sheikh-ul-Islam--that he had violated some essential of -the Moslem faith, and no longer fulfilled the conditions of a caliph. - - - The Diwans. - - But it was impossible for the caliph personally to administer the - affairs of the empire, and by degrees the supreme office was gradually - put into commission, until the caliph himself became a mere - figure-head, and vanished into the sacred seclusion of his palace. The - history of the creation of government bureaus (_diwans_; see DIVAN) - must therefore now be sketched. The first need which appeared was that - of a means of regulating and administering the system of taxation and - the revenues of the state. Immense sums flowed into Medina from the - Arab conquests; the surplus, after the requirements of the state were - met, was distributed among the believers. All Moslems had a right to a - certain share of this, which was regarded as booty. Omar, the second - caliph, regulated this distribution and also the system of taxation, - and the result was the first divan and the constitution of Omar, - looked back to now by all Sunnite Moslems as an ideal. The sources of - revenue were (i) the poor-rate (_zakat_), a tithe paid by every - Moslem; (ii) the fifth of all booty; (iii) the poll-tax (_jizya_) on - non-Moslems; and (iv) the land-tax (_kharaj_) also on non-Moslems. - Thus the constitution determined the position of all non-Moslems in a - Moslem state. The ideal was that the Moslems should be kept apart as a - superior, fighting caste, and that the non-Moslems should support them - (cf. CALIPHATE, B. S 8, on the reign of Omar II.). The Moslems, - therefore, were forbidden to acquire land in conquered countries. The - non-Moslems must retain their lands, cultivate them and pay the - land-tax (the Arabic word is also used of revenue from the work of a - slave) and the poll-tax (the Arabic word means also "ransom"), and - give contributions in kind to support the local Moslem garrisons which - were massed in great camp-cities at strategic points. If a non-Moslem - embraced Islam he entered the ruling caste; his land was distributed - among his non-Moslem fellows, and he no longer paid the land-tax but - rather received support from the public funds. The amount of these - pensions varied with the standing of the pensioner from 10,000 dirhems - (a dirhem equalled about a franc) to the widows and relations of the - Prophet down to 300. This bureau had, therefore, not only to keep the - books of the state, but also to maintain a list of all Moslems, - classified genealogically and socially. Its registers were kept by - Greeks, Copts and Persians; the Arabs, it may be said in general, - adopted the method of administration which they found in the captured - countries and drew upon the trained services of their inhabitants. - - Such a system led naturally to wholesale conversions to Islam; and the - consequent decline in revenue, combined with large donations of lands - by Othman, the third caliph, to his own family, gradually broke it - down. The first patriarchal period of conquest, unearned wealth and - the simple life--called by Moslems the period of the "four rightly - guided caliphs," and very happily by Sachau, _ein monchisches - Imperium_--passed rapidly into the genuinely Arab empire of the - Omayyads, with whom came an immediate development of organization in - the state. The constructive genius in this was Moawiya, the first - Omayyad caliph. Under him the old simplicity vanished. A splendid and - ceremonious court was maintained at Damascus. A chamberlain kept the - door; a bodyguard surrounded the caliph, and even in the mosque the - caliph, warned by the murder of Othman and of Ali, prayed in a - railed-off enclosure. The beginning of the seclusion of the caliph had - come, and he no longer walked familiarly among his fellow Moslems. - This seclusion increased still further when the administration of the - state passed by delegation into other hands, and the caliph himself - became a sacrosanct figure-head, as in the case of the later Abbasids; - when theories of semi-divine nature and of theocratic rule appeared, - as in the case of the Fatimites; and finally when all the elaborate - court ritual of Byzantium was inherited by the Ottoman sultans. - - But Moawiya I. was still a very direct and personal ruler. He - developed a post-system for the carrying of government despatches by - relays, and thus received secret information from and kept control of - the most distant provinces. He established a sealing-bureau by which - state papers were secured against change. He dealt arbitrarily with - the revenues of the state and the pensions of the Moslems. Governors - of provinces were given a much freer hand, and were required to turn - over to the central treasury their surplus revenue only. As they were - either conquerors or direct successors of conquerors they had an - essentially military government, and were really semi-independent - rulers, unhampered except by direct action of the caliph, acting on - information sent by the postmaster, who was his local spy. Being thus - the heads of armies of occupation, they were not necessarily charged - with the control of religious ritual and of justice. These, like every - other function, inhered in the office of the caliph and he generally - appointed in each province independent cadis over the courts and imams - to be in charge of religious services. Yet the governor was sometimes - permitted to hold these two other offices (see CADI; IMAM). - - - The Vizierate. - -Further administrative developments came with the Abbasids. They created -a new city, Bagdad, between the Tigris and the Euphrates, where the -three races, Syrian, Arab and Persian, met and sought with Bagdad as a -capital to consolidate the empire. The Arab empire, it is true, had -passed away with the Omayyads; yet there might be a chance to create a -world-empire of all the Moslem peoples. But not even the genius and -administrative skill of the early Abbasids could hold together that -unwieldy mass. The semi-independent provinces soon became fully -independent, or at most acknowledged the caliph as a spiritual head and -paid a nominal tribute. His name might stand on the coinage and prayers -be offered for him in the Friday service, the two signs of sovereignty -to this day in Islam. With this crumbling of the empire went a more -elaborate organization; bureaus took the place of principles and of the -energy of individual rulers. As the system of Moslem law was built on -that of the Roman codes, so was the machinery of administration on that -of Persia. And with the Abbasids the chance of the Persians had come. -Abu 'l-Abbas, the first Abbasid caliph, was the first to appoint a -vizier (_wazir_, "helper," so Aaron is wazir to Moses in the Koran), a -confidential minister to advise him and come between him and the people. -Advisers the caliphs had had before; but not a definite adviser with -this name. He must, we are told, have a strain of the ruler in him and a -strain of the people to be able to work with both. He must know how to -be acceptable; fidelity and truthfulness are his capital; sagacity, -firmness, generosity, clemency, dignity, effectiveness of speech are -essential. It is plain that the vizier became as important as the -caliph. But Abu 'l-Abbas was fortunate in early securing as his vizier -the grandfather of the house of the Barmecides (q.v.). On this Persian -family the fortunes of the Abbasids hung, and it secured for them and -for Islam a short golden age, like that of the Antonines, until the -jealous madness of Harun al-Rashid cast them down. Thereafter the -vizierate had many vicissitudes. Technically a vizier could be either -limited or unlimited. The limited vizier had no initiative; he carried -out the commands of the caliph. The unlimited vizier, often afterwards -called the grand vizier, exercised full authority and was the _alter -ego_ of the caliph, to whom he was required only to report. Naturally -the formal distinction is a later theorizing of history; for a weak -ruler his vizier became absolute, for a strong ruler his vizier remained -subordinate. Here, as with regard to all Moslem institutions, a marked -distinction must be made between the historic facts and the speculative -edifices raised by constitutional theorizers. Compare especially -MAHOMMEDAN LAW. Until the time of Radi (934-940) the vizierate thus -fluctuated in importance. In that caliphate the vizier lost all -authority, and in his place came the _amir al-omara_--equivalent to the -_major domus_ of the Franks--the head of the Turkish bodyguard, in -terror of whom the caliph now stood. When in 945 the Buyids captured -Bagdad and the caliph became a purely spiritual sovereign, they took the -title "vizier" for their own chief minister, and the caliphs retained -only a secretary (see CALIPHATE, C. S 22). Under the Seljuks, however, -they regained their viziers and some real authority. Elsewhere, also the -vizierate had its vicissitudes. Under the Mamelukes the vizier fell to -be merely the court purveyor. Under the Omayyads of Spain the title was -given to several responsible officers of the state, but their chief was -called _hajib_, chamberlain. Under the Almohades the chamberlain was -called vizier. In the modern Turkish empire the grand vizier (called -generally _sadr A'zam_) is the sultan's representative in secular -matters, and nominally stands between the sovereign and all the other -officials. He is the president of the council of ministers, but Abd-ul -Hamid II. deprived the office of almost all its importance. - - - Other Ministers. - - Under the early Abbasids the four most important ministers were the - chief cadi, the chief of police or head of the life guards, the - minister of finance and the postmaster, who was the head of the system - of information and espionage which covered the empire. But at - different times the different bureaus varied greatly. Under Motawakkil - we find the bureau of taxes and finance; bureau of the crown estates; - bureau of state book-keeping; bureau of war, i.e. of hired troops; - bureau which kept reckoning and control of the pensions of the clients - and slaves of the ruling family; bureau of the post system; bureau of - expenditures. But in spite of this elaborate system, no Moslem - government has, except sporadically, been highly centralized. Provided - the taxes are paid, a large measure of local autonomy has always been - enjoyed by the country districts. Under the Abbasids almost the only - exception was the necessarily centralized control of the irrigation - system of the Tigris and Euphrates. And similarly elsewhere. - - In the case of all these offices, we have delegation by the caliph, - under necessity, of his too heavy burdens. But one duty of an Oriental - ruler he could not so easily lay aside. It had always to be possible - for the oppressed to come into his presence and claim justice; he must - sit in the gate and judge. Therefore, when the caliph found it - necessary to delegate the ordinary administration of justice, he found - it also necessary to set up a special court of oppressions, which - developed, to a certain extent, into a court of appeals. The first to - establish such a separate court was Abdalmalik the Omayyad (685-705), - and his example was followed by the more vigorous of the caliphs up to - the time of Mohtadi the Abbasid (869-870). If any other than the - caliph presided over this court it had to be a man whose dignity, - independence and authority commanded respect. He was not bound by - strict rules of evidence, method and literal application of law as was - the cadi. Rather, he applied a system of equity suited to the absolute - source of authority which he represented. - - As the chief of police, mentioned above, was rather the head of the - caliph's bodyguard, there was also a police system after our ideas, - but more thoroughgoing. The _muhtasib_ had charge in the broadest - sense of public order and morals in the streets, and had oversight as - to weights, measures and adulterations; but had no right to interfere - privately or enter houses save in the clearest and most necessary - cases. He had a summary jurisdiction in all minor cases where no trial - was necessary; but where witnesses and oaths entered the case must go - to the cadi. Slaves and beasts of burden were under his guardianship; - he prevented public scandals, such as the sale of wine; he regulated - the public conduct of Jews and Christians. In the interest of public - morals he had to find suitable husbands for widows and see that they - did not marry before the legal time; questions of paternity also he - had to investigate. The outdoor costume of the people he could - regulate. It should, of course, be remembered that the canon law of - Islam covers minutely all sides of life (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). - -It is impossible in Islam to separate logically from the mass of -institutions those which we should call religious, as Islam on all sides -is for the Moslem equally religious. But perhaps the following may -practically be separated under that rubric. Islam, runs a tradition, is -built on five things: testimony that there is no god save Allah, and -that Mahomet is the apostle of Allah; prayer; the poor-rate; pilgrimage; -fasting. For these see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. - - The law and usage of religious foundations in perpetuity (_waqf_, - mortmain) became as important in Islam as monastic endowments in - medieval Europe, and such foundations tended similarly to absorb the - greater part of the national wealth. It was the only safe way of - providing for posterity. A pious foundation could be erected in such a - way that either so much from its funds would be paid yearly in - perpetuity to the descendants of the erector, or those descendants - would be employed as officials of the foundation. - - - The Imam. - - When it became impossible for the caliph to lead the people personally - in prayer in the mosque, he delegated that part of his duties to - another, hence called imam (q.v.). Naturally, then, the appointment of - the imam would lie with the supreme ruler. This holds of the daily - prayers in the principal mosque (_al-masjid al-jami'_) supported by - the ruler where the Friday service is held, but in the separate - smaller mosques built by each community the community chooses its own - imam. With regard to the Friday service, the schools of law disagree - as to the necessity of the presence of an imam appointed by the chief - ruler. But the imam should certainly make mention of the ruler in his - sermon and pray for him. At the occasional prayers, such as those for - rain, &c., the presence of an imam appointed by the ruler is not - necessary. The imam appoints the _muaddhin_, the announcer of the hour - of prayer from the minaret, and both have a claim on the state - treasury. - - Another office exercised when possible by the caliph, but very - frequently delegated to some high dignitary, such as the heir to the - caliphate or a prince, was the leadership of the pilgrimage caravan to - Mecca and back. Sometimes this official, called _amir-al-hajj_, was - appointed imam as well. He then led all the pilgrimage ceremonies at - Mecca. When outside of towns where there was a cadi he exercised also - over the caravan the rights of a judge. - - - The Cadi. - - Mahommedan law (q.v.) is treated separately. Here, again, as judging - is a duty of the caliph, a cadi is the delegate, or, when appointed by - a vizier or governor, a delegate of his delegate. He examines into - disputes brought before him and enforces his judgments, he names - administrators of the estates of minors, the insane, &c.; he - supervises the _waqf_ property of mosques and schools in his district - and inspects highways and public buildings; he watches over the - execution of wills; he inflicts the due legal penalties for apostasy, - neglect of religious duties, refusal to pay taxes, theft, adultery, - outrages, murder; he can inflict the penalties of imprisonment, fine, - corporal punishment, death; if there is no imam, he can perform his - duty, as in fact can anyone who has the requisite knowledge. But it - should be noticed that all this holds only of the un-europeanized - Moslem state. - - - The Army. - -For the existence of an army in Islam, there are two grounds, the holy -war (_jihad_, q.v.) against unbelievers without the state and the -suppression of rebellion within. Under the ordinance of Omar the entire -community was preserved and used as a weapon for the subduing of the -world to Islam, and every able-bodied male Moslem was theoretically a -fighting man, part of the national militia. This army was divided into -corps situated in the conquered lands, as armies of occupation, where -they eventually came to form military colonies in great camp-cities. The -occupied countries had to support them, and they were bound to render -military service at any time. But as the ideal of Omar broke down before -facts the use of mercenary and slave troops finally increased; although -there has always continued in Moslem armies acting against unbelievers a -proportion of volunteers not paid a fixed wage but subsidized by the -state from the poor-rate and alms funds. The generals were appointed by -the caliph, and had either unlimited authority to act as his -representatives, concluding peace, acting as cadi and imam, distributing -booty; or were restricted within limits, e.g. to simple leading of the -troops and carrying on military operations. They, in turn, appointed -their subordinates; this principle of giving a head full powers and full -responsibility was very generally applied in Islam. It was controlled of -course by the espionage of the postal system. As war by a Moslem power -is essentially sacred war, the regulations of _jihad_ must be considered -here. Unbelievers must first be invited to embrace Islam and, if they -follow a sacred book and are not idol-worshippers, are given a choice -between (a) becoming Moslems; or (b) submitting to the Moslems and -entering on a treaty with them of protection and tribute; or (c) -fighting. If they accept Islam, their lives, families and property are -secure, and they form henceforth part of the Moslem community. The -ability of Islam to create a common feeling between highly different -races is one of its most striking features. If they submit and enter on -treaty relations, they pay a poll-tax, for which their personal safety -is assured, and assume a definitely inferior status, having no technical -citizenship in the state, only the condition of protected clients -(_dhimmis_). If they elect to fight, the door of repentance is open, -even when the armies are face to face. But after defeat their lives are -forfeit, their families are liable to slavery, and all their goods to -seizure. It is open to the sovereign either to put them to death; or to -enslave them; or to give them their liberty; or to exchange them for -ransom or against Moslem prisoners. The sovereign will choose that which -is best for Islam. As for their families and wealth, the sovereign can -release them only with consent of the army that has captured them. -Apostates must be put to death. Four-fifths of the booty after a battle -goes to the conquering army. - -The technical art of war seems to have been little studied among -Moslems; they have treatises on archery but very little upon tactics. -Their writers recognize, however, the essential difference between the -European and Persian methods of charging in solid lines and holding the -ground stubbornly, and the Arab and Berber method of flying attacks and -retreats by clouds of cavalry. Therefore, one explained, the custom grew -of using a mass of European mercenaries as a fixed nucleus and -rallying-point. The early Moslem armies, too, had used the solid, -unyielding charge, which may have been the secret of their success. For -one of the greatest puzzles of history is the cause which changed the -erratic, untrustworthy swarms of Arab horsemen with their childish -strategy into the ever-victorious legions of the first caliphs. They -certainly learned rapidly. Byzantium and Persia taught them the use of -military engines and the entrenched camp. Before that they had been, at -the best, single knights with mail-shirt, helmet, sword and lance. -Bowmen, too, they used, but the principal use of the bow seems to have -come with the Turks. - - - Education. - - The glory of Moslem education was its university system, which fed the - higher learning and did not serve everyday needs. Its primary system - was very poor, almost non-existent; and technical education has never - been recognized in Islam. Primary teachers were despised as ignorant - and foolish. Apparently, if we may trust the many stories of how - ignorant men set up for themselves, there was no control of them by - the state. Their pupils were young only; they taught the rudiments of - reading, Koran, catechism, prayer, writing and arithmetic, but very - little of the latter. Technical education was given by the gilds - through their apprentice system, teaching mechanical arts and crafts. - This was genuine instruction, but was not so regarded; it was looked - upon rather as are the mysteries and secrets of operative masonry. It - produced artisans of independent character, but not artists. Thus - there was no distinction between architect and builder; there was no - sculpture; and painting, so far as it went, was like carving, a craft. - All Moslem university education, like all Moslem science, revolved - round theology. There were, apparently, only two outstanding - exceptions to this rule, the academy of Mamun (813-833) at Bagdad, and - the hall of wisdom of the Fatimites at Cairo (1004-1171); both of - these are explained by their environment. From the earliest times, - independent scholars instructed classes in mosques--the common places - of meeting for the community--and gave their pupils personal - certificates. Their subjects were the reading and interpretation of - the Koran; the body of traditions from the Prophet; the thence deduced - system of theology; the canon law. But the interpretation of the Koran - involved grammatical and lexicographical studies of early Arabic, and - hence of the early Arabic literature. Theology came to involve - metaphysical and logical studies. Canon law required arithmetic and - mensuration, practical astronomy, &c. But these last were strictly - ancillary; the object of the instruction was primarily to give - knowledge of value for the life of the next world, and, secondarily, - to turn out theologians and lawyers. Medicine was in Jewish and - Christian hands; engineering, architecture, &c., with their - mathematical bases, were crafts. Then this instruction was gradually - subsidized and organized by the state, or endowed by individuals. How - early this took place is uncertain. But the individual teacher, with - his certificate, remained the object of the student; there was nothing - corresponding to our general degrees. Thirdly, educational - institutions came to be equipped with scholarships of money or in kind - for the students. The first instance of this is generally ascribed to - Nishapur (Naisabur) in 1066; but it soon became general in the system - and afforded a means of control and centralization. A final, and most - important, characteristic was the wide journeying of the students "in - search of knowledge." Aided by Arabic as the universal language of - learning, students journeyed from teacher to teacher, and from - Samarkand to the Atlantic, gathering on their way hundreds of personal - certificates. Scholars were thus kept in touch all over the Moslem - world, and intellectual unity was maintained. - - - The Sayyids. - -To the democratic equality of Islam, in which the slave of to-day may be -the prime minister of to-morrow, there is one outstanding exception. The -descendants of the Prophet and of his relatives (the family of Hashim) -formed and form a special class, held in social reverence, and guarded -from contamination and injury. These are the _sayyids_ (lords), and -genealogical registers of them are carefully preserved. They are of all -degrees of wealth and poverty, but are guarded legally from -_mesalliances_ with persons of ignoble origin or equivocal occupation. -Their influence is very great, and in some parts of the Moslem world -they have the standing and reverence of saints. - - See Von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte des Orients_, based largely on - Mawardi's _Ahkam_, trans. in part by Ostrorog; McG. de Slane's trans. - of Ibn Khaldun, _Prolegomenes_; Lane, _Manners and Customs of the - Modern Egyptians_; R. F. Burton, _Pilgrimage to Mekka_; Snouck - Hurgronje, _Mekka_; Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_; Juynboll, _De - Mohammedaansche Wet_; Macdonald, _Development of Muslim Theology_, &c. - For women in Islam, see HAREM. (D. B. Ma.) - - - - -MAHOMMEDAN LAW. The legal situation in the Moslem world is of the -highest complexity, and can be made intelligible only by tracing its -historical development. First came the system (_fiqh_, _sharia_) which -takes the place in Islam of canon law in Roman Christendom. It begins -with Mahomet sitting as judge over the primitive Moslem community at -Medina. He was the Prophet of God, and judged, as he ruled, absolutely; -any decision of his was valid. But he found it, in general, advisable -and fitting to follow the local law or usage of Medina when the new -faith did not require a change. It thus came about that his decisions -followed, at one time, the usage of the Arab tribes of Medina; at -another, the law respected by the Jewish tribes there--a rabbinic -development of the law of Moses, deeply affected by Roman law; at -another, the more developed commercial law of Mecca, known to his -followers who had fled thence with him; or, finally, his own personal -judgment, stated it might be as his own sense of right or as the -decision of Allah and even incorporated in the Koran. In his use of -these he was an eclectic opportunist, and evidently, except as regards -such frequently recurring subjects as inheritance, marriage, &c., had no -thought of building up a system or code. At his death he left behind -only a few specific prescriptions in the Koran and a mass of recorded -decisions of cases that had come before him. He had used himself, in our -terms, common law, equity, legislation; to guide his followers he left -his legislative enactments and the record of his use of common law. -Since his death there has been no new legislation in orthodox Islam. - -With the death of Mahomet began the development and codification of -Moslem law. It was at first entirely practical. Cases had to be decided, -and to decide them there was, first, the Koran; secondly, if nothing _ad -rem_ was found in the Koran, there were the decisions of the Prophet; -thirdly, if these failed, there was the common law of Medina; and, -fourthly, if it, in turn, failed, the common sense of the judge, or -equity. A knowledge of the decisions of Mahomet came thus to be of great -importance, and records of such decisions were eagerly sought and -preserved. But this was simply a part of a much wider movement and -tendency. As among primitive peoples in general, custom and usage have -always been potent among the Arabs. The ways of the fathers, the old -paths, they love to tread. Very early there arose a special reverence -for the path and usage (_sunna_) of Mahomet. Whatever he did or said, or -left unsaid or undone, and how he did it, has become of the first -importance to the pious Moslem, who would act in every way as did the -Prophet. There is evidence that for this purpose the immediate -companions of Mahomet took notes, either in memory or in writing, of his -table talk and wise sayings, just as they took down or learned by heart -for their private use the separate fragments of the Koran. His sayings -and doings, manners and customs, his answers to questions on religious -life and faith, above all his decisions in legal disputes, came to be -recorded on odd sheets in private notebooks. This was the beginning of -the enormous literature of traditions (_hadith_) in Islam. The -collecting and preserving of these, which was at first private, for -personal guidance and edification, finally became one of the most -powerful weapons of political and theological propaganda, and coloured -the whole method and fabric of Moslem thought. All knowledge tended to -be expressed in that form, and each element of it to be traced back to, -and given in the words of, some master or other through a chain of -transmitters. Above all there grew up an enormous mass of evidently -forged sayings put into the mouth of Mahomet. At every important -political or theological crisis each party would invent and put into -circulation a tradition from him, supporting its view. By a study of -these flatly opposed "sayings" it is possible to reconstruct the -different controversies of Islam in the past, and to discover what each -party regarded as the essence of its position. - - The first collecting of traditions was for private purposes, and the - first publication dealing with them was legal. This was the Muwatta' - of Malik ibn Anas (d. 795), a _corpus juris_ based partly on - traditions, and a protest in its methods against the too speculative - character of the books of canon law which preceded it. Thereafter came - collections of two different types. The earlier kind was arranged - according to the companions of Mahomet, on whose authority the - traditions were transmitted; after each companion came the traditions - going back to him. The best known example of this kind is the _Musnad_ - of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. The other kind, called _Musannaf_ (classified), - contains traditions arranged in chapters according to their subject - matter. That of Bukhari is the most famous, and is arranged to give a - traditional basis for a complete system of canon law; its rubrics are - those of such a system. Another is that of Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, who - paid less attention to legal aspects and more to minute accuracy. - There are many others of more or less acceptance and canonicity. - Bukhari's book enjoys a reverence only second to that of the Koran. - But in all these publications the primary object was to purify the - mass of traditions of forged accretions and to give to the believer a - sound basis for his knowledge of the usages of the Prophet, whether - for his personal or for public use. These two kinds were a natural - development. In the Moslem community there were from the first - students of tradition proper whose interest lay in collecting, testing - and transmitting, not in combining, systematizing and elucidating; - whose preference was to take a single statement from the Prophet and - apply it to a case, without reasonings or questionings. And there were - students of canon law who were interested rather in the system and - results, and who, while they used traditions, used them only to an end - and insisted on the free application of speculative principles. The - conflict of the future was to be between these traditionalists, on the - one hand, and rationalists, on the other; and the result was to be a - compromise. - -With the wide sweep of Moslem conquest another element came into the -development. This was Roman law, which the Moslem jurist found at work -in the conquered Roman provinces and in the law courts of which they -went to school. It is to be remembered that the Arab armies were not -devastating hordes; they recognized the need of law and order wherever -they went, and it was the policy of their leaders to take over the -administrative systems of the countries which they seized. Even the -Arabic legal nomenclature shows evident signs of literal translation -from Latin, and many Moslem principles can be traced to the Roman codes. -One important development was plainly influenced by the liberty involved -in the _Responsa prudentium_ of Roman lawyers, and by the broad -conception of the law of nature in the Edict of the Praetor. In its -earliest stages Moslem law recognized in the judge a liberty of opinion -(_ra'y_) which went beyond even that of the _Responsa_ and became plain -equity, in the English sense, and one school (the Hanifite) established -as a basis the right of preference (_istihsan_) even when the analogy of -the code dictated otherwise; while another (the Malikite) used the term -_istislah_, "a seeking of (general) benefit" to the community, in a -similar situation. But these developments were bitterly contested, and -the liberty of opinion was in the end narrowed down to a principle of -analogy (_qiyas_), the nearest approach to which in Western law is legal -fiction. - -It is necessary now to return to the first successors of Mahomet. "For -thirty years after my death," he is said to have declared, "my people -will tread in my path (_sunna_); thereafter will come kings and -princes." This tradition crystallizes the later feeling of Islam. The -first thirty years were a golden age; the centre of the state was the -Prophet's own city of Medina; the conditions of the state continued in -close conformity to those of his own time. The study of tradition, i.e. -of his usage, went hand in hand with the study of law. They were vital -functions of the state, and it encouraged both. - -Then came the great _debacle_. The _ancien regime_, a semi-monkish, -theocratic empire, went down, and the Omayyad dynasty, kings and princes -of the old Arab type, took its place (see CALIPHATE, B). The public life -of the state was no longer deeply religious; the pious said that it was -godless. Under these conditions law was indeed still needed; but it had -to be opportunist. Its development went on, but became speculative. The -study of tradition was now private, and its students were more and more -the personally pious. There were, thus, two results. On the one hand, -the framers of systems of canon law--as it now was--no longer lived in -contact with reality; hypothetical and ideal structures were reared -which could never stand the touch of the practical law-court. And on -another, traditions and law, even this hypothetical law, came to take -separate roads. The interest of the students of tradition became the -gathering of traditions for their own sake, going no farther than a -striving to regulate each detail of life by some specific, concrete, -prophetic dictum. They had no use for systems that went beyond the mere -registering of these dicta. The feeling also became widespread that any -system of government which did not simply reproduce the patriarchal form -of Medina was of the world and the devil--a thing with which no -religious man could have aught to do. At every turn he would have to -peril his soul. - -Here we must place the transition of this law with which we have -hitherto dealt from being the law of the land to being in essence a -variety of canon law. It was always broader than any western secular -law. It regulated all the aspects of life--duty to God, to one's -neighbour, to one's self. It was really a system of duties, ethical, -legal, religious. It did not limit itself to defining the forbidden -(_haram_); but designated actions also as required (_fard_, _wajib_), -recommended (_mandub_, _mustahabb_), indifferent (_ja'iz_, _mubah_), -disliked (_makruh_). It played the part of, or rendered necessary, a -religious director quite as much as a lawyer. And for a time at Medina -it was really the law of the land. But from the Omayyad period on it has -held the position of the canon law of the Roman Church in countries that -will not recognize it and yet dare not utterly reject it. It governs, in -one or other of its four schools, the private lives of all pious -Moslems; it regulates some semi-public relationships--e.g. marriage, -divorce, inheritance; it compels respect, if not acceptance, from the -state; and by its ideal standard the world, filled with righteousness by -the Mahdi, will be ruled in the Moslem millennium. - -The rise of the Abbasids brought a change, but not a great one. They had -promised a return to the old religious attitudes, and the promise was -formally kept. But in substance they were as much as the Omayyads, and -though the state was outwardly on a pious footing, and the religious -sentiment of the people was respected, the old, absolute canon law was -not restored. It was made possible for more theologians and lawyers to -work with the state, but an irreconcilable party still remained, and the -situation was fixed as it is to this day. It is true that the struggle -to adapt such a single and detailed system to all the varying -conditions, climates and times of the great empire was impossible; but -the failure marked the great rent in the supposed unity of Islam between -the church and the world, religion and law. - -Yet the Abbasids did, in their way, encourage legal studies, and under -them processes and results, long pursued in private, became public. -Almost within the first century of their dynasty the four legal schools, -or rites, were formed and the principles established which survive to -this day. - - The first school to take definite form was the Hanifite, founded by - Abu Hanifa (d. 767), who left behind him a definite system and many - enthusiastic pupils. He was a man of means, in touch with commercial, - but not with practical legal life, a speculative or philosophical - jurist. Being of non-Arab origin, the usage of Medina had small - interest for him. He therefore used few traditions, and preferred to - go back to the Koran, and extract from it by reasoning the rulings - which fitted his ideas. This he called the use of analogy (_qiyas_); - but, in his hands, it became practically legal fiction, the - application of a law in some sense undreamed by its first imposer. But - he had another, and still freer instrument. The effect of differences - in local conditions had been early observed and admitted in general - terms. Abu Hanifa reduced it to a subjective formula. Under such - conditions he claimed the right of preference (_istihsan_) of a ruling - suited to the local needs, even when the strict analogy indicated - otherwise. This met and meets with vehement protest when formally - stated, but the usage of Islam has practically accepted it. His - system, finally, was not developed through the exigencies of actual - cases, but was worked out as a system of casuistry, though in a good - sense. He tried, that is, to construct a system of rules to answer any - conceivable question. After his death his pupils elaborated it still - further, and accepted public office. The 'Abbasids adopted his school, - and threw their influence on its side; its philosophic breadth and - casuistic possibilities evidently commended it to them. Later, the - Ottoman Turks also adopted it, and it may be said to hold now a - leadership among the four legal rites. Its influence has undoubtedly - tended to broaden and humanize Moslem law. - - Twenty-eight years after Abu Hanifa, Malik ibn Anas, the founder of - the Malikite school, died at Medina. In many points his situation was - precisely opposite to that of Abu Hanifa, and yet his results were - very similar. He was a working jurist, in practical touch with actual - life; he was in the centre of the tradition of the usage of the - Prophet, in the line, one might say, of the apostolic succession. He, - therefore, used traditions much more generally than did Abu Hanifa, - and when he, under pressure, took refuge in opinion, he certainly felt - that he, under his conditions, had a better right to do so than any - outsider. But two of his principles marked a distinct advance and - showed that he was no mere traditionalist. For one, he laid down the - conception of public advantage (_istislah_); when a rule founded on - even a valid analogy would work a general injury it was to be set - aside; justice must not be overcome by logic. And, for the other, he - laid stress on the conception of the agreement (_ijma'_), an idea - which was to have indefinite importance in the future. When the - surviving companions of the Prophet, after his death, agreed upon any - point as belonging to their store of tradition and experience, their - agreement was accepted as final. In the first instance they agreed - that such had been the statement of the Prophet. That easily passed - over into an agreement that such was the true Moslem view, and finally - into an acceptance of the principle that the Moslem Church, when - unanimous, could formulate truth--practically as in the canon of - Vincent of Lerins, _Quod semper, quod ubique, quod ab omnibus_. But - such a broadly catholic position was still in the future, and for - Malik, juristic agreement meant the agreement of Medina, though there - are signs that he permitted the same latitude to other places also. It - was a way of allowing for local conditions rather than of reaching the - voice of the Church. His law book, the _Muwatta'_, the earliest in our - possession written by the founder of a school, has already been - mentioned. It is a collection of about seventeen hundred traditions of - juristic importance, arranged according to subject, with appended - remarks on the usage of Medina and on his own view of each matter. - - So far opinion and local usage had fully held their own, and the - philosophical jurist had been free to work out his system. The - difference between the _istihsan_ of Abu Hanifa and the _istislah_ of - Malik was not great; students attended the lectures of both and - combined their systems. But a reaction now began, and the - traditionalist party finally made itself felt. We have the inevitable - rivalry between the historical-empirical and the - speculative-philosophical schools of jurisprudence, rendered all the - more bitter in that the historical lawyers believed, in this case, - that they were defending a divine institution. There resulted, first, - one of the most important schools, the Shafi'ite; secondly, an - extremely literal school for which ash-Shafi'i did not go far enough, - and which has now vanished; and thirdly, the Hanbalite school, still - surviving in small numbers, more moderately traditional than the last. - - The school founded by ash-Shafi'i (d. 820), a pupil of Malik, came - first in order of time. The others were really revolts against the - mildness of his compromise. His characteristics were a broad-minded, - steady grasp of means and ends, a perception of what could and what - could not be done, a willingness to admit all the tried principles in - due balance, and, at one point especially, the insight of genius as to - the possibilities of these principles. He laid great stress on - tradition; a clear, authentic tradition he regarded as no less valid - than the Koran itself. If the tradition was chronologically later than - a Koranic passage and corrected that passage, he followed the - tradition. But in this he was only regulating a fixed tendency. The - Koran may be regarded theoretically as the first of all the sources of - law and theology; practically its clear statements have been - over-ridden in many cases. Most important of all, the principle of - agreement (_ijma'_) came finally with him to its full rights. The - agreement of the Moslem peoples was to be the voice of God. "My - people," said a tradition from Mahomet, "will never agree in an - error." And so, over traditions and over the Koran itself, the - agreement tacitly or explicitly ruled and rules. It stamps as - authoritative that which the other principles lay down. At the head of - each section of a Shafi'ite law book we read, "The basis of this, - before the agreement, is such and such." But with the aid of a - principle of this breadth it was easy to reject the opinion which was - so objectionable to the traditionalist party. In its place he took - analogy (_qiyas_), which, discreetly used, could serve almost the same - purpose. The Koranic passage or the tradition with which an analogy - was suggested should, he taught, be examined to see if there was a - reason clearly stated for the command. If so, that reason would give a - basis for the analogy. Analogy based on the mechanical or external - could not hold. - - The four bases thus laid down by ash-Shafi'i--Koran; prophetic usage - as expressed in traditions; analogy; agreement--have come to be - accepted by all existing schools. This applies to all spheres of life, - ethical, social, theological, legal, and it should never be forgotten - that the Koran is only one of the sources for Moslem faith and - conduct. - - Few words are needed for the other, reactionary schools. One, now long - extinct, was founded by a certain Da'ud uz-Zahiri, "David the - Literalist," born three or four years before the death of ash-Shafi'i, - and so called because he insisted upon an absolutely literal - interpretation of his texts--Koran or tradition--without account of - context or metaphor. In consequence he had to reject analogy, and - limited agreement to that of the companions of Mahomet; the Church of - Islam was to have no constructive authority. In one point he showed - great sanity of judgment, namely in his rejection of the principle - _jurare in verba magistri_, otherwise regnant in Islam. His school had - long and interesting consequences, mostly theological, but is now - extinct, and never took rank with the others. The Moslem world found - his positions too impossible, and now no one swears to his words. The - other, the Hanbalite school, was founded by the scholars of Ahmad ibn - Hanbal after his death in 885. He himself would never have revolted - against his master, ash-Shafi'i, but it was soon felt that his system, - so far as he had any, was in essential opposition. He had been no - lawyer, but a theologian and a collector and student of traditions. - All his life had been a protest against speculation in divine things. - Where the Koran and traditions were silent, he, too, had been silent. - For this agnostic principle he had witnessed and suffered, and his - standing with the people was that of a saint. Naturally, then, the - last still existent school of traditionalist protest was launched in - his name. It minimizes agreement and analogy, is literal in its - interpretations, and is now by far the smallest of the four surviving - schools. Its external history is that of a testifying and violent - minority. - - Other men, such as Tabari, the historian and commentator, have had - dreams that they, too, might join the Four Imams (see IMAM) as - founders of legal rites, but none has succeeded. The Four remain the - ultimate exponents of this canon law, and under the banner of one or - other of them every Moslem must range himself. As there is a principle - of unity in Islam, expressed in the alleged prophetic saying, "My - people will never agree in an error," so there is a principle of - variety, also expressed in an alleged prophetic saying, "The - disagreement of my people is a mercy from God." The four rites may - differ upon many points, yet the adherents of one never dream of - regarding the adherents of the others as outside the Church of Islam; - they are not "dissenters" in the English sense. God is merciful to his - creatures, and gives them so much liberty of choice. Yet in practice - this liberty is not great. The principle of swearing to the words of - the master is a dead hand laid upon Islam. A man's legal rite is - generally settled by the place and other conditions of his birth, and - after he has once accepted a rite, he must, if good and pious, follow - it in all its details. Only the avowed sceptic or the recognized - eccentric can be an eclectic. - - The geographical distribution of the rites is roughly as follows: - Moslems in Central Asia and northern India and the Turks everywhere - are Hanifites; in Lower Egypt, Syria, southern India and the Malay - Archipelago they are Shafi'ites; in Upper Egypt and in north Africa, - west of Egypt, they are Malikites; only the Wahhabis (q.v.) in central - Arabia are Hanbalites. But the will of the sovereign has also had a - powerful influence and has frequently dictated the legal, as well as - the theological, affiliations of his subjects. The Turks, for example, - have thrown their weight almost everywhere on the Hanifite side. Their - policy is to appoint only Hanifite judges (see CADI), although for - private and personal questions they appoint and pay Muftis (q.v.) of - the other rites. In other cases, with a population of mixed legal - adherence, the government has been known to appoint judges of - different rites. - - The Shi'ite canon law is dealt with separately, but some mention of - two outstanding sects is here in place. The Ibadites (see MAHOMMEDAN - RELIGION: _Sects_) have a system of canon law which in essentials is - of older codification than that of any of the orthodox schools, going - back to Abdallah ibn Ibad himself, of the first century of the Hijra - (Hejira). Its basis is above all the Koran, then a sparing use of - traditions, natural to their early origin, and finally the agreement - of their own learned men, again natural to an extreme dissenting sect, - and it still rules the Ibadite communities at Oman, Zanzibar and the - Mzab in southern Algeria. At all these places they, the last - descendants of the Kharijites, hold severely apart, while the other - Moslems shrink from them as heretics of the worst. Not nearly so far - from ordinary Islam, but still of an extreme self-conscious Puritanism - are the Wahhabis. They are really Hanbalites, but apply the rules of - that school with uncompromising, reforming energy. The doctrine of the - agreement of the Church of Islam they reject; only that of the - immediate companions of Mahomet is valid. The people of Mahomet can - err and has erred; each man must, on his own responsibility, draw his - doctrine from the Koran and the traditions. Here they follow the - Zahirites. - -All these schools of law administer a scheme of duties, which, as has -already been remarked, comes nearest to the canon law of the Roman -Church, and which for centuries has had only a partial connexion with -the real legal systems of the Moslem peoples. Among the Wahhabis and -Ibadites alone is it the whole of law. Elsewhere, since the Omayyad -period, its courts have been in great part pushed aside by others, and -its scheme has come to be regarded as an expression of impossible -theory, to be realized at best with the coming of the millennium. The -causes and methods of this change call now for detailed notice. - -As Islam spread beyond the desert and the conditions in which the life -of Mahomet and his companions had been cast, it came to regions, -climates, customs, where the Arabian usages no longer held. Not only -were the prescripts of Medina ill adapted to the new conditions; the new -people had legal usages of their own to which they clung and which -nothing could make them abandon. It was rather the Moslem leaders who -were compelled to abandon their ideas and for the sake of the spread of -Islam to accept and incorporate much that was diametrically opposed to -the original legislation either of the Koran or of Mahomet's recorded -decisions. As in religion the faiths of the conquered peoples were -thinly veneered with Moslem phrases, so in law there grew up a customary -code (_'adat_) for each country, differing from every other, which often -completely obscured and annulled the prescriptions of the canon law. The -one was an ideal system, studied and praised by the pious learned; the -other was the actual working of law in the courts. - -But besides the obstinate adherence of various peoples to their old -paths, the will of individual rulers was a determining factor. When -these ceased to be saints and students of divine things, and came to be -worldly statesmen and opportunists, followers of their own objects and -pleasures, no system could hold which set a limit to their authority. -The Oriental ruler must rule and judge on his own initiative, and the -schools of canon law tended to reduce everything to an academic -fixedness. There thus arose a new and specific statute law, emanating -from the sovereign. At first he judged in the gate as seemed good in his -eyes and as was his right and duty (cf. "court of oppressions"; see -MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS); later, his will was codified as in the Turkish -statute law (_qawanin_) derived from various European codes. Thus there -has grown up in almost every Moslem country at least two systems of -courts, the one administering this canon law, and taking cognisance of -private and family affairs, such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, its -officials also giving rulings on purely personal religious questions, -such as details of the ritual law, the law of oaths and vows, &c.; the -other, the true law courts of the land, administering codes based on -local custom and the decrees of the local rulers. - -A rift almost as important entered the legal life of the Moslem lands on -another side. Non-Moslem communities, settled in Moslem territory, have -been uniformly permitted to administer and judge themselves according to -their own customs and laws. Save when they come into direct contact and -conflict with Moslems, they are left to themselves with a contemptuous -tolerance. The origin of this attitude in Islam appears to be threefold: -(i) The Islam of theory cannot conceive of a mixed state; it takes -account, only, of a state containing none but Moslems, and its ideal is -that the whole world will, in the end, form such a state. In practice, -then, Moslems try to shut their eyes to the existence of non-Moslems in -their midst and make no provision for them until compelled. That a -non-Moslem should have the same civil position as a Moslem is -unthinkable. (ii) This, of course, produces an attitude of extreme -contempt. The only citizens are Moslems and all others are to be looked -down upon and left to themselves. What they do or think among themselves -does not matter; they are outside the ring-fence of Islam. (iii) A -different, but equally important, cause is the Moslem indolence. When -the Arabs conquered, they knew that they must administer the conquered -lands, and they, very wisely, sought help from the machinery which they -found in operation. But besides the ordinary organization of the state, -they found also various ecclesiastical organizations, Christian and -Jewish, and to these they gave over the administration of the non-Moslem -sections of the community, making their rabbis and bishops their -responsible heads and the links of contact with the Moslem rulers. They, -unquestionably, found the same method in use by the Byzantine -government; but in Moslem hands it went so far as to make a number of -little states (_millet_, _milal_) within the state and effectually to -preclude the possibility of ever welding all the inhabitants of the land -into one corporate life. - -But this indolence, when applied to resident aliens, had consequences -still more serious, because external as well as internal. Following the -same method of leaving the unbeliever to settle his affairs for himself, -the European merchant, living and trading in the East, was put first by -usage and finally by treaty under the jurisdiction and control of his -own consul. Thus there grew up the extra-territorial law of the -capitulations and conventions, by which the sanctity of the person and -household of an ambassador is extended to every European. And this in -turn, has reacted on the status of the non-Moslem subject races, and has -come to be the indirect but chief support on which they lean. Through -it, an element has developed which makes it practically impossible for a -Moslem state to introduce legal changes even remotely affecting its -non-Moslem population, alien or subject, without the consent of the -European embassies. Any change may be upset by their refusal to accept -it as incompatible with the capitulations and conventions. The embassies -have thus, as interpreters of a part, at least, of the constitution, -come to hold a position remarkably, if absurdly, like that of the -Supreme Court of the United States (see Young, _Corps de droit Ottoman, -passim_). - -There may be said, then, in short, to be three elements in the legal -life of a Moslem state: the sacred and fixed canon law of Islam; the -civil law, based on the usages of the different peoples, Moslem and -non-Moslem, and on statutes going back to the will of rulers; the -international law of the capitulations, with a contractual sanction of -its own. The hope for the future in Islam, there can be little doubt, -lies in the principle of the agreement of the Moslem people, with its -conception of catholic unity, and its ability, through that unity, to -make and abrogate laws. As the Moslem peoples advance, their law can, -thus, advance with them, and the grasp of the dead hand of the canon law -be gradually and legally released. - - See I. Goldziher, _Muhammedanische Studien_, I. and II. (Halle a.S., - 1889-1890); _Zahiriten_ (Leipzig, 1884); E. Sachau, _Zur altesten - Geschichte des muhammedanischen Rechts_ (Vienna Akad., 1870) and - _Muhammedanisches Recht_ (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1897); Snouck - Hurgronje, review of preceding in _Z.D.M.G._ liii. 125 seq. and "Le - droit musulman" (_Rev. de l'hist. des religions_, xxxvii. 1 seq. and - 174 seq.); Juynboll, _Handleiding tot de Kennis von de mohammedaansche - Wet_ (Leiden, 1903); Von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte des Orients unter - den Chalifen_, i. 470 seq. (Vienna, 1875-1877); Hughes, _Dictionary of - Islam_, pp. 285 seq. (London, 1896); D. B. Macdonald, _Development of - Muslim Theology_, &c., pp. 65 seq. (New York, 1903); Bukhari, _Les - Traditions islamiques traduites ... par O. Houdas et W. Marcel_ - (Paris, 1906); N. B. E. Bailie, _Digest of Moohummadan Law_ (2 vols., - London, 1875-1887). A good bibliography appeared in the _Bulletin of - the New York Public Library_ for January 1907. (D. B. Ma.) - - - - -MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. The Mahommedan religion is generally known as -_Islam_--the name given to it by Mahomet himself--and meaning the -resigning or submitting oneself to God. The participle of the same -Arabic verb, _Muslim_ (in English usually spelt Moslem), is used for one -who professes this religion. The expression "Mahommedan religion" has -arisen in the West probably from analogy with "Christian religion," but -is not recognized as a proper one by Moslem writers. Islam claims to be -a divinely revealed religion given to the world by Mahomet, who was the -last of a succession of inspired prophets. Its _doctrine_ and -_practices_ are to be found in (i) the Book of God--the Koran--which was -sent down from the highest heaven to Gabriel in the lowest, who in turn -revealed it in sections to Mahomet; (2) the collections of tradition -(_hadith_) containing the sayings and manner of life (_sunna_) of the -Prophet; (3) the use of analogy (_qiyas_) as applied to (i) and (2); and -(4) the universal consent (_ijma'_) of the believers. The _worship_ of -Islam consists in (1) the recital of the creed; (2) the recital of the -ordained prayers; (3) the fast during the month of Ramadhan; (4) -alms-giving; (5) the _hajj_, the pilgrimage to Mecca. The _theology_ of -Islam finds its first public expression among the orthodox in the -teaching of al-Ash'ari (d. after 932), but had its real beginning among -the sects that arose soon after the death of Mahomet. - -Islam is the latest of the so-called world-religions, and as several of -the others were practised in Arabia at the time of Mahomet, and the -Prophet undoubtedly borrowed some of his doctrines and some of his -practices from these, it is necessary to enumerate them and to indicate -the extent to which they prevailed in the Arabian world. - -_Relations with Other Religions._--The religions practised in Arabia at -the time of Mahomet were heathenism, Judaism, Christianity, and -Zoroastrianism. - - i. _Heathenism_ was the religion of the majority of the Arabs. In the - cities of south Arabia it was a survival from the forms represented in - the Sabaean, Minaean and Himyaritic inscriptions of south Arabia (see - ARABIA: _Antiquities_). The more popular form current among the nomads - is known very imperfectly from the remains of pre-Islamic poetry and - such works as the _Kitab ul-Asnam_ contained in Yaqut's geography, - from Shahrastani's work on the sects, and from the few references in - classical writers. From these we have mostly names of local deities - (cf. J. Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentums_, 2nd ed., Berlin, - 1897) and ancient religious customs, which remained in part after the - introduction of Islam (cf. W. Robertson Smith, _The Religion of the - Semites_, Edinburgh, 1889, and _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, - Cambridge, 1885). From these sources we learn that Arabian religion - was a nature-worship associated with fetishism. Sun, moon and stars - were worshipped, some tribes being devoted to the worship of special - constellations. Certain stones, wells and trees were regarded as - sacred and as containing a deity. Many (perhaps most) tribes had their - own idols. Hobal was the chief god of the Ka'ba in Mecca with its - sacred stone, but round him were grouped a number of other tribal - idols. It was against this association (_shirk_) of gods that Mahomet - inveighed in his attempt to unify the religion and polity of the - Arabs. But there were features in this heathenism favourable to unity, - and these Mahomet either simply took over into Islam or adapted for - his purpose. The popularity of the Ka'ba in Mecca as a place of resort - for worshippers from all parts of Arabia led Mahomet not only to - institute the _hajj_ as a duty, but also to take over the customs - connected with the heathen worship of these visits, and later to make - Mecca the _qibla_, i.e. the place to which his followers turned when - they prayed. The name of Allah, who seems to have been the god of the - Koreish (cf. D. S. Margoliouth, _Mohammed_, p. 19, London, 1905), was - accepted by Mahomet as the name of the one God, though he abandoned - the corresponding female deity Al-lat. - - 2. _Judaism_ had long been known in Arabia at the time of the Prophet. - Whether Hebrews settled in Arabia as early as the time of David (cf. - R. Dozy, _Die Israeliten zu Mecca_, Leipzig, 1864), or not, is of - little importance here as Judaism cannot be said to have existed until - the end of the 5th century B.C. The Seleucid persecutions and the - political troubles that ended with the fall of Jerusalem (A.D. 70) - probably sent many Jews to Arabia. In the 5th and 6th centuries the - history of south Arabia and of Nejran is largely that of the strife - between Jews and Christians. In the north-west the Jews possessed - Tema, Khaibar, Yathrib (Medina), Fadak, and other smaller settlements. - In these they lived as self-contained communities, not seeking to - proselytize but working at their trades, especially concerned with - money and jewelry. Mahomet seems to have expected their help in his - proclamation of monotheism, and his first _qibla_ was Jerusalem. It - was only when they refused to accept him as prophet that he turned in - anger against them. They had, however, supplied him with much material - from the Old Testament, and the stories of creation, the patriarchs - and early kings and prophets occur continually in the Koran, told - evidently as they were recited by the common people and with many - mistakes caused by his own misunderstanding. - - 3. _Christianity_, though later than Judaism, had a sure footing in - Arabia. It had suffered persecution in Nejran and had been supported - in the south by the Abyssinian invasions. The kingdom of Hira was - largely Christian; the same is true of the north Arabian tribes of - Bakr and Taghlib, and east of the Jordan and on the Syrian boundary as - well as in Yemama Christianity had made progress. Pre-Islamic - literature contains many allusions to the teaching and practices of - Christianity. Of the time of its introduction little is known; little - also of the form in which it was taught, save that it came from the - Eastern Church and probably to a large extent through Monophysite and - Nestorian sects. Tradition says that Mahomet heard Christian preaching - at the fair of Ukaz, and he probably heard more when he conducted the - caravans of Khadija. Gospel stories derived apparently from - uncanonical works, such as the Gospel of the Nativity, occur in the - Koran. The asceticism of the monks attracted his admiration. A - mistaken notion of the Trinity was sharply attacked by him. It is - curious that his followers in the earliest times were called by the - heathen Arabs, Sabians (q.v.), this being the name of a semi-Christian - sect. In the time of the Omayyads Christianity led to some of the - earliest theological sects of Islam (see below). - - 4. _Zoroastrianism_ was known to the Arab tribes in the north-east, - but does not seem to have exercised any influence in Mecca or Medina - except indirectly through Judaism in its angelology. As soon, however, - as the armies of Islam conquered Mesopotamia it began to penetrate the - thought and practices of Islam (see below). - -_Sources of Authority._--Islam, as we have said, is founded on: (1) the -Koran; (2) the tradition or rather the _sunna_ (manner of life of -Mahomet) contained in the tradition (_Hadith_); (3) _ijma'_; the -universal agreement; (4) _qiyas_ (analogy). - -1. The _Koran_[1] (properly _Qur'an_ from _qara'a_ to collect, or to -read, recite) is the copy of an uncreated original preserved by God (see -below), sent down from the seventh heaven to Gabriel in the first -heaven, and revealed to Mahomet in sections as occasion required. These -revelations were recited by the Prophet and in many cases written down -at once, though from ii. 100 it would seem that this was not always the -case. God is the speaker throughout the revelations. It seems probable -that the whole Koran was written in Mahomet's lifetime, but not brought -together as a whole or arranged in order. - - As it exists now the Koran consists of 114 chapters called _suras_ - (from _sura_, a row of bricks in a wall, a degree or step). The first - is the _Fatiha_ (opening), which occupies the place of the Lord's - Prayer in Christianity. The others are arranged generally in order of - length, the longest coming first, the shortest (often the earliest in - date) coming at the end. Certain groups, however, indicated by initial - unvowelled letters, seem to have been kept together from the time of - the Prophet. At the head of each _sura_ is a title, the place of its - origin (Mecca or Medina) and the number of its verses (_ayat_) - together with the formula, "In the name of God the Merciful, the - Compassionate" (except in _sura 9_). For liturgical purposes the whole - book is divided into 60 sections (_ahzab_) or into 30 divisions - (_ajza_), each subdivided into a number of prostrations (_ruk'a_ or - _sajda_). The origin of the collected and written Koran is due to - Omar, who in the caliphate of Abu Bekr pointed out that many - possessors of _suras_ were being slain in the battles of Islam and - their property lost, that there was a danger in this way that much of - the revelation might disappear, and that men were uncertain what was - to be accepted as genuine revelation. Accordingly Zaid ibn Thabit who - had been secretary to Mahomet, was commissioned to collect all he - could find of the revelation. His work seems to have been simply that - of a collector. He seems to have done his work thoroughly and made a - copy of the whole for Abu Bekr. The collection was thus chiefly a - private matter, and this copy passed after Abu Bekr's death into the - hands of Omar, and after his death to Hafsa, daughter of Omar, a widow - of Mahomet. In the caliphate of Othman it was discovered that there - were serious differences between the readings of the Koran possessed - by the Syrian troops and those of the Eastern soldiers, and Othman was - urged to have a copy prepared which should be authoritative for the - Moslem world. He appointed Zaid ibn Thabit and three members of the - tribe of Koreish (Quraish) to do the work. Each of these made a copy - of Abu Bekr's collection, carefully preserving Koreishite forms of - words. How far the text was amended by the help of other copies is - doubtful; in any case the mode of procedure was undoubtedly very - conservative. The four similar manuscripts were sent, one each to - Medina, Cufa (Kufa), Basra and Damascus, and an order was issued that - all differing copies should be destroyed. In spite of the personal - unpopularity of Othman this recension was adopted by the Moslem world - and remains the only standard text. A few variant readings and - differences of order of the _suras_ in the collections of Ubay ibn - Ka'b and of Ibn Mas'ud were, however, known to later commentators. The - only variants after the time of Othman were owing to different - possible ways of pronouncing the consonantal text. These are usually - of little importance for the meaning. As the text is now always - vowelled, variations are found in the vowels of different copies, and - the opinions of seven leading "readers" are regarded as worthy of - respect by commentators (see Th. Noldeke, _Geschichte des Qorans_, pp. - 279 seq., Gottingen, 1860). Various characteristics enable one to - establish with more or less certainty the relative chronological order - of the _suras_ in the Koran, at any rate so far as to place them in - the first or second Meccan period or that of Medina. The form of the - sentences is a guide, for the earliest parts are usually written in - the _saj'_ form (see ARABIA: _Literature_). The expressions used also - help; thus the "O ye people" of the Meccan period is replaced in the - Medina _suras_ by "O ye who believe." The oaths in the first Meccan - period are longer, in the second shorter, and are absent in the - Medinan. In the earliest period the style is more elevated and - passionate. Occasionally the time of origin is determined by reference - to historical events. In accordance with such principles of criticism - two leading scholars, Noldeke (_loc. cit._) and H. Grimme (in his - _Mohammed Zweiter Teil_. _Einleitung in den Koran. System der - koranischen Theologie_, Munster, 1895), have arranged the _suras_ as - follows:-- - - - _Order of Suras in Koran._ - - NOLDEKE. - - _Mecca._ - - 1st to 5th yr. (a). - 96. 74. 111. 106. 108. 104. 107. 102. 105. 92. 90. 94. 93. 97. 86. - 91. 80. 68. 87. 95. 103. 85. 73. 101. 99. 82. 81. 53. 84. 100. 79. - 77. 78. 88. 89. 75. 83. 69. 51. 52. 56. 70. 55. 112. 109. 113. 114. - 1. - - 5th and 6th yr. (b). - 54. 37. 71. 76. 44. 50. 20. 26. 15. 19. 38. 36. 43. 72. 67. 23. 21. - 25. 17. 27. 18. - - 7th yr. to Flight (c). - 32. 41. 45. 16. 30. 11. 14. 12. 40. 28. 39. 29. 31. 42. 10. 34. 35. - 7. 46. 6. 13. - - _Medina._ - - 2. 98. 64. 62. 8. 47. 3. 61. 57. 4. 65. 59. 33. 63. 24. 58. 22. 48. - 66. 60. 110. 49. 9. 5. - - GRIMME. - - _Mecca_, (1). - [2] In old saj' form: 111. 107. 106. 105. 104. [103=]. 102. 101. - 100. 99. 108. 96. 95. 94. 93. 92. 91. 90. 89. 88. [87=]. 86. [85=]. - [84=]. 83. 82. [81.=] 80. 79. [78=]. 77. [76=]. 75. [74=]. [73=]. - 70. 69. 68. 114. 113. 36. 55. 54. [53=]. 52. 51. 50. 15. [22=]. - [14=]. - - (2). - In loosened _saj'_ form: 46. 72. 45. 44. 41. 97. 40. 39. 38. 37. 36. - 35. 34. 32. 31. 67. 30. [29=]. 28. 27. 26. 71. 25. 20. 23. 43. 21. - 19. 1. 42. 18. 17. - - _Medina._ - [16=]. 13. 12. 11. 10. [7=]. 6. 98. (112. 109). - - From the Flight to Badr. - [2=]. 62. 5_(15.88.108-120). 47 and some interpolations in Meccan - _suras_. - - From Badr to Ohod - 8. 24. 59. - - From Ohod to capture of Mecca. - 3. 29_(1-12). 4. 57. 64. 61. 60. 58. 65. 33. 63. 49. 110. 48. - 5_(1-14). 66. 9_(1-24). - - After capture of Mecca. - 9_(25-124). - - - Theology. - -On the supposition that the arrangements given above are at any rate -approximately correct, it is possible to trace a certain development in -the teaching of the Koran on some of the chief dogmas. It must, however, -be borne in mind that orthodox Islam recognizes the Koran as the work -not of Mahomet but of God. Yet Moslem theologians recognize that some -revelations are inconsistent with others, and so have developed the -doctrine of _nasikh_ and _mansukh_ ("abrogating" and "abrogated"), -whereby it is taught that in certain definite cases a later revelation -supersedes an earlier. A critical study of the Koran shows in the -earlier revelations the marks of a reflective mind trained under the -influence of Arabian education and stirred by an acquaintance (somewhat -imperfect) with Judaism and Christianity. The later revelations seem to -be influenced by the now dominant position of the Prophet and a desire -after the capture of Mecca to incorporate such heathen religious -ceremonies as are national. God is one and universal from the beginning. -His unity is emphasized as against the mistaken conception of the -Christian Trinity. At first his might is taught by the name _Rabb_ -(Lord) which is generally used with an attribute as "the highest Lord," -"Lord of the worlds," "Lord of men," "Lord of heaven and earth," "Lord -of the East and West," or "our Lord." Then he is identified with the god -Allah (see above) and the first part of the later Moslem creed is -announced--_la ilaha illa-llaha_, "there is no god but Allah." But every -act of creation is a proof not only of God's power but also of his -beneficence (xiv. 37), and so he becomes known as _ar-Rahman_, "the -Compassionate." The attributes of God may all be arranged in the three -classes of his power, unity and goodness. They are expressed by the -ninety-nine "beautiful names" applied to him in the Koran (see E. H. -Palmer, _The Quran_ in "Sacred Books of the East," vol. vi., Introd. pp. -67-68, Oxford, 1880). In the Medina period of Mahomet's life the nature -of God is not so clear, and the description of it varies according to -the moods of the Prophet. - - - Spirits. - -Beside God are two other uncreated beings: (1) the original of the -Koran, the "mother of the Book" (xliii. 3) on a "preserved tablet" -(_lauh mahfuz_) (lxxxv. 22), in accordance with which God acts, and (2) -the throne (_kursi_) (ii. 256). When the heavens are created, God sits -on his throne in the seventh heaven; around him are angels, pure, -sexless beings, some of whom bear the throne, while some are engaged in -praising him continually. They are also his messengers and are sent to -fight with the believers against the heathen. Some are the guardian -angels of men, others are the watchmen of hell. Mediate beings between -God and man are the "word" (_amr_) and from it the "spirit" (_ruh_) or -"holy spirit" (_ruh ul-qudus_). Another manifestation of God to the -believers only is the "glory" (_sakina_). - - - Cosmology. - - Ethics. - -God created the world in six days according to the plan of the Book. Each -new life was created by God's breathing into it a soul. The duality of -soul and body is maintained. In each man is a good and a bad impulse. The -bad impulse which was latent in Adam was roused to action by Satan -(_Iblis_). Adam by his fall lost the grace of God, which was restored to -him solely by the gracious choice of God. Between men and angels in their -nature are the genii (_jinn_) male and female, inhabitants of desert -places, created from smokeless fire. They had been accustomed to spy -round heaven, but in Mahomet's time could learn no more of its secrets. -Some of them were converted by the Prophet's teaching. Lowest of creation -in his estate is Satan (_Shaitan_), who was an angel but was expelled -from heaven because he refused to worship Adam at his Lord's command. God -has revealed himself to man by (1) writing (_kitab_), and (2) prophets. -As he had given to the Jews the Law (_Taurat_) and to the Christians the -Gospel (_Injil_) so he revealed to Mahomet the Koran (Qur'an, known also -by other names, e.g. _al-Furqan_, _at-Tafsil_, &c.), each single -revelation being called an aya. With his revelation God has also sent an -apostle or prophet to each people. Several of these are mentioned in the -Koran, Moses the prophet of the Jews, Jesus (_Isa_) that of the -Christians. Mahomet is not only the apostle of the Moslems but the "seal -of the prophets," i.e. the final member of the class. His mission at -first was to warn men of imminent judgment. Later he became more of a -teacher. At first he seems to have relied for the salvation of men on his -natural faculties, but later announced the doctrine of God's election. -The ethics of the Koran are based on belief (_iman_) and good works, the -latter alone occurring in the early Meccan _suras_. Fear of the judgment -of God was a motive of action; this is followed by repentance and turning -to God. A complete surrender to God's will (_islam_) is the necessary -condition of religious life and is expressed in the phrase so common in -everyday speech among the Moslems--_inshallah_, "if God will." God has -full power to overlook evil deeds if he will. Unbelievers can acquire no -merit, however moral their actions. A short account of the chief ethical -requirements of the Koran is given in xvii. 23-40:-- - - "Put not God with other gods, or thou wilt sit despised and forsaken. - Thy Lord has decreed that ye shall not serve other than Him; and - kindness to one's parents, whether one or both of them reach old age - with thee, and say not to them, 'Fie,' and do not grumble at them, but - speak to them a generous speech. And lower to them the wing of - humility out of compassion, and say, 'O Lord! have compassion on them - as they brought me up when I was little!' Your Lord knows best what is - in your souls if ye be righteous, and, verily, He is forgiving unto - those who come back penitent. - - "And give thy kinsman his due and the poor and the son of the road; - and waste not wastefully, for the wasteful were ever the devil's - brothers, and the devil is ever ungrateful to his Lord. - - "But if thou dost turn away from them to seek after mercy from thy - Lord, which thou hopest for, then speak to them an easy speech. - - "Make not thy hand fettered to thy neck, nor yet spread it out quite - open, lest thou shouldest have to sit down blamed and straightened in - means. Verily, thy Lord spreads out provision to whomsoever He will or - He doles it out. Verily, He is ever well aware of and sees His - servants. - - "And slay not your children for fear of poverty; we will provide for - them; beware! for to slay them is ever a great sin. - - "And draw not near to fornication; verily, it is ever an abomination, - and evil is the way thereof. - - "And slay not the soul that God has forbidden you, except for just - cause; for he who is slain unjustly we have given his next of kin - authority; yet let him not exceed in slaying; verily, he is ever - helped. - - "And draw not near to the wealth of the orphan, save to improve it, - until he reaches the age of puberty, and fulfil your compacts; verily, - a compact is ever enquired of. - - "And give full measure when ye measure out, and weigh with a right - balance; that is better and a fairer determination. - - "And do not pursue that of which thou hast no knowledge; verily, the - hearing, the sight and the heart, all of these shall be enquired of. - - "And walk not on the earth proudly; verily, thou canst not cleave the - earth, and thou shalt not reach the mountains in height. - - "All this is ever evil in the sight of your Lord and abhorred." - - (E. H. Palmer's translation.) - - - Eschatology. - -The eschatology of the Koran is especially prominent in its earlier -parts. The resurrection, last judgment, paradise and hell are all -described. At death the body again becomes earth, while the soul sinks -into a state of sleep or unconsciousness. At a time decreed, known as -"the hour" (_as-Sa'a_), "the day of resurrection" (_yaum ul-qiyyama_), -"day of judgment" (_yaum-ud-din_), &c., an angel will call or will sound -a trumpet, the earth will be broken up, and the soul will rejoin the -body. God will appear on his throne with angels. The great book will be -opened, and a list of his deeds will be given to every man, to the good -in his right hand, to the evil in his left (_sura 69_). A balance will -be used to weigh the deeds. The _jinn_ will testify against the -idolaters. The righteous will then obtain eternal peace and joy in the -garden (_al-janna_) and the wicked will be cast into the fiery ditch -(_Jahannam_), where pains of body and of soul are united. - -2. The _Tradition._--The revelation of God is twofold--in a writing and -by a prophet. The former was contained in the Koran, the latter was -known from the actions of Mahomet in the different circumstances of -life. The manner of life of the Prophet (_sunna_) was contained in the -tradition (_al-hadith_). The information required was at first naturally -obtained by word of mouth from the companions and helpers of Mahomet. -These in turn bequeathed their information to their younger companions, -who quoted traditions and gave decisions in their names. - - For long these traditions circulated orally, the authority of each - depending on the person who first gave it and the reliability of the - chain (_isnad_) of men who had passed it on from him. At first this - tradition was regarded as explanatory of, or at the most supplementary - to, the teaching of the Koran. Early Moslem teachers pointed to the - Jews as having two law-books--the _Taurat_ and the _Mishna_--while - Islam had only one--the Koran. But opinion changed, the value of - tradition as an independent revelation came to be more highly esteemed - until at last it was seriously discussed whether a tradition might not - abrogate a passage of the Koran with which it was at variance. The - writing of traditions was at first strongly discouraged, and for more - than a century the stories of the Prophet's conduct passed from mouth - to mouth. Had all the narrators been pious men, this might have been - tolerable, but this was not the case. The Omayyad dynasty was not a - pious one. Men who were not religious but wished to appear so invented - traditions to justify their manner of life. The sectarians did not - hesitate to adopt the same means of spreading their own teaching. Many - Moslem writers testify to the fact that forged traditions were - circulated, and that religious opinion was confused thereby. The need - for some sort of authoritative collection seems to have been felt by - the one pious Omayyad caliph, Omar II. (717-720), who is said to have - ordered Ibn Shihab uz-Zuhri to make such a collection. Of this work, - if it was carried out, we know nothing further. It was, however, by a - man born during this reign that the first systematic collection of - traditions was made--the _Muwatta'_ of Malik ibn Anas (q.v.). Yet this - work is not a book of tradition in the religious sense, it is really a - corpus juris and not a complete one. The object of Malik was simply to - record every tradition that had been used to give effect to a legal - decision. The work of sifting the vast mass of traditions and - arranging them according to their relation to the different parts of - religious life and practice was first undertaken in the 3rd century of - Islam (A.D. 815-912). In this century all the six collections - afterwards regarded as canonical by the Sunnites (orthodox) were made. - By this time an immense number of traditions was in circulation. - Bukhari in the course of sixteen years' journeying through Moslem - lands collected 600,000, and of these included 7275 (or, allowing for - repetitions, 4000) in his work. The six collections of tradition - received by the Sunnites as authoritative are: (i) The _Kitab ul-jami' - us-Sahih_ of Bukhari (q.v.) (810-870). This is the most respected - throughout the Moslem world and most carefully compiled (ed. L. Krehl - and T. W. Juynboll, Leiden, 1862--and frequently in the East; also - with many commentaries. French translation by O. Houdas and W. - Marcais, Paris, 1903 sqq.). (ii) The _Sahih_ of Muslim (817-875) with - an introduction on the science of tradition (ed. Calcutta, 1849, &c.). - (iii) The _Kitab us-Sunan_ of Abu Da'ud (817-888) (ed. Cairo, 1863, - Lucknow, 1888, Delhi, 1890). (iv) The _Jami' us-Sahih_ of Tirmidhi - (q.v.). (v) _The Kitab us-Sunan_ of Nasa' i (830-915) (ed. Cairo, - 1894). (vi) The _Kitab us-Sunan_ of Ibn Maja (824-866) (ed. Delhi, - 1865 and 1889). The last four are not held in the same repute as the - first two. - -3. _Ijma'_ is the universal consent which is held to justify practices -or beliefs, although they are not warranted by the Koran or tradition, -and may be inconsistent with the apparent teaching of one or both of -these. These beliefs and practices, which had often come from the -pre-Islamic customs of those who had become believers, seem to have -escaped notice until the Abbasid period. They were too deeply rooted in -the lives of men to be abolished. It became necessary either to find a -tradition to abrogate the earlier forbidding one, or to acknowledge that -_ijma'_ is higher than the tradition. The former expedient was resorted -to by some later theologians (e.g. Nawawi) by a fiction that such a -tradition existed though it was not found now in writing. But in earlier -times some (as Ibn Qutaiba) had adopted the latter alternative, saying -that the truth can be derived much earlier from the _ijma'_ than from -the tradition, because it is not open to the same chances of corruption -in its transmission as the latter. Tradition itself was found to confirm -this view, for the Prophet is related to have said, "My people does not -agree to an error." - - But _ijma'_ itself has been used in different senses: (i) The _ijma'_ - of Medina was used to indicate the authority coming from the practices - of the people of Medina (see below). (ii) The _ijma'_ of the whole - community of Moslems is that most commonly recognized. It was used to - support fealty to the Abbasid dynasty. By it the six books of - tradition mentioned above are recognized as authoritative, and it is - the justification of the conception of Mahomet as superhuman. (iii) - Some of the more thoughtful theologians recognize only the _ijma'_ of - the doctors or the teachers of Islam (the _mujtahidun_), these being - restricted by the orthodox to the first few generations after Mahomet, - while the Shi'ites allow the existence of such up to the present time. - -4. The fourth basis of Islam is _qiyas_, i.e. analogy. It is that -process by which a belief or practice is justified on the ground of -something similar but not identical in the Koran, the tradition or -_ijma'_. Originally it seems to have been instituted as a check upon the -use of private opinion (_ra'y_) in the teaching of doctrine. The extent -to which it may be used is a subject of much discussion among -theologians. Some would apply it only to a "material similarity," others -to similarity of motive or cause as well. - -_Worship and Ritual._--The acts of worship required by Islam are five in -number: (i) the recital of the creed; (ii.) observance of the five daily -prayers; (iii) the fast in the month of Ramadhan; (iv) giving of the -legal alms; (v) the pilgrimage to Mecca. - - - Creed. - - i. The creed is belief--"la ilaha illa-llahu, Muhammad rasul allahi," - "there is no god but God (Allah), Mahomet is the apostle of God." It - is required that this shall be recited at least once in a lifetime - aloud, correctly, with full understanding of its meaning and with - heartfelt belief in its truth. It is to be professed without - hesitation at any time until death. - - - Prayer. - - ii. Every man who professes Islam is required in ordinary life to pray - five times in each day. In the Koran these prayers are commanded, - though four only are mentioned. "Wherefore glorify God, when the - evening overtaketh you, and when ye rise in the morning, and unto Him - be praise in Heaven and earth; and in the evening and when ye rest at - noon" (xxx. 16-17), but commentators say the "evening" includes the - sunset and after sunset. The five times therefore are: (1) Dawn or - just before sunrise, (2) just after noon, (3) before sunset, (4) just - after sunset, and (5) just after the day has closed. Tradition decides - within what limits the recitals may be delayed without impairing their - validity. Prayer is preceded by the lesser ablution (_wadu_) - consisting in the washing of face, hands (to the elbows) and feet in - prescribed manner. Complete washing of the body (_ghusl_) is required - only after legal pollution. In prayer the worshipper faces the _qibla_ - (direction of prayer), which was at first Jerusalem, but was changed - by the Prophet to Mecca. In a mosque the _qibla_ is indicated by a - niche (_mihrab_) in one of the walls. The prayers consist of - prescribed ejaculations, petitions, and the recital of parts of the - Koran, always including the first _sura_, accompanied by prostrations - of the body. Detailed physical positions are prescribed for each part - of the worship; these vary slightly in the four orthodox schools (see - below). On a journey, in time of war or in other special - circumstances, the set form of prayers may be modified in accordance - with appointed rules. Besides these private prayers, there is the - prayer of the assembly, which is observed on a Friday (_yaum - ul-jam'a_, "the day of assembly") in a mosque, and is usually - accompanied by an address or declamation (_khutba_) delivered from a - step of the pulpit (_minbar_). Special prayers are also prescribed for - certain occasions, as on the eclipse of the sun or the moon, &c. Among - the Sufis special attention is given to informal prayer, consisting - chiefly in the continual repetition of the name of God (_dhikr_) (see - SUFI'ISM). This is still a characteristic of some of the dervish - (q.v.) communities. - - - Fasting. - - iii. The command to fast begins with the words, "O ye who believe! - There is prescribed for you the fast, as it was prescribed for those - before you." The expression "those before you" has been taken to refer - to the Jews, who fasted on the day of atonement, but more probably - refers to the long fast of thirty-six days observed by the Eastern - Christians. In the passage of the Koran referred to (ii. 179-181) - Moslems are required to fast during the month of Ramadhan, "wherein - the Koran was revealed," but if one is on a journey or sick he may - fast "another number of days," and if he is able to fast and does not, - "he may redeem it by feeding a poor man," but "if ye fast, it is - better for you." This fast was probably instituted in the second year - at Medina. At that time the corrected lunar year was in use and - Ramadhan, the ninth month, was always in the winter. A few years later - Mahomet decreed the use of the uncorrected lunar year, which remains - the standard of time for the Moslem world, so that the month of - fasting now occurs at all seasons of the year in turn. The fast is - severe, and means entire abstinence from food and drink from sunrise - to sunset each day of the month. The fast is associated with the - statement that in this month God sent down the Koran from the seventh - heaven to Gabriel in the lowest that it might be revealed to the - Prophet. - - - Alms. - - iv. Alms are of two kinds: (1) the legal and determined (_zakat_), and - (2) voluntary (_sadaqat_). The former were given in cattle, grain, - fruit, merchandise and money once a year after a year's possession. - For cattle a somewhat elaborate scale is adopted. Of grain and fruit a - tenth is given if watered by rain, a twentieth if the result of - irrigation. Of the value of merchandise and of money a fortieth is - prescribed. In the early days of Islam the alms were collected by - officials and used for the building of mosques and similar religious - purposes. At the present time the carrying of these prescriptions is - left to the conscience of the believers, who pay the alms to any needy - fellow-Moslem. A good example of a _sadaqa_ is found in a gift to an - unbeliever (see C. M. Doughty, _Arabia deserta_, i. 446, ii. 278, - Cambridge, 1888). - - - Pilgrimage. - - v. The fifth religious duty of the Moslem is the pilgrimage (_hajj_) - to Mecca, which should be performed once by every Moslem "if he is - able," that is if he can provide or obtain the means to support - himself on pilgrimage and his family during his absence, and if he is - physically capable. The pilgrimage is made at one time of the (Moslem) - year, namely, from the 7th to the 10th of the month Dhu'l-Hijja. For - the arrangements for the journey from various countries to Mecca see - CARAVAN. When the pilgrim arrives within five or six miles of the holy - city he puts off his ordinary dress after ablution and prayer, and - puts on the two seamless wrappers which form the dress of the pilgrim - (the _ihram_), who goes without head-covering or boots or shoes. He - must not shave at all, or trim the nails or anoint the head during the - ceremonial period. The chief parts of the ceremonial are the visit to - the sacred mosque (_masjid ul-haram_), the kissing of the black stone, - the compassing of the Ka'ba (the _Tawaf_) seven times, three times - running, four times slowly, the visit to the Maqam Ibrahim, the ascent - of Mount Safa and running from it to Mount Marwa seven times, the run - to Mount 'Arafat, hearing a sermon, and going to Muzdalifa, where he - stays the night, the throwing of stones at the three pillars in Mina - on the great feast day, and the offering of sacrifice there (for the - localities see MECCA). After the accomplishment of these ceremonies - the ordinary dress is resumed, the pilgrimage is finished, but the - pilgrim usually remains another three days in Mecca, then visits - Medina to pay his respects to the tomb of Mahomet. Beside the _hajj_ - (great pilgrimage) Islam also recognizes the merit of the _'umra_ (or - lesser pilgrimage), i.e. a religious visit to Mecca at any time - accompanied by most of the ceremonies of the _hajj_. - - The ceremonies of the _hajj_ have been described by several European - travellers who have witnessed them, such as J. L. Burckhardt in 1814, - Sir Richard Burton in 1853 (see bibliography to MECCA). A concise - account of them is given in T. P. Hughes, _Notes on Muhammadanism_ - (3rd ed., London, 1894). Details in vol. i. of Bukhari's traditions - (Houdas and Marcais's French translation, i. 493-567). - -_The Development of Islam._--The battle of Siffin (657) between 'Ali and -Moawiya was the occasion of the first breach in the unity of Islam, and -the results remain to this day. The occasion was in the first case -political, but politics were at that time too intimately connected with -religion to be considered apart from it. After the battle (see -CALIPHATE) 'Ali was practically compelled to submit his claims to -arbitration, whereupon a number of his supporters broke away from him, -saying that there should have been no appeal save to the Book of God. -These men were for the most part country Arabs, and, inspired by the -free spirit of the desert, were democratic, claiming that the caliph -should be elected by the whole community from any family (and not from -the Koreish alone), and that the caliph might be deposed for sin. A few -extremists were republicans and would do without a caliph altogether. -The whole party was known as the Kharijites (Kharijiyya or Khawarij). -The Moslems who disagreed with them were regarded by them as renegades -and were to be put to death. They were soon divided into extremists and -moderates. The former put to death the children of unbelievers and -refused to hold intercourse in daily life with unbelievers. The -moderates, who came to be known as Ibadites (from their leader 'Abdallah -ibn 'Ibad), would allow the children of unbelievers to grow up, and -would then deal with them according to their choice. In ordinary life -they would mix with all men, but marriage with other Moslems outside -their own ranks was forbidden. These still remain in Oman, parts of -Algeria and East Africa. - -Another party, consisting mainly of city Arabs infected with Persian -ideas as to the divinity of the ruler, clung to 'Ali with inconvenient -affection. They regarded 'Ali and his descendants as the only legitimate -caliphs, and came to be known as Shi'ites (q.v.). They remain to-day the -largest part of Islam outside orthodoxy. During the Omayyad caliphate -(661-750) there were three centres of religious thought and influence; -students and teachers often passed from one to the other, thus making -universal the teachings which in their origin were due to local -circumstances. These centres were Damascus (the seat of the caliphate), -Medina and the East (Irak, &c.). In Damascus the court was worldly and -indifferent to the interests of Islam. The early Omayyads were -distinguished for their striving after dominion (_mulk_). Instead of -attempting to propagate Islam, they tolerated other religions and -favoured Christians who were distinguished as poets (e.g. Akhtal) or -officials (John of Damascus), or men likely to be of use to them in any -way. The doctrines of Christianity began to influence even serious -Moslems and to affect their way of stating Moslem belief. John of -Damascus (d. before 767), the Greek theologian, and his pupil, Theodorus -Abucara (d. 826), have written controversial works on Islam, from which -it seems probable that disputations on subjects pertaining to religion -were held between Christians and Moslems. Two schools of heretical -Moslem sects arose under these influences--that of the Murjiites and -that of the Qadarites. The Murjiites ("postponers") were so called -because they postponed the judgment of human actions until the Day of -Judgment. In politics they accepted the Omayyads as _de facto_ rulers, -since they were Moslems, and left the judgment of their actions to God. -As theologians they taught that religion consists in belief (_iman_) in -the unity of God and in his apostle, and in that alone, consequently no -one who held this faith would perish eternally, though he had been a -sinner. This was opposed to the Kharijite doctrine that the unrepentant -sinner would perish eternally, even though he had professed Islam. - -The Qadarites were concerned with the doctrine of predestination and -free-will. So long as Moslems were fighting the battles of Islam they -naturally paid most attention to those revelations which laid stress on -the absolute determination of a man's destiny by God. They fought with -great bravery because they believed that God had foreordained their -death or life and they could not escape His will. In the quieter realm -of town and court life and in their disputations with Christians they -were called upon to reconcile this belief with the appeals made in the -Koran to man's own self-determination to good, to courage, &c. Mahomet -was not a systematic theologian and had done nothing to help them. The -Qadarites declared that man had power over his own actions. But the -teaching of predestination had gained too great a hold on Moslems to be -thus displaced. The teaching of the Qadarites was held to be heresy, and -one of its first professors, Ma'bad ul-Juhani, was put to death in -699.[3] During this period Medina was the home of tradition. Those who -had been in closest relation with the Prophet dwelt there. The very -people of the city derived a certain splendour and authority from the -fact that Mahomet had lived and was buried there. Free thought in -religion had little chance of arising, less of expressing itself, in the -holy city. But the Koran was diligently studied, traditions were -collected (and invented) though not yet written in books, and innovation -(_bid'a_) was resolutely avoided. At the same time it really did -contribute a new element to religious practice, for the custom (_ijma'_, -see above) of Medina gained a certain authority even in Syria and the -East. - -In the East, on the other hand, there was more mental activity, and the -religious teachers who came from Medina had to be prepared to meet with -many questions. The wits of the Moslems were sharpened by daily contact -with Christians, Buddhists, Manichaeans and Zoroastrians. Hasan ul-Basri -(q.v.), who has been claimed as one of the first mystics, also as one of -the first systematic theologians of Islam, was remarkable alike for his -personal piety and his orthodoxy. Yet it was among his pupils that the -great rationalist movement originated. Its founder was Wasil ibn 'Ata, -who separated himself (whence his followers were called Motazilites, -strictly Mu'tazilites, "Separatists") from his teacher and founded a -school which became numerous and influential. The Mu'tazilites objected -to the attributes of God being considered in any way as entities beside -God; they explained away the anthropomorphisms used in speaking of the -deity; they regarded the Koran as created and as a product of Mahomet -writing under the divine influence. Briefly, they asserted the supremacy -of reason (_'aql_) as distinct from faith received by tradition -(_naql_). They also called themselves "the people of justice and unity" -(_Ahl ul-'adl wat-tauhid_). Such a faith as this naturally found favour -rather with the thinking classes than with the uneducated multitude, and -so went through many vicissitudes. At the time of its appearance and -until the reign of Ma'mun its adherents were persecuted as heretics. -After discussions among the theologians Ma'mun took the decided step of -proclaiming that the Koran was created, and that a belief in this dogma -was necessary. Other Mu'tazilite doctrines were proclaimed later. -Mu'tazilites were appointed to official posts, and an inquisition -(_mihna_) was appointed to enforce belief in their doctrines. This -movement was strongly opposed by the orthodox and especially by Ahmad -ibn Hanbal (q.v.). By him the founding of theology on reason was -rejected, and he suffered persecution for his faith (see W. N. Patton, -_Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna_, Leiden, 1897). Mu'tazilism retained -its sway until 849, when the caliph Motawakkil again declared the Koran -uncreate and restored orthodoxy. It was during the early years of the -Abbasid rule that the four legal schools of Abu Hanifa (d. 767), Malik -ibn Anas (d. 795), ash-Shafi'i (d. 819) and Ibn Hanbal (d. 855) came -into existence (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). As the bases of religion and law -were the same, so the methods applied in the treatment of the one -affected the other. Abu Hanifa depended little on tradition, but -referred back to the Koran, making use of individual opinion (_ra'y_) as -controlled by analogy (_qiyas_) with a written ordinance. Malik Ibn Anas -supplemented the Koran and Sunna by customary law founded largely on the -custom (_ijma'_) of Medina, and by what he conceived to be for the -public good (_istislah_). Shafi'i recognized tradition as equal to the -Koran, and even as being able to supersede its ordinances, while he also -recognized the universal custom (_ijma'_) of the Moslem world as divine -and binding. His four bases of religion--Koran, sunna, qiyas and -ijma'--have been generally accepted in Islam (see above). Ibn Hanbal's -position has been already mentioned. All these four schools are reckoned -orthodox, and all orthodox Moslems belong to one or another of them. -Another teacher of this time, who founded a school which did not succeed -in being recognized as orthodox, was Da'ud uz-Zahiri. Trained as a -Shafi'ite, he became too strict for this school, rejected analogy, -restricted _ijma'_ to the agreement or custom of the companions of -Mahomet, and accepted the whole of the Koran and tradition in the most -literal and external sense. His followers were called Zahirites (i.e. -externalists). After Ash'ari's time these principles were applied to -theology by Ibn Hazm (q.v.) see I. Goldziher, _Die Zahiriten, ihr -Lehrsystem und ihre Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1884). - -Before turning to the reform of Ash'ari and the introduction into -orthodox theology of scholastic philosophy it is necessary to notice -another phase of religious life which became the common property of -orthodox and heretics. This was the introduction of asceticism in -religions practice and of mysticism in religious thought. Sufi'ism -(q.v.), which combined these two, is rightly not counted among the sects -of Islam. Asceticism seems to have won a certain amount of approval from -Mahomet himself, who much respected the Christian monks. The attention -paid in early Islam to the joys and punishments of the future life led -to self-denial and simple living in this world. An Arabian writer, -speaking of the simplicity of manners of the first four caliphs, says -that their affairs were conducted with more consideration of the future -life than of this world. Many Moslems went even farther than these -caliphs, and gave up all concern as far as possible with the affairs of -this world and lived in poverty, in wanderings or in retirement (see -DERVISH). For the historical development of this movement, with its -accompanying mysticism, see SUFI'ISM. Ash'ari (d. before 942) was for -forty years a Mu'tazilite, then became orthodox (see ASH'ARI), and at -once applied rational methods for the support and interpretation of the -orthodox faith. Before him, reason had not been allowed any scope in -orthodox theology. He was not the first to use it; some teachers (as -al-Junaid) had employed it in teaching, but only in secret and for the -few. The methods of scholastic philosophy were now introduced into -Moslem theology. The chief characteristic of his religious teaching was -the adoption of the _via media_ between materialistic grossness and the -ideas of pure speculative philosophy. Thus he taught, as to the -attributes of God, that they exist, but are not to be compared with -human attributes; as to His visibility, that He can be seen but without -the limitations of human sight. As to the great question of free will, -he denied man's power but asserted his responsibility. So he passed in -review the doctrines of God, faith, the Koran, sin, intercession, &c., -and for the first time in the history of Islam produced a systematic -theology. The teaching of Ash'ari was taken up and propagated by the -Buyids soon after his death, and was developed and perfected by Abu Bekr -ul-Baqilani, the Cadi (d. 1012), but up to the middle of the 5th century -of Islam (c. A.D. 1058) was suspected elsewhere and confounded with -Mu'tazilism. The Ash'arite al-Juwaini (known as Imam ul-Haramain) was -persecuted under Toghrul Beg (c. 1053) and exiled, but was restored -under Alp Arslan by the vizier Nizam ul-Mulk, who founded an Ash'arite -college (the Nizamiyya). In the West, Ibn Hazm (q.v.) fiercely opposed -the system, but Ghazali established its orthodoxy in the East, and it -spread from Persia to Syria and Egypt under the Ayyubites and Mamelukes -and thence to the Almohades in Africa under Ibn Tumart (1130). It -remains the predominating influence to the present day, its only serious -rival being the theological system of al-Mataridi, a Hanifite (d. 945), -whose creed as represented in that of an-Nasafi is still used largely by -the Turks. Since the 12th century no great theological movement has been -made in Islam. The quiet of religious life has twice been broken, once -by Wahhabism (q.v.) in Arabia, once by Babism (q.v.) in Persia. - - -THE SECTS - -According to an early tradition Mahomet said that Islam would be divided -into seventy-three parties (sects),[4] of which seventy-two would perish -and one would be saved. The orthodox Arabian writers on heretical sects -of Islam feel compelled by this tradition to make up their number to -seventy-two, and, as different writers adopt different divisions or are -familiar with different parties, the names of sects amount to some -hundreds. Each writer, however, adopts certain main classes under which -he attempts to group the others. Abu Muti' Makhul at the beginning of -the 10th century in his "Refutation" (MS. in Bodleian Library) has six -such chief classes: Harurites (i.e. Kharijites), Rafidites (i.e. -Shi'ites), Qadarites, Jabarites, Jahmites and Murjiites. Ibn Hazm (q.v.) -adopts four classes: Mu'tazilites (Motazilites), Murjiites, Shi'ites and -Kharijites. Shahrastani (q.v.) complains of the want of system in -earlier writers, and suggests as bases of classification the position of -parties with regard to the doctrines as to (1) the divine attributes, -(2) predestination and free-will (3) promises and threats, faith and -error, (4) revelation, reason, the imamate. In one part of his preface -he gives as the chief parties the Qadarites, Sifatites, Kharijites and -Shi'ites, proposing to divide these classes according to leaders who -agreed with the main doctrines of their class but differed in some -points. In another place he mentions four opposite pairs of sects: (1) -the Qadarites with their doctrine of free-will, and the Jabarites, who -are necessitarians; (2) the Sifatites, who maintain the eternal nature -of the attributes of God, and the Mu'tazilites, who deny it; (3) the -Murjiites, who postpone judgment of actions until the Last Day, and the -Wa'idites, who condemn in this life; (4) the Kharijites, who consider -the caliphate a human institution, and the Shi'ites, who deify their -ruler. In his detailed treatment of the sects Shahrastani arranged them -under the headings: Mu'tazilites, Jabarites, Sifatites, Kharijites, -Murjiites and Shi'ites. About the same time as Shahrastani two other -Arabian writers wrote on the sects--Tahir ul-Isfaraini (d. 1078), whose -MS. is in the Berlin library, and 'Abd ul-Qadir ul-Jilani (1078-1166) in -his _Kitab ul-Ghaniyya li-Talibi Tariq il-Haqqi_ (Cairo, 1871). Both -adopt as main classes Rafidites (or Shi'ites), Qadarites (or -Mu'tazilites), Kharijites, Murjiites, Najjarites, Dirarites, Jahmites, -Mushabbiha, to which Tahir adds Bakrites, Karramites, and a class -including those sects which are not reckoned as Moslem though they have -sprung from Islam. Jilani adds to the eight the Kilabites. - -The following list is not a complete list of names of sects but is -founded on that of Shahrastani.[5] - - _Aftahites._--Shi'ites of the Imamite class, who ascribe the imamate - to 'Abdallah ul-Aftahi, the son of Sadiq. - - _Ajarida._--Kharijites, followers of Ibn 'Ajarrad, who agreed for the - most part with the Najadat (below), considered grave sins as - equivalent to unbelief, but remained friendly with those who professed - Islam but did not fight for it. They rejected _sura_ 7 as a fable. - Shahrastani enumerates seven divisions of this sect. - - _Akhnasites._--A section of the Tha'aliba not so strict in treatment - of those who fear to fight for Islam. - - _Ash'arites._--Followers of Ash'ari (q.v.) who are counted by - Shahrastani among the Sifatites. - - _Atrafites._--A division of the 'Ajarida who agree with the Hamzites - except that they excuse the lower classes for inaction when they are - ignorant of the law. - - _Azraqites._--Kharijites who followed al-Azraq in the days of Ibn - Zubair. They held 'Ali to be an unbeliever; those who did not fight - were unbelievers; the children of unbelievers were to be put to death - and went to hell. Sin is unbelief. - - _Bahshamites._--Mu'tazilites akin to the Jubba'ites. - - _Baihasites._--Kharijites, followers of Abu Baihas ul-Haitham, who was - put to death by the caliph Walid. They asserted the necessity of - knowledge for religion. - - _Baqirites._--Shi'ites who followed Abu Ja'far ul-Baqir, the fifth - imam, and looked for his return. - - _Batinites._--Isma'ilites, so called because they believe that every - external has an internal (_batin_), and every passage in the Koran has - an allegoric meaning. - - _Bishrites._--Mu'tazilites, followers of Bishr ibn Mu'tamir, one of - the most learned men of his party. His teaching was philosophical and - was distinguished by his doctrine of "origination" (_tawallud_). - - _Bunanites._--Kaisanites, followers of Bunan ibn Sim'an un-Nahdi, who - claimed that the imamate passed from Abu Hashim to himself and that he - had also acquired the divine element of 'Ali. - - _Butrites._--Zaidites, followers of Kathir un-Nawa ul-Abtar, who - agreed with the Suleimanites (Sulaimanites) except that he suspended - judgment as to whether Othman was a believer or not. - - _Dirarites._--Jabarites who empty God of his attributes, and assert - that man has a sixth sense by which he will see God on the day of - resurrection. The actions of man are "created" and acquired by him. A - caliph need not be chosen from the Koreish. - - _Ghaliites_ (Ghula) are the extreme Shi'ites (q.v.) in ascribing deity - to the imams. Their heresies are said to be four in number: (1) Making - God resemble man, (2) ascribing change of mind to God, (3) looking for - the return of the imam, (4) metempsychosis. They are divided by - Shahrastani into ten classes. - - _Ghassanites._--Murjiites, followers of Ghassan ibn ul-Kufi, who say - that faith consists of knowledge of God, his apostle, and the Koran in - general not in detail, and that faith increases but is not diminished. - - _Habities_ = Hayitites (below). - - _Hadathites_ (Hudabites) are Mu'tazilites, followers of Fadl ibn - ul-Hadathi, who agreed with the Hayitites (below). - - _Hafsites._--Ibadites, followers of Hafs ibn abi-l-Miqdam, who - distinguished between idolatry (_shirk_) and unbelief (_kufr_). - - _Hamzites._--'Ajarida, followers of Hamza ibn Adrak in Sijistan. They - agree with the Maimunites, but condemn the children of unbelievers to - hell. - - _Harithites._--Ibadites who differ from others in holding the - Mu'tazilite doctrine of free-will. - - _Harurites._--A name given to the first Kharijites, who rebelled - against 'Ali, and met in Harura near Kufa. - - _Hashimites._--Shi'ites who supported Abu Hashim, son of Mahommed ibn - ul-Hanafiyya, although they held that his father had gone astray. - - _Hashwiites._--A party who asserted the eternity even of the letters - of the Koran. They are not mentioned as a separate sect by - Shahrastani; cf. van Vloten, "_Les Hachwia et Nabita_," in the _Acts - of the 11th Oriental Congress_ (Paris, 1899), pt. iii., pp. 99 sqq. - - _Hayitites._--Mu'tazilites who agreed with the Nazzamites, but added - three heresies of their own: (1) the divinity of the Messiah, (2) - metempsychosis, (3) the interpretation of all references to the vision - of God as referring to the "first Reason" or "creative Reason." - - _Hishamites._--A name given to two sects: (1) Mu'tazilites, strong in - their assertion of man's free-will, even opposing the statement of the - Koran. (2) Shi'ites of the extreme kind, who attributed to God a body - with quantities (measurements) and qualities. - - _Hudabites._--See Hadathites. - - _Hudhailites_ (Hodhailites).--Mu'tazilites, followers of Abu-l Hudhail - Hamdan, who was a leading teacher of his party and developed the - philosophical side of its teaching. Ten of his main doctrines are - given by Shahrastani. - - _Ibadites._--Kharijites of moderate tendencies (see above). - - _Ilbaites._--Ghaliites who put 'Ali above Mahomet and blamed the - latter because he called men to himself instead of to 'Ali. - - _Imamites._--One of the chief divisions of the Shi'ites (q.v.). - - _Ishaqites._--Ghaliites agreeing with the Nusairites except that they - incline to speak of the imams' participation in the prophetic office - rather than of their divinity. - - _Isma'ilites._--This name is applied to all who consider Isma'il ibn - Ja'far the last imam, some believing that he did not die but will - return, others, that at his death his son Mahommed became imam (see - ASSASSINS); it is also used as equivalent to the Batinites. - - _Ithna'asharites._--Imamites who accept the twelve imams (see - SHI'ITES). - - _Jabarites._--Those who deny all actions and power to act to man and - ascribe all to God (see above). - - _Ja'farites._--Imamites who carry the imamate no farther than Ja'far - us-Sadiq. - - _Jahizites._--Mu'tazilites, followers of the celebrated writer Jahiz - (q.v.), who indulged in philosophical speculations, believed in the - eternity of matter, and was regarded as a naturalist (_taba'i_) rather - than a theist (_allahi_). - - _Jahmites._--Jabarites, followers of Jahm ibn Safwan, who was put to - death at Merv toward the close of the Omayyad period. He was extreme - in his denial of the attributes of God. - - _Jarudites._--Zaidites who held that Mahomet designated 'Ali as imam, - not by name but by his attributes, and that the Moslem sinned by not - taking sufficient trouble to recognize these attributes. - - _Jubba'ites._--Mu'tazilites who followed the philosophical teaching of - Abu 'Ali Mahommed ul-Jubba'i of Basra. - - _Kaisanites._--A main class of the Shi'ites (q.v.). - - _Kamilites._--Ghaliites, followers of Abu Kamil, who condemned the - companions (_Ansar_) because they did not do allegiance to 'Ali, and - 'Ali because he surrendered his claims. - - _Karramites._--Sifatites, followers of Ibn Karram, who went so far as - to ascribe a body to God, and assimilated his nature to human nature. - - _Kayyalites._--Ghaliites, followers of Ahmad ibn Kayyal, who, after - supporting a propaganda for an Aliite, claimed to be the imam himself - on the ground of his power over the spheres. - - _Khalafites._--'Ajarida of Kerman and Multan, who believed that God - wills good and evil, but condemned the children of unbelievers to - hell. - - _Kharijites._--One of the earliest sects of Islam (see above). - - _Kharimites._--'Ajarida, agreeing mostly with the Shu'aibites and - teaching that the relation of God to a man depends on what he - professes at the end of his life. - - _Khattabites._--Ghaliites, followers of Abu-l Khattab, who was put to - death by Ibn Musa at Kufa. He was a violent supporter of Ja'far - us-Sadiq, who however disowned him. - - _Khayyatites._--Mu'tazilites, followers of Abu-l Hosain ul-Khayyat, a - teacher in Bagdad, part of whose philosophical teaching was that the - non-existent is a thing. - - _Ma'badites._--Tha'labites who differed from the Akhnasites on the - question of the marriage of believing women and from Tha'lab on the - question of taking alms from slaves. - - _Maimunites._--'Ajarida, followers of Maimun ibn Khalid, who believed - that God wills good only and that man determines his actions. - - _Majhulites._--Tha'labites, agreeing generally with the Kharimites, - but teaching that he who knows some names and attributes of God and is - ignorant of some knows God. - - _Ma'lumites._--Tha'labites agreeing generally with the Kharimites but - alleging that a believer must know all the names and attributes of - God. - - _Mansurites._--Ghaliites, followers of Abu Mansur ul-'Ijli, who at - first supported al-Baqir, but, rejected by him, claimed the imamate - for himself. He was crucified by the caliph Hisham ibn 'Abd ul-Malik - (Abdalmalik). - - _Mu'ammarites._[6]--Mu'tazilites who strongly denied the - predestination of God, and affirmed that God created bodies only, and - that the accidents spring naturally from them. - - _Mufaddalites._[6]--The same as the Musaites (q.v.). - - _Mughirites._[6]--Ghaliites, followers of Mughira ibn Sa'id ul-'Ijli, - who claimed the imamate and prophetic office and held extremely gross - views of God. - - _Muhakkima_[6] (the first).--Another name for the Harurites (above). - - _Mukarramites._[6]--Tha'labites who taught that sin consists in - ignorance of God. - - _Mukhtarites._[6]--Kaisanites, followers of al-Mukhtar ibn 'Ubaid, who - held to Mahommed ibn ul-Hanafiyya but was disowned by him. He allowed - the possibility of change of mind on the part of God. - - _Murjiites._--Those who postponed judgment of actions until the Day of - Judgment. See above. - - _Musaites._--Imamites who held to the imamate of Musa ibn Ja'far, who - was imprisoned by Harun al-Rashid and poisoned. - - _Mushabbiha._[6]--Sifatites who compared God's actions with human - actions. They said that the Koran was eternal with all its letters, - accents and written signs. - - _Mu'tazilites._[6]--The rationalists of Islam. See above, cf. also H. - Steiner, _Die Mu'taziliten oder die Freidenker im Islam_ (Leipzig, - 1865). - - _Muzdarites._[6]--Mu'tazilites, followers of al-Muzdar, a pupil of - Bishr (cf. Bishrites) whose teaching he developed further. He taught - that God has power to do evil, but, if he acted thus, would be an evil - God; also that man can produce the equal of the Koran. - - _Najadat_ (also known as _'Adhirites_).--Kharijites, who followed - Najda ibn 'Amir of Yemama as he went to join the Azraqites but - withdrew from these, being more orthodox than they. He held that fear - of fighting was not sin. - - _Nawisites_ take their name from a person or a place. They are - Ja'farites who believe in Sadiq as the mahdi. - - _Nazzamites._--Mu'tazilites, followers of Ibrahim ibn Sayyar - un-Nazzam, who was an extremist in his teaching of man's free-will and - other philosophical doctrines. - - _Nu'manites._[6]--Ghaliites agreeing in some points with Hishamites, - but holding that God is a light in the form of a man, yet not a body. - - _Nusairites._[6]--Ghaliites who agree with the Ishaqites except that - they lay more stress on the incorporation of the deity. - - _Qadarites._--The upholders of free-will (see above). - - _Qata'ites._--Musaites who regard the rank of the imams as closed with - the death of Musa. - - _Rafidites._--A term used by some writers to denote the Shi'ites as a - whole; by others given to a class of the Shi'ites who forsook Zaid ibn - 'Ali because he forbade them to abuse the Companions. - - _Rashidites._--Tha'labites, followers of Rashid ut-Tusi, sometimes - called 'Ushrites ("tithers") because they differed from others on the - question of tithing the produce of land watered by rivers and canals. - - _Rizamites._--Kaisanites of Khorasan at the time of Abu Muslim, to - whom they ascribed the imamate and the Spirit of God. They also - believed in metempsychosis. - - _Saba'ites._--Ghaliites, who followed 'Abdallah ibn Saba (see - SHI'ITES). - - _Salihites._--(a) Zaidites, followers of al-Hasan ibn Salih, who - agreed with the teachings of the Butrites (above); (b) Murjiites, - followers of Salih ibn Amr, who united with the doctrines of their own - party those of the Qadarites. - - _Saltites._--'Ajarida who had nothing to do with the children of - believers until they had grown up and professed Islam. - - _Shaibanites._--Tha'labites, followers of Shaiban ibn Salama, who was - killed in the time of Abu Muslim (Moslem). They arose chiefly in - Jorjan and Armenia and agreed in doctrine with the Jahmites. - - _Shamitites._--Ja'farites, followers of Yahya ibn Abu Shamit. - - _Shi'ites._--See separate article. - - _Shu'aibites._--'Ajarida who said that God creates the actions of men, - and men appropriate them. - - _Sifatites_ are those who ascribe eternity to all the attributes of - God, whether they denote essence or action, or are of the class called - descriptive attributes. - - _Sifrites_, the same as Ziyadites (below). - - _Sulaimanites_ (Suleimanites).--Zaidites, followers of Suleiman ibn - Jarir, who held that the appointment to the imamate was a matter of - consultation and that the imamates of Abu Bekr and Omar were legal - although 'Ali had a better claim. - - _Tha'labites._--A party of the Kharijites, followers of Tha'lab ibn - Amir, who agreed with the 'Ajarida except that he was friendly with - children until they actually denied the faith. He also took alms from - slaves when they were rich, and gave alms to poor slaves. - - _Thaubanites._--Murjiites who said that faith consists in the - knowledge and confession of God and His apostle, and what the - intellect is not capable of doing. What the intellect can do (or - leave) is not of faith. - - _Thumamites._--Mu'tazilites, followers of Thumama ibn Ashras in the - days of Mamun, who taught that all non-Moslems would become dust on - the day of resurrection. - - _Tumanites._--Murjiites who taught that faith depends on obedience - rather to the principles than to the commands of Islam. - - _'Ubaidites._--Murjiites who believed that anything but idolatry might - be forgiven, and that if a man died professing the unity of God his - sins would not hurt him. - - _Wa'idites._--Those who, opposed to the Murjiites, pronounced judgment - in this life; they are not counted as a separate sect by Shahrastani - (see above). - - _Wasilites._--A name given to those who followed Wasil ibn 'Ata, the - founder of Mu'tazilitism, who denied the attributes of God, asserted - the power of man over his own actions, taught the existence of a - middle place between heaven and hell, and despised the parties of - Othman and 'Ali alike. - - _Yazidites._--Ibadites who said that they followed the religion of the - Sabians in the Koran, and believed that God would send an apostle from - the Persians. - - _Yunusites._--Murjiites who taught that faith consists in knowledge of - God, subjection to Him, abandonment of pride before Him, and love in - the heart. Obedience apart from knowledge is not of faith. - - _Zaidites._--The moderate Shi'ites (see SHI'ITES). - - _Ziyadites._--Kharijites, followers of Ziyad ibn ul-Asfar, who did not - regard those who abstained from fighting for Islam as unbelievers, and - did not kill the children of idolaters or condemn them to hell. - - AUTHORITIES.--For the philosophy and theology of Ash'ari see M. A. F. - Mehren, _Expose de la reforme de l'Islamisme par Abou-'l Hasan Ali - el-Ash'ari_ (Leiden, 1878); W. Spitta, _Zur Geschichte Abu-l Hasan - al-Ash'aris_ (Leipzig, 1876); M. Schreiner, _Zur Geschichte des - Ash'aritenthums_ (Leiden, 1891); D. B. Macdonald, _Development of - Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory_ (London, - 1903). The last work contains translations of the creeds of Ash'ari - and Nasafi (Mataridite). A further bibliography of works on the faith - and outlook of Islam will be found in D. B. Macdonald's _Muslim - Theology_. - - The text of the Koran has been edited by G. Flugel, Leipzig, various - dates; and by G. M. Redslob, Paris, 1868 and 1880. There are also - hundreds of Eastern editions. Concordances have been published by G. - Flugel, Leipzig, 1842 (several times reprinted), also in Egypt, - Palestine and India. A dictionary and glossary were published by J. - Penrice, London, 1873. English translations have been made by G. Sale, - London, 1734 (the fullest edition is that with notes by E. M. Wherry, - 4 vols., London, 1882-1886); by J. M. Rodwell with notes, London, 1861 - and 1876; and by E. H. Palmer in vols, vi. and ix. of the "Sacred - Books of the East," Oxford, 1880-1882. Among the best or best-known - Arabic commentaries are those of Tabari (q.v.), Zamakhshari (q.v.), - Baidhawi (q.v.), the Jalalain (see SUYUTI), and such later ones as the - Mafatih ul-Ghaib of ar-Razi (d. 1210). The composition and theology of - the Koran are treated in the works of Noldeke and Grimme referred to - above. - - On the eschatology of Islam see M. Wolff, _Muhammedanische - Eschatologie_ (Leipzig, 1872); and on the doctrine of revelation. Otto - Pautz, _Muhammeds Lehre von der Offenbarung_ (Leipzig, 1898). - (G. W. T.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See also KORAN. - - [2] Underlined = with interpolations. - - [3] For the doctrines of these two sects see Shahrastani's _Book of - Sects_, and for the Qadarites, A. de Vlieger's _Kitab ul-Qadr, - materiaux pour servir a l'etude de la doctrine de la predestination - dans la theologie musulmane_ (Leiden, 1903). - - [4] For the origin and significance of this number see M. - Steinschneider, "Die kanonische Zahl der muhammedanischen Secten und - die Symbolik der Zahl, 70-73," _in Zeitschr. d. deutschen morgenl. - Gesellschaft_, iv., 145-170 (1850); and I. Goldziher, "Le - Denombrement des sectes mohametanes" in _Revue de l'hist. des - religions_, xxvi. 129-137 (1892). - - [5] The names are given throughout in the anglicized form on the - analogy of Shi'ites, which is recognized in common usage. The strict - termination according to the scheme of transliteration adopted in - this work is _iyya_, or _iya_, e.g. Hishamiyya for Hishamites. For - information regarding the important sects see separate articles and - the preceding portion of this article. - - [6] All these names are alternatively spelt Mo- instead of Mu-. - - - - -MAHONY, FRANCIS SYLVESTER (1804-1866), known as "Father Prout," Irish -priest and author, son of a woollen manufacturer, was born in Cork in -1804. His classical education was chiefly obtained at a Jesuit college -at Amiens, and after studying in Paris he entered the Jesuit college at -Rome and was admitted into the Society of Jesus. He served in -Switzerland and at Clongoweswood, Ireland, where he was prefect of -studies and subsequently master of rhetoric. Here he was involved in -scandals that led to his resignation. On going to Italy he was told at -Florence that he was expelled from the Society. He succeeded, however, -in obtaining priest's orders at Rome in 1832, and returned to Ireland, -but subsequently went to London, officiating for some time in the chapel -of the Bavarian Legation. While there he fell in with William Maginn, -and about 1834 began to contribute his celebrated "Prout Papers" to -_Fraser's Magazine_. These consist of episodes in the life of the parish -priest "Father Prout," and dialogues after the model of "Christopher -North," varied by translations of well-known English songs into Latin, -Greek, French and Italian verse, which he humorously represents as being -the true originals from which the English authors had merely plagiarized -them. Mahony's translations have been universally admired for the -extraordinary command which they display of the various languages into -which his renderings are made, and for their spirit and freedom both of -thought and expression. His original verse tends chiefly to show that -with all his sarcastic and cynical wit his genius had also its tender, -serious and sentimental side. His "Bells of Shandon" has always been -greatly admired. In 1846 Mahony became correspondent at Rome to the -_Daily News_, and his letters from that capital gave very vivid pictures -of the first years of the reign of Pius IX. The last twelve or fifteen -years of his life were spent in Paris, whence he supplied the _Globe_ -with a series of piquant letters on the incidents of the day. He died in -Paris on the 18th of May 1866. - - The _Reliques of Father Prout_ were collected from _Fraser's Magazine_ - and published in two volumes in 1836; _The Final Reliques of Father - Prout_, chiefly extracted from the _Daily News_ and the _Globe_, were - edited by Blanchard Jerrold in 1876, and an edition of his works, - edited by Charles Kent, was published in 1881. - - - - -MAHOUT (Hind. _mahawat_), an elephant-driver. The mahout sits on the -elephant's neck and directs him by voice and by the use of a goad called -_ankus_. - - - - -MAHRATTAS, a people of India, inhabiting the district known by the -ancient name of Maharashtra (Sans. "great kingdom or region"). This -large tract, extending from the Arabian Sea on the west to the Satpura -mountains in the north, comprises a good part of western and central -India, including the modern provinces of the Konkan, Khandesh, Berar, -the British Deccan, part of Nagpur, and about half the nizam's Deccan. - -The etymology of the word Mahratta (_Maratha_) is uncertain. The name -does not indicate a social caste, or a religious sect; it is not even -tribal. Strictly, it is confined to the upper class from whom Sivaji's -generals were mostly drawn, and who sometimes claim a Rajput origin. In -a wider sense it may be extended to include all who inhabit Maharashtra -and speak Mahratti as their mother-tongue. In 1901 the total number of -speakers of Mahratti in all India exceeded 18 millions. - -The Mahrattas have always been a separate nation or people, and still -regard themselves as such, though nowadays they are almost all under -British or Mahommedan jurisdiction; that is, they belong either to -British India or to the nizam's dominions. There are indeed still three -large native states nominally Mahratta: that of Sindhia near the borders -of Hindustan in the north, that of Holkar in Malwa in the heart of the -Indian continent, and that of the gaekwar in Gujarat on the western -coast. But in these states the prince, his relatives and some of his -ministers or officials only are Mahrattas; the mass of the people belong -to other sections of the Hindu race. These states then are not to be -included in the Mahratta nation, though they have a share in Mahratta -history. - - In general terms the Mahrattas, in the wider sense, may be described - under two main heads: first the Brahmans, and secondly the low-caste - men. The Mahratta Brahmans possess, in an intense degree, the - qualities of that famous caste, physical, intellectual and moral. They - have generally the lofty brow, the regular features, the spare upright - figure, and the calm aspect which might be expected in a race - maintained in great purity yet upon a broad basis. In modern times - they have proved themselves the most able and ambitious of all the - Brahmans in the Indian Empire. They are notably divided into two - sections: the Konkanast, coming from the Konkan or littoral tract on - the west coast below the Western Ghat mountains; and the Deshast, - coming from the uplands or Deccan, on the east of the mountains. - Though there have been many distinguished Deshasts, yet the most - remarkable of all have been Konkanasts. For instance, the peshwas, or - heads of the Mahratta confederation which at one time dominated nearly - all India, were Konkanast Brahmans. The birthplaces of these persons - are still known, and to this day there are sequestered villages, - nestling near the western base of the Ghats, which are pointed to as - being the ancestral homes of men who two centuries ago had political - control over half India. - - Apart from the Brahmans, the Mahrattas may be generally designated as - Sudras, the humblest of the four great castes into which the Hindu - race is theoretically divided. But the upper classes claim to be - Kshattriyas or Rajputs. They probably are aborigines fundamentally, - with a mixture of what are now called the Scythian tribes, which at a - very early time overran India. The ordinary Mahrattas, who form the - backbone of the nation, have plain features, an uncouth manner, short - stature, a small but wiry frame. Though not powerful physically as - compared with the northern races of the Punjab and Oudh, they have - much activity and an unsurpassed endurance. Born and bred in or near - the Western Ghat mountains and the numerous tributary ranges, they - have all the qualities of mountaineers. In recent times they enter - military service less and less, betaking themselves mainly to - cultivation and to the carrying business connected with agriculture. - As husbandmen they are not remarkable; but as graziers, as cartmen, as - labourers, they are excellent. As artisans they have seldom signalized - themselves, save as armourers and clothweavers. - - In the Konkan there are some superior proprietors termed Khots. With - this and perhaps some other exceptions, there are not in the Mahratta - country many large landlords, nor many of the superior tenure-holders - whose position relatively to that of the peasantry has caused much - discussion in other parts of India. There are indeed many Mahratta - chiefs still resident in the country, members of the aristocracy which - formerly enjoyed much wealth and power. They are sometimes in the - position of landlords, but often they are the assignees of the land - revenue, which they are entitled under special grants to collect for - themselves instead of for government, paying merely a small sum to - Government by way of quit-rent. Under them the cultivators are by - British arrangements placed in the position of peasant proprietors. - The village community has always existed as the social unit in the - Mahratta territories, though with less cohesion among its members than - in the village communities of Hindustan and the Punjab. The ancient - offices pertaining to the village, as those of the headmen (_patel_), - the village accountant, &c., are in working order throughout the - Mahratta country. - - The Mahratta peasantry possess manly fortitude under suffering and - misfortune. Though patient and good-tempered in the main, they have a - latent warmth of temper, and if oppressed beyond a certain limit they - would fiercely turn upon their tormentors. As a rule they are orderly - and law-abiding, but traditions of plunder have been handed down to - them from early times, and many of them retain the predatory instincts - of their forefathers. The neighbourhood of dense forests, steep - hill-sides, and fastnesses hard of access offers extraordinary - facilities to plunderers for screening themselves and their booty. - Thus gang robbery is apt to break out, gains head with rapidity, and - is suppressed with difficulty. In times of peace it is kept under, but - during war, or whenever the bands of civil order are loosened, it - becomes a cause of anxiety and a source of danger. The women have - frankness and strength of character; they work hard in the fields, and - as a rule evince domestic virtue. - - The peasantry preserve a grave and quiet demeanour, but they have - their humble ideas of gaiety, and hold their gatherings on occasions - of births or marriages. They frequently beguile their toil with - carols. They like the gossiping and bartering at the rural markets and - in the larger fairs, which are sometimes held in strikingly - picturesque localities. They are superstitious, and worship with - hearty veneration any being or thing whose destructive agency they - fear. They even speak of the tiger with honorific titles. They are - Hindus, but their Hinduism is held to be of a non-Aryan type. They are - sincerely devout in religion, and feel an awe regarding "the holy - Brahmans," holding the life and the person of a Brahman sacred, even - though he be a criminal of the deepest dye. They of course regard the - cow as equally sacred. There are two principal sects among modern - Hindus--those who follow Vishnu, and those who follow Siva. The - Mahrattas generally follow Siva and his wife, a dread goddess known - under many names. The Mahratta war-cry, "Har, Har, Mahadeo," referred - to Siva. All classes high and low are fond of the religious festivals, - the principal of which, the Dasahra, occurs in October, when the first - harvest of the year has been secured and the second crops sown. This - has always been held with the utmost pomp and magnificence at every - centre of Mahratta wealth and power. The people frequently assemble in - bowers and arbours constructed of leafy boughs to hear kathas recited. - These recitations are partly religious, partly also romantic and - quasi-historical. After them national resolves of just resistance or - of aggressive ambition have often been formed. - - Apart from the Mahratta Brahmans, as already mentioned, the Mahratta - nobles and princes are not generally fine-looking men. There is - general truth in what was once said by a high authority to the effect - that, while there will be something dignified in the humblest Rajput, - there will be something mean in the highest Mahratta. Bluff - good-nature, a certain jocoseness, a humour pungent and ready, though - somewhat coarse, a hot or even violent disposition, are - characteristics of Mahratta chieftains. They usually show little - aptitude for business or for sedentary pursuits; but, on the other - hand, they are born equestrians and sportsmen. Mahratta ladies and - princesses have often taken a prominent part, for good or evil, in - public affairs and dynastic intrigues. - - Though they have produced some poetry, the Mahrattas have never done - much for literature. Nor have they been distinguished in industrial - art. Their architecture in wood, however, was excellent; and the teak - forests of their country afforded the finest timber for building and - for carving. They had also much skill in the construction of works for - the supply of drinking water on a large scale and for irrigation. - -The range of the Western Ghats enabled the Mahrattas to rise against -their Mahommedan conquerors, to reassert their Hindu nationality against -the whole power of the Mogul Empire, and to establish in its place an -empire of their own. It is often stated that in India British conquest -or annexation succeeded Mahommedan rule; and to a considerable extent -this was the case. But, on the other hand, the principal power, the -widest sovereignty, which the British overthrew in India was that of the -Mahrattas. - -During the earlier Moslem invasions in 1100 and in subsequent years, the -Mahrattas do not seem to have made much resistance. They submitted to -several Mahommedan kings under the changing circumstances of those -times. It was against the Mahommedan king of Bijapur in the Deccan that -Sivaji, the hero of Mahratta history, first rebelled in 1657. Sivaji and -his fighting officers were Mahrattas of humble caste, but his ministers -were Brahmans. When the Mogul Empire absorbed the Bijapur kingdom he -defied the emperor. He imparted a self-reliant enthusiasm to his -countrymen, formed them into an army, and organized them as a political -community; his mountaineer infantry, though limited in numbers, proved -desperately courageous; his cavalry was daring and ubiquitous. The -Moslems, having once overcome the Hindus in almost all parts of India, -had not for centuries met with any noteworthy uprising. Sivaji, however, -planned their expulsion, and before the end of his restless life made -much progress in the execution of that design. The new state which he -founded was maintained under various vicissitudes after his death. -Mahratta resistance, once aroused by him, was never extinguished, and -the imperial resources were worn out by ceaseless though vain efforts to -quell it. The great Mogul emperor's impoverished and enfeebled successor -was fain to recognize the Mahratta state by a formal instrument. The -Mahratta king, a descendant of Sivaji, had become a _roi faineant_, and -the arrangement was negotiated by his Brahman minister, whose official -designation was the peshwa. The office of peshwa then became hereditary -in the minister's family, and grew in importance as the Mahratta kingdom -rose, while the king sunk into the condition of a puppet. Thus the -Mahratta power was consolidated throughout nearly the whole of -Maharashtra under the Brahman peshwa as virtual sovereign, with his -capital at Poona, while the titular Mahratta raja or king had his court -at the neighbouring city of Satara. Despite his political importance, -however, the raja was still venerated as the descendant of Sivaji. - -Then several chiefs carved out principalities of their own from among -the ruins of the Mogul Empire. Thus Raghoji Bhonsla established himself -in the tracts lying underneath the southern base of the Satpura range -(namely, Nagpur and Berar), overran Orissa and entered Bengal. Damaji -Gaekwar descended from the Western Ghats upon the alluvial plains of -Gujarat around Baroda; Tukoji Holkar subdued the uplands of Malwa beyond -the Vindhya range on the north bank of the Nerbudda; and Mahadji Sindhia -obtained possession of large tracts immediately south of Agra and Delhi, -marched into Hindustan and became virtually the master of the Mogul -emperor himself (see GWALIOR). Sivaji's own father had founded a -dominion at Tanjore in the extreme south, which, however, never had -relations with the central power at Poona. The same may be said of the -state of Kolhapur, allotted to a younger branch of Sivaji's family. - -But these principalities, though independent respecting internal -administration, and making war or peace with their neighbours according -to opportunity, owned allegiance to the peshwa at Poona as the head of -the Mahratta race. On state occasions heads of principalities would -visit Poona by way of acknowledging the superior position of the peshwa. -On the other hand, the peshwa was careful to obtain the sanction of his -nominal sovereign at Satara to every important act of state. Thus a -confederation was formed of which the Brahman peshwa or head was at -Poona, governing the adjacent territories, while the members, belonging -to the lower castes, were scattered throughout the continent of India. -Such was the Mahratta Empire which supplanted the Mogul Empire. The -Mahratta power grew and prospered till it embraced all western and most -of central India. Its culminating point was reached about 1750, or about -a century after Sivaji first rebelled against his Mahommedan sovereign. - -Its armies drew soldiers from all parts of India. The infantry was not -of good quality; but its cavalry was really an enormous force, numbering -fully a hundred thousand in all. The horsemen were splendidly audacious -in riding for long distances into the heart of a hostile country, -without support, striking some terrific blows, and then returning -rapidly beyond reach of pursuit. They could truly boast of having -watered their horses in every Indian river from the Cauvery to the -Indus. If attacked, however, in a competent manner, they would not -stand; and afterwards, in conflict with the British, whole masses of -them behaved in a dastardly manner. As their ambition grew the chiefs -began to organize their troops after the system learnt from the English -and French. In this way several Frenchmen--Benoit de Boigne, Perron and -others--rose in the Mahratta service to a position dangerous to the -British. But the new system was unsuited to the Mahratta genius; it -hampered the meteoric movements of the cavalry, which was obliged to -manoeuvre in combination with the new artillery and the disciplined -battalions. Mahratta elders hence uttered predictions of military -disaster which were in the end more than fulfilled. - -The rapid and amazing success of the Mahratta confederation rendered it -the largest Hindu power that ever existed in India. But it lacked the -elements of true greatness. It was founded by plundering expeditions, -and its subsequent existence was tainted by the baseness of this -predatory origin. With the exception of the peshwas, its chiefs were -little more than free-booting warriors, for the most part rude, violent -and unlettered. Their custom was to offer their neighbours or victims -the alternative of paying _chouth_, that is, one-fourth of the revenue, -or being plundered and ravaged. Thus the Mahratta _chouth_ came to have -an ominous significance in Indian history. Desultory efforts were made -to establish a civil government, but in the main there was no -administration formed on statesmanlike principles. The peshwas, on the -other hand, as Brahmans, were men of the highest education then possible -in India. But they were absorbed by the direction of military and -political combinations, and by intrigues for the preservation of their -own power; and, even allowing for all this, they failed to evince the -civil capacity which might have been anticipated. While several -displayed commanding abilities, and some possessed many virtues, one -alone attempted to conduct an administration in an enlightened manner, -and he died prematurely. - -There were at the same time powers existing in India to keep the -Mahrattas in check, and some parts of India were excepted from their -depredations. The English power was rising at Calcutta, Madras and -Bombay. The nascent Sikh power prevented Mahratta incursions from being -permanently successful in the Punjab. As the Mogul Empire broke up, some -separate Mahommedan powers rose upon its ruins. The nizam of the Deccan -established himself at Hyderabad, comparatively near the headquarters of -the peshwa. Hyder Ali was proclaimed sultan of Mysore in the south. -Ahmed Shah Abdali burst upon India from Afghanistan. The Mahrattas -bravely encountered him at Panipat near Delhi in 1761, and were -decisively defeated. The defeat, however, did not essentially shake the -Mahratta confederation. It was collision with the English that broke -that wonderful fabric to pieces. - -The first collision with the English occurred in 1775, arising from a -disputed succession to the peshwaship. The English government at Bombay -supported one of the claimants, and the affair became critical for the -English as well as for the Mahrattas. It was at this conjuncture that -Warren Hastings displayed his political genius and rendered signal -service to his country, by succouring from Bengal the defeated Bombay -army and negotiating a peace (in 1782) that restored the _status quo_. - -The next collision happened in 1803. The peshwa had fallen into grave -difficulties with some of the principal members of the Mahratta -confederation. He therefore placed himself under British protection, and -this led to the great Mahratta War, in which the Marquis Wellesley -displayed those talents for military and political combination which -rendered him illustrious. It was during the campaigns which ensued that -General Arthur Wellesley defeated Sindhia and the Bhonsla raja at -Assaye, and General Lake won the victories of Farrukhabad, Dig and -Laswari over Sindhia and Holkar. The three confederates, Sindhia, Holkar -and the Bhonsla, concluded peace with the British government, after -making large sacrifices of territory in favour of the victor, and -submitting to British control politically. It was during these events -that the British won the province of Orissa, the old Hindustan -afterwards part of the North-Western Provinces, and a part of the -western coast in Gujarat. - -The third collision came to pass between 1816 and 1818, through the -conduct, not only of the confederates, but also of the peshwa (Baji Bao) -himself. During the previous war the peshwa had been the protege and -ally of the British; and since the war he had fallen more completely -than before under British protection--British political officers and -British troops being stationed at his capital. He apparently felt -encouraged by circumstances to rebel. Holkar and the Bhonsla committed -hostile acts. The predatory Pindaris offered a formidable resistance to -the British troops. So the peshwa ventured to take part in the -combination against the British power, which even yet the Mahrattas did -not despair of overthrowing. After long-protracted menaces, he attacked -the British at Kirkee, but failed utterly, and fled a ruined man. -Ultimately he surrendered to Sir John Malcolm, and was sent as a state -pensioner to Bithur, near Cawnpore. The British, however, released the -raja of Satara from the captivity in which he had been kept during the -peshwa's time, and reinstated him on the throne, with a limited -territory. Owing to these events the British government became possessed -of the Konkan and of the greater part of the Deccan. - -It remains to mention briefly the fortunes of each remaining member of -the once imperial confederation. The principality of Satara was held to -have lapsed in 1848 by the death of the raja without lineal heirs, and -was annexed by the British government. The Bhonsla raja of Nagpur died -without lineal heirs in 1853, and his territory was likewise annexed. -The house of Holkar remained faithful to its engagements with the -British government, and its position as a feudatory of the empire was -maintained. In Sindhia's territory, by reason of internal feuds, the -British had to undertake measures which were successfully terminated -after the battles of Maharajpur and Panniar in 1843. But on the whole -the house of Sindhia remained faithful. Sindhia himself was actively -loyal during the Mutiny. The gaekwar gradually fell under British -control towards the close of the 18th century, and his house never -engaged in hostilities with the British government. The ex-peshwa lived -to old age at Bithur, and died in 1857. His adopted son grew up to be -the Nana Sahib, of infamous memory, who took a leading part in the -Mutiny. - - See J. Grant Duff, _History of the Mahrattas_ (3 vols., 1826); T. D. - Broughton, _Letters written in a Mahratta Camp_ (1813); M. G. Ranade, - _Rise of the Maratha Power_ (Bombay, 1900). (R. T.; J. S. Co.) - - - - -MAHSEER, or MAHASEER (_Barbus mosal_), a kind of barbel, abundant in the -rivers of India, especially in pools of the upper and more rapid streams -where they issue from the mountainous part of the country. It is one of -the largest species of the Cyprinid family, attaining to a length of 3 -to 5 ft., and sometimes exceeding a weight of 70 lb. Its body is -well-proportioned, rather elongate, and somewhat like that of the -European barbel, but covered with very large scales, of which there are -only twenty-five or twenty-seven placed along the lateral line; the -dorsal fin is armed with a long and strong spine, and the mouth provided -with four slender and short barbels. The lips are sometimes produced -into fleshy lobes. To the fisherman in India the mahseer affords the -same kind of sport as the salmon in the British Isles, and it rivals -that fish as regards size, strength and activity. Its flesh is likewise -much esteemed. - - - - -MAI, ANGELO (1782-1854), Italian cardinal and philologist, was born of -humble parents at Schilpario in the province of Bergamo, Lombardy, on -the 7th of March 1782. In 1799 he entered the Society of Jesus, and in -1804 he became a teacher of classics in the college of Naples. After -completing his studies at the Collegium Romanum, he lived for some time -at Orvieto, where he was engaged in teaching and palaeographical -studies. The political events of 1808 necessitated his withdrawal from -Rome (to which he had meanwhile returned) to Milan, where in 1813 he was -made custodian of the Ambrosian library. He now threw himself with -characteristic energy and zeal into the task of examining the numerous -MSS. committed to his charge, and in the course of the next six years -was able to restore to the world a considerable number of long-lost -works. Having withdrawn from the Society of Jesus, he was invited to -Rome in 1819 as chief keeper of the Vatican library. In 1833 he was -transferred to the office of secretary of the congregation of the -Propaganda; on the 12th of February 1838 he was raised to the dignity of -cardinal. He died at Castelgandolfo, near Albano, on the 8th of -September 1854. - -It is on his skill as a reader of palimpsests that Mai's fame chiefly -rests. To the period of his residence at Milan belong: Fragments of -Cicero's _Pro Scauro, Pro Tullio, Pro Flacco, In Clodium et Curionem, De -aere alieno Milonis, De rege_ (_Alexandrino_ (1814); _M. Corn. Frontonis -opera inedita, cum epistolis item ineditis, Antonini Pii, Marci Aurelii, -Lucii Veri et Appiani_ (1815; new ed., 1823, with more than 100 -additional letters found in the Vatican library); portions of eight -speeches of Quintus Aurelius Symmachus; fragments of Plautus; the -oration of Isaeus _De hereditate Cleonymi_; the last nine books of the -_Antiquities_ of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and a number of other -works. _M. Tullii Ciceronis de republica quae supersunt_ appeared at -Rome in 1822; _Scriptorum veterum nova collectio, e vaticanis codicibus -edita_ in 1825-1838; _Classici scriptores e vaticanis codicibus editi_ -in 1828-1838; _Spicilegium romanum_ in 1839-1844; and _Patrum nova -bibliotheca_ in 1845-1853. His edition of the celebrated _Codex -vaticanus_, completed in 1838, but not published (ostensibly on the -ground of inaccuracies) till four years after his death (1858), is the -least satisfactory of his labours and was superseded by the edition of -Vercellone and Cozza (1868), which itself leaves much to be desired. -Although Mai was not as successful in textual criticism as in the -decipherment of manuscripts, he will always be remembered as a laborious -and persevering pioneer, by whose efforts many ancient writings have -been rescued from oblivion. - - See B. Prina, _Biografia del cardinale Angelo Mai_ (Bergamo, 1882), a - scientific work, which gives a full and, at the same time, a just - appreciation of his work; Cozza-Luzi, _Epistolario del card. Angelo - Mai_ (Bergamo, 1883); life by G. Poletto (Siena, 1887). - - - - -MAIA, in Greek mythology, the eldest of the Pleiades, the seven -daughters of Atlas and the Oceanid Pleione. She and her sisters, born on -Mt Cyllene in Arcadia, are sometimes called mountain goddesses. In a -cave of Cyllene Maia became by Zeus the mother of the god Hermes. The -story is told in the _Hymn to Hermes_ attributed to Homer. She was -identified by the Romans with Maia Majesta, an old Italian goddess of -spring, to whom a sacrifice was offered on the 1st of May by the priest -of Vulcan. - - - - -MAIDA, a town of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Catanzaro, from -which it is 30 m. W.S.W. direct, and 12 m. N.N.E. of Pizzo by rail (the -station is 8 m. W. of the town). Pop. (1901), 5190. The town gives its -name to the plain of Maida, where in 1806 British troops under Sir John -Stuart defeated the French under Regnier. The names Maida Hill and Maida -Vale in London are derived from this battle. - - - - -MAIDAN, an Indian term for any open plain. The Maidan is the name of the -park in Calcutta, surrounding Fort William, where society people drive -in the afternoon. The name is also applied to one of the valleys in the -Afridi country of Tirah, and to the plateau portion of the state of -Mysore. - - - - -MAIDEN, or MAID, a young unmarried girl. "Maid" is a shortened form of -"maiden," O. Eng. _maegden_, which represents a diminutive of a Teutonic -word meaning "young person," of either sex. An old English word "may," -meaning a kinsman or kinswoman, and also a virgin or girl, represents -the original. In early usage "maiden" as meaning "virgin" is frequently -applied to the male sex, thus, in Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_, Sir -Percyvale is called a "parfyte clene megden." Apart from the direct -applications of the word to the unmarried state, such as "maiden name," -"maiden lady," &c., the word is used adjectivally, implying the -preservation of the first state of an object, or indicating a first -effort of any kind. Probably a "maiden" fortress is one which has never -fallen, though the _New English Dictionary_ suggests that the various -"maiden castles" in England, usually ancient earthworks, may have been -so called from being so strong that they could be defended by maidens, -and points out that Edinburgh Castle, called "maiden-castle" by William -Drummond of Hawthornden (_Speech for Edinburgh to the King_), is styled -_Castrum puellarum_, the "castle of the maidens," in Geoffrey of -Monmouth. A "maiden" assize, circuit or session is one at which there -are no prisoners for trial; a "maiden over" or "maiden" in cricket is an -over from which no runs are scored. A "maiden speech" is the first -speech made by a member of parliament in the house. In the _Annual -Register_ for 1794 (quoted in _N.E.D._) the expression, with reference -to Canning's first speech, is said to be "according to the technical -language of the house." "Maiden" is applied to several objects, to a -movable framework or horse for drying and airing of linen, to a -washerwoman's "dolly" or wooden beater, to the "kirnbaby" formed of the -last sheaf of corn reaped which formerly figured in the Scottish harvest -homes, and to the beheading instrument, known as the "Scottish maiden" -(see below). "Maid," apart from its primary sense of an unmarried woman, -is chiefly used for a domestic female servant, usually with a qualifying -word prefixed, such as "housemaid," "parlour-maid," &c. - -The title of "MAID OF HONOUR" is given to an unmarried lady attached to -the personal suite of a queen. The custom of sending young girls of -noble or good birth to the court of a prince or feudal superior, for the -purpose, primarily, of education, goes back to early feudal times, and -is parallel with the sending of boys to act as pages and squires to the -feudal castles. The regular establishment of maids of honour (_filles -d'honneur_) appears first in the royal court of France. This has usually -been attributed to Anne of Brittany, wife of Charles VIII.; she had a -group of unmarried girls of high rank at her court as part of her -household, in whom she took a lively and parental interest, educating -them and bestowing a dowry upon them on their marriage. A slightly -earlier instance, however, has been found. When the young Margaret of -Austria came to France on her espousal to Charles VIII., broken by his -marriage to Anne of Brittany, there were in her train several _filles -d'honneur_, whose names appear in the _Comptes d'argenterie de la reine -Marguerite d'Autriche_, from 1484-1485 and 1488-1489 (_Archives de -l'empire K. K. 80 and 81_ quoted by A. Jal, _Dictionnaire critique de -biographie et d'histoire_). It is from the days of Francis I. that the -_chroniques scandaleuses_ begin which circle round the maids of honour -of the French court. The maids of Catherine de Medici, celebrated as the -"flying squadron," _l'escadron volant_, are familiar from the pages of -Pierre de l'Estoile (1574-1611) and Brantome. Among those whose beauty -Catherine used in her political intrigues, the most famous were Isabelle -de Limeuil, Mlle de Montmorency-Fosseux, known as _la belle Fosseuse_, -and Charlotte de Baune. The _filles d'honneur_, as an institution, were -suppressed in the reign of Louis XIV., at the instigation of Mme de -Montespan--who had been one of them--and their place was taken by the -_dames de palais_. In the English court, this custom of attaching "maids -of honour" to the queen's person was no doubt adopted from France. At -the present day a queen regnant has eight maids of honour, a queen -consort four. They take precedence next after the daughters of barons, -and where they have not by right or courtesy a title of their own, they -are styled "Honourable." - - THE SCOTTISH MAIDEN was an instrument of capital punishment formerly - in use in Scotland. It is said to have been invented by the earl of - Morton, who is also said to have been its first victim. This, however, - could not have been the case, as the maiden was first used at the - execution of the inferior agents in the assassination of Rizzio (1561) - and Morton was not beheaded till 1581. The maiden was practically an - early form of guillotine. A loaded blade or axe moving in grooves was - fixed in a frame about ten feet high. The axe was raised to the full - height of the frame and then released, severing the victim's head from - his body. At least 120, suffered death by the maiden, including the - regent Morton, Sir John Gordon of Haddo, President Spottiswood, the - marquis and earl of Argyll. In 1710 it ceased to be used; it is now - preserved in the museum of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, in - Edinburgh. - - - - -MAIDENHAIR, in botany, the common name for a fern, _Adiantum -Capillus-Veneris_, characterized by the spreading hairlike branches of -the frond, the ultimate pinnules of which are 1/2 to 1 in. long with a -rounded crenate outer edge and repeatedly forked veins; the sori (or -masses of spore-capsules) are in the crenatures of the pinnules, and are -protected by a kidney-shaped involucre. The plant is widely distributed -in temperate and tropical regions, and is occasionally found in the -western counties of England, the Isle of Man, and west Ireland, growing -on damp rocks or walls especially near the sea. The genus _Adiantum_ is -a large one containing many handsome species both tropical and -temperate, well known in greenhouse and hothouse cultivation. - - MAIDENHAIR-TREE is a popular name for _Ginkgo biloba_, a remarkable - and handsome gymnospermous tree, the fan-shaped leaves of which with - their forked veins recall those of the maidenhair (see GYMNOSPERMS). - - - - -MAIDENHEAD, a market town and municipal borough in the Wokingham -parliamentary division of Berkshire, England; 24(1/2) m. W. of London by -the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 12,980. Area, 2125 acres. It is -pleasantly situated on and above the west (right) bank of the Thames, -and is much in favour as a residential town and a resort of boating -parties. Though of high antiquity it is wholly modern in appearance, and -a large number of handsome houses have been built in its vicinity. A -beautiful timbered house of the 15th century, however, survives in -Ockwells, a short distance south of the town. The stone bridge carrying -the London road over the Thames dates from 1772; but the crossing is of -ancient importance. Maidenhead has trade in malt and grain. The borough -is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. - -The history of Maidenhead (Maydenhutt, Maydenhith) is bound up with that -of the ancient bridge. It is not mentioned in Domesday. Edward I. (1297) -gave a grant of pontage in aid of the bridge, which was almost broken -down; similar grants to the "bailiffs and good men of Maydenhithe" were -made by succeeding sovereigns. In 1451 Henry VI. incorporated the gild -of the Brethren and Sisters of Maydenhith to provide certain necessaries -for the celebration of Mass and to keep the bridge in order: the gild, -dissolved at the Reformation, was revived by Elizabeth, who, however, -later (1581) substituted for it a corporation consisting of a warden, -bridgemaster, burgesses and commonalty: the governing charter until the -19th century was that of James I. (1685) incorporating the town under -the title of the mayor, bridgemaster and burgesses. In 1400 Thomas -Holand, earl of Kent, held the bridge in the interests of the deposed -Richard II., but was eventually forced to retire. In 1643 a meeting took -place in the town between Charles I. and three of his children. In the -18th century a considerable trade was done in carrying malt, meal and -timber in barges to London: at that time three fairs were held which -have now practically disappeared. The Wednesday market is held under a -charter of Elizabeth (1582). - - - - -MAID MARIAN, a personage incorporated in the English legend of Robin -Hood. There is no evidence that she had originally any connexion with -the Robin Hood cycle. She seems to have been an essential feature of the -morris dance, and in the may-game was paired sometimes with Robin-Hood, -but oftener with Friar Tuck. The well-known pastoral play of Adam de la -Hale, _Jeu de Robin et Marion_, and the many French songs on the -subject, account for the association of the names. In the ballads on -Robin Hood her name is twice casually mentioned, but there is a late -ballad, by a certain S. G. (F. J. Child, _English and Scottish Ballads_, -i. 219), which tells how Maid Marian sought Robin in the forest -disguised as a page, and fought with him for an hour before she -recognized him by his voice. S. G. was perhaps acquainted with the two -plays, written in 1598, of _The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl of -Huntingdon_, by Anthony Munday and Harry Chettle. In _The Downfall_ -Matilda Fitz Walter escapes from the persecution of King John by -following her lover to Sherwood Forest, where they took the names of -Robin Hood and Maid Marian, and lived apart until they could be legally -united. Perhaps this tale has some connexion with the romance of the -outlaw Fulk Fitz Warin. Matilda or Mahaud, widow of Theobald Walter, -escaped from John's solicitations by marrying the outlawed Fulk and -following him to the forest. There were in semi-historical legends three -Matildas pursued by King John, of whom particulars are given by H. L. D. -Ward in his _Catalogue of Romances_ (i. 502). Their several histories -were fused by the Elizabethan dramatists, and associated with the Maid -Marian of the morris dance, who up to that time had probably only a -vague connexion with Robin Hood. - - - - -MAIDSTONE, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough, and -the county town of Kent, England, 41 m. E.S.E. of London by the South -Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), 33,516; area, 4008 acres. It -lies principally on the eastern bank of the river Medway, the modern -part spreading over the western slopes of a picturesque valley, which is -intersected and environed by orchards and hop gardens, this being the -richest agricultural district of Kent. The hop grounds form the -so-called middle growth of Kent, and the town has the principal grain -market in the county. Archbishop Boniface in 1260 established a hospital -here (Newark hospital) for poor pilgrims, the chapel of which, with -modern additions, is now St Peter's Church. The parish church of St -Mary, which had existed from Norman times, was demolished in 1395 by -Archbishop Courtenay, who erected on the site the present church of All -Saints. This fine Perpendicular building contains, besides many -excellent monuments, the richly carved sedilia and the twenty-eight oak -seats used by the collegiate priests. Courtenay also founded a college -of secular canons, the ruins of which are an interesting specimen of -14th-century architecture. From the reign of John until the Reformation -the archbishops had a residence here, at which Stafford and Courtenay -died. This Perpendicular building, with its Elizabethan east front, was -acquired by the corporation as a memorial of Queen Victoria's Jubilee in -1887, and houses the school of science and art. The rectory, with the -manor, passed into lay hands at the Reformation; and, having been a -perpetual curacy for three hundred and twenty years, the living became a -vicarage in 1866. The grammar school was founded in 1549, and endowed -with the estates of the local Corpus Christi fraternity, then dissolved; -the hall in which the gild assembled remains, but the school is -established in modern buildings on a new site. There are oil-mills, -rope, sacking and twine factories, and cement, lime, and brick works. -There is a considerable carrying trade on the Medway. A museum, with -public library, was opened in 1858, in an interesting building of the -early part of the 16th century. This is the headquarters of the Kent -Archaeological Society, founded by the Rev. L. B. Larking in 1858. In -1890 an art gallery was added. The West Kent and General hospital, the -county ophthalmic hospital, county gaol and barracks may be mentioned -among other institutions. From Saxon times down to 1830 condemned -malefactors were executed, and all the great county meetings were held, -on Penenden Heath, a common situated about a mile north-east of the -town, and enclosed by the corporation as a public recreation ground. The -parliamentary borough of Maidstone returns one member. The town is -governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. - -There is evidence of a Roman settlement at Maidstone. The name Maidstone -(Medwegestun, Meddestane, Maydestan), probably meaning Medway Town, is -presumably of Saxon origin. At the time of the Domesday Survey it -belonged to the archbishop of Canterbury, and from the reign of John the -archbishops had a residence there. Its position in the centre of Kent -gave it an early importance; the shire-moot was held on Penenden Heath -in the 11th century, and Maidstone was an assize town in the reign of -Edward I. In 1537 Cranmer exchanged the manor of Maidstone with the -king, and it was granted by Edward VI. to Sir Thomas Wyatt. Edward also -incorporated the town by the title of the mayor, jurats and commonalty; -it had formerly been governed by a portreve and 12 "brethren." This -charter was forfeited through Wyatt's rebellion; a second charter was -granted by Elizabeth in 1559 and confirmed by subsequent sovereigns. A -new charter constituting a governing body of a mayor, 12 jurats and 40 -common councilmen was given at the petition of the inhabitants by George -II. in 1747, and remained the governing charter until 1835. Four fairs -were granted by the charter of 1559; these are now held on the 13th of -February, the 12th of May, the 20th of June and the 17th of October. A -Thursday market was granted by Henry III. to Archbishop Boniface, and a -market every second Tuesday in the month by charter of George II. A corn -market on Tuesday and a cattle market on Thursday are still held. The -manufacture of linen and woollen goods was introduced by Walloons, who -settled here in 1567. This was succeeded by paper-making, now the chief -industry of the town. The cultivation of hops has been carried on since -the 17th century. - -Maidstone has been associated with various incidents of general history. -Wat Tyler broke into the prison, liberated John Ball the rebel preacher, -and committed various depredations. Several of the leading inhabitants -joined Jack Cade's rising. The rising of the Kentish Royalists in 1648 -collapsed at Maidstone, where on the 1st of June Fairfax, after five -hours' obstinate fighting, captured the town at midnight. - - See _Victoria County History, Kent_; I. M. Russell, _History of - Maidstone_ (1881). - - - - -MAIHAR, a native state of Central India, in the Baghelkhand agency. -Area, 407 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 63,702; estimated revenue, L4700. The -state, which is watered by the Tons river, consists mainly of alluvial -soil covering sandstone, and is fertile except in the hilly district of -the south. A large area is under forest, the produce of which provides a -small export trade. The chief, whose title is raja, claims descent from -the Kachwaha Rajput clan. The state suffered severely from famine in -1896-1897. The town of Maihar (pop. 6802) is on the East Indian railway, -97 m. N. of Jubbulpore. Extensive ruins of shrines and other buildings -in its neighbourhood indicate a former much greater extent of the place. - - - - -MAIL. (1) (Through Fr. _maille_, from Lat. _macula_, a spot or hole, the -mesh of a net), properly a metal ring or link which, joined closely with -other links, formed the fabric of body and other armour in the middle -ages, till it was superseded by plate-armour. The word "mail," properly -applied to this form of chain-armour, is also used of armour generally, -whether plate or chain, and is also transferred to the horny defensive -coverings of animals, such as the tortoise, crab, &c. (see ARMS AND -ARMOUR). (2) (O. Eng. _mal_, speech; probably the same as O. Saxon -_mahal_, assembly; in meaning connected with O. Norse _male_, -stipulation), a Scots law term meaning rent, tax. "Mails and duties" are -the rents, whether in kind or money, of an estate. In English the word -only survives in "blackmail" (q.v.). (3) (Through O. Fr. _male_, mod. -_malle_, a Teutonic word surviving in Dutch _maal_), properly a bag, -especially one used in travelling; this word, which appears in Chaucer, -is now applied chiefly to the despatch and delivery of postal matter. In -this sense "mail" is properly the bag in which such matter is conveyed, -and hence is applied to the contents of the mail, postal matter -collectively, and to the train, carts, or other means used in the -despatch and delivery of the same. In general usage "mail" is confined -to the "foreign" as opposed to the "inland" despatch of letters, &c., -and to which the word "post" is chiefly applied; in official language, -the word refers to the inland despatch. The word appears also in -"mail-coach," a coach used for conveying the mails, and in "mail-cart," -a cart similarly employed. This word is also applied to a light low -vehicle propelled or drawn by hand, suitable for young children. The -"mail phaeton" is a type of phaeton with high seat for two persons and -drawn by a pair of horses. - - - - -MAILLY, LOUISE JULIE, COMTESSE DE (1710-1751), mistress of Louis XV. of -France, was the daughter of Louis, marquis de Nesle. She was the eldest -of three sisters who succeeded one another as favourites of the king. In -1726 she married her cousin, Louis Alexandre de Mailly. Although Louis -XV. had paid her attentions from 1732, she did not become titular -mistress until 1738. She did not use her position either to enrich -herself or to interfere in politics. She was supplanted by her sister, -the duchess of Chateauroux, and obliged to leave court in 1742. - - See E. and J. de Goncourt, _La Duchesse de Chateauroux et ses soeurs_ - (1879); Toussaint, _Anecdotes curieuses de ... Louis XV._ (2 vols., - 1905); J. B. H. R. Capefigue, _Mesdemoiselles de Nesle et la jeunesse - de Louis XV._ (1864). - - - - -MAIMANA, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The town is situated -100 m. S.W. of Balkh, and only some 25 m. from the frontier of Russian -Turkestan. It is about two-thirds the size of Herat, square built and -surrounded by a ruined wall and moat. The khanate was for long in -dispute between Bokhara and Kabul, but in 1868 Abdur Rahman laid siege -to the town, and it was compelled to come to terms. Its political status -as an Afghan province was definitely fixed by the Russo-Afghan boundary -commission of 1885. The inhabitants are chiefly Uzbegs. - - - - -MAIMAND, a town in the province of Fars, Persia, a few miles east of -Firuzabad and about 70 m. from Shiraz. It has a population of about -5000, almost wholly occupied with the manufacture and sale of -rose-water, which is largely exported to many parts of Persia as well as -to Arabia, India and Java. The district also produces great quantities -of almonds. The rose gardens cover several square miles. In 1349 a -great part of Maimand and of three little villages belonging to it -became _wakf_ (pious endowment) of the shrine at Shiraz of Mir Ahmed, -surnamed Shah Chiragh, a son of Musa Kazim, the seventh imam of the -Shiahs, and the remainder of the Maimand grounds was given to the shrine -by Mir Habbib Ullah Sharifi and by Shah Ismail in 1504; the -administration of the Maimand property as well as the guardianship of -the shrine is still with the descendants of Mir Habbib Ullah. - - - - -MAIMBOURG, LOUIS (1610-1686), French Jesuit and historian, was born at -Nancy. He entered the Society of Jesus at the age of sixteen, and after -studying at Rome became a classical master in the Jesuit college at -Rouen. He afterwards devoted himself to preaching, but with only -moderate success. After having taken some part in minor controversies he -threw himself with energy into the dispute which had arisen as to the -Gallican liberties; for his _Traite historique sur les prerogatives de -l'Eglise de Rome_ (1682) he was by command of Innocent XI. expelled from -the Society, but rewarded by Louis XIV. with a residence at the abbey of -St Victor, Paris, and a pension. He died on the 13th of August 1686. His -numerous works include histories of Arianism, the iconoclastic -controversy, the Greek schism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, and of the -pontificates of Leo I. and Gregory I.; they are mere compilations, -written indeed in a very lively and attractive style, but inaccurate and -untrustworthy. - - _The History of Arianism_ was published in English (1728-1729) by - William Webster, with an appendix on the English writers in the - Socinian and Arian controversies. - - - - -MAIMING, mutilation, a physical injury which involves the loss of, or -incapacity to use, a bodily member. The verb "to maim," in M. E. -_maynhe_, _mahayme_, _mayme_, &c. was adopted from O. Fr. _mahaignier_: -cf. It. _magagnars_, Med. Lat. _mahemiare_, _mahennare_, &c. (see Du -Cange, _Gloss._, _s.v._ "Mahamium"). Maiming or mutilation is and has -been practised by many races with various ethnical and religious -significances, and was a customary form of punishment on the principle -of an "eye for an eye" (see MUTILATION). In law "maiming" is a criminal -offence; the old law term for a special case of maiming of persons was -"mayhem" (q.v.), an Anglo-French variant form of the word. Maiming of -animals by others than their owners is a particular form of the offences -generally grouped as "malicious damage." For the purpose of the law as -to this offence animals are divided into cattle, which includes horses, -pigs and asses, and other animals which are either subjects of larceny -at common law or are usually kept in confinement or for domestic -purposes. The punishment for maiming of cattle is three to fourteen -years' penal servitude. Malicious injury to other animals is a -misdemeanour punishable on summary conviction. For a second offence the -penalty is imprisonment with hard labour for over twelve months. -(Malicious Damage Act 1861.) Maiming of animals by their owner falls -under the Cruelty to Animals Acts. - - - - -MAIMON, SALOMON (1754-1800), German philosopher, was born of Jewish -parentage in Polish Lithuania, and died at Nieder-Siegersdorf on the -22nd of November 1800. He married at the age of twelve, and studied -medicine in Berlin. In 1770 he severed his connexion with his orthodox -co-religionists by his critical commentary on the _Moreh Nebuhim_ of -Maimonides, and devoted himself to the study of philosophy on the lines -of Wolff and Moses Mendelssohn. After many vicissitudes he found a -peaceful residence in the house of Count Kalkreuth at Nieder-Siegersdorf -in 1790. During the ensuing ten years he published the works which have -made his reputation as a critical philosopher. Hitherto his life had -been a long struggle against difficulties of all kinds. From his -autobiography, it is clear that his keen critical faculty was developed -in great measure by the slender means of culture at his disposal. It was -not till 1788 that he made the acquaintance of the Kantian philosophy, -which was to form the basis of his lifework, and as early as 1790 he -published the _Versuch uber die Transcendentalphilosophie_, in which he -formulates his objections to the system. He seizes upon the fundamental -incompatibility of a consciousness which can apprehend, and yet is -separated from, the "thing-in-itself." That which is object of thought -cannot be outside consciousness; just as in mathematics [root](-1) is an -unreal quantity, so "things-in-themselves" are _ex hypothesi_ outside -consciousness, i.e. are unthinkable. The Kantian paradox he explains as -the result of an attempt to explain the origin of the "given" in -consciousness. The _form_ of things is admittedly subjective; the mind -endeavours to explain the _material_ of the given in the same terms, an -attempt which is not only impossible but involves a denial of the -elementary laws of thought. Knowledge of the given is, therefore, -essentially incomplete. Complete or perfect knowledge is confined to the -domain of pure thought, to logic and mathematics. Thus the problem of -the "thing-in-itself" is dismissed from the inquiry, and philosophy is -limited to the sphere of pure thought. The Kantian categories are, -indeed, demonstrable and true, but their application to the given is -meaningless and unthinkable. By this critical scepticism Maimon takes up -a position intermediate between Kant and Hume. Hume's attitude to the -empirical is entirely supported by Maimon. The casual concept, as given -by experience, expresses not a necessary objective order of things, but -an ordered scheme of perception; it is subjective and cannot be -postulated as a concrete law apart from consciousness. The main argument -of the _Transcendentalphilosophie_ not only drew from Kant, who saw it -in MS., the remark that Maimon alone of his all critics had mastered the -true meaning of his philosophy, but also directed the path of most -subsequent criticism. - - Maimon's chief works, in addition to the above quoted, are _Philos. - Worterbuch_ (1791); _Streifereien im Gebiete der Philos._(1793); _Uber - die Progresse der Philos._ (1793); _Die Kategorien des Aristoteles mit - Anmerkungen erlautert_ (1794); _Versuch einer neuen Logik_ (1794 and - 1798); _Kritische Untersuchungen uber den menschl. Geist_ (1797). See - _S. Maimons Lebensgeschichte von ihm selbst beschrieben_ (1792, ed. K. - P. Moritz; Eng. trans. by J. C. Murray, 1888); Wolff, _Maimoniana_ - (1813); Witte, _S. Maimon_ (1876). - - - - -MAIMONIDES, the common name of RABBI MOSES BEN MAIMON (1135-1204), also -known from the initials of these last words as RAMBAM, Jewish -philosopher. His life falls into three epochs, which may be typified by -the towns in which they were passed, viz. Cordova, Fez and Cairo. He was -born in Cordova on the 20th of March 1135, the eve of Passover; he had a -brother, David, and one sister. His early years were spent in his native -town, which had then just passed the zenith of its glory. The Arab -rulers had fostered the development of science, art, medicine, -philosophy, literature and learning. All these influences played their -part in the education of Maimonides, whose father, besides training him -in all branches of Hebrew and Jewish scholarship, implanted in the youth -a sound knowledge of these secular studies as well. In 1148 Cordova was -taken from the last Fatimite caliph by the victorious Almohades, who had -spread over Spain from N. Africa. These militant revivalists strove to -re-establish Islam in what they considered its primitive simplicity. -They laid great stress on the unity of God, and tolerated neither schism -within the faith nor dissent without. The position of the orthodox -Spanish Jews became intolerable, and Maimon, after ten years of -hardships, wanderings and escapes, decided to take his family out of the -country. He settled in Fez. The years which Maimonides spent there -(1160-1165) were memorable for his friendship with Abdul Arab Ibn -Muisha--a Moslem poet and theologian--and for the commencement of his -literary activity. His energies were diverted towards stimulating the -religious feelings of his brethren and combating assimilation. In -consequence he became alarmed for his own safety, and in 1165 left for -Egypt, where he settled after a passing visit to the Holy Land. Cordova -taught him the humanities; Fez humanity. Cairo, besides giving him -prominence at court and in the Jewish community, was the centre of the -almost world-wide influence which he exercised over Jewry by his -monumental writings and dominant personality. By 1177 Maimonides was the -recognized chief of the Cairene congregation and consulted on important -matters by communities far and wide. Here he was joined by his most -famous disciple, Joseph Aknin. But his early life in Egypt was fraught -with deep sorrow. His father died soon after their arrival, and -Maimonides himself suffered severely from prostration and sickness. His -brother David, jointly with whom he carried on a trade in gems, was -shipwrecked in the Indian Ocean. With him perished the entire fortune of -the family. Forced to earn a livelihood, Maimonides turned to medicine. -The fame of his skill eventually brought him the appointment of body -physician to Saladin, to whom, it is said, he was so attached that when -Richard I. wrote from Ascalon, offering him a similar post at the -English court, Maimonides refused. He married the sister of Ibn al Mali, -one of the royal secretaries. In 1186, his son Abraham was born. His -remaining years were spent in ceaseless activity and in controversy, -which he sought to avoid. He died amidst universal sorrow and -veneration. - - The works of Maimonides fall into three periods: (a) To the Spanish - period belong his commentary on the whole Talmud (not fully carried - out), a treatise on the calendar (_Maamar ha-ibbur_), a treatise on - logic (_Milloth Higgayon_), and his commentary on the _Mishnah_ (this - was called _Siraj_ or _Maor_, i.e. "Light": begun 1158, completed - 1168 in Egypt). (b) While he was in Fez, he wrote an essay on the - Sanctification of the Name of God (_Maamar Kiddush Hashem_, _Iggereth - Hashemad_). (c) The works written in Egypt were: Letter to the - Yemenites (_Iggereth Teman_ or _Pethah Tiqvah_); _Responsa_ on - questions of law; Biblical and Rabbinical Code (_Misnheh Torah_ or - _Yad Hahazaka_, completed 1180); _Sepher hamitzvoth_, an abbreviated - handbook of the preceding; and his great philosophical work _Moreh - Nebuhim_ or "the guide of the perplexed" (1190). To these must be - added certain portions of the _Mishnah_ commentary, such as the "Eight - Chapters," the discussion on reward and punishment and immortality, - the Jewish Creed, which have acquired fame as independent works. - -The influence of Moses ben Maimon is incalculable. "From Moses unto -Moses there arose not one like Moses," is the verdict of posterity. -Maimonides was the great exponent of reason in faith and toleration in -theology. One of the main services to European thought of the "Guide" -was its independent criticism of some of Aristotle's principles. His -codification of the Talmud was equally appreciated in the study of the -scholar and in practical life. Christian Europe owed much to Maimonides. -Not only did his "Guide" influence scholasticism in general, but it was -from his Code that the Church derived its medieval knowledge of the -Synagogue. - - A complete bibliography will be found in _Maimonides_, by David Yellin - and Israel Abrahams (London, 1903); the final chapter of that work - gives a summary of the influence of Maimonides on Christian - philosophers such as Aquinas, and Jewish such as Spinoza. The "Guide" - has been translated into English by M. Friedlander (1881-1885; new - ed., 1905). See also _Jewish Encyclopedia_, articles _s.v._, and the - volumes edited by Guttmann, _Moses ben Maimon_ (Leipzig, 1908, &c.). - (H. Le.) - - - - -MAIN (Lat. _Moenus_), a river of Germany, and the most important -right-bank tributary of the Rhine. It has two sources, the Weisse Main -(White Main), which rises in the Fichtelgebirge on the east side of the -Ochsenkopf, and the Rote Main (Red Main), which, rising on the eastern -slope of the Frankish Jura, flows past Bayreuth. They unite 3 m. below -Kulmbach, 920 ft. above the sea. Hence the river, already of -considerable size, pursues a north-westerly direction, skirting the -spurs of the Frankish Jura in a pleasant valley. At Lichtenfels the -river takes a south-westerly course, which it retains until entering the -fertile basin of Bamberg. Here it receives from the south-east the -waters of its chief tributary, the Regnitz, and enters upon its middle -course. Its direction is now again north-west, and meandering through -pleasant vales and pastures it passes Hassfurt and reaches Schweinfurt. -Its course is now almost due south to Ochsenfurt, when it again proceeds -north-west. Continuing in this direction amid vine-clad hills, it washes -the walls of the university city of Wurzburg, and thence, dividing the -forest-clad ranges of the Spessart and the Odenwald, reaches Gemunden. -Here it is joined from the right by the Frankish Saale and, turning -abruptly south, receives at Wertheim the beautiful Tauber. Feudal -castles and medieval towns now crown its banks, notably, Freudenberg and -Miltenberg. From the latter it proceeds due north to Aschaffenburg, -whence passing Frankfort it pours its yellow waters into the green -waters of the Rhine just above Mainz. The Main has a total length of 310 -m. and drains a basin of approximately 11,000 sq. m. It is navigable -from the confluence of the Regnitz, 240 m. from its mouth, for barges -and other small craft, and through the Ludwig Canal is connected with -the Danube. - - See Ulrici, _Das Maingebiet in seiner naturlichen Beschaffenheit_ - (Kassel, 1885); E. Faber, _Zur Hydrographie des Maingebiets_ (Munich, - 1895), and Lill, _Mainthal, Main und Mainschiffahrt_ (Berlin, 1904). - - - - -MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in "may" and "might," and Lat. -_magnus_, great), a word meaning properly power or strength, especially -physical. This use chiefly survives in the expression "with might and -main." The word is more common as a substantival elliptical use of the -adjective, which usually has the sense of principal or chief in size, -strength, importance, &c. Thus "the main," the high open sea, is for -"main sea," cf. "mainland," the principal part of a territory excluding -islands and sometimes far-projecting peninsulas. The expression "the -Spanish main" properly meant that part of the main land of the N.E. -coast of South America stretching from the Orinoco to the Isthmus of -Panama, and the former Spanish possessions in Central America bordering -on the Caribbean Sea, but it is often loosely used, especially in -connexion with the buccaneers, of the Caribbean Sea itself. The term -"main" is also thus used of a principal pipe or cable for conducting -gas, water, electricity, &c. The elliptical use does not appear, -however, in such expressions as main road, line, stream. Another use of -the word "main" has a somewhat obscure history. It appears as a term in -the game of hazard, and also in cock-fighting. In the last it is used -for a match, and for the cocks engaged in a match. In hazard it is the -number called by the "caster" before the dice are thrown; this may be -any number from five to nine inclusive. The usual derivation is from the -French _main_, a hand, but according to the _New English Dictionary_ -there is no evidence for this, and the more probable explanation is that -it is an adaptation of "main" meaning principal or chief. From this use -of the word in hazard the expression "main chance" is derived. "Main," a -shortened form of domain or demesne, only now survives in Scotland, -usually in the plural "mains" for a home farm. - - - - -MAINA (or MANI) and MAINOTES, a district and people of the Peloponnesus, -the modern Morea. Maina is the country occupied by the mountain range of -Taygetus from Sparta to Cape Matapan, the ancient Taenarum. It is now -divided between the modern districts Oetylos and Gythion. Before the -organization of the present kingdom of Greece, Maina was subdivided into -[Greek: Exo Mane], Outer Maina, from the frontier of Kalamata, on the -Gulf of Messenia, to Vitylo (Oetylos) and inland to the summit of -Taygetus; [Greek: Kato Mane], Lower Maina, from Vitylo to Cape Matapan; -and [Greek: Mesa Mane], or Inner Maina, on the east, and on the Gulf of -Laconia as far as the plain of Elos. It contained over a hundred -villages. The country is mountainous and inaccessible, a formation to -which it owes its historical importance. The Mainotes claim to descend -from the Spartans, and probably represent the Eleuthero, or free, -Laconians who were delivered by Rome from the power of Sparta, as is -suggested by the traces of ancient Greek in their dialect and by their -physical type. Their country being a natural fortress, they were able to -defend themselves against the Byzantine emperors, the barbarians who -broke into the empire, the Latin princes of Achaea of the house of -Villehardouin, and the Turks. As their country is also poor and -maritime, they were early tempted to take to piratical adventure. Gibbon -says that "in the time of Constantine Porphyrogenitus they had acquired -the name of Mainotes, under which they dishonour the claim of liberty by -the inhuman pillage of all that is shipwrecked on their rocky shore." -Their neighbours gave their country the name of "Kakaboulia"--the land -of wicked counsels. The passes of their mountains were elaborately -fortified and their villages were full of fortified towers (_pyrgoi_) -from which they formed their own favourite epithet, Maina -Polypyrgos--many-towered Maina. On the western side it also contains the -remains of feudal keeps, erected by William II. de Villehardouin -(1245-1278) and other Latin princes of Achaea. The Mainotes did not -become Christians till the 9th century. From the 15th till the 17th -century they recognized a family which claimed to belong to the Comneni -of Trebizond as head chiefs. But the real power was in the hands of the -chiefs of the different families and villages, who formed a turbulent -and martial aristocracy. Enduring and ferocious feuds were common among -them. In the course of the 18th century the family of Mavromicheli -(Black Michael), which belonged to lower Maina, established a general -headship over the Mainotes after much strife and many murders. When -Russia endeavoured to promote a rising against the Turks in the Morea in -1770 the Mainotes acted with her, and the strength of their country -enabled them to escape the vengeance of the Turks when the Christians -were cynically deserted by the Russians. In 1777 their practical -independence was recognized by the sultan's officers. During the Greek -war of independence the Mainotes were chiefly led by Petros (Petro Bey) -Mavromicheli, known to his countrymen as the king of Maina, who -undoubtedly cherished the hope of establishing a principality for -himself. The freedom of Greece, for which he had fought in his own way, -proved the ruin of his ambition. He found the new order less compatible -with his schemes than the Turkish dominion. Petro Bey was imprisoned by -the Greek president Capodistrias (see CAPO D'ISTRIA, COUNT.), who was in -revenge murdered by the Mavromichelis. The family were finally content -to become courtiers and officials in the reign of King Otto I. In the -19th century Maina was but little affected by civilization, except in so -far as the efficiency of modern navies debarred the Mainotes from their -old resource of piracy. - - See W. Martin Leake, _Travels in the Morea_ (1830); M. E. Yemeniz, "La - Maina," in _Revue des deux mondes_ (March 1, 1865); and Philipson, - "Zur Ethnographie des Peloponnes," in _Petermanns Mittheilungen_, vol. - 36 (Gotha). - - - - -MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON, DUCHESSE DU (1676-1753), -daughter of Henri Jules de Bourbon, prince de Conde and Anne of Bavaria, -was born on the 8th of November 1676. On the 19th of March 1692 she -married Louis Auguste de Bourbon, duc du Maine, son of Louis XIV. and -Mme de Montespan. The duchesse du Maine held a little court at Sceaux, -where she gave brilliant entertainments and immersed herself in -political intrigues. Displeased with the action of the regent Orleans in -degrading the illegitimate children of Louis XIV. from their precedence -above the peers of France, she induced her husband to join in the -Cellamare conspiracy for the transference of the regency to the king of -Spain. The plot, however, was discovered, and she was imprisoned in -1719. The following year she returned to Sceaux, where she resumed her -salon and gathered round her a brilliant company of wits and poets. She -died in Paris on the 23rd of January 1753. - - See General de Piepape, _La Duchesse du Maine_ (1910). - - - - -MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822-1888), English comparative jurist -and historian, son of Dr James Maine, of Kelso, Roxburghshire, was born -on the 15th of August 1822. He was at school at Christ's Hospital, and -thence went up to Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1840. At Cambridge he -was one of the most brilliant classical scholars of his time. He won a -Craven scholarship and graduated as senior classic in 1844, being also -senior chancellor's medallist in classics. Shortly afterwards he -accepted a tutorship at Trinity Hall. In 1847 he was appointed regius -professor of civil law, and he was called to the bar three years later; -he held this chair till 1854. Even the rudiments of Roman law were not -then included in the ordinary training of English lawyers; it was -assumed at the universities that any good Latin scholar could qualify -himself at short notice for keeping up such tradition of civilian -studies as survived. Maine cannot have known much Roman law in 1847, -but in 1856 he contributed to the _Cambridge Essays_ the essay on Roman -law and legal education, republished in the later editions of _Village -Communities_, which was the first characteristic evidence of his genius. -Meanwhile he had become one of the readers appointed by the Inns of -Court, in the first of their many half-hearted attempts at legal -education, in 1852. Lectures delivered by Maine in this capacity were -the groundwork of _Ancient Law_ (1861), the book by which his reputation -was made at one stroke. Its object, as modestly stated in the preface, -was "to indicate some of the earliest ideas of mankind, as they are -reflected in ancient law, and to point out the relation of those ideas -to modern thought." Within a year of its publication the post of legal -member of council in India was offered to Maine, then a junior member of -the bar with little practice, few advantages of connexion, and no -political or official claims. He declined once, on grounds of health; -the very next year the office was again vacant. This time Maine was -persuaded to accept, not that his health had improved, but that he -thought India might not make it much worse. It turned out that India -suited him much better than Cambridge or London. His work, like most of -the work done by Englishmen in India in time of peace, was not of a -showy kind--its value is shown by the fact that he was asked to prolong -his services beyond the regular term of five years, and returned to -England only in 1869. The subjects on which it was his duty to advise -the government of India were as much political as legal. They ranged -from such problems as the land settlement of the Punjab, or the -introduction of civil marriage to provide for the needs of unorthodox -Hindus, to the question how far the study of Persian should be required -or encouraged among European civil servants. On the civil marriage -question in particular, and some years earlier on the still more -troublesome one of allowing the remarriage of native converts to -Christianity, his guidance, being not only learned but statesmanlike, -was of the greatest value. Plans of codification, moreover, were -prepared, and largely shaped, under Maine's direction, which were -carried into effect by his successors, Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen and Dr -Whitley Stokes. The results are open to criticism in details, but form -on the whole a remarkable achievement in the conversion of unwritten and -highly technical law into a body of written law sufficiently clear to be -administered by officers to many of whom its ideas and language are -foreign. All this was in addition to the routine of legislative and -consulting work and the establishment of the legislative department of -the government of India on substantially its present footing. - -Maine's power of swiftly assimilating new ideas and appreciating modes -of thought and conduct remote from modern Western life came into contact -with the facts of Indian society at exactly the right time, and his -colleagues and other competent observers expressed the highest opinion -of his work. In return Maine brought back from his Indian office a store -of knowledge which enriched all his later writings, though he took India -by name for his theme only once. This essay on India was his -contribution to the composite work entitled _The Reign of Queen -Victoria_ (ed. T. H. Ward, 1887). Not having been separately published, -it is perhaps the least known of Maine's writings; but its combination -of just perception and large grasp with command of detail is not easily -matched outside W. Stubbs's prefaces to some of the chronicles in the -Rolls series, and (more lately) F. W. Maitland's monographs. As -vice-chancellor of the university of Calcutta, Maine commented, with his -usual pregnant ingenuity, on the results produced by the contact of -Eastern and Western thought. Three of these addresses were published, -wholly or in part, in the later editions of _Village Communities_; the -substance of others is understood to be embodied in the Cambridge Rede -lecture of 1875, which is to be found in the same volume. The practical -side of Maine's experience was not long lost to India; he became a -member of the secretary of state's council in 1871, and remained so for -the rest of his life. In the same year he was gazetted a K.C.S.I. In -1869 Maine was appointed to the chair of historical and comparative -jurisprudence newly founded in the university of Oxford by Corpus -Christi College. Residence at Oxford was not required, and the election -amounted to an invitation to the new professor to resume and continue in -his own way the work he had begun in _Ancient Law_. During the -succeeding years he published the principal matters of his lectures in a -carefully revised literary form: _Village Communities in the East and -the West_ (1871); _Early History of Institutions_ (1875); _Early Law and -Custom_ (1883). In all these works the phenomena of societies in an -archaic stage, whether still capable of observation or surviving in a -fragmentary manner among more modern surroundings or preserved in -contemporary records, are brought into line, often with singular -felicity, to establish and illustrate the normal process of development -in legal and political ideas. - -In 1877 the mastership of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where Maine had -formerly been tutor, became vacant. There were two strong candidates -whose claims were so nearly equal that it was difficult to elect either; -the difficulty was solved by a unanimous invitation to Maine to accept -the post. His acceptance entailed the resignation of the Oxford chair, -though not continuous residence at Cambridge. Ten years later -considerations of a somewhat similar kind led to his election to succeed -Sir William Harcourt as Whewell professor of international law at -Cambridge. His all too short performance in this office is represented -by a posthumous volume which had not received his own final revision, -_International Law_ (1888). - -Meanwhile Maine had published in 1885 his one work of speculative -politics, a volume of essays on _Popular Government_, designed to show -that democracy is not in itself more stable than any other form of -government, and that there is no necessary connexion between democracy -and progress. The book was deliberately unpopular in tone; it excited -much controversial comment and some serious and useful discussion. - -In 1886 there appeared in the _Quarterly Review_ (clxii. 181) an article -on the posthumous work of J. F. M'Lennan, edited and completed by his -brother, entitled "The Patriarchal Theory." The article, though -necessarily unsigned (in accordance with the rule of the _Quarterly_ as -it then stood), was Maine's reply to the M'Lennan brothers' attack on -the historical reconstruction of the Indo-European family system put -forward in _Ancient Law_ and supplemented in _Early Law and Custom_. -Maine was generally averse from controversy, but showed on this occasion -that it was not for want of controversial power. He carried the war back -into the invader's country, and charged J. F. M'Lennan's theory of -primitive society with owing its plausible appearance of universal -validity to general neglect of the Indo-European evidence and -misapprehension of such portions of it as M'Lennan did attempt to -handle. - -Maine's health, which had never been strong, gave way towards the end of -1887. He went to the Riviera under medical advice, and died at Cannes on -the 3rd of February 1888. He left a wife and two sons, of whom the elder -died soon afterwards. - -An excellent summary of Maine's principal writings may be seen in Sir -Mountstuart Grant Duff's memoir. The prompt and full recognition of -Maine's genius by continental publicists must not pass unmentioned even -in the briefest notice. France, Germany, Italy, Russia have all -contributed to do him honour; this is the more remarkable as one or two -English publicists of an older school signally failed to appreciate him. -Maine warned his countrymen against the insularity which results from -ignorance of all law and institutions save one's own; his example has -shown the benefit of the contrary habit. His prominent use of Roman law -and the wide range of his observation have made his works as -intelligible abroad as at home, and thereby much valuable -information--for example, concerning the nature of British supremacy in -India, and the position of native institutions there--has been made the -property of the world of letters instead of the peculiar and obscure -possession of a limited class of British public servants. Foreign -readers of Maine have perhaps understood even better than English ones -that he is not the propounder of a system but the pioneer of a method, -and that detailed criticism, profitable as it may be and necessary as in -time it must be, will not leave the method itself less valid or diminish -the worth of the master's lessons in its use. The rather small bulk of -Maine's published and avowed work may be explained partly by a fine -literary sense which would let nothing go out under his name unfinished, -partly by the drawbacks incident to precarious health. Maine's -temperament was averse from the labour of minute criticism, and his -avoidance of it was no less a matter of prudence. But it has to be -remembered that Maine also wrote much which was never publicly -acknowledged. Before he went to India he was one of the original -contributors to the _Saturday Review_, founded in 1855, and the inventor -of its name. Like his intimate friend Fitzjames Stephen, he was an -accomplished journalist, enjoyed occasional article-writing as a -diversion from official duties, and never quite abandoned it. The -practice of such writing probably counted for something in the freedom -and clearness of Maine's style and the effectiveness of his dialectic. -His books are a model of scientific exposition which never ceases to be -literature. - - See Sir A. Lyall and others, in _Law Quart. Rev._ iv. 129 seq. (1888); - Sir F. Pollock, "Sir Henry Maine and his Work," in _Oxford Lectures, - &c._ (1890); "Sir H. Maine as a Jurist," _Edin. Rev._ (July 1893); - Introduction and Notes to new ed. of _Ancient Law_ (1906); Sir M. E. - Grant Duff, _Sir Henry Maine: a brief Memoir of his Life, &c._ (1892); - _Notes from a Diary_, _passim_; L. Stephen, "Maine" in _Dict. Nat. - Biog._ (1893); Paul Vinogradoff, _The Teaching of Sir Henry Maine_ - (1904). (F. Po.) - - - - -MAINE, an old French province, bounded N. by Normandy, E. by Orleanais, -S. by Touraine and Anjou, and W. by Brittany. Before the Roman Conquest -the region occupied by this province was inhabited by the Aulerci -Cenomanni and the Aulerci Diablintes; under the Roman empire it -consisted of two _civitates_ comprised in the Provincia Lugdunensis -Tertia--the Civitas Cenomannorum and the Civitas Diablintum, whose chief -towns were Le Mans and Jublains. These two _civitates_ were united -during the barbarian period and formed a single bishopric, that of Le -Mans, suffragan to the metropolitan see of Tours. Under the Merovingians -and Carolingians the diocese of Le Mans corresponded to the Pagus -Cenomanensis, and in the feudal period to the county of Maine. In the -16th century the county of Maine, with the addition of Perche, formed a -military government--the province of Maine. Since 1790 this province has -been represented approximately by the departments of Sarthe and Mayenne, -the respective capitals of which are Le Mans and Laval. In 1855 the -bishopric of Laval was separated from that of Le Mans. Maine was -evangelized in the 3rd century by St Julian. After forming part of the -kingdom of Syagrius, it was conquered by Clovis at the end of the 5th -century. Owing to the scarcity of documents the history of Maine until -the end of the 9th century is merged in the history of the bishops of Le -Mans, which has come down to us in the _Actus pontificum Cenomannis in -urbe degentium_ (ed. Busson-Ledru, Le Mans, 1901), composed under the -direction of Bishop Aldric (832-857). Roger (_c._ 892-_c._ 898) was -perhaps the first hereditary count of Maine; the counts whose existence -is certain are Hugh I. (_c._ 939-before 992), Hugh II. (before -992-1015), Herbert I. (1015-1032 to 1036), Hugh III. (1032 to -1036-1051), Herbert II. (1051-1062), William the Bastard (1063-1087), -Robert Curthose (1087-1091), Hugh IV. (1091-1092) and Helias -(1092-1110). Maine, which was in the vassalage of Anjou as early as the -9th century, was united to Anjou in 1110 by the marriage of Count -Helias's daughter to Fulk V., count of Anjou, and passed to the English -crown in 1154, when Henry Plantagenet (who was born at Le Mans) became -king of England. In 1204, after the confiscation of the estates of John -of England, Maine was united to France; in 1246 it was separated from -France by Louis IX., who handed it over to his brother Charles, count of -Provence. Again united to France in 1328, it was given in 1356 as an -apanage to Louis, second son of King John II., and did not definitely -return to the French crown until 1481, after the death of Charles II., -count of Maine. During the Hundred Years' War Maine was taken in 1425 by -the English, who lost it in 1448. - - See _Histoire de l'eglise du Mans_, by Dom Piolin (Paris, 1851-1858), - which is useful but out of date; _Revue historique et archeologique du - Maine_ (1876); _La Province du Maine_ (1893); B. Haureau, _Histoire - litteraire du Maine_ (1870-1877). - - - - -MAINE, a North Atlantic state of the United States of America, the most -north-easterly state in the Union, and the largest of the New England -group. It lies between 43 deg. 4' and 47 deg. 27' 33" N., and between 66 -deg. 56' 48" and 71 deg. 6' 41" W. It is bounded N.W. by the Canadian -province of Quebec; N. and E. by the Canadian province of New Brunswick, -from which it is separated in part by the natural barriers of the Saint -John River, the Grand (or Schoodic) Lakes, the Saint Croix River, and -Passamaquoddy Bay; S.S.E. by the Atlantic Ocean; and W. by New -Hampshire, the Piscataqua and Salmon Falls rivers being the natural -boundary lines at the S.W. The area of the state is 33,040 sq. m., 3145 -sq. m. being water surface. - -Maine attracts more summer visitors than any other state in the Union. -This is due to the cool and refreshing summer climate; the picturesque -coast and its many islands, which are favourite grounds for camps and -summer cottages; the mountains, and the beautiful lakes and rivers, many -of which afford opportunities for good fishing and canoeing. Among the -more widely known resorts are Mount Desert Island, on which is Bar -Harbor, a fashionable summer place of great beauty; Long Island, Orr's -and other islands in Casco Bay; Old Orchard, with a gently sloping white -sand sea-beach 9 m. long, Rangeley and Moosehead Lakes, favourite -resorts of fishermen and hunters; Mt Katahdin, in the heart of the moose -country; and Poland Springs (38 m. by rail from Portland) in -Androscoggin county, near lake Anasigunticook. About 1870, camps, summer -cottages, summer hotels and boarding houses began to multiply throughout -the state. The needs of this summer population gave a new impulse and a -new turn to agriculture; and the demand for souvenirs revived among the -Indians basket-weaving, moccasin-making, and such crafts. - - _Physical Features._--The surface is a gently rolling upland, forming - a part of the "New England uplands," above which rise isolated - mountain peaks and clusters of peaks, and below which are cut numerous - river valleys.[1] The highest peak is Mt Katahdin (5200 ft.), a little - N.E. of the centre of the state in Piscataquis county, which rises - from a comparatively level upland. South-west of Katahdin, in Franklin - county, are most of the other high peaks of the state: Saddleback - Mountain (4000 ft.), Mt Abraham (3388 ft.), Mt Bigelow (3600 ft.), and - Mt Blue (3200 ft.). A little N. of this line of mountain peaks is the - water-parting which divides the state into a north slope and a south - slope. The north slope descends gently both to the N. and to the E.; - although quite hilly in the middle and western portions it is so - poorly drained that swamps abound in all sections. The south slope - which contains nearly all the mountains and is generally more hilly, - has a mean descent toward the sea of about 7 ft. to the mile, the fall - being greater in the W., where the mountains are high at the N. and - the shore low at the S., and less to the E., where the water-parting - is lower and the shore high and rocky. - - After the uplift which caused the rivers to cut below the general - "uplands," and develop well marked valleys for themselves, came the - period of the great continental glaciation. The glacier or ice sheet - overran all Maine, irregularly scouring out the bed rock to produce - rock basins, damming up many river valleys with glacial deposits and - completely disarranging the drainage lines. When the ice melted, the - rock basins and the dammed-up valleys filled with water to produce - lakes. This is the origin of the numerous lakes of Maine, which give - it some of its most beautiful scenery, and help to make it a holiday - resort in summer. These lakes are about 1600 in number, are scattered - in all parts of the state, are especially numerous at high elevations, - and have an aggregate area of more than 2000 sq. m. Few other regions - have so many large lakes so variously situated, and with such beauty - of aspect and surroundings. They contribute largely to a constant - supply of water power for which the course of the rivers of S.W. Maine - are exceptionally well adapted, many of them abound in trout, salmon, - togue, black bass and pickerel; and near them there is still much - game. Moosehead Lake (about 120 sq. m.; 35 m. long and from 2 m. to 10 - m. wide), on the boundary between Piscataquis and Somerset counties, - is the largest in Maine and the largest inland body of water wholly in - New England; the Kennebec River is its principal outlet and Mt Kineo - rises abruptly to about 1760 ft. above the sea (about 700 ft. above - the lake) on its eastern shore. Other lakes, such as the Rangeley - Lakes,[2] Chesuncook and Twin Lakes on the Penobscot, and the Grand or - Schoodic Lakes, in the western boundary at the head waters of the - Saint Croix River, equal or surpass Moosehead in picturesqueness. The - glacier or ice sheet, above referred to, deposited till or boulder - clay, which was compacted under the enormous pressure of the ice sheet - to form the "hard-pan" referred to later. The glaciation is also - responsible for the poor soil of most of the state, for, although the - rocks are the same crystallines which give good soils further south in - unglaciated regions, all the decayed portions of the Maine rocks have - been removed by glacial erosion, revealing fresh, barren rock over - great areas, or depositing the rather sterile hard-pan as a thin - coating in other places. - - After the uplift came a period of subsidence, during which this region - sank one or more thousand feet, allowing the sea to encroach on the - land and run far inland into the previously made river valleys. This - depression probably occurred during the glacial period, perhaps toward - its close, and is responsible for the second most important feature of - Maine physiography, the embayed coast. To this subsidence are due the - picturesque coastal scenery, the numerous islands and bays, the good - harbours and the peculiar coast-line. - - The shortest distance between the N.E. and the S.W. extremities of the - coast is only 225 m.; but, on account of projections and indentations, - the coast-line measures not less than 2500 m. The headlands, the deep - indentations and the numerous islands in the bays and beyond produce a - beautiful mingling of land and sea and give to the whole ocean front - the appearance of a fringed and tasselled border; west of the mouth of - the Kennebec River are a marshy shore and many low grassy islands; but - east of this river the shore becomes more and more bold, rising in the - precipitous cliffs and rounded summits of Mt Desert and Quoddy Head, - 1527 and 1000 ft. high respectively. All along the coast-line there - are capacious and well-protected harbours, Casco, Penobscot, - Frenchman's, Machias and Passamaquoddy bays being especially - noteworthy. - - After the subsidence came another period of uplift, possibly still in - progress. This uplift has brought up submarine deposits of sand, &c., - to form little coastal plains at some points along the coast, - providing good land for settlement and clay for brick and pottery. - Further evidence of this uplift is found in old beach lines now well - above sea-level. - - The principal river systems of Maine are the Saint John on the north - slope, and the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Androscoggin, and the Saco - on the south slope. The mean height of the basin of the St John is - exceeded only by that of the Androscoggin, but the fall of the St John - River through the greater part of its course in Maine is only - sufficient to give a sluggish or a gentle current. The Penobscot, - Kennebec, Androscoggin and Saco have numerous falls and rapids. - - _Fauna._--The animal life of Maine shows a mixture of northern and - southern forms, and very little that is peculiar as compared with - surrounding regions. The state has moose, caribou and deer, especially - in the northern part. The black bear, wolf, catamount, wolverine, wild - cat, fox, beaver, racoon, marten, sable, woodchuck, skunk, otter, - mink, rabbit and squirrel are also found. Geese, ducks and other water - fowl frequent the lakes and bays in the migratory season, and eagles, - gulls, hawks, kingfishers, owls, plover, woodcock, "partridge" (ruffed - grouse), robins, orioles, bobolinks, blue birds, swallows, sparrows, - and many other insectivorous birds are common. In the inland waters - salmon, trout, togue (_Salvelinus namaycush_), pickerel and bass - abound; along the shore there are lobsters, clams and scallops - (_Pecten irradians_); and off the shore are herring, alewives, - mackerel, cod, halibut, haddock, smelts, hake, menhaden, porgies and - porpoises. The game in the North Woods attracts large numbers of - sportsmen during the autumn season. - - [Illustration: Map of Maine.] - - _Flora._--Maine was formerly covered with forests, principally of - white pine and spruce, but mixed with these were some hemlock, - tamarack, cedar, and, on the south slope, birch, poplar, oak, maple - and beech. Chestnut and walnut are rare and are found only near the - south-west border. In 1900 about 21% of the state's area was cleared, - and much besides had once been cleared, but not being suited to - agriculture had become reforested. Of fruit trees the chief is the - apple. The plum, cherry and pear also thrive. The peach grows well - only in the south-west near the border. Species of grape, gooseberry - and currant are native, and others are cultivated with advantage. The - blackberry, raspberry, blueberry and strawberry grow wild in profusion - throughout the state. - - _Climate._--The climate of the state is moist and, for its latitude, - cold. Extremes of temperature are not so great as farther inland in - the same latitude; for the summer heats are tempered by the sea and - the cool north winds, and the winter cold is so constant as to be less - severely felt than the changing temperature of more southern - districts. The summers are short, there being only about 4(1/2) months - between frosts even in the southern sections, and the mean summer - temperature is about 62 deg. F. The mean winter temperature is - approximately 20 deg. F., and the mean annual temperature for the - entire state is 42 deg. F., that for the north slope being about 5 - deg. F. less than that for the south slope. Although the temperature - remains pretty steadily below the freezing point for at least three - months of the year, many of the harbours remain unobstructed; for the - tides and the prevailing off-shore winds break up and drive off the - ice. The precipitation is about 42 in. annually, and is distributed - very evenly throughout the year, 10-11 in. of rain or its equivalent - in snow falling each season. During 4(1/2) months about 44% of the - precipitation is in the form of snow; but the snow-fall varies from - about 60 in. on the coast to more than 100 in. on the north slope. The - winds are variable; at no season of the year is it usual for them to - blow from the same direction for many days in succession. But, with - the exception of those from the west, they are maritime and - consequently moisture-bearing. In summer, especially in the latter - part of it, the cool and moist N. or N.E. winds often cause a - considerable part of the state to be enveloped in fog for several days - in succession. - - _Agriculture._--The soil is for the most part glacial drift, - containing a large mixture of clay with sand or gravel, and the - subsoil is mostly "hard-pan," i.e. mingled clay and boulders which - have been so much compressed by glacial action as to make the mixture - hard and ledge-like. Except in the valley of the Aroostook and along - the Kennebec, the Penobscot, and some other rivers, the soil is - generally unfit for cultivation, there being too little alluvium mixed - with it to make it fertile. In the Aroostook valley, however, is the - largest undivided area of good arable land in all New England, the - soil being a deep, porous, yellow loam well adapted to the growth of - cereals and to market gardening. The most sterile regions are on the - mountains and along the coast. Because of the cold climate, the large - areas in which there is little or no good arable land, the growing - demand for timber land, and the large and constant supply of - water-power afforded by the principal rivers, agriculture in Maine, as - in all the other New England states except Vermont, is a smaller - industry than manufacturing; in 1900 there were 87,932 people engaged - in manufacturing and only 76,932 engaged in agriculture. Only 32.9% of - the state's land area was in that year included in farms, only 37.9% - of this farm land was improved, and only 16.3% of the improved land - was in crops other than hay and forage. Nevertheless, as indicated by - the unusually large proportion of farmers who either own their farms - or pay cash rent for them, farming usually is profitable. The number - of farms in 1900 was 59,299; of these 18,644 contained between 50 and - 100 acres and 17,191 contained between 100 and 175 acres, the average - size being 106.2 acres; 54,263 (or 91.5%) were operated by their - owners, 775 were operated by part owners, 2030 by cash tenants, and - only 745 by share tenants. Beginning with the middle of the 19th - century, the increasing competition of the more productive soils of - the West, the growth of urban population in the state, and the number - of summer visitors effected the reforesting of much poor land and the - more intensive cultivation of the better arable land. The cultivation - of cereals, for example, has given way to a marked extent in nearly - all the farming districts except in Aroostook county to market - gardening, dairying, and egg and poultry production. The number of - dairy cows increased from 157,240 in 1890 to 183,000 in 1908, and the - annual production of milk increased from 57,969,791 gallons in 1890 to - 99,586,188 gallons in 1900. The number of other neat cattle (180,878 - in 1900; 151,000 in 1908) decreased during every decade from 1860 to - 1900; the number of sheep in 1900 was 427,209 (31.9% less than in - 1890), and in 1908 it was 267,000; but the number of horses in 1890 - and 1900 was about the same (140,310 in 1960, but only 116,000 in - 1908). Hay is still by far the largest crop, the acreage of it and of - forage in 1899 being 1,270,254 acres, or 76.5% of that of all crops, - and the yield was 1,133,932 tons; in 1907 the acreage was 1,400,000 - acres, and the crop was 2,100,000 tons. The acreage of cereals - decreased from 187,013 in 1880, when agriculture in Aroostook county - was little developed, to 166,896 in 1899, when the cereal acreage in - Aroostook county alone was 82,069. Maine potatoes are of a superior - quality, and the acreage of this crop increased from 49,617 in 1889 to - 118,000 in 1907. Sweet Indian corn, cabbages, turnips, cucumbers and - tomatoes are grown in large quantities. The fruit crop consists very - largely of apples and strawberries (1,421,773 bushels of apples and - 1,066,860 quarts of strawberries in 1899). The output of eggs - increased from 9,369,534 dozen in 1889 to 13,304,150 dozen in 1899. - The most productive dairy section of the state is a belt extending - from the south-west corner N.E. entirely across the state and - embracing the whole or parts of the counties of York, Oxford, - Cumberland, Androscoggin, Kennebec, Penobscot and Aroostook. - - _Lumber Industry._--Except in the remote parts, the valuable white - pine, for which Maine was long noted, has been cut; but the woodland - of the state was estimated in 1900 at 23,700 sq. m. or 79% of its - area. The tendency is for this area to increase, for the establishment - between 1890 and 1900 of large paper and pulp mills on some of the - principal rivers of the south slope greatly increased the value of - forests, especially those of spruce and poplar. The state makes large - appropriations for preventing and extinguishing forest fires, and in - 1903 established a department of forestry in the university of Maine. - Good spruce, which is by far the most valuable timber in the state and - is used most largely for the manufacture of paper and pulp, stands in - large quantities in the St John, Penobscot, Androscoggin and Kennebec - basins. Poplar, also used for the manufacture of paper, abounds in - several sections of the south slope, but is most abundant in the basin - of the Kennebec. White birch, used largely for the manufacture of - spools, is found throughout a wide belt extending across the middle of - the state. There is much cedar on the north slope. Oak, maple and - beech are rather scarce. A new growth of white pine and other timber - is gradually becoming valuable. The value of the timber product - increased from $11,849,654 in 1890 to $13,489,401 in 1900, and to - $17,937,683 in 1905. - - _Fisheries._--Fishing has always been an important industry in Maine. - From 1901 to 1904 inclusive, the average annual catch amounted to - 195,335,646 lb., and its average value was $5,557,083. In 1908, - according to state reports, the catch was 185,476,343 lb., valued at - $3,849,900. Herrings are caught in largest quantities (in 1908, - according to state reports, 68,210,800 lb., valued at $450,665), and - Maine is noted for the canning of the smaller herrings under the name - of "sardines." In 1908, according to state reports, the take of - lobsters was 17,635,980 lb. valued at $1,558,252. Maine markets more - clams than any other state in the Union, and the catches of cod, hake, - haddock, smelt, mackerel, swordfish, shad, pollock, cusk, salmon, - alewives, eels and halibut are of importance. The scallop fishery is - becoming more and more valuable. For the protection and promotion of - the lobster fishery the United States government has established a - lobster hatchery at Boothbay Harbor; and the state legislature enacted - a law in 1895 prohibiting the taking of lobsters less than 10-1/2 in. - in length (one effect of this law being to drive the lobster-canning - industry from the state) and another law in 1903 for the protection of - lobsters with eggs attached. This latter law directs the state fish - commissioner to purchase such lobsters whenever caught and either to - liberate them or to sell them to the United States for keeping in a - fish hatchery. - - _Minerals._--The principal mineral products are granite, limestone, - slate, clay products and mineral waters. In 1905 Maine held first rank - among the states of the Union as a producer of granite, the value of - the output being $2,713,795. In 1907 Maine's granite was valued at - $2,146,420, that of Massachusetts at $2,328,777, and that of Vermont - at $2,693,889. The stone is of superior quality, and the largest part - of it is used for building purposes; much of it is used as paving - blocks and some for monuments. It abounds all along the coast east of - the Kennebec and on the adjacent islands, and is found farther inland, - especially about the Rangeley lakes in Franklin and Oxford counties, - and, near Mt Katahdin, in Penobscot and Piscataquis counties. The - principal quarries, however, are situated in positions most convenient - for shipment by water, in the vicinity of Penobscot bay and in - Kennebec county, and these have supplied the bulk of the material used - in the construction of many prominent buildings and monuments in the - United States. The Fox Island granite comes from the quarries on - Vinalhaven Island and the surrounding islands, and on Vinalhaven were - quarried monolithic columns 51.5 to 54 ft. long and 6 ft. in diameter - for the Cathedral of St John the Divine in New York City. Black - granite was quarried in 1907 at 12 quarries, in York, Lincoln, Waldo, - Penobscot and Washington counties. Limestone abounds, especially in - the south-east part of the state, but it is quarried chiefly in Knox - county. As its colour--blue and blue-black streaked with - white--renders it undesirable for building purposes, nearly all of it - is burned into lime, which has become a very important article of - manufacture in the city of Rockland; the industry dates back to 1733 - in Knox county. In 1907 the quantity of lime burned in Maine was - 159,494 tons and its value was $747,947. Slate is quarried chiefly in - Piscataquis county, most of it being used for roofing, but some for - blackboards; in 1907 the amount quarried in Maine was valued at - $236,106. About 1896 some remarkably white and pure feldspar began to - be quarried in Androscoggin, Oxford and Sagadahoc counties, but - afterwards the spar mined in Maine was of less excellent quality; in - 1907 the production in Maine was valued at $157,334, the total for the - entire country being $499,069. Clay is obtained in various places, and - in 1905 the total value of the clay products was $619,294. In Oxford - county tourmaline, spodumene (or kunzite) and beryl occur, the - tourmaline crystals being notably large and beautiful. Mineral water - occurs in many localities, particularly in Androscoggin, York, - Cumberland and Oxford counties; the most famous springs are the Poland - Springs in Androscoggin county. Most of the mineral waters bottled in - the state are chalybeate and slightly alkaline--saline; their average - temperature is about 43 deg. In 1908 27 springs were reported, their - aggregate sales amounting to 1,182,322 gallons. Copper, gold alloyed - with platinum, iron ore, barytes, graphite and lead occur in small - quantities in the state. In 1908 the total mineral product of the - state was valued at $7,044,678. - - _Manufactures._--Although Maine has no coal and only a very small - amount of iron ore within her borders for the encouragement of - manufacturing, yet the abundance of fine timber and the numerous - coves, bays and navigable streams along or near the coast promoted - ship-building from the first, and this was the leading industry of the - state until about the middle of the 19th century, when wooden ships - began to be supplanted by those of iron and steel. Until about the - same time, when the Maine liquor law was passed, the manufacture of - rum from molasses, received in exchange for lumber and fish in the - West Indies, was also an important industry. It was not until early in - the 19th century that the large and constant supply of water power - afforded by the rivers began to be used to any considerable extent. - The first cotton mill was built at Brunswick on the Androscoggin about - 1809, and from 1830 the development of cotton manufacturing was rapid; - woollen mills followed, and late in the 19th century were erected some - of the largest paper and pulp mills in the country, which are run by - water power from the rivers, and use the spruce and poplar timber in - the river basins. The total value of the manufactures of the state - increased from $95,689,500 in 1890 to $127,361,485 in 1900; and in - 1905 the value of factory-made products alone was $144,020,197, or - 27.5% greater than their value in 1900.[3] Measured by the value of - the output, paper and wood pulp rose from fifth among the state's - manufactures in 1890 to third in 1900 and to first in 1905; from - $3,281,051 in 1890 to $13,223,275 in 1900, an increase of 303% within - the decade, and to $22,951,124 in 1905, a further increase of 73.6% in - this period. Lumber and timber products ranked second - (1905)--$11,849,654 in 1890, $13,489,401 in 1900, and $17,937,683 in - 1905. Cotton goods ranked third (1905) in value--$15,316,909 in 1890, - $14,631,086 in 1900, and $15,404,823 in 1905. Woollen goods ranked - fourth (1905)--$8,737,653 in 1890, $13,744,126 in 1900, an increase of - 57.3% within the decade; and the value of the factory-made product - alone in 1905 was $13,969,600, or 20.1% greater than in 1900. Boots - and shoes ranked fifth (1905)--$12,295,847 in 1900, and $12,351,293 in - 1905. Fish, canned and preserved, followed next, $1,660,881 in 1890 - and $4,779,773 in 1900, an increase within the decade of 187.8%, most - of which was in one branch--the canning of small herring under the - name "sardines"; from 1900 to 1905 the increase was slight, only - $275,358, or 5.8%. In the value of its manufactures as compared with - those of the other states of the Union, in wooden ships and boats, - Maine in 1900 and in 1905 was outranked by New York only; in canned - and preserved fish by Washington only (the value of fish canned and - preserved in Maine in 1900 was 21.7% of the total for the United - States, and in 1905 19.2%); in the output of woollen mills by - Massachusetts and Pennsylvania only; in the output of paper mills by - New York and Massachusetts only. It ranked ninth in 1900 and tenth in - 1905 in the value of its cotton goods. Portland, Lewiston, Biddeford, - and Auburn are the leading manufacturing cities, and in 1905 the total - value of their manufactures was 21.5% of those of the entire state. - But from 1900 to 1905 the value of manufactures grew most rapidly in - Rockland (especially noted for lime), the increase being from - $1,243,881 to $1,822,591 (46.5%), and in Waterville, where the - increase was from $2,283,536 to $3,069,309 (34.4%). Among the largest - paper mills are those at Millinocket, in Penobscot county, at Madison - on the Kennebec river, and at Rumford Falls on the Androscoggin river. - Lewiston leads in the manufacture of cotton goods; Auburn, Bangor and - Augusta, in the manufacture of boots and shoes; Bath, in ship and boat - building; Eastport and Lubec, in canning "sardines." - - _Transportation and Commerce._--The south-western part of the state, - including the manufacturing, the quarrying, and much of the older - agricultural district, early had fairly satisfactory means of - transportation either by water or by rail; for the coast has many - excellent harbours, the Kennebec river is navigable for coast vessels - to Augusta, the Penobscot to Bangor, and railway service was soon - supplied for the villages of the south-west, but it was not until the - last decade of the 19th century that the forests, the farming lands, - and the summer resorts of Aroostook county were reached by a railway, - the Bangor & Aroostook. The first railway in the state, from Bangor to - Old Town, was completed in 1836, and the state's railway mileage - increased from 12 m. in that year to 245 m. in 1850, to 1377.47 m. in - 1890, and to 2210.79 in January 1909. The principal railway systems - are the Maine Central, which enters every county but one, the Boston & - Maine, the Bangor & Aroostook, the Grand Trunk and the Canadian - Pacific. Lines of steamboats ply regularly between the largest cities - of the state and Boston, between Portland and New York, and between - Portland and several Canadian ports. - - The foreign trade, especially that with the West Indies and with Great - Britain, decreased after 1875, and yet much trade from the West that - goes to Montreal during the warmer months passes through Portland - during the winter season. The chief exports to foreign countries are - textile fabrics, Indian corn, meat, dairy products, apples, paraffin, - boards and shooks; the chief imports from foreign countries are sugar, - molasses and wool. Fish, canned goods, potatoes, granite, lime, paper, - and boots and shoes are also exported to foreign countries to some - extent, but they are shipped in larger quantities to other states of - the Union, from which Maine receives in return cotton, coal, iron, - oil, &c. The ports of entry in Maine are Bangor, Bath, Belfast, - Castine, Eastport, Ellsworth, Houlton, Kennebunk, Machias, Portland, - Wiscasset and York. - -_Population._--The population in 1880 was 648,936; in 1890, 661,086; in -1900, 694,466; and in 1910, 742,371.[4] From 1880 to 1900 there was an -increase of only 7%, a percentage which was exceeded in every other -state in the Union except Nevada and Vermont. Of the total population of -1900, 599,291, or 86.3%, were native whites, 93,330 were foreign-born, -1,319 were negroes, 798 were Indians, 119 were Chinese, and 4 were -Japanese. Of the inhabitants born in the United States, 588,211, or -97.8%, were natives of New England and 560,506 were natives of Maine, -and of the foreign-born 67,077, or 71.8%, were natives of Canada (36,169 -English and 30,908 French), and 10,159, or 10.8%, were natives of -Ireland. Of the total population, 199,734 were of foreign -parentage--i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-born--and 89,857 -were of Canadian parentage, both on the father's and on the mother's -side (41,355 English and 48,502 French). The French-speaking inhabitants -probably number considerably more than 50,000. They are of two quite -distinct classes. One, numbering about 15,000, includes those who became -citizens by the establishment of the northern boundary in 1842 and their -descendants. They are largely of Acadian stock. The state has -established among them a well-appointed training school for teachers, -conducted in the English language, the graduates of which render -excellent service in the common schools. The other class is of -French-Canadian immigrants, who find profitable employment in the -manufacturing centres. The colony of Swedes established by the state -near its north-eastern border in 1870 has proved in every way -successful. The Indians are remnants of the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy -tribes, the Passamaquoddies being a little the more numerous. The -Penobscots' chief gathering places are on the islands of the Penobscot -river north of Old Town; the Passamaquoddies', on the shores of -Passamaquoddy Bay and the banks of the Saint Croix river. - -Roman Catholics are more numerous than all the Protestant sects taken -together, having in 1906 a membership of 113,419 out of a total of -212,988 in all denominations. In the last decade of the 19th century the -urban population (i.e. population of places having 4,000 inhabitants or -more) increased from 226,268 to 251,685, or 11.2%; the semi-urban -population (i.e. population of incorporated places, or the approximate -equivalent, having less than 4,000 inhabitants) increased from 14,221 to -26,674, or 87.5%; while the rural population (i.e. population outside of -incorporated places) decreased from 420,597 to 416,134, or 1%. The -principal cities of the state are: Portland, pop. (1910), 58,571; -Lewiston, 26,247; Bangor, 24,803; Biddeford, 17,079; Auburn, 15,064; -Augusta (the capital), 13,211; Waterville, 11,458; Bath, 9,396; -Westbrook, 8,281; and Rockland, 8,174. - -_Administration._--Maine has had but one state constitution; this was -ratified in December 1819, about three months before the admission of -the state into the Union. It admits of amendment by a two-thirds vote of -both houses of the legislature followed by a majority vote of the -electorate at the next September election; or, as provided by an -amendment adopted in 1875, the legislature may by a two-thirds vote of -each house summon a constitutional convention. From 1819 to 1875 twelve -amendments were adopted; in 1875, after nine more were added, the -twenty-one were incorporated in the text; and between 1875 and 1899 nine -more were adopted. Suffrage is conferred by the constitution on all male -citizens of the United States who are at least twenty-one years of age -and have, for some other reason than because of being in the military, -naval or marine service of the United States, or of being students at -college, lived in the state for three months next preceding any -election; the following classes, however, are excepted: paupers, persons -under guardianship, Indians not taxed, and, as provided by an amendment -adopted in 1892, persons intellectually incapable of reading the state -constitution in the English language or of writing their names. State -elections were annual until 1897 when they were made biennial; they are -held on the second Monday in September in even numbered years, Maine -being one of the few states in the Union in which they are not held in -November. - - The governor is the only executive officer of the state elected by - popular vote. There is no lieutenant-governor, the president of the - Senate succeeding to the office of governor in case of a vacancy, but - there is a council of seven members elected by the legislature (not - more than one from any one senatorial district), whose sole function - is to advise the governor. The governor's term of office is two years - (before 1879 it was one year); and the constitution further directs - that he shall be at least thirty years of age at the beginning of his - term, that he shall be a native-born citizen of the United States, - that when elected he shall have been a resident of the state for five - years, and that he shall reside in the state while in office. His - power of appointment is unusually extensive and the advice and consent - of the council (instead of that of the Senate as in other states) are - required for his appointments. He appoints all judges, coroners and - notaries public, besides all other civil and military officers for - whose appointment neither the constitution nor the laws provide - otherwise. The governor is commander-in-chief of the state militia. - Any bill of which he disapproves he can within five days after its - passage prevent from becoming a law unless it is passed over his veto - by a two-thirds vote of each house of the legislature. He and the - council examine and pass upon election returns; he may summon extra - sessions of the legislature, and he may grant pardons, reprieves, and - commutations in all cases except impeachment, but the manner of - hearing applications for pardon is in a measure prescribed by statute, - and he must present to the legislature an account of each case in - which he grants a pardon. His salary is $2,000 a year. The seven - members of the council, the secretary of state, the treasurer, the - attorney general and the commissioner of agriculture are elected - biennially by a joint ballot of the two houses of the legislature, - which also elects, one every two years, the three state assessors, - whose term is six years. - - The legislature meets biennially at Augusta, the capital, and is - composed of a Senate of thirty-one members and a House of - Representatives of one hundred and fifty-one members. Members of each - house are elected for a term of two years: one senator from each - senatorial district and one to seven representatives (one for a - population of 1,500, and seven for a population of 26,250) from each - township, or, where the township or plantation has less than 1,500 - inhabitants, from each representative district, according to its - population. There is a new reapportionment every ten years, counting - from 1821. Every senator and every representative must at the - beginning of his term have been for five years a citizen of the United - States, for one year a resident of the state, and for three months - next preceding his election, as well as during his term of office, a - resident of the township or district which he represents; and every - senator must be at least twenty-five years of age. All revenue bills - must originate in the House of Representatives, but to such bills the - Senate may propose amendments provided they relate solely to raising - revenue. Other bills may originate in either house. In September 1908 - a constitutional amendment was adopted providing for referendum and - initiative by the people. Any bill proposed in the legislature or - passed by it must be referred to popular vote before becoming law, if - there is a referendum petition therefor signed by 10,000 voters; and a - petition signed by 12,000 voters initiates new legislation. - - At the head of the department of justice is the supreme judicial - court, which consists of a chief justice and seven associate justices - appointed by the governor and council for a term of seven years. When - it sits as a law court, at least five of its justices must be present, - and it holds three such sessions annually: one at Augusta, one at - Bangor, and one at Portland. But only one of its justices is required - for a trial court, and trial courts are held two or three times a year - in each county for the trial of both civil and criminal cases which - come before it in the first instance or upon appeal. In Cumberland and - Kennebec counties there is a superior court presided over by one - justice and having extensive civil and criminal jurisdiction; and in - each of the counties there are a probate court for the settlement of - the estates of deceased persons and courts of the trial justice and - the justice of the peace for the trial of petty offences and of civil - cases in which the debt or damage involved does not exceed $20. - - The principal forms of local government are the town (or township), - the plantation, the county and the city. As in other parts of New - England, the town is the most important of these. At the regular town - meeting held in March the electorate of the town assembles, decides - what shall be done for the town during the ensuing year, elects - officers to execute its decisions with limited discretion, and votes - money to meet the expenses. The principal officers are the selectmen - (usually three), town clerk, assessors, collector, treasurer, school - committee and road commissioner. A populous section of a town, in - order to promote certain financial ends, is commonly incorporated as a - village without however becoming a governing organization distinct - from the town. Maine is the only state in the Union that retains what - is known as the organized plantation. This is a governmental unit - organized from an unincorporated township having at least 200 - inhabitants,[5] and its principal officers are the moderator, clerk, - three assessors, treasurer, collector, constable and school committee. - The county is a sort of intermediate organization between the state - and the towns to assist chiefly in the administration of justice, - especially in the custody of offenders, and in the making and care of - roads. Its officers are three commissioners, a treasurer, a register - of deeds, a judge and a register of probate, and a sheriff. They are - all elected: the commissioners for a term of six years, one retiring - every two years, the register of deeds and the judge and the register - of probate for a term of four years, and the others for two years. - Among other duties the commissioners care for county property, manage - county business and take charge of county roads. Maine has no general - law under which cities are chartered, and does not even set a minimum - population. A town may, therefore, be incorporated as a city whenever - it can obtain from the legislature a city charter which a majority of - its electorate prefers to a continuance under its town government; - consequently there is much variety in the government of the various - cities of the state. - -By the laws of Maine the property rights of a wife are approximately -equal to those of a husband. A woman does not lose nor a man acquire -right to property by marriage, and a wife may manage, sell, or will her -property without the assent of her husband. She may even receive as her -own the wages of her personal labour which was not performed for her own -family. In the absence of a will, bar or release, there is no legal -distinction between the rights of a widower in the estate of his -deceased wife and those of a widow in the estate of her deceased -husband. The grounds for divorce in the state are adultery, impotence, -extreme cruelty, desertion for three consecutive years next preceding -the application, gross and confirmed habits of intoxication, cruel and -abusive treatment, or a husband's gross or wanton refusal or neglect to -provide a suitable maintenance for his wife. - -Under the laws of Maine a householder owning and occupying a house and -lot may hold the same, or such part of it as does not exceed $500 in -value, as a homestead exempt from attachment, except for the -satisfaction of liens for labour or material, by filing in the registry -of deeds a certificate stating his desire for such an exemption, -provided he is not the owner of an exempted lot purchased from the -state; and the exemption may be continued during the widowhood of his -widow or the minority of his children. A considerable amount of personal -property, including apparel, household furniture not exceeding $100 in -value, a library not exceeding $150 in value, interest in a pew in a -meeting-house, and a specified amount of fuel, provisions, tools or -farming implements, and domestic animals, and one fishing boat, is also -exempt from attachment. - -Maine was the first state in the Union to enact a law for prohibiting -the sale of intoxicating liquors. An act for restricting the sale of -such liquors was passed in 1846; the first prohibitory act was passed, -largely through the influence of Neal Dow, in 1851; this was frequently -amended; and in 1884 an amendment to the constitution was adopted which -declares the manufacture of intoxicating liquors and their sale, except -"for medicinal and mechanical purposes and the arts," forever -prohibited. By the law enacted for enforcing this prohibition the -governor and council appoint a state liquor commissioner from whom alone -the selectmen of a town, the mayor or aldermen of a city, are authorized -to receive the liquors which may be sold within the exceptions named in -the amendment, and the selectmen, mayor or aldermen appoint an agent who -alone is authorized to sell any of these liquors within their -jurisdiction and who is forbidden to sell any whatever to minors, -Indians, soldiers and drunkards. But the law labours under the -disadvantage of all laws not vigorously sustained by general public -sentiment, and is grossly violated. For the most part it is executed to -the degree demanded by local sentiment in the several municipalities, -thus operating in practice much the same as a "local option" law. The -law looks to checking the demand by preventing the supply; and since -habitual reliance on the stringency of law tends to the neglect of other -influences for the removal of evils from the community, the citizens -seem to absolve themselves from personal responsibility, both for the -execution of the law and for the existence of the evil itself. There has -been a strong movement for the repeal of the law, and the question of -prohibition has long been an important one in state politics. - -The death penalty was abolished in Maine in 1876, restored in 1883, and -again abolished in 1887. - - _Penal and Charitable Institutions._--The state penal and reformatory - institutions consist of the state prison at Thomaston, the state - (reform) school for boys at South Portland, and a state industrial - school for girls at Hallowell, established in 1875 and taken over by - the state in 1899. The two schools are not places of punishment, but - reformatory schools for delinquent boys (from 8 to 16 years of age) - and girls (from 6 to 16 years), who have been committed by the courts - for violations of law, and, in the case of girls, who, by force of - circumstances or associations, are "in manifest danger of becoming - outcasts of society." The prison is in charge of a board of three - inspectors and a warden, and each of the other two institutions is in - charge of a board of trustees; the inspectors, warden, and trustees - are all appointed by the governor and council. Convicts in the prison - are usually employed in the manufacture of articles that are not - extensively made elsewhere in the state, such as carriages, harness, - furniture and brooms. The inmates of the state school for boys receive - instruction in farming, carpentry, tailoring, laundry work, and - various other trades and occupations; and the girls in the state - industrial school are trained in housework, laundering, dressmaking, - &c. Paupers are cared for chiefly by the towns and cities, those - wholly dependent being placed in almshouses and those only partially - dependent receiving aid at their homes. The charitable institutions - maintained by the state are: the military and naval orphan asylum at - Bath, the Maine institution for the blind at Portland, the Maine - school for the deaf (established in 1876, and taken over by the state - in 1897) at Portland, the Maine insane hospital at Augusta, the - Eastern Maine insane hospital at Bangor, and a school for the - feeble-minded (established in 1907) at West Pownal, each of which is - governed by trustees appointed by the governor and council, with the - exception of a part of those of the orphan asylum, who are appointed - by the corporation. Besides the strictly state institutions, there are - a number of private charitable institutions which are assisted by - state funds; among these are the eye and ear infirmary at Portland, - the Maine state sanatorium at Hebron for the treatment of - tuberculosis, and various hospitals, orphanages, &c. The national - government has a branch of the national home for disabled volunteer - soldiers at Togus, and a marine hospital at Portland. - - _Education._--The school-district system was established in 1800 while - Maine was still a part of Massachusetts and was maintained by the - first school law passed, in 1821, by the state legislature; but, - beginning in the next year, one town after another received the - privilege of abolishing its districts, and in 1893 the system was - abolished by act of the legislature. A state board of education, - composed of one member from each county, was established in 1846, but - for this was substituted, in 1852, a commissioner of schools for each - county, appointed by the governor, and two years later a state - superintendent of schools was substituted for the county - commissioners. County supervision by county supervisors was tried in - 1869-1872. Since these several changes the common school system has - been administered by towns and cities subject to an increasing amount - of control through enactments of the state legislature and the general - supervision of the state superintendent. The town officers are a - superintending school committee of three members and a superintendent. - The members of the committee are elected for a term of three years, - one retiring every year, and women as well as men are eligible for the - office. The superintendent may be elected by the town or appointed by - the committee, or towns having not less than twenty or more than fifty - schools may unite in employing a superintendent. In cities the - committee is usually larger than in towns and is commonly elected by - wards. Since 1889 each town and city has been required to furnish - textbooks, apparatus and supplies, without cost to the pupils. The - minimum length of the school year is fixed by a statute of 1893 at - twenty weeks; the average length is about twenty-eight weeks. A - compulsory education law, enacted in 1901, requires the attendance at - some public or approved private school of each child between the ages - of seven and fifteen during all the time that school is in session, - except that necessary absences may be excused. For the maintenance of - the common schools each town is required (since 1905) to raise - annually at least fifty-five cents _per capita_, exclusive of what may - be received from other sources, and to this is added the proceeds of a - state tax of one and a half mills on a dollar, one-half the proceeds - of the tax on savings banks, a 6% income from the permanent school - fund (derived mainly from the sale of school lands), and state - appropriations for the payment in part of the superintendence in towns - that have united for that purpose. Any section of a town may establish - and maintain a high school provided there be not more than two such - schools in one town, and the state makes appropriations for the - support of such schools equal to one-half the cost of instruction, but - the maximum grant to any one such school is $250. - - The state maintains five normal schools: that at Farmington - (established 1864), that at Castine (1866), that at Gorham (1879); - that at Presque Isle (the Aroostook state normal school, 1903), and - the Madawaska training school at Fort Kent, each of which is under the - direction of a board of trustees consisting of the governor, the state - superintendent of schools, and five other members appointed by the - governor and council for not more than three years. At the head of the - public school system is the university of Maine, near the village of - Orono in Orono township (pop. in 1900, 3257), Penobscot county. This - institution was founded in 1865 as the state college of agriculture - and the mechanic arts; in 1897 the present name was adopted. It - embraces a college of arts and sciences, a college of agriculture, a - college of technology (including a department of forestry), a college - of law (at Bangor), and a college of pharmacy. The most conspicuous of - its twenty-five buildings is the library, built with funds contributed - by Andrew Carnegie. In 1908-1909 the university had 104 instructors - and 884 students, of whom 113 were in the college of law at Bangor and - 420 in the college of technology. The university is maintained with - the proceeds of an endowment fund derived chiefly from public lands - given by the national government in accordance with the land grant, or - Morrill, Act of 1862 (see Morrill, Justin S.) and from the bequest - ($100,000) of Abner Coburn (1803-1885); by appropriations of Congress - under the second Morrill Act (1890), and under the Nelson Amendment of - 1907, by appropriations of the state legislature, and by fees paid by - the students. Connected with the university is an agricultural - experiment station, established and maintained under the Hatch Act - (1887) and the Adams Act (1906) of the national Congress. The - government of the university is entrusted, subject to inspection of - the governor and council, to a board of eight trustees. Among the - important institutions of learning which have no official connexion - with the state are Bowdoin College (opened in 1802), at Brunswick; - Colby College (Baptist, opened in 1818), at Waterville; and Bates - College (originally Free Baptist but now unsectarian; opened in 1863), - at Lewiston. In 1900 5.1% of the state's inhabitants ten years of age - and over were illiterate (i.e. could neither read nor write, or could - read but not write); of the native whites within this age limit 2.4% - were illiterate, of the foreign whites, 19.4%. Of the foreign-born - whites 15.7% were unable to speak English. - - _Finance._--The chief sources of the state's revenue are a general - property tax and taxes on the franchises of corporations, especially - those of railway and insurance companies and savings banks; among the - smaller sources are licences or fees, a poll tax, and a collateral - inheritance tax. The general property tax for state and local purposes - is assessed by local assessors, but their work is reviewed for the - purpose of equalization among the several towns and counties by a - board of state assessors, which also assesses the corporations. This - board of three members (not more than two of whom may be of the same - political party) is elected by a joint ballot of the two houses of the - legislature for a term of six years, one member retiring every two - years. The state is prohibited by the constitution from creating a - debt exceeding $300,000 except for the suppression of a rebellion, for - repelling an invasion, or for war purposes; and every city and town is - forbidden by an amendment adopted in 1877 from creating one exceeding - 5% of the assessed value of its property. But the state was authorized - by an amendment adopted in 1868 to issue bonds for the reimbursement - of the expenses incurred by its cities, towns, and plantations on - account of the Civil War, and these bonds, with those issued by the - state itself during the Civil War, constituted the largest part of the - state's bonded indebtedness. The bonded debt, however, is rapidly - being paid; in January 1901 it was $2,103,000, and in January 1909 - only $698,000. - -_History._--During the 16th century and the early part of the 17th, the -coast of Maine attracted various explorers, among them Giovanni da -Verrazano (1524), Esteban Gomez (1525), Bartholomew Gosnold (1602), -Martin Pring (1603), Pierre du Guast, Sieur De Monts (1604), George -Weymouth (1605), and John Smith (1614), who explored and mapped the -coast and gave to the country the name New England; but no permanent -English settlement was established within what are now the borders of -the state until some time between 1623 and 1629. In 1603 De Monts -received from Henry IV. of France a charter for all the region between -40 deg. and 46 deg. N. under the name of Acadie, or Acadia, and in 1604 -he built a fort on Neutral Island at the mouth of the Saint Croix river. -This he abandoned in 1605, but some of his followers were in the -vicinity a few years later. In the same year George Weymouth explored -the south-west coast, kidnapped five Indians, and carried them to -England, where three of them lived for a time in the family of Sir -Ferdinando Gorges, who soon became the leader in founding Maine. In 1607 -the Plymouth Company, of which he was an influential member and which -had received a grant of this region from James I. of England in the -preceding year, sent out a colony numbering 120 under George Popham (c. -1550-1608), brother of Sir John Popham, and Raleigh Gilbert, son of Sir -Humphrey Gilbert. The colony established itself at the mouth of the -Kennebec river in August, but, finding its supplies insufficient, about -three-fifths of its number returned to England in December; a severe -winter followed and Popham died; then Gilbert, who succeeded to the -presidency of the council for the colony, became especially interested -in his claim to the territory under his father's charter,[6] and in 1608 -the colony was abandoned. In 1609 the French Jesuits Biard and Masse -established a fortified mission station on the island of Mount Desert, -and although this as well as the remnant of De Monts' settlement at the -mouth of the Saint Croix was taken in 1613 by Sir Samuel Argall (d. -1626), acting under the instructions of the English at Jamestown, -Virginia, some of these colonists returned later. In 1620 the Council -for New England, the successor of the Plymouth Company, obtained a grant -of the country between latitude 40 deg. and 48 deg. N. extending from -sea to sea, and two years later Gorges and John Mason (1586-1635) -received from the Council a grant of the territory between the Merrimac -and the Kennebec rivers for 60 m. inland under the name of the Province -of Maine. In 1629 they divided their possession, Gorges taking the -portion between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec. Numerous grants of land -in this vicinity followed within a few years; and in the meantime -permanent settlements at York, Saco, Biddeford, Port Elizabeth, Falmouth -(now Portland) and Scarborough were established in rapid succession. The -Council for New England surrendered its charter in 1635. In the division -of its territory Gorges retained the portion previously granted to him, -and the region between the Kennebec and the Saint Croix north to the -Saint Lawrence, though still claimed by the French as part of Acadia, -was conveyed to Sir William Alexander (1567?-1640); later, in 1664, this -was conveyed to the duke of York, afterwards James II. of England. - -Gorges named his tract the County of New Somersetshire, and immediately -began the administration of government, setting up in 1635 or 1636 a -court at Saco under the direction of his kinsman William Gorges. In 1639 -he procured for his province a royal charter modelled after that of -Maryland, which invested him with the feudal tenure of a county palatine -and vice-regal powers of government. He called into existence a -formidably large number of officers to govern it, but his charter was in -conflict with the other (mutually conflicting) grants of the Council for -New England, east of the Piscataqua; and Gorges and his agents met with -a determined opposition under the leadership of George Cleeve, the -deputy-president of the Lygonia, or "Plough" Patent, which extended -along the coast from Cape Porpoise to Casco, and in issuing which the -Council for New England had granted governmental as well as territorial -rights. Moreover, Puritan Massachusetts, which was naturally hostile to -the Anglicanism of Gorges and his followers, interpreted her charter so -as to make her northern boundary run east and west from a point 3 m. -north of the source of the Merrimac river, and on this basis laid claim -to practically the whole of Maine then settled. The factional quarrels -there, together with the Commonwealth government in England, made it -easy for Massachusetts to enforce this claim at the time, and between -1652 and 1658 Maine was gradually annexed to Massachusetts. In 1672 -Massachusetts extended her boundary eastward as far as Penobscot Bay. -Ferdinando Gorges, a grandson of the original proprietor, brought before -parliament his claim to Maine and in 1664 a committee of that body -decided in his favour; but Massachusetts successfully resisted until -1677, when the king in council decided against her. She then quietly -purchased the Gorges claim for L1,250 and held the province as a -proprietor until 1691, when by the new Massachusetts charter Maine was -extended to the Saint Croix river, and was made an integral part of -Massachusetts. - -The French still claimed all territory east of the Penobscot, and not -only was Maine an exposed frontier and battleground during the long -struggle of the English against the Indians and the French, but its -citizens bore a conspicuous part in the expeditions beyond its borders. -Port Royal was taken in May 1690 by Sir William Phipps and Louisburg in -June 1745 by Sir William Pepperell, both these commanders being from -Maine. These expeditions were such a drain on Maine's population that -Massachusetts was called upon to send men to garrison the little forts -that protected the homes left defenceless by men who had gone to the -front. During the War of Independence, the town of Falmouth (now -Portland), which had ardently resisted the claims of the British, was -bombarded and burned, in 1775; in the same year Benedict Arnold followed -the course of the Kennebec and Dead rivers on his expedition to Quebec; -and from 1779 to 1783 a British force was established at Castine. The -embargo and non-intercourse laws from 1807 to 1812 were a severe blow to -Maine's shipping, and in the War of 1812 Eastport, Castine, Hampden, -Bangor and Machias fell into the hands of the British. - -Maine was in general well governed as a part of Massachusetts, but a -geographical separation, a desire to be rid of the burden of a large -state debt, and a difference of economic interests as well as of -politics (Maine was largely Democratic and Massachusetts was largely -Federalist) created a desire for an independent commonwealth. This was -felt before the close of the War of Independence and in 1785-1787 -conventions were held at Falmouth (Portland) to consider the matter, but -the opposition prevailed. The want of protection during the War of 1812 -revived the question, and in 1816 the General Court in response to a -great number of petitions submitted to a vote in the towns and -plantations of the District the question: "Shall the legislature be -requested to give its consent to the separation of the District of Maine -from Massachusetts, and the erection of said District into a separate -state?" The returns showed 10,393 yeas to 6501 nays, but they also -showed that less than one-half the full vote had been cast. Acting upon -these returns the legislature passed a bill prescribing the terms of -separation, and directed another vote of the towns and plantations upon -the question of separation and the election of delegates to a convention -at Brunswick which should proceed to frame a constitution in case the -second popular vote gave a majority of five to four for separation; but -as that vote was only 11,969 yeas to 10,347 nays the advocates of -separation were unsuccessful. But a large source of opposition to -separation was removed in 1819 when Congress, dividing the east coast of -the United States into two great districts, did away with the regulation -which, making each state a district for entering and clearing vessels, -would have required coasting vessels from the ports of Maine as a -separate state to enter and clear on every trip to or from Boston; as a -consequence, the separation measures were carried by large majorities -this year, a constitution was framed by a convention which met at -Portland in October, this was ratified by town meetings in December, and -Maine applied for admission into the Union. Owing to the peculiar -situation at the time in Congress, arising from the contest over the -admission of Missouri, the question of the admission of Maine became an -important one in national politics. By an Act of the 3rd of March 1820, -however, Maine was finally admitted into the Union as a separate state, -her admission being a part of the Missouri compromise (q.v.). - -The boundary on the north had not yet been ascertained, and it had long -been a subject of dispute between the United States and Great Britain. -The treaty of 1783 (Article II.) had defined the north-east boundary of -the United States as extending along the middle of the river St Croix -"from its mouth in the bay of Fundy to its source" and "due north from -the source of St Croix river to the highlands; along the said highlands -which divide those rivers that empty themselves into the river St -Lawrence from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean, to the -north-westernmost head of Connecticut river; thence down along the -middle of that river to the forty-fifth degree of north latitude." Great -Britain claimed that the due north line was 40 m. long and ran to Mars -Hill in Aroostook county, and that the highlands ran thence westerly 115 -m. to the source of the Chaudiere; the United States, on the other hand, -claimed that the northerly line was 140 m. long, running to highlands -dividing the Ristigouche and the tributaries of the Metis; and there was -a further disagreement with regard to the side of the highlands on which -the boundary should be, and as to what stream was the "north-westernmost -head of Connecticut river." The fifth article of the Jay treaty of 1794 -provided for a commission to decide what the St Croix river actually -was, and this commission in 1798 defined the St Croix, saying that its -mouth was in Passamaquoddy bay and that the boundary ran up this river -and the Cheputnatecook to a marked monument. The treaty of Ghent in 1814 -(Article IV.) referred the question of the ownership of the islands in -Passamaquoddy bay to a commission which gave Moose, Dudley and Frederick -islands to the United States; and the same treaty by Article V. provided -for the survey (which was made in 1817-1818) of a part of the disputed -territory, and for a general commission. The general commissioners met -at St Andrews, N.B., in 1816, and in New York City in 1822, only to -disagree; and when the king of the Netherlands, chosen as arbitrator in -1829 (under the Convention of 1827) rendered in 1831 a decision against -which the state of Maine protested, the Federal Senate withheld its -assent to his decision. In 1838-1839 the territory in dispute between -New Brunswick and Maine became the scene of a border "war," known as the -"Aroostook disturbance"; Maine erected forts along the line she claimed, -Congress authorized the president to resist any attempt of Great Britain -to enforce exclusive jurisdiction over the disputed territory, and an -armed conflict seemed imminent. General Winfield Scott was sent to take -command on the Maine frontier, and on the 21st of March 1839 he arranged -a truce and a joint occupancy of the territory in dispute until a -satisfactory settlement should be reached by the United States and Great -Britain. The Webster-Ashburton treaty of 1842 was a compromise, which -allowed Maine about 5500 sq. m. less than she had claimed and allowed -Great Britain about as much less than her claim; all grants of land -previously made by either party within the limits of the territory which -by this treaty fell within the dominions of the other party were to be -"held valid, ratified and confirmed to the persons in possession under -such grants, to the same extent as if such territory had ... fallen -within the dominions of the party by whom such grants were made"; and -the government of the United States agreed to pay to Maine and -Massachusetts[7] "in equal moieties" the sum of $300,000 as -compensation for the lands which they had claimed and which under the -treaty they were called upon to surrender. The long controversy, which -is known in American history as "The North-East boundary dispute," was -not finally settled however until 1910. - -It was the Democratic majority in the district of Maine that effected -the separation from Massachusetts, and from the date of that separation -until 1853 Maine was classed as a Democratic state, although it elected -a Whig governor in 1838 and in 1840, and cast its electoral vote for -John Quincy Adams in 1824 and 1828 and for W. H. Harrison in 1840. As a -result of the slavery question, there was a party disintegration between -1850 and 1855, followed by the supremacy of the Republican party from -1856 to 1878. In 1878, of the 126,169 votes cast in the election for -governor, Selden Connor (b. 1839), re-nominated by the Republicans, -received 56,554; Joseph L. Smith ("National" or "Greenback"), 41,371; -Alonzo Garcelon (1813-1906) (Democratic), 28,218; as no candidate -received a majority of the votes, the election was left to the -legislature.[8] The vote of the House eliminated Connor, and Garcelon -was chosen in the Senate by a Democratic-National fusion. Again there -was no election by popular vote in 1879, and Garcelon and his council, -to secure the election of a fusion government, counted-in a fusion -majority in the legislature by evident falsification of the returns. On -the 3rd of January 1880 the Supreme Court declared the governor and -council in error in counting in a fusion majority, but on the 7th the -governor swore in a legislature with 78 fusion and only two Republican -members, and, the governor's term having expired, the president of the -Senate, James D. Lamson, became governor, ex-officio. On the 12th the -legislative chambers were seized by the Republicans, whose organized -legislature was declared legal by the Supreme Court, and who chose as -governor Daniel Franklin Davis (1843-1897); whereupon, on the 17th, -Joshua L. Chamberlain, to whom the peaceful solution of the difficulty -had largely been due, retired from the task assigned him by Garcelon on -the 5th of January "to protect the public property and institutions of -the state" until Garcelon's successor should be duly qualified. In 1880 -the Democrats and Greenbacks united and elected their candidate, but -after 1883 Maine was strongly Republican until 1910. - - The governors of the state have been as follows:-- - - William King Democrat 1820 - William Durkee Williamson (acting) " 1821 - Benjamin Ames (acting) " 1821 - Albion Keith Parris " 1822 - Enoch Lincoln " 1827 - Nathan Cutler (acting) " 1829 - Jonathan G. Hunton " 1830 - Samuel Emerson Smith " 1831 - Robert Pinckney Dunlap " 1834 - Edward Kent Whig 1838 - John Fairfield Democrat 1839 - Edward Kent Whig 1841 - John Fairfield Democrat 1842 - Edward Kavanagh (acting) " 1843 - Hugh J. Anderson " 1844 - John Winchester Dana " 1847 - John Hubbard " 1850 - William George Crosby Whig and Free Soil 1853 - Anson Peaslee Morrill Republican 1855 - Samuel Wells Democrat 1856 - Hannibal Hamlin Republican 1857 - Joseph H. Williams (acting) " 1857 - Lot Myrick Morrill " 1858 - Israel Washburn " 1861 - Abner Coburn " 1863 - Samuel Cony Republican 1864 - Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain " 1867 - Sidney Perham " 1871 - Nelson Dingley " 1874 - Selden Connor " 1876 - Alonzo Garcelon Democrat 1879 - Daniel F. Davis Republican 1880 - Harris Merrill Plaisted Democrat-Greenback 1881 - Frederick Robie Republican 1883 - Joseph R. Bodwell " 1887 - Sebastian S. Marble (acting) " 1887 - Edwin C. Burleigh " 1889 - Henry B. Cleaves " 1893 - Llewellyn Powers " 1897 - John Fremont Hill " 1901 - William T. Cobb " 1905 - Bert M. Fernald " 1909 - Frederick W. Plaisted Democrat 1911 - - See S. L. Boardman, _Climate, &c., of Maine_ (Washington, 1884); - Walton Wells, _The Water Power of Maine_ (Augusta, 1869); G. H. - Hitchcock, _General Report on the Geology of Maine_ (Augusta, 1861); - G. H. Stone, _The Glacial Gravels of Maine and their Associated - Deposits_ (Washington, 1899); T. Nelson Dale, _The Granites of Maine_ - (Washington, 1907), being Bulletin 313 of the U. S. Geological Survey; - B. F. De Costa, _Sketches of the Coast of Maine and Isle of Shoals_ - (New York, 1869); H. D. Thoreau, _The Maine Woods_ (Boston, 1881 ); L. - L. Hubbard, _Woods and Lakes of Maine_ (Boston, 1883); T. S. Steele, - _Canoe and Camera, a Two Hundred Mile Tour through the Maine Forests_ - (New York, 1882); William MacDonald, _The Government of Maine, Its - History and Administration_ (New York, 1902); _Maine Historical - Society Collections_ (Portland, 1831- ); W. D. Williamson, _History - of the State of Maine_ (Hallowell, 1832); J. P. Baxter, _Sir - Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of Maine_ (Boston, 1890) and - _George Cleeve of Casco Bay_ (Portland, 1885); George Folsom, _History - of Saco and Biddeford, with notices of other Early Settlements and of - the Proprietary Governments in Maine_ (Saco, 1830); J. L. Chamberlain, - _Maine, Her Place in History_ (Augusta, 1877); E. S. Whitin, _Factory - Legislation in Maine_ (New York, 1908). - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] This condition results from the fact that Maine and the adjacent - region were worn down nearly to sea-level by stream erosion, except - certain peaks and ridges inland; then the region was elevated and - numerous river valleys were cut down below the general erosion - surface formed before. Thus we have a general "upland surface," above - which the mountain remnants tower, and below which the rivers have - been entrenched. - - [2] This name is applied to a chain of lakes (the Rangeley, or - Oquossoc, the Cupsuptic, the Mooselookmeguntic, the Molechunkamunk or - Upper Richardson, the Welokenebacook or Lower Richardson, and the - Umbagog) in Franklin and Oxford counties, in the western part of the - state; the Umbagog extends into New Hampshire and its outlet helps to - form the Androscoggin River. These lakes are connected by straits, - have a total area of between 80 and 90 sq. m., and are from 1200 to - 1500 ft. above the sea. They are sometimes called the Androscoggin - Lakes. - - [3] The census of 1905 was taken under the direction of the United - States census bureau, but the statistics for hand trades were - omitted. - - [4] According to previous censuses the population was as follows: - (1790) 96,540; (1800) 151,719; (1810) 228,705; (1820) 298,335; (1830) - 399,455; (1840) 501,793; (1850) 583,169; (1860) 628,279; (1870) - 626,915. - - [5] An unincorporated township containing less than 200 inhabitants - may, on the application of three resident voters, be organized as a - plantation, but does not pay state or county taxes unless by special - legislative order. Other unincorporated districts, especially islands - along the coast, are called "grants," "surpluses," "gores" or - "tracts." - - [6] By this charter, issued in 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert was - entitled to all territory lying within two hundred leagues of any - colony that he might plant within six years; although it had long - since lapsed, Raleigh Gilbert seems not to have been aware of it. - - [7] An article in the Act relating to the separation of Maine from - Massachusetts stipulated that the lands within the District of Maine - which prior to the separation had belonged to Massachusetts should - after the separation belong one-half to Maine and one-half to - Massachusetts. In 1826 the wild lands of Maine were surveyed and - divided between the two states; and in 1853 Maine acquired from - Massachusetts, for $362,500, all of this land still remaining in - possession of the latter state. - - [8] According to Art. V. of the constitution a majority of the total - number of votes cast was required for election; in case no candidate - should receive a majority, it was prescribed that the "House of - Representatives shall, by ballot, from the persons having the four - highest numbers of votes on the lists, if so many there be, elect two - persons and make returns of their names to the Senate, of whom the - Senate shall, by ballot, elect one, who shall be declared the - governor." An amendment, which became a part of the constitution on - the 9th of November 1880, provided that a plurality of the total - number of votes cast should be sufficient for election. - - - - -MAINE DE BIRAN, FRANCOIS-PIERRE-GONTHIER (1766-1824), French -philosopher, was born at Bergerac, on the 29th of November, 1766. The -name Maine he assumed (some time before 1787) from an estate called Le -Maine, near Mouleydier. After studying with distinction under the -_doctrinaires_ of Perigueux, he entered the life-guards of Louis XVI., -and was present at Versailles on the memorable 5th and 6th of October -1789. On the breaking up of the _gardes du corps_ Biran retired to his -patrimonial inheritance of Grateloup, near Bergerac, where his retired -life preserved him from the horrors of the Revolution. It was at this -period that, to use his own words, he "passed _per saltum_ from -frivolity to philosophy." He began with psychology, which he made the -study of his life. After the Reign of Terror Maine de Biran took part in -political affairs. Having been excluded from the council of the Five -Hundred on suspicion of royalism, he took part with his friend Laine in -the commission of 1813, which gave expression for the first time to -direct opposition to the will of the emperor. After the Restoration he -held the office of treasurer to the chamber of deputies, and habitually -retired during the autumn recess to his native district to pursue his -favourite study. He died on the 20th (16th, or 23rd, according to -others) of July 1824. - -Maine de Biran's philosophical reputation has suffered from two -causes--his obscure and laboured style, and the fact that only a few, -and these the least characteristic, of his writings appeared during his -lifetime. These consisted of the essay on habit (_Sur l'influence de -l'habitude_, 1803), a critical review of P. Laromiguiere's lectures -(1817), and the philosophical portion of the article "Leibnitz" in the -_Biographie universelle_ (1819). A treatise on the analysis of thought -(_Sur la decomposition de la pensee_), although sent to press, was never -printed. In 1834 these writings, together with the essay entitled -_Nouvelles considerations sur les rapports du physique et du moral de -l'homme_, were published by Victor Cousin, who in 1841 added three -volumes, under the title _Oeuvres philosophiques de Maine de Biran_. But -the publication (in 1859) by E. Naville (from MSS. placed at his -father's disposal by Biran's son) of the _Oeuvres inedites de Maine de -Biran_, in three volumes, first rendered possible a connected view of -his philosophical development. At first a sensualist, like Condillac and -Locke, next an intellectualist, he finally shows himself a mystical -theosophist. The _Essai sur les fondements de la psychologie_ -represents the second or completest stage of his philosophy, the -fragments of the _Nouveaux essais d'anthropologie_ the third. - - Maine de Biran's first essays in philosophy were written avowedly from - the point of view of Locke and Condillac, but even in them he was - brought to signalize the essential fact on which his later speculation - turns. Dealing with the formation of habits, he is compelled to note - that passive impressions, however transformed, do not furnish a - complete or adequate explanation. With Laromiguiere he distinguishes - attention as an active effort, of no less importance than the passive - receptivity of sense, and with Butler distinguishes passively formed - customs from active habits. He finally arrived at the conclusion that - Condillac's notion of passive receptivity as the one source of - conscious experience was not only an error in fact but an error of - method--in short, that the mechanical mode of viewing consciousness as - formed by external influence was fallacious and deceptive. For it he - proposed to substitute the genetic method, whereby human conscious - experience might be exhibited as growing or developing from its - essential basis in connexion with external conditions. The essential - basis he finds in the real consciousness, of self as an active - striving power, and the stages of its development, corresponding to - what one may call the relative importance of the external conditions - and the reflective clearness of self-consciousness he designates as - the affective, the perceptive and the reflective. In connexion with - this Biran treats most of the obscure problems which arise in dealing - with conscious experience, such as the mode by which the organism is - cognized, the mode by which the organism is distinguished from - extra-organic things, and the nature of those general ideas by which - the relations of things are known to us--cause, power, force, &c. - - In the latest stage of his speculation Biran distinguishes the animal - existence from the human, under which the three forms above noted are - classed, and both from the life of the spirit, in which human thought - is brought into relation with the supersensible, divine system of - things. This stage is left imperfect. Altogether Biran's work presents - a very remarkable specimen of deep metaphysical thinking directed by - preference to the psychological aspect of experience. - - The _Oeuvres inedites_ of Maine de Biran by E. Naville contain an - introductory study; in 1887 appeared _Science et psychologie: - nouvelles oeuvres inedites_, with introduction by A. Bertrand. See - also O. Merton, _Etude critique sur Maine de Biran_ (1865); E. - Naville, _Maine de Biran, sa vie et ses pensees_ (1874); J. Gerard, - _Maine de Biran, essai sur sa philosophie_ (1876); Mayonade, _Pensees - et pages inedites de Maine de Biran_ (Perigueux, 1896); G. Allievo, - "Maine de Biran e la sua dottrina antropologica" (Turin, 1896, in - _Memorie dell' accademia delle scienze_, 2nd ser., xlv, pt. 2); A. - Lang, _Maine de Biran und die neuere Philosophie_ (Cologne, 1901); - monographs by A. Kuhtmann (Bremen, 1901) and M. Couailhac (1905); N. - E. Truman in _Cornell Studies in Philosophy_, No. 5 (1904) on Maine de - Biran's Philosophy of Will. - - - - -MAINE-ET-LOIRE, a department of western France, formed in 1790 for the -most part out of the southern portion of the former province of Anjou, -and bounded N. by the departments of Mayenne and Sarthe, E. by -Indre-et-Loire, S.E. by Vienne, S. by Deux-Sevres and Vendee, W. by -Loire-Inferieure, and N.W. by Ille-et-Vilaine. Area, 2786 sq. m. Pop. -(1906), 513,490. Maine-et-Loire is made up of two distinct regions, the -line of demarcation running roughly from north to south along the valley -of the Sarthe, then turning south-west and passing Brissac and Doue; -that to the west consists of granites, felspars, and a continuation of -the geological formations of Brittany and Vendee; to the east, schists, -limestone and chalk prevail. The department is traversed from east to -west by the majestic valley of the Loire, with its rich orchards, -nurseries and market-gardens. The highest altitudes are found in the -south-west, where north-east of Cholet one eminence reaches 689 ft. -Elsewhere the surface is low and undulating in character. The department -belongs entirely to the basin of the Loire, the bed of which is wide but -shallow, and full of islands, the depth of the water in summer being at -some places little more than 2 ft. Floods are sudden and destructive. -The chief affluent of the Loire within the department is the Maine, -formed a little above Angers by the junction of the Mayenne and the -Sarthe, the latter having previously received the waters of the Loire. -All three are navigable. Other tributaries of the Loire are the Thouet -(with its tributary the Dive), the Layon, the Evre, and the Divatte on -the left, and the Authion on the right. The Mayenne is joined on the -right by the Oudon, which can be navigated below Segre. The Erdre, which -joins the Loire at Nantes, and the Moine, a tributary of the -Sevre-Nantaise, both rise within this department. The climate is very -mild. The mean annual temperature of Angers is about 53 deg., slightly -exceeding that of Paris; the rainfall (between 23 and 24 in. annually) -is distinctly lower than that of the rest of France. Notwithstanding -this deficiency, the frequent fogs, combined with the peculiar nature of -the soil in the south-east of the department, produce a degree of -moisture which is highly favourable to meadow growths. The winter colds -are never severe, and readily permit the cultivation of certain trees -which cannot be reared in the adjoining departments. - -The agriculture of the department is very prosperous. The produce of -cereals, chiefly wheat, oats and barley, is in excess of its needs, and -potatoes and mangels also give good returns. Extensive areas in the -valley of the Loire are under hemp, and the vegetables, melons and other -fruits of that region are of the finest quality. Good wine is produced -at Serrant and other places near Angers, and on the right bank of the -Layon and near Saumur, the sparkling white wine of which is a rival of -the cheaper brands of champagne. Cider is also produced, and the -cultivation of fruit is general. Forests and woodland in which oak and -beech are the chief trees cover large tracts. The fattening of cattle is -an important industry round Cholet, and horses much used for light -cavalry are reared. Several thousand workmen are employed in the slate -quarries in the vicinity of Angers, tufa is worked in the river valleys, -and freestone and other stone, mispickel, iron and coal are also found. -Cholet, the chief industrial town, and its district manufacture -pocket-handkerchiefs, as well as linen cloths, flannels, cotton goods, -and hempen and other coarse fabrics, and similar industries are carried -on at Angers, which also manufactures liqueurs, rope, boots and shoes -and parasols. Saumur, besides its production of wine, makes beads and -enamels. The commerce of Maine-et-Loire comprises the exportation of -live stock and of the various products of its soil and industries, and -the importation of hemp, cotton, and other raw materials. The department -is served by the railways of the state and the Orleans and Western -companies. The Mayenne, the Sarthe and the Loir, together with some of -the lesser rivers, provide about 130 m. of navigable waterway. In the -south-east the canal of the Dive covers some 10 m. in the department. - -There are five arrondissements--Angers, Bauge, Cholet, Saumur and Segre, -with 34 cantons and 381 communes. Maine-et-Loire belongs to the academie -(educational division) of Rennes, to the region of the VIII. army corps, -and to the ecclesiastical province of Tours. Angers (q.v.), the capital, -is the seat of a bishopric and of a court of appeal. Other principal -places are Cholet, Saumur, and Fontevrault, which receive separate -treatment. For architectural interest there may also be mentioned the -chateaux of Brissac (17th century), Serrant (15th and 16th centuries), -Montreuil-Bellay (14th and 15th centuries), and Ecuille (15th century), -and the churches of Puy-Notre-Dame (13th century) and St -Florent-le-Vieil (13th, 17th, and 19th centuries), the last containing -the fine monument to Charles Bonchamps, the Vendean leader, by David -d'Angers. Gennes has remains of a theatre and other ruins of the Roman -period, as well as two churches dating in part from the 10th century. -Ponts-de-Ce, an interesting old town built partly on islands in the -Loire, is historically important, because till the Revolution its -bridges formed the only way across the Loire between Saumur and Nantes. - - - - -MAINPURI, or MYNPOOREE, a town and district of British India, in the -Agra division of the United Provinces. The town has a station on a -branch of the East Indian railway recently opened from Shikohabad. Pop. -(1901), 19,000. It consists of two separate portions, Mainpuri proper -and Mukhamganj. Holkar plundered and burned part of the town in 1804, -but was repulsed by the local militia. Since the British occupation the -population has rapidly increased and many improvements have been carried -out. The Agra branch of the Grand Trunk road runs through the town, -forming a wide street lined on both sides by shops, which constitute the -principal bazaar. Mainpuri has a speciality in the production of carved -wooden articles inlaid with brass wire. The American Presbyterian -mission manages a high school. - -The DISTRICT OF MAINPURI lies in the central Doab. Area, 1675 sq. m. -Pop. (1901), 829,357, an increase of 8.8% in the decade. It consists of -an almost unbroken plain, intersected by small rivers, with a few -undulating sand ridges. It is wooded throughout with mango groves, and -isolated clumps of _babul_ trees occasionally relieve the bareness of -its saline _usar_ plains. On the south-western boundary the Jumna flows -in a deep alluvial bed, sometimes sweeping close to the high banks which -overhang its valley, and elsewhere leaving room for a narrow strip of -fertile soil between the river and the upland plain. From the low-lying -lands thus formed a belt of ravines stretches inland for some 2 m., -often covered with jungle, but affording good pasturage for cattle. The -district is watered by two branches of the Ganges canal, and is -traversed by the main line of the East Indian railway. - - Mainpuri anciently formed part of the great kingdom of Kanauj, and - after the fall of that famous state it was divided into a number of - petty principalities, of which Rapri and Bhongaon were the chief. In - 1194 Rapri was made the seat of a Moslem governor. Mainpuri fell to - the Moguls on Baber's invasion in 1526, and, although temporarily - wrested from them by the short-lived Afghan dynasty of Shere Shah, was - again occupied by them on the reinstatement of Humayun after the - victory of Panipat. Like the rest of the lower Doab, Mainpuri passed, - towards the end of the 18th century, into the power of the Mahrattas, - and finally became a portion of the province of Oudh. When this part - of the country was ceded to the British, in 1801, Mainpuri town became - the headquarters of the extensive district of Etawah, which was in - 1856 reduced by the formation of Etah and Mainpuri into separate - collectorates. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 the regiment - stationed at Mainpuri revolted and attacked the town, which was - successfully defended by the few Europeans of the station for a week, - until the arrival of the Jhansi mutineers made it necessary to abandon - the district. - - - - -MAINTENANCE (Fr. _maintenance_, from _maintenir_, to maintain, support, -Lat. _manu tenere_, to hold in the hand). The action of giving support, -supplying means of subsistence, keeping efficient or in working order. -In English law maintenance is an officious intermeddling in an action -that in no way belongs to one by maintaining or assisting either party, -with money or otherwise, to prosecute or defend it. It is an indictable -offence, both at common law and by statute, and punishable by fine and -imprisonment. It invalidates all contracts involving it. It is also -actionable. There are, however, certain cases in which maintenance is -justifiable, e.g. any one who has an interest, even if it be only -contingent, in the matter at variance can maintain another in an action -concerning the matter; or several parties who have a common interest in -the same thing may maintain one another in a suit concerning the same. -Neither is it reckoned maintenance to assist another in his suit on -charitable grounds, or for a master to assist his servant, or a parent -his son, or a husband his wife. The law with regard to the subject is -considered at length in _Bradlaugh_ v. _Newdegate_, 1883, 11 Q.B.D. 1. -See also CHAMPERTY. For the practice of "livery and maintenance" see -ENGLISH HISTORY, SS v. and vi. - - A CAP OF MAINTENANCE, i.e. a cap of crimson velvet turned up with - ermine, is borne, as one of the insignia of the British sovereign, - immediately before him at his coronation or on such state occasions as - the opening of parliament. It is carried by the hereditary bearer, the - marquess of Winchester, upon a white wand. A similar cap is also borne - before the lord mayor of London. The origin of this symbol of dignity - is obscure. It is stated in the _New English Dictionary_ that it was - granted by the pope to Henry VII. and Henry VIII. It is probably - connected with the "cap of estate" or "dignity," sometimes also styled - "cap of maintenance," similar to the royal symbol with two peaks or - horns behind, which is borne as a heraldic charge by certain families. - It seems originally to have been a privilege of dukes. Where it is - used the crest is placed upon it, instead of on the usual wreath. - - - - -MAINTENON, FRANCOISE D'AUBIGNE, MARQUISE DE (1635-1719), the second wife -of Louis XIV., was born in a prison at Niort, on the 27th of November -1635. Her father, Constant d'Aubigne, was the son of Agrippa d'Aubigne, -the famous friend and general of Henry IV., and had been imprisoned as a -Huguenot malcontent, but her mother, a fervent Catholic, had the child -baptized in her religion, her sponsors being the duc de la -Rochefoucauld, father of the author of the _Maxims_, and the comtesse de -Neuillant. In 1639 Constant d'Aubigne was released from prison and took -all his family with him to Martinique, where he died in 1645, after -having lost what fortune remained to him at cards. Mme d'Aubigne -returned to France, and from sheer poverty unwillingly yielded her -daughter to her sister-in-law, Mme de Villette, who made the child very -happy, but converted or pretended to convert her to Protestantism. When -this was known an order of state was issued that she should be entrusted -to Mme de Neuillant, her godmother. Every means was now used to convert -her back to Catholicism, but at the last she only yielded on the -condition that she need not believe that the soul of Mme de Villette was -lost. Once reconverted, she was neglected and sent home to live with her -mother, who had only a small pension of 200 livres a year, which ceased -on her death in 1650. The chevalier de Mere, a man of some literary -distinction, who had made her acquaintance at Mme de Neuillant's, -discovered her penniless condition, and introduced his "young Indian," -as he called her, to Scarron, the famous wit and comic writer, at whose -house all the literary society of the day assembled. Scarron took a -fancy to the friendless girl, and offered either to pay for her -admission to a convent, or, though he was deformed and an invalid, to -marry her himself. She accepted his offer of marriage, and became Mme -Scarron in 1651. For nine years she was not only his most faithful -nurse, but an attraction to his house, where she tried to bridle the -licence of the conversation of the time. On the death of Scarron, in -1660, Anne of Austria continued his pension to his widow, and even -increased it to 2000 livres a year, which enabled her to entertain and -frequent the literary society her husband had made her acquainted with; -but on the queen-mother's death in 1666 the king refused to continue her -pension, and she prepared to leave Paris for Lisbon as lady attendant to -the queen of Portugal. But before she started she met Mme de Montespan, -who was already, though not avowedly, the king's mistress, and who took -such a fancy to her that she obtained the continuance of her pension, -which put off for ever the question of going to Portugal. Mme de -Montespan did yet more for her, for when, in 1669, her first child by -the king was born, Mme Scarron was established with a large income and a -large staff of servants at Vaugirard to bring up the king's children in -secrecy as they were born. In 1674 the king determined to have his -children at court, and their governess, who had now made sufficient -fortune to buy the estate of Maintenon, accompanied them. The king had -now many opportunities of seeing Mme Scarron, and, though at first he -was prejudiced against her, her even temper contrasted so advantageously -with the storms of passion and jealousy exhibited by Mme de Montespan, -that she grew steadily in his favour, and had in 1678 the gratification -of having her estate at Maintenon raised to a marquisate and herself -entitled Mme de Maintenon by the king. Such favours brought down the -fury of Mme de Montespan's jealousy, and Mme de Maintenon's position was -almost unendurable, until, in 1680, the king severed their connexion by -making the latter second lady in waiting to the dauphiness, and soon -after Mme de Montespan left the court. The new _amie_ used her influence -on the side of decency, and the queen openly declared she had never been -so well treated as at this time, and eventually died in Mme de -Maintenon's arms in 1683. The queen's death opened the way to yet -greater advancement; in 1684 Mme de Maintenon was made first lady in -waiting to the dauphiness, and in the winter of 1685-1686 she was -privately married to the king by Harlay, archbishop of Paris, in the -presence, it is believed, of Pere la Chaise, the king's confessor, the -marquis de Montchevreuil, the chevalier de Forbin, and Bontemps. No -written proof of the marriage is extant, but that it took place is -nevertheless certain. Her life during the next thirty years can be fully -studied in her letters, of which many authentic examples are extant. As -a wife she was wholly admirable; she had to entertain a man who would -not be amused, and had to submit to that terribly strict court etiquette -of absolute obedience to the king's inclination, which Saint-Simon so -vividly describes, and yet be always cheerful and never complain of -weariness or ill-health. Her political influence has probably been -exaggerated, but it was supreme in matters of detail. The ministers of -the day used to discuss and arrange all the business to be done with the -king beforehand with her, and it was all done in her cabinet and in her -presence, but the king in more important matters often chose not to -consult her. Such mistakes as, for instance, the replacing of Catinat by -Villeroi may be attributed to her, but not whole policies--notably, -according to Saint-Simon, not the policy with regard to the Spanish -succession. Even the revocation of the edict of Nantes and the -dragonnades have been laid to her charge, but recent investigations have -tended to show that in spite of ardent Catholicism, she at least -opposed, if not very vigorously, the cruelties of the dragonnades, -although she was pleased with the conversions they procured. She was -apparently afraid to imperil her great reputation for devotion, which -had in 1692 obtained for her from Innocent XII. the right of visitation -over all the convents in France. Where she deserves blame is in her use -of her power for personal patronage, as in compassing the promotions of -Chamillart and Villeroi, and the frequent assistance given to her -brother Comte Charles d'Aubigne. Her influence was on the whole a -moderating and prudent force. Her social influence was not as great as -it might have been, owing to her holding no recognized position at -court, but it was always exercised on the side of decency and morality, -and it must not be forgotten that from her former life she was intimate -with the literary people of the day. Side by side with this public life, -which wearied her with its shadowy power, occasionally crossed by a -desire to be recognised as queen, she passed a nobler and sweeter -private existence as the foundress of St Cyr. Mme de Maintenon was a -born teacher; she had so won the hearts of her first pupils that they -preferred her to their own mother, and was similarly successful later -with the young and impetuous duchess of Burgundy, and she had always -wished to establish a home for poor girls of good family placed in such -straits as she herself had experienced. As soon as her fortunes began to -mend she started a small home for poor girls at Ruel, which she -afterwards moved to Noisy, and which was the nucleus of the splendid -institution of St Cyr, which the king endowed in 1686, at her request, -out of the funds of the Abbey of St Denis. She was in her element there. -She herself drew up the rules of the institution; she examined every -minute detail; she befriended her pupils in every way; and her heart -often turned from the weariness of Versailles or of Marly to her "little -girls" at St Cyr. It was for them that Racine wrote his _Esther_ and his -_Athalie_, and it was because he managed the affairs of St Cyr well that -Michel Chamillart became controller-general of the finances. The later -years of her power were marked by the promotion of her old pupils, the -children of the king and Mme de Montespan, to high dignity between the -blood royal and the peers of the realm, and it was doubtless under the -influence of her dislike for the duke of Orleans that the king drew up -his will, leaving the personal care of his successor to the duke of -Maine, and hampering the duke of Orleans by a council of regency. On or -even before her husband's death she retired to St Cyr, and had the -chagrin of seeing all her plans for the advancement of the duke of Maine -overthrown by means of the parliament of Paris. However, the regent -Orleans in no way molested her, but, on the contrary, visited her at St -Cyr and continued her pension of 48,000 livres. She spent her last years -at St Cyr in perfect seclusion, but an object of great interest to all -visitors to France, who, however, with the exception of Peter the Great, -found it impossible to get an audience with her. On the 15th of April -1719 she died, and was buried in the choir at St Cyr, bequeathing her -estate at Maintenon to her niece, the only daughter of her brother -Charles and wife of the marechal de Noailles, to whose family it still -belongs. - - L. A. la Beaumelle published the _Lettres de Madame de Maintenon_, but - much garbled, in 2 vols. in 1752, and on a larger scale in 9 vols. in - 1756. He also, in 1755, published _Memoires de Madame de Maintenon_, - in 6 vols., which caused him to be imprisoned in the Bastille. All - earlier biographies were superseded by Theophile Lavallee's _Histoire - de St Cyr_, reviewed in _Causeries du lundi_, vol. viii., and by his - edition of her _Lettres historiques et edifiantes_, &c., in 7 vols. - and of her _Correspondance generale_, in 4 vols. (1888), which latter - must, however, be read with the knowledge of many forged letters, - noticed in P. Grimblot's _Faux autographes de Madame de Maintenon_. - Saint-Simon's fine but biased account of the court in her day and of - her career is contained in the twelfth volume of Cheruel and Regnier's - edition of his _Memoires_. See also Mademoiselle d'Aumale's _Souvenirs - sur Madame de Maintenon_, published by the Comte d'Haussonville and G. - Hanotaux (Paris, 3 vols., 1902-1904); an excellent account by A. - Geffroy, _Madame de Maintenon d'apres sa correspondance authentique_ - (Paris, 2 vols., 1887); P. de Noailles, _Histoire de Madame de - Maintenon et des principaux evenements du regne de Louis XIV._ (4 - vols., 1848-1858); A. de Boislisle, _Paul Scarron et Francoise - d'Aubigne d'apres des documents nouveaux_ (1894); E. Pilastre, _Vie et - caractere de Madame de Maintenon d'apres les oeuvres du duc de - Saint-Simon et des documents anciens ou recents_ (1907); A. Rosset, - _Madame de Maintenon et la revocation de l'edit de Nantes_ (1897). - (H. M. S.) - - - - -MAINZ (Fr. Mayence) a city, episcopal see and fortress of Germany, -situated on the left bank of the Rhine, almost opposite the influx of -the Main, at the junction of the important main lines of railway from -Cologne to Mannheim and Frankfort-on-Main, 25 m. W. of the latter. Pop. -(1905), 91,124 (including a garrison of 7500 men), of whom two-thirds -are Roman Catholic. The Rhine, which here attains the greatest breadth -of its upper course, is crossed by a magnificent bridge of five arches, -leading to the opposite town of Castel and by two railway bridges. The -old fortifications have recently been pushed farther back, and their -place occupied by pleasant boulevards. The river front has been -converted into a fine promenade, commanding extensive views of the -Taunus range of mountains, and the "Rheingau," the most favoured wine -district of Germany. Alongside the quay are the landing-places of the -steamboats navigating the Rhine. The railway, which formerly incommoded -the bank, has been diverted, and now, following the ceinture of the new -line of inner fortifications, runs into a central station lying to the -south of the city. The interior of the old town consists chiefly of -narrow and irregular streets, with many quaint and picturesque houses. -The principal street of the new town is the Kaiserstrasse, leading from -the railway station to the river. - -The first object of historical and architectural interest in Mainz is -the grand old cathedral, an imposing Romanesque edifice with numerous -Gothic additions and details (for plan, &c. see ARCHITECTURE: -_Romanesque and Gothic in Germany_). It was originally erected between -975 and 1009, but has since been repeatedly burned down and rebuilt, and -in its present form dates chiefly from the 12th, 13th and 14th -centuries. The largest of its six towers is 300 ft. high. The whole -building was restored by order of Napoleon in 1814, and another thorough -renovation was made more recently. The interior contains the tombs of -Boniface, the first archbishop of Mainz, of Frauenlob, the Minnesinger, -and of many of the electors. Mainz possesses nine other Roman Catholic -churches, the most noteworthy of which are those of St Ignatius, with a -finely painted ceiling, of St Stephen, built 1257-1328, and restored -after an explosion in 1857, and of St Peter. The old electoral palace -(1627-1678), a large building of red sandstone, now contains a valuable -collection of Roman and Germanic antiquities, a picture gallery, a -natural history museum, the Gutenberg Museum, and a library of 220,000 -volumes. Among the other principal buildings are the palace of the grand -duke of Hesse, built in 1731-1739 as a lodge of the Teutonic order, the -theatre, the arsenal, and the government buildings. A handsome statue of -Gutenberg, by Thorwaldsen, was erected at Mainz in 1837. Mainz still -retains many relics of the Roman period, the most important of which is -the Eigelstein, a monument believed to have been erected by the Roman -legions in honour of Drusus. It stands within the citadel, which -occupies the site of the Roman castrum. A little to the south-west of -the town are the remains of a large Roman aqueduct, of which upwards of -sixty pillars are still standing. The educational and scientific -institutions of Mainz include an episcopal seminary, two gymnasia and -other schools, a society for literature and art, a musical society, and -an antiquarian society. The university, founded in 1477, was suppressed -by the French in 1798. - -The site of Mainz would seem to mark it out naturally as a great centre -of trade, but the illiberal rule of the archbishops and its military -importance seriously hampered its commercial and industrial development, -and prevented it from rivalling its neighbour Frankfort. It is now, -however, the chief emporium of the Rhenish wine traffic, and also -carries on an extensive transit trade in grain, timber, flour, -petroleum, paper and vegetables. The natural facilities for carriage by -water are supplemented by the extensive railway system. Large new -harbours to the north of the city were opened in 1887. The principal -manufactures are leather goods, furniture, carriages, chemicals, musical -instruments and carpets, for the first two of which the city has -attained a wide reputation. Other industries include brewing and -printing. Mainz is the seat of the administrative and judicial -authorities of the province of Rhein-Hessen, and also of a Roman -Catholic bishop. - -_History._--Mainz, one of the oldest cities in Germany, was originally a -Celtic settlement. Its strategic importance was early recognized by the -Romans, and about 13 B.C. Drusus, the son-in-law of Augustus, erected a -fortified camp here, to which the _castellum Mattiacorum_ (the modern -Castel) on the opposite bank was afterwards added, the two being -connected with a bridge at the opening of the Christian era. The Celtic -name became latinized as _Maguntiacum_, or _Moguntiacum_, and a town -gradually arose around the camp, which became the capital of Germania -Superior. During the Volkerwanderung Mainz suffered severely, being -destroyed on different occasions by the Alamanni, the Vandals and the -Huns. Christianity seems to have been introduced into the town at a very -early period, and in the 6th century a new Mainz was founded by Bishop -Sidonius. In the middle of the 8th century under Boniface it became an -archbishopric, and to this the primacy of Germany was soon annexed. -Charlemagne, who had a palace in the neighbourhood, gave privileges to -Mainz, which rose rapidly in wealth and importance, becoming a free city -in 1118. During the later middle ages it was the seat of several diets, -that of 1184 being of unusual size and splendour. In 1160 the citizens -revolted against Archbishop Arnold, and in 1163 the walls of the city -were pulled down by order of the emperor Frederick I. But these events -did not retard its progress. In 1244 certain rights of self-government -were given to the citizens; and in 1254 Mainz was the centre and -mainspring of a powerful league of Rhenish towns. Owing to its -commercial prosperity it was known as _goldene_ Mainz, and its -population is believed to have been as great as it is at the present -day. But soon a decline set in. In 1462 there was warfare between two -rival archbishops, Diether or Dietrich II. of Isenburg (d. 1463) and -Adolph II. of Nassau (d. 1475). The citizens espoused the cause of -Diether, but their city was captured by Adolph; it was then deprived of -its privileges and was made subject to the archbishop. Many of the -inhabitants were driven into exile, and these carried into other lands a -knowledge of the art of printing, which had been invented at Mainz by -Johann Gutenberg in 1450. During the Thirty Years' War Mainz was -occupied by the Swedes in 1631 and by the French in 1644, the -fortifications being strengthened by the former under Gustavus Adolphus; -in 1688 it was captured again by the French, but they were driven out in -the following year. In 1792 the citizens welcomed the ideas of the -French Revolution; they expelled their archbishop, Friedrich Karl Joseph -d'Erthal, and opened their gates to the French troops. Taken and retaken -several times during the next few years, Mainz was ceded to France by -the treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, and again by the Treaty of Luneville -in 1801. In 1814 it was restored to Germany and in 1816 it was handed -over to the grand duke of Hesse; it remained, however, a fortress of the -German confederation and was garrisoned by Prussian and Austrian troops. -Since 1871 it has been a fortress of the German Empire. There were -disturbances in the city in 1848. - - See Bruhl, _Mainz, geschichtlich, topographisch und malerisch_ (Mainz, - 1829); C. A. Schaab, _Geschichte der Stadt Mainz_ (Mainz, 1841-1845); - K. Klein, _Mainz und seine Umgebungen_ (1868); C. G. Bockenheimer, - _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Stadt Mainz_ (1874); Neeb, _Fuhrer durch - Mainz und Umgebung_ (Stuttgart, 1903); and O. Beck, _Mainz und sein - Handel_ (Mainz, 1881). - -The ARCHBISHOPRIC OF MAINZ, one of the seven electorates of the Holy -Roman Empire, became a powerful state during the middle ages and -retained some of its importance until the dissolution of the empire in -1806. Its archbishop was president of the electoral college, -arch-chancellor of the empire and primate of Germany. Its origin dates -back to 747, when the city of Mainz was made the seat of an archbishop, -and a succession of able and ambitious prelates, obtaining lands and -privileges from emperors and others, made of the district under their -rule a strong and vigorous state. Among these men were Hatto I. (d. -913), Siegfried III. of Eppstein (d. 1249), Gerhard of Eppstein (d. -1305), and Albert of Brandenburg (d. 1545), all of whom played important -parts in the history of Germany. There were several violent contests -between rivals anxious to secure so splendid a position as the -electorate, and the pretensions of the archbishops occasionally moved -the citizens of Mainz to revolt. The lands of the electorate lay around -Mainz, and were on both banks of the Rhine; their area at the time of -the French Revolution was about 3200 sq. m. The last elector was Karl -Theodor von Dalberg. The archbishopric was secularized in 1803, two -years after the lands on the left bank of the Rhine had been seized by -France. Some of those on the right bank of the river were given to -Prussia and to Hesse; others were formed into a grand duchy for Dalberg. -The archbishopric itself was transferred to Regensburg. - - For the history of the electorate see the _Scriptores rerum - moguntiacarum_, edited by G. C. Joannis (Frankfort, 1722-1727); - Schunk, _Beitrage zur Mainzer Geschichte_ (Frankfort, 1788-1791); - Hennes, _Die Erzbischofe von Mainz_ (Mainz, 1879); Ph. Jaffe, - _Monumenta moguntina_ (Berlin, 1866), and J. F. Bohmer and C. Will, - _Regesta archiepiscoporum moguntinensium_ (Innsbruck, 1877-1886). - - - - -MAIRET, JEAN DE (1604-1686), French dramatist, was born at Besancon, and -baptized on the 10th of May 1604. His own statement that he was born in -1610 has been disproved. He went to Paris to study at the College des -Grassins about 1625, in which year he produced his first piece -_Chriseide et Arimand_, followed in 1626 by _Sylvie_, a "pastoral -tragi-comedy." In 1634 appeared his masterpiece, _Sophonisbe_, which -marks, in its observance of the rules, the beginning of the "regular" -tragedies. Mairet was one of the bitterest assailants of Corneille in -the controversy over _The Cid_. It was perhaps his jealousy of Corneille -that made him give up writing for the stage. He was appointed in 1648 -official representative of the Franche-Comte in Paris, but in 1653 he -was banished by Mazarin. He was subsequently allowed to return, but in -1668 he retired to Besancon, where he died on the 31st of January 1686. -His other plays include _Silvanire ou la Morte-vive_, published in 1631 -with an elaborate preface on the observance of the unities, _Les -Galanteries du duc d'Orsonne_ (1632), _Virginie_ (1633), _Marc-Antoine_ -(1635), and _Le Grand et dernier Solyman_ (1637). - - See G. Bizos, _Etude sur la vie et les oeuvres de Jean de Mairet_ - (1877). _Sophonisbe_ was edited by K. Vollmoller (Heilbronn, 1888), - and _Silvanire_ by R. Otto (Bamberg, 1890). - - - - -MAISTRE, JOSEPH DE (1754-1821), French diplomatist and polemical writer, -was born at Chambery on the 1st of April 1754. His family was an ancient -and noble one, enjoying the title of count, and is said to have been of -Languedocian extraction. The father of Joseph was president of the -senate of Savoy, and held other important offices. Joseph himself, after -studying at Turin, received various appointments in the civil service of -Savoy, finally becoming a member of the senate. In 1786 he married -Francoise de Morand. The invasion and annexation of Savoy by the French -Republicans made him an exile. He did not take refuge in that part of -the king of Sardinia's domains which was for the time spared, but betook -himself to the as yet neutral territory of Lausanne. There, in 1796, he -published his first important work (he had previously written certain -discourses, pamphlets, letters, &c.), _Considerations sur la France_. In -this he developed his views, which were those of a Legitimist, but a -Legitimist entirely from the religious and Roman Catholic point of view. -The philosophism of the 18th century was Joseph de Maistre's lifelong -object of assault. - -After the still further losses which, in the year of the publication of -this book, the French Revolution inflicted on Sardinia, Charles Emmanuel -summoned Joseph de Maistre to Turin, and he remained there for the brief -space during which the king retained a remnant of territory on the -mainland. Then he went to the island of Sardinia, and held office at -Cagliari. In 1802 he was appointed envoy extraordinary and minister -plenipotentiary at St Petersburg, and journeyed thither the next year. -Although his post was no sinecure, its duties were naturally less -engrossing than the official life, with intervals of uneasy exile and -travelling, which he had hitherto known, and his literary activity was -great. He only published a single treatise, on the _Principe generateur -des Constitutions_; but he wrote his best and most famous works, _Du -Pape_, _De L'eglise gallicane_ and the _Soirees de St Petersbourg_, the -last of which was never finished. _Du Pape_, which the second-named book -completes, is a treatise in regular form, dealing with the relations of -the sovereign pontiff to the Church, to temporal sovereigns, to -civilization generally, and to schismatics, especially Anglicans and the -Greek Church. It is written from the highest possible standpoint of -papal absolutism. The _Soirees de St Petersbourg_, so far as it is -anything (for the arrangement is somewhat desultory), is a kind of -_theodicee_, dealing with the fortunes of virtue and vice in this world. -It contains two of De Maistre's most famous pieces, his panegyric on the -executioner as the foundation of social order, and his acrimonious, and -in part unfair, but also in part very damaging, attack on Locke. The _Du -Pape_ is dated May 1817; on the _Soirees_ the author was still engaged -at his death. Besides these works he wrote an examination of the -philosophy of Bacon, some letters on the Inquisition (an institution -which, as may be guessed from the remarks just noticed about the -executioner, was no stumbling-block to him), and, earlier than any of -these, a translation of Plutarch's "Essay on the Delay of Divine -Justice," with somewhat copious notes. After 1815 he returned to Savoy, -and was appointed to high office, while his _Du Pape_ made a great -sensation. But the world to which he had returned was not altogether in -accordance with his desires. He had domestic troubles; and chagrin of -one sort and another is said to have had not a little to do with his -death by paralysis on the 26th of February 1821 at Turin. Most of the -works mentioned were not published till after his death, and it was not -till 1851 that a collection of _Lettres et opuscules_ appeared, while -even since that time fresh matter has been published. - -Joseph de Maistre was one of the most powerful, and by far the ablest, -of the leaders of the neo-Catholic and anti-revolutionary movement. The -most remarkable thing about his standpoint is that, layman as he was, it -was entirely ecclesiastical. Unlike his contemporary Bonald, Joseph de -Maistre regarded the temporal monarchy as an institution of altogether -inferior importance to the spiritual primacy of the pope. He was by no -means a political absolutist, except in so far as he regarded obedience -as the first of political virtues, and he seldom loses an opportunity of -stipulating for a tempered monarchy. But the pope's power is not to be -tempered at all, either by councils or by the temporal power or by -national churches, least of all by private judgment. The peculiarity of -Joseph de Maistre is that he supports his conclusions, or if it be -preferred his paradoxes, by the hardest and heaviest argument. Although -a great master of rhetoric, he never makes rhetoric do duty for logic. -Every now and then it is possible to detect fallacies in him, but for -the most part he has succeeded in carrying matters back to those -fundamental differences of opinion which hardly admit of argument, and -on which men take sides in consequence chiefly of natural bent, and of -predilection for one state of things rather than for another. The -absolute necessity of order may be said to have been the first principle -of this thinker, who, in more ways than one, will invite comparison with -Hobbes. He could not conceive such order without a single visible -authority, reference to which should settle all dispute. He saw that -there could be no such temporal head, and in the pope he thought that he -saw a spiritual substitute. The anarchic tendencies of the Revolution in -politics and religion were what offended him. It ought to be added that -he was profoundly and accurately learned in history and philosophy, and -that the superficial blunders of the 18th-century _philosophes_ -irritated him as much as their doctrines. To Voltaire in particular he -shows no mercy. - - Of the two works named as his masterpieces, _Du Pape_ and the _Soirees - de St Petersbourg_, editions are extremely numerous. No complete - edition of his works appeared till 1884-1887, when one was published - at Lyons in 14 volumes. This had been preceded, and has been followed, - by numerous biographies and discussions: C. Barthelemy, _L'Esprit de - Joseph de Maistre_ (1859); R. de Sezeval, _Joseph de Maistre_ (1865), - and J. C. Glaser, _Graf Joseph Maistre_ (same year); L. I. Moreau, - _Joseph de Maistre_ (1879); F. Paulhan, _Joseph de Maistre et sa - philosophie_ (1893); L. Cogordan, "Joseph de Maistre" in the _Grands - ecrivains francais_ (1894); F. Descostes, _Joseph de Maistre avant la - revolution_ (1896), and other works by the same writer; J. Mandoul, - _Un Homme d'etat italien: Joseph de Maistre et la politique de la - maison de Savoie_ (1900); and E. Grasset, _Joseph de Maistre_ (1901). - (G. Sa.) - - - - -MAISTRE, XAVIER DE (1763-1852), younger brother of Joseph de Maistre, -was born at Chambery in October 1763. He served when young in the -Piedmontese army, and wrote his delightful fantasy, _Voyage autour de ma -chambre_ (published 1794) when he was under arrest at Turin in -consequence of a duel. Xavier shared the politics and the loyalty of his -brother, and on the annexation of Savoy to France, he left the service, -and took a commission in the Russian army. He served under Suvarov in -his victorious Austro-Russian campaign and accompanied the marshal to -Russia. He shared the disgrace of his general, and supported himself for -some time in St Petersburg by miniature painting. But on his brother's -arrival in St Petersburg he was introduced to the minister of marine. He -was appointed to several posts in the capital, but also saw active -service, was wounded in the Caucasus, and attained the rank of -major-general. He married a Russian lady and established himself in his -adopted country, even after the overthrow of Napoleon, and the -consequent restoration of the Piedmontese dynasty. For a time, however, -he lived at Naples, but he returned to St Petersburg and died there on -the 12th of June 1852. He was only once in Paris (in 1839), when -Sainte-Beuve, who has left some pleasant reminiscences of him, met him. -Besides the _Voyage_ already mentioned, Xavier de Maistre's works (all -of which are of very modest dimensions) are _Le Lepreux de la cite -d'Aoste_ (1811), a touching little story of human misfortune; _Les -Prisonniers du Caucase_, a powerful sketch of Russian character, _La -Jeune Siberienne_, and the _Expedition nocturne_, a sequel to the -_Voyage autour de ma chambre_ (1825). His style is of remarkable ease -and purity. - - His works, with the exception of some brief chemical tractates, are - included in the collections of Charpentier, Garnier, &c. See - Sainte-Beuve's _Portraits contemporains_, vol. iii. - - - - -MAITLAND, EDWARD (1824-1897), English humanitarian writer, was born at -Ipswich on the 27th of October 1824, and was educated at Caius College, -Cambridge. The son of Charles David Maitland, perpetual curate of St -James's Chapel, Brighton, he was intended for the Church, but his -religious views did not permit him to take holy orders. For some years -he lived abroad, first in California and then as a commissioner of -Crownlands in Australia. After his return to England in 1857 he took up -an advanced humanitarian position, and claimed to have acquired a new -sense by which he was able to discern the spiritual condition of other -people. He was associated with Mrs Anna Kingsford (1846-1888), the -lady-doctor and supporter of vegetarianism and anti-vivisectionism, who, -besides being one of the pioneers of higher education for women, had -become a devotee of mystical theosophy; with her he brought out _Keys of -the Creeds_ (1875), _The Perfect Way: or the Finding of Christ_ (1882), -and founded the Hermetic Society in 1884. After her death he founded the -Esoteric Christian Union in 1891, and wrote her _Life and Letters_ -(1896). He died on the 2nd of October 1897. - - - - -MAITLAND, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1850-1906), English jurist and historian, -son of John Gorham Maitland, was born on the 28th of May 1850, and -educated at Eton and Trinity, Cambridge, being bracketed at the head of -the moral sciences tripos of 1872, and winning a Whewell scholarship -for international law. He was called to the bar (Lincoln's Inn) in 1876, -and made himself a thoroughly competent equity lawyer and conveyancer, -but finally devoted himself to comparative jurisprudence and especially -the history of English law. In 1884 he was appointed reader in English -law at Cambridge, and in 1888 became Downing professor of the laws of -England. Though handicapped in his later years by delicate health, his -intellectual grasp and wide knowledge and research gradually made him -famous as a jurist and historian. He edited numerous volumes for the -Selden Society, including _Select Pleas for the Crown, 1200-1225_, -_Select Pleas in Manorial Courts_ and _The Court Baron_; and among his -principal works were _Gloucester Pleas_ (1884), _Justice and Police_ -(1885), _Bracton's Note-Book_ (1887), _History of English Law_ (with Sir -F. Pollock, 1895; new ed. 1898; see also his article ENGLISH LAW in this -encyclopaedia), _Domesday Book and Beyond_ (1897), _Township and -Borough_ (1898), _Canon Law in England_ (1898), _English Law and the -Renaissance_ (1901), the _Life of Leslie Stephen_ (1906), besides -important contributions to the _Cambridge Modern History_, the _English -Historical Review_, the _Law Quarterly Review_, _Harvard Law Review_ and -other publications. His writings are marked by vigour and vitality of -style, as well as by the highest qualities of the historian who -recreates the past from the original sources; he had no sympathy with -either legal or historical pedantry; and his death at Grand Canary on -the 19th of December 1906 deprived English law and letters of one of -their most scholarly and most inspiring representatives, notable alike -for sweetness of character, acuteness in criticism, and wisdom in -counsel. - - See P. Vinogradoff's article on Maitland in the _English Historical - Review_ (1907); Sir F. Pollock's in the _Quarterly Review_ (1907); G. - T. Lapsley's in _The Green Bag_ (Boston, Mass., 1907); A. L. Smith, - _F. W. Maitland_ (1908); H. A. L. Fisher, _F. W. Maitland_ (1910). - - - - -MAITLAND, SIR RICHARD (LORD LETHINGTON) (1496-1586), Scottish lawyer, -poet, and collector of Scottish verse, was born in 1496. His father, Sir -William Maitland of Lethington and Thirlestane, fell at Flodden; his -mother was a daughter of George, Lord Seton. He studied law at the -university of St Andrews, and afterwards in Paris. His castle at -Lethington was burnt by the English in 1549. He was in 1552 one of the -commissioners to settle matters with the English about the debateable -lands. About 1561 he seems to have lost his sight, but this did not -render him incapable of attending to public business, as he was the same -year admitted an ordinary lord of session with the title of Lord -Lethington, and a member of the privy council; and in 1562 he was -appointed keeper of the Great Seal. He resigned this last office in -1567, in favour of John, prior of Coldingham, his second son, but he sat -on the bench till he attained his eighty-eighth year. He died on the -20th of March 1586. His eldest son, by his wife Mary Cranstoun of -Crosbie, was William Maitland (q.v.): his second son, John (c. -1545-1595), was a lord of session, and was made a lord of parliament in -1590, with the title of Lord Maitland of Thirlestane, in which he was -succeeded by his son John, also for some time a lord of session, who was -created earl of Lauderdale in 1624. One of Sir Richard's daughters, -Margaret, assisted her father in preparing his collection of old Scots -verse. - -The poems of Sir Richard Maitland, none of them lengthy, are for the -most part satirical, and are principally directed against the social and -political abuses of his time. He is chiefly remembered as the industrial -collector and preserver of many pieces of Scots poetry. These were -copied into two large volumes, one in folio and another in quarto, the -former written by himself, and the latter by his daughter. After being -in the possession of his descendant the duke of Lauderdale, these -volumes were purchased at the sale of the duke's library by Samuel -Pepys, and have since been preserved in the Pepysian Library, Magdalene -College, Cambridge. They lay there unnoticed for many years till Bishop -Percy published one of the poems in his _Reliques of English Poetry_. -Several of the prices were then transcribed by John Pinkerton, who -afterwards published them under the title of _Ancient Scottish Poems_ (2 -vols., 1786.) - - For an account of the Maitland Folio MS. see Gregory Smith's - _Specimens of Middle Scots_, 1902 (p. lxxiii.). The Scottish Text - Society has undertaken an edition of the entire manuscript. Maitland's - own poems were reprinted by Sibbald in his _Chronicle of Scottish - Poetry_ (1802), and in 1830 by the Maitland Club, named after him, and - founded for the purpose of continuing his efforts to preserve the - remains of early Scots literature. Sir Richard left in manuscript a - history of the family of Seton, and a volume of legal decisions - collected by him between the years 1550 and 1565. Both are preserved - in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh; the former was published by the - Maitland Club, in 1829. - - - - -MAITLAND (MAITLAND OF LETHINGTON), WILLIAM (c. 1528-1573), Scottish -statesman, eldest son of the preceding, was educated at St Andrews. At -an early age he entered public life and began in various ways to serve -the regent, Mary of Lorraine, becoming her secretary of state in 1558. -In 1559, however, he deserted her and threw in his lot with the lords of -the congregation, to whom his knowledge of foreign, and especially of -English, politics and his general ability were assets of the highest -value. The lords sent him to England to ask for assistance from -Elizabeth, and his constant aim throughout his political career was to -bring about a union between the two crowns. He appears to have feared -the return of Mary Queen of Scots to Scotland, but after her arrival in -1561 he was appointed secretary of state, and for about six years he -directed the policy of Scotland and enjoyed the confidence of the queen. -His principal antagonist was John Knox; there were several tussles -between them, the most famous, perhaps, being the one in the general -assembly of 1564, and on the whole Maitland held his own against the -preachers. He was doubtless concerned in the conspiracy against David -Rizzio, and after the favourite's murder he was obliged to leave the -court and was himself in danger of assassination. In 1567, however, he -was again at Mary's side. He was a consenting party to the murder of -Darnley, although he had favoured his marriage with Mary, but the enmity -between Bothwell and himself was one of the reasons which drove him into -the arms of the queen's enemies, among whom he figured at Langside. He -was one of the Scots who met Elizabeth's representatives at York in -1568; here he showed a desire to exculpate Mary and to marry her to the -duke of Norfolk, a course of action probably dictated by a desire to -avoid all revelations about the Darnley murder. But this did not prevent -him from being arrested in September 1569 on account of his share in the -crime. He was, however, delivered from his captors by a ruse on the part -of his friend, Sir William Kirkcaldy of Grange, and was brought into -Edinburgh Castle, while his trial was put off because the city was -thronged with his adherents. Maitland now became the leader of the -remnant which stood by the cause of the imprisoned queen. Already a -physical wreck, he was borne into Edinburgh Castle in April 1571 and -with Kirkcaldy he held this fortress against the regent Morton and his -English auxiliaries. The castle surrendered in May 1573 and on the 7th -or the 9th of June following Maitland died at Leith, there being very -little evidence for the theory that he poisoned himself. "Secretary -Maitland" was a man of great learning with a ready wit and a caustic -tongue. He was reputed to be the most versatile and accomplished -statesman of his age, and almost alone among his Scottish contemporaries -he placed his country above the claims of either the Roman Catholic or -the Protestant religions. Among the testimonies to his great abilities -are those of Queen Elizabeth, of William Cecil and of Knox. By his -second wife, Mary Fleming, one of Queen Mary's ladies, whom he married -in 1567, he had a son and daughter. His son James died without issue -about 1620. - - See John Skelton, _Maitland of Lethington_ (1894); A. Lang, _History - of Scotland_, vol. ii. (1902). - - - - -MAITLAND, EAST and WEST, adjoining municipalities in Northumberland -county, New South Wales, Australia, 120 m. by rail N. of Sydney. Pop. -(1901), West Maitland, 6798; East Maitland, 3287. These towns are -situated in a valley on the Hunter River, which is liable to sudden -floods, to guard against which the river is protected by stone -embankments at West Maitland, while there are flood-gates at East -Maitland. Maitland is the centre of the rich agricultural district of -the Hunter Valley, which produces maize, wheat and other cereals, -lucerne, tobacco, fruit and wine; excellent coal also is worked in the -vicinity. East Maitland is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop, whose -cathedral (St John's), however, is situated in the larger town. Besides -this, West Maitland contains several handsome public and commercial -buildings. - - - - -MAITREYA, the name of the future Buddha. In one of the works included in -the Pali canon, the _Digha Nikaya_, a prophecy is put into the Buddha's -mouth that after the decay of the religion another Buddha, named -Metteyya, will arise who will have thousands of followers instead of the -hundreds that the historical Buddha had. This is the only mention of the -future Buddha in the canon. For some centuries we hear nothing more -about him. But when, in the period just before and after the Christian -era, some Buddhists began to write in Sanskrit instead of Pali, they -composed new works in which Maitreya (the Sanskrit form of Metteyya) is -more often mentioned, and details are given as to his birthplace and -history. These are entirely devised in imitation of the details of the -life of the historical Buddha, and have no independent value. Only the -names differ. The document in which the original prophecy occurs was put -together at some date during the 1st century after the Buddha's death -(see NIKAYA). It is impossible to say whether tradition was, at that -time, correct in attributing it to the Buddha. But whoever chose the -name (it is a patronymic or family, not a personal name), had no doubt -regard to the etymological connexion with the word for "love," which is -Metta in Pali. This would only be one of those punning allusions so -frequent in Indian literature. - -Long afterwards, probably in the 6th or 7th century, a reformer in south -India, at a time when the incoming flood of ritualism and superstition -threatened to overwhelm the simple teaching of the earlier Buddhism, -wrote a Pali poem, entitled the _Anagata Vamsa_. In this he described -the golden age of the future when, in the time of Metteyya, kings, -ministers and people would vie one with the other in the maintenance of -the original simple doctrine, and in the restoration of the good times -of old. The other side also claimed the authority of the future Buddha -for their innovations. Statues of Maitreya are found in Buddhist -temples, of all sects, at the present day; and the belief in his future -advent is universal among Buddhists. - - Authorities.--_Digha Nikaya_, vol. iii., edited by J. E. Carpenter, - (London, 1908); "_Anagata Vamsa_," edited by J. Minayeff in _Journal - of the Pali Text Society_ (1886); _Watters on Yuan Chwang_, edited by - Rhys Davids and S. W. Bushell (London, 1904-1905). (T. W. R. D.) - - - - -MAIWAND, a village of Afghanistan, 50 m. N.W. of Kandahar. It is chiefly -notable for the defeat inflicted on a British brigade under General -Burrows by Ayub Khan on the 27th of July 1880 during the second Afghan -War (see AFGHANISTAN). Ayub Khan, Shere Ali's younger son, who had been -holding Herat during the British operations at Kabul and Kandahar, set -out towards Kandahar with a small army in June 1880, and a brigade under -General Burrows was detached from Kandahar to oppose him. Burrows -advanced to the Helmund, opposite Girishk, to oppose Ayub Khan, but was -there deserted by the troops of Shere Ali, the wali of Kandahar, and -forced to retreat to Kushk-i-Nakhud, half way to Kandahar. In order to -prevent Ayub passing to Ghazni, Burrows advanced to Maiwand on the 27th -of July, and attacked Ayub, who had already seized that place. The -Afghans, who numbered 25,000, outflanked the British, the artillery -expended their ammunition, and the native portion of the Brigade got out -of hand and pressed back on the few British infantry. The British were -completely routed, and had to thank the apathy of the Afghans for -escaping total annihilation. Of the 2476 British troops engaged, 934 -were killed and 175 wounded or missing. This defeat necessitated Sir -Frederick Roberts' famous march from Kabul to Kandahar. - - See Lord Roberts, _Forty-one Years in India_ (1896). - - - - -MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN, _Zea Mays_ (from [Greek: zea] or [Greek: zeia], -which appears to have been "spelt," _Triticum spelta_, according to the -description of Theophrastus), a plant of the tribe Maydeae of the order -Gramineae or grasses (see fig. 1). It is unknown in the native state, -but is most probably indigenous to tropical America. Small grains of an -unknown variety have been found in the ancient tombs of Peru, and Darwin -found heads of maize embedded on the shore in Peru at 85 ft. above the -present sea-level. Bonafous, however (_Histoire naturelle du mais_), -quotes authorities (Bock, 1532, Ruel and Fuchs) as believing that it -came from Asia, and maize was said by Santa Rosa de Viterbo to have been -brought by the Arabs into Spain in the 13th century. A drawing of maize -is also given by Bonafous from a Chinese work on natural history, -_Li-chi-tchin_, dated 1562, a little over sixty years after the -discovery of the New World. It is not figured on Egyptian monuments, nor -was any mention made of it by Eastern travellers in Africa or Asia prior -to the 16th century. Humboldt, Alphonse de Candolle and others, however, -do not hesitate to say that it originated solely in America, where it -had been long and extensively cultivated at the period of the discovery -of the New World; and that is the generally accepted modern view. Some -hold the view that maize originated from a common Mexican fodder grass, -_Euchlaena mexicana_, known as Teosinte, a closely allied plant which -when crossed with maize yields a maize-like hybrid. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1. - -Maize--_Zea Mays_--unripe cob. The membranous spathes have been cut and -drawn aside, revealing the spike of fruit which bears the long silky -styles. One-third nat. size.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Spike of Male Flowers.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Male Spikelet.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Female Spike.] - -The plant is monoecious, producing the staminate (male) flowers in a -large feathery panicle at the summit, and the (female) dense spikes of -flowers, or "cobs," in the axils of the leaves below, the long pink -styles hanging out like a silken tassel. They are invested by the -sheaths of leaves, much used in packing oranges in south Europe, and the -more delicate ones for cigarettes in South America. Fig. 2 shows a -branch of the terminal male inflorescence. Fig. 3 is a single spikelet -of the same, containing two florets, with the three stamens of one only -protruded. Fig. 4 is a spike of the female inflorescence, protected by -the sheaths of leaves--the blades being also present. Usually the -sheaths terminate in a point, the blades being arrested. Fig. 5 is a -spikelet of the female inflorescence, consisting of two outer glumes, -the lower one ciliated, which enclose two florets--one (a) barren -(sometimes fertile), consisting of a flowering glume and pale only, and -the other (b) fertile, containing the pistil with elongated style. The -mass of styles from the whole spike is pendulous from the summit of the -sheaths, as in fig. 4. Fig. 6 shows the fruit or grain. More than three -hundred varieties are known, which differ more among themselves than -those of any other cereal. Some come to maturity in two months, others -require seven months; some are as many feet high as others are inches; -some have kernels eleven times larger than others. They vary similarly -in shape and size of ears, colour of the grain, which may be white, -yellow, purple, striped, &c., and also in physical characters and -chemical composition. Dr E. Lewis Sturtevant, who has made an extended -study of the forms and varieties, classes into seven groups those grown -primarily for the grain, the distinguishing characters of which are -based on the grains or kernels; there are, in addition, forms of -horticultural interest grown for ornament. Pod corn (var. _tunicata_) is -characterized by having each kernel enclosed in a husk. Pop corn (var. -_everta_) has a very large proportion of the "endosperm"--the nutritious -matter which with the small embryo makes up the grain--of a horny -consistency, which causes the grain to pop when heated, that is to say, -the kernel becomes turned inside out by the explosion of the contained -moisture. It is also characterized by the small size of the grain and -ear. Flint corn (var. _indurata_) has a starchy endosperm enclosed in a -horny layer of varying thickness in the different varieties. The colour -of the grain is white, yellow, red, blue or variegated. It is commonly -cultivated in Canada and northern United States, where the seasons are -too short for Dent corn, and has been grown as far north as 50 deg. N. -lat. Dent or field corn (var. _indentata_) has the starchy endosperm -extending to the summit of the grain, with horny endosperm at the sides. -The top of the grain becomes indented, owing to the drying and shrinkage -of the starchy matter; the character of the indented surface varies with -the height and thickness of the horny endosperm. This is the form -commonly grown in the United States; the varieties differ widely in the -size of the plants and the appearance of the ear. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Female Spikelet.] - -The colour of the grain varies greatly, being generally white, yellow, -mottled red, or less commonly red. Soft corn (var. _amylacea_) has no -horny endosperm, and hence the grains shrink uniformly. It is cultivated -only to a limited extent in the United States, but seems to have been -commonly grown by the Indians in many localities in North and South -America. Sweet corn (var. _saccharata_) is characterized by the -translucent horny appearance of the grains and their more or less -wrinkled condition. It is pre-eminently a garden vegetable, the ear -being used before the grain hardens, when it is well filled but soft and -milky. It is often cooked and served in the cob; when canned it is cut -from the cob. Canned sweet corn is an important article of domestic -commerce in Canada and the United States. In starchy sweet corn (var. -_amylea-saccharata_) the grain has the external appearance of sweet -corn, but examination shows the lower half to be starchy, the upper -horny and translucent. A form of flint corn, with variegated leaves, is -grown for ornament under the name _Zea japonica_ or Japanese striped -corn. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Grain.] - -Chemical analysis, like common experience, shows that Indian corn is a -very nutritious article of food, being richer in albuminoids than any -other cereals when ripe (calculated in the dry weight). It can be grown -in the tropics from the level of the sea to a height equal to that of -the Pyrenees and in the south and middle of Europe, but it cannot be -grown in England with any chance of profit, except perhaps as fodder. -Frost kills the plant in all its stages and all its varieties; and the -crop does not flourish well if the nights are cool, no matter how -favourable the other conditions. Consequently it is the first crop to -disappear as one ascends into the mountain regions, and comparatively -little is grown west of the great plains of North America. In Brittany, -where it scarcely ripens the grain, it furnishes a strong crop in the -autumn upon sandy soil where clover and lucerne will yield but a poor -produce. It prefers a deep, rich, warm, dry and mellow soil, and hence -the rich bottoms and fertile prairies of the Mississippi basin -constitute the region of its greatest production. It is extensively -grown throughout India, both for the ripe grain and for use of the -unripe cob as a green vegetable. It is the most common crop throughout -South Africa, where it is known as mealies, being the staple food of the -natives. It is also largely used for fodder and is an important article -of export. - -As an article of food maize is one of the most extensively used grains -in the world. Although rich in nitrogenous matter and fat, it does not -make good bread. A mixture of rye and corn meal, however, makes an -excellent coarse bread, formerly much used in the Atlantic states, and a -similar bread is now the chief coarse bread of Portugal and some parts -of Spain. It is either baked into cakes, called _tortilla_ by the -Indians of Yucatan, or made into a kind of porridge, as in Ireland. When -deprived of the gluten it constitutes oswego, maizena or corn flour. -Maize contains more oil than any other cereal, ranging from 3.5 to 9.5% -in the commercial grain. This is one of the factors in its value for -fattening purposes. In distilling and some other processes this oil is -separated and forms an article of commerce. When maize is sown, -broadcast or closely planted in drills the ears may not develop at all, -but the stalk is richer in sugar and sweeter; and this is the basis of -growing "corn-fodder." The amount of forage that may be produced in this -way is enormous; 50,000 to 80,000 lb. of green fodder are grown per -acre, which makes 8000 to 12,000 lb. as field-cured. Sugar and molasses -have from time to time been manufactured from the corn stalks. - - See articles on corn and _Zea Mays_ in L. H. Bailey's _Cyclopaedia of - American Horticulture_ (1900-1902); and for cultivation in India, - Watt's _Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_, vi. (1893). - - - - - -MAJESTY (Fr. _majeste_; Lat. _majestas_, grandeur, greatness, from the -base _mag-_, as in _magnus_, great, _major_, greater, &c.), dignity, -greatness, a term especially used to express the dignity and power of a -sovereign. This application is to be traced to the use of _majestas_ in -Latin to express the supreme sovereign dignity of the Roman state, the -_majestas reipublicae_ or _populi Romani_, hence _majestatem laedere_ or -_minuere_, was to commit high treason, _crimen majestatis_. (For the -modern law and usage of _laesa majestas, lese majeste, -Majestatsbeleidigung_, see TREASON.) From the republic _majestas_ was -transferred to the emperors, and the _majestas populi Romani_ became the -_majestas imperii_, and _augustalis majestas_ is used as a term to -express the sovereign person of the emperor. Honorius and Theodosius -speak of themselves in the first person as _nostra majestas_. The term -"majesty" was strictly confined in the middle ages to the successors of -the Roman emperors in the West, and at the treaty of Cambrai (1529) it -is reserved for the emperor Charles V. Later the word is used of kings -also, and the distinction is made between imperial majesty (_caesareana -majestas_) and kingly or royal majesty. From the 16th century dates the -application of "Most Christian and Catholic Majesty" to the kings of -France, of "Catholic Majesty" to the kings of Spain, of "Most Faithful -Majesty" to the kings of Portugal, and "Apostolic Majesty" to the kings -of Hungary. In England the use is generally assigned to the reign of -Henry VIII., but it is found, though not in general usage, earlier; thus -the _New English Dictionary_ quotes from an _Address of the Kings Clerks -to Henry II._ in 1171 (Materials for the History of Archbishop Becket, -vii. 471, Rolls Series, 1885), where the king is styled _vestra -majestas_, and Selden (_Titles of Honour_, part i. ch. 7, p. 98, ed. -1672) finds many early uses in letters to Edward I., in charters of -creation of peers, &c. The fullest form in English usage is "His Most -Gracious Majesty"; another form is "The King's Most Excellent Majesty," -as in the English Prayer-book. "His Sacred Majesty" was common in the -17th century; and of this form Selden says: "It is true, I think, that -in our memory or the memory of our fathers, the use of it first began in -England." "His Majesty," abbreviated H.M., is now the universal European -use in speaking of any reigning king, and "His Imperial Majesty," -H.I.M., of any reigning emperor. - -From the particular and very early use of "majesty" for the glory and -splendour of God, the term has been used in ecclesiastical art of the -representation of God the Father enthroned in glory, sometimes with the -other persons of the Trinity, and of the Saviour alone, enthroned with -an aureole. - - - - -MAJLATH, JANOS, or JOHN, COUNT (1786-1855), Hungarian historian and -poet, was born at Pest on the 5th of October 1786. First educated at -home, he subsequently studied philosophy at Eger (Erlau) and law at Gyor -(Raab), his father, Count Joseph Majlath, an Austrian minister of state, -eventually obtaining for him an appointment in the public service. -Majlath devoted himself to historical research and the translation into -German of Magyar folk-tales, and of selections from the works of the -best of his country's native poets. Moreover, as an original lyrical -writer, and as an editor and adapter of old German poems, Majlath showed -considerable talent. During the greater part of his life he resided -either at Pest or Vienna, but a few years before his death he removed to -Munich, where he fell into a state of destitution and extreme -despondency. Seized at last by a terrible infatuation, he and his -daughter Henriette, who had long been his constant companion and -amanuensis, drowned themselves in the Lake of Starnberg, a few miles -south-west of Munich, on the 3rd of January 1855. - - Of his historical works the most important are the _Geschichte der - Magyaren_ (Vienna, 1828-1831, 5 vols.; 2nd ed., Ratisbon, 1852-1853) - and his _Geschichte des osterreichischen Kaiserstaats_ (Hamburg, - 1834-1850, 5 vols.). Specially noteworthy among his metrical - translations from the Hungarian are the _Magyarische Gedichte_ - (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1825); and _Himfy's auserlesene Liebeslieder_ - (Pest, 1829; 2nd ed., 1831). A valuable contribution to folk-lore - appeared in the _Magyarische Sagen, Marchen und Erzahlungen_ (Brunn, - 1825; 2nd ed., Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1837, 2 vols.). - - - - -MAJOLICA, a name properly applied to a species of Italian ware in which -the body is coated with a tin-enamel, on which is laid and fired a -painted decoration. It is also applied to similar wares made in -imitation of the Italian ware in other countries. The word in Italian is -_maiolica_. Du Cange (_Gloss. s.v._ "Majorica") quotes from a chronicle -of Verona of 1368, in which the form _majolica_ occurs for the more -usual Latin form _majorica_. It has usually been supposed that this type -of pottery was first made in the island of Majorca, but it is more -probable that the name was given by the Italians to the lustred Spanish -ware imported by ships hailing from the Balearic Islands. (See CERAMICS: -_Medieval and Later Italian_.) - - - - -MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550), Scottish theological and historical -writer, was born at the village of Gleghornie, near North Berwick, -Scotland, in the year 1470. He was educated at the school of Haddington, -where John Knox was later a pupil. After a short period spent at -Cambridge (at God's House, afterwards Christ's College) he entered the -university of Paris in 1493, studying successively at the colleges of St -Barbe, Montaigu and Navarre, and graduating as master of arts in 1496. -Promoted to the doctorate in 1505, he lectured on philosophy at Montaigu -College and on theology at Navarre. He visited Scotland in 1515 and -returned in 1518, when he was appointed principal regent in the -university of Glasgow, John Knox being among the number of those who -attended his lectures there. In 1522 he removed to St Andrew's -University, where in 1525 George Buchanan was one of his pupils. He -returned to the college of Montaigu in 1525, but was once more at St -Andrew's in 1531, where he was head of St Salvator's College from 1534 -until his death. - -Major's voluminous writings may be grouped under (a) logic and -philosophy, (b) Scripture commentary, and (c) history. All are in Latin, -all appeared between 1503 and 1530, and all were printed at Paris. The -first group includes his _Exponabilia_ (1503), his commentary on Petrus -Hispanus (1505-1506), his _Inclitarum artium libri_ (1506, &c.), his -commentary on Joannes Dorp (1504, &c.), his _Insolubilia_ (1516, &c.), -his introduction to Aristotle's logic (1521, &c.), his commentary on the -ethics (1530), and, chief of all, his commentary on Peter Lombard's -_Sentences_ (1509, &c.); the second consists of a commentary on Matthew -(1518) and another on the Four Gospels (1529); the last is represented -by his famous _Historia Majoris Britanniae tam Angliae quam Scotiae per -J. M._ (1521). In political philosophy he maintained the Scotist -position, that civil authority was derived from the popular will, but in -theology he was a scholastic conservative, though he never failed to -show his approbation of Gallicanism and its plea for the reform of -ecclesiastical abuses. He has left on record that it was his aim and -hope to reconcile realism and nominalism in the interests of theological -peace. He had a world-wide reputation as a teacher and writer. -Buchanan's severe epigram, perhaps the only unfriendly words in the -flood of contemporary praise, may be explained as a protest against the -compromise which Major appeared to offer rather than as a personal -attack on his teacher. Major takes a more independent attitude in his -_History_, which is a remarkable example of historical accuracy and -insight. He claims that the historian's chief duty is to write -truthfully, and he is careful to show that a theologian may fulfil this -condition. - - The _History_, on which his fame now rests, was reprinted by Freebairn - (Edinburgh, 1740), and was translated in 1892 by Archibald Constable - for the Scottish History Society. The latter volume contains a full - account of the author by Aeneas J. G. Mackay and a bibliography by - Thomas Graves Law. - - - - -MAJOR (Lat. for "greater"), a word used, both as a substantive and -adjective, for that which is greater than another in size, quality, -degree, importance, &c., often opposed correlatively to that to which -"minor" is applied in the same connotation. In the categorical syllogism -in logic, the major term is the term which forms the predicate of the -conclusion, the major premise is that which contains the major term. -(For the distinction between major and minor intervals, and other -applications in music, see MUSIC and HARMONY.) - -The use of _Major_ as part of an official title in Med. Lat. has given -the Span. _mayor_, Fr. _maire_, and Eng. "_mayor_" (q.v.). In English the -unadapted form "major" is the title of a military officer now ranking -between a captain and a lieutenant-colonel. Originally the word was used -adjectivally in the title "sergeant-major," an officer of high rank -(third in command of an army) who performed the same duties of -administration, drill and encampments on the staff of the chief commander -as the sergeant in a company performs as assistant to the captain. This -was in the latter half of the 16th century, and very soon afterwards the -"sergeant-major" became known as the "sergeant-major-general"--hence the -modern title of major-general. By the time of the English Civil War -"majors" had been introduced in each regiment of foot, who corresponded -in a lesser sphere to the "major-general" of the whole army. The major's -sphere of duties, precedence and title have since varied but little, -though he has, in the British service, taken the place of the -lieutenant-colonel as second in command--the latter officer exercising -the command of the cavalry regiment, infantry battalion or artillery -brigade, and the colonel being, save for certain administrative -functions, little more than the titular chief of his regiment. Junior -majors command companies of infantry; squadrons of cavalry and batteries -of artillery are also commanded by majors. In most European armies, -however, and of late years in the army of the United States also, the -major has become a battalion commander under the orders of a regimental -commander (colonel or lieutenant-colonel). The word appears also in the -British service in "brigade-major" (the adjutant or staff officer of a -brigade). "Town-majors" (garrison staff officers) are now no longer -appointed. In the French service up to 1871 the "major-general" was the -chief of the general staff of a field army, and thus preserved the -tradition of the former "sergeant-major" or "sergeant-major-general." - - - - -MAJORCA (_Mallorca_), the largest of the group of Spanish islands in the -Mediterranean Sea known as the Balearic Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900), -248,191; area, 430 sq. m. Majorca has the shape of a trapezoid, with the -angles directed to the cardinal points; and its diagonal, from Cape -Grozer in the west to Cape Pera in the east, is about 60 m. On the -north-west the coast is precipitous, but on the other sides it is low -and sloping. On the north-east there are several considerable bays, of -which the chief are those of Alcudia and Pollensa; while on the -south-west is the still more important bay of Palma. No fewer than -twelve ports or harbours are enumerated round the island, of which may -be mentioned Andraitx and Soller. In the north-west Majorca is traversed -by a chain of mountains running parallel with the coast, and attaining -its highest elevation in Silla de Torrellas (5154 ft.). Towards the -south and east the surface is comparatively level, though broken by -isolated peaks of considerable height. The northern mountains afford -great protection to the rest of the island from the violent gales to -which it would otherwise be exposed, and render the climate remarkably -mild and pleasant. The scenery of Majorca has all the picturesqueness of -outline that usually belongs to a limestone formation. Some of the -valleys, such as those of Valdemosa and Soller, with their luxuriant -vegetation, are delightful resorts. There are quarries of marble of -various grains and colours--those near Santany, in the district of -Manacor, being especially celebrated; while lead, iron and cinnabar have -also been obtained. Coal of a jet-like character is found at Benisalem, -where it was first worked in 1836; at Selva, where it has been mined -since 1851; near Santa Maria and elsewhere. It is used in the industrial -establishments of Palma, and in the manufacture of lime, plaster and -bricks near the mines. A considerable quantity is also exported to -Barcelona. - -The inhabitants are principally devoted to agriculture, and most of the -arable land is cultivated. The mountains are terraced; and the old pine -woods have in many places given way to the olive, the vine and the -almond tree, to fields of wheat and flax, or to orchards of figs and -oranges. For the last-mentioned fruits the valley of Soller is one of -the most important districts, the produce being largely transmitted to -France. The yield of oil is very considerable, and Inca is the centre of -the oil district. The wines are light but excellent, especially the -Muscadel and Montona. During the summer there is often great scarcity of -water; but, according to a system handed down by the Moors, the rains of -autumn and winter are collected in enormous reservoirs, which contain -sufficient water to last through the dry season; and on the payment of a -certain rate, each landholder has his fields flooded at certain -intervals. Mules are used in the agriculture and traffic of the island. -The cattle are small, but the sheep are large and well fleeced. Pigs are -reared for export to Barcelona, and there is abundance of poultry and -small game. Brandy is made and exported in large quantities. Excellent -woollen and linen cloths are woven; the silkworm is reared and its -produce manufactured; and canvas, rope and cord are largely made, from -both native and foreign materials. - -The roads are excellent, the four principal being those from Alcudia, -Manacor, Soller and Andraitx to the capital. Forty-eight miles of -railway were open at the beginning of the 20th century. The main line -runs from Palma to Manacor and Alcudia. The telegraphic system is fairly -complete, and there is regular steam communication with Barcelona and -Alicante. The principal towns include--besides Palma (63,937), Felanitx -(11,294) and Manacor (12,408), which are described in separate -articles--Andraitx (6516), Inca (7579), Llummayor (8859), Pollensa -(8308), Santany (6692) and Soller (8026). - - - - -MAJORIAN (JULIUS VALERIUS MAJORIANUS), emperor of the West from 457 to -461. He had distinguished himself as a general by victories over the -Franks and Alemanni, and six months after the deposition of Avitus he -was declared emperor by the regent Ricimer. After repelling an attack by -the Vandals upon Campania (458) he prepared a large force, composed -chiefly of barbarians, to invade Africa, which he previously visited in -disguise. Having during his stay in Gaul defeated and concluded an -alliance with Theodoric the Visigoth, at the beginning of 460 he crossed -the Pyrenees for the purpose of joining the powerful fleet which he had -collected at Carthagena. The Vandal king Genseric, however, after all -overtures of peace had been rejected, succeeded through the treachery of -certain officers in surprising the Roman fleet, most of the ships being -either taken or destroyed. Majorian thereupon made peace with Genseric. -But his ill-success had destroyed his military reputation; his efforts -to put down abuses and improve the condition of the people had roused -the hatred of the officials; and Ricimer, jealous of his fame and -influence, stirred up the foreign troops against him. A mutiny broke out -in Lombardy, and on the 2nd of August 461 Majorian was forced to resign. -He died five days afterwards, either of dysentery or by violence. -Majorian was the author of a number of remarkable laws, contained in the -Theodosian Code. He remitted all arrears of taxes, the collection of -which was for the future placed in the hands of the local officials. He -revived the institution of _defensores_, defenders of cities, whose duty -it was to protect the poor and inform the emperor of abuses committed in -his name. The practice of pulling down the ancient monuments to be used -as building material, which was connived at by venal officials, was -strictly prohibited. He also passed laws against compulsory ordination -and premature vows of celibacy. - - See Sidonius Apollinaris, _Panegyric of Majorian_; Gibbon, _Decline - and Fall_, ch. xxxvi. (where an outline of the "novels" of Majorian is - given); J. B. Bury, _Later Roman Empire_, bk. iii. - - - - -MAJORITY (Fr. _majorite_; Med. Lat. _majoritas_; Lat. _major_, greater), -a term signifying the greater number. In legislative and deliberative -assemblies it is usual to decide questions by a majority of those -present at a meeting and voting. In law, majority is the state of being -of full age, which in the United Kingdom is twenty-one years of age. A -person attains his majority at twelve o'clock at night of the day -preceding his twenty-first birthday (see INFANT; AGE). - - - - -MAJUBA (properly AMAJUBA, Zulu for "the hill of doves"), a mountain in -northern Natal, part of the Drakensberg range, rising about 7000 ft. -above the sea and over 2000 ft. above the level of the surrounding -country. It overlooks the pass through the Drakensberg known as Laing's -Nek, is 8 m. S. of the Transvaal border and 18 m. N. of the town of -Newcastle. The railway from Durban to Johannesburg skirts the base of -the mountain. During the Boer War of 1880-81 Majuba was occupied on the -night of the 26th of February 1881 by some 600 British troops under Sir -George Pomeroy Colley. On the following morning the hill was stormed by -the Boers under Piet Joubert and the British routed, Colley being among -the slain. - - - - -MAKALAKA, a general designation used by the Bechuana, Matabele and -kindred peoples, for conquered or slave tribes. Thus many of the tribes -subjugated by the Makololo chief, Sebituane, about 1830 were called -Makalaka (see David Livingstone's _Missionary Travels and Researches in -South Africa_, London, 1857). By early writers on south-central Africa -certain of the inhabitants of Barotseland were styled Makalaka; the name -is more frequently used to designate the Makalanga, one of the tribes -now classed as Mashonas (q.v.), who were brought into subjection by the -Matabele. - - - - -MAKARAKA, or IDDIO ("Cannibals"), a negroid people of Central Africa, -closely related to the powerful Azandeh or Niam-Niam race, occupying the -Bahr-el-Ghazal west of Lado. They came originally from the country of -the Kibas, north of the Welle. Dr W. Junker described them as among the -most trustworthy, industrious and intelligent people of the -Bahr-el-Ghazal. They are a reddish-black, with nose less flat and -cheek-bones less prominent than the ordinary negroes, and, unlike the -latter, do not extract the incisors. Their long silky hair is built up -in the most fantastic form by means of vegetable substances. They are -well-known for strength and staying power. - - See W. Junker, _Travels in Africa_ (1890-1892). - - - - -MAKART, HANS (1840-1884), Austrian painter, born at Salzburg, was the -son of an inspector of the imperial castle. He has been aptly called the -first German _painter_ of the 19th century. When he, as a youth, entered -the Vienna Academy German art was under the rule of Cornelius's cold -classicism. It was entirely intellectual and academic. Clear and precise -drawing, sculpturesque modelling, and pictorial erudition were the -qualities most esteemed; and it is not surprising that Makart, poor -draughtsman to the very last, with a passionate and sensual love of -colour, and ever impatient to escape the routine of art-school drawing, -was found to be "devoid of all talent" and forced to leave the Vienna -Academy. He went to Munich, and after two years of independent study -attracted the attention of Piloty, under whose guidance he made rapid -and astonishing progress. The first picture he painted under Piloty, -"Lavoisier in Prison," though timid and conventional, attracted -attention by its sense of colour. In the next, "The Knight and the Water -Nymphs," he first displayed the decorative qualities to which he -afterwards sacrificed everything else in his work. With the "Cupids" and -"The Plague in Florence" of the next year his fame became firmly -established. "Romeo and Juliet" was soon after bought by the Austrian -emperor for the Vienna Museum, and Makart was invited to come to Vienna, -where a large studio was placed at his disposal. In Vienna Makart became -the acknowledged leader of the artistic life of the city, which in the -'seventies passed through a period of feverish activity, the chief -results of which are the sumptuously decorated public buildings of the -Ringstrasse. - -The enthusiasm of the time, the splendour of the fetes over which Makart -presided, and the very obvious appeal of his huge compositions in their -glowing richness of colour, in which he tried to emulate Rubens, made -him appear a very giant to his contemporaries in Vienna, and indeed in -all Austria and Germany. The appearance of each of his ambitious -historical and allegorical paintings was hailed with enthusiasm--the -"Catherina Cornaro," "Diana's Hunt," "The Entry of Charles V. into -Antwerp," "Abundantia," "Spring," "Summer," "The Death of Cleopatra" and -the "Five Senses." He reached the zenith of his fame when, in 1879, he -designed, single-handed, the costumes, scenic setting, and triumphal -cars of the grand pageant with which the citizens of Vienna celebrated -the silver wedding of their rulers. Some 15,000 people participated in -the pageant, all dressed in the costumes of the Rubens and Rembrandt -period. Makart died in Vienna in October 1884. - - Unfortunately Makart was in the habit of using such villainous - pigments and mediums that in the few decades which have passed since - his death, the vast majority of his large paintings have practically - perished. The blues have turned into green; the bitumen has eaten away - the rich glow of the colour harmonies; the thickly applied paint has - cracked and in some instances crumbled away. And this loss of their - chief quality has accentuated the weaknesses of these pictures--the - faulty drawing, careless and hasty execution, lack of deeper - significance and prevalence of glaring anachronisms. Important - examples of his work are to be found at the galleries of Vienna, - Berlin, Hamburg and Stuttgart. For the Vienna Museum he also executed - a series of decorative lunettes. - - - - -MAKING-UP PRICE, a term used in the London and other British Stock -Exchanges, to denote the price at which speculative bargains are carried -over from one account to the next. The carrying over of a "bull" -position in Eries, for example, implies a sale for cash and a -simultaneous repurchase for the new account, both bargains being done at -the making-up price. This is fixed at noon on carry-over day, in -accordance with the market price then current (see ACCOUNT; STOCK -EXCHANGE). The term is also used in New York, where the making-up prices -are fixed at the end of a day's business, in accordance with the -American system of daily settlements. - - - - -MAKO, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Csanad 135 m. S.E. of -Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 33,701. It is situated near the right -bank of the Maros, and is a typical Hungarian town of the Alfold. The -most noteworthy building is the palace of the bishop of Csanad, whose -usual residence is in Temesvar. The town possesses numerous mills, and -the surrounding country is fertile. The communal lands are extensive; -they afford excellent pasturage for horses and sheep and also for large -herds of horned cattle, for the size and quality of which Mako has -obtained a high repute. - - - - -MAKRAN, or MEKRAN, a province of Baluchistan, fringing the Arabian Sea -from Persia almost to Sind for about 200 m. It is subject to the khan of -Kalat under British political supervision. Estimated area, 26,000 sq. -m.; estimated pop. (1903), 78,000. The long lateral valley of Kej is -usually associated with Makran in early geographical records. The -Kej-Macoran of Marco Polo is the Makran of to-day. - -The long stretch of sandy foreshore is broken on the coast-line by the -magnificent cliffs of Malan, the hammer-shaped headlands of Ormarah and -Gwadar, and the precipitous cliffs of Jebel Zarain, near Pasni. Within -them lies the usual frontier band of parallel ridges, alternating with -narrow valleys. Amongst them the ranges called Talana and Talur are -conspicuous by their height and regular configuration. The normal -conformation of the Baluchistan frontier is somewhat emphasized in -Makran. Here the volcanic action, which preceded the general upheaval of -recent strata and the folding of the edges of the interior highlands, is -still in evidence in occasional boiling mud volcanoes on the coast-line. -It is repeated in the blazing summit of the Kuh-i-taftan (the burning -mountain of the Persian frontier) which is the highest active volcano in -Asia (13,000 ft.), and probably the farthest inland. Evidence of extinct -mud volcanoes exists through a very wide area in Baluchistan and -Seistan. Probably the _miri_, or fort, at Quetta represents one of them. -The coast is indented by several harbours. Ormarah, Khor Kalmat, Pasni -and Gwadar are all somewhat difficult of approach by reason of a -sand-bar which appears to extend along the whole coast-line, and which -is very possibly the last evidence of a submerged ridge; and they are -all subject to a very lively surf under certain conditions of wind. Of -these the port of Gwadar (which belongs to Muscat and is therefore -foreign territory) is the most important. They all are (or were) -stations of the Indo-Persian telegraph system which unites Karachi with -Bushire. With the exception of the Kej valley, and that of the Bolida, -which is an affluent of the Kej, there are no considerable spaces of -cultivation in Makran. These two valleys seem to concentrate the whole -agricultural wealth of the country. They are picturesque, with thick -groves of date palms at intervals, and are filled with crops and -orchards. They are indeed exceedingly beautiful; and yet the surrounding -waste of hills is chiefly a barren repetition of sun-cracked crags and -ridges with parched and withered valleys intersecting them, where a -trickle of salt water leaves a white and leprous streak amongst the -faded tamarisk or the yellow stalks of last season's grass. Makran is -the home of remnants of an innumerable company of mixed people gathered -from the four corners of Asia and eastern Africa. The ancient -Dravidians, of whom the Brahui is typical, still exist in many of the -districts which are assigned to them in Herodotus. Amongst them there is -always a prominent Arab element, for the Arabs held Makran even before -they conquered Sind and made the Kej valley their trade highway to -India. There are negroes on the coast, bred from imported slaves. The -Meds of the Indus valley still form the greater part of the fishing -population, representing the Ichthyophagi of Arrian. The old Tajik -element of Persia is not so evident in Makran as it is farther north; -and the Karak pirates whose depredations led to the invasion of India -and the conquest of Sind, seem to have disappeared altogether. The -fourth section includes the valleys formed by the Rakshan and Mashkel, -which, sweeping downwards from the Kalat highlands and the Persian -border east and west, unite to break through the intervening chain of -hills northward to form the Mashkel swamps, and define the northern -limits of Makran. In these valleys are narrow strips of very advanced -cultivation, the dates of Panjgur being generally reckoned superior even -to those of the Euphrates. The great Mashkel swamp and the Kharan desert -to the east of it, mark the flat phase of southern Baluchistan -topography. It is geologically part of an ancient inland lake or sea -which included the present swamp regions of the Helmund, but not the -central depression of the Lora. The latter is buttressed against hills -at a much higher elevation than the Kharan desert, which is separated -from the great expanse of the Helmund desert within the borders of -Afghanistan by a transverse band of serrated hills forming a distinct -watershed from Nushki to Seistan. Here and there these jagged peaks -appear as if half overwhelmed by an advancing sea of sand. They are -treeless and barren, and water is but rarely found at the edges of their -foothills. The Koh-i-Sultan, at the western extremity of the northern -group of these irregular hills, is over 6000 ft. above sea-level, but -the general level of the surrounding deserts is only about 2000 ft., -sinking to 1500 ft. in the Mashkel Hamun and the Gaod-i-Zirreh. - -The whole of this country has been surveyed by Indian surveyors and the -boundary between Persian and British Baluchistan was demarcated by a -commission in 1895-1896. In 1898 a column of British troops under -Colonel Mayne was despatched to Makran by sea, owing to a rebellion -against the authority of the khan of Kalat, and an attack made by some -Makran chiefs on a British survey party. The campaign was short and -terminated with the capture of the Kej citadel. Another similar -expedition was required in 1901 to storm the fort at Nodiz. The -headquarters of the native governor, under the khan of Kalat, are at -Turbat, with deputies at Tump, Kolwa, Pasni and Panjgur. A levy corps, -with two British officers, is stationed along the western frontier. The -port of Gwadur forms an enclave belonging to the sultan of Muscat. - - _Baluchistan District Gazetteer_, vol. vii. (Bombay, 1907). - (T. H. H.*) - - - - -MAKSOORA, the term in Mahommedan architecture given to the sanctuary or -praying-chamber in a mosque, which was sometimes enclosed with a screen -of lattice-work; the word is occasionally used for a similar enclosure -round a tomb. - - - - -MALABAR, a district of British India, in the Madras Presidency. -Geographically the name is sometimes extended to the entire western -coast of the peninsula. Properly it should apply to the strip below the -Ghats, which is inhabited by people speaking the Malayalam language, a -branch of the Dravidian stock, who form a peculiar race, with castes, -customs and traditions of their own. It would thus be coextensive with -the old kingdom of Chera, including the modern states of Travancore and -Cochin, and part of Kanara. In 1901 the total number of persons speaking -Malayalam in all India was 6,029,304. - -The district of Malabar extends for 145 m. along the coast, running -inland to the Ghats with a breadth varying from 70 to 25 m. The -administrative headquarters are at Calicut. Area, 5795 sq. m. Malabar is -singularly diversified in its configuration; from the eastward, the -great range of the Western Ghats, only interrupted by the Palghat gap, -looks down on a country broken by long spurs, extensive ravines, dense -forests and tangled jungle. To the westward, gentler slopes and downs, -and gradually widening valleys closely cultivated, succeed the forest -uplands, till, nearer the seaboard, the low laterite table-lands shelve -into rice plains and backwaters fringed with coco-nut palms. The coast -runs in a south-easterly direction, and forms a few headlands and small -bays, with a natural harbour in the south at Cochin. In the south there -is considerable extent of table-land. The mountains of the Western Ghats -run almost parallel to the coast, and vary from 3000 to 7000 ft. in -height. One of the most characteristic features of Malabar is an all but -continuous chain of lagoons or backwaters lying parallel to the coast, -which have been formed by the action of the waves and shore currents in -obstructing the waters of the rivers. Connected by artificial canals, -they form a cheap means of transit; and a large local trade is carried -on by inland navigation. Fishing and fishcuring is an important -industry. The forests are extensive and of great value, but they are -almost entirely private property. The few tracts which are conserved -have come into government hands by escheat or by contract. Wild animals -include the elephant, tiger, panther, bison, _sambhar_, spotted deer, -Nilgiri ibex, and bear. The population in 1901 was 2,800,555, showing an -increase of 5.6% in the decade. - -The staple crop is rice, the next most important product being -coco-nuts. Coffee is grown chiefly in the upland tract known as the -Wynaad, where there are also a few acres under tea. The Madras railway -crosses the district and has been extended from Calicut to Cannanore -along the coast. There are eleven seaports, of which the principal are -Calicut, Tellicherry, Cannanore and Cochin. The principal exports are -coffee, coco-nut products and timber. There are factories for cleaning -coffee, pressing coir and making matting, making tiles, sawing timber -and weaving cotton. - - See _Malabar District Gazetteer_ (Madras, 1908). - - - - -MALABARI, BEHRAMJI (1853- ), Indian journalist and social reformer, was -born in 1853 at Baroda, the son of a poor Parsi in the employment of the -state, who died shortly after his birth. His mother took him to Surat, -where he was educated in a mission school, but he never succeeded in -gaining an academical degree. Coming to Bombay, he fell under the -influence of Dr John Wilson, principal of the Scottish College. As early -as 1875 he published a volume of poems in Gujarati, followed in 1877 by -_The Indian Muse in English Garb_, which attracted attention in England, -notably from Tennyson, Max Muller, and Florence Nightingale. His life -work began in 1880 when he acquired the _Indian Spectator_, which he -edited for twenty years until it was merged in the _Voice of India_. In -1901 he became editor of _East and West_. Always holding aloof from -politics, he was an ardent and indefatigable advocate of social reform -in India, especially as regards child marriage and the remarriage of -widows. It was largely by his efforts, both in the press and in tours -through the country, that the Age of Consent Act was passed in 1891. His -account of his visits to England, entitled _The Indian Eye on English -Life_ (1893), passed through three editions, and an earlier book of a -somewhat satirical nature, _Gujarat and the Gujaratis_ (1883), was -equally popular. - - See R. P. Karkaria, _India, Forty Years of Progress and Reform_, - (London, 1896). - - - - -MALABON, a town of the province of Rizal, Luzon, Philippine Islands, 1 -m. inland from the shore of Manila Bay and 3 m. N. of the city of -Manila, with which it is connected by an electric tramway. Pop. (1903), -20,136. The leading industries are the refining of sugar, fishing, -trade, the weaving of jusi cloth, the making of cigars, and the -cultivation of ilang-ilang-trees (_Cananga odorata_) for their flowers, -from which a fine perfume is distilled; ilang-ilang is one of the -principal exports, mostly to France. Tagalog and Spanish are the -principal languages. Malabon was formerly known as Tambobong. - - - - -MALACCA, a town on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, in 2 deg. 14' -N., 102 deg. 12' E., which, with the territory lying immediately around -and behind it forms one of the Straits Settlements, and gives its name -to the Straits which divide Sumatra from the Malay Peninsula. Its name, -which is more correctly transliterated _melaka_, is that of a species of -jungle fruit, and is also borne by the small river on the right bank of -which the old Dutch town stands. The Dutch town is connected by a bridge -with the business quarter on the left bank, which is inhabited almost -exclusively by Chinese, Eurasians and Malays. - -Malacca, now a somnolent little town, a favourite resort of rich Chinese -who have retired from business, is visited by few ships and is the least -important of the three British settlements on the Straits which give -their name to the colony. It has, however, a remarkable history. The -precise date of its foundation cannot be ascertained, but there is -strong reason to believe that this event took place at the earliest in -the 14th century. The Roman youth Ludovigo Barthema is believed to have -been the first European to visit it, some time before 1503; and in 1509 -Diogo Lopez de Siqueira sailed from Portugal for the express purpose of -exploiting Malacca. At first he was hospitably received, but -disagreements with the natives ensued and word was brought to Siqueira -by Magellan, who was one of his company, that a treacherous attack was -about to be made upon his ships. Siqueira then sent a native man and -woman ashore "with an arrow passed through their skulls" to the sultan, -"who was thus informed," says de Barros, "through his subjects that -unless he kept a good watch the treason which he had perpetrated would -be punished with fire and sword." The sultan retaliated by arresting Ruy -de Araujo, the factor, and twenty other men who were ashore with him -collecting cargo for the ships. Siqueira immediately burned one of his -vessels and sailed direct for Portugal. In 1510 Mendez de Vasconcellos -with a fleet of four ships set out from Portugal "to go and conquer -Malacca," but d'Alboquerque detained him at Goa, and it was not until -1511 that d'Alboquerque himself found time to visit Malacca and seek to -rescue the Portuguese prisoners who all this time had remained in the -hands of the sultan. An attack was delivered by d'Alboquerque on the -25th of July 1511, but it was only partially successful, and it was not -until the 4th of August, when the assault was repeated, that the place -finally fell. Since that time Malacca has continued to be the possession -of one or another of the European Powers. It was a Portuguese possession -for 130 years, and was the headquarters of their trade and the base of -their commercial explorations in south-eastern Asia while they enjoyed, -and later while they sought to hold, their monopoly in the East. It was -from Malacca, immediately after its conquest, that d'Alboquerque sent -d'Abreu on his voyage of discovery to the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, -which later were the objective of Magellan's voyage of circumnavigation. -During the Portuguese tenure of Malacca the place was attacked at least -twice by the Achinese; its shipping was harried by Lancaster in 1592, -when the first British fleet made its way into these seas; it was -besieged by the Dutch in 1606, and finally fell to a joint attack of the -Dutch and the Achinese in 1641. It was under the Portuguese government -that St Francis Xavier started a mission in Malacca, the first Christian -mission in Malayan lands. - -The Dutch held Malacca till 1795, when it was taken from them by Great -Britain, and the Dutch system of monopoly in the straits was forthwith -abolished. The colony was restored to the Dutch, however, in 1818, but -six years later it came finally into the hands of Great Britain, being -exchanged by a treaty with Holland for the East India Company's -settlement of Benkulen and a few other unimportant places on the western -coast of Sumatra. By this treaty the Dutch were precluded from -interference in the affairs of the Malay Peninsula, and Great Britain -from similar action in regard to the States of Sumatra, with the sole -exception of Achin, the right to protect that state being maintained by -Great Britain until 1872 when it was finally abandoned by a treaty -concluded with Holland in that year. The Dutch took advantage of this -immediately to invade Achin, and the strife begun in 1873 still -continues and is now a mere war of extermination. It was not until 1833 -that the whole territory lying at the back of Malacca was finally -brought under British control, and as late as 1887 the Negri Sembilan, -or Nine States, which adjoin Malacca territory on the east and -north-east, were completely independent. They to-day form part of the -Federated Malay States, which are under the protection of Great Britain, -and are governed with the assistance and by the advice of British -officers. - -Malacca, in common with the rest of the Straits Settlements, was -administered by the government of India until 1867, when it became a -crown colony under the control of the Colonial Office. It is to-day -administered by a resident councillor, who is responsible to the -governor of the Straits Settlements, and by a number of district -officers and other officials under his direction. The population of the -town and territory of Malacca in 1901 was 94,487, of whom 74 were -Europeans and Americans, 1598 were Eurasians, the rest being Asiatics -(chiefly Malays with a considerable sprinkling of Chinese). The -population in 1891 was 92,170, and the estimated population for 1905 was -97,000. The birth-rate is about 35 per thousand, and the death-rate -about 29 per thousand. The trade of this once flourishing port has -declined, most of the vessels being merely coasting craft, and no large -line of steamers holding any communication with the place. This is due -partly to the shallowness of the harbour, and partly to the fact that -the ports of Penang and Singapore, at either entrance to the straits, -draw all the trade and shipping to themselves. The total area of the -settlement is about 700 sq. m. The colony is wholly agricultural, and -the land is almost entirely in the hands of the natives. About 50,000 -acres are under tapioca, and about 9000 acres are under rubber -(_hevea_). This cultivation is rapidly extending. There are still -considerable areas unoccupied which are suitable for rubber and for -coco-nuts. The settlement is well opened up by roads; and a railway, -which is part of the Federated Malay States railway system, has been -constructed from the town of Malacca to Tampin in the Negri Sembilan. -There is a good rest-house at Malacca and a comfortable seaside bungalow -at Tanjong Kling, seven miles from the town. Malacca is 118 m. by sea -from Singapore and 50 m. by rail from Seremban, the capital of the Negri -Sembilan. There is excellent snipe-shooting to be had in the vicinity of -Malacca. - - See _The Commentaries of d'Alboquerque_ (Hakluyt Society); _The - Voyages and Adventures of Fernand Mendez Pinto_ (London, 1653); _An - Account of the East Indies_, by Captain Alexander Hamilton (Edinburgh. - 1727); Valentyn's _History of Malacca_, translated by Dudley Hervey; - _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_; "Our - Tropical Possessions in Malayan India," by the same author, _ibid._; - _Further India_, by Hugh Clifford (London, 1904); _British Malaya_, by - Sir Frank Swettenham (London, 1906). (H. Cl.) - - - - -MALACHI, the name assigned to the last book of the Old Testament in -English (the last of the "prophets" in the Hebrew Bible), which -according to the title (Mal. i. 1) contains the "word of Yahweh to -Israel by the hand of Malachi." In form the word means "my messenger." -It could be explained as a contraction of Malachiah, "messenger of -Yahweh"; but the Septuagint is probably right in not regarding it as a -proper name ("by the hand of His messenger"). Not only do we know -nothing from internal or external evidence of the existence of a prophet -of this name,[1] but the occurrence of the word in the title is -naturally explained as derived from iii. 1: "Behold, I send my -messenger" (cf. ii. 7). The prophecy must, therefore, be regarded as -anonymous; the title was added by the compiler who wrote similar -editorial titles to the anonymous prophecies beginning Zech. ix. 1, xii. -1. - -The contents of the prophecy fall into a series of clearly marked -sections, as in the paragraph division of the Revised Version. These -apply, in various ways, the truth emphasized at the outset: Yahweh's -love for Israel in contrast with his treatment of Edom (i. 2-5). -Israel's response should be a proper regard for the ritual of His -worship; yet any offering, however imperfect, is thought good enough for -Yahweh's altar (i. 6-14). Let the priests, who are responsible, take -warning, and return to their ancient ideals (ii. 1-9). Again, the common -Fatherhood of God should inspire a right relation among fellow -Israelites, not such conduct as the divorce of Israelite wives in order -to marry non-Israelite women (ii. 10-16).[2] The prevalence of -wrong-doing has provoked scepticism as to righteous judgment; but the -messenger of Yahweh is at hand to purge away indifferentism from worship -and immorality from conduct (ii. 17-iii. 6). The payment of tithes now -withheld will be followed by the return of prosperity (iii. 7-12). -Religion may seem useless, but Yahweh remembers His own, and will soon -in open judgment distinguish them from the irreligious (iii. 13-iv. 3). -The book closes with an appeal to observe the law of Moses, and with a -promise that Elijah shall come before the threatened judgment.[3] - -The topics noticed clearly relate the prophecy to the period of Ezra and -Nehemiah, when the Temple had been rebuilt (i. 10; iii. 1, 10), the -province of Judah was under a Persian governor (i. 8), and there had -been time enough for the loss of earlier enthusiasm. The majority of -modern scholars are agreed that the prophet prepares for the work of -those reformers (Ezra, 458; Nehemiah, 444, 432 B.C.). The abuses of -which he particularly complains are such as were found rampant by Ezra -and Nehemiah--marriage with foreign women (ii. 11; cf. Ezra ix.; Neh. -xiii. 23 seq.; Deut. vii. 3) and failure in payment of sacred dues (iii. -8 seq.; cf. Neh. x. 34 seq.; xiii. 10 seq.; Deut. xxvi. 12 seq.). The -priests have fallen into contempt (ii. 9) and have neglected what is -still one of their chief trusts, the oral law (ii. 6 seq.). The priestly -code of written law was not promulgated until 444 B.C. (Neh. viii.-x.); -"Malachi" writes under the influence of the earlier Code of Deuteronomy -only,[4] and must therefore belong to a date prior to 444. The -independent character of the attack on current abuses also suggests -priority to the work of Ezra in 458. The prophecy affords an interesting -and valuable glimpse of the post-exilic community, with its various -currents of thought and life. The completion of the second Temple (516 -B.C.) has been followed by disillusionment as to the anticipated -prosperity, by indifference to worship, scepticism as to providence, and -moral laxity.[5] In view of these conditions, the prophet's message is -to reassert the true relation of Israel to Yahweh, and to call for a -corresponding holiness, especially in regard to questions of ritual and -of marriage. He saw that "the disobedience of his time was the outcome -of a lowered morality, not of a clearer spiritual vision."[6] A strong -sense of the unique privileges of the children of Jacob, the objects of -electing love (i. 2), the children of the Divine Father (ii. 10), is -combined with an equally strong assurance of Yahweh's righteousness -notwithstanding the many miseries that pressed on the unhappy -inhabitants of Judaea. At an earlier date the prophet Haggai had taught -that the people could not expect Yahweh's blessing while the Temple lay -in ruins. In Malachi's time the Temple was built (i. 10) and the priests -waited in their office, but still a curse seemed to rest on the nation's -labours (iii. 9). To Malachi the reason of this is plain. The "law of -Moses" was forgotten (iv. 4 [iii. 22]); let the people return to Yahweh, -and He will return to them. It was in vain to complain, saying, "Every -one that doeth evil is good in the eyes of Yahweh," or "Where is the God -of judgment?"--vain to ask "Wherein shall we return?" Obedience to the -law is the sure path to blessing (ii. 17-iii. 12). - -He calls the people to repentance, and he enforces the call by -proclaiming the approach of Yahweh in judgment against the sorcerers, -the adulterers, the false swearers, the oppressors of the poor, the -orphan and the stranger. Then it shall be seen that He is indeed a God -of righteous judgment, distinguishing between those that serve Him and -those that serve Him not. The Sun of Righteousness shall shine forth on -those that fear Yahweh's name; they shall go forth with joy, and tread -the wicked under foot. The conception of the day of final decision, when -Yahweh shall come suddenly to His temple (iii. 1) and confound those who -think the presumptuous godless happy (iii. 15), is taken from earlier -prophets, but is applied wholly within the Jewish nation. The day of -Yahweh would be a curse, not a blessing, if it found the nation in its -present state: the priests listlessly performing a fraudulent service -(i. 7-ii. 9), the people bound by marriage to heathen women, while the -tears of the daughters of Israel, thrust aside to make way for -strangers, cover the altar (ii. 11-16), all faith in divine justice gone -(ii. 17; iii. 14 seq.), sorcery, uncleanness, falsehood and oppression -rampant (iii. 5), the house of God deprived of its dues (iii. 8), and -the true fearers of God a little flock gathered together in private -exercises of religion (perhaps the germ of the later synagogue) in the -midst of a godless nation (iii. 16). That the day of Yahweh is delayed -in such a state of things is but a new proof of His unchanging love -(iii. 6), which refuses to consume the sons of Jacob. Meantime He is -about to send His messenger to prepare His way before Him. The prophet -Elijah must reappear to bring back the hearts of fathers and children -before the great and terrible day of Yahweh come. Elijah was the -advocate of national decision in the great concerns of Israel's -religion; and it is such decision, a clear recognition of what the -service of Yahweh means, a purging of His professed worshippers from -hypocritical and half-hearted service (iii. 3) that Malachi with his -intense religious earnestness sees to be the only salvation of the -nation. In thus looking to the return of the ancient prophet to do the -work for which later prophecy is too weak, Malachi unconsciously -signalizes the decay of the order of which he was one of the last -representatives; and the somewhat mechanical measure which he applies to -the people's sins, as for example when he teaches that if the sacred -dues were rightly paid prosperous seasons would at once return (iii. -10), heralds the advent of that system of formal legalism which thought -that all religious duty could be reduced to a system of set rules. Yet -Malachi himself is no mere formalist. To him, as to the Deuteronomic -legislation, the forms of legal observance are of value only as the -fitting expression of Israel's peculiar sonship and service, and he -shows himself a true prophet when he contrasts the worthless ministry of -unwilling priests with the pure offering of prayer and praise that rises -from the implicit monotheism of even Gentile worship[7] (i. 11), or when -he asserts the brotherhood of all Israelites under their one Father -(ii. 10), not merely as a ground of separation from the heathen, but as -inconsistent with the selfish and cruel freedom of divorce current in -his time.[8] The book is a significant landmark in the religious history -of Israel. Its emphasis on the observance of ritual finds fullest -development in the Priestly Code, subsequently promulgated; its protest -against foreign marriages is made effective through the reforms of Ezra -and Nehemiah;[9] the influence of its closing words on later expectation -is familiar to every reader of the new Testament.[10] - -The style of Malachi, like his argument, corresponds in its generally -prosaic character to that transformation or decay of prophecy which -began with Ezekiel; and Ewald rightly called attention to the fact that -the conduct of the argument already shows traces of the dialectic manner -of the schools. Yet there is a simple dignity in the manner not unworthy -of a prophet, and rising from time to time to poetical rhythm. - - LITERATURE.--Nowack, _Die kleinen Propheten_ (1897; 2nd ed., 1904); - Wellhausen, id. (iii. 1898); G. A. Smith, _The Book of the Twelve_ - (ii. 1898); A. C. Welch, art. "Malachi" in Hastings's _Dict. of the - Bible_, iii. 218-222 (1900); C. C. Torrey, id. in _Ency. Bib._ iii. c. - 2907-2910 (1902); Marti, _Dodekapropheton_ (1904); Stade, _Biblische - Theologie des Alten Test._ S 141 (1905); Driver, _The Minor Prophets_, - ii. (Century Bible, 1906). (W. R. S.; H. W. R.*) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] A Hebrew tradition given in the Targum of Jonathan, and approved - by Jerome, identifies Malachi with Ezra the priest and scribe. - - [2] Torrey (_Ency. Bib._ c. 2908) holds that the reference here is - purely figurative; "Judah has dealt falsely with the wife of his - youth, the covenant religion, and is wedding a strange cult." But he - assigns the book to the 4th century. - - [3] This closing prophecy may possibly be a later addition (so Marti) - rounding off the prophetic canon by reference to the two great names - of Moses and Elijah, and their characteristic activities. In this - case, "Elijah" will represent an early interpretation (cf. Ecclus. - xlviii. 10) of the "messenger," originally conceived as a purely - ideal figure. The only other passage in the book whose originality is - not generally accepted is that referring to mixed marriages (ii. 11, - 12). - - [4] It is the Deuteronomic law that is most familiar to him, as - appears from his use of the name Horeb for the mountain of the law, - and the Deuteronomic phrase "statutes and judgments" (iv. 4), from - his language as to tithes and offerings (iii. 8, 10; cf. Deut. xii. - 11; xxvi. 12), and especially from his conception of the priesthood - as resting on a covenant with Levi (ii. 4 seq.). Malachi indeed - assumes that the "whole tithe"--the Deuteronomic phrase for the tithe - in which the Levites shared--is not stored in each township, but - brought into the treasury at the Temple. But this was a modification - of the Deuteronomic law naturally called for under the circumstances - of the return from Babylon, and Neh. x. and xiii. produce the - impression that it was not introduced for the first time by Ezra and - Nehemiah, though the collection of the tithe was enforced by them. - See further, W.R.S. in _O.T.J.C._ ii. 425-427. - - [5] Cf. Stade's reconstruction, _G.V.I._ ii. 128-138. - - [6] Welch in _D.B._ iii. 220. - - [7] This remarkable utterance is sometimes (as by W.R.S.) interpreted - of the worship of Jews scattered in the Dispersion: reasons for the - above view are given by Driver. - - [8] In ii. 16 the Targum renders "If thou hatest her put her away." - It is characteristic of later Judaism that an arbitrary exegesis - transformed the above anticipation of the doctrine of marriage laid - down in the gospel into an express sanction of the right of the - husband to put away his wife at will. - - [9] "The permanence of Judaism depended on the religious separateness - of the Jews" (Ryle, _Ezra and Nehemiah_, p. 143). - - [10] Matt. xvii. 3, 4, 10-13; xxvii. 47, 49; John i. 21, 25. - - - - -MALACHITE, a copper-ore of fine green colour, sometimes polished as an -ornamental stone. The name is derived from Gr. [Greek: malache], the -mallow, in allusion to the colour of the mineral being rather like that -of the mallow-leaf. Malachite was perhaps one of the green minerals -described by Theophrastus under the general name of [Greek: smaragdos]; -and according to the late Rev. C. W. King it was probably the _smaragdus -medicus_ of Pliny, whilst his _molochites_ seems to have been a -different stone from our malachite and may have been a green jasper. It -is suggested by J. L. Myres (_Ency. Bib._) that malachite may have been -the Heb. _soham_, of the high priest's breastplate. - -Malachite is a basic cupric carbonate, represented by the formula -CuCO3Cu(HO)2, and has usually been formed by the action of meteoric -agencies on other copper-minerals; hence it is found in the upper part -of ore-deposits, often as an incrustation, and occasionally as a -pseudomorph after cuprite, chalcocite, &c. When formed, as commonly -happens, by the alteration of copper-pyrites the iron of this mineral -usually takes the form of limonite, which may remain associated with the -malachite. Occasionally, though but rarely, malachite occurs in small -dark-green prismatic crystals of the monoclinic system. Its usual mode -of occurrence is in nodular or stalagmitic forms, with a mammillated, -reniform or botryoidal surface, whilst in other cases it forms fibrous, -compact or even earthy masses. The nodules, though commonly dull on the -outside, may display on fracture a beautiful zonary structure, the -successive layers often succeeding each other as curved deposits of -light and dark tints. The colours include various shades of apple-green, -grass-green, emerald-green and verdigris-green. Certain varieties -exhibit a finely fibrous structure, producing on the fractured surface a -soft silky sheen. - -Whilst malachite is found in greater or less quantity in most -copper-mines, the finer varieties useful for ornamental purposes are of -very limited occurrence, and the lapidary has generally drawn his supply -from Russia and Australia. The principal source in recent years has been -the Medno-Rudiansk mine near Nizhne Tagilsk, on the Siberian side of the -Urals, but it was formerly obtained from mines near Bogoslovsk to the -north and Gumishev to the south of this locality. A mass from Gumishev, -preserved in the museum of the Mining Institute of St Petersburg weighs -3240lb. and still larger masses have been found near Nizhne Tagilsk. The -mineral is prized in Russia for use in mosaic-work, and for the -manufacture of vases, snuff-boxes and various ornamental objects. Even -folding doors, mantelpieces, table-tops and other articles of furniture -have been executed in malachite, the objects being veneered with thin -slabs cleverly fitted together so as to preserve the pattern, and having -the interspaces filled up with fragments and powder of malachite applied -with a cement. The malachite is sawn into slabs, ground with emery and -polished with tripoli. Its hardness is less than 4, but it takes a good -polish like marble: it is rather denser than marble, having a specific -gravity of 3.7 to 4, but it is more difficult to work, in consequence of -a tendency to break along the curved planes of deposition. Exceptionally -fine examples of the application of malachite are seen in some of the -columns of St Isaac's Cathedral in St Petersburg, which are hollow iron -columns encrusted with malachite. Large masses of ornamental malachite -have been found in Australia, especially at the old Burra Burra -copper-mine in South Australia. The Copper Queen and other mines in -Arizona have yielded fine specimens of malachite associated with -azurite, and polished slabs of the mixed minerals sometimes show the -vivid green and the deep blue carbonate in very striking contrast. This -natural association, cut as an ornamental stone, has been named, by Dr -G. F. Kunz, azurmalachite. Malachite is occasionally used for -cameo-work, and some fine antique examples are known. It was formerly -worn as an amulet to preserve the wearer from lightning, contagion and -witchcraft. - - The mineral, when ground, has been used as a pigment under the name of - "mountain green." The coarser masses are extensively used, with other - minerals, as ores of copper, malachite containing about 57% of metal. - "Blue malachite" is a name sometimes given to azurite (q.v.), whilst - "siliceous malachite" is a term inappropriately applied to chrysocolla - (q.v.). (F. W. R.*) - - - - -MALACHOWSKI, STANISLAW (1736-1809), Polish statesman, the younger son of -Stanislaw Malachowski, palatine of Posen, the companion in arms of -Sobieski. From his youth Malachowski laboured zealously for the good of -his country, and as president of the royal court of justice won the -honourable title of the "Polish Aristides." He was first elected a -deputy to the Coronation Diet of 1764, and the great Four Years' Diet -unanimously elected him its speaker at the beginning of its session in -1788. Accurately gauging the situation, Malachowski speedily gathered -round him all those who were striving to uphold the falling republic and -warmly supported every promising project of reform. He was one of the -framers of the constitution of the 3rd of May 1791, exceeding in -liberality all his colleagues and advocating the extension of the -franchise to the towns and the emancipation of the serfs. He was the -first to enter his name as a citizen of Warsaw in the civic register and -to open negotiations with his own peasantry for their complete -liberation. Disappointed in his hopes by the overthrow of the -constitution, he resigned office and left the country in 1792, going -first to Italy and subsequently to his estates in Galicia, where he was -imprisoned for a time on a false suspicion of conspiracy. In 1807 -Malachowski was placed at the head of the executive committee appointed -at Warsaw after its evacuation by the Prussians, and when the grand -duchy of Warsaw was created Malachowski became president of the senate -under King Frederick Augustus of Saxony. In the negotiations with the -Austrian government concerning the Galician salt-mines Malachowski came -to the assistance of the depleted treasury by hypothecating all his -estates as an additional guarantee. In 1809 he died at Warsaw. His death -was regarded as a public calamity, and multitudes followed his remains -to their last resting-place in the Church of the Holy Cross. In all the -other towns of the grand duchy funeral services were held simultaneously -as a tribute of the respect and gratitude of the Polish nation. - - See August Sokolowski, _Illustrated History of Poland_ (Pol.), vol. - iv. (Vienna, 1900); _Life and Memoirs of S. Malachowski_, edited by - Lucyan Siemienski (Pol; Cracow, 1853). (R. N. B.) - - - - -MALACHY, ST (c. 1094-1148), otherwise known as Maol-Maodhog (or -Maelmaedhog) Ua Morgair, archbishop of Armagh and papal legate in -Ireland, was born at Armagh. His father, an Irish clergyman, the -_Fearleighlinn_, or _lector_, at the university, was said to have been -of noble family. Having been ordained to the priesthood, he for some -time acted as vicar of Archbishop Celsus or Ceallach of Armagh, and -carried out many reforms tending to increase conformity with the usage -of the Church of Rome. In order to improve his knowledge of the Roman -ritual he spent four years with Malchus, bishop of Lismore (in Munster), -a strong advocate of Romanism. Here he became acquainted with Cormac -MacCarthy, king of Desmond, who had sought refuge with Malchus, and, -when he subsequently regained his kingdom, rendered great services to -Malachy. On his return from Lismore, Malachy undertook the government of -the decayed monastery of Bangor (in Co. Down), but very soon afterwards -he was elected bishop of Connor (now a small village near Ballymena). -After the sack of that place by the king of Ulster he withdrew into -Munster; here he was kindly received by Cormac MacCarthy, with whose -assistance he built the monastery of Ibrach (in Kerry). Meanwhile he had -been designated by Celsus (in whose family the see of Armagh had been -hereditary for many years) to succeed him in the archbishopric; in the -interests of reform he reluctantly accepted the dignity, and thus became -involved for some years in a struggle with the so-called heirs. Having -finally settled the diocese, he was permitted, as had been previously -stipulated by himself, to return to his former diocese, or rather to the -smaller and poorer portion of it, the bishopric of Down. Although the -Roman party had by this time obtained a firm hold in the north of -Ireland, the organization of the Church had not yet received the -sanction of the pope. Accordingly, in 1139, Malachy set out from Ireland -with the purpose of soliciting from the pope the pallium (the token of -archiepiscopal subjection to Rome) for the archbishop of Armagh. On his -way to Rome he visited Clairvaux, and thus began a lifelong friendship -with St Bernard. Malachy was received by Innocent II. with great honour, -and made papal legate in Ireland, though the pope refused to grant the -pallium until it had been unanimously applied for "by a general council -of the bishops, clergy and nobles." On his way home Malachy revisited -Clairvaux, and took with him from there four members of the Cistercian -order, by whom the abbey of Mellifont (in the county of Louth) was -afterwards founded in 1141. For the next eight years after his return -from Rome Malachy was active in the discharge of his legatine duties, -and in 1148, at a synod of bishops and clergy held at Inis-Patrick (St -Patrick's Island, near Skerries, Co. Dublin), he was commissioned to -return to Rome and make fresh application for the pallium; he did not, -however, get beyond Clairvaux, where he died in the arms of St Bernard -on the 2nd of November 1148. The object of his life was realized four -years afterwards, in 1152, during the legateship of his successor. -Malachy was canonized by Clement III. in 1190. - -The influence of Malachy in Irish ecclesiastical affairs has been -compared with that of Boniface in Germany. He reformed and reorganized -the Irish Church and brought it into subjection to Rome; like Boniface, -he was a zealous reformer and a promoter of monasticism. But perhaps his -chief claim to distinction is that of having opened the first Cistercian -monastery in Ireland, five more being soon afterwards established. -Several works are attributed to him, but are all probably spurious. The -most curious of these is a _Prophecy concerning the Future Roman -Pontiffs_, which has produced an extensive literature. It is now -generally attributed to the year 1590, and is supposed to have been -forged to support the election of Cardinal Simoncelli to the papal -chair. - - St Bernard's _Life_ of Malachy, and two sermons on his death will be - found in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia Latina_; clxxxii., clxxxiii.; see - also _Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters_, ed. J. - O'Donovan (Dublin, 1851); G. Germano, _Vita, gesti e predittioni del - padre san Malachia_ (Naples, 1670); the ecclesiastical histories of - Ireland by J. Lanigan (1829) and W. D. Killen (1875); A. Bellesheim, - _Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Irland_, Bd. I. (Mainz, 1890); - G. T. Stokes, _Ireland and the Celtic Church_ (6th ed., 1907); J. - O'Hanlon, _Life of Saint Malachy_ (Dublin, 1859); articles in - _Dictionary of National Biography_ and Herzog-Hauck's - _Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie_. On the _Prophecy_, - see the treatise by C. F. Menetrier (Paris, 1689); Marquis of Bute in - _Dublin Review_ (1885); A. Harnack in _Zeitschrift fur - Kirchengeschichte_, Bd. III. - - - - -MALACOSTRACA. Under this zoological title are included several groups of -Crustacea (q.v.), united by characters which attest their common origin, -though some, and probably all of them, were already separated in distant -geological ages, and some have now attained a peculiar isolation. -Throughout the whole, the researches made since 1860 have not only added -a great throng of new species, genera and families, but have thrown a -flood of light upon questions of their phylogeny, systematic -arrangement, horizontal and bathymetric distribution, organization, -habits of life and economic importance. There are at least seven orders: -the stalk-eyed Brachyura, Macrura, Schizopoda, Stomatopoda, and the -sessile-eyed Sympoda, Isopoda, Amphipoda. An ocular segment claimed by -the former division is not present or in no case demonstrable in the -latter. In neither does the terminal segment or telson, whether large or -obsolescent, whether articulated or coalescent, carry appendages, unless -occasionally in fusion with itself. Between the eyes and the tail-piece -in all the orders nineteen segments are counted, the proof of a -segment's existence depending on its separateness, complete or partial, -or on a sutural indication, or else on the pair of appendages known to -belong to it. All these marks may fail, and then the species must be -proved to be Malacostracan by other evidence than the number of its -segments; but if some exceptions exhibit fewer, none of the Malacostraca -exhibits more than 19 (+1 or + 2) segments, unless the Nebaliidae be -included. Of the corresponding pairs of appendages thirteen belong to -the head and trunk, two pairs of antennae, one pair of mandibles, two -pairs of maxillae, followed by three which may be all maxillipeds or may -help to swell the number of trunk-legs to which the next five pairs -belong. The abdomen or pleon carries the remaining six pairs, of which -from three to five are called pleopods and the remainder uropods. -Underlying the diversity of names and functions and countless varieties -of shape, there is a common standard to which the appendages in general -can be referred. In the maxillipeds and the trunk-legs it is common to -find or otherwise easy to trace a seven-jointed stem, the endopod, from -which may spring two branches, the epipod from the first joint, the -exopod from the second.[1] The first antennae are exceptional in -branching, if at all, at the third joint. In the mandibles and maxillae -some of the terminal joints of the stem are invariably wanting. In the -rest of the appendages they may either be wanting or indistinguishable. -The latter obscurity results either from coalescence, to which all -joints and segments are liable, or from subdivision, which occasionally -affects joints even in the trunk-legs. The carapace, formerly referred -only to the antennar-mandibular segments, may perhaps in fact contain -elements from any number of other segments of head and trunk, Huxley, -Alcock, Bouvier giving support to this opinion by the sutural or other -divisional lines in _Potamobius_, _Nephrops_, _Thalassina_, and various -fossil genera. Not all questions of classification internal to this -division are yet finally settled. Between the Brachyura and Macrura some -authors uphold an order Anomura, though in a much restricted sense, the -labours of Huxley, Boas, Alcock and conjointly Alphonse Milne-Edwards -and Bouvier, having resulted in restoring the Dromiidea and Raninidae to -the Brachyura, among which de Haan long ago placed them. The French -authors argue that from the macruran lobsters (_Nephropsidae_) anciently -diverged two lines: one leading through the Dromiidea to the genuine -Brachyura; or crabs, the other independently to the Anomura proper, -which may conveniently be named and classed as _Macrura anomala_. Spence -Bate maintained that the Schizopoda ought not to form a separate order, -but to be ranged as a macruran tribe, "more nearly allied to the -degraded forms of the Penaeidea than to those of any other group" -(_"Challenger" Reports_, "Macrura," p. 472, 1888). According to Sars, -the Sympoda (or Cumaceans), in spite of their sessile eyes, have closer -affinities with the stalk-eyed orders. H. J. Hansen and others form a -distinct order Tanaidea for the decidedly anomalous group called by Sars -_Isopoda chelifera_. - - 1. BRACHYURA.--For the present, as of old, the true Brachyura are - divided into four tribes: _Cyclometopa_, with arched front as in the - common eatable crab; _Catometopa_, with front bent down as in the - land-crabs and the little oyster-crab; _Oxyrhyncha_, with sharpened - beak-like front as in the various spider-crabs; _Oxystomata_, - including the Raninidae, and named not from the character of the front - but from that of the buccal frame which is usually narrowed forwards. - In these tribes the bold and active habits, the striking colours, or - the fantastic diversities of structure, have so long attracted remark - that recent investigations, while adding a multitude of new species - and supplying the specialist with an infinity of new details, have not - materially altered the scientific standpoint. New light, however, has - been thrown upon the "intellectual" capacity of Crustacea by the proof - that the spider-crabs deliberately use changes of raiment to harmonize - with their surroundings, donning and doffing various natural objects - as we do our manufactured clothes. Others have the power of producing - sounds, one use to which they put this faculty being apparently to - signal from their burrow in the sand that they are "not at home" to an - inopportune visitor. Deep-sea exploration has shown that some species - have an immensely extended range, and still more, that species of the - same genus, and genera of the same family, though separated by great - intervals of space, may be closely allied in character. A curious - effect of parasitism, well illustrated in crabs, though not confined - to them, has been expounded by Professor Giard, namely, that it tends - to obliterate the secondary sexual characters. Modern research has - discovered no crab to surpass _Macrocheira kampferi_, De Haan, that - can span between three and four yards with the tips of its toes, but - at the other end of the scale it has yielded _Collodes malabaricus_, - Alcock, "of which the carapace, in an adult and egg-laden female, is - less than one-sixth of an inch in its greatest diameter." The most - abyssal of all crabs yet known is _Ethusina abyssicola_, Smith, or - what is perhaps only a variety of it, _E. challengeri_, Miers. Of the - latter the "Albatross" obtained a specimen from a depth of 2232 - fathoms (Faxon, 1895), of the former from 2221 fathoms, and of this S. - I. Smith remarks that it has "distinctly faceted black eyes," although - in them "there are only a very few visual elements at the tips of the - immobile eye-stalks." - - The _Brachyura anomala_, or Dromiidea, "have preserved the external - characters and probably also the organization of the Brachyura of the - Secondary epoch" (Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, 1901). They agree with - the true crabs in not having appendages (uropods) to the sixth segment - of the pleon, the atrophy being complete in the Homolidae and - Homolodromiidae, whereas in the Dromiidae and Dynomenidae a pair of - small plates appear to be vestiges of these organs. In the family - Homolidae stands the strange genus _Latreillia_, Roux, with long - slender limbs and triangular carapace after the fashion of oxyrhynch - spider-crabs. In _Homola_ the carapace is quadrilateral. Between these - two a very interesting link was discovered by the "Challenger" in the - species _Latreillopsis bispinosa_. Henderson. Bouvier (1896) has shown - that _Palaeinachus longipes_, Woodward, from the Forest Marble of - Wiltshire, is in close relationship, not to the oxyrhynch Inachidae, - but to the genera _Homolodromia_ and _Dicranodromia_ of the - Homolodromiidae, and that the Jurassic crabs in general, of the family - Prosoponidae (Meyer), are Dromiidea. - - 2. MACRURA.--The _Macrura anomala_, or Anomura in restricted sense, - are popularly known through the hermit-crabs alone. These only - partially represent one of the three main divisions, Paguridea, - Galatheidea, Hippidea. The first of these is subdivided into - _Pagurinea_, _Lithodinea_, _Lomisinea_, each with a literature of its - own. Among the Pagurinea is the _Birgus latro_, or robber-crab, whose - expertness in climbing the coco-nut palm need no longer be doubted, - since in recent years it has been noted and photographed by - trustworthy naturalists in the very act. Alcock "observed one of these - crabs drinking from a runnel of rain-water, by dipping the fingers of - one of its chelipeds into the water and then carrying the wet fingers - to its mouth." Hermits of the genus _Coenobita_ he found feeding - voraciously on nestling sea-terns. That pagurids must have the usually - soft pleon or abdomen protected by the shell of a mollusc is now known - to be subject to a multitude of exceptions. _Birgus_ dispenses with a - covering; _Coenobita_ can make shift with half the shell of a - coco-nut; _Chlaenopagurus_ wraps itself up in a blanket of colonial - polyps; _Cancellus tanneri_, Faxon, was found in a piece of dead coral - rock; _Xylopagurus rectus_, A. Milne-Edwards, lodges in tubes of - timber or bits of hollow reed. The last-named species has a straight - symmetrical abdomen, with the penultimate segment expanded and - strongly calcified to form a back-door to the very unconventional - habitation. This it enters head-foremost from the rear, while - "hermits" in general are forced to go backwards into their spiral or - tapering shelters by the front. Some of the species can live in the - ocean at a depth of two or three miles. Some can range inland up to a - considerable height on mountains. The advantage that this group has - derived from the adoption of mollusc shells as houses or fortresses, - ready built and light enough for easy transport, is obviously - discounted by a twofold inconvenience. There is nothing to ensure that - the supply will be equal to the demand, and Nature has not arranged - that the borrowed tenement shall continue to grow with the growth of - its new tenant. To meet these defects it is found that numerous - species encourage or demand the companionship of various zoophytes, - simple or colonial. These sometimes completely absorb the shell on - which they are settled, but then act as a substitute for it, and in - any case by their outgrowth they extend the limits of the dwelling, so - that the inmate can grow in comfort without having to hunt or fight - for a larger abode. Among the _Lithodinea_, or stone crabs, besides - important readjustments of classification (Bouvier, 1895, 1896), - should be noticed the evidence of their cosmopolitan range, and the - species _Neolithodes agassizii_ (Smith) and _N. grimaldii_, - Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, which carry to an extreme the spinosity - characteristic of the group (fig. 1). S. I. Smith's investigations on - the early stages of _Hippa talpoida_, Say, were published in 1877. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Neolithodes grimaldii_, A. Milne-Edwards and - Bouvier.] - - With regard to the accessions to knowledge in the enormous group of - the genuine Macrura, reference need only be made to the extensive - reports in which Spence Bate, S. I. Smith, Faxon, Wood-Mason, Alcock, - and others have made known the results of celebrated explorations. - Various larval stages have been successfully investigated by Sars. - Alcock (1901) describes from his own observation the newly hatched - _Phyllosoma_ larva of _Thenus orientalis_, Fabricius. An admirable - discrimination of the larval and adult characters of the genus - _Sergestes_ has been given by H. J. Hansen (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, - London, 1896). Singularity excites our wonder in _Thaumastocheles - zaleucus_, v. Willemoes Suhm, which makes up for its vanished eyes by - its extraordinarily elongate and dentated claws; in _Psalidopus - huxleyi_, Wood-Mason and Alcock (1892), bristling with spikes from - head to tail; in the Nematocarcinidae, with their long thread-like - limbs and longer antennae; in species of _Aristaeopsis_ reported by - Chun from deep water off the east coast of Africa, bright red prawns - nearly a foot long, with antennae about five times the length of the - body. That certain species, particularly many from deep water, have - disproportionately large eggs, is explained by the supposition that - the young derive the advantage of being hatched in an advanced stage - of development. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Anaspides tasmaniae_, Thomson.] - - 3. SCHIZOPODA.--This order of animals for the most part delicately - beautiful, has for the moment five families--Lophogastridae, - Eucopiidae, Euphausiidae, Mysidae and Anaspididae. In the Euphausiidae - the digitiform-arborescent branchiae, as if conscious of their own - extreme elegance, remain wholly uncovered. In the two preceding - families they are partially covered. In the Mysidae the branchiae are - wanting, and some would form this family into a separate order, - Mysidacea. In _Anaspides_, a peculiar fresh-water genus discovered in - 1892 by G. M. Thomson on Mount Wellington, in Tasmania, the gills are - not arborescent, and there are seven segments of the trunk free of the - carapace (fig. 2). A membranaceous carapace separates the Eucopiidae - from the more solidly invested Lophogastridae. Among many papers that - the student will find it necessary to consult may be mentioned the - "_Challenger_" _Report_ on Schizopoda, by Sars, 1885, dealing with - the order at large; "British Schizopoda," by Norman _Ann. Nat. Hist._ - (1892); "Decapoden und Schizopoden," _Plankton-Expedition_ (Ortmann, - 1893); "Euphausiidae," by Stebbing, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London, 1900); - _Mysidae of the Russian Empire_, by Czerniavski (1882-1883); and - _Mysidae of the Caspian_, by Sars (1893-1895-1897). - - 4. STOMATOPODA.--This order, at one time a medley of heterogeneous - forms, is now confined to the singularly compact group of the - Squillidae. Here the articulation of the ocular segment is unusually - distinct, and here two characters quite foreign to all the preceding - groups come into view. The second maxillipeds are developed into - powerful prehensile organs, and the branchiae, instead of being - connected with the appendages of head and trunk, are developed on the - pleopods, appendages of the abdomen. At least three segments of the - trunk are left uncovered by the carapace. The developing eggs are not - carried about by the mother, but deposited in her subaqueous burrow, - "where they are aerated by the currents of water produced by the - abdominal feet of the parent." An excellent synopsis of the genera and - species is provided by R. P. Bigelow (_Proc. U.S. Mus._ vol. xvii., - 1894). For the habits and peculiarities of these and many other - Crustaceans, A. E. Verrill and S. I. Smith on the _Invertebrates of - Vineyard Sound_ should be consulted (1874). The general subject has - been illuminated by the labours of Claus, Miers, Brooks (_"Challenger" - Report_, 1886), and the latest word on the relationship between the - various larvae and their respective genera has been spoken by H. J. - Hansen (_Plankton-Expedition Report_, 1895). The striking forms of - _Alima_ and _Erichthus_, at one time regarded as distinct genera, are - now with more or less certainty affiliated to their several squillid - parents. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Pseudocuma pectinatum_, Sowinsky.] - - 5. SYMPODA.--This order of sessile-eyed decapods was absolutely - unknown to science till 1779. A species certainly belonging to it was - described by Lepekhin in 1780, but the obscure _Gammarus esca_, "food - Gammarus" beloved of herrings, described by J. C. Fabricius in the - preceding year, may also be one of its members. Nutritious - possibilities are implied in _Diastylis rathkii_, Kroyer, one of the - largest forms, which, though slender and rarely an inch long, in its - favourite Arctic waters is found "in incalculable masses, in thousands - of specimens" (Stuxberg, 1880). Far on in the 19th century eminent - naturalists were still debating whether in this group there were eyes - or no eyes, whether the eyes were stalked or sessile, whether the - animals observed were larval or adult. The American T. Say in 1818 - gave a good description of a new species and founded the premier genus - _Diastylis_, but other investigators derived little credit from the - subject till more than sixty years after its introduction by the - Russian Lepekhin. Then Goodsir, Kroyer, Lilljeborg, Spence Bate and - one or two others made considerable advances, and in 1865 a memorable - paper by G. O. Sars led the way to the great series of researches - which he has continued to the present day. The name _Cumacea_, - however, which he uses cannot be retained, being founded on the - preoccupied name _Cuma_ (Milne-Edwards, 1828). The more recent name - _Sympoda_ (see Willey, _Results_, pt. v. p. 609, 1900) alludes to the - huddling together of the legs, which is conspicuous in most of the - species. Ten families are now distinguished--Diastylidae, Lampropidae, - Platyaspidae, Pseudocumidae, all with an articulated telson; without - one, the Bodotriidae (formerly called _Cumidae_), Vaunthompsoniidae, - Leuconidae, Nannastacidae, Campylaspidae, Procampylaspidae. All the - Leuconidae and Procampylaspidae are blind, and some species in most of - the other families. Usually the sides of the carapace are strangely - produced into a mock rostrum in front of the ocular lobe, be it - oculiferous or not. The last four or five segments of the trunk are - free from the carapace. The slender pleon has always six distinct - segments, the sixth carrying two-branched uropods, the preceding five - armed with no pleopods in the female, whereas in the male the number - of pairs varies from five to none. The resemblance of these creatures - to miniature Macrura is alluded to in the generic name _Nannastacus_, - meaning dwarf-lobster. In this genus alone of the known Sympoda the - eyes sometimes form a pair, in accordance with the custom of all other - malacostracan orders except this and of this order itself in the - embryo (Sars, 1900). The most but not the only remarkable character - lies in the first maxillipeds. These, with the main stem more or less - pediform, have the epipod and exopod modified for respiratory - purposes. The backward-directed epipods usually carry branchial - vesicles. The forward-directed exopods either act as valves or form a - tube (rarely two tubes), protensile and retractile, for regulating - egress of water from the branchial regions. This mechanism as a whole - is unique, although, as Sars observes, the epipod of the first - maxillipeds has a respiratory function also in the Lophogastridae and - Mysidae and in the cheliferous isopods. As a rule armature of the - carapace is much more developed in the comparatively sedentary female - than in the usually more active male. Only in the male do the second - antennae attain considerable length, with strong resemblance to what - is found in some of the Amphipoda. About 150 species distributed among - thirty-four genera are now known, many from shallow water and from - between tide-marks, some from very great depths. H. J. Hansen - concludes that "they are all typically ground animals, and as yet no - species has been taken under such conditions that it could be reckoned - to the pelagic plankton." As they have been found in all zones and - chiefly by a very few observers, it is probable that a great many more - species remain to be discovered. In recent years thirteen species, all - belonging to the same genus _Pseudocuma_ (fig. 3), have been recorded - by Sars from the Caspian Sea. A bibliography of the order is given in - that author's _Crustacea of Norway_, vol. iii. (1899-1900). - - [Illustration: Fig. 4.--_Rhabdosoma piratum_, Stebbing.] - - 6. ISOPODA.--This vast and populous order can be traced far back in - geological time. It is now represented in all seas and lands, in - fresh-water lakes and streams, and even in warm springs. It adapts - itself to parasitic life not only in fishes, but in its own class - Crustacea, and that in species of every order, its own included. In - this process changes of structure are apt to occur, and sometimes - unimaginable sacrifices of the normal appearance. The order has been - divided into seven tribes, of which a fuller summary than can here be - given will be found in Stebbing, _History of Crustacea_ (1893). The - first tribe, called Chelifera, from the usually chelate or - claw-bearing first limbs, may be regarded as _Isopoda anomala_, of - which some authors would form a separate order, Tanaidea. Like the - genuine isopods, they have seven pairs of trunk-legs, but instead of - having seven segments of the middle body (or peraeon) normally free, - they have the first one or two of its segments coalesced with the - head. Instead of the breathing organs being furnished by the - appendages of the pleon with the heart in their vicinity, the - respiration is controlled by the maxillipeds, with the heart in the - peraeon (see Delage, _Arch. Zool. exper. et gen._, vol. ix., 1881). - There are two families, Tanaidae and Apseudidae. Occasionally the - ocular lobes are articulated. - - The genuine Isopoda are divided among the _Flabellifera_, in which the - terminal segment and uropods form a flabellum or swimming fan; the - _Epicaridea_, parasitic on Crustaceans; the _Valvifera_, in which the - uropods fold valve-like over the branchial pleopods; the _Asellota_, - in which the first pair of pleopods of the female are usually - transformed into a single opercular plate; the _Phreatoicidea_, a - fresh-water tribe, known as yet only from subterranean waters in New - Zealand and an Australian swamp nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level; and - lastly, the _Oniscidea_, which are terrestrial. Only the last of - these, under the contemptuous designation of wood-lice, has - established a feeble claim to popular recognition. Few persons hear - without surprise that England itself possesses more than a score of - species in this air-breathing tribe. Those known from the world at - large number hundreds of species, distributed among dozens of genera - in six families. That a wood-louse and a land-crab are alike - Malacostracans, and that they have by different paths alike become - adapted to terrestrial life, are facts which even a philosopher might - condescend to notice. Of the other tribes which are aquatic there is - not space to give even the barest outline. Their swarming multitudes - are of enormous importance in the economy of the sea. If in their - relation to fish it must be admitted that many of them plague the - living and devour the dead, in return the fish feed rapaciously upon - them. Among the most curious of recent discoveries is that relating to - some of the parasitic _Cymothoidae_, as to which Bullar has shown that - the same individual can be developed first as a male and then as a - female. Of lately discovered species the most striking is one of the - deep-sea Cirolanidae, _Bathynomus giganteus_, A. M. Edwards (1879), - which is unique in having supplementary ramified branchiae developed - at the bases of the pleopods. Its eyes are said to contain nearly 4000 - facets. The animal attains what in this order is the monstrous size of - 9 in. by 4. A general uniformity of the trunk-limbs in Isopoda - justifies the ordinal name, but the valviferous Astacillidae, and - among the Asellota the Munnopsidae, offer some remarkable exceptions - to this characteristic. Among many essential works on this group may - be named the _Monogr. Cymothoarum_ of Schiodte and Meinert - (1879-1883); "_Challenger_" _Report_, Beddard (1884-1886); - _Cirolanidae_, H. J. Hansen (1890); _Isopoda Terrestria_, Budde-Lund - (1885); _Bopyridae_, Bonnier (1900); _Crustacea of Norway_, vol. ii. - (Isopoda), Sars (1896-1899), while their multitude precludes - specification of important contributions by Benedict, Bovallius, - Chilton, Dohrn, Dollfus, Fraisse, Giard and Bonnier, Harger, Haswell, - Kossmann, Miers, M'Murrich, Norman, Harriet Richardson, Ohlin, Studer, - G. M. Thomson, A. O. Walker, Max Weber and many others. - - 7. AMPHIPODA.--As in the genuine Isopoda, the eyes of Amphipoda are - always sessile, and generally paired, and, in contrast to crabs and - lobsters, these two groups have only four pairs of mouth-organs - instead of six, but seven pairs of trunk-legs instead of five. From - the above-named isopods the present order is strongly differentiated - by having heart and breathing organs not in the pleon, but in the - peraeon, or middle body, the more or less simple branchial vesicles - being attached to some or all of the last six pairs of trunk-legs. - Normally the pleon carries six pairs of two-branched appendages, of - which the first three are much articulated flexible swimming feet, the - last three few-jointed comparatively indurated uropods. There are - three tribes, _Gammaridea_, _Caprellidea_, _Hyperiidea_. The middle - one contains but two families, the cylindrical and often thread-like - skeleton shrimps, Caprellidae, and their near cousins, the broad, - flattened, so-called whale-lice, Cyamidae. This tribe has the pleon - dwindled into insignificance, whereas in the other two tribes it is - powerfully developed. The Hyperiidea are distinguished by having their - maxillipeds never more than three-jointed. In the companion tribes - these appendages have normally seven joints, and always more than - three. The order thus sharply divided is united by an intimate - interlacing of characters, and forms a compact whole at present - defying intrusion from any other crustacean group. Since 1775, when J. - C. Fabricius instituted the genus _Gammarus_ for five species, of - which only three were amphipods, while he left five other amphipods in - the genus _Oniscus_, from this total of eight science has developed - the order, at first very slowly, but of late by great leaps and - bounds, so that now the _Gammaridea_ alone comprise more than 1300 - species, distributed among some 300 genera and 39 families. They - burrow in the sands of every shore; they throng the weeds between - tide-marks; they ascend all streams; they are found in deep wells, in - caverns, in lakes; in Arctic waters they swarm in numbers beyond - computation; they find lodgings on crabs, on turtles, on weed-grown - buoys; they descend into depths of the ocean down to hundreds or - thousands of fathoms; they are found in mountain streams as far above - sea-level as some of their congeners live below it. The Talitridae, - better known as sandhoppers, can forgo the briny shore and content - themselves with the damp foliage of inland forests or casual humidity - in the crater of an extinct volcano. Over the ocean surface, as well - as at various depths, float and swim innumerable _Hyperiidea_--the - wonderful _Phronima_, glass-like in its glassy barrel hollowed out of - some Tunicate; the _Cystisoma_, 4 or 5 in. long, with its eye-covered - head; the _Rhabdosoma_, like a thin rod of glass, with needle-like - head and tail, large eyes, but limbs and mouth-organs all in - miniature, and the second antennae of the male folding up like a - carpenter's rule (fig. 4). On jelly-fishes are to be found species of - _Hyperia_ and their kindred, so fat and wholesome that they have been - commended to shipwrecked men in open boats as an easily procurable - resource against starvation. Many of the Amphipoda are extremely - voracious. Some of them are even cannibals. The Cyamidae afflict the - giant whale by nibbling away its skin; the _Chelura terebrans_ is - destructive to submerged timber. But, on the other hand, they largely - help to clear the sea and other waters of refuse and carrion, and for - fishes, seals and whales they are food desirable and often - astoundingly copious. From the little flea-like species, scarcely a - tenth of an inch long, up to the great and rare but cosmopolitan - _Eurythenes gryllus_, Lichtenstein, and the still larger _Alicella - gigantea_, Chevreux, nearly half a foot long, captured by the prince - of Monaco from a depth of 2936 fathoms, not one of these ubiquitous, - uncountable hordes has ever been accused of assailing man. For the - naturalist they have the recommendation that many are easy to obtain, - that most, apart from the very minute, are easy to handle, and that - all, except as to the fleeting colours, are easy to preserve. - - A nearly complete bibliography of the order down to 1888 will be found - in the "_Challenger_" _Reports_, vol. xxviii., and supplementary - notices in Della Valle's _Monograph of the Gammarini_ (1893), the - scope of his work, however, not covering the Hyperiidea and - Oxycephalidae of Bovallius (1889, 1890); but since these dates very - numerous additions to the literature have been made by Birula, - Bonnier, Norman, Walker and others, especially the _Crustacea of - Norway_, vol. i. (_Amphipoda_), Sars (1890-1895), demanding attention, - and the quite recent _Amphipoda of the Hirondelle_, Chevreux (1900), - and _Hyperiidea of the Plankton-Expedition_, Vosseler (1901). - (T. R. R. S.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] In Huxley's terminology the first two or three joints of the stem - constitute a "protopodite," from which spring the "endopodite" and - "exopodite." - - - - -MALAGA, a maritime province of southern Spain, one of the eight modern -subdivisions of Andalusia; bounded on the W. by Cadiz, N. by Seville and -Cordova, E. by Granada, and S. by the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900), -511,989; area, 2812 sq. m. The northern half of Malaga belongs to the -great Andalusian plain watered by the Guadalquivir, the southern is -mountainous, and rises steeply from the coast. Of the numerous sierras -may be mentioned that of Alhama, separating the province from Granada, -and at one point rising above 7000 ft.; its westward continuation in the -Sierra de Abdalajis and the Axarquia between Antequera and Malaga; and -not far from the Cadiz boundary the Sierras de Ronda, de Mijas, de Tolox -and Bermeja, converging and culminating in a summit of nearly 6500 ft. -The rivers which rise in the watershed formed by all these ranges reach -the sea after a short and precipitous descent, and in rainy seasons are -very liable to overflow their banks. In 1907 great loss of life and -destruction of property were caused in this manner. The principal river -is the Guadalhorce, which rises in the Sierra de Alhama, and, after a -westerly course past the vicinity of Antequera, bends southward through -the wild defile of Penarrubia and the beautiful _vega_ or vale of -Malaga, falling into the sea near that city. The only other considerable -stream is the Guadiaro, which has the greater part of its course within -the province and flows past Ronda. There is an extensive salt lagoon -near the northern boundary. The mountains are rich in minerals, lead, -and (in the neighbourhood of Marbella) iron, being obtained in large -quantities. There are warm sulphurous springs and baths at Carratraca. -Though the methods of agriculture are for the most part rude, the yield -of wheat in good seasons is considerably in excess of the local demand; -and large quantities of grapes and raisins, oranges and lemons, figs and -almonds, are annually exported. The oil and wines of Malaga are also -highly esteemed, and after 1870 the manufacture of beet and cane sugar -developed into an important industry. In 1905 there were about 500 flour -mills and 230 oil factories beside 95 stills and 100 wine-presses in the -province. Malaga has suffered severely from the agricultural depression -prevalent throughout southern Spain, but its manufacturing industries -tend to expand. The fisheries are important; a fleet of about 300 boats -brings in 18,000,000 lb. annually, of which 25% is exported. The -internal communications are in many parts defective, owing to the broken -nature of the surface; but the province is traversed from north to south -by the Cordova-Malaga railway, which sends off branches from Bobadilla -to Granada and Algeciras. A branch line along the coast from Malaga to -Velez Malaga was opened in 1908. - - Malaga, the capital (pop. 130,109), Antequera (31,609), Velez Malaga - (23,586), Ronda (20,995), Coin (12,326), and Alora (10,325), are - described in separate articles. Other towns with more than 7000 - inhabitants are Marbella (9629), Estepona (9310), Archidona (8880) and - Nerja (7112). The population of the province tends gradually to - decrease, as many families emigrate to South America, Algeria and - Hawaii. - - - - -MALAGA, the capital of the province of Malaga, an episcopal see, and, -next to Barcelona, the most important seaport of Spain, finely situated -on the Mediterranean coast, at the southern base of the Axarquia hills -and at the eastern extremity of the fertile vega (plain) of Malaga in 36 -deg. 43' N. and 4 deg. 25' W. Pop. (1900), 130,109. From the clearness -of its sky, and the beautiful sweep of its bay, Malaga has sometimes -been compared with Naples. The climate is one of the mildest and most -equable in Europe, the mean annual temperature being 66.7 deg. Fahr. The -principal railway inland gives access through Bobadilla to all parts of -Spain, and a branch line along the coast to Velez-Malaga was opened in -1908. Malaga lies principally on the left bank of a mountain torrent, -the Guadalmedina ("river of the city"); the streets near the sea are -spacious and comparatively modern, but those in the older part of the -town, where the buildings are huddled around the ancient citadel, are -narrow, winding and often dilapidated. Well-built suburbs have also -spread on all sides into the rich and pleasant country which surrounds -Malaga, and several acres of land reclaimed from the sea have been -converted into a public park. There are various squares or plazas and -public promenades; of the former the most important are the Plaza de -Riego (containing the monument to General Jose Maria Torrijos, who, with -forty-eight others, was executed in Malaga on the 11th of December 1831, -for promoting an insurrection in favour of the constitution) and the -Plaza de la Constitucion; adjoining the quays is the fine Paseo de la -Alameda. The city has no public buildings of commanding architectural or -historical importance. The cathedral, on the site of an ancient mosque, -was begun about 1528; after its construction had been twice interrupted, -it was completed to its present state in the 18th century, and is in -consequence an obtrusive record of the degeneration of Spanish -architecture. The woodwork of the choir, however, is worthy of -attention. The church of El Cristo de la Victoria contains some relics -of the siege of 1487. There are an English church and an English -cemetery, which dates from 1830; up to that year all Protestants who -died in Malaga were buried on the foreshore, where their bodies were -frequently exposed by the action of wind and sea. Of the old Moorish -arsenal only a single horseshoe gateway remains, the rest of the site -being chiefly occupied by an iron structure used as a market; the -Alcazaba, or citadel, has almost disappeared. The castle of Gibralfaro, -on a bold eminence to the north-east dates from the 13th century, and is -still in fairly good preservation. - -During the 19th century so much silt accumulated in the harbour that -vessels were obliged to lie in the roads outside, and receive and -discharge cargo by means of lighters; but new harbour works were -undertaken in 1880, and large ships can now again load or discharge at -the quays, which are connected with the main railway system by a branch -line. About 2150 ships of 1,750,000 tons enter at Malaga every year. -Iron, lead, wine, olive oil, almonds, fresh and dried fruit, palmetto -hats and canary seed are exported in large quantities, while the imports -include grain, codfish, fuel, chemicals, iron and steel, machinery, -manures and staves for casks. Although trade was impeded during the -early years of the 20th century by a succession of bad harvests and by -the disastrous floods of September 1907, the number of industries -carried on in and near Malaga tends steadily to increase. There are -large cotton mills, iron foundries, smelting works and engineering -works. Pottery, mosaic, artificial stone and tiles are produced chiefly -for the home market, though smaller quantities are sent abroad. There is -a chromo-lithographic establishment, and the other industries include -tanning, distilling and the manufacture of sugar, chocolate, soap, -candles, artificial ice, chemical products, white lead and pianos. -Foreign capital has played a prominent part in the development of -Malaga; a French syndicate owns the gas-works, and the electric lighting -of the streets is controlled by British and German companies. - -Malaga is the [Greek: Malaka] of Strabo (iii. 156) and Ptolemy (ii. 4, -7) and the _Malaca foederatorum_ of Pliny (iii. 3). The place seems to -have been of some importance even during the Carthaginian period; under -the Romans it became a municipium, and under the Visigoths an episcopal -see. In 711 it passed into the possession of the Moors, and soon came to -be regarded as one of the most important cities of Andalusia. It was -attached to the caliphate of Cordova, but on the fall of the Omayyad -dynasty it became for a short time the capital of an independent -kingdom; afterwards it was dependent on Granada. In 1487 it was taken -and treated with great harshness by Ferdinand and Isabella after a -protracted siege. In 1810 it was sacked by the French under General -Sebastiani. The citizens of Malaga are noted for their opposition to the -Madrid government; they took a prominent part in the movements against -Espartero (1843), against Queen Isabella (1868) and in favour of a -republic (1873). - - - - -MALAKAND PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West Province of India, -connecting the British district of Peshawar with the Swat Valley. It is -now a military post and the headquarters of a political agency. It came -into prominence for the first time in 1895 during the Chitral campaign, -when 7000 Pathans held it against Sir Robert Low's advance, but were -easily routed. After the campaign was over a fortified camp was formed -on the Malakand to guard the road to Chitral. During the frontier -risings of 1897 the Swatis made a determined attack on the Malakand, -where 700 were killed, and on the adjacent post of Chakdara, where 2000 -were killed. This was the origin of the Malakand Expedition of the same -year. (See SWAT.) - - - - -MALALAS (or MALELAS) (Syriac for "orator"), JOHN (c. 491-578), Byzantine -chronicler, was born at Antioch. He wrote a [Greek: Chronographia] in 18 -books, the beginning and the end of which are lost. In its present state -it begins with the mythical history of Egypt and ends with the -expedition to Africa under Marcianus, the nephew of Justinian. Except -for the history of Justinian and his immediate predecessors, it -possesses little historical value; it is written without any idea of -proportion and contains astonishing blunders. The writer is a supporter -of Church and State, an upholder of monarchical principles. The work is -rather a chronicle written round Antioch, which he regarded as the -centre of the world, and (in the later books) round Constantinople. It -is, however, important as the first specimen of a chronicle written not -for the learned but for the instruction of the monks and the common -people, in the language of the vulgar, with an admixture of Latin and -Oriental words. It obtained great popularity, and was conscientiously -exploited by various writers until the 11th century, being translated -even into the Slavonic languages. It is preserved in an abridged form in -a single MS. now at Oxford. - - For the authorities consulted by Malalas, the influence of his work on - Slavonic and Oriental literature, the state of the text, the original - form and extent of the work, the date of its composition, the relation - of the concluding part to the whole, and the literature of the - subject, see C. Krumbacher's _Geschichte der byzantinischen - Litteratur_ (1897). See also the _editio princeps_, by E. Chilmead - (Oxford, 1691), containing an essay by Humphrey Hody and Bentley's - well-known letter to Mill; other editions in the Bonn _Corpus - scriptorum hist. byz._, by L. Dindorf (1831), and in J. P. Migne - _Patrologia graeca_, xcvii. - - - - -MALAN, SOLOMON CAESAR (1812-1894), British divine and orientalist, was -by birth a Swiss descended from an exiled French family, and was born at -Geneva on the 22nd of April 1812, where his father, Dr Henry Abraham -Caesar Malan (1787-1864) enjoyed a great reputation as a Protestant -divine. From his earliest youth he manifested a remarkable faculty for -the study of languages, and when he came to Scotland as tutor in the -marquis of Tweeddale's family at the age of 18 he had already made -progress in Sanskrit, Arabic and Hebrew. In 1833 he matriculated at St -Edmund Hall, Oxford; and English being almost an unknown tongue to him, -he petitioned the examiners to allow him to do his paper work of the -examination in French, German, Spanish, Italian, Latin or Greek, rather -than in English. But his request was not granted. After gaining the -Boden and the Pusey and Ellerton scholarships, he graduated 2nd class in -_Lit. hum._ in 1837. He then proceeded to India as classical lecturer at -Bishop's College, Calcutta, to which post he added the duties of -secretary to the Bengal branch of the Royal Asiatic Society; and -although compelled by illness to return in 1840, laid the foundation of -a knowledge of Tibetan and Chinese. After serving various curacies, he -was presented in 1845 to the living of Broadwindsor, Dorset, which he -held until 1886. During this entire period he continued to augment his -linguistic knowledge, which he carried so far as to be able to preach in -that most difficult language, Georgian, on a visit which he paid to -Nineveh in 1872. His translations from the Armenian, Georgian and Coptic -were numerous. He applied his Chinese learning to the determination of -important points connected with Chinese religion, and published a vast -number of parallel passages illustrative of the Book of Proverbs. In -1880 the university of Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree -of D.D. No modern scholar, perhaps, has so nearly approached the -linguistic omniscience of Mezzofanti; but, like Mezzofanti, Dr Malan was -more of a linguist than a critic. He made himself conspicuous by the -vehemence of his opposition to Westcott and Hort's text of the New -Testament, and to the transliteration of Oriental languages, on neither -of which points did he in general obtain the suffrages of scholars. His -extensive and valuable library, some special collections excepted, was -presented by him in his lifetime to the Indian Institute at Oxford. He -died at Bournemouth on the 25th of November 1894. His life has been -written by his son. - - - - -MALAR, a lake of Sweden, extending 73 m. westward from Stockholm, which -lies at its junction with the Saltsjo, an arm of the Baltic Sea. The -height of the lake is normally only from 11 in. to 2 ft. above -sea-level, and its outflow is sometimes reversed. The area is 449 sq. m. -The bottom consists of a series of basins separate by ridges from which -rise numerous islands. The deepest sounding is 210 ft. The outline is -very irregular, the mean breadth being about 15 m., but an arm extends -northward for 30 m. nearly to the city of Upsala with many -ramifications. The area of the drainage basin is 8789 sq. m., of which -1124 are occupied by lakes. The navigable connexions with the lake -are--(1) with lake Hjelmar to the south-west by the Arboga river and the -Hjelmar canal; and by the Eskilstuna river and the Thorshalla canal; (2) -with the Baltic southward through the Sodertelge canal, the route -followed by the Gota canal steamers; (3) with the Baltic by two channels -at Stockholm. The more important towns, besides Stockholm, are Vesteras -on the north, Sodertelge and Eskilstuna near the south shore. The lake -offers a field for recreation fully appreciated by the inhabitants of -the capital, and many of those whose business lies at Stockholm have -their residences on the shores of Malar. On Drottningholm (Queen's -Island, named from Catherine, wife of John III.) is a palace with a fine -park and formal gardens. John III. built a palace at the close of the -16th century, but the existing building, by Nicodemus Tessin and his son -Nicodemus, dates from the second half of the 17th century. At Mariefred -on the south shore there is the castle of Gripsholm (1537), built by -Gustavus Vasa, a picturesque erection with four towers, richly adorned -within, and containing a large collection of portraits. Strengnas, on -the same shore, became an episcopal see in 1291, when the fine -cathedral, much altered since, was consecrated. In the episcopal palace, -a building of the 15th century now used as a school, Gustavus Vasa was -elected to the throne of Sweden in 1523. On the northward arm of the -lake is the palace of Rosenberg, used as a school of gunnery, in a -well-wooded park. On a branch of the same arm is Sigtuna, a village -whose ruined churches are a memorial of its rank among the principal -towns of Sweden after its foundation in the 11th century. Remains prove -that on Bjorko, an island in the eastern part of the lake, there was a -large settlement of earlier importance than Sigtuna. Here a cross -commemorates the preaching of Christianity by St Ansgar in 829. Finally, -on the northern arm about 10 m. south of Upsala, there is the chateau of -Skokloster, occupying the site of a monastery, and presented by Gustavus -Adolphus to Marshal Herman Wrangel, whose son Charles Gustavus Wrangel -stored it with a remarkable collection of trophies from Germany, taken -during the Thirty Years' War; including a library, an armoury, and a -great accumulation of curios. - - - - -MALARIA, an Italian colloquial word (from _mala_, bad, and _aria_, air), -introduced into English medical literature by Macculloch (1827) as a -substitute for the more restricted terms "marsh miasm" or "paludal -poison." It is generally applied to the definite unhealthy condition of -body known by a variety of names, such as ague, intermittent (and -remittent) fever, marsh fever, jungle fever, hill fever, "fever of the -country" and "fever and ague." A single paroxysm of simple ague may come -upon the patient in the midst of good health or it may be preceded by -some malaise. The ague-fit begins with chills proceeding as if from the -lower part of the back, and gradually extending until the coldness -overtakes the whole body. Tremors of the muscles more or less violent -accompany the cold sensations, beginning with the muscles of the lower -jaw (chattering of the teeth), and extending to the extremities and -trunk. The expression has meanwhile changed: the face is pale or livid; -there are dark rings under the eyes; the features are pinched and sharp, -and the whole skin shrunken; the fingers are dead white, the nails blue. - -All those symptoms are referable to spasmodic constriction of the small -surface arteries, the pulse at the wrist being itself small, hard and -quick. In the interior organs there are indications of a compensating -accumulation of blood, such as swelling of the spleen, engorgement (very -rarely rupture) of the heart, with a feeling of oppression in the -chest, and a copious flow of clear and watery urine from the congested -kidneys. The body temperature will have risen suddenly from the normal -to 103 deg. or higher. This first or cold stage of the paroxysm varies -much in length; in temperate climates it lasts from one to two hours, -while in tropical and subtropical countries it may be shortened. It is -followed by the stage of dry heat, which will be prolonged in proportion -as the previous stage is curtailed. The feeling of heat is at first an -internal one, but it spreads outwards to the surface and to the -extremities; the skin becomes warm and red, but remains dry; the pulse -becomes softer and more full, but still quick; and the throbbings occur -in exposed arteries, such as the temporal. The spleen continues to -enlarge; the urine is now scanty and high-coloured; the body temperature -is high, but the highest temperatures occur during the chill; there is -considerable thirst; and there is the usual intellectual unfitness, and -it may be confusion, of the feverish state. This period of dry heat, -having lasted three or four hours or longer, comes to an end in -perspiration, at first a mere moistness of the skin, passing into -sweating that may be profuse and even drenching. Sleep may overtake the -patient in the midst of the sweating stage, and he awakes, not without -some feeling of what he has passed through, but on the whole well, with -the temperature fallen almost or altogether to the normal, or it may be -even below the normal; the pulse moderate and full; the spleen again of -its ordinary size; the urine that is passed after the paroxysm deposits -a thick brick-red sediment of urates. The three stages together will -probably have lasted six to twelve hours. The paroxysm is followed by a -definite interval in which there is not only no fever, but even a fair -degree of bodily comfort and fitness; this is the intermission of the -fever. Another paroxysm begins at or near the same hour next day -(quotidian ague), which results from a double tertian infection, or the -interval may be forty-eight hours (tertian ague), or seventy-two hours -(quartan ague). It is the general rule, with frequent exceptions, that -the quotidian paroxysm comes on in the morning, the tertian about noon, -and the quartan in the afternoon. Another rule is that the quartan has -the longest cold stage, while its paroxysm is shortest as a whole; the -quotidian has the shortest cold stage and a long hot stage, while its -paroxysm is longest as a whole. The point common to the various forms of -ague is that the paroxysm ceases about midnight or early morning. -Quotidian intermittent is on the whole more common than tertian in hot -countries; elsewhere the tertian is the usual type, and quartan is only -occasional. - -If the first paroxysm should not cease within the twenty-four hours, the -fever is not reckoned as an intermittent, but as a remittent. - - _Remittent_ is a not unusual form of the malarial process in tropical - and subtropical countries, and in some localities or in some seasons - it is more common than intermittent. It may be said to arise out of - that type of intermittent in which the cold stage is shortened while - the hot stage tends to be prolonged. A certain abatement or remission - of the fever takes place, with or without sweating, but there is no - true intermission or interval of absolute apyrexia. The periodicity - shows itself in the form of an exacerbation of the still continuing - fever, and that exacerbation may take place twenty-four hours after - the first onset, or the interval may be only half that period, or it - may be double. A fever that is to be remittent will usually declare - itself from the outset: it begins with chills, but without the - shivering and shaking fit of the intermittent; the hot stage soon - follows, presenting the same characters as the prolonged hot stage of - the quotidian, with the frequent addition of bilious symptoms, and it - may be even of jaundice and of tenderness over the stomach and liver. - Towards morning the fever abates; the pulse falls in frequency, but - does not come down to the normal; headache and aching in the loins and - limbs become less, but do not cease altogether; the body temperature - falls, but does not touch the level of apyrexia. The remission or - abatement lasts generally throughout the morning; and about noon there - is an exacerbation, seldom ushered in by chills, which continues till - the early morning following, when it remits or abates as before. A - patient with remittent may get well in a week under treatment, but the - fever may go on for several weeks; the return to health is often - announced by the fever assuming the intermittent type, or, in other - words, by the remissions touching the level of absolute apyrexia. - Remittent fevers (as well as intermittents) vary considerably in - intensity; some cases are intense from the outset, or pernicious, with - aggravation of all the symptoms--leading to stupor, delirium, - collapse, intense jaundice, blood in the stools, blood and albumen in - the urine, and, it may be, suppression of urine followed by - convulsions. The severe forms of intermittent are most apt to occur in - the very young, or in the aged, or in debilitated persons generally. - Milder cases of malarial fever are apt to become dangerous from the - complications of dysentery, bronchitis or pneumonia. Severe remittents - (pernicious or bilious remittents) approximate to the type of yellow - fever (q.v.), which is conventionally limited to epidemic outbreaks in - western longitudes and on the west coast of Africa. - -Of the mortality due to malarial disease a small part only is referable -to the direct attack of intermittent, and chiefly to the fever in its -pernicious form. Remittent fever is much more fatal in its direct -attack. But probably the greater part of the enormous total of deaths -set down to malaria is due to the _malarial cachexia_. The dwellers in a -malarious region like the Terai (at the foot of the Himalayas) are -miserable, listless and ugly, with large heads and particularly -prominent ears, flat noses, tumid bellies, slender limbs and sallow -complexions; the children are impregnated with malaria from their birth, -and their growth is attended with aberrations from the normal which -practically amount to the disease of rickets. The malarial cachexia that -follows definite attacks of ague consists in a state of ill-defined -suffering, associated with a sallow skin, enlarged spleen and liver, and -sometimes with dropsy. - -_Causation._--From the time of Hippocrates onwards the malarial or -periodical fevers have engaged the attention of innumerable observers, -who have suggested various theories of causation, and have sometimes -anticipated--vaguely, indeed, but with surprising accuracy--the results -of modern research; but the true nature of the disease remained in doubt -until the closing years of the 19th century. It has now been -demonstrated by a series of accurate investigations, contributed by many -workers, that malaria is caused by a microscopic parasite in the blood, -into which it is introduced by the bites of certain species of mosquito. -(See PARASITIC DISEASES and MOSQUITOES.) - - - History of Discovery. - -The successive steps by which the present position has been reached form -an interesting chapter in the history of scientific progress. The first -substantial link in the actual chain of discovery was contributed in -1880 by Laveran, a French army surgeon serving in Algeria. On the 6th of -November in that year he plainly saw the living parasites under the -microscope in the blood of a malarial patient, and he shortly afterwards -communicated his observations to the Paris Academie de Medecine. They -were confirmed, but met with little acceptance in the scientific world, -which was preoccupied with the claims of a subsequently discredited -Bacillus malariae. In 1885 the Italian pathologists came round to -Laveran's views, and began to work out the life history of his -parasites. The subject has a special interest for Italy, which is -devastated by malaria, and Italian science has contributed materially to -the solution of the problem. The labours of Golgi, Marchiafava, Celli -and others established the nature of the parasite and its behaviour in -the blood; they proved the fact, guessed by Rasori so far back as 1846, -that the periodical febrile paroxysm corresponds with the development of -the organisms; and they showed that the different forms of malarial -fever have their distinct parasites, and consequently fall into distinct -groups, defined on an etiological as well as a clinical basis--namely, -the mild or spring group, which includes tertian and quartan ague, and -the malignant or "aestivo-autumnal" group, which includes a tertian or a -semi-tertian and the true quotidian type. Three distinct parasites, -corresponding with the tertian, quartan and malignant types of fever, -have been described by Italian observers, and the classification is -generally accepted; intermediate types are ascribed to mixed and -multiple infections. So far, however, only half the problem, and from -the practical point of view the less important half, had been solved. -The origin of the parasite and its mode of introduction into the blood -remained to be discovered. An old popular belief current in different -countries, and derived from common observation, connected mosquitoes -with malaria, and from time to time this theory found support in more -scientific quarters on general grounds, but it lacked demonstration and -attracted little attention. In 1894, however, Sir Patrick Manson, -arguing with greater precision by analogy from his own discovery of the -cause of filariasis and the part played by mosquitoes, suggested that -the malarial parasite had a similar intermediate host outside the human -body, and that a suctorial insect, which would probably be found to be a -particular mosquito, was required for its development. Following up this -line of investigation, Major Ronald Ross in 1895 found that if a -mosquito sucked blood containing the parasites they soon began to throw -out flagellae, which broke away and became free; and in 1897 he -discovered peculiar pigmented cells, which afterwards turned out to be -the parasites of aestivo-autumnal malaria in an early stage of -development, within the stomach-wall of mosquitoes which had been fed on -malarial blood. He further found that only mosquitoes of the genus -_Anopheles_ had these cells, and that they did not get them when fed on -healthy blood. Then, turning his attention to the malaria of birds, he -worked out the life-history of these cells within the body of the -mosquito. "He saw that they increased in size, divided, and became full -of filiform spores, then ruptured and poured out their multitudinous -progeny into the body-cavity of their insect host. Finally, he saw the -spores accumulate within the cells of the salivary glands, and -discovered that they actually passed down the salivary ducts and along -the grooved hypopharynx into the seat of puncture, thus causing -infection in a fresh vertebrate host" (Sambon). To apply these -discoveries to the malaria of man was an obvious step. In working out -the details the Italian school have again taken a prominent part. - - - Experiment. - -Thus we get a complete scientific demonstration of the causation of -malaria in three stages: (1) the discovery of the parasite by Laveran; -(2) its life-history in the human host and connexion with the fever -demonstrated by the Italian observers; (3) its life-history in the -alternate host, and the identification of the latter with a particular -species of mosquito by Ross and Manson. The conclusions derived from the -microscopical laboratory were confirmed by actual experiment. In 1898 it -was conclusively shown in Italy that if a mosquito of the _Anopheles_ -variety bites a person suffering from malaria, and is kept long enough -for the parasite to develop in the salivary gland, and is then allowed -to bite a healthy person, the latter will in due time develop malaria. -The converse proposition, that persons efficiently protected from -mosquito bites escape malaria, has been made the subject of several -remarkable experiments. One of the most interesting was carried out in -1900 for the London School of Tropical Medicine by Dr Sambon and Dr Low, -who went to reside in one of the most malarious districts in the Roman -Campagna during the most dangerous season. Together with Signor Terzi -and two Italian servants, they lived from the beginning of July until -the 19th of October in a specially protected hut, erected near Ostia. -The sole precaution taken was to confine themselves between sunset and -sunrise to their mosquito-proof dwelling. All escaped malaria, which was -rife in the immediate neighbourhood. Mosquitoes caught by the -experimenters, and sent to London, produced malaria in persons who -submitted themselves to the bites of these insects at the London School -of Tropical Medicine. Experiments in protection on a larger scale, and -under more ordinary conditions, have been carried out with equal success -by Professor Celli and other Italian authorities. The first of these was -in 1899, and the subjects were the railwaymen employed on certain lines -running through highly malarious districts. Of 24 protected persons, all -escaped but four, and these had to be out at night or otherwise -neglected precautions; of 38 unprotected persons, all contracted malaria -except two, who had apparently acquired immunity. In 1900 further -experiments gave still better results. Of 52 protected persons on one -line, all escaped except two, who were careless; of 52 protected on -another line, all escaped; while of 51 unprotected persons, living in -alternate houses, all suffered except seven. Out of a total of 207 -persons protected in these railway experiments, 197 escaped. In two -peasants' cottages in the Campagna, protected with wire netting by -Professor Celli, all the inmates--10 in number--escaped, while the -neighbours suffered severely; and three out of four persons living in a -third hut, from which protection was removed owing to the indifference -of the inmates, contracted malaria. In the malarious islet of Asinara a -pond of stagnant water was treated with petroleum and all windows were -protected with gauze. The result was that the houses were free from -mosquitoes and no malaria occurred throughout the entire season, though -there had been 40 cases in the previous year. Eight Red Cross -ambulances, each with a doctor and attendant, were sent into the most -malarious parts of the Campagna in 1900. By living in protected houses -and wearing gloves and veils at night all the staff escaped malaria -except one or two attendants. These and other experiments, described by -Dr Manson in the _Practitioner_ for March 1900, confirming the -laboratory evidence as they do, leave no doubt whatever of the -correctness of the mosquito-parasitic theory of malaria. - -It is possible, though not probable, that malaria may also be contracted -in some other way than by mosquito bite, but there are no -well-authenticated facts which require any other theory for their -explanation. The alleged occurrence of the disease in localities free -from mosquitoes or without their agency is not well attested; its -absence from other localities where they abound is accounted for by -their being of an innocent species, or--as in England--free from the -parasite. The old theory of paludism or of a noxious miasma exhaled from -the ground is no longer necessary. The broad facts on which it is based -are sufficiently accounted for by the habits of mosquitoes. For -instance, the swampy character of malarial areas is explained by their -breeding in stagnant water; the effect of drainage, and the general -immunity of high-lying, dry localities, by the lack of breeding -facilities; the danger of the night air, by their nocturnal habits; the -comparative immunity of the upper storeys of houses, by the fact that -they fly low; the confinement of malaria to well-marked areas and the -diminution of danger with distance, by their habit of clinging to the -breeding-grounds and not flying far. Similarly, the subsidence of -malaria during cold weather and its seasonal prevalence find an adequate -explanation in the conditions governing insect life. At the same time it -should be remembered that many points await elucidation, and it is -unwise to assume conclusions in advance of the evidence. - - - Parasites. - -With regard to the parasites, which are the actual cause of malaria in -man, an account of them is given under the heading of PARASITIC -DISEASES, and little need be said about them here. They belong to the -group of Protozoa, and, as already explained, have a double cycle of -existence: (1) a sexual cycle in the body of the mosquito, (2) an -asexual cycle in the blood of human beings. They occupy and destroy the -red corpuscles, converting the haemoglobin into melanin; they multiply -in the blood by sporulation, and produce accessions of fever by the -liberation of a toxin at the time of sporulation (Ross). The number in -the blood in an acute attack is reckoned by Ross to be not less than 250 -millions. A more general and practical interest attaches to the insects -which act as their intermediate hosts. These mosquitoes or gnats--the -terms are synonymous--belong to the family _Culicidae_ and the genus -_Anopheles_, which was first classified by Meigen in 1818. It has a wide -geographical distribution, being found in Europe (including England), -Asia Minor, Burma, Straits Settlements, Java, China, Formosa, Egypt; -west, south and Central Africa; Australia, South America, West Indies, -United States and Canada, but is generally confined to local centres in -those countries. About fifty species are recognized at present. It is -believed that all of them may serve as hosts of the parasite. The -species best known in connexion with malaria are _A. maculipennis_ -(Europe and America), _A. funestus_ and _A. costales_ (Africa). In -colour _Anopheles_ is usually brownish or slaty, but sometimes buff, and -the thorax frequently has a dark stripe on each side. The wings in -nearly all species have a dappled or speckled appearance, owing to the -occurrence of blotches on the front margin and to the arrangement of the -scales covering the veins in alternating light and dark patches -(Austen). The genus with which _Anopheles_ is most likely to be -confounded is _Culex_, which is the commonest of all mosquitoes, has a -world-wide distribution, and is generally a greedy blood-sucker. A -distinctive feature is the position assumed in resting; _Culex_ has a -humpbacked attitude, while in _Anopheles_ the proboscis, head and body -are in a straight line, and in many species inclined at an angle to the -wall, the tail sticking outwards. In the female of _Culex_ the palpi are -much shorter than the proboscis; in _Anopheles_ they are of the same -length. The wings in _Culex_ have not the same dappled appearance. -_Anopheles_ is also a more slender insect, with a smaller head, narrower -body and thinner legs. There are further differences in the other stages -of life. Mosquitoes go through four phases: (1) ovum, (2) larva, (3) -nympha, (4) complete insect. The ova of _Anopheles_ are tiny black -rod-shaped objects, which are deposited on the water of natural puddles, -ponds, or slowly moving streams, by preference those which are well -supplied with vegetation; they float, singly or attached to other -objects or clustered together in patterns. They can live in brackish and -even in sea water. The larva has no breathing-tube, and floats -horizontally at the surface, except when feeding; it does not frequent -sewage or foul water. The ova of _Culex_, on the other hand, are -deposited in any stagnant water, including cesspools, drains, cisterns, -or water collected in any vessel; they float in boat-shaped masses on -the surface. The larva has a breathing-tube, and floats head downwards; -when disturbed it wriggles to the bottom (Christy). Some observers -maintain that _Anopheles_ does not "sing," like the common mosquito, and -its bite is much less irritating. Only the females suck blood; the act -is believed to be necessary for fertilization and reproduction. -_Anopheles_ rarely bites by day, and then only in dark places. In the -daytime "the gorged females rest motionless on the walls and ceilings of -rooms, choosing always the darkest situations for this purpose" -(Austen). In temperate climates the impregnated females hibernate during -the winter in houses, cellars, stables, the trunks of trees, &c., coming -out to lay their eggs in the spring. The four phases are passed in -thirty days in a favourable season, and consequently there are -ordinarily four or five generations from April to September (Celli). - -The most important question raised by the mosquito-parasitic theory of -malaria is that of prevention. This may be considered under two heads: -(1) individual prophylaxis; (2) administrative prevention on a large -scale. - - - Prophylaxis. - -(1) In the first place, common sense suggests the avoidance, in -malarious countries, of unhealthy situations, and particularly the -neighbourhood of stagnant water. Among elements of unhealthiness is next -to be reckoned the proximity of native villages, the inhabitants of -which are infected. In the tropics "no European house should be located -nearer to a native village than half a mile" (Manson), and, since -children are almost universally infected, "the presence of young natives -in the house should be absolutely interdicted" (Manson). When unhealthy -situations cannot be avoided, they may be rendered more healthy by -destroying the breeding-grounds of mosquitoes in the neighbourhood. All -puddles and collections of water should be filled in or drained; as a -temporary expedient they may be treated with petroleum, which prevents -the development of the larvae. When a place cannot be kept free from -mosquitoes the house may be protected, as in the experiments in Italy, -by wire gauze at the doors and windows. The arrangement used for the -entrance is a wire cage with double doors. Failing such protection -mosquito curtains should be used. Mosquitoes in the house may be -destroyed by the fumes of burning sulphur or tobacco smoke. According to -the experiments of Celli and Casagrandi, these are the most effective -culicides; when used in sufficient quantity they kill mosquitoes in one -minute. The same authorities recommend a powder, composed of larvicide -(an aniline substance), chrysanthemum flowers, and valerian root, to be -burnt in bedrooms. Anointing the skin with strong-smelling substances is -of little use in the open air, but more effective in the house; -turpentine appears to be the best. Exposure at night should be avoided. -All these prophylactic measures are directed against mosquitoes. There -remains the question of protection against the parasite. Chills are -recognized as predisposing both to primary infection and to relapses, -and malnutrition is also believed to increase susceptibility; both -should therefore be avoided. Then a certain amount of immunity may be -acquired by the systematic use of quinine. Manson recommends five to ten -grains once or twice a week; Ross recommends the same quantity every day -before breakfast. There is some evidence that arsenic has a prophylactic -effect. An experiment made on the railway staff at Bovino, a highly -malarious district on the Adriatic, gave a striking result. The number -of persons was 78, and they were divided into two equal groups of 39 -each. One group was treated with arsenic, and of these 36 escaped -altogether, while three had mild attacks; the remaining 39 who were not -treated, all had fever. In a more extended experiment on 657 railwaymen -402 escaped. This was in 1889; but in spite of the encouraging results -the use of arsenic does not appear to have made any further progress. -Experiments in immunizing by sero-therapeutic methods have not as yet -met with success. - - - Administrative Measures. - -(2) Much attention has been directed in scientific circles to the -possibility of "stamping out" epidemic malaria by administrative -measures. The problem is one of great practical importance, especially -to the British Empire. There are no data for estimating the damage -inflicted by malaria in the British colonies. It is, indeed, quite -incalculable. In Italy the annual mortality from this cause averages -15,000, which is estimated to represent two million cases of sickness -and a consequent loss of several million francs. In British tropical -possessions the bill is incomparably heavier. There is not only the -heavy toll in life and health exacted from Europeans, but the virtual -closing of enormous tracts of productive country which would otherwise -afford scope for British enterprise. The "deadly" climates, to which so -much dread attaches, generally mean malaria, and the mastery of this -disease would be equivalent to the addition of vast and valuable areas -to the empire. The problem, therefore, is eminently one for the -statesman and administrator. A solution may be sought in several -directions, suggested by the facts already explained. The existence of -the parasite is maintained by a vicious interchange between its -alternate hosts, mosquitoes and man, each infecting the other. If the -cycle be broken at any point the parasite must die out, assuming that it -has no other origin or mode of existence. The most effective step would -obviously be the extermination of the _Anopheles_ mosquito. A great deal -may be done towards this end by suppressing their breeding-places, which -means the drying of the ground. It is a question for the engineer, and -may require different methods in different circumstances. Put -comprehensively, it involves the control of the subsoil and surface -waters by drainage, the regulation of rivers and floods, suitable -agriculture, the clearing of forests or jungles, which tend to increase -the rainfall and keep the ground swampy. - -The city of Rome is an example of what can be done by drainage; situated -in the midst of malaria, it is itself quite healthy. Recent reports also -show us how much may be done in infected districts. At Ismailia malaria -was reduced from 1551 cases in 1902 to 37 cases in 1905. The cost of -operations amounted to an initial expenditure of 6.25 francs, and an -annual expenditure of about 2.3 francs per head of the population. "The -results are due to mosquito reduction together with cinchonization." The -following is a tabulated list of the cases. The population of Ismailia -is about 6000. - - +------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+--------+ - | Year | 1900 | 1901 | 1902* | 1903 | 1904 | 1905 | - +------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+--------+ - | Cases of Malaria | 2250 | 1990 | 1548 | 214 | 90 | 372[2] | - +------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+--------+ - - * Drainage works begun. - -Klang and Port Swettenham are contiguous towns in the Federated Malay -States, having a population of 4000 and a rainfall of 100 in. a year. At -Klang the expenditure has been L3100, with an annual expenditure of -L270, devoted to clearing and draining 332 acres. At Port Swettenham -L7000, with an annual upkeep of L240, has been devoted to treating 110 -acres. In Hong-Kong similar measures were carried out, with the result -that the hospital admissions for malaria diminished from 1294 in 1901, -the year when operations were begun, to 419 in 1905. - - Klang and Port Swettenham. - - +------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+ - | Year | 1900 | 1901* | 1902 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905 | - +------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+ - | Cases of Malaria | 510 | 610 | 199 | 69 | 32 | 23 | - +------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+ - - * Nearly all were relapses of previous infection. - -A systematic campaign for the destruction of breeding-places has been -inaugurated in the British West African colonies, with encouraging -results. The planting of eucalyptus trees is out of favour at present, -but it appears to have been successful in Portugal, not from any -prophylactic virtues in the plant, but through the great absorption of -moisture by its deep roots, which tends to dry the subsoil. Treating the -breeding-ponds with petroleum or similar preparations seems to be hardly -applicable on a large scale, and in any case can only be a temporary -expedient. H. Ziemann advocates the destruction of mosquito larvae by -the growing of such plants as the water-pest (_Anacharis alsinatrum_) -which covers the surface of the water and suffocates larvae and nymphae. -Short of suppressing mosquitoes, the parasitic cycle may theoretically -be broken by preventing them from giving the infection to man or taking -it from him. The means of accomplishing the former have been already -pointed out, but they are obviously difficult to carry out on a large -scale, particularly in native communities. It is one thing to protect -individuals from mosquito bites, another to prevent the propagation of -the parasite in a whole community. Perhaps the converse is more feasible -in some circumstances--that is to say, preventing mosquitoes from having -access to malarial persons, and so propagating the parasite in -themselves. It could be carried out where the infected persons are few, -by isolating and protecting them, but not where many are infected, as in -native villages. Koch has suggested that the disinfection of malarial -persons by quinine would have the desired effect, but other authorities -of greater experience do not consider it practicable. In spite of the -difficulties, however, there is no doubt that a great deal can be done -to reduce, if not stamp out, malaria by the methods indicated, which -should be applied according to circumstances. An encouraging example is -afforded by the remarkable fact that malaria, which was once rife in -certain districts of England, has now died out, although the _Anopheles -maculipennis_ mosquito still exists there. The parasitic cycle has been -broken, and the insect is no longer infected. The suggested causes are -(1) reduction of insects by drainage, (2) reduced population, (3) the -use of quinine. Sir Patrick Manson has suggested that the problem of -stamping out malaria may be assisted by the discovery of some at present -unknown factors. He has pointed out that certain areas and certain -islands are entirely free from the disease, while neighbouring areas and -islands are devastated. This immunity is apparently not due to the -absence of favourable conditions, but rather to the presence of some -inimical factor which prevents the development of the parasite. If this -factor could be discovered it might be applied to the suppression of the -disease in malarious localities. - -A few other points may be noted. The pathological changes in malaria are -due to the deposition of melanin and the detritus of red corpuscles and -haemoglobin, and to the congregation of parasites in certain sites -(Ross). In chronic cases the eventual effects are anaemia, melanosis, -enlargement of the spleen and liver, and general cachexia. Apparently -the parasites may remain quiescent in the blood for years and may cause -relapses by fresh sporulation. Recent discoveries have done little or -nothing for treatment. Quinine still remains the one specific. In -serious cases it should not be given in solid form, but in solution by -the stomach, rectum, or--better--hypodermically (Manson). According to -Ross, it should be given promptly, in sufficient doses (up to 30 -grains), and should be continued for months. Euquinine is by some -preferred to quinine, but it is more expensive. Nucleogen and Aristochin -have also been recommended instead of quinine. The nature of immunity is -not known. Some persons are naturally absolutely immune (Celli), but -this is rare; immunity is also sometimes acquired by infection, but as a -rule persons once infected are more predisposed than others. Races -inhabiting malarious districts acquire a certain degree of resistance, -no doubt through natural selection. Children are much more susceptible -than adults. - -_Malaria in the Lower Vertebrates._--Birds are subject to malaria, which -is caused by blood parasites akin to those in man and having a similar -life-history. Two species, affecting different kinds of birds, have been -identified. Their alternate hosts are mosquitoes of the _Culex_ genus. -Oxen, sheep, dogs, monkeys, bats, and probably horses also suffer from -similar parasitic diseases. In the case of oxen the alternate host of -the parasite is a special tick (Smith and Kilborne). In the other -animals several parasites have been described by different observers, -but the alternate hosts are not known. - - AUTHORITIES.--Celli, _Malaria_; Christy, _Mosquitoes and Malaria_; - Manson, _Tropical Diseases_; Allbutt's _System of Medicine_; Ross, - "Malaria," Quain's _Dictionary of Medicine_, 3rd ed.; _The - Practitioner_, March, 1901 (Malaria Number); _Lancet_ (Sept. 29, - 1907); _British Medical Journal_ (Oct. 19, 1907); _Indian Medical - Gazette_ (February 1908). (A. Sl.; H. L. H.) - - - - -MALATIA (MALATIEH or ASPUZU) the chief town of a sanjak of the same name -in the Mamuret el-Aziz vilayet of Asia Minor, and a military station on -the Samsun-Sivas-Diarbekr road, altitude 2900 ft., situated about 10 m. -S.W. of the junction of the Tokhma Su (med. Kubakib) with the Euphrates, -near the south end of a fertile plain, and at the northern foot of the -Taurus. Pop. about 30,000, including, besides many Armenian Christians, -bodies of Kurds and "Kizilbash." It is a wholly modern place, rebuilt -since the earthquake of 1893, contains fine public buildings, and is -noted for its fruit orchards. There are Protestant (American) and Roman -Catholic missions, and an Armenian Catholic archbishop has his seat -here. Eskishehr or Old Malatia (_Melitene_), 5 m. N.E. and 3 m. from the -great medieval bridge (Kirkgeuz) over the Tokhma Su, is said to owe its -present desolation largely to its occupation by Hafiz Pasha as his -headquarters in 1838 before his advance to fight the disastrous battle -of Nizib with the Egyptian, Ibrahim. But it has still many inhabitants -and large gardens and many ruinous mosques, baths, &c., relics of -Mansur's city. It was the residence of von Moltke for some months, while -attached to Hafiz's army. The earliest site was possibly Arslan Tepe -about 2 m. south of Eskishehr were two "Hittite" stelae, representing -hunting scenes, now in the Constantinople and Paris museums, were found -in 1894. - - In the time of Strabo (xii. 537) there was no town in the district of - Melitene, which was reckoned part of Cappadocia. Under Titus the place - became the permanent station of the 12th ("Thundering") legion; Trajan - raised it to a city. Lying in a very fertile country at the crossing - point of important routes, including the Persian "Royal Road," and two - imperial military highways from Caesarea and along the Euphrates bank, - it grew in size and importance, and was the capital of Armenia Minor - or Secunda. Justinian, who completed the walls commenced by - Anastasius, made it the capital of Armenia Tertia; it was then a very - great place (Procop., _De aed._, iii. 4). The town was burnt by - Chosroes on his retreat after his great defeat there in 577. Taken by - the Saracens, retaken and destroyed by Constantine Copronymus, it was - presently recovered to Islam, and rebuilt under Mansur (A.D. 756). It - again changed hands more than once, being reckoned among the frontier - towns of Syria (Istakhry, pp. 55, 62). At length the Greeks recovered - it in 934, and Nicephorus II., finding the district much wasted, - encouraged the Jacobites to settle in it, which they did in great - numbers. A convent of the Virgin, and the great church which bears his - name, were erected by the bishop Ignatius (Isaac the Runner). From - this time Malatia continued to be a great seat of the Jacobites, and - it was the birthplace of their famous maphrian Barhebraeus (or - Abulfaragius). At the commencement of the 11th century the population - was said to number 60,000 fighting men (Assem., _Bib. Or._, ii. 149; - cf. Barheb., _Chr. Eccl._, i. 411, 423). At the time of the first - crusade, the city, being hard pressed by the Turks under Ibn - Danishmend, was relieved by Baldwin, after Bohemund had failed and - lost his liberty in the attempt. But the Jacobites had no cause to - love Byzantium, and the Greek governor Gabriel was so cruel and - faithless that the townsmen were soon glad to open their gates to Ibn - Danishmend (1102), and the city subsequently became part of the realm - of Kilij Arslan, sultan of Iconium. - - See H. C. B. v. Moltke, _Briefe uber Zustande, &c. in der Turkei_ - (1835-1839). (D. G. H.) - - - - -MALAYALAM, a language of the Dravidian family, spoken on the west coast -of southern India. It is believed to have developed out of Tamil as -recently as the 9th century. It possesses a large literature, in which -words borrowed from Sanskrit are conspicuous. In 1901 the total number -of speakers of Malayalam in all India was just about six millions. - - - - -MALAY ARCHIPELAGO[1] (variously called _Malaysia_, the _Indian -Archipelago_, the _East Indies_, _Indonesia_, _Insulinde_), the largest -group of islands in the world, lying south-east of Asia and north and -north-west of Australia. It includes the Sunda Islands, the Moluccas, -New Guinea, and the Philippine Islands, but excludes the Andaman-Nicobar -group. The equator passes through the middle of the archipelago; it -successively cuts Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes and Halmahera, four of the -most important islands. A. R. Wallace (who includes the Solomon Islands -as well as New Guinea in the group) points out that the archipelago -"includes two islands larger than Great Britain; and in one of them, -Borneo, the whole of the British Isles might be set down, and would be -surrounded by a sea of forests. Sumatra is about equal in extent to -Great Britain; Java, Luzon, and Celebes are each about the size of -Ireland. Eighteen more islands are on the average as large as Jamaica; -and more than a hundred are as large as the Isle of Wight." - - +------------------------+---------+-----------------------+ - | | Area. | Estimated Population. | - +------------------------+---------+-----------------------+ - | Sunda Islands | 459,578 | 32,632,400 | - | Moluccas, with Celebes | 115,334 | 3,000,000 | - | New Guinea | 312,329 | 800,000 | - | Philippine Islands | 115,026 | 7,635,400 | - +------------------------+---------+-----------------------+ - -The islands of the archipelago nearly all present bold and picturesque -profiles against the horizon, and at the same time the character of the -scenery varies from island to island and even from district to district. -The mountains are arranged for the most part in lines running either -from north-west to south-east or from west to east. In Sumatra and in -the islands between Sumatra and Borneo the former direction is -distinctly marked, and the latter is equally noticeable in Java and the -other southern islands. The mountains of Borneo, however, rise rather in -short ridges and clusters. Nothing in the general physiognomy of the -islands is more remarkable than the number and distribution of the -volcanoes, active or extinct. Running south-east through Sumatra, east -through Java and the southern islands to Timor, curving north through -the Moluccas, and again north, from the end of Celebes through the whole -line of the Philippines, they follow a line roughly resembling a -horseshoe narrowed towards the point. The loftiest mountain in the -archipelago would appear to be Kinabalu in Borneo (13,698 ft.). An -important fact in the physical geography of the archipelago is that -Java, Bali, Sumatra and Borneo, and the lesser islands between them and -the Asiatic mainland, all rest on a great submerged bank, nowhere more -than 100 fathoms below sea-level, which may be considered a continuation -of the continent; while to the east the depth of the sea has been found -at various places to be from 1000 to 2500 fathoms. As the value of this -fact was particularly emphasized by Wallace, the limit of the shallow -water, which is found in the narrow but deep channel between Bali and -Lombok, and strikes north to the east of Borneo, has received the name -of "Wallace's Line." The Philippines on the other hand, "are almost -surrounded by deep sea, but are connected with Borneo by means of two -narrow submarine banks" (A. R. Wallace, _Island Life_). The archipelago, -in effect, is divided between two great regions, the Asiatic and the -Australian, and the fact is evident in various branches of its -geography--zoological, botanical, and even human. It is believed that -there was a land-connexion between Asia and Australia in the later part -of the Secondary epoch, and that the Australian continent, when -separated, became divided into islands before the south-eastern part of -the Asiatic did so. - - The most notable fact in the geological history of the archipelago is - the discovery in Java of the fossil remains of _Pithecanthropus - erectus_, a form intermediate between the higher apes and man. In its - structure and cranial capacity it is entitled to a higher place in the - zoological scale than any anthropoid, for it almost certainly walked - erect; and, on the other hand, in its intellectual powers it must have - been much below the lowest of the human race at present known. The - strata in which it was found belong to the Miocene or Upper Pliocene. - Among the rocks of economic importance may be mentioned granite of - numerous kinds, syenite, serpentine, porphyry, marble, sandstones and - marls. Coal is worked in Sumatra, Borneo and Labuan. Diamonds are - obtained in Borneo, garnets in Sumatra, Bachian and Timor, and topazes - in Bachian, antimony in Borneo and the Philippines; lead in Sumatra, - Borneo and the Philippines; copper and malachite in the Philippines, - Timor, Borneo and Sumatra; and, most important of all, tin in Banka, - Billiton and Singkep. Iron is pretty frequent in various forms. Gold - is not uncommon in the older ranges of Sumatra, Banka, Celebes, - Bachian, Timor and Borneo. Manganese could be readily worked in Timor, - where it lies in the Carboniferous Limestone. Platinum is found in - Landak and other parts of Borneo. Petroleum is a valuable product of - Sumatra and Java, and is also found in Borneo. - -_Climate_, _Flora_, _Fauna._--The most striking general fact as regards -climate in the archipelago is that wherever that part of the south-east -monsoon which has passed over Australia strikes, the climate is -comparatively dry, and the vegetation is less luxuriant. The east end of -Java, e.g. has a less rainfall than the west; the distribution of the -rain on the north coast is quite different from that on the south, and a -similar difference is observed between the east and the west of Celebes. -The north-west monsoon, beginning in October and lasting till March, -brings the principal rainy season in the archipelago. - - Most of the islands of the archipelago belong to the great equatorial - forest-belt. In its economical aspect the vegetation, whether natural - or cultivated, is of prime interest. The list of fruits is very - extensive, though few of them are widely known. These, however, - include the orange, mango, mangosteen, shaddock, guava and the durian. - The variety of food-plants is equally notable. Not only are rice and - maize, sugar and coffee, among the widely cultivated crops, but the - coco-nut, the bread-fruit, the banana and plantain, the sugar-palm, - the tea-plant, the sago-palm, the coco-tree, the ground-nut, the yam, - the cassava, and others besides, are of practical importance. The - cultivation of sugar and coffee owes its development mainly to the - Dutch; and to them also is due the introduction of tea. They have - greatly encouraged the cultivation of the coco-nut among the natives, - and it flourishes, especially in the coast districts, in almost every - island in their territory. The oil is largely employed in native - cookery. Pepper, nutmegs and cloves were long the objects of the most - important branch of Dutch commerce; and gutta-percha, camphor, dammar, - benzoin and other forest products have a place among the exports. - - To the naturalist the Malay Archipelago is a region of the highest - interest; and from an early period it has attracted the attention of - explorers of the first rank. The physical division between the Asiatic - and Australian regions is clearly reflected in the botany and zoology. - The flora of the Asiatic islands (thus distinguished) "is a special - development of that prevailing from the Himalayas to the Malay - Peninsula and south China. Farther east this flora intermingles with - that of Australia" (F. H. H. Guillemard, _Australasia_). Similarly, in - the Asiatic islands are found the great mammals of the continent--the - elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, anthropoid ape, &c., which are wanting - in the Australian region, with which the eastern part of the - archipelago is associated. (For details concerning flora and fauna, - see separate articles, especially JAVA.) - -[Illustration: Map of Malay Archipelago.] - -_Inhabitants._--The majority of the native inhabitants of the Malay -Archipelago belong to two races, the Malays and the Melanesians -(Papuans). As regards the present racial distribution, the view accepted -by many anthropologists, following A. H. Keane, is that the Negritos, -still found in the Philippines, are the true aborigines of Indo-China -and western Malaysia, while the Melanesians, probably their kinsmen, -were the earliest occupants of eastern Malaysia and western Polynesia. -At some date long anterior to history it is supposed that Indo-China was -occupied first by a fair Caucasian people and later by a yellow -Mongolian race. From these two have come all the peoples--other than -Negrito or Papuan--found to-day from the Malay Peninsula to the farthest -islands of Polynesia. The Malay Archipelago was thus first invaded by -the Caucasians, who eventually passed eastward and are to-day -represented in the Malay Archipelago only by the Mentawi islanders. They -were followed by an immigration of Mongol-Caucasic peoples with a -preponderance of Caucasic blood--the Indonesians of some, the pre-Malays -of other writers--who are to-day represented in the archipelago by such -peoples as the Dyaks of Borneo and the Battas of Sumatra. At a far later -date, probably almost within historic times, the true Malay race, a -combination of Mongol and Caucasic elements, came into existence and -overran the archipelago, in time becoming the dominant race. A Hindu -strain is evident in Java and others of the western islands; Moors and -Arabs (that is, as the names are used in the archipelago, Mahommedans -from various countries between Arabia and India) are found more or less -amalgamated with many of the Malay peoples; and the Chinese form, from -an economical point of view, one of the most important sections of the -community in many of the more civilized districts. Chinese have been -established in the archipelago from a very early date: the first Dutch -invaders found them settled at Jacatra; and many of them, as, for -instance, the colony of Ternate, have taken so kindly to their new home -that they have acquired Malay to the disuse of their native tongue. -Chinese tombs are among the objects that strike the traveller's -attention at Amboyna and other ancient settlements. - - There is a vast field for philological explorations in the - archipelago. Of the great number of distinct languages known to exist, - few have been studied scientifically. The most widely distributed is - the Malay, which has not only been diffused by the Malays themselves - throughout the coast regions of the various islands, but, owing partly - to the readiness with which it can be learned, has become the common - medium between the Europeans and the natives. The most cultivated of - the native tongues is the Javanese, and it is spoken by a greater - number of people than any of the others. To it Sundanese stands in the - relation that Low German holds to High German, and the Madurese in the - relation of a strongly individualized dialect. Among the other - languages which have been reduced to writing and grammatically - analysed are the Balinese, closely connected with the Javanese, the - Batta (with its dialect the Toba), the Dyak and the Macassarese. - Alfurese, a vague term meaning in the mouths of the natives little - else than non-Mahommedan, has been more particularly applied by Dutch - philologists to the native speech of certain tribes in Celebes. The - commercial activity of the Buginese causes their language to be fairly - widely spoken--little, however, by Europeans. - -_Political Division._--Politically the whole of the archipelago, except -British North Borneo, &c. (see BORNEO), part of Timor (Portuguese), New -Guinea east of the 141st meridian (British and German), and the -Philippine Islands, belongs to the Netherlands. The Philippine Islands -which had been for several centuries a Spanish possession, passed in -1898 by conquest to the United States of America. For these several -political units see the separate articles; a general view, however, is -here given of the government, economic conditions, &c., of the Dutch -possessions, which the Dutch call _Nederlandsch-Indie_. - - -NETHERLANDS INDIA - - _Administration._--The Dutch possessions in Asia lie between 6 deg. N. - and 11 deg. S. and 95 deg. E. and 141 deg. E. Politically they are - divided into lands under the direct government of the Netherlands - vassal lands and confederated lands. Administratively they are - further divided into residencies, divisions, regencies, districts, and - _dessas_ or villages. In the principal towns and villages there are - parish councils, and in some provinces county councils have been - established. Natives, Chinese and Arabs, are given seats, and in - certain instances some of the members are elected, but more generally - they are appointed by government. The islands are often described as - of two groups, Java and Madura forming one, and the other consisting - of Sumatra, Borneo, Riouw-Lingga Archipelago, Banka, Billiton, - Celebes, Molucca Archipelago, the small Sunda Islands, and a part of - New Guinea--the Outposts as they are collectively named. The Outposts - are divided into 20 provinces. A governor-general holds the superior - administrative and executive authority, and is assisted by a council - of five members, partly of a legislative and partly of an advisory - character, but with no share in the executive work of the government. - In 1907 a Bill was introduced to add four extraordinary members to the - council, but no immediate action was taken. The governor-general not - only has supreme executive authority, but can of his own accord pass - laws and regulations, except in so far as these, from their nature, - belong of right to the home government, and as he is bound by the - constitutional principles on which, according to the _Regulations for - the Government of Netherlands India_, passed by the king and - States-General in 1854, the Dutch East Indies must be governed. There - are nine departments, each under a director: namely, justice; - interior; instruction, public worship and industry; agriculture - (created in 1905); civil public works; government works (created in - 1908); finance; war; marine. The administration of the larger - territorial divisions (_gouvernement_, _residentie_) is in the hands - of Dutch governors, residents, assistant residents and _controleurs_. - In local government a wide use is made of natives, in the appointment - of whom a primary consideration is that if possible the people should - be under their own chieftains. In Surakarta and Jokjakarta in Java, - and in many parts of the Outposts, native princes preserve their - positions as vassals; they have limited power, and act generally under - the supervision of a Dutch official. In concluding treaties with the - vassal princes since 1905, the Dutch have kept in view the necessity - of compelling them properly to administer the revenues of their - states, which some of them formerly squandered in their personal uses. - Provincial banks have been established which defray the cost of public - works. - - _Population._--The following table gives the area and population of - Java (including Madura) and of the Outposts:-- - - +------------------------------+--------+-------------------------+ - | | Area: | Pop. | - | |English +-----------+-------------+ - | | sq. m. | 1900. | 1905. | - +------------------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+ - | Java and Madura | 50,970 |28,746,688 | 30,098,008 | - | / Sumatra, West Coast| 31,649 | 1,527,297 |\ | - | | Sumatra, East Coast| 35,312 | 421,090 || | - | | Benkulen | 9,399 | 162,396 || | - | Sumatra< Lampong Districts | 11,284 | 142,426 | > 4,029,505 | - | | Palembang | 53,497 | 804,299 || | - | \ Achin | 20,471 | 110,804 |/ | - | Riouw-Lingga Archipelago | 16,301 | 86,186 | 112,216 | - | Banka | 4,446 | 106,305 | 115,189 | - | Billiton | 1,863 | 43,386 | 36,858 | - | Borneo, West Coast | 55,825 | 413,067 |\ | - | Borneo, South and East | | | > 1,233,655 | - | Districts |156,912 | 716,822 |/ | - | Celebes / Celebes | 49,390 | 454,368 | 415,499 | - | \ Menado | 22,080 | 429,773 | 436,406 | - | Molucca Islands | 43,864 | 410,190 | 407,419 | - | Timor Archipelago | 17,698 | 119,239 | 308,600 | - | Bali and Lombok | 4,065 | 1,041,696 | 523,535 | - | New Guinea to 141 deg. E. |151,789 | 200,000 | .... | - +------------------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+ - | Total |736,815 |36,000,000 | 37,717,377*| - +------------------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+ - - * Including 487 in Merauke, the capital of Dutch New Guinea. - - In no case are the above figures for population more than fairly - accurate, and in some instances they are purely conjectural. The - population is legally divided into Europeans and persons assimilated - to them, and natives and persons assimilated to them. The first class - includes half-castes (who are numerous, for the Dutch are in closer - relationship with the natives than is the case with most colonizing - peoples), and also Armenians, Japanese, &c. The total number of this - class in 1900 was 75,833; 72,019 of these were called Dutch, but - 61,022 of them were born in Netherlands India; there were also 1382 - Germans, 441 British and 350 Belgians. Among the natives and persons - assimilated to them were about 537,000 Chinese and 27,000 Arabs. In - the decade 1890-1900 the increase of the European population was - 30.9%, of the Arabs 26.6%, and of the Chinese 16.5%. A large - proportion of the Europeans are government officials, or retired - officials, for many of the Dutch, once established in the colonies, - settle there for life. The remaining Europeans are mostly planters and - heads of industrial establishments; the Arabs are nearly all traders, - as are some of the Chinese, but a large number of the latter are - labourers in the Sumatra tobacco plantations and the tin mines of - Banka, Billiton, &c. The bulk of the natives are agriculturists. - - _Religion and Instruction._--Entire liberty is granted to the members - of all religious confessions. The Reformed Church has about 40 - ministers and 30 assistants, the Roman Catholic 35 curates and 20 - priests, not salaried out of the public funds. There are about 170 - Christian missionaries, and the progress of their work may be - illustrated by showing that the number of Christians among the natives - and foreign Orientals was:-- - - +--------------------+---------+---------+---------------+ - | | In 1873.| In 1896.| In 1903. | - +--------------------+---------+---------+---------------+ - | In Java and Madura | 5,673 | 19,193 | About 34,000 | - | In the Outposts | 148,672 | 290,065 | " 390,000 | - +--------------------+---------+---------+---------------+ - - About 10,000 natives go annually to Mecca on pilgrimage. - - Both the government and private enterprise maintain vernacular - schools. Large sums have been voted in Holland for the establishment - of primary and secondary schools, and the government has undertaken to - assist in the establishment of parochial schools, the object being - that every village, at least in Java, should possess one. There are - schools for higher education at Batavia, Surabaya and Semarang; at the - first two of these towns are government schools for mechanical - engineering, and at Batavia a crafts school and a medical school for - natives. There are five colleges for native schoolmasters and four for - sons of native officials. Government schools for the European - education of Chinese children are established in the principal towns. - Private mechanical and crafts schools are established at Jokjakarta, - Surabaya and Semarang, and there is an agricultural school at - Buitenzorg. - - _Justice._--As regards the administration of justice, the distinction - is maintained between (1) Europeans and persons assimilated with them - (who include Christians and Japanese), and (2) natives, together with - Chinese, Arabs, &c. The former are subject to laws closely resembling - those of the mother country, while the customs and institutions of - natives are respected in connexion with the administration of justice - to the latter. In 1906 a bill was passed somewhat modifying the - existing status of the classes above mentioned, and especially - directing new ordinances with regard to the judicial treatment of - Christian natives. A general judicial revision being also in - contemplation, this bill did not immediately come into force. Justice - for Europeans is administered by European judges, but, as with - administration at large so in judicial matters, native chiefs have - extensive powers in native affairs. For European justice the High - Court of Justice is established at Batavia; there are councils of - justice at Batavia, Semarang and Surabaya, with authority not only - over Java but over parts of the Outposts; there is a resident court of - justice in each residency. For native justice there are courts in the - districts and regencies; residents act as police judges; provincial - councils have judicial powers, and there are councils of priests with - powers in matrimonial disputes, questions of succession, &c. - - As regards pauperism, the government subsidizes Protestant and - Catholic orphan houses. - - _Finance._--The revenue of Netherlands India has been derived mainly - from customs, excise, ground-tax, licences, poll-tax, &c., from - monopolies--opium, salt and pawn-shops (the management of which began - to be taken over by the government in 1903, in place of the previous - system of farming-out), coffee, &c., railways, tin mines and forests, - and from agricultural and other concessions. But attempts have been - made, and have been largely successful, to make the revenue dependent - to a less extent on monopolies and the products (especially - agricultural) of the land; and to abolish licences and substitute - direct taxes. There is a progressive income-tax for Europeans, and the - system has also been applied in the case of natives. - - The following table affords comparisons in the revenue and - expenditure:-- - - +------+-------------+--------------+ - | Year.| Revenue. | Expenditure. | - +------+-------------+--------------+ - | 1880 | L12,236,500 | L12,244,666 | - | 1890 | 11,482,457 | 10,644,728 | - | 1900 | 11,832,417 | 12,313,854 | - | 1905 | 12,951,497 | 13,844,173 | - +------+-------------+--------------+ - - The monetary system is similar to that of Holland (the unit being the - _guilder_), but there are also certain silver and copper coins of - small value bearing Malay or Javanese inscriptions. The Java Bank, - established in 1828, with headquarters at Batavia, is the only bank - issuing notes, two-fifths of the amount of which must be covered by - specie or bullion. The government has a control over the - administration of this bank. - - _Defence._--The army is purely colonial, i.e. distinct from that of - the Netherlands. Its strength is a little under 40,000, about - one-third being Europeans of various nationalities and two-thirds - natives of various races. No portion of the regular army of the - Netherlands is allowed to be sent on colonial service, but individual - soldiers are at liberty to enlist, by permission of their commanding - officers, in the army of Netherlands India, and they form its nucleus. - Native and European soldiers are generally mixed together in the same - battalions, though in separate companies. The officers were all Dutch - till 1908, when a trial was made of native officers from noble - Javanese families. The artillery is composed of European gunners, with - native riders, while the cavalry are Europeans and natives. A military - academy is established at Meester Cornelis, near Batavia. Schools for - soldiers are attached to every battalion. There are certain local - forces outside the regular army--militia in some of the large towns, - native infantry in Madura, and guards of some of the vassal princes. - Unlike the army, which is purely colonial, the navy in Netherlands - India is partly colonial, partly belonging to the royal navy of the - Netherlands, and its expenses are therefore borne partly by the mother - country and partly by the colony. About six ironclads and twenty - smaller vessels of the royal navy are stationed in colonial waters; - the vessels of the colonial marine number about twenty-four, and - undertake police supervision, prevention of slave trading, &c. - - _Trade and Industries._--The principal articles of export are sugar, - tobacco, copra, forest products (various gums, &c.), coffee, - petroleum, tea, cinchona, tin, rice, pepper, spices and gambier. The - average annual value of exports during 1900-1905 was L22,496,468, and - of imports L17,050,338. A great proportion of the exports goes to the - mother country, though a considerable quantity of rice is exported to - China. An indication of the mineral products has already been given; - as regards the export trade, tin is the most important of these, but - the Ombilin coalfields of Sumatra, connected by a railway with the - coast, call for mention here also. Agricultural labour is very - carefully regulated by law, in the enforcement of which the residents - and lower officials have wide powers. One day's gratuitous labour out - of seven or more can be demanded of labourers either on private or on - government estates; but in 1882 this form of labour was for the most - part abolished as far as government estates were concerned, each - labourer so exempted paying one guilder per year. The principal - private agricultural estates are in the west of Java, in which island - the greater part of the soil is government property. Such estates have - increased greatly in number and extent, not only in Java but - elsewhere, since the agrarian law of 1870, under which it became - possible for settlers to obtain waste lands on hereditary lease for 75 - years. In 1899 the total acreage of land ceded was 1,002,766 acres; in - 1903 it was 1,077,295. The government ceased to cultivate sugar in - 1891, but coffee, and to some extent cinchona, are cultivated on - government plantations, though not in equal quantity to that grown on - land held on emphyteusis. The average annual yield of sugar in - 1900-1905 was 852,400 tons, but it increased steadily during that - period. The average annual yield of coffee during the same period was - 101,971,132 lb.; it fluctuates greatly. The average annual production - of tobacco is about fifty million pounds from each of the islands of - Java and Sumatra. The total annual yield of the tin mines is about - 15,000 tons, and of the coal mines 240,000 tons. The average output of - petroleum annually in 1900-1905 was 120,000,000 gallons; this, again, - has fluctuated greatly. There are upwards of 3000 miles of railways - and steam tramways in Netherlands India, but these are almost entirely - in Java; elsewhere only Sumatra has a few short lines. The principal - steamship company in the archipelago is the Royal Packet (_Koninklyke - Paketvaart_) Company. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See _Aardrijkskundig en statistisch Woordenboek van - Nederl. Indie_ (Amsterdam, 1869), to which P. J. Veth and other - specialists were contributors. A general survey of the people, - administration and resources of the Dutch colony is provided in - _Twentieth Century Impressions of Netherlands India_, ed. by Arnold - Wright (London, 1910). See also A. R. Wallace, _Malay Archipelago_ - (London, 1869, and later editions, notably for zoological - distribution) and _Island Life_ (London, 1880, notably for - ornithology). H. O. Forbes, _A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern - Archipelago_ (London, 1885); P. van der Lith, _Nederlandsch Oostindie_ - (2nd ed., Leiden, 1893-1895); F. H. H. Guillemard, _Australasia_, vol. - ii., in _Stamford's Compendium_ (London, 1894); _Encyclopaedie van - Nederlandsch-Indie_ (the Hague, 1895-1904); _Guide a travers la - section des Indes neerlandaises_, Paris Exhibition (the Hague, 1900); - A. R. Colquhoun, _The Mastery of the Pacific_ (London, 1902); M. - Weber, _Der indo-australische Archipel und die Geschichte seiner - Tierwelt_ (Jena, 1902); G. Karsten and H. Schenck, - _Vegetationsbilder_, vol. ii. (Jena, 1903); J. van Bemmelen and G. B. - Hooyer, _Guide through Netherlands India_ (London, 1903); D. Bezemer, - _Nederlandsch Oost-Indie_ (the Hague, 1904); H. Blink, _Nederlandsch - Oost- en West-Indie, geographisch, ethnologisch, en economisch - beschreven_ (Leiden, 1904, sqq.). Among Dutch official publications - may be mentioned _Jaarcijfers door het Centraal Bureau voor de - Statistiek_; _Jaarboek van het Mijnwezen in Nederlandsch Oost-Indie_ - (Amsterdam); _Koloniale-Economische Bijdragen_ (the Hague); _Koloniaal - Verslag_ (the Hague); _Regeerings-Almanak voor Nederlandsch-Indie_ - (Batavia). A number of important periodicals (_Tijdschrift_) of - various institutions are issued at Batavia, &c. _Languages_: P. J. - Veth in _De Gids_ (1864); R. N. Cust, _Sketch of the Modern Languages - of the East Indies_ (London, 1878); and for bibliography, Boele van - Neusbroek, _De Beoefening der oostersche talen ..._ (Leiden, 1875). - - -HISTORY - -_Portuguese and Spanish Ascendancy, 1511-1595._--Ptolemy and other -ancient geographers describe the Malay Archipelago, or part of it, in -vague and inaccurate terms, and the traditions they preserved were -supplemented in the middle ages by the narratives of a few famous -travellers, such as Ibn Batuta, Marco Polo, Odoric of Pordenone and -Niccolo Conti. Malay and Chinese records also furnish material for the -early history of individual islands, but the known history of the -archipelago as a whole begins in the 16th century. At this period a -civilization, largely of Hindu origin, had flourished and decayed in -Java, where, as in all the more important islands, Mahommedanism had -afterwards become the dominant creed. But the smaller islands and the -remoter districts, even of Java and Sumatra, remained in a condition of -complete savagery. - -The Portuguese were the first Europeans to colonize any part of the -archipelago. A Portuguese squadron under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira arrived -off Sumatra in 1509, explored the north coast for some distance, and -noted that the inhabitants of the interior were cannibals, while those -of the littoral were civilized and possessed a gold coinage. The main -object of the Portuguese was to obtain a share in the lucrative spice -trade carried on by the Malays, Chinese and Japanese; the trade-routes -of the archipelago converged upon Malacca, which was the point of -departure for spice merchants trading with every country on the shores -of the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. In 1511 the Portuguese under -Alphonso d'Albuquerque occupied Malacca, and in November of that year an -expedition under Antonio de Abreu was despatched to find a route to the -Moluccas and Banda Islands, then famous for their cloves and nutmegs. -The explorers reached Amboyna and Ternate, after gaining some knowledge -of Java, Madura, Sumbawa and other islands, possibly including New -Guinea. During the return voyage the second-in-command, Francisco -Serrao, was shipwrecked, but succeeded in making his way in a native -boat to Mindanao. Thus the Philippines were discovered: In 1514 a second -Portuguese fleet arrived at Ternate, which during the next five years -became the centre of Portuguese enterprise in the archipelago; regular -traffic with Malacca and Cochin was established, and the native raja -became a vassal of Portugal. - -Meanwhile the Spanish government was considering whether the Moluccas -did not fall within the Spanish sphere of influence as defined by the -Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494; and in August 1519 an expedition -commanded by Ferdinand Magellan (q.v.) sailed from Seville to seek a -westward passage to the archipelago. After losing the commander in the -Philippines and discovering Borneo, the two surviving ships reached the -Moluccas late in 1520. One vessel returned to Seville by the Cape route, -thus completing the first voyage round the world; the other attempted to -return by the Pacific, but was driven back to Tidore and there welcomed -by the natives as a useful ally against the Portuguese. Reinforcements -from Spain arrived in 1525 and 1528; but in 1529 a treaty was concluded -between the emperor Charles V. and John III. of Portugal, by which, in -return for 350,000 gold ducats, the Spanish claim to the Moluccas was -withdrawn. The boundary between the Spanish and Portuguese spheres was -fixed at 17 deg. E. of the Moluccas, but by a geographical fiction the -Philippines were included within the Spanish sphere. Further disputes -occurred from time to time, and in 1542 a Spanish fleet came into -conflict with the Portuguese off Amboyna; but after 1529 the supremacy -of each power in its own sphere was never seriously endangered. - -Though the Portuguese traders frequented the coast of Java, they annexed -no territory either there or in Sumatra; but farther east they founded -numerous forts and factories, notably in Amboyna, the Banda Island, -Celebes and Halmahera. Ternate remained the seat of the governor of the -Moluccas, who was the highest official in the archipelago, though -subordinate to the viceroy or governor of Portuguese India. The first -attempt to enter into relations with the states of Borneo was made by D. -Jorge de Menezes, who visited Brunci in 1526, and in 1528 sent an envoy -to its raja. The embassy failed in a curious manner. Among the gifts -sent by Menezes was a piece of tapestry representing the marriage of -Catherine of Aragon to Arthur, prince of Wales. The raja was persuaded -that these mysterious figures were demons under a spell, which might -come to life and kill him as he slept. The envoy was therefore -dismissed. - -In 1536, after a period of war and anarchy caused by the tyrannical rule -of Menezes, Antonio Galvao, the historian, was appointed governor of the -Moluccas. He crushed the rebellion and won the affection of the natives -by his just and enlightened administration, which had no parallel in the -annals of Portuguese rule in the archipelago. He returned to Europe in -1540 (see PORTUGAL: _Literature_), after inaugurating an active -missionary movement, which was revived in 1546-1547 by Francis Xavier -(q.v.). At this period the Portuguese power in the East was already -beginning to wane; in the archipelago it was weakened by administrative -corruption and by incessant war with native states, notably Bintang and -Achin; bitter hostility was aroused by the attempts which the Portuguese -made to establish a commercial monopoly and to force Christianity upon -their native subjects and allies (see PORTUGAL: _History_). From 1580 to -1640 Portugal was itself united to Spain--a union which differed from -annexation in little but name. - -_The English and Dutch, 1595-1674._--Pirates from Dieppe visited the -archipelago between 1527 and 1539. It is possible that they reached -Australia[2]--more than sixty years before the first voyage thither of -which there is any clear record; but their cruise had no political -significance, and the Spaniards and Portuguese remained without European -competitors until the appearance of Sir Francis Drake in 1579. An -English squadron under Sir James Lancaster came into conflict with the -Portuguese in 1591, and an expedition under Sir Henry Middleton traded -in the archipelago in 1604. But the English were simple traders or -explorers; far more formidable were the Dutch, who came to the East -partly to avenge the injuries inflicted on their country by the -Spaniards, partly to break the commercial monopoly of the peninsular -states. As middlemen they already possessed a large interest in the -spice trade, for the Portuguese, having no direct access to the -principal European markets, had made a practice of sending cargo to the -Netherlands for distribution by way of the Scheldt and Rhine. The Dutch -now sought to monopolize not only the distribution but the production of -spices--an enterprise facilitated by the co-operation of many exiled -Portuguese Jews who had settled in Holland. - -The first Dutch fleet sailed from Texel, under the command of Cornelis -Houtman, on the 2nd of April 1595 and reached Sumatra on the 1st of -January 1596. It visited Madura, and came into conflict with the -Portuguese at Bantam in Java, returning to Holland in 1597. Though not a -commercial success, the expedition had demonstrated the weakness of the -Portuguese. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company (q.v.) was -incorporated, and for nearly two centuries this organization played the -chief part in the history of the archipelago. By 1604 the Dutch could -already claim to be the stronger power at sea. They had attacked the -Portuguese in Ceylon (1601), established friendly relations with Achin -(1602), and defeated a powerful fleet off Banda (1602). In 1606 they -concluded a treaty of alliance with the sultan of Johor, and in 1608 -they forced the Portuguese to assent to an armistice for twelve years. -On the 29th of November 1609 Pieter Both was chosen by the -states-general, on the nomination of the Dutch East India Company, as -first governor-general of Netherlands India. In 1611 the headquarters of -the Dutch was changed from Bantam to Jakarta, which in 1619 was renamed -Batavia, and was thenceforward the Dutch capital. Meanwhile the English -East India Company, chartered in 1600, had also extended its operations -to the archipelago. After 1611 the commercial rivalry between the Dutch -and British became acute, and in 1613, 1615 and 1618 commissioners met -in London to discuss the matters in dispute. The result of their -deliberations was the Treaty of Defence, signed on the 2nd of June 1619 -and modified on the 24th of January 1620, which arranged for -co-operation between the Dutch and British companies, and especially for -the maintenance of a joint fleet. But neither company could restrain -its agents in the East from aggressive action, and many fresh causes of -dispute arose, the chief being the failure of the British to provide the -naval forces required for service against the Portuguese, and the -so-called "massacre of Amboyna" (q.v.) in 1623. The Treaty of Defence -lapsed in 1637, but as early as 1634 the British made peace with -Portugal. Even without allies, however, the Dutch continued to extend -their trade and to annex fresh territory, for the British were weakened -by civil war at home, while, after 1640, the Portuguese were struggling -to maintain their independence against Spain. The Dutch company opened -up a profitable trade with Japan and China, and prosecuted the war -against Portugal with great vigour, invading Portuguese India and -capturing Point de Galle in 1640, Malacca in 1641, Cochin and Cannanore -in 1663. The war with England in 1652-54 and the renewal of the -Anglo-Portuguese alliance by the marriage of Charles II. to Catherine of -Braganza in 1661 were unable to check the growth of Dutch power; more -serious was the resistance offered by some of the native states. -Rebellions in Java (1629) and the Moluccas (1650) were suppressed with -great severity, but in 1662 the company suffered a heavy reverse in -Formosa, all its colonists being expelled from the island. A new war -between Great Britain and Holland broke out in 1672 and was terminated -by the Treaty of Westminster (February 17, 1674), by which the points at -issue between the two companies were referred first to commissioners and -finally to an arbitrator. The full details of the settlement are -unknown, but thenceforward the British company devoted its energies -chiefly to the development of its Indian possessions, while the Dutch -were left supreme in the archipelago. In 1684 the British even evacuated -Bantam, their chief settlement, and retired to Benkulen in Sumatra, -which remained for more than a century their sole territorial possession -in the archipelago. - -_Dutch Ascendancy, 1674-1749._--The weakness of Spain and Portugal and -the withdrawal of the British left the Dutch company free to develop its -vast colonial and commercial interests. In 1627 the so-called Dutch -"colonial system" had been inaugurated by the fourth governor-general, -Jan Pieterszoon Coen (q.v.). Under this system, which was intended to -provide Netherlands India with a fixed population of European descent, -Dutch girls were sent to the archipelago to be married to white -settlers, and subsequently marriages between Dutchmen and captive native -women were encouraged. As early as 1624 vast fortunes had been acquired -by trade: two members of the company who died in that year were stated -to possess seven and eight tons of gold respectively, an amount -approximately equivalent, in the aggregate, to L2,000,000. The use of -slave labour, and the application of the _corvee_ system to natives who -were nominally free, enabled the company to lower the cost of -production, while the absence of competition enabled it to raise prices. -The hardship inflicted on the native races provoked an insurrection -throughout Java, in which the Chinese settlers participated; but the -Dutch maintained naval and military forces strong enough to crush all -resistance, and a treaty between the company and the Susuhunan in -November 1749 made them practically supreme throughout the island. - -_Decline of Dutch Power, 1749-1811._--In the second half of the 17th -century the monopoly system and the employment of slaves and forced -labour gave rise to many abuses, and there was a rapid decline in the -revenue from sugar, coffee and opium, while the competition of the -British East India Company, which now exported spices, indigo, &c. from -India to Europe, was severely felt. The administration was corrupt, -largely because of the vast powers given to officials, who were -invariably underpaid; and the financial methods of the company -precipitated its ruin, large dividends being paid out of borrowed money. -The burden of defence could no longer be sustained; piracy and smuggling -became so common that the company was compelled to appeal to the -states-general for aid. In 1798 it was abolished and its authority -vested in a "Council of the Asiatic Possessions." In 1803 a commission -met to consider the state of the Dutch colonies, and advocated drastic -administrative and commercial reforms, notably freedom of trade in all -commodities except firearms, opium, rice and wood--with coffee, pepper -and spices, which were state monopolies. Some of these reforms were -carried out by H. W. Daendels (1808-1811), who was sent out as -governor-general by Louis Bonaparte, after the French conquest of -Holland. Daendels, however, maintained the existing restrictions upon -trade and even made rice a state monopoly. His harsh rule aroused great -antagonism; in 1811 he was recalled and J. W. Janssens became -governor-general. - -_British Occupation, 1811-1816._--Netherlands India was at this time -regarded as a part of the Napoleonic Empire, with which Great Britain -was at war. A British naval squadron arrived in the Moluccas in February -1810 and captured Amboyna, Banda, Ternate and other islands. In 1811 a -strong fleet was equipped by Lord Minto, then governor-general of India, -for the conquest of Java; a British force was landed on the 4th of -August; Batavia was captured on the 26th, and on the 18th of September -Janssens and the remnant of his army surrendered. Lord Minto had issued -a proclamation establishing British rule on the 11th of September, and -Thomas (afterwards Sir Thomas) Stamford Raffles was appointed -lieutenant-governor. Raffles (q.v.) held office until March 1816, and -introduced many important changes in the departments of revenue, -commerce and judicature. He was succeeded by John Fendall, who in 1816 -carried out the retrocession of Netherlands India to the Dutch, in -accordance with the Treaty of Vienna (1814). - -_Restoration and Reform of Dutch Power, 1816-1910._--Various disputes -between Great Britain and the Netherlands, arising chiefly out of the -transfer of power in Java and the British occupation of Singapore -(1819), were settled by treaty between the two powers in 1824. By this -treaty the Dutch were given almost entire freedom of action in Sumatra, -while the Malay Peninsula was recognized as within the British sphere of -influence. In 1825-30 a serious rebellion in Java involved the despatch -of a large military force from the Netherlands, and was with difficulty -suppressed. An outbreak of Mahommedan fanaticism in Sumatra also gave -much trouble. - -The reform movement inaugurated by the commission of 1803 was resumed in -1830, when Governor-General Johannes van den Bosch endeavoured to -improve the conditions of land-tenure and agriculture by introducing the -so-called "culture system." The native cultivators were to be exempted -from the ground-tax, but were to cultivate one-fifth of their land as -the government might direct, the government taking the produce. This -culture-system worked fairly during Van den Bosch's tenure of office, -but gave rise to many abuses between 1833 and 1844, involving, as it -did, a combination of the _metayer_ and _corvee_ systems. - -In 1848 the _Grondwet_, or fundamental law of the Netherlands, -recognized for the first time the responsibility of the Dutch nation for -its colonial dependencies. The _Grondwet_ involved certain important -changes, which were embodied in an act passed in 1854 and commonly known -as the _Regulations for the Government of Netherlands India_. The -_Regulations_ substituted statute law for administrative and military -despotism, and made the governor-general in council responsible to the -minister of the colonies at the Hague. They reformed the judicature, -introduced elementary education for the natives, and abolished slavery -in Java as from the 1st of January 1860. They also prepared the way for -further legislation tending towards the gradual emancipation of the -natives from the culture system, and from semi-feudal servitude to their -native rulers. That servitude existed in many forms all over the -archipelago, but among the most curious must be reckoned the -_pandelingschap_ or "pledgedom," which originated in Borneo, and -according to which a man had the power to make his debtors his serfs -until their debts were paid. - -The reform movement was aided by the publication in 1860 of _Max -Havelaar_, a romance by E. Douwes Dekker (q.v.), which contained a -scathing indictment of the colonial system. Many important financial and -agrarian measures were carried between 1860 and 1890. In 1863 Fransen -van de Putte, minister for the colonies, introduced the first of the -annual colonial budgets for which the _Regulations_ had provided, thus -enabling the states-general to control the revenue and expenditure of -Netherlands India; in 1865 he reduced and in 1872 abolished the -differentiation of customs dues in favour of goods imported from -Holland, substituting a uniform import duty of 6% and establishing a -number of free ports throughout the archipelago. The import duty was -considered so moderate that an increase required for revenue purposes -was readily conceded in 1886. In 1876 the practice of paying a yearly -surplus (_batig slot_) from the revenues of Netherlands India to the -treasury at the Hague was discontinued. The chief reforms in the land -system were those introduced by De Waal, then minister for the colonies, -in 1870. The cultivation of pepper, cochineal, cinnamon and indigo for -the government had already ceased; De Waal restricted the area of the -sugar plantations (carried on by forced native labour) as from 1878, and -provided for their abolition after 1890. He also enabled natives to -secure proprietary rights over the land they cultivated, and legalized -the leasing of Crown forest-lands to Europeans. - -The extension of Dutch political power--notably in Java, Sumatra, -Celebes, the Moluccas, Borneo, the Sunda Islands and New -Guinea--proceeded simultaneously with the reform movement, and from time -to time involved war with various native states. A large expedition was -sent to Lombok in 1894, and almost the whole of that island was -incorporated in the Dutch dominions. The long and costly war with Achin -(q.v.) began in 1873 and reached its climax in the military occupation -of the country after 1905, when the native sultan surrendered and was -deported. A guerrilla war was still carried on by his subjects, but -their principal leader, the chief Panglima Polim, was captured in 1907; -in 1908-1910 the condition of Achin under the military rule of General -Swart was one of almost unbroken peace, and taxes were regularly paid. - -While the Dutch were thus consolidating their authority, other countries -were acquiring new commercial or colonial interests in the archipelago. -Immigration from China and Japan steadily increased, especially towards -the end of the period 1816-1910. The enterprise of Sir James Brooke -(q.v.) led, after 1838, to the establishment of British sovereignty in -North Borneo; in 1895 New Guinea was divided between Great Britain, -Germany and the Netherlands; and the Spanish-American War of 1898 -resulted in the cession of the Philippines, Sulu Island and the largest -of the Mariana Islands to the United States, and the sale of the -Caroline group to Germany. Australian and Japanese trade in the -archipelago was stimulated by the establishment of the Australian -Commonwealth (1901) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5). In 1910 the -nations most directly interested in the future of the archipelago were -the Netherlands, Great Britain, the United States, Germany, Japan, China -and Portugal. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the period 1511-1595, the chief Portuguese - authorities are the chronicles of Barros, Correa, Castanheda and Couto - (see PORTUGAL: _History_), with the letters of Xavier (q.v.), and the - _Tratado_ of A. Galvao (Lisbon, 1563 and 1731), of which a translation - entitled _Discoveries of the World_ was made for Richard Hakluyt and - reprinted by the Hakluyt Society (London, 1862). See also M. F. de - Navarette, _Coleccion de los viages_ (vols. 4 and 5, Madrid, 1837). - For later history see John Crawfurd, _History of the Indian - Archipelago_ (Edinburgh, 1820), which quotes from native as well as - European records, and _Twentieth-Century Impressions of Netherlands - India_ (ed. A. Wright, London, 1910), which gives references to the - principal English and Dutch authorities. Further bibliography will be - found in J. A. van der Chijs, _Proeve eener nederlandsch-indische - Bibliografie, 1659-1870_ (Batavia, 1875). (K. G. J.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] For more detailed information respecting the several islands and - groups of the archipelago, see the separate articles BORNEO; JAVA; - PHILIPPINE ISLANDS; SUMATRA, &c. - - [2] See _The Geographical Journal_, ix. 80 seq. (London, 1897). - - - - -MALAIR, a small province of Persia, situated between Hamadan and -Burujird. It has a population of about 70,000, and, together with the -district Tusirkhan, pays a yearly revenue of about L13,000. It produces -much corn and fruit; a great quantity of the latter, dried, is exported. -Its capital and seat of government is Doletabad (Dowletabad), a thriving -little city, with a population of about 5000, situated at an elevation -of 5680 ft., 38 m. from Hamadan and 32 m. from Burujird. It has post and -telegraph offices. - - - - -MALAY PENINSULA (called by the Malays _Tanah Malayu_, i.e. the Malay -Land), a lozenge-shaped strip of land projecting into the China Sea, -and forming the most southerly portion of the continent of Asia. -Geographically, the peninsula begins at the isthmus of Kra, 10 deg. N., -at which point it is only between 60 and 70 m. in width, and the -distance from sea to sea is further diminished by a large irregular -salt-water inlet. Politically and anthropologically, however, this upper -portion must be regarded as a continuation of the kingdom of Siam rather -than as a section of Malaya. From the isthmus of Kra the peninsula -extends south with a general inclination towards the east, the most -southerly point being Tanjong Bulus in 1 deg. 16(1/2)' N. A line drawn -diagonally down the centre from the isthmus of Kra to Cape Romania -(Ramunya) gives the extreme length at about 750 miles. The breadth at -the widest point, from Tanjong Pen-unjut in Trengganu to Tanjong Hantu -in the Dindings territory, is about 200 m. The area is estimated at -about 70,000 sq. m. The peninsula is bounded on the N. by Siam, on the -S. by the island and strait of Singapore, on the E. by the China Sea, -and on the W. by the Strait of Malacca. - - _Physical Characteristics._--A range of granite mountains forms a - backbone which divides the peninsula into two unequal portions, the - larger of which lies to the east and the smaller to the west of the - chain. Smaller ranges run parallel to the main mountain chain in many - places, and there are numerous isolated spurs which have no connexion - with either. The country is covered with limestone in many parts, and - large isolated bluffs of this formation stand up in the plains both on - the eastern and the western slopes. The descent from the summits of - the range into the plain is somewhat less abrupt on the western than - it is on the eastern side, and between the foot of the mountains and - the Strait of Malacca the largest known alluvial deposits of tin are - situated. On the eastern side of the range, after a steep descent, the - granite formation speedily gives place to slates of vast depth, - intersected here and thereby fissures of quartz containing gold, and - in many places covered by limestone which has been superimposed upon - the slates. The highest known peak in the main range is that of Gunong - Korbu, 7217 ft. above sea-level. The highest mountain is believed to - be Gunong Tahan, which forms part of an isolated range on the eastern - side, between Pahang and Kelantan, and is estimated at about 8000 ft. - The west coast throughout its whole length is covered to a depth of - some miles with mangrove swamps, with only a few isolated stretches of - sandy beach, the dim foliage of the mangroves and the hideous mud - flats presenting a depressing spectacle. On the east coast the force - of the north-east monsoon, which beats upon the shores of the China - Sea annually from November to February, has kept the land for the most - part free from mangroves, and the sands, broken here and there by - rocky headlands thickly wooded, and fringed by _casuarina_ trees, - stretch for miles without interruption. The islands on each coast - present the features of the shore to which they are adjacent. On both - the east and the west coast the islands are thickly wooded, but - whereas the former are surrounded by beautiful sands and beaches, the - latter are fringed by mangrove-swamps. The whole peninsula may be - described as one vast forest, intersected in every direction by - countless streams and rivers which together form the most lavish - water-system in the world. Only an insignificant fraction of these - forests has ever been visited by human beings, the Malays and even the - aboriginal tribe having their homes on the banks of the rivers, and - never, even when travelling from one part of the country to another, - leaving the banks of a stream except for a short time when passing - from one river-system to another. The bulk of the jungle, therefore, - which lies between stream and stream, has never been trodden by the - foot of man. The principal rivers on the west coast are the Perak, the - Bernam and the Muar. The first-named is far finer than its fellows, - and is navigable for steamers for about 40 m. from its mouth, and for - native craft for over 250 m. It is exceedingly shallow, however, and - is not of much importance as a waterway. The Bernam runs through flat - swampy country for the greater part of its course, and steam-launches - can penetrate to a distance of over 100 m. from its mouth, and it is - therefore probably the deepest river. The country which it waters, - however, is not of any value, and it is not much used. The Muar waters - a very fertile valley, and is navigable for native boats for over 150 - m. On the east coast the principal streams are the Petani, Telubin, - Kelantan, Besut, Trengganu, Dungun, Kmamun, Kuantan, Pahang, Rompin, - Endau and Sedeli, all guarded by difficult bars at their mouths, and - dangerous during the continuance of the north-east monsoon. The - deepest rivers are the Kuantan and Rompin; the largest are the - Kelantan and the Pahang, both of which are navigable for native boats - for a distance of over 250 m. The Trengganu river is obstructed by - impassable rapids at a distance of about 30 m. from its mouth. The - rivers on the east coast are practically the only highways, the Malays - always travelling by boat in preference to walking, but they serve - their purpose very indifferently, and their great beauty is their - chief claim to distinction. Magnificent caves are found on both slopes - of the peninsula, those at Batu in Selangor being the finest on the - west coast, while those of Chadu and Koto Glanggi in Pahang are the - most extensive yet visited by Europeans on the east coast. They are - all of limestone formation. So far as is known, the Malay Peninsula - consists of an axial zone of crystalline rocks, flanked on each side - by an incomplete band of sedimentary deposits. Granite is the most - widely spread of the crystalline rocks; but dikes of various kinds - occur, and gneiss, schist and marble are also met with. These rocks - form the greater part of the central range, and they are - often--especially the granite--decomposed and rotten to a considerable - depth. The sedimentary deposits include slate, limestone and - sandstone. Impure coal has also been recorded. The limestone has - yielded _Proetus_, _Chonetes_ and other fossils, and is believed to be - of Carboniferous age. In the sandstone Myophoria and other Triassic - fossils have been found, and it appears to belong to the Rhaetic or - Upper Trias.[1] The minerals produced are tin, gold, iron, galena and - others, in insignificant quantities. - - The tin occurs in the form of cassiterite, and is found chiefly in or - near the crystalline rocks, especially the granite. As stream tin it - occurs abundantly in some of the alluvial deposits derived from the - crystalline area, especially on the west coast. Only two tin lodes are - worked, however, and both are situated on the east coast, the one at - Kuantan in Pahang, the other at Bandi in Trengganu territory. On the - west coast no true lode has yet been discovered, though the vast - alluvial deposits of tin found there seem to make such a discovery - probable in the future. Since 1890 the tin produced from these - alluvial beds has supplied between 50% and 75% of the tin of the - world. Gold is worked with success in Pahang, and has been exploited - from time immemorial by the natives of that state and of Kelantan. - Small quantities have also been found on the western slope in Perak. - - _Climate, &c._--It was formerly the custom to speak of the Malay - Peninsula as an unhealthy climate, and even to compare it with the - west coast of Africa. It is now generally admitted, however, that, - though hot, it compares favourably with that of Burma. The chief - complaint which Europeans make concerning it is the extreme humidity, - which causes the heat to be more oppressive than is the case where the - air is dry. On the other hand, the thermometer, even at Singapore on - the southern coast, which is the hottest portion of the peninsula, - seldom rises above 98 deg. in the shade, whereas the mean for the year - at that place is generally below 80 deg. On the mainland, and more - especially on the eastern slope, the temperature is cooler, the - thermometer seldom rising above 93 deg. in the shade, and falling at - night below 70 deg. On an average day in this part of the peninsula - the temperature in a European house ranged from 88 deg. to 68 deg. The - number of rainy days throughout the peninsula varies from 160 to over - 200 in each year, but violent gusts of wind, called "Sumatras," - accompanied by a heavy downpour of short duration, are more common - than persistent rain. The rainfall on the west coast varies from 75 to - 120 in. per annum, and that of the east coast, where the north-east - monsoon breaks with all its fury, is usually about 155 in. per annum. - Malarial fevers make their appearance in places where the forest has - been recently felled, or where the surface earth has been disturbed. - It is noticed that labourers employed in deep mines worked by shafts - suffer less from fever than do those who are engaged in stripping the - alluvial deposits. This, of course, means that a new station, where - clearing, digging, and building are in progress, is often unhealthy - for a time, and to this must be attributed the evil reputation which - the peninsula formerly enjoyed. To Europeans the climate is found to - be relaxing and enervating, but if, in spite of some disinclination - for exertion, regular exercise is taken from the beginning, and - ordinary precautions against chills, more especially to the stomach, - are adopted, a European has almost as good a chance of remaining in - good health in the peninsula as in Europe. A change of climate, - however, is imperatively necessary every five or six years, and the - children of European parents should not be kept in the peninsula after - they have attained the age of four or five years. The Chinese - immigrants suffer chiefly from fever of a malarial type, from - beri-beri, a species of tropical dropsy, and from dysentery. The - Malays formerly suffered severely from smallpox epidemics, but in the - portion of the peninsula under British rule vaccination has been - introduced, and the ravages of the disease no longer assume serious - dimensions. Occasional outbreaks of cholera occur from time to time, - and in the independent states these cause terrible loss of life, as - the natives fly from the disease and spread the infection in every - direction. As a whole, the Malays are, however, a remarkably healthy - people, and deformity and hereditary diseases are rare among them. - There is little leprosy in the peninsula, but there is a leper - hospital near Penang on Pula Deraja and another on an island on the - west coast for the reception of lepers from the Federated Malay - States. - - _Flora and Fauna._--The soil of the peninsula is remarkably fertile - both in the plains and on the mountain slopes. In the vast forests the - decay of vegetable matter during countless ages has enriched the soil - to the depth of many feet, and from it springs the most marvellous - tangle of huge trees, shrubs, bushes, underwood, creepers, climbing - plants and trailing vines, the whole hung with ferns, mosses, and - parasitic growths, and bound together by rattans and huge rope-like - trailers. In most places the jungle is so dense that it is impossible - to force a way through it without the aid of a wood-knife, and even - the wild beasts use well-worn game-tracks through the forest. In the - interior brakes of bamboos are found, many of which spread for miles - along the river banks. Good hard-wood timber is found in plenty, the - best being the _merabau_, _penak_, _rasok_ and _chengal_. Orchids of - countless varieties abound. The principal fruit trees are the - _duri-an_, mangosteen, custard-apple, pomegranate, _rambut-an_, - _pulas-an_, _langsat_, _rambai_, jack-fruit, coco-nut, areca-nut, - sugar-palm, and banana. Coffee, tobacco, sugar-cane, rice, pepper, - gambier, cotton and sago are cultivated with success. Great - developments have been made of recent years in the cultivation of - rubber in British Malaya. The principal jungle products are gutta and - rubber of several varieties, and many kinds of rattan. The mangrove - grows on the shores of the west coast in profusion. Agilawood, the - camphor tree, and ebony are also found in smaller quantities. - - The fauna of the peninsula is varied and no less profuse than is the - vegetable life. The Asiatic elephant; the _seladang_, a bison of a - larger type than the Indian gaur; two varieties of rhinoceros; the - honey bear (_bruang_), the tapir, the sambhur (_rusa_); the speckled - deer (_kijang_), three varieties of mouse-deer (_napoh_, _plandok_ and - _kanchil_); the gibbon (_ungka_ or _wawa'_), the _siamang_, another - species of anthropoid ape, the _brok_ or coco-nut monkey, so called - because it is trained by the Malays to gather the nuts from the - coco-nut trees, the _lotong_, _kra_, and at least twenty other kinds - of monkey; the _binturong_ (_arctictis binturong_), the lemur; the - Asiatic tiger, the black panther, the leopard, the large wild cat - (_harimau akar_), several varieties of jungle cat; the wild boar, the - wild dog; the flying squirrel, the flying fox; the python, the cobra, - and many other varieties of snake, including the hamadryad; the - alligator, the otter and the gavial, as well as countless kinds of - squirrel, rat, &c., are found throughout the jungles of the peninsula - in great numbers. On the east coast peafowl are found, and throughout - the interior the argus pheasant, the firebacked pheasant, the blue - partridge, the adjutant-bird, several kinds of heron and crane, duck, - teal, cotton-teal, snipe, wood-pigeon, green-pigeon of several - varieties, swifts, swallows, pied-robins, hornbills, parakeets, - fly-catchers, nightjars, and many other kinds of bird are met with - frequently. A few specimens of solitary goose have been procured, but - the bird is rarely met with. The forests literally swarm with insects - of all kinds, from _cicadae_ to beautiful butterflies, and from stick- - and leaf-insects to endless varieties of ants. The scorpion and the - centipede are both common. The study of the insect life of the - peninsula opens a splendid field for scientific research, and the - profusion and variety of insects found in these forests probably - surpass those to be met with anywhere else in the world. - -_Political Divisions and Population._--Politically the Malay Peninsula -is divided into four sections: the colony of the Straits Settlements and -the Federated Malay States; the independent Malay State of Johor, which -is within the British sphere of influence; the non-federated states -under British protection; and the groups of states to the north of Perak -and Pahang which are now recognized as lying within the sphere of -influence of Siam. The colony of the Straits Settlements consists of the -islands of Singapore, Penang and the Dindings, the territory of Province -Wellesley, on the mainland opposite to Penang, the insignificant -territory of the Dindings, and the town and territory of Malacca. The -Federated Malay States under British protection consist of the -sultanates of Perak, Selangor and the Negri Sambilan on the west coast, -and the sultanate of Pahang on the east coast. Johor is the only Malay -state in the southern portion of the peninsula, the whole of which is -within the British sphere, which has been suffered to remain under -native rule. The non-federated states under British protection (since -1909) are Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis (Palit). The population -of the peninsula numbers about 2,000,000, of whom about 600,000 inhabit -the colony of the Straits Settlements, about 900,000 the Federated Malay -States, about 200,000 the Malay State of Johor, and about 250,000 to -300,000 the remainder of the peninsula. The population of the peninsula -includes about 850,000 Chinese, mostly immigrants or descendants of -immigrants from the southern provinces of China, of whom about 300,000 -reside in the colony of the Straits Settlements, 365,000 in the -Federated Malay States, 150,000 in Johor, and the remainder in smaller -communities or as isolated traders scattered throughout the villages and -small towns of the peninsula. The Malay population of the peninsula, -including immigrants from the eastern archipelago, number some 750,000 -to 800,000, while the Tamils and other natives of India number about -100,000, the aboriginal natives of the peninsula perhaps 20,000, -Europeans and Americans about 6500, and Eurasians about 9000. The colony -of the Straits Settlements, and to a lesser extent the towns of the -Federated Malay States, carry a considerable heterogenous population, in -which most of the races of Asia find their representatives. - -[Illustration: Map of Malay Peninsula.] - - _Races of the Peninsula._--Excluding the Tai, or Siamese, who are - undoubtedly recent intruders from the north, there are three races - which for an extended period of time have had their home in the Malay - Peninsula. These are the Semang or Pangan, the Sakai or Jakun, and the - Malays. The Semang, as they are most usually called by the Malays, are - Negritos--a small, very dark people, with features of the negroid - type, very prognathous, and with short, woolly hair clinging to the - scalp in tiny crisp curls. These people belong to the race which would - seem to be the true aboriginal stock of southern Asia. Representatives - of it are found scattered about the islands from the Andaman group - southwards. The state of civilization to which they have attained is - very low. They neither plant nor have they any manufactures except - their rude bamboo and rattan vessels, the fish and game traps which - they set with much skill, and the bows, blow-pipes and bamboo spears - with which they are armed. They are skilful hunters, however, catch - fish by ingeniously constructed traps, and live almost entirely on - jungle-roots and the produce of their hunting and fishing. The most - civilized of these people is found in Upper Perak, and the members of - this clan have acquired some knowledge of the art of planting, &c. - They cannot, however, be taken as typical of their race, and other - specimens of this people are seldom seen even by the Sakai. From time - to time they have been raided by the latter, and many Negritos are to - be found in captivity in some of the Malayan villages on the eastern - side of the peninsula. The mistake of speaking of the Sakai tribes as - practically identical with the Semang or Pangan has very frequently - been made, but as a matter of fact the two races are absolutely - distinct from one another. It has also been customary to include the - Sakai in the category of Malayan races, but this too is undoubtedly - incorrect. The Sakai still inhabit in greatest numbers the country - which forms the interior of Pahang, the Plus and Kinta districts of - Perak, and the valley of Nenggiri in Kelantan. Representatives of - their race are also found scattered among the Malayan villages - throughout the country, and also along the coast, but these have - intermixed so much with the Malays, and have acquired so many customs, - &c., from their more civilized neighbours, that they can no longer be - regarded as typical of the race to which they belong. The pure Sakai - in the interior have a good knowledge of planting rice, tapioca, &c., - fashion pretty vessels from bamboos, which they decorate with patterns - traced by the aid of fire, make loin-cloths (their only garment) from - the bark of the _trap_ and _ipoh_ trees; are very musical, using a - rude lute of bamboo, and a nose-flute of a very sweet tone, and - singing in chorus very melodiously; and altogether have attained in - their primitive state to a higher degree of civilization than have the - Semang. They are about as tall as the average Malay, are slimly built, - light of colour, and have wavy fine hair. In their own language they - usually have only three numerals, viz. _na-nun_, one; _nar_, two; and - _ne'_, three, or variants of these; all higher arithmetical ideas - being expressed by the word _kerpn_, which means "many." A few cases - have been recorded, however, of tribes who can count in their own - tongue up to four and five. Among the more civilized, however, the - Malay numerals up to ten are adopted by the Sakai. An examination of - their language seems to indicate that it belongs to the Mon-Khmer - group of languages, and the anthropological information forthcoming - concerning the Sakai points to the conclusion that they show a greater - affinity to the people of the Mon-Khmer races than to the Malayan - stock. Though they now use metal tools imported by the Malays, it is - noticeable that the names which they give to those weapons which most - closely resemble in character the stone implements found in such - numbers all over the peninsula are native names wholly unconnected - with their Malay equivalents. On account of this, it has been - suggested that in a forgotten past the Sakai were themselves the - fashioners of the stone implements, and certain it is that all tools - which have no representatives among the stone kelts are known to the - Sakai by obvious corruptions of their Malayan names. The presence of - the Sakai, a people of the Mon-Khmer stock, in the interior of the - peninsula has also been considered as one of many proofs that the - Malays intruded from the south and approached the peninsula by means - of a sea-route, since had they swept down from the north, being driven - thence by the people of a stronger breed, it might be expected that - the fringe of country dividing the two contending races would be - inhabited by men of the more feeble stock. Instead, we find the Sakai - occupying this position, thus indicating that they have been driven - northward by the Malays, and that the latter people has not been - expelled by the Mon-Khmer races from the countries now represented by - Burma, Siam and French Indo-China. The Sakai population is dying out, - and must eventually disappear. (With regard to the Malay, see MALAYS.) - - _Archaeology._--The only ancient remains found in the peninsula are - the stone implements, of which mention has already been made, and some - remarkable ancient mines, which are situated in the Jelai valley in - Pahang. The stone implements are generally of one or two types: a long - rectangular adze or wedge rudely pointed at one end, and used in - conjunction with a mallet or flat stone, and a roughly triangular - axe-head, which has evidently been fixed in the cleft of a split - stick. A few stones, which might perhaps be arrowheads, have been - found, but they are very rare. The mines, which have been constructed - for the purpose of working quartz lodes containing gold, are very - extensive, and argue a high stage of civilization possessed by the - ancient miners. They consist of a number of circular or rectangular - pits sunk from the cap of a hill, and going down to a depth of in some - cases as much as 120 ft., until in fact the miners have been stopped - by being unable to cope with the quantity of water made when the level - of the valley was reached. The shafts are placed so close together - that in many instances they are divided by only a couple of feet of - solid ground, but at their bases a considerable amount of gallery work - has been excavated, though it is possible that this was done by miners - who came after the people who originally sank the shafts. Native - tradition attributes these mines to the Siamese, but no importance can - be attached to this, as it is very general for the Malays to give this - explanation for anything which is obviously not the work of their own - ancestors. A theory, which seems to have some probability in its - favour, is that these mines were worked by the Khmer people during the - period of power, energy and prosperity which found its most lofty - expression in the now ruined and deserted city of Angkor Thom; while - another attributes these works to the natives of India whose Hindu - remains are found in Java and elsewhere, whose influence was at one - time widespread throughout Malayan lands, and of whose religious - teaching remnants still linger in the superstitions of the Malays and - are preserved in some purity in Lombok and Bali. In the absence, - however, of any relics of a kind which might lead to the - identification of the ancient miners, their nationality and origin are - matters which must continue to be mere questions of speculation and - conjecture. - -_History._--The first hint to reach Europe concerning the existence of -habitable lands to the eastward of the Ganges is to be found in the -writings of Pomponius Mela (A.D. 43) which speak of Chryse, or the -Golden Isle, as lying off Cape Tamus--supposed to be the most easterly -point in Asia--and over against the estuary of the Ganges. Thereafter -there occur vague references to Chryse in the _Periplus of the Erythrean -Sea_, &c., but the earliest trace of anything resembling first-hand -knowledge concerning the peninsula of Indo-China and Malaya is revealed -in the writings of Ptolemy, whose views were mainly derived from those -of his predecessor Marinus of Tyre, who in his turn drew his deductions -from information supplied to him by the mariner Alexander who, there is -every reason to think, had himself voyaged to the Malay Peninsula and -beyond. In the light of present knowledge concerning the trade-routes of -Asia, which had been in existence for thousands of years ere ever -Europeans attempted to make use of them, it is safe to identify -Ptolemy's Sinus Perimulicus with the Gulf of Siam, the Sinus Sabaricus -with the Straits of Malacca from their southern portals to the Gulf of -Martaban, the Aurea Chersonesus with the Malay Peninsula, and the island -of Iabadius or Sabadius--the reading of the name is doubtful--with -Sumatra, not as has often been mistakenly attempted with Java. Although -the first definite endeavour to locate the Golden Chersonese thus dates -from the middle of the 2nd century of our era, the name was apparently -well known to the learned of Europe at a somewhat earlier period, and in -his _Antiquities of the Jews_, written during the latter half of the 1st -century, Josephus says that Solomon gave to the pilots furnished to him -by Hiram of Tyre commands "that they should go along with his stewards -to the land that of old was called Ophir, but now the Aurea Chersonesus, -which belongs to India, to fetch gold." After the time of Ptolemy no -advance in knowledge concerning the geography of south-eastern Asia was -made until Cosmas Indicopleustes, a monk and an Alexandrian Greek, wrote -from personal knowledge between A.D. 530 and 550. His primary object was -to prove that the world was built after the same shape and fashion as -the Ark made by the Children of Israel in the desert; but he was able to -show that the Malay Peninsula had to be rounded and thereafter a course -steered in a northerly direction if China was to be reached. Meanwhile -inter-Asiatic intercourse by means of sea-routes had been steadily on -the increase since the discovery of the way to utilize the monsoons and -to sail directly to and fro across the Indian Ocean (attributed to the -Greek pilot Hippalus) had been made. After the decline of the power of -Rome, the dominant force in Asiatic commerce and navigation was Persia, -and from that time onward, until the arrival of the Portuguese upon the -scene early in the 16th century the spice trade, whose chief emporia -were in or near the Malay Peninsula, was in Persian or Arab hands. -There is considerable reason to think, however, that the more frequent -ports of call in the Straits of Malacca were situated in Sumatra, rather -than on the shores of the Malay Peninsula, and two famous medieval -travellers, Marco Polo and Ibn Batuta, both called and wintered at the -former, and make scant mention of the latter. - -The importance of the Malay Peninsula, as has been noted, consisted in -the privilege which its locality conferred upon it of being the -distributing centre of the spices brought thither from the Moluccas _en -route_ for India and Europe. As early as the 3rd century B.C. -Megasthenes makes mention of spices brought to the shores of the Ganges -from "the southern parts of India," and the trade in question was -probably one of the most ancient in the world. So long, however, as -India held the monopoly of the clove, the Malay Peninsula was ignored, -the Hindus spreading their influence through the islands of the -archipelago and leaving traces thereof even to this day. The Mahommedan -traders from Persia and Arabia, following the routes which had been -prepared for them by their forebears, broke down the Hindu monopoly and -ousted the earlier exploiters so effectually that by the beginning of -the 16th century the spice trade was almost exclusively in their hands. -These traders were also missionaries of their religion, as indeed is -every Mahommedan, and to them is due the conversion of the Malays from -rude pantheism, somewhat tinctured by Hindu mythology, to the Mahommedan -creed. The desire to obtain the monopoly of the spice trade has been a -potent force in the fashioning of Asiatic history. The Moluccas were, -from the first, the objective of the Portuguese invaders, and no sooner -had the white men found their way round the Cape of Good Hope and -established themselves successively upon the coast of East Africa, in -the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Aden and the Malabar coast, than -Malacca, then the chief trading centre of the Malayan Archipelago, -became the object of their desire. The first Portuguese expedition sent -out to capture Malacca was under the command of Diogo Lopez de Siqueira -and sailed from Portugal in 1508. At Cochin Siqueira took on board -certain adherents of Alphonso d'Alboquerque who were in bad odour with -his rival d'Almeida, among them being Magellan, the future -circumnavigator of the world, and Francisco Serrao, the first European -who ever lived in the Spice Islands. Siqueira's expedition ended in -failure, owing partly to the aggressive attitude of the Portuguese, -partly to the very justifiable suspicions of the Malays, and he was -presently forced to destroy one of his vessels, to leave a number of his -men in captivity, and to sail direct for Portugal. In 1510 a second -expedition against Malacca was sent out from Portugal under the command -of Diogo Mendez de Vasconcellos, but d'Alboquerque retained it at Cochin -to aid him in the retaking of Goa, and it was not until 1511 that the -great viceroy could spare time to turn his attention to the scene of -Siqueira's failure. After some futile negotiations, which had for their -object the recovery of the Portuguese captives before hostilities should -begin, an assault was delivered upon Malacca, and though the first -attempt to take the city failed after some hard fighting, a second -assault made some days later succeeded, and Malacca passed for ever into -European hands. The Portuguese were satisfied with the possession of -Malacca itself and did not seek further to extend their empire in -Malaya. Instead they used every endeavour to establish friendly -relations with the rulers of all the neighbouring kingdoms, and before -d'Alboquerque returned to India he despatched embassies to China, Siam, -and several kingdoms of Sumatra, and sent a small fleet, with orders to -assume a highly conciliatory attitude toward all natives, in search of -the Moluccas. Very soon the spice trade had become a Portuguese -monopoly, and Malacca was the great headquarters of the trade. It should -moreover be noted that Magellan's famous expedition had for its object -not the barren feat of circumnavigation but the breaking down of this -monopoly, without violating the terms of the papal bull which gave to -Spain the conquest of the West, to Portugal the possession of the East. -In 1528 a French expedition sailed from Dieppe, penetrated as far as -Achin in Sumatra, but returned without reaching the Malay Peninsula. It -was, however, the first attempt ever made to defy the papal bull. In -1591, three years after the defeat of the Armada, Raymond and Lancaster -rounded the Cape, and after cruising off Penang, decided to winter in -Achin. They subsequently hid among the Pulau Sambilan near the mouth of -the Perak river, and thence captured a large Portuguese vessel which was -sailing from Malacca in company with two Burmese ships. In 1595 the -first Dutch expedition sailed from the Texel, but it took a more -southerly course than its predecessors and confined its operations to -Java and the neighbouring islands. During this period Achin developed a -determined enmity to the Portuguese, and more than one attempt was made -to drive the strangers from Malacca. Eventually, in 1641, a joint attack -was made by the Achinese and the Dutch, but the latter, not the people -of the sturdy little Sumatran kingdom, became the owners of the coveted -port. Malacca was taken from the Dutch by the British in 1795; was -restored to the latter in 1818; but in 1824 was exchanged for Benkulen -and a few more unimportant places in Sumatra. The first British factory -in the peninsula was established in the native state of Patani on the -east coast in 1613, the place having been used by the Portuguese in the -16th century for a similar purpose; but the enterprise came to an -untimely end in 1620 when Captain Jourdain, the first president, was -killed in a naval engagement in Patani Roads by the Dutch. Penang was -purchased from Kedah in 1786, and Singapore from the then sultan of -Johor in 1819. The Straits Settlements--Singapore, Malacca and -Penang--were ruled from India until 1867, when they were erected into a -crown colony under the charge of the Colonial Office. In 1874 the Malay -state of Perak was placed under British protection by a treaty entered -into with its sultan; and this eventually led to the inclusion in a -British protectorate of the neighbouring Malay States of Selangor, -Sungei Ujong, the cluster of small states called the Negri Sembilan and -Pahang, which now form the Federated Malay States. By a treaty made -between Great Britain and Siam in 1902 the northern Malay states of the -peninsula were admitted to lie within the Siamese sphere of influence, -but by a treaty of 1909 Siam ceded her suzerain rights over the states -of Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis to Britain. - -Singapore is the political, commercial and administrative headquarters -of the colony of the Straits Settlements, and the governor for the time -being is _ex officio_ high commissioner of the Federated Malay States, -British North Borneo, Sarawak, the Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Islands, -and governor of Labuan. - - See Sir F. Swettenham, _British Malaya_ (1906); H. Clifford, _Further - India_ (1904); _Journal of the Malay Archipelago_, Logan (Singapore); - _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_ - (Singapore); Weld, Maxwell, Swettenham and Clifford in the _Journal of - the Royal Colonial Institute_ (London); Clifford in the _Journal of - the Royal Geographical Society_ (London). (H. Cl.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] See R. B. Newton, "Notes on Literature bearing upon the Geology - of the Malay Peninsula; with an Account of a Neolithic Implement from - that Country" (Geol. Mag., 1901, pp. 128-134). See also the various - reports by J. B. Scrivenor in _Suppl. Perak Gov. Gazette_, 1905. - - - - -MALAYS, the name given by Europeans to the people calling themselves -_Orang Malayu_, i.e. Malayan folk, who are the dominant race of the -Malay Peninsula and of the Malay Archipelago. Broadly speaking, all the -brown races which inhabit the portion of Asia south of Siam and -Indo-China, and the islands from the Philippines to Java, and from -Sumatra to Timor, may be described as belonging to the Malayan family, -if the aboriginal tribes, such as the Sakai and Semang in the Malay -Peninsula, the Bataks in Sumatra, and the Muruts in Borneo, be excepted. -For the purposes of this article, however, only those among these races -which bear the name of Orang Malayu, speak the Malayan language, and -represent the dominant people of the land, can be included under the -title of Malays. These people inhabit the whole of the Malayan Peninsula -to the borders of lower Siam, the islands in the vicinity of the -mainland, the shores of Sumatra and some portions of the interior of -that island, Sarawak and Brunei in Borneo, and some parts of Dutch -Borneo, Batavia and certain districts in Java, and some of the smaller -islands of the archipelago. Though in these lands they have for not less -than a thousand years enjoyed the position of the dominant race, they -all possess a tradition that they are not indigenous, and that their -first rulers "came out of the sea," with a large band of Malayan -warriors in their train. In the peninsula especially, where the -presence of the Malays is more recent than elsewhere, many traditions -exist which point to a comparatively recent occupation of the country. -It has been remarked that there is evidence that the Malays had attained -to a certain stage of civilization before ever they set foot in Malaya. -For instance, the names which they give to certain fruits, such as the -_duri-an_, the _rambut-an_ and the _pulas-an_, which are indigenous in -the Malayan countries, and are not found elsewhere, are all compound -words meaning respectively the thorny, the hairy and the twisted fruit. -These words are formed by the addition of the substantial affix "-_an_," -the use of which is one of the recognized methods by which the Malays -turn primitive words into terms of more complex meaning. This may be -taken to indicate that when first the Malays became acquainted with the -fruits which are indigenous in Malayan lands they already possessed a -language in which most primary words were represented, and also that -their tongue had attained to a stage of development which provided for -the formation of compound words by a system sanctioned by custom and the -same linguistic instinct which causes a Malay to-day to form similar -compounds from European and other foreign roots. For any aboriginal race -inhabiting these countries, such important articles of diet as the -_duri-an_, &c., could not fail to be among the first natural objects to -receive a name, and thus we find primary terms in use among the Sakai -and Semang, the aborigines of the Peninsula, to describe these fruits. -The use by the Malays of artificially constructed terms to denote these -things may certainly be taken to strengthen the opinion that the Malays -arrived in the lands they now inhabit at a comparatively late period in -their history, and at a time when they had developed considerably from -the original state of primitive man. - -In the Malay Peninsula itself there is abundant evidence, ethnological -and philological, of at least two distinct immigrations of people of the -Malayan stock, the earlier incursions, it is probable, taking place from -the eastern archipelago to the south, the later invasion spreading -across the Straits of Malacca from Sumatra at a comparatively recent -date. The fact that the semi-wild tribes, which are ethnologically -Malayan and distinct from the aboriginal Semang and Sakai, are met with -almost invariably in the neighbourhood of the coast would seem to -indicate that they reached the peninsula by a sea, not by a land route, -a supposition which is strengthened by their almost amphibious habits. -Many of these tribes have retained their pristine paganism, but many -others it is certain have adopted the Mahommedan religion and have been -assimilated by the subsequent and stronger wave of Sumatran immigrants. -A study of the local dialects to be met with in some of the districts of -the far interior, e.g. the Tembeling valley in Pahang, whose people are -now Mahommedans and in many respects indistinguishable from the ordinary -Malays of the peninsula, reveals the fact that words, current in the -archipelago to the south but incomprehensible to the average peninsula -Malays, by whom these more ancient populations are now completely -surrounded, have been preserved as local words, whereas they really -belong to an older dialect once spoken widely in the peninsula, as -to-day it is spoken in the Malayan islands. This would seem to show that -in some instances the earlier Malay immigrants fell or were driven by -the later invaders back from the coast and sought refuge in the far -interior. - - - Theories of Origin. - -Until recently many eminent scientists held the theory that the Malayan -peoples were merely an offspring of the Mongol stock, and that their -advance into the lands they now inhabit had taken place from the cradle -of the Mongolian race--that is to say, from the north. In the fifth -edition of his _Malay Archipelago_, A. R. Wallace notes the resemblance -which he traced between the Malays and the Mongolians, and others have -recorded similar observations as to the physical appearance of the two -races. To-day, however, fuller data are available than when Wallace -wrote, and the more generally accepted theory is that the Malayan race -is distinct, and came from the south, until it was stayed by the -Mongolian races living on the mainland of southern Asia. The cranial -measurements of the Malays and an examination of their hair sections -seem to bear out the theory that they are distinct from the Mongolian -races. Their language, which is neither monosyllabic nor tonic, has -nothing in common with that of the Mon-Annam group. It has, moreover, -been pointed out that had the Malays been driven southwards by the -stronger races of the mainland of Asia, it might be expected that the -people inhabiting the country nearest to the border between Siam and -Malaya would belong to the Malayan and not to the Mon-Annam or Mon-Khmer -stock. As a matter of fact the Sakai of the interior of the peninsula -belong to the latter race. It might also be anticipated, were the theory -of a southward immigration to be sustained, that the Malays would be -new-comers in the islands of the archipelago, and have their oldest -settlements on the Malayan Peninsula. The facts, however, are in exact -contradiction to this; and accordingly the theory now most generally -held by those who have studied the question is that the Malays form a -distinct race, and had their original home in the south. Where this home -lay it is not easy to say, but the facts recorded by many writers as to -the resemblance between the Polynesian and the Malayan races, and the -strong Malayan element found in the languages of the former (see -Tregear's _Maori and Comparative Polynesian Dictionary_, London, 1891), -have led some students to think that the two races may have had a common -origin. John Crawfurd, in the Dissertation to his _Dictionary of the -Malay Language_, published in 1840, noted the prevalence of Malayan -terms in the Polynesian languages, and attributed the fact to the -casting away of ships manned by Malays upon the islands of the -Polynesian Archipelago. The appearance of the same Malayan words in -localities so widely separated from each other, however, cannot be -satisfactorily accounted for by any such explanation, and the theory is -now more generally held that the two races are probably allied and may -at some remote period of history have shared a common home. It has been -suggested that their separation did not take place until after the -continent which once existed in the north Pacific had become submerged, -and that the Malays wandered northward, while the Polynesian race spread -itself over the islands of the southern archipelago. All this, however, -must necessarily be of the nature of the purest speculation, and the -only facts which we are able to deduce in the present state of our -knowledge of the subject may be summed up as follows: (a) That the -Malays ethnologically belong to a race which is allied to the -Polynesians; (b) that the theory formerly current to the effect that the -Sakai and other similar races of the peninsula and archipelago belonged -to the Malayan stock cannot be maintained, since recent investigations -tend to identify them with the Mon-Annam or Mon-Khmer family of races; -(c) that the Malays are, comparatively speaking, new-comers in the lands -which they now inhabit; (d) that it is almost certain that their -emigration took place from the south; (e) and that, at some remote -period of their history, they came into close contact with the -Polynesian race, probably before its dispersion over the extensive area -which it now occupies. - - - Religion and Superstitions. - - The Malays to-day are Sunni Mahommedans of the school of Shafi'i, and - they habitually use the terms _Orang Malayu_, i.e. a Malay, and _Orang - Islam_, i.e. a Mahommedan, as synonymous expressions. Their conversion - from paganism took place during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries of - our era. The raja of Achin, in northern Sumatra, is said to have been - converted as early as 1206, while the Bugis people in Celebes are - supposed not to have become Mahommedans until 1495. Mahommedanism - undoubtedly spread to the Malays of the peninsula from Sumatra, but - their conversion was slow and gradual, and may even now in some - respects be regarded as imperfect. Upon the bulk of the Malayan - peoples their religion sits but lightly. Few are found to observe the - law concerning the Five Hours of Prayer, and many fail to put in an - appearance at the Friday congregational services in the mosques. The - Fast of Ramadhan, however, is generally observed with some - faithfulness. Compared with other Mahommedan peoples, the Malays are - not fanatical, though occasionally an outbreak against those of a - different creed is glorified by them into a holy war. The reason of - such outbreaks, however, is usually to be found in political and - social rather than in religious grievances. Prior to their conversion - to Mahommedanism the Malays were subjected to a considerable Hindu - influence, which reached them by means of the traders who visited the - archipelago from India. In the islands of Bali and Lombok the people - still profess a form of Hinduism, and Hindu remains are to be found in - many other parts of the archipelago, though their traces do not extend - to the peninsula. Throughout, however, the superstitions of the Malays - show indications of this Hindu influence, and many of the demons whom - their medicine-men invoke in their magic practices are clearly - borrowed from the pantheon of India. For the rest, a substratum of - superstitious beliefs, which survives from the days when the Malays - professed only their natural religion, is to be found firmly rooted in - the minds of the people, and the influence of Mahommedanism, which - regards such things with horror, has been powerless to eradicate this. - Mr W. W. Skeat's _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900) is a compilation of all - the writings on the subject of Malay superstitions by the best - authorities and contains considerable original matter. - - - Mode of Life, &c. - - The Malays of the coast are a maritime people, and were long famous - for the daring character of their acts of piracy. They are now - peaceable fisher-folk, who show considerable ingenuity in their - calling. Inland the Malays live by preference on the banks of rivers, - building houses on piles some feet from the ground, and planting - groves of coco-nut, betel-nut, sugar-palm and fruit-trees around their - dwellings. Behind their villages the rice-fields usually spread, and - rice, which is the staple food of the people, is the principal article - of agriculture among them. Sugar-cane, maize, tapioca and other - similar products are grown, however, in smaller quantities. In - planting rice three methods are in use: the cultivation of swamp-rice - in irrigated fields; the planting of ploughed areas; and the planting - of hill-rice by sowing each grain separately in holes bored for the - purpose. In the irrigated fields the rice plants are first grown in - nurseries, and are subsequently transplanted when they have reached a - certain stage of development. The Malays also work jungle produce, of - which the most important are gutta, rattans, agila wood, camphor wood, - and the beautiful _kamuning_ wood which is used by the natives for the - hilts of their weapons. The principal manufactures of the Malays are - cotton and silk cloths, earthenware and silver vessels, mats and - native weapons. The best cotton cloths are those manufactured by the - Bugis people in Celebes, and the _batek_ cloths which come from Java - and are stamped with patterns. The best silks are produced by the - natives of Pahang, Kelantan and Johor in the Malay Peninsula. Lord - Leighton pronounced the silver ware from Malaya to be the most - artistic of any exhibited at the Colonial Exhibition held in London in - 1886. The pottery of the Malays is rude but curious. When the first - Europeans visited the Malay Archipelago the Malays had already - acquired the art of manufacturing gunpowder and forging cannon. The - art of writing also appears to have been independently invented by the - Malayan races, since numerous alphabets are in use among the peoples - of the archipelago, although for the writing of Malay itself the - Arabic character has been adopted for some hundreds of years. The - Malays are excellent boat-builders. - - - Character, &c. - - While the Malays were famous almost exclusively for their piratical - expeditions they naturally bore an evil reputation among Europeans, - but now that we have come into closer contact with them, and have - learned to understand them better, the old opinions concerning them - have been greatly modified. They used to be described as the most - cruel and treacherous people in the world, and they certainly are - callous of the pain suffered by others, and regard any strategy of - which their enemies are the victims with open admiration. In ordinary - circumstances, however, the Malay is not treacherous, and there are - many instances recorded in which men of this race have risked their - own lives on behalf of Europeans who chanced to be their friends. As a - race they are exceedingly courteous and self-respecting. Their own - code of manners is minute and strict, and they observe its provisions - faithfully. Unlike many Orientals, the Malays can be treated with a - friendly familiarity without such treatment breeding lack of respect - or leading to liberties being taken with the superior. The Malays are - indolent, pleasure-loving, improvident beyond belief, fond of bright - clothing, of comfort, of ease, and they dislike toil exceedingly. They - have no idea of the value of money, and little notion of honesty where - money is concerned. They would always borrow rather than earn money, - and they feel no shame in adopting the former course. They will - frequently refuse to work for a wage when they most stand in need of - cash, and yet at the invitation of one who is their friend they will - toil unremittingly without any thought of reward. They are much - addicted to gambling, and formerly were much given to fighting, though - they never display that passion for war in the abstract which is - characteristic of some of the white races, and their courage on the - whole is not high if judged by European standards. It is notorious, - however, on the coasts that a Malay gang on board a ship invariably - gets the better of any fight which may arise between it and the - Chinese crew. The sexual morality of the Malays is very lax, but - prostitution is not common in consequence. Polygamy, though allowed by - their religion, is practised for the most part among the wealthy - classes only. The Malays are an intensely aristocratic people, and - show a marvellous loyalty to their rajas and chiefs. Their respect for - rank is not marred by any vulgarity or snobbery. The ruling classes - among them display all the vices of the lower classes, and few of the - virtues except that of courtesy. They are for the most part, when - left to their own resources, cruel, unjust, selfish and improvident. - - Much has been written concerning the acts of homicidal mania called - amuck (_amok_), which word in the vernacular means to attack. It was - formerly believed that these outbursts were to be attributed to - madness _pur et simple_, and some cases of _amok_ can certainly be - traced to this source. These are not, however, in any sense typical, - and might equally have been perpetrated by men of another race. The - typical _amok_ is usually the result of circumstances which render a - Malay desperate. The motive is often inadequate from the point of view - of a European, but to the Malay it is sufficient to make him weary of - life and anxious to court death. Briefly, where a man of another race - might not improbably commit suicide, a Malay runs _amok_, killing all - whom he may meet until he himself is slain. - - The nervous affliction called _latah_, to which many Malays are - subject, is also a curious trait of the people. The victims of this - affliction lose for the time all self-control and all sense of their - own identity, imitating the actions of any person who chances to rivet - their attention. Accounts of these manifestations will be found in - Swettenham's _Malay Sketches_ (London, 1895) and Clifford's _Studies - in Brown Humanity_ (London, 1897). - - - Costume, Weapons, &c. - - The Malays wear a loose coat and trousers, and a cap or head-kerchief, - but the characteristic item of their costume is the _sarong_, a silk - or cotton cloth about two yards long by a yard and a quarter wide, the - ends of which are sewn together, forming a kind of skirt. This is worn - round the waist folded in a knot, the women allowing it to fall to the - ankle, the men, when properly dressed in accordance with ancient - custom, folding it over the hilt of their waist-weapon, and draping it - around them so that it reaches nearly to the knee. In the hall of a - raja on state occasions a head-kerchief twisted into a peak is worn, - and the coat is furnished with a high collar extending round the back - of the neck only. This coat is open in front, leaving the chest bare. - The trousers are short and of a peculiar cut and material, being - coloured many hues in parallel horizontal lines. The _sarong_ is of - Celebes manufacture and made of cotton, to the surface of which a high - polish is imparted by friction with a shell. The typical fighting - costume of the Malay is a sleeveless jacket with texts from the Koran - written upon it, short tight drawers reaching to the middle of the - thigh, and the _sarong_ is then bound tightly around the waist, - leaving the hilt of the dagger worn in the girdle exposed to view. The - principal weapon of the Malays is the _kris_, a short dagger with a - small wooden or ivory handle, of which there are many varieties. The - blade of a _kris_ may either be wavy or straight, but if wavy the - number of waves must always be uneven in number. The _kris_ most - prized by the Malays are those of Bugis (Celebes) manufacture, and of - these the kind called _tuasek_ are of the greatest value. Besides the - short _kris_, the Malays use long straight _kris_ with very narrow - blades, shorter straight _kris_ of the same form, short broad swords - called _sundang_, long swords of ordinary pattern called _pedang_, - somewhat shorter swords curved like scimitars with curiously carved - handles called _chenangkas_, and short stabbing daggers called _tumbok - lada_. The principal tools of the Malays are the _parang_ or _golok_, - a heavy knife used in the jungle, without which no peasant ever stirs - abroad from his house, the _beliong_ or native axe, and the _pisau - raut_, which is used for scraping rattan. Their implements are very - primitive, consisting of a plough fashioned from a fork of a tree, and - a rude harrow. Reaping is usually performed by the aid of a curious - little knife which severs each ear of grain separately. The - fisher-folk use many kinds of nets, which they manufacture themselves. - Sails, paddles, oars and punting-poles are all in use. - - - MALAY LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE - - The Malay language is a member of the Malayan section of the - Malayo-Polynesian class of languages, but it is by no means a - representative type of the section which has taken its name from it. - The area over which it is spoken comprises the peninsula of Malacca - with the adjacent islands (the Rhio-Lingga Archipelago), the greater - part of the coast districts of Sumatra and Borneo, the seaports of - Java, the Sunda and Banda Islands. It is the general medium of - communication throughout the archipelago from Sumatra to the - Philippine Islands, and it was so upwards of three hundred and fifty - years ago when the Portuguese first appeared in those parts. - - There are no Malay manuscripts extant, no monumental records with - inscriptions in Malay, dating from before the spreading of Islam in - the archipelago, about the end of the 13th century. By some it has - been argued from this fact that the Malays possessed no kind of - writing prior to the introduction of the Arabic alphabet (W. Robinson, - J. J. de Hollander); whereas others have maintained, with greater show - of probability, that the Malays were in possession of an ancient - alphabet, and that it was the same as the Rechang (Marsden, - Friederich), as the Kawi (Van der Tuuk), or most like the Lampong - (Kern)--all of which alphabets, with the Battak, Bugi and Macassar, - are ultimately traceable to the ancient Cambojan characters. With the - Mahommedan conquest the Perso-Arabic alphabet was introduced among the - Malays; it has continued ever since to be in use for literary, - religious and business purposes. Where Javanese is the principal - language, Malay is sometimes found written with Javanese characters; - and in Palembang, in the Menangkabo country of Middle Sumatra, the - Rechang or Renchong characters are in general use, so called from the - sharp and pointed knife with which they are cut on the smooth side of - bamboo staves. It is only since the Dutch have established their - supremacy in the archipelago that the Roman character has come to be - largely used in writing and printing Malay. This is also the case in - the Straits Settlements. - - By the simplicity of its phonetic elements, the regularity of its - grammatical structure, and the copiousness of its nautical vocabulary, - the Malay language is singularly well fitted to be the _lingua franca_ - throughout the Indian archipelago. It possesses the five vowels _a_, - _i_, _u_, _e_, _o_, both short and long, and one pure diphthong, _au_. - Its consonants are _k_, _g_, _ng_, _ch_, _j_, _n_, _t_, _d_, _n_, _p_, - _b_, _m_, _y_, _r_, _l_, _w_, _s_, _h_. Long vowels can only occur in - open syllables. The only possible consonantal nexus in purely Malay - words is that of a nasal and mute, a liquid and mute and vice versa, - and a liquid and nasal. Final _k_ and _h_ are all but suppressed in - the utterance. Purely Arabic letters are only used in Arabic words, a - great number of which have been received into the Malay vocabulary. - But the Arabic character is even less suited to Malay than to the - other Eastern languages on which it has been foisted. As the short - vowels are not marked, one would, in seeing, e.g. the word _bntng_, - think first of _bintang_, a star; but the word might also mean a large - scar, to throw down, to spread, rigid, mutilated, enceinte, a kind of - cucumber, a redoubt, according as it is pronounced, _bantang_, - _banting_, _bentang_, _buntang_, _buntung_, _bunting_, _bonteng_, - _benteng_. - - Malay is essentially, with few exceptions, a dissyllabic language, and - the syllabic accent rests on the penultimate unless that syllable is - open and short; e.g. datang, namana, besar, diumpatkannalah. Nothing - in the form of a root word indicates the grammatical category to which - it belongs; thus, _kasih_, kindness, affectionate, to love; _ganti_, a - proxy, to exchange, instead of. It is only in derivative words that - this vagueness is avoided. Derivation is effected by infixes, - prefixes, affixes and reduplication. Infixes occur more rarely in - Malay than in the cognate tongues. Examples are--_guruh_, a rumbling - noise, _gumuruh_, to make such a noise; _tunjuk_, to point, - _telunjuk_, the forefinger; _chuchuk_, to pierce, _cheruchuk_, a - stockade. The import of the prefixes--me (meng, men, men, mem), pe - (peng, pen, pen, pem ber (bel), per, pel, ka, di, ter,--and - affixes--an, kan, i, lah--will best appear from the following - examples--root word _ajar_, to teach, to learn; _mengajar_, to - instruct (expresses an action); _bleajar_, to study (state or - condition); _mengajari_, to instruct (some one, trans.); - _mengajarkan_, to instruct (in something, causative); _pengajar_, the - instructor; _pelajar_, the learner; _pengajaran_, the lesson taught, - also the school; _pelajaran_, the lesson learnt; _diajar_, to be - learnt; _terajar_, learnt; _terajarkan_, taught; _terajari_, - instructed; _[peraja_ (from _raja_, prince), to recognize as prince; - _perajakan_, to crown as prince; karajaan, royalty]; _ajarkanlah_, - teach! Examples of reduplication are--_ajar-ajar_, a sainted person; - _ajar-berajar_ (or _belajar_), to be learning and teaching by turns; - similarly there are forms like _ajar-mengajar_, _berajar-ajaran_, - _ajar-ajari_, _memperajar_, _memperajarkan_, _memperajari_, - _terbelajarkan_, _perbelajarkan_, &c. Altogether there are upwards of - a hundred possible derivative forms, in the idiomatic use of which the - Malays exhibit much skill. See especially H. von Dewall, _De - vormveranderingen der Maleische taal_ (Batavia, 1864) and I. - Pijnappel, _Maleisch-Hollandsch Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam, 1875), - "Inleiding." In every other respect the language is characterized by - great simplicity and indefiniteness. There is no inflexion to - distinguish number, gender or case. Number is never indicated when the - sense is obvious or can be gathered from the context; otherwise - plurality is expressed by adjectives such as _sagala_, all, and - _banak_, many; more rarely by the repetition of the noun, and the - indefinite singular by _sa_ or _satu_, one, with a class-word. Gender - may, if necessary, be distinguished by the words _laki-laki_, male, - and _perampuan_, female, in the case of persons, and of _jantan_ and - _betina_ in the case of animals. The genitive case is generally - indicated by the position of the word after its governing noun. Also - adjectives and demonstrative pronouns have their places after the - noun. Comparison is effected by the use of particles. Instead of the - personal pronouns, both in their full and abbreviated forms, - conventional nouns are in frequent use to indicate the social position - or relation of the respective interlocutors, as, e.g. _hamba tuan_, - the master's slave, i.e. I. These nouns vary according to the - different localities. Another peculiarity of Malay (and likewise of - Chinese, Shan, Talaing, Burmese and Siamese) is the use of certain - class-words or coefficients with numerals, such as _orang_ (man), when - speaking of persons, _ekor_ (tail) of animals, _keping_ (piece) of - flat things, _biji_ (seed) of roundish things; e.g. _lima biji, - telor_, five eggs. The number of these class-words is considerable. - Malay verbs have neither person or number nor mood or tense. The last - two are sometimes indicated by particles or auxiliary verbs; but these - are generally dispensed with if the meaning is sufficiently plain - without them. The Malays avoid the building up of long sentences. The - two main rules by which the order of the words in a sentence is - regulated are--subject, verb, object; and qualifying words follow - those which they qualify. This is quite the reverse of what is the - rule in Burmese. - - The history of the Malays amply accounts for the number and variety of - foreign ingredients in their language. Hindus appear to have settled - in Sumatra and Java as early as the 4th century of our era, and to - have continued to exercise sway over the native populations for many - centuries. These received from them into their language a very large - number of Sanskrit terms, from which we can infer the nature of the - civilizing influence imparted by the Hindu rulers. Not only in words - concerning commerce and agriculture, but also in terms connected with - social, religious and administrative matters that influence is - traceable in Malay. See W. E. Maxwell, _Manual of the Malay Language_ - (1882), pp. 5-34, where this subject is treated more fully than by - previous writers. This Sanskrit element forms such an integral part of - the Malay vocabulary that in spite of the subsequent infusion of - Arabic and Persian words adopted in the usual course of Mahommedan - conquest it has retained its ancient citizenship in the language. The - number of Portuguese, English, Dutch and Chinese words in Malay is not - considerable; their presence is easily accounted for by political or - commercial contact. - - The Malay language abounds in idiomatic expressions, which constitute - the chief difficulty in its acquisition. It is sparing in the use of - personal pronouns, and prefers impersonal and elliptical diction. As - it is rich in specific expressions for the various aspects of certain - ideas, it is requisite to employ always the most appropriate term - suited to the particular aspect. In Maxwell's _Manual_, pp. 120 seq., - no less than sixteen terms are given to express the different kinds of - striking, as many for the different kinds of speaking, eighteen for - the various modes of carrying, &c. An unnecessary distinction has been - made between _High Malay_ and _Low Malay_. The latter is no separate - dialect at all, but a mere brogue or jargon, the medium of intercourse - between illiterate natives and Europeans too indolent to apply - themselves to the acquisition of the language of the people; its - vocabulary is made up of Malay words, with a conventional admixture of - words from other languages; and it varies, not only in different - localities, but also in proportion to the individual speaker's - acquaintance with Malay proper. A few words are used, however, only in - speaking with persons of royal rank--e.g. _santap_, to eat (of a raja) - instead of _makan_; _beradu_, to sleep, instead of ti_dor_; _gring_, - unwell, instead of _sakit_; _mangkat_, to die, instead of _mati_, &c. - The use is different as regards the term _Jawi_ as applied to the - Malay language. This has its origin in the names Great Java and Lesser - Java, by which the medieval Java and Sumatra were called, and it - accordingly means the language spoken along the coasts of the two - great islands. - - - Literature. - - The Malays cannot, strictly speaking, be said to possess a literature, - for none of their writings can boast any literary beauty or value. - Their most characteristic literature is to be found, not in their - writings, but in the folk-tales which are transmitted orally from - generation to generation, and repeated by the wandering minstrels - called by the people _Peng-lipor Lara_, i.e. "Soothers of Care." Some - specimens of these are to be found in the _Journal of the Straits - Branch of the Asiatic Society_ (Singapore). The collections of _Malay - Proberbs_ made by Klinkert, Maxwell and Clifford also give a good idea - of the literary methods of the Malays. Their verse is of a very - primitive description, and is chiefly used for purposes of - love-making. There are numerous rhymed fairy tales, which are much - liked by the people, but they are of no literary merit. The best Malay - books are the _Hikayat Hang Tuak_, _Bestamam_ and the _Hikayat - Abdullah_. The latter is a diary of events kept during Sir Stamford - Raffle's administration by his Malay scribe. - - AUTHORITIES.--Hugh Clifford, _In Court and Kampong_ (London, 1897); - _Studies in Brown Humanity_ (London, 1898); _In a Corner of Asia_ - (London, 1899); _Bush-whacking_ (London 1901); Clifford and - Swettenham, _Dictionary of the Malay Language_, parts i. to v. A-G. - Taiping (Perak, 1894-1898); John Crawfurd, _History of the Indian - Archipelago_ (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1820); _Grammar and Dictionary of - the Malay Language_ (2 vols., London, 1852); _A Descriptive Dictionary - of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries_ (London, 1856); _Journal - of the Indian Archipelago_ (12 vols., Singapore, 1847-1862); _Journal - of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 33 Nos. - (Singapore, 1878-1900); H. C. Klinkert, _Nieuw Maleisch-Nederlandisch - Woordenboek_ (Leiden, 1893); John Leyden, _Malay Annals_ (London, - 1821); William Marsden, _The History of Sumatra_ (London, 1811); - _Malay Dictionary_ (London, 1824); Sir William Maxwell, _A Manual of - the Malay Language_ (London, 1888); T. J. Newbold, _Political and - Statistical Account of the British Settlements in the Straits of - Malacca_; W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900); Skeat and - Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ (London, 1906); Sir - Frank Swettenham, _Malay Sketches_ (London, 1895); _The Real Malay_ - (London, 1899); _British Malaya_ (London, 1906); H. von-de Wall, - edited by H. N. van der Tuuk, _Maleisch-Nederlandisch Woordenboek_ - (Batavia, 1877-1880); _Malay Dictionary_ (Singapore, 1903), Wilkinson. - (H. Cl.) - - - - -MALAY STATES (BRITISH). The native states of the Malay Peninsula under -British protection are divided into two groups: (1) federated, and (2) -non-federated. - - -I.--FEDERATED STATES - -The federated states, under the protection of Great Britain, but not -British possessions, are Perak, Selangor and the confederation of small -states known as the Negri Sembilan (i.e. Nine States) on the west -coast, and the state of Pahang on the east coast. Each state is under -the rule of a sultan, who is assisted in his legislative duties by a -state council, upon which the resident, and in some cases the secretary -to the resident, has a seat, and which is composed of native chiefs and -one or more Chinese members nominated by the sultan with the advice and -consent of the resident. The council, in addition to legislative and -other duties, revises all sentences of capital punishment. The -administrative work of each state is carried on by the resident and his -staff of European officials, whose ranks are recruited by successful -candidates in the competitive examinations held annually by the Civil -Service commissioners. The sultan of each state is bound by treaty with -the British government to accept the advice of the resident, who is thus -practically paramount; but great deference is paid to the opinions and -wishes of the sultans and their chiefs, and the British officials are -pledged not to interfere with the religious affairs of the Mahommedan -community. In the actual administration of the Malay population great -use is made of the native aristocratic system, the peasants being -governed largely by their own chiefs, headmen and village elders, under -the close supervision of British district officers. The result is a -benevolent autocracy admirably adapted to local conditions and to the -character and traditions of the people. A recognition of the fact that -the welfare of the Malays, who are the people of the land and whose -sultans have never ceded their territories to the British, must be -regarded as the first consideration has been the guiding principle of -the administration of the Malay States, and this has resulted in an -extraordinary amelioration of the condition of the natives, which has -proceeded concurrently with a notable development of the country and its -resources, mineral and agricultural. To the work of development, -however, the Malays have themselves contributed little, sound -administration having been secured by the British officials, enterprise -and capital having been supplied mainly by the Chinese, and the labour -employed being almost entirely Chinese or Tamil. Meanwhile the Malays -have improved their ancestral holdings, have enjoyed a peace and a -security to which their past history furnishes no parallel, have -obtained easy access to new and important markets for their agricultural -produce, and for the rest have been suffered to lead the lives best -suited to their characters and their desires. Each principal department -of the administration has its federal head, and all the residents -correspond with and are controlled by the resident-general, who, in his -turn, is responsible to the high commissioner, the governor of the -Straits Settlements for the time being. - - The estimated aggregate area of the Federated Malay States is 28,000 - sq. m., and the estimated population in 1905 was 860,000, as against - 678,595 in 1901. Of these only about 230,000 are Malays. The revenue - of the federation in 1905 was $23,964,593 (about L2,795,000), and the - expenditure was $20,750,395 (about L2,460,000). The imports for the - same year were valued at $50,575,455 (about L5,900,000), and the - exports at $80,057,654 (about L9,340,000), making a total trade of - nearly 15(1/4) millions sterling. The principal sources of revenue are - an export duty on tin, the rents paid for the revenue farms of the - right to collect import duties on opium, wine and spirits, and to keep - licensed gambling-houses for the exclusive use of the Chinese - population, railway receipts, land and forest revenue and postal - revenue. The tin is won from large alluvial deposits found in the - states of the western seaboard, and the mines are worked almost - exclusively by Chinese capital and labour. Since 1889 the Federated - Malay States have produced considerably more than half the tin of the - world. Recently there has been a great development in agricultural - enterprise, especially with regard to rubber, which is now grown in - large quantities, the estates being mainly in the hands of Europeans, - and the labour mostly Tamil. The states are opened up by over 2500 m. - of some of the best metalled cart-roads in the world, and by a railway - system, 350 m. of which, extending from the mainland opposite Penang - to the ancient town of Malacca, are open to traffic. Another 150 m. of - railway is under construction. The government offices at Kuala Lumpor, - the federal capital of the states, are among the finest buildings of - the kind in Asia. The whole of this extraordinary development, it - should be noted, has been effected by careful, sound and wise - administration coupled with a courageous and energetic policy of - expenditure upon public works. Throughout, not one penny of debt has - been incurred, the roads, railways, &c., being constructed entirely - from current balances. This of course has only been rendered possible - by the extraordinary mineral wealth which the states on the western - seaboard have developed in the hands of Chinese miners amid the peace - and security which British rule has brought to these once lawless - lands. The value of the tin output for the year 1905 amounted to - $69,460,993 (L8,104,199). Although agricultural enterprise in the - Malay States is assuming considerable proportions and a growing - importance, the total value of the principal agricultural products, - including timber, for the year 1905 only aggregated $2,435,513 - (L289,143). - - The whole of the Malay Peninsula is one vast forest, through which - flow countless streams that form one of the most lavish water-systems - in the world. The rivers, though many of them are of imposing - appearance and of considerable length, are uniformly shallow, only a - few on the west coast being navigable by ships for a distance of some - 40 m. from their mouths. In spite of the notable development above - referred to, only a very small fraction of the entire area of the - states has as yet been touched either by mining or agricultural - enterprise. It is not too much to assert that the larger half of the - forest-lands has never been trodden by the foot of man. (For - information concerning the botany, geology, &c., of the Malay States - see MALAY PENINSULA. For the ethnology see MALAYS.) - -PERAK is situated between the parallels 3 deg. 37' and 6 deg. 5' N. and -100 deg. 3' to 101 deg. 51' E. on the western side of the Malay -Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the British possession of Province -Wellesley and the Malay state of Kedah; on the S. by the protected -native state of Selangor; on the E. by the protected native state of -Pahang and the independent states of Kelantan and Petani; and on the W. -by the Straits of Malacca. The coast-line is about 90 m. in length. The -extreme distance from the most northerly to the most southerly portions -of the state is about 172 m., and the greatest breadth from east to west -is about 100 m. The total area of the country is estimated at about -10,000 sq. m. - - The Perak river, which runs in a southerly direction almost parallel - with the coast for nearly 150 m. of its course, is navigable for small - steamers for about 40 m. from its mouth, and by native trading boats - for nearly 200 m. The Plus, Batang, Padang and Kinta rivers are its - principal tributaries, all of them falling into the Perak on its left - bank. The other principal rivers of the state are the Krian, Kurau, - Larut and Bruas to the north of the mouth of the Perak, and the Bernam - to the south. None of these rivers is of any great importance as a - waterway, although the Bernam River is navigable for small steamers - for nearly 100 m. of its course. The mountain ranges, which cover a - considerable area, run from the north-east to the south-west. The - highest altitudes attained by them do not exceed 7500 ft., but they - average about 2500 ft. They are all thickly covered with jungle. The - ranges are two, running parallel to one another, with the valley of - the Perak between them. The larger is a portion of the main chain, - which runs down the peninsula from north to south. The lesser is - situated in the district of Larut. There are several hill sanatoria in - the state at heights which vary from 2500 to 4700 ft. above sea-level, - but the extreme humidity of the atmosphere renders the coolness thus - obtainable the reverse of enjoyable. - - - Geology. - - Mr Leonard Wray, curator of the Perak museum, writes as follows on the - subject of the geological formation of the state: "There are really - only four formations represented--firstly, the granitic rocks; - secondly, a large series of beds of gneiss, quartzite, schist and - sandstone, overlaid in many places by thick beds of crystalline - limestone; thirdly, small sheets of trap rock; and fourthly, - river-gravels and other Quaternary deposits. The granites are of many - varieties, and also, in all probability, of several different - geological periods. The series of quartzites, schists, and limestone - are of great age, but as no fossils have ever been found in any of - them, nothing definite can be stated as to their exact chronological - position. Their lithological characteristics and the total absence of - all organic remains point to the Archaean period. The failure to - discover signs of life in them is, of course, merely negative - evidence, and the finding of a single fossil would at once upset it. - However, until this happens they may be conveniently classed as - Laurentian. It is at present impossible to form anything approaching - an accurate estimate of the thickness of this extensive series, but it - is probable that it is somewhere between 4000 and 5000 ft. - Unconformability has been noticed between the limestones and the beds - beneath, but whether this is sufficient to separate them or not is a - matter for future investigation.... The taller hills are exclusively - composed of granite, as also are some of the lower ones.... The ores - of the following metals have been found in the formations named: - Granite--tin, lead, iron, arsenic, tungsten and titanium; - Laurentian--tin, gold, lead, silver, iron, arsenic, copper, zinc, - tungsten, manganese and bismuth; Quaternary--tin, gold, copper, - tungsten, iron and titanium. This is not to be considered a complete - list, as small quantities of other metals have also been found." - - - History. - - The early history of Perak is obscure, the only information on the - subject being obtained from native traditions, which are altogether - untrustworthy. According to these authorities, however, a settlement - was first made by Malays in Perak at Bruas, and the capital was later - moved to the banks of the Perak River, the site chosen being a little - village called Temong, which lies some miles up stream from Kuala - Kangsar, the present residence of the sultan. When the Malacca - sultanate fell, owing to the invasion of the Portuguese in 1511, a - member of that royal house is said to have migrated to Perak, and the - present dynasty claims to have been descended from him. As this boast - is also made by almost every ruling family in the peninsula, the - tradition is not worthy of any special attention. What is more certain - is the tradition that Perak was twice invaded by the Achinese, and its - rulers carried off into captivity, one of them, Sultan Mansur Shah, - subsequently becoming the ruler of Achin. The first European - settlement in Perak was made by the Dutch in 1650, under a treaty - entered into with the Achinese, but the natives of the country rose - against the Dutch again and again, and it was abandoned in 1783, - though it was afterwards reoccupied, the Dutch being finally ejected - by the British in 1795. In 1818 the Siamese conquered Perak, but its - independence was secured by a treaty between the British and Siamese - governments in 1824. From that date until 1874 Perak was ruled by its - own sultans, but in that year, owing to internal strife, Sultan - Abdullah applied to the then governor of the Straits Settlements, Sir - Andrew Clarke, for the assistance of a British Resident. The treaty of - Pangkor was concluded on the 20th of January 1874, and the first - resident, Mr J. W. W. Birch, was murdered on the 2nd of November 1875. - A punitive expedition became necessary; sultan Abdullah and the other - chiefs concerned in the murder were banished, the actual murderers - were hanged, and Raja Muda Jusuf was declared regent. He died in 1888, - and was succeeded by the sultan Raja Idris, K.C.M.G., a most - enlightened ruler, who was from the first a strong and intelligent - advocate of British methods of administration. Sir Hugh Low was - appointed resident, a position which he held until 1889, when he was - succeeded by Sir Frank Swettenham. Since then the history of Perak has - been one of continuous peace and growing prosperity and wealth. - Although the federal capital is Kuala Lumpor in Selangor, Perak still - enjoys the honour of being the senior and leading state of the - federation. - - - Population. - - By the census taken on the 5th of April 1891 the population of Perak - was shown to be as follows: Europeans, 366; Eurasians, Jews and - Armenians, 293; Malays, 96,719; Chinese, 94,345; Tamils, 13,086; - aborigines, 5779; other nationalities, 3666; thus making a grand total - of 214,254, of whom 156,408 were males and 57,846 were females. The - estimated population in 1905 was 400,000, of whom 200,000 were Chinese - and 160,000 were Malays, but owing to the disparity of the proportions - between the sexes the deaths in each year largely outnumber the - births, and the increase in the population is accounted for solely by - the number of immigrants, chiefly from the mainland of China, and to a - lesser extent from India also. - - The revenue of Perak in 1874 amounted to $226,333. That for 1905 - amounted to $12,242,897. Of this latter sum $4,876,400 was derived - from duty on exported tin, $2,489,300 from railway receipts, $505,300 - from land revenue and $142,800 from postal and telegraphic revenue. - The remainder is mainly derived from the revenue farms, which are - leased to Chinese capitalists for a short term of years, conveying to - the lessee the right to collect import duties upon opium, wine and - spirits, to keep pawnbroking shops, and to keep public licensed - gambling-houses for the use of Chinese only. The expenditure for 1905 - amounted to $10,141,980. Of this sum $4,236,000 was expended upon - railway upkeep and construction and $2,176,100 upon public works. The - value of the imports into Perak during 1905 was over $20,000,000, and - that of the exports exceeded $40,000,000, making a total of over - $60,000,000, equivalent to about seven million sterling. The output of - tin from Perak ranged between 18,960 tons, valued at $23,099,506 in - 1899, and 26,600 tons, valued at $35,500,000, in 1905. The fluctuating - character of the output is due, not to any exhaustion of the mineral - deposits of the state--that is not to be anticipated for many years - yet to come--but to the uncertainty of the labour supply. The mining - population is recruited exclusively from the districts of southern - China, and during certain years an increased demand for labourers in - China itself, in French Indo-China, in the Dutch colonies, and in - South Africa temporarily and adversely affected immigration to the - Straits of Malacca. The output has, moreover, been affected from time - to time by the price of tin, which was $32.20 per pikul in 1896, rose - to $42.96 in 1898, to $74.15 in 1900, and averaged $80.60 in 1905. - Exclusive of tin, the principal exports were $108,000 worth of Para - rubber, $181,000 of copra, $54,000 of hides, $48,000 of patchouli, and - considerable quantities of timber, rattans and other jungle produce. - The agricultural development of the state is still in its infancy, but - rubber is cultivated in rapidly increasing areas, and the known - fertility of the soil, the steady and regular rainfall, the excellent - means of communication, and the natural and artificial conditions of - the country, justify the expectation that the future of Perak as an - agricultural country will be prosperous. - - - General. - - Although so much has been done to develop the resources of Perak, by - far the greater portion of the state is still covered by dense and - virgin forest. In 1898 it was calculated that only 330,249 acres of - land were occupied or cultivated out of a total acreage of 6,400,000. - The area of agricultural holdings has notably increased, but a - considerable period must yet elapse before it will amount to even - one-tenth of the whole. A line of railway connects the port of Teluk - Anson with the great mining district of Kinta, whence the line runs, - crossing the Perak River at Enggor, to Kuala Kangsar, the residence of - the sultan, thence to Taiping, the administrative capital of the - state, and via Krian to a point opposite to the island of Penang. A - second line runs south from Perak and connects with the railway system - of Selangor, which in its turn connects with the Negri Sembilan and - Malacca line, thus giving through railway communication between the - last-named town and Penang. Perak also possesses some 600 miles of - excellent metalled cart-road, and the length of completed road is - annually increasing. - - For administrative purposes the state is divided into six districts: - Upper Perak, Kuala Kangsar and Lower Perak, on the Perak River; Kinta; - Batany Padang and Larut and Krian. Of these, Larut and Kinta are the - principal mining centres, while Krian is the most prosperous - agricultural district. The districts on the Perak River are mostly - peopled by Malays. The administrative capital is Taiping, the chief - town of Larut. Kuala Kangsar is chiefly memorable as having been the - scene of the first federal meeting of native chiefs, who, with the - British Residents from each state, met together in 1897 for friendly - discussion of their common interests for the first time in history, - under the auspices of the high commissioner, Sir Charles H. B. - Mitchell. This, in the eyes of those who are acquainted with the - character of the Malays and of the relations which formerly subsisted - between the rulers of the various states, is perhaps the most signal - token of the changes which British influence has wrought in the - peninsula. - -SELANGOR is situated between the parallels 2 deg. 32' and 3 deg. 37' N. -and 100 deg. 38' and 102 deg. E., on the western side of the Malay -Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the protected native state of -Perak, on the S. by the protected states of the Negri Sembilan, on the -E. by Pahang and the Negri Sembilan, and on the W. by the Straits of -Malacca. The coast-line is about 100 m. in length, greatest length about -104 m., and greatest breadth about 48 m., total area estimated at about -3000 sq. m. - - The state consists of a narrow strip of land between the mountain - range which forms the backbone of the peninsula and the Straits of - Malacca. Compared with other states in the peninsula, Selangor is - poorly watered. The principal rivers are the Selangor, the Klang and - the Langat. The principal port of the state is Port Swettenham, - situated at the mouth of the Klang River, and is connected with the - capital, Kuala Lumpor, by a railway. The geology of the state closely - resembles that of Perak. The state is possessed of most valuable - deposits of alluvial tin, and mining for this metal is the chief - industry of the population. Kuala Lumpor is also the federal capital - of the Malay States. - - - History. - - According to native tradition, the ruling house of Selangor is - descended from a Bugis raja, who, with two of his brothers, settled in - the state in 1718, the son of the youngest brother eventually becoming - ruler of the country. In 1783 the then sultan of Selangor joined with - the Iang-di-per-Tuan Muda of Riau in an unsuccessful attack upon the - Dutch who then held Malacca. In retaliation the Dutch, under Admiral - Van Braam, invaded Selangor and drove the sultan out of his country. - In 1785, aided by the Bendahara of Pahang, Sultan Ibrahim of Selangor - reconquered his state; but the Dutch blockaded his ports, and - eventually forced him to enter into a treaty whereby he consented to - acknowledge their sovereignty. The earliest British political - communication with Selangor began in 1818, when a commercial treaty - was concluded with the governor of Penang. In 1867 Sultan Abdul Samad - of Selangor appointed his son-in-law, Tungku Dia Udin, to be viceroy; - and this gave rise to a civil war which lasted almost without - intermission till 1873, when the enemies of Tungku Dia Udin were - finally vanquished, largely by the agency of the Bendahara of Pahang, - who, at the invitation of the governor of the Straits Settlements, - sent a warlike expedition to the assistance of the viceroy. In 1874 - the occurrence of an atrocious act of piracy off the mouth of the - Langat River led to the governor, Sir Andrew Clarke, appointing, at - the request of the sultan, a British Resident to aid him in the - administration of his kingdom. Since that date there has been no - further breach of the peace, and the prosperity of Selangor has - increased annually. - - By the census taken on the 5th of April 1891 the population of - Selangor was given at 81,592 souls, of whom 67,051 were males and only - 14,541 were females. The census taken on the 5th of April 1901 gave a - total population of 168,789 souls, of whom 136,823 were males and - 31,966 females. Of these 108,768 were Chinese, 33,997 were Malays, - 16,748 were Tamils, and only 487 were Europeans. The returns deal with - nearly a score of different nationalities. Since 1901 the population - has been much increased and now certainly exceeds 200,000 souls. Now, - however, that instead of a single port of entry there exist easy means - of access to the state by rail both from the north and the south, it - is no longer possible to estimate the annual increase by immigration - with any approach to accuracy. It will be noted that the inhabitants - of this erstwhile Malayan state were, even at the time of the census - of 1901, over 64% Chinese, while the Malays were little more than 20% - of the population. In Selangor, as elsewhere in the Malay Peninsula, - the deaths annually far outnumber the births recorded (e.g. in 1905 - births 8293, deaths 12,500). The disproportion of the female to the - male sections of the population is greater in Selangor than in any - other part of the colony or Malay States. The development of planting - enterprise in Selangor, and more especially the cultivation of rubber, - has led during recent years to the immigration of a considerable - number of Tamil coolies, but the Tamil population is still - insignificant as compared with the Chinese. - - - Finance, Trade, &c. - - The revenue of Selangor in 1875 amounted to only $115,656; in 1905 it - had increased to $8,857,793. Of this latter sum $3,195,318 was derived - from duty on tin exported, $1,972,628 from federal receipts, and - $340,360 from land revenue. The balance is chiefly derived from the - revenue farms, which include the right to collect import duty on opium - and spirits. The expenditure for 1905 amounted to $7,186,146, of which - sum $3,717,238 was on account of federal charges and $1,850,711 for - public works. The value of the imports in 1905 was $24,643,619 and - that of the exports was $26,683,316, making a total of $51,326,935, - equivalent to L5,988,000. Tin is the principal export. The amount - exported in 1905 was 17,254 tons. The total area of alienated mining - land at the end of 1905 amounted to 65,573 acres, and it was estimated - that over 60,000 Chinese were employed in the mines. - - The main trunk line of the Federated Malay States railways passes - through Selangor. It enters the state at Tanjong Malim on the Perak - boundary, runs southward through Kuala Lumpor and so into the Negri - Sembilan. It runs for 81 m. in Selangor territory. A branch line 27 m. - long connects Kuala Lumpor with Port Swettenham on the Klang Straits - where extensive wharves, capable of accommodating ocean-going vessels, - have been constructed. A second branch line, measuring rather more - than 4 m. in length, has been opened to traffic. It connects the caves - at Batu with Kuala Lumpor. Frequent communication is maintained by - steamer between Port Swettenham and Singapore, and by coasting vessels - between the former port and those on the shores of the Straits of - Malacca. All the principal places in the state are connected with one - another by telegraph. - - For administrative purposes Selangor is divided into six districts: - Kuala Lumpor, in which the capital and the principal tin-fields are - situated; Ulu Selangor, which is also a prosperous mining district; - Kuala Selangor, which is agricultural, and poorly populated by Malays; - Ulu Langat, mining and agricultural; Kuala Langat, the residence of - the late sultan Abdul Samad, agricultural; and Klang, the only - prosperous port of the state. Much money has been expended upon the - capital, Kuala Lumpor, which possesses some fine public buildings, - waterworks, &c., and where the principal residence of the - Resident-General is situated. In some sort Kuala Lumpor is the capital - not only of Selangor, but also of the whole federation. Its scenery is - very attractive. - -NEGRI SEMBILAN (the Nine States) is a federation of small native states -which is now treated as a single entity, being under the control of a -British Resident, and is situated between parallels 2 deg. 28' and 3 -deg. 18' N. and 101 deg. 45' and 102 deg. 45' E., on the western side of -the Malay Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the protected state of -Pahang, on the S. by the territory of Malacca, on the E. by Pahang and -the independent state of Johor, and on the W. by the Straits of Malacca. -The coast-line is about 28 m. in length, and the extreme distance from -north to south is 55 m., and that from east to west about 65 m. The -estimated area is about 3000 sq. m. Port Dickson, or Arang-Arang, is the -only port on the coast. It is connected with the capital, Seremban, by a -railway 24 m. in length. Most of the states comprising the federation -depend largely for their prosperity upon agriculture, but in some of the -districts tin is being worked in considerable quantities, with good -results. - - - History. - - As is the case with the history of most Malayan states, much rests - upon no surer ground than tradition, in so far as the records of the - Negri Sembilan are concerned. At the same time the native story that - the states which now form the federation of the Negri Sembilan were - originally peopled by tribes of Sakai, or aborigines of the peninsula, - who descended from the mountains of the interior and peopled the - valleys, is supported by much corroborative evidence. Not only does - the Malay's contempt for the Sakai make it exceedingly unlikely that - the tradition, which is hardly a matter for pride, should have been - preserved if it were not true, but also many of the laws and customs - in force in these states are wholly foreign to those of the Malays, - and can plainly be traced to the aborigines. As an instance, the - custom of inheriting rank and property through the mother instead of - through the father may be mentioned. Tradition further relates that - towards the end of the 18th century a raja of the royal house of - Menangkabu came from Sumatra to rule over the federation of small - states, each of which continued to be governed in all its local - affairs by its own chief and by the village and other councils - sanctioned by ancient custom. The Sumatran raja took the title of - Iang-di-per-Tuan of Sri Menanti. Although they bore the name of the - "Nine States," only six seem to have belonged to the federation during - the time of which history speaks. These are Sri Menanti, Johol, - Tampin, Rembau, Jelebu, and Sungei Ujong. Later the two latter - separated themselves from the confederation. Ancient tradition says - that the names of the nine states were originally Klang, Jelebu, - Sungei Ujong, Johol, Segamat, Pasir Besar, Naning, Rembau and Jelai. - Of these Klang was annexed by Selangor, Segamat and Pasir Besar by - Johor, and Naning by Malacca. During the last years of the 18th - century the Iang-di-per-Tuan appointed an Iang-di-per-Tuan Muda to - rule Rembau, and the state of Tampin was created to provide for the - family of the new chief. In 1887 the governor of the Straits - Settlements sent Mr Martin Lister to the Negri Sembilan, which had - become disintegrated, and by his influence the ancient federal system - was revived under the control of a Resident appointed by the governor. - The states which formed this new confederation were Johol, Ulu Muar, - Jempol, Terachi, Inas, Gunong Pasir, Rembau, Tampin and Gemencheh. - Prior to this, in 1873, owing to a civil war in Sungei Ujong, Sir - Andrew Clarke sent a military force to that state, put an end to the - disturbances, and placed the country under the control of a British - Resident. Jelebu was taken under British protection in 1886, and was - thenceforth managed by a magistrate under the orders of the Resident - of Sungei Ujong. In 1896, when the federation of all the Malayan - states under British control was effected, Sungei Ujong and Jelebu - were reunited to the confederation of small states from which they had - so long been separated and the whole, under the old name of the Negri - Sembilan, or Nine States, was placed under one Resident. - - The population of the Negri Sembilan, which according to the census - taken in April 1891 was only 70,730, had increased to 96,028 by 1901, - and was estimated at 119,454 in 1905. Of these 46,500 are Chinese, - 65,000 Malays, 6700 Tamils, and 900 Europeans and Eurasians. The - births registered slightly exceed the deaths in number, there being a - large Malay population in the Negri Sembilan among whom the proportion - of women to men is fair, a condition of things not found in localities - where the inhabitants are mostly Chinese immigrants. - - - Finance and Trade. - - The revenue of the Negri Sembilan amounted to only $223,435 in 1888. - In 1898 it had increased to $701,334, in 1900 to $1,251,366, and in - 1905 to $2,335,534. The revenue for 1905 was derived mainly as - follows:--customs $1,268,602, land revenue $145,475, land sales - $21,407, while the revenue farms contributed $584,459. The expenditure - in 1905 amounted to $2,214,093, of which $1,125,355 was expended upon - public works. The trade returns for 1905, which are not, however, - complete, show an aggregate value of about $13,000,000. The value of - the tin exported during 1905 exceeded $6,900,000, and the value of the - agricultural produce, of which gambier represented $211,000 and damar - $80,000, amounted to $407,990. - - - General. - - Seremban, the administrative capital of the Negri Sembilan, is - connected with Port Dickson by a railway line, owned by the Sungei - Ujong Railway Company, which is 24(1/2) m. in length. It is also - situated on the trunk line of the Federated Malay States, and is thus - joined by rail to Selangor on the north and to Malacca on the south. - Frequent steam communication is maintained between Port Dickson and - the ports on the Straits of Malacca and with Singapore. - - For administrative purposes the Negri Sembilan is divided into five - districts, viz. the Seremban District, the Coast District, Jelebu, - Kuala Pilah and Tampin. Each of these is under the charge of a - European district officer, who is responsible to the Resident. The - Iang-di-per-Tuan lives at Kuala Pilah, but the capital of the - federation is at Seremban in Sungei Ujong, where the Resident is - stationed. The hereditary chiefs of the various states aid in the - government of their districts, and have seats upon the state council, - over which the Iang-di-per-Tuan presides. The watering-place of - Magnolia Bay, where excellent sea-bathing is obtainable, is one of the - pleasure resorts of this part of the peninsula. - -PAHANG, on the east coast of the peninsula, is situated between -parallels 2 deg. 28' and 3 deg. 45' N. and 101 deg. 30' and 103 deg. 30' -E. It is bounded on the N. by the independent native states of Kelantan -and Trengganu; on the S. by the Negri Sembilan and Johor; on the E. by -the China Sea; and on the W. by the protected states of Perak and -Selangor. The coast-line is about 112 m. in length; the greatest length -is about 210 m., and greatest breadth about 130 m. The state is the -largest in the peninsula, its area being estimated at 15,000 sq. m. The -ports on the coast are the mouths of the Endau, Rompin, Pahang and -Kuantan rivers, but during the north-east monsoon the coast is not easy -of approach, and the rivers, all of which are guarded by difficult bars, -are impossible of access except at high tides. - - The principal river of the state is the Pahang, from which it takes - its name. At a distance of 180 m. from the coast this river is formed - by two others named respectively the Jelai and the Tembeling. The - former is joined 20 m. farther up stream by the Lipis, which has its - rise in the mountains which form the boundary with Perak. The Jelai - itself has its rise also in a more northerly portion of this range, - while its two principal tributaries above the mouth of the Lipis, the - Telom and the Serau, rise, the one in the plateau which divides Perak - from Pahang, the other in the hills which separate Pahang from - Kelantan. The Tembeling has its rise in the hills which divide Pahang - from Kelantan, but some of its tributaries rise on the Trengganu - frontier, while the largest of its confluents comes from the hills in - which the Kuantan River takes its rise. The Pahang is navigable for - large boats as far as Kuala Lipis, 200 m. from the mouth, and - light-draught launches can also get up to that point. Smaller boats - can be taken some 80 m. higher up the Jelai and Telom. The river, - however, as a waterway is of little use, since it is uniformly - shallow. The Rompin and Kuantan rivers are somewhat more easily - navigated for the first 30 m. of their course, but taken as a whole - the waterways of Pahang are of little value. The interior of Pahang is - chiefly noted for its auriferous deposits. Gunong Tahan is situated on - the boundary between Pahang and Kelantan. Its height is estimated at - 8000 ft. above sea-level, but it has never yet been ascended. Pahang, - like the states on the west coast, is covered almost entirely by one - vast forest, but in the Lipis valley, which formerly was thickly - populated, there is a considerable expanse of open grass plain unlike - anything to be seen on the western seaboard. The coast is for the most - part a sandy beach fringed with _casuarina_ trees and there are only a - few patches of mangrove-swamp throughout its entire length. - - - History. - - The ancient name of Pahang was Indrapura. It is mentioned in the - history of _Hang Tuah_, the great Malacca brave, who flourished in the - 16th century, and succeeded in abducting a daughter of the then ruling - house of Pahang for his master, the sultan of Malacca. Prior to this, - Pahang had been ruled by the Siamese. When Malacca fell into the hands - of the Portuguese in 1511 the sultan, Muhammad Shah, fled to Pahang, - and the present ruling house claims to have been descended from him. - The title of the ruler of Pahang was Bendahara until 1882, when the - present (1902) ruler, Wan Ahmad, assumed the title of sultan, taking - the name of Sultan Ahmad Maatham Shah. Up to that time the Bendahara - had been installed on his accession by the sultan of Riau, and held - his office by virtue of that chief's letter of authority. About 1855 - the father of the present sultan died at Pekan, and his son Bendahara - Korish, who succeeded him, drove Wan Ahmad from the country. After - making three unsuccessful attempts to conquer the land and to dethrone - his elder brother, Wan Ahmad at last succeeded in 1865 in invading the - state and wresting the throne from his nephew, who had succeeded his - father some years earlier. From that time, in spite of two attempts to - shake his power by invasions from Selangor which were undertaken by - his nephews Wan Aman and Wan Da, Bendahara Ahmad ruled his country - with a rod of iron. In 1887 he consented to enter into a treaty with - the governor of the Straits by which he accepted a consular agent at - his court. This treaty was finally signed on the 8th of October 1887. - In February of the following year a Chinese British subject was - murdered at Pekan in circumstances which pointed to the responsibility - of the sultan for the crime, and in October 1888 a Resident was - appointed to assist the sultan in the administration of his country, - that being, in the opinion of the British government, the only - guarantee for the safety of the life and property of British subjects - which it could accept. In December 1891 disturbances broke out in - Pahang, the nominal leaders of which were certain of the sultan's most - trusted chiefs. The sultan himself took no part in the outbreak, but - it undoubtedly had his sympathy, even if it was not caused by his - direct commands. The rebels were driven to seek safety in flight in - November 1892, but in June 1894 they gathered strength for a second - disturbance, and raided Pahang from Kelantan, in which state they had - been given shelter by the Mahommedan rulers. This event, added to the - occurrence of other raids from across the border, led to an irregular - expedition being led into Trengganu and Kelantan by the Resident of - Pahang (Mr Hugh Clifford) in 1895, and this had the desired result. - The rebel chiefs were banished to Siam, and no further breach of the - peace has troubled the tranquillity of Pahang since that time. Pahang - joined the Federated Malay States by a treaty signed in 1895, and the - sultan and his principal chiefs were present at the federal durbar - held at Kuala Kangsar in Perak in 1897. - - - Population. - - The census taken in April 1901 gave the total population of Pahang at - 84,113, of whom 73,462 were Malays, 8695 Chinese, 1227 Tamils and - other natives of India, 180 Europeans and Eurasians, and 549 people of - other nationalities. The population in 1905 was estimated at 100,000, - the increase being due to immigration mainly from the states on the - western seaboard. In former days Pahang was far more thickly populated - than in modern times, but the long succession of civil wars which - racked the land after the death of Bendahara Ali caused thousands of - Pahang Malays to fly the country. To-day the valley of the Lebir River - in Kelantan and the upper portions of several rivers near the Perak - and Selangor boundaries are inhabited by Pahang Malays, the - descendants of these fugitives. The Pahang natives are almost all - engaged in agriculture. The work of the mines, &c., is performed by - Chinese and foreign Malays. In the Lipis valley the descendants of the - Rawa Malays, who at one time possessed the whole of the interior in - defiance of the Pahang rajas, still outnumber the people of the land. - - - Finance and Trade. - - The revenue of Pahang in 1899 amounted to only $62,077; in 1900 to - $419,150. In 1905 it was $528,368. The expenditure in 1905 amounted to - $1,208,176. Of this sum $736,886 was expended on public works. Pahang - is still a source of expense to the federation, its progress having - been retarded by the disturbances which lasted from December 1891 - until 1895, with short intervals of peace, but the revenue is now - steadily increasing, and the ultimate financial success of the state - is considered to be secure. Pahang owes something over $3,966,500 to - Selangor and $1,175,000 to Perak, which have financed it now for some - years out of surplus revenue. The value of the imports in 1905 was - $1,344,346, that of the exports was $3,838,928, thus making a total - trade value of $5,183,274. The most valuable export is tin, the value - of which in 1905 amounted to $2,820,745. The value of the gutta - exported exceeded $140,000, that of dried and salted fish amounted to - nearly $70,000, and that of timber to $325,000. - - - General. - - The geological formation of the states lying to the eastward of the - main range of mountains which splits the peninsula in twain differs - materially from that of the western states. At a distance of about a - dozen miles from the summits of the mountains the granite formation is - replaced by slates, which in many places are intersected by fissures - of quartz, and in others are overlaid by vast thicknesses of - limestone. Those of the quartz fissures which have been exploited are - found to be auriferous, and several mining companies have attempted to - work the deposits. Their efforts, however, have not hitherto been - successful. A magnificent road over the mountains, with a ruling grade - of 1 in 30, joins Kuala Lipis, the administrative capital of Pahang, - to Kuala Kubu, the nearest railway station in Selangor. The road - measures 82 m. in length. Pekan, where the sultan has his residence, - was the capital of Pahang until the middle of 1898, when the - administrative headquarters were transferred to the interior as being - more central. None of these towns is of any size or importance. In the - Kuantan valley, which lies parallel to the Pahang River, a European - company is working tin lodes with considerable success. These lodes - are the only mines of the kind being worked in the Federated Malay - States. Pahang is fertile and well suited for agriculture of many - kinds. The rainfall is heavy and regular. The climate is cooler than - that of the west coast, and the full force of the monsoon is felt from - October to February in each year. For administrative purposes Pahang - is divided into four districts--Ulu Pahang, in which the present - capital is situated; Temerloh, which includes 80 odd miles of the - Pahang valley and the Semantan River; Pekan, which includes the coast - rivers down to Endau; and Kuantan. Each of these is under the charge - of a district officer, who is responsible to the resident. The - boundary with Johor and the Negri Sembilan was rectified by a - commission which sat in London in 1897-1898. - - AUTHORITIES.--_Journal of the Eastern Archipelago_ (Singapore); - _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_ - (Singapore); Maxwell, _Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute_, - vol. xxiii.; Swettenham, ibid. vol. xxvii; Clifford, ibid. vol. xxx. - (London, 1892, 1895, 1899); Swettenham, _About Perak_ (Singapore, - 1893); _Malay Sketches_ (London, 1895); _The Real Malay_ (London, - 1899); _British Malaya_ (London, 1906); Clifford, _In Court and - Kampong_ (London, 1897); _Studies in Brown Humanity_ (London, 1898); - _In a Corner of Asia_ (London, 1899); _Bush-whacking_ (London, 1901); - _Further India_ (London, 1904); De la Croix, _Les Mines d'etins de - Perak_ (Paris, 1882); Bluebook, C. 9524 (London, 1899); _The Straits - Directory_ (Singapore, 1906); Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900); - Skeat and Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ (London, - 1906). (H. Cl.) - - -II.--NON-FEDERATED STATES - -In 1909 a treaty was made between Great Britain and Siam, one provision -of which was the cession to the former of the suzerain rights enjoyed by -the latter over certain territories in the Malay Peninsula. These -territories consisted of the four Siamese Malay States: Kelantan, -Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis, very ancient dependencies of Siam, all of -which except Trengganu, were in a flourishing condition and had been -administered by British officers in the service of Siam for some years -prior to their transference. Though the four states were loyal to Siam -and wished to retain their former allegiance, the change was effected -without disturbance of any kind, the British government on assuming the -rights of suzerainty placing an adviser at the court of each raja and -guaranteeing the continuance of the administration on the lines already -laid down by Siam so far as might be compatible with justice and fair -treatment for all. The four states lie to the north of the Federated -Malay States, two on the east and two on the west side of the peninsula. - -KELANTAN.--This state on the east coast, bounded N. and N.E. by the -China Sea, E. by Trengganu, S. by Pahang and W. by Perak and Ra-nge, -lies between 4 deg. 48' and 6 deg. 20' N. and 101 deg. 33' and 102 deg. -45' E. The greatest length from north to south is 115 m. and the -greatest breadth from east to west 60 m. The area is about 5000 sq. m. -The northern part of the state is flat and fertile, but the southern -district which comprises more than half the total area, is mountainous -and uncultivated. - - Next to the Pahang, the Kelantan River is the largest on the east - coast. It is 120 miles long and is navigable for shallow-draft - launches and big country boats for about 80 miles, and for vessels of - 8 ft. draft for about six miles. Its principal tributaries are the - Galas, Pergau and Lebir. The Golok and Semarak rivers water the west - and east parts of the state, falling into the sea a few miles on - either side of the mouth of the Kelantan River. The climate of - Kelantan is mild and singularly healthy in the open cultivated - regions. The population is about 300,000 of which 10,000 are - aboriginal tribes (Sakeis and Jakuns), 10,000 Siamese and Chinese and - the rest Malays. The Chinese are increasing and natives of different - parts of India are resorting to the state for purposes of trade. Kota - Bharu (pop. 10,000) is the only town in the state. It lies on the - right bank of the river, about six miles from the sea. Since 1904 it - has been laid out with metalled roads and many public and private - buildings have been erected. The town is the commercial as well as the - administrative centre of the state. Tumpat and Tabar on the coast, - with population 4000 and 3000 respectively, are the places next in - importance after Kota Bharu. A network of creeks render communication - easy in the northern districts, the river and its tributaries afford - means of access to all parts of the south; 20 miles of road have been - made in the neighbourhood of Kota Bharu. Kelantan is connected by - telegraph with Bangkok and Singapore, and maintains regular postal - communication with those places. Rice cultivation is the principal - industry and is increasing rapidly. Coco-nut and betel-nut growing are - also largely practised. Much livestock is raised. About 400,000 acres - of land are under cultivation. Though reputed rich in minerals, past - misrule prevented mining enterprise in Kelantan until, in 1900, a - large concession was given to an Englishman and the country was opened - to foreigners. In 1909 three mining syndicates were at work, and - several others were in process of formation. Gold, tin and galena have - been found in several localities and during the years 1906-1909 28,000 - ounces of gold were dredged from the Kelantan River. The Kelantanese - are expert fishermen, some 30,000 finding employment in fishing and - fish-drying. Silk-weaving is a growing industry. Foreign trade, which - in 1909 reached the value of two and a half million dollars, is - chiefly with Singapore. Principal exports are copra, rice, fish, - cattle and gold; chief imports are cotton goods, hardware and specie. - The currency is the Straits Settlements dollar and small silver coin, - supplemented by a locally made tin coin of low value. - - By virtue of a mutual agreement made in 1902 Siam appointed a resident - commissioner to Kelantan and consented, so long as the advice of that - officer should be followed, to leave internal affairs to be conducted - locally. Under this arrangement a council of state was appointed, - departments of government were organized, penal, civil and revenue - laws were passed and enforced, courts were established and a police - force was raised. Though formerly of an evil reputation, the people - were found to be naturally peaceful and law-abiding, and serious crime - is rare. The state revenue, which was practically nothing in 1902, - amounted to $320,000 in 1907. Islamism was adopted about 300 years ago - but the old animistic superstitions are still strong. The state is - divided into _mukim_ or parishes, but the _imam_ no longer exercise - temporal authority. There are three schools at Kota Bharu, education - in the interior being in the hands of the imam assisted with - government grants. - - No historical records of Kelantan exist, and the state was not noticed - by the European merchants of the 16th and 17th centuries. Consequently - little is known of its early history beyond what is to be gathered - from brief references in the Malay annals and the old chronicles of - Siam. The sites of ancient towns and the remains of former gold - diggings are visible here and there, but all knowledge of the men who - made these marks has been lost. The present ruling family dates from - about 1790. Siam was frequently called upon to maintain internal peace - and in 1892 a royal prince was sent to reside in Kelantan as - commissioner. Complications brought about by the incapacity of the - ruler led to the making of the agreement of 1902 above mentioned, to - the fixing of a regular tribute in money to Siam, and ultimately to - the merging of the state from chaotic lawlessness into the path of - reform. On the 15th of July 1909 the state came under British - suzerainty and the commissioner of Siam was replaced by a British - adviser, from which date the liability to payment of tribute ceased, - though in all other respects the administrative arrangements of Siam - remained unaltered. - -TRENGGANU.--This state on the east coast, bounded N. and N.E. by the -China Sea, S. by Pahang and W. by Pahang and Kelantan, lies between -parallels 4 deg. 4' and 4 deg. 46' N. and 102 deg. 30' and 103 deg. 26' -E. The greatest length from north to south is 120 m., and the greatest -breadth from east to west 50 m. It has a coast-line of 130 m. and an -estimated area of about 5000 sq. m. There are several islands off the -coast, some of which are inhabited. The surface is generally -mountainous. - - Principal rivers are the Besut, Stiu, Trengganu, Dungun and Kmamun, - none of which is navigable for any distance. The climate is mild and - fairly healthy. The population numbers about 180,000, almost all - Malays, and mostly clusters round the mouths and lower reaches of the - rivers. The capital, which is situated at the mouth of the Trengganu - River, contains, with its suburbs, not less than 30,000 people. - Difficulty of access by river and by land render the interior - districts almost uninhabitable. Communication is maintained by boat - along the coast. There are no roads and no postal or telegraphic - communications. - - The majority of the people are sailors and fishermen. Rice is grown, - but not in sufficient quantities to supply local needs. Much pepper - and gambier were at one time grown and exported, but about the year - 1903 agriculture began to fall off owing to prevailing insecurity of - life and property. Not much livestock is raised, the few head of - cattle exported from Besut being mostly stolen from across the - neighbouring Kelantan border. A successful tin mine under European - control exists in the Kmamun district, but as everything possible was - done in the past to discourage all foreign enterprise, the probable - mineral wealth of the country is still practically untouched. - Silk-weaving, carried on entirely by the women, is a considerable - industry. The silk is imported raw and is re-exported in the form of - Malay clothing (_sarongs_) of patterns and quality which are widely - celebrated. The manufacture of native weapons and of brassware was at - one time brisk but is declining. The trade of Trengganu is not - increasing. It is valued roughly at about one and a half million - dollars a year, is chiefly with Singapore, and is to a great extent - carried in Trengganu-built ships, which latter also do some carrying - trade for other states on the east coast. - - The Trengganu sultanate is one of the most ancient in the peninsula - and ranks with that of Riau. The state was feudatory to Malacca in the - 13th century and during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries its - possession was frequently disputed between Malacca and Siam. The - present sultan is the descendant of an ancient family, the members of - which have quarrelled and fought with each other for the succession - from time immemorial. The last serious disturbance was in 1837 when - the grandfather of the present sultan stole the throne from his - nephew. Until the acquisition of the state by Great Britain a - triennial tribute of gold flowers was paid to Siam, and this with - occasional letters of instructions and advice, constituted almost the - only tangible evidence of Siamese suzerainty. Of government there was - practically none. The sultan, having alienated most of his powers and - prerogatives to his relatives, passed his life in religious seclusion - and was ruler in no more than name. The revenues were devoured by the - relatives, a small part of those accruing from the capital sufficing - for the sultan's needs. There were no written laws, no courts and no - police. All manner of crime was rampant, the peasantry was mercilessly - downtrodden, but the land was full of holy men and the cries of the - miserable were drowned in the noise of ostentatious prayer. In fine, - Trengganu presented in the beginning of the year 1909 the type of - untrammelled Malay rule which had fortunately disappeared from every - other state in the peninsula. In July of that year, however, the first - British adviser or agent arrived in the state, which was shortly - afterwards visited by the governor of the Straits Settlements, who - discussed with the sultan the changed conditions consequent upon the - Anglo-Siamese treaty and laid the foundations of future reform. - -KEDAH.--This state, on the west coast of the peninsula, lies between -parallels 5 deg. 20' and 6 deg. 42' N., and is bounded, N. by Palit and -Songkla, E. by Songkla and Raman, S. by Province Wellesley and Perak, -and W. by the sea. The coast-line is 65 m. long, the greatest distance -from north to south is 115 m. and the greatest breadth 46 m. Off the -coast lies a group of islands, the largest of which is Langkawi, well -peopled and forming a district of the state. - - The total area of Kedah is about 4000 sq. m. The land is low-lying and - swampy near the coast except towards the south where the height known - as Kedah Hill rises from the shore opposite Penang, flat and fertile - farther inland, and mountainous towards the eastern border. The rivers - are small, the Sungei Kedah, navigable for a few miles for vessels of - 50 tons, and the S. Muda, which forms the boundary with Province - Wellesley, being the only streams worthy of notice. The plains are - formed of marine deposit, and in the mountains limestone and granite - preponderate. The population is estimated at 220,000, of whom about - 100,000 are Malays, 50,000 Siamese and Samsams and 70,000 Chinese and - Madrassis (Klings). There are three towns of importance. Alor Star, - the capital, on the Kedah river, 10 miles from the sea, in a flat, - unhealthy, but fertile locality, is a well laid out town with good - streets, many handsome public and private buildings, and good - wharfage for small vessels. The population is about 20,000, of whom - more than half are Chinese and the remainder government servants and - retainers of the local aristocracy. Kuala Muda (pop. 10,000) and Kulim - (pop. 8000) situated in the south, are unimposing collections of small - birch houses and thatched bamboo huts; the latter is the centre of the - Kedah tin mining industry. The bulk of the population is scattered - over the plains in small villages. A good road runs north from Alor - Star to the border of the state, a distance of 40 miles, and other - roads are being constructed. The state has 185 miles of telegraph line - and 75 miles of telephone line. Mails are closed daily at Alor Star - for Penang and there is a good internal postal service. The chief - industry is rice cultivation. Coco-nut, betel-nut and fruit - plantations are many, and the cultivation of rubber has recently been - taken up with prospects of success. The estimated area under - cultivation is about 300,000 acres. There are rice-mills at Alor Star - and at Kuala Muda. The principal exports are rice, cattle and tin. The - chief imports are cotton goods, provisions, hardware and raw silk. - Accurate trade statistics are not available. The ruler holds the rank - of sultan and is assisted in the government by a council and by the - British adviser who since the state passed from Siamese to British - protection in 1909, has replaced the officer formerly appointed by - Siam. The sultan comes of a family long recognized by Siam as having - hereditary right to the rulership. The penal and civil laws are - administered in accordance with the precepts of Islamism, the official - religion of the state. Though much has been done to improve the - courts, justice is not easily obtainable. A land registration system - is in force but is in a state of confusion, though a land law passed - in 1905 gives security of tenure over lands newly acquired. The mining - laws are similar to those of Siam. In 1905 the Siamese government - advanced two and a half million dollars to Kedah, to pay the debts of - the state, which sum was refunded by the British Government on - assuming the position of protector. The annual revenue is $1,000,000 - and the expenditure about the same. Chief heads of revenue are opium - and land tax. Many revenue monopolies, created in the past, have not - yet expired; but for this the revenue would be greater than it is. - There is no army. In 1906 the police service was reorganized under - British officers, resulting in great improvement to this department. - The state is divided into a number of administrative districts under - Malay officials. Each district comprises several _mukim_ or parishes, - the _imam_ of which exercise both spiritual and temporal control. - There are schools in the chief towns, but education has not yet been - seriously undertaken. - - Kedah was founded by colonists from India in A.D. 1200, about which - time the Siamese had subdued Nakhon Sri Tammarat and claimed the whole - Malay Peninsula. When the rise of Malacca shook Siamese authority in - the peninsula, Kedah oscillated between them, and on the conquest of - Malacca by the Portuguese, fell to Siam, though the capital was raided - and burnt by the Europeans. The ruler and his people were converted to - Islam in the 15th century. In 1768, the Siamese kingdom being - disorganized, the sultan of Kedah entered into direct political - relations with the Hon. East India Company, leasing the island of - Penang to the latter. Further treaties followed in 1791 and 1802, but - in 1821 Siam reasserted her control, expelling the rebellious sultan - after a sanguinary war. The sultan made several fruitless efforts to - recover the state, and at length made full submission, when he was - reinstated. In 1868 an agreement between Great Britain and Siam was - substituted for the treaties of the East India Company with the - sultan. The present sultan succeeded in 1881, and for 14 years - governed well, but in 1895 he began to contract debts and to leave the - government to his minions. The result was chaos, and in 1905 the - Siamese government had to intervene to avert a condition of - bankruptcy, adjusting the finances and reorganizing the general - administration to such effect that when, four years later, the state - became a British dependency, a government was found established on a - sound basis and requiring nothing but the presence of a firm and - experienced officer as adviser to maintain its efficiency and assist - its further advance. - -PERLIS (_Palit_).--This small state, consisting of the left bank -drainage area of the Perlis River, lies between Setul and Kedah, which -bound it on the N. and W. and on the E. respectively. It touches the sea -only round the mouth of the river. - - The population is about 10,000, Malays and Chinese. The chief town, - Perlis, is situated about 12 m. up the river. A good deal of tin is - worked, and rice and pepper are grown and exported. In the early part - of the 19th century Perlis was a district of Kedah, but during a - period of disturbance in the latter state it established itself as a - separate chiefdom. In 1897 Siam restored the nominal authority of - Kedah, but the measure was not productive of good. In 1905 the Siamese - government advanced a loan of $200,000 to Perlis, and appointed an - English adviser to assist in the general administration. This money - was refunded to Siam and the adviser relieved by a British officer - when the state became British in July 1909. The condition of the state - has improved, but the revenue, $80,000, is not sufficient for the - immediate needs of government. - - Authorities.--Norman, _The Far East_ (London, 1895); H. Clifford, in - the _Geographical Journal_ (London, 1896); Carter, _The Kingdom of - Siam_ (London, 1904); Graham, _Reports on Kelantan_ (Bangkok, - 1905-1909); Skeat and Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ - (London, 1906); Hart, _Reports on Kedah_ (Calcutta, 1907-1909); - Graham, _Kelantan, a Handbook_ (Glasgow, 1907). (W. A. G.) - - - - -MALAY STATES (SIAMESE). The authority of Siam, which at one time covered -the whole of the Malay peninsula, now extends southward to an irregular -line drawn across the Peninsula at about 6 deg. 30' N. Between that line -and the Isthmus of Kra, usually accepted as the northernmost point of -the Malay Peninsula, there lie some 20,000 sq. m. of territory inhabited -by a mixed population of Siamese and Malays with here and there a few -remnants of the aboriginal inhabitants clinging to the wilder districts, -and with a few Chinese settlers engaged in commerce. Formerly this tract -was divided into a number of states, each of which was ruled by a chief -(Siamese, _Chao Muang_; Malay, _raja_), who held his title from the king -of Siam, but, subject to a few restrictions, conducted the affairs of -his state in accordance with his own desires; the office of chief, -moreover, was hereditary, subject always to the approval of the -suzerain. The states formed two groups: a northern, including Langsuan, -Chaya, Nakhon Sri Tammarat, Songkla, Renawng, Takoapa, Pang Nga, Tongka -and Trang, in which the Siamese element predominated and of which the -chiefs were usually Siamese or Chinese; and a southern, including -Palean, Satun (Setul), Patani, Raman, Jering, Sai (Teloban), Re Nge -(Legeh), Yala (Jalor) and Nong Chik, in which the population was -principally Malay and the ruler also Malay. Four other states of the -southern group, Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis, of which the -population is entirely Malay, passed from Siamese to British protection -in 1909. - -With the gradual consolidation of the Siamese kingdom all the states of -the northern group have been incorporated as ordinary provinces of Siam -(q.v.), the hereditary _Chao Muang_ having died or been pensioned and -replaced by officials of the Siamese Civil Service, while the states -themselves now constitute provinces of the administrative divisions of -Chumpon, Nakhon Sri Tammarat and Puket. The states of the southern -group, however, retain their hereditary rulers, each of whom presides -over a council and governs with the aid of a Siamese assistant -commissioner and with a staff of Siamese district officials, subject to -the general control of high commissioners under whom the states are -grouped. This southern group, with a total area of about 7000 sq. m. and -a population of 375,000, constitutes the Siamese Malay States. A British -consul with headquarters at Puket, and a vice-consul who resides at -Songkla, watch over the interests of British subjects in the states of -the west and east sides of the peninsula respectively. Other foreign -powers are unrepresented. - - _Palean._--This small state on the west coast, bounded N. by the - province of Trang, E. by the Songkla division, S. by the state of - Setul, and W. by the sea, is about 900 sq. m. in area, and has a - population of about 20,000. It is attached for administrative purposes - to the province of Trang, and its people are chiefly engaged in the - cultivation of pepper, of which about 150 tons are annually exported. - A few tin mines are also worked. - - _Satun_ (_Setul_).--This small state, bounded N. by Palean, E. by - Songkla, S. by Perlis, and W. by the sea, contains about 1000 sq. m. - area with a population of about 25,000, Malays, Siamese and a few - Chinese. The principal production is pepper, which is exported in - junks and in the small Penang steamers which ply on the west coast of - the peninsula. In 1897 Setul was placed under the control of Kedah, - then a Siamese dependency, but the arrangement was not a success, and - in 1907 the Siamese government was forced, owing to prevailing - corruption and misrule, to restrict the powers of the chief and, - cancelling the authority of Kedah, to place him to some extent under - the orders of the high commissioner of Songkla. By the terms of the - Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909 about half of the state of Perlis was - added to Satun, an arrangement by which the importance of the latter - was considerably increased. - - _Patani._--The seven Malay states of Nawng Chik, Patani, Jering, Yala - (Jalor), Sai (Teloban), Raman and Ra-nge (Legeh) were constituted from - the old state of Patani at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1906 - they were reunited to form the Patani administrative division of Siam, - but each state retains its Malay ruler, who governs jointly with a - Siamese officer under the direction of the Siamese high commissioner, - and many of the ancient privileges and customs of Malay government are - preserved. The group of States is situated between 5 deg. 34' and 6 - deg. 52' N. and 100 deg. 54' and 101 deg. 58' E. It is bounded N. by - the China Sea, E. by the China Sea and Kelantan, S. by Perak, and W. - by Kedah. The total area is about 5000 sq. m. The country is - mountainous except close to the coast. The principal rivers are the - Patani and the Teloban, long, winding and shallow, and navigable for - small boats only. The population is about 335,000, of whom the great - majority are Malays. Each state has its capital, but Patani (the - headquarters of the high commissioner) is the only town of importance. - Communications are poor and are chiefly by river, but roads are under - construction. Patani and Sai are in telegraphic communication with - Bangkok and Singapore, and regular weekly mails are despatched to - those places. The area under cultivation is small except round about - Patani and in Nawng Chik, where much rice is grown. Tin mining is a - growing industry; many Chinese own mines and several European - syndicates are at work in Raman, Ra-nge and Patani, prospecting for, - or mining, this metal. Fishing and salt-evaporation occupy a large - proportion of the population. The annual export of tin is about 400 - tons, and dried fish, salt, cattle and elephants are other exports. - Steamers up to 300 tons maintain frequent communication with Bangkok - and Singapore, and the Patani roads afford good anchorage at all - seasons. - - Mahommedan law is followed in the settlement of inherited property - disputes and of matrimonial affairs; otherwise the laws of Siam - obtain. Efficient law courts have been established in each state, and - there is a serviceable force of gendarmerie recruited from amongst - Malays and Siamese alike. The revenue amounts to about 600,000 ticals, - or L45,000 a year, one-third being payable to the rulers as private - income for themselves and their relatives, one-third expended on the - administration, and one-third reserved for special purposes, but it is - usually found necessary to devote the last-mentioned third to the - expenses of administration. Patani has been subject to Siam from the - remotest times. It is said that the old state adopted Islamism in the - 16th century, the chief, a relative of the kings of Siam, embracing - that religion and at the same time revolting to Malacca. It has - several times been necessary to send punitive expeditions to recall - the state to its allegiance. The present rulers are mostly descended - from the ruling families of the neighbouring state of Kelantan, but - the chief of Patani itself is a member of the family which ruled there - in the days of its greatness. Throughout the 17th century Patani was - resorted to by Portuguese, Dutch and English merchants, who had - factories ashore and used the place as an emporium for trade with - Siam. In 1621 an engagement took place in the Patani roads between - three Dutch and two British ships, the latter being taken after the - president of the British merchants, John Jourdain, had been killed. In - 1899 the border between the state of Perak and Raman was fixed by an - agreement between England and Siam, a dispute of old standing being - thereby settled, but the question was reopened in the negotiations - which preceded the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909, when a new border - line was fixed between British and Siamese possessions in the - Peninsula. (W. A. G.) - - - - -MALCHIN, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, -on the river Peene, between lakes Malchin and Kummerow, 28 m. by rail -N.W. of Neu-Brandenburg. Pop. (1900), 7449. It is, alternately with -Sternberg, the place of assembly of the Diet of Mecklenburg. Here are -the chateaux of Remplin, Basedow and Schlitz; a church dating from the -14th century, and a fine town-hall. The well-wooded and undulating -country, environing the shores of Lake Malchin, is known as the -"Mecklenburg Switzerland," and is increasing in favour as a summer -resort. A canal unites Lake Kummerow with the Peene. The industries of -the town include the manufacture of sugar and bricks, and brewing and -malting. Malchin became a town in 1236. - - - - -MALCOLM, the name of four kings of the Scots, two of whom, MALCOLM I., -king from 943 to 954, and MALCOLM II., king from 1005 to 1034, are -shadowy and unimportant personages. - -MALCOLM III. (d. 1093), called Canmore or the "large-headed," was a son -of King Duncan I., and became king after the defeat of the usurper -Macbeth in July 1054, being crowned at Scone in April 1057. Having -married as his second wife, (St) Margaret (q.v.), a sister of Edgar -Aetheling, who was a fugitive at his court, he invaded England in 1070 to -support the claim of Edgar to the English throne, returning to Scotland -with many captives after harrying Northumbria. William the Conqueror -answered this attack by marching into Scotland in 1072, whereupon -Malcolm made peace with the English king at Abernethy and "was his man." -However, in spite of this promise he ravaged the north of England again -and again, until in 1091 William Rufus invaded Scotland and received his -submission. Then in 1092 a fresh dispute arose between the two kings, -and William summoned Malcolm to his court at Gloucester. The Scot -obeyed, and calling at Durham on his southward journey was present at -the foundation of Durham Cathedral. When he reached Gloucester Rufus -refused to receive him unless he did homage for his kingdom; he declined -and returned home in high dudgeon. Almost at once he invaded -Northumbria, and was killed at a place afterwards called Malcolm's -Cross, near Alnwick, on the 13th of November 1093. Four of Malcolm's -sons, Duncan II., Edgar, Alexander I., and David I., became kings of -Scotland; and one of his daughters, Matilda, became the wife of Henry I. -of England, a marriage which united the Saxon and the Norman royal -houses. - -MALCOLM IV. (c. 1141-1165) was the eldest son of Henry, earl of -Huntingdon (d. 1152), son of King David I., and succeeded his -grandfather David as king of Scotland in 1153. He is called the -"Maiden," and died unmarried on the 9th of December 1165. - - See E. A. Freeman, _The Norman Conquest_, vols. iv. and v. - (1867-1879), and _The Reign of William Rufus_ (1882); W. F. Skene, - _Celtic Scotland_ (1876-1880); E. W. Robertson, _Scotland under her - Early Kings_ (1862); and A. Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. i. - (1900). - - - - -MALCOLM, SIR JOHN (1769-1833), Anglo-Indian soldier, diplomatist, -administrator and author, was born at Burnfoot on the Esk, near -Langholm, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, on the 2nd of May 1769. His father -was a humble farmer, but three of his sons attained the honour of -knighthood. At the age of twelve he received a cadetship in the Indian -army, and in April 1783 he landed at Madras, shortly afterwards joining -his regiment at Vellore. In 1792, having for some time devoted himself -to the study of Persian, he was appointed to the staff of Lord -Cornwallis as Persian interpreter, but two years afterwards was -compelled by ill health to leave for England. On his return to India in -1796 he became military secretary to Sir Alured Clarke, -commander-in-chief at Madras, and afterwards to his successor General -Harris; and in 1798 he was appointed by Lord Wellesley assistant to the -resident at Hyderabad. In the last-mentioned capacity he highly -distinguished himself by the manner in which he gave effect to the -difficult measure of disbanding the French corps in the pay of the -nizam. In 1799, under the walls of Seringapatam, began his intimacy with -Colonel Arthur Wellesley, which in a short time ripened into a lifelong -friendship. In the course of the same year he acted as first secretary -to the commission appointed to settle the Mysore government, and before -its close he was appointed by Lord Wellesley to proceed as envoy to the -court of Persia for the purpose of counteracting the policy of the -French by inducing that country to form a British alliance. Arriving at -Teheran in December 1800, he was successful in negotiating favourable -treaties, both political and commercial, and returned to Bombay by way -of Bagdad in May 1801. He now for some time held the interim post of -private secretary to Lord Wellesley, and in 1803 was appointed to the -Mysore residency. At the close of the Mahratta War, in 1804, and again -in 1805, he negotiated important treaties with Sindhia and Holkar, and -in 1806, besides seeing the arrangements arising out of these alliances -carried out, he directed the difficult work of reducing the immense body -of irregular native troops. In 1808 he was again sent on a mission to -Persia, but circumstances prevented him from getting beyond Bushire; on -his reappointment in 1810, he was successful indeed in procuring a -favourable reception at court, but otherwise his embassy, if the -information which he afterwards incorporated in his works on Persia be -left out of account, was (through no fault of his) without any -substantial result. He sailed for England in 1811, and shortly after his -arrival in the following year was knighted. His intervals of leisure he -devoted to literary work, and especially to the composition of a -_History of Persia_, which was published in two quarto volumes in 1815. -On his return to India in 1817 he was appointed by Lord Moira his -political agent in the Deccan, with eligibility for military command; as -brigadier-general under Sir T. Hislop he took a distinguished part in -the victory of Mehidpur (December 21, 1817), as also in the subsequent -work of following up the fugitives, determining the conditions of peace -and settling the country. In 1821 he returned once more to England, -where he remained until 1827, when he was appointed governor of Bombay. -His influence in this office was directed to the promotion of various -economical reforms and useful administrative measures. Leaving India for -the last time in 1830, he shortly after his arrival in England entered -parliament as member for Launceston, and was an active opponent of the -Reform Bill. He died of paralysis on the 30th of May 1833. - - Besides the work mentioned above, Sir John Malcolm published _Sketch - of the Political History of India since ... 1784_ (in 1811 and 1826); - _Sketch of the Sikhs_ (1812); _Observations on the Disturbances in the - Madras Army in 1809_ (1812); _Persia, a Poem_, anonymous (1814); _A - Memoir of Central India_ (2 vols., 1823); and _Sketches of Persia_, - anonymous (1827). A posthumous work, _Life of Robert, Lord Clive_, - appeared in 1836. See _Life and Correspondence of Sir John Malcolm_, - by J. W. Kaye (2 vols., 1856). - - - - -MALDA, a district of British India, in the Rajshahi division of Eastern -Bengal and Assam. Area, 1899 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 884,030, showing an -increase of 8.5 in the decade. The administrative headquarters are at -English Bazar (pop. 13,667) near the town of Old Malda. The district is -divided into two almost equal parts by the Mahananda river, flowing from -north to south. The western tract between the Mahananda and the main -stream of the Ganges is an alluvial plain of sandy soil and great -fertility. The eastern half is an elevated region broken by the deep -valleys of the Tangan and Purnabhaba rivers and their small tributary -streams. The soil here is a hard red clay; and the whole is overgrown -with thorny tree jungle known as the _katal_. Agricultural prosperity -centres on the Mahananda, where mango orchards and high raised plots of -mulberry land extend continuously along both banks of the river. The -Ganges nowhere intersects the district, but skirts it from its -north-western corner to the extreme south. The Mahananda flows in a deep -well-defined channel through the centre, and joins the Ganges at the -southern corner. Its tributaries are the Kalindri on the right, and the -Tangan and Purnabhaba on the left bank. The two principal industries are -the production of indigo and silk. The first has declined, and so has -the second as far as concerns the weaving of piece goods, but the -rearing of silkworms and the export of raw silk and silk thread are -carried on upon a large scale. No railway touches the district, but the -communications by water are good. - - Malda supplied two great capitals to the early Mahommedan kings of - Bengal; and the sites of Gaur and Pandua exhibit the most interesting - remains to be found in the lower valley of the Ganges. (See GAUR.) The - connexion of the East India Company with Malda dates from a very early - period. As far back as 1676 there was a factory there. In 1770 English - Bazar was fixed upon for a commercial residency, the buildings of - which at the present day form both the public offices and private - residence of the collector. - - - - -MALDEN, a city, including several villages, of Middlesex county, -Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Malden river, about 5 m. N. of Boston. -Pop. (1890), 23,031, (1900), 33,664, of whom 9513 were foreign-born, -3673 being English Canadians, 870 English, and 617 Swedes; (1910 census) -44,404. Malden had in 1906 a land area of 4.78 sq. m. It is served by -the Boston & Maine railroad, and by inter-urban electric railways. -Although it is largely a residential suburb of Boston--its post office -is a Boston sub-station--it has important manufacturing industries. The -most valuable manufactured product is rubber boots and shoes. The -capital invested in manufacturing in 1905 was $5,553,432; and the value -of the factory product, $11,235,635, was 70.2% greater than the value of -the factory product in 1900. Among Malden's institutions are the public -library (endowed by Elisha S. Converse), the Malden hospital, the Malden -day nursery, a Young Men's Christian Association, and a home for the -aged. A fine system of parks is maintained; the best known is possibly -Pine Banks. To the north and west is the Middlesex Fells, a state -reservation; about 60 acres of this and about 20 acres of the Middlesex -Fells Parkway lie within Malden. Malden, when first settled about 1640, -was part of Charlestown, and was known for some years as Mystic Side. It -was incorporated as a town under the name of "Mauldon" in 1640, and was -chartered as a city in 1881. The north part of Malden was set off in -1850 to form Melrose, and the south part in 1870 to form the town of -Everett. Malden was the birthplace of Adoniram Judson, the "apostle to -Burma." Michael Wigglesworth was pastor here from 1656 until 1705. - - See D. P. Corey, _History of Malden_ (Malden, 1899); and _Malden, Past - and Present_ (Malden, 1899). - - - - -MALDIVE ISLANDS, an archipelago of coral islets in the Indian Ocean, -forming a chain between 7 deg. 6' N. and 0 deg. 42' S. It consists of -seventeen atolls with an immense number of islands, of which some three -hundred are inhabited. In the extreme south are the isolated atolls of -Addu and Fua-Mulaku, separated from Suvadiva by the Equatorial Channel, -which is itself separated from the main chain of atolls by -One-and-a-half-degree Channel.[1] Following the chain northward from -this channel, we have Haddumati and Kolumadulu, after which the chain -becomes double: to the east the chief atolls are Mulaku, Felidu, South -Male, North Male, Kardiva (where the channel of the same name, 35 m. -broad, partly breaks the chain), and Fadiffolu. To the west are South -Nilandu, North Nilandu, Ari, South Mahlos, North Mahlos and -Miladumadulu. To the north again are Tiladumati and Ihavandifulu. -Finally, to the north of Eight-degree Channel is Minikoi, 71 m. from the -nearest point of the Maldives, and 110 m. from that of the Laccadives to -the north. The main part of the archipelago, north of -One-and-a-half-degree Channel, consists of a series of banks either -surrounded or studded all over with reefs (see J. S. Gardiner, -"Formation of the Maldives," in _Geographical Journ._ xix. 277 seq.). Mr -Gardiner regarded these banks as plateaus rising to different elevations -beneath the surface of the sea from a main plateau rising steeply from -the great depths of the Indian Ocean. - -After the Portuguese, from about 1518 onwards, had attempted many times -to establish themselves on the islands by force, and after the -Maldivians had endured frequent raids by the Mopla pirates of the -Malabar coast, they began to send tokens of homage and claims of -protection (the first recorded being in 1645) to the rulers of Ceylon, -and their association with this island has continued practically ever -since. The hereditary sultan of the archipelago is tributary to the -British government of Ceylon. The population of the Maldives is -estimated at 30,000. All are Mahommedans. By Messrs. Gardiner and Cooper -they are classed in four ethnological divisions. (1) Those of the atolls -north of the Kardiva Channel. Here the reefs are generally less perfect -than elsewhere, seldom forming complete central lagoons, and as they -were formerly exposed to the constant attacks of the Mopla pirates from -India, the people are hardier and more vigorous than their less warlike -southern neighbours. They annually visited the coasts of India or -Ceylon, and often married Indian wives, thus acquiring distinct racial -characters of an approximately Dravidian type. (2) Those of the central -division, comprising the atolls between North Male and Haddumati, who -are under the direct rule of the sultan, and have been more exposed to -Arab influences. They formerly traded with Arabia and Malaysia, and many -Arabs settled amongst them, so that they betray a strong strain of -Semitic blood in their features. (3 and 4) The natives of Suvadiva, -Addu, Mulaku and the other southern clusters, who have had little -communication with the Central Male people, and probably preserve more -of the primitive type, approximating in appearance to the Sinhalese -villagers of Ceylon. They are an intelligent and industrious people, -growing their own crops, manufacturing their own cloth and mats, and -building their own boats, while many read Arabic more or less fluently, -although still believers in magic and witchcraft. The language is a -dialect of Sinhalese, but indicating a separation of ancient date and -more or less mahommedanized. - -The sultan's residence and the capital of the archipelago is the island -of Male. From the earliest notices the production of coir, the -collection of cowries, and the weaving of excellent textures on these -islands have been noted. The chief exports of the islands besides coir -and cowries (a decreasing trade) are coco-nuts, copra, tortoise-shell -and dried bonito-fish. - -Minikoi atoll, with the numerous wrecks on its reefs, its lighthouse, -and its position on the track of all eastward-bound vessels, is a -familiar sight to seafarers in these waters. The atoll, which is -pear-shaped and disposed in the direction from S.W. to N.E. is 5 m. -long, with an extreme breadth of nearly 3 m., with a large but shallow -lagoon approached from the north by a passage two fathoms deep. The -atoll is growing outwards on every side, and at one place rises 19 ft. -above sea-level. The population, which numbers about 3000, is sharply -divided into five castes, of which the three highest are pure -Maldivians, the lower two the same as in the Laccadives. All are centred -in a small village opposite Mou Rambu Point on the west or lagoon side; -but most of the men are generally absent, many being employed with the -Lascar crews on board the large liners plying in the eastern seas. - - In 1899-1900 Messrs. J. Stanley Gardiner and C. Forster Cooper carried - out an expedition to the Maldives and Laccadives, for the important - results of which see _The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and - Laccadive Archipelagoes_, ed. J. S. Gardiner (Cambridge, 1901-1905), - also _Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society_, vol. xi. - pt. 1 (1900), and the _Geographical Journ._, _loc. cit._, &c. A French - adventurer, Francois Pyrard de la Val, was wrecked in the Maldives in - 1602 and detained there five years; he wrote an interesting account of - the archipelago, _Voyage de F. P. de la Val_ (Paris, 1679; previous - editions 1611, &c.). See also A. Agassiz, "An Expedition to the - Maldives" in _Amer. Journ. Science_, vol. xiii. (1902). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] These and other channels in the locality are named from their - position under parallels of latitude. - - - - -MALDON, a market town, municipal borough and port, in the Maldon -parliamentary borough of Essex, England, on an acclivity rising from the -south side of the Blackwater, 43 m. E.N.E. from London by a branch from -Witham of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 5565. There are east -and west railway stations. The church of All Saints, dating from 1056, -but, as it stands, Early English and later, consists of chancel, nave -and aisles, with a triangular Early English tower (a unique form) at the -west end surmounted by a hexagonal spire. The tower of St Mary's Church -shows Norman work with Roman materials. The other public buildings are -the grammar school, founded in 1547; the town-hall, formerly D'Arcy's -tower, built in the reign of Henry VI.; and the public hall. There are -manufactures of crystallized salt, breweries, an oyster fishery and some -shipping. On Osea Island, in the Blackwater estuary, there is a farm -colony for the unemployed. A mile west of Maldon are remains of Beeleigh -Abbey, a Premonstratensian foundation of the 12th century. They consist -of the chapter-house and another chamber, and are of fine Early English -work. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, -3028 acres. - -At Maldon (_Maelduna_, _Melduna_, _Mealdon_ or _Meaudon_) palaeolithic, -neolithic and Roman remains that have been found seem to indicate an -early settlement. It is not, however, an important Roman site. An -earthwork, of which traces exist, may be Saxon or Danish. The -Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates that Edward the Elder established a "burh" -there about 921, and that Ealdorman Brihtnoth was killed there by the -Danes in 991. The position of Maldon may have given it some commercial -importance, but the fortress is the point emphasized by the Chronicle. -Maldon remained a royal town up to the reign of Henry I., and thus is -entered as on _terra regis_ in Domesday. Henry II. granted the burgesses -their first charter, probably in 1155, giving them the land of the -borough and suburb with sac and soc and other judicial rights, also -freedom from county and forest jurisdiction, danegeld, scutage, tallage -and all tolls, by the service of one ship a year for forty days. This -charter was confirmed by Edward I. in 1290, by Edward III. in 1344, and -by Richard II. in 1378. In 1403 the bishop of London granted further -judicial and financial rights, and Henry V. confirmed the charters in -1417, Henry VI. in 1443, and Henry VIII. in 1525. Maldon was -incorporated by Philip and Mary in 1554, and received confirmatory -charters from Elizabeth in 1563 and 1592, from Charles I. in 1631, -Charles II. and James II. In 1768 the incorporation charter was -regranted, with modifications in 1810. - - - - -MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS (1638-1715), French philosopher of the Cartesian -school, the youngest child of Nicolas Malebranche, secretary to Louis -XIII., and Catherine de Lauzon, sister of a viceroy of Canada, was born -at Paris on the 6th of August 1638. Deformed and constitutionally -feeble, he received his elementary education from a tutor, and left home -only when sufficiently advanced to enter upon a course of philosophy at -the College de la Marche, and subsequently to study theology at the -Sorbonne. He had resolved to take holy orders, but his studious -disposition led him to decline a stall in Notre Dame, and in 1660 he -joined the congregation of the Oratory. He was first advised by Pere -Lecointe to devote himself to ecclesiastical history, and laboriously -studied Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, but "the facts -refused to arrange themselves in his mind, and mutually effaced one -another." Richard Simon undertook to teach him Hebrew and Biblical -criticism with no better success. At last in 1664 he chanced to read -Descartes's _Traite de l'homme_ (_de homine_), which moved him so deeply -that (it is said) he was repeatedly compelled by palpitations of the -heart to lay aside his reading. Malebranche was from that hour -consecrated to philosophy, and after ten years' study of the works of -Descartes he produced the famous _De la recherche de la verite_, -followed at intervals by other works, both speculative and -controversial. Like most of the great metaphysicians of the 17th -century, Malebranche interested himself also in questions of mathematics -and natural philosophy, and in 1699 was admitted an honorary member of -the Academy of Sciences. During his later years his society was much -courted, and he received many visits from foreigners of distinction. He -died on the 13th of October 1715; his end was said to have been hastened -by a metaphysical argument into which he had been drawn in the course of -an interview with Bishop Berkeley. For a critical account of -Malebranche's place in the history of philosophy, see CARTESIANISM. - - WORKS.--_De La recherche de la verite_ (1674; 6th ed., 1712; ed. - Bouillier, 1880; Latin trans, by J. Lenfant at Geneva in 1685; English - trans. by R. Sault, 1694; and T. Taylor, 1694, 1712); _Conversations - chretiennes_ (1677, and frequently; Eng. trans., London, 1695); - _Traite de la nature et de la grace_ (1680; Eng. trans., London, - 1695); _Meditations chretiennes et metaphysiques_ (1683); _Traite de - morale_ (1684; separate ed. by H. Joly, 1882; Eng. trans, by Sir J. - Shipton, 1699); several polemical works against Arnauld from 1684 to - 1688; _Entretiens sur la metaphysique et sur la religion_ (1688); - _Traite de l'amour de Dieu_ (1697); _Entretiens d'un philosophe - chretien et d'un philosophe chinois sur l'existence et la nature de - Dieu_ (1708); _Reflexions sur la premotion physique_ (1715). - - A convenient edition of his works in two volumes, with an - introduction, was published by Jules Simon in 1842. A full account by - Mrs Norman Smith of his theory of vision, in which he unquestionably - anticipated and in some respects surpassed the subsequent work of - Berkeley, will be found in the _British Journal of Psychology_ (Jan. - 1905). For recent criticism see H. Joly, in the series _Les Grands - philosophes_ (Paris, 1901); L. Olle-Laprune, _La Philosophie de - Malebranche_ (1870); M. Novaro, _Die Philosophie des Nicolaus - Malebranche_ (1893). - - - - -MALER KOTLA, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks as one -of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence in 1809. -The territory lies south of Ludhiana. Area, 167 sq. m. Pop. (1901), -77,506, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. Estimated gross -revenue, L30,100. The military force numbers 280 men; and there is no -tribute. The town Maler Kotla is 30 m. S. of Ludhiana; pop. (1901), -21,122. The nawab or chief is of Afghan descent; his family originally -came from Kabul, and occupied positions of trust in Sirhind under the -Mogul emperors. They gradually became independent as the Mogul Empire -sank into decay in the course of the 18th century. In General Lake's -campaign against Holkar in 1805 the nawab of Maler Kotla sided with the -British. After the subjugation and flight of Holkar, the English -government succeeded to the power of the Mahrattas in the districts -between the Sutlej and the Jumna; and in 1809 its protection was -formally extended to Maler Kotla, as to the other Cis-Sutlej states, -against the formidable encroachments of Ranjit Singh. In the campaigns -of 1806, 1807 and 1808 Ranjit Singh had made considerable conquests -across the Sutlej; in 1808 he marched on Maler Kotla and demanded a -ransom of L10,000 from the nawab. This led to the interference of the -British, who addressed an ultimatum to Ranjit Singh, declaring the -Cis-Sutlej states to be under British protection. Finally the raja of -Lahore submitted, and the nawab was reinstated in February 1809. Owing -to the mental incapacity of nawab Ibrahim Ali Khan, the state was -administered in recent years for some time by the chief of Loharu; but -his son, Ahmed Ali Khan, was made regent in February 1905. - - See _Maler Kotla State Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1908). - - - - -MALESHERBES, CHRETIEN GUILLAUME DE LAMOIGNON DE (1721-1794), commonly -known as Lamoignon-Malesherbes, French statesman, minister, and -afterwards counsel for the defence of Louis XVI., came of a famous legal -family. He was born at Paris on the 6th of December 1721, and was -educated for the legal profession. The young lawyer soon proved his -intellectual capacity, when he was appointed president of the _cour des -aides_ in the parlement of Paris in 1750 on the promotion of his father, -Guillaume de Lamoignon, to be chancellor. One of the chancellor's duties -was to control the press, and this duty was entrusted to Malesherbes by -his father during his eighteen years of office, and brought him into -connexion with the public far more than his judicial functions. To carry -it out efficiently he kept in communication with the literary leaders of -Paris, and especially with Diderot, and Grimm even goes so far as to say -that "without the assistance of Malesherbes the _Encyclopedie_ would -probably never have been published." In 1771 he was called upon to mix -in politics; the parlements of France had been dissolved, and a new -method of administering justice devised by Maupeou, which was in itself -commendable as tending to the better and quicker administration of -justice, but pernicious as exhibiting a tendency to over-centralization, -and as abolishing the hereditary "nobility of the robe," which, with all -its faults, had from its nature preserved some independence, and been a -check on the royal power. Malesherbes presented a strong remonstrance -against the new system, and was at once banished to his country seat at -St Lucie, to be recalled, however, with the old parlement on the -accession of Louis XVI., and to be made minister of the _maison du roi_ -in 1775. He only held office nine months, during which, however, he -directed his attention to the police of the kingdom, which came under -his department, and did much to check the odious practice of issuing -_lettres de cachet_. The protest of the _cour des aides_ in 1775 is one -of the most important documents of the old regime in France. It gives a -complete survey of the corrupt and inefficient administration, and -presented the king with most outspoken criticism. On retiring from the -ministry with Turgot in 1776, he betook himself entirely to a happy -country and domestic life and travelled through Switzerland, Germany and -Holland. An essay on Protestant marriages (1787) did much to procure for -them the civil recognition in France. He had always been an enthusiastic -botanist; his avenue at St Lucie was world famous; he had written -against Buffon on behalf of the botanists whom Buffon had attacked, and -had been elected a member of the _Academie des sciences_ as far back as -1750. He was now elected a member of the _Academie francaise_, and -everything seemed to promise a quiet and peaceful old age spent in the -bosom of his family and occupied with scientific and literary pursuits, -when the king in his difficulties wished for the support of his name, -and summoned him back to the ministry in 1787. Lamoignon-Malesherbes -held office but a short time, but returned to his country life this time -with a feeling of insecurity and disquiet, and, as the troubles -increased, retired to Switzerland. Nevertheless, in December 1792, in -spite of the fair excuse his old age and long retirement would have -given him, he voluntarily left his asylum and undertook with Tronchet -and Deseze the defence of the king before the Convention, and it was his -painful task to break the news of his condemnation to the king. After -this effort he returned once more to the country, but in December 1793 -he was arrested with his daughter, his son-in-law M. de Rosambo, and his -grandchildren, and on the 23rd of April 1794 he was guillotined, after -having seen all whom he loved in the world executed before his eyes for -their relationship to him. Malesherbes is one of the sweetest -characters of the 18th century; though no man of action, hardly a man of -the world, by his charity and unfeigned goodness he became one of the -most popular men in France, and it was an act of truest self-devotion in -him to sacrifice himself for a king who had done little or nothing for -him. - - There are in print several scientific works of Malesherbes of varying - value, of which the most interesting is his _Observations sur Buffon - et Daubenton_, written when he was very young, and published with a - notice by Abeille in 1798. There exist also his _Memoire pour Louis - XVI._, his _Memoire sur la liberte de la presse_ (published 1809) and - extracts from his remonstrances, published as _Oeuvres choisies de - Malesherbes_ in 1809. For his life should be read the _Notice - historique_ (3rd ed., 1806) of Dubois, the _Eloge historique_ (1805) - of Gaillard, and the interesting _Essai sur la vie, les ecrits et les - opinions de M. de Malesherbes_ (in 2 vols., 1818), of F. A. de Boissy - d'Anglas. There are also many eloges on him in print, of which the - best-known is that of M. Dupin, which was delivered at the Academy in - 1841, and was reviewed with much light on Malesherbes's control of the - press by Sainte-Beuve in the 2nd volume of the _Causeries du lundi_. - The protest of the _cour des aides_ has been published with - translation by G. Robinson in the _Translations and Reprints of the - University of Pennsylvania_ (1900). For his defence of Louis XVI. see - Marquis de Beaucourt, _Captivite et derniers moments de Louis XVI._ (2 - vols., 1892, Soc. d'hist. contemp.), and A. Tuetey, _Repertoire - general des sources manuscrites de l'hist. de Paris pendant la Rev. - fr._, vol. viii. (1908). - - - - -MALET, LUCAS, the pen-name of Mary St Leger Harrison (1852- ), English -novelist. She was the eldest daughter of Charles Kingsley, and was born -at Eversley on the 4th of June 1852. She studied at the Slade school and -at University College, London, and married in 1876 William Harrison, -rector of Clovelly. After her husband's death in 1897 she eventually -settled in London. She had already written several books--_Mrs Lorimer_ -(1882), _Colonel Enderby's Wife_ (1885), _Little Peter_ (1887), _A -Counsel of Perfection_ (1888)--when she published her powerful story, -_The Wages of Sin_ (1891), which attracted great attention. Her _History -of Sir Richard Calmady_ (1901) had an even greater success. Her other -novels include _The Carissima_ (1896), _The Gateless Barrier_ (1900), -_On the Far Horizon_ (1906). - - - - -MALHERBE, FRANCOIS DE (1555-1628), French poet, critic and translator, -was born at Caen in 1555. His family was of some position, though it -seems not to have been able to establish to the satisfaction of heralds -the claims which it made to nobility older than the 16th century. The -poet was the eldest son of another Francois de Malherbe, _conseiller du -roi_ in the magistracy of Caen. He himself was elaborately educated at -Caen, at Paris, at Heidelberg and at Basel. At the age of twenty-one, -preferring arms to the gown, he entered the household of Henri -d'Angouleme, grand prior of France, the natural son of Henry II. He -served this prince as secretary in Provence, and married there in 1581. -It seems that he wrote verses at this period, but, to judge from a -quotation of Tallemant des Reaux, they must have been very bad ones. His -patron died when Malherbe was on a visit in his native province, and for -a time he had no particular employment, though by some servile verses he -obtained a considerable gift of money from Henry III., whom he -afterwards libelled. He lived partly in Provence and partly in Normandy -for many years after this event; but very little is known of his life -during this period. His _Larmes de Saint Pierre_, imitated from Luigi -Tansillo, appeared in 1587. - -It was in the year parting the two centuries (1600) that he presented to -Marie de' Medici an ode of welcome, the first of his remarkable poems. -But four or five years more passed before his fortune, which had -hitherto been indifferent, turned. He was presented by his countryman, -the Cardinal Du Perron, to Henry IV.; and, though that economical prince -did not at first show any great eagerness to entertain the poet, he was -at last summoned to court and endowed after one fashion or another. It -is said that the pension promised him was not paid till the next reign. -His father died in 1606, and he came into his inheritance. From this -time forward he lived at court, corresponding affectionately with his -wife, but seeing her only twice in some twenty years. His old age was -saddened by a great misfortune. His son, Marc Antoine, a young man of -promise, fell in a duel in 1626. His father used his utmost influence -to have the guilty parties (for more than one were concerned, and there -are grounds for thinking that it was not a fair duel) brought to -justice. But he died before the suit was decided (it is said in -consequence of disease caught at the camp of La Rochelle, whither he had -gone to petition the king), in Paris, on the 16th of October, 1628, at -the age of seventy-three. - -The personal character of Malherbe was far from amiable, but he -exercised, or at least indicated the exercise of, a great and enduring -effect upon French literature, though by no means a wholly beneficial -one. The lines of Boileau beginning _Enfin Malherbe vint_ are rendered -only partially applicable by the extraordinary ignorance of older French -poetry which distinguished that peremptory critic. But the good as well -as bad side of Malherbe's theory and practice is excellently described -by his contemporary and superior Regnier, who was animated against him, -not merely by reason of his own devotion to Ronsard but because of -Malherbe's discourtesy towards Regnier's uncle P. Desportes, whom the -Norman poet had at first distinctly copied. These are the lines:-- - - "Cependant leur savoir ne s'etend nullement - Qu'a regratter un mot douteuse au jugement, - Prendre garde qu'un _qui_ ne heurte une diphthongue, - Epier si des vers la rime est breve ou longue, - Ou bien si la voyelle a l'autre s'unissant - Ne rend point a l'oreille un vers trop languissant. - . . . . . . . . - C'est proser de la rime et rimer de la prose." - -This is perfectly true, and from the time of Malherbe dates that great -and deplorable falling off of French poetry in its more poetic -qualities, which was not made good till 1830. Nevertheless the critical -and restraining tendency of Malherbe was not ill in place after the -luxuriant importation and innovation of the _Pleiade_; and if he had -confined himself to preaching greater technical perfection, and -especially greater simplicity and purity in vocabulary and -versification, instead of superciliously striking his pen through the -great works of his predecessors, he would have deserved wholly well. As -it was, his reforms helped to elaborate the kind of verse necessary for -the classical tragedy, and that is the most that can be said for him. -His own poetical work is scanty in amount, and for the most part frigid -and devoid of inspiration. The beautiful _Consolation a Duperier_, in -which occurs the famous line-- - - Et, rose, elle a vecu ce que vivent les roses-- - -the odes to Marie de' Medici and to Louis XIII., and a few other pieces -comprise all that is really worth remembering of him. His prose work is -much more abundant, not less remarkable for care as to style and -expression, and of greater positive value. It consists of some -translations of Livy and Seneca, and of a very large number of -interesting and admirably written letters, many of which are addressed -to Peiresc, the man of science of whom Gassendi has left a delightful -Latin life. It contains also a most curious commentary on Desportes, in -which Malherbe's minute and carping style of verbal criticism is -displayed on the great scale. - - The chief authorities for the biography of Malherbe are the _Vie de - Malherbe_ by his friend and pupil Racan, and the long _Historiette_ - which Tallemant des Reaux has devoted to him. The standard edition is - the admirable one of Ludovic Lalanne (5 vols., Paris, 1862-1869). Of - the poems only, there is an excellent and handsome little issue in the - _Nouvelle collection Jannet_ (Paris, 1874). Of modern works devoted to - him, _La Doctrine de Malherbe_, by G. Brunot (1891), is not only the - most important but a work altogether capital in regard to the study of - French language and literature. Others are A. Gaste, _La Jeunesse de - Malherbe_ (1890); V. Bourrienne, _Points obscurs dans la vie normande - de Malherbe_ (1895); and the duc de Broglie's "Malherbe" in _Les - Grands ecrivains francais_. On his position in French and general - critical history, G. Saintsbury's _History of Criticism_, vol. ii., - may be consulted. (G. Sa.) - - - - -MALIBRAN, MARIE FELICITE (1808-1836), operatic singer, daughter of -Manoel Garcia, was born in Paris on the 24th of March 1808. Her father -was then a member of the company of the Theatre des Italiens, and she -accompanied him to Italy and London. She possessed a soprano voice of -unusual beauty and phenomenal compass, which was carefully cultivated -by her father. She was only seventeen when, in consequence of an -indisposition of Madame Pasta, she was suddenly asked to take her place -in _The Barber of Seville_ at Covent Garden. She was forthwith engaged -for the remaining six weeks of the season, and then followed her father -to New York, where she appeared in _Othello_, _The Barber of Seville_, -_Don Juan_, _Romeo and Juliet_, _Tancred_. Her gifts as an actress were -on a par with her magnificent voice, and her gaiety made her -irresistible in light opera, although her great triumphs were obtained -chiefly in tragic parts. She married a French banker of New York, named -Malibran, who was much older than herself. The marriage was an unhappy -one, and Mme Malibran returned alone to Europe in 1828, when she began -the series of representations at the Theatre des Italiens, which excited -an enthusiasm in Paris only exceeded by the reception she received in -the principal towns of Italy. She was formally divorced from Malibran in -1835, and married the Belgian violinist, Charles de Beriot; but she died -of fever on the 23rd of September 1836. - - See _Memoirs of Mme Malibran by the comtesse de Merlin and other - intimate friends, with a selection from her correspondence_ (2 vols., - 1840); and M. Teneo, _La Malibran, d'apres des documents inedits_, in - _Sammelbande der internationalen Musik-Gesellschaft_ (Leipzig, 1906). - - - - -MALIC ACID (HYDROXYETHYLENE SUCCINIC ACID), C4H6O5, an organic acid -found abundantly in the juices of many plants, particularly in -mountain-ash berries, in unripe apples and in grapes. The acid potassium -salt is also found in the leaves and stalks of rhubarb. Since the acid -contains an asymmetric carbon atom, it can exist in three forms, a -dextro-rotatory, a laevo-rotatory and an inactive form; the acid -obtained in the various synthetical processes is the inactive form. It -may be prepared by heating racemic acid (see TARTARIC ACID) with fuming -hydriodic acid; by heating fumaric acid (q.v.) with water at 150-200 -deg. C.; by the action of nitrous acid on inactive aspartic acid; and by -the action of moist silver oxide on monobromsuccinic acid. It forms -deliquescent crystals, which are readily soluble in alcohol and melt at -100 deg. C. When heated for some time at 130 deg. C. it yields fumaric -acid (q.v.), and on rapid heating at 180 deg. C. gives maleic anhydride -and fumaric acid. It yields coumarins when warmed with sulphuric acid -and phenols (H. v. Pechmann, _Ber._, 1884, 17, 929, 1649 et seq.). -Potassium bichromate oxidizes it to malonic acid; nitric acid oxidizes -it to oxalic acid; and hydriodic acid reduces it to succinic acid. The -inactive variety may be split into the component active forms by means -of its cinchonine salt (G. J. W. Bremer, _Ber._, 1880, 13, 352). - - - - -MALIGNANT (Lat. _malignus_, evil-disposed, from _maligenus_), wicked, of -a malicious or wilfully evil disposition. The word was early applied by -the Protestants to the Romanists, with an allusion to the "congregation -of evil doers" (Vulgate _Ecclesiam malignantium_) of Psalm xxvi. 5. In -English history, during the Great Rebellion, the name was given to the -Royalists by the Parliamentary party. In the Great Remonstrance of 1641 -occur the words "the malignant partie, wherof the Archbishop (Laud) and -the earl of Strafford being heads." The name throughout the period had -special reference to the religious differences between the parties. In -medical science, the term "malignant" is applied to a particularly -virulent or dangerous form which a disease may take, or to a tumour or -growth of rapid growth, extension to the lymphatic glands, and -recurrence after operation. - - - - -MALIK IBN ANAS (c. 718-795), the founder of the Malikite school of canon -law, was born at Medina about A.D. 718: the precise date is not certain. -He studied and passed his life there, and came to be regarded as the -greatest local authority in theology and law. (For his legal system and -its history see MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) His life was one of extreme honour and -dignity, but uneventful, being given to study, lecturing on law and -acting as mufti and judge. Only two episodes stand out in his biography. -When Mahommed ibn 'Abdallah, the 'Alid, rose in A.D. 762 at Medina -against the 'Abbasids, Malik gave a _fatwa_, or legal opinion, that the -oath of allegiance to the 'Abbasids was invalid, as extorted by force. -For this independence he was severely scourged by the 'Abbasid governor, -who, apparently, did not dare to go beyond scourging with a man of his -standing with the people. The second episode gave equal proof of -independence. In 795 Harun al-Rashid made the pilgrimage, came with two -of his sons to Medina, and sat at the feet of Malik as he lectured in -the mosque. The story, legendary or historical, adds that Malik had -refused to go to the caliph, saying that it was for the student to come -to his teacher. Late in life he seems to have turned to asceticism and -contemplation. It is said that he retired from all active, public life -and even neglected plain, public duties, replying to reproaches, "Not -every one can speak in his own excuse" (Ibn Qutaiba, _Ma 'arif_, 250). -He is also entered among the early ascetic Sufis (cf. _Fihrist_, 183). -He died in Medina, A.D. 795. - - For a description of his principal book, the _Muwatta'_, see - Goldziher's _Muhammedanische Studien_, ii. 213 sqq. He wrote also a - Koran commentary, now apparently lost, and a hortatory epistle to - Harun al-Rashid. See further, de Slane's trans. of Ibn Khallikan, ii. - 545 sqq.; von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte_, i. 477 sqq.; Brockelmann, - _Gesch. der arab. Litt._, i. 175 sqq.; Macdonald, _Muslim Theology, - &c._, 99 sqq. and index; _Fihrist_, 198 seq.; Nawawi, 530 sqq. - (D. B. Ma.) - - - - -MALINES (Flemish, _Mechelen_, called in the middle ages by the Latin -name Mechlinia, whence the spelling Mechlin), an ancient and important -city of Belgium, and the seat since 1559 of the only archbishopric in -that country. Pop. (1904), 58,101. The name is supposed to be derived -from _maris linea_, and to indicate that originally the sea came up to -it. It is now situated on the Dyle, and is in the province of Antwerp, -lying about half-way between Antwerp and Brussels. The chief importance -of Malines is derived from the fact that it is in a sense the religious -capital of Belgium--the archbishop being the primate of the Catholic -Church in that country. The archbishop's palace is in a picturesque -situation, and dates from the creation of the dignity. The principal -building in the city is the exceedingly fine cathedral dedicated to St -Rombaut. This cathedral was begun in the 12th and finished early in the -14th century, and although modified in the 15th after a fire, it remains -one of the most remarkable specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe. -The massive tower of over 300 ft., which is described as unfinished -because the original intention was to carry it to 500 ft., is its most -striking external feature. The people of Malines gained in the old -distich--"gaudet Mechlinia stultis"--the reputation of being "fools," -because one of the citizens on seeing the moon through the dormer -windows of St Rombaut called out that the place was on fire, and his -fellow-citizens, following his example, endeavoured to put out the -conflagration until they realized the truth. The cathedral contains a -fine altar-piece by Van Dyck, and the pulpit is in carved oak of the -17th century. Another old palace is that of Margaret of Austria, regent -for Charles V., which has been carefully preserved and is now used as a -court of justice. In the church of Notre Dame (16th century) is Rubens' -masterpiece "the miraculous draught of fishes," and in that of St John -is a fine triptych by the same master. Malines, although no longer -famous for its lace, carries on a large trade in linen, needles, -furniture and oil, while as a junction for the line from Ghent to -Louvain and Liege, as well as for that from Antwerp to Brussels and the -south, its station is one of the busiest in Belgium, and this fact has -contributed to the general prosperity of the city. - -The lordship of Malines was conferred as a separate fief by Pippin the -Short on his kinsman Count Adon in 754. In the 9th century Charles the -Bald bestowed the fief on the bishop of Liege, and after being shared -between Brabant and Flanders it passed into the hands of Philip the -Bold, founder of the house of Burgundy, in 1384. During the religious -troubles of the 16th century Malines suffered greatly, and in 1572 it -was sacked by Alva's troops during three days. In the wars of the 17th -and 18th centuries it was besieged many times and captured by the -French, Dutch and English on several occasions. The French finally -removed the fortifications in 1804, since which year it has been an open -town. - - - - -MALLANWAN, a town in Hardoi district, the United Provinces, India. Pop. -(1901), 11,158. Under native rule the town possessed considerable -political importance, and upon the British annexation of Oudh it was -selected as the headquarters of the district, but was abandoned in -favour of Hardoi after the Mutiny. Saltpetre and brass utensils are -manufactured. - - - - -MALLARME, FRANCOIS RENE AUGUSTE (1755-1835), French Revolutionist, the -son of a lawyer, was born at Nancy on the 25th of February 1755. He was -brought up in his father's profession, and was appointed -_procureur-syndic_ of the district of Pont-a-Mousson. During the -Revolution he was elected by the department of Meurthe deputy to the -Legislative Assembly and the Convention, where he attached himself to -the Mountain and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was elected -president of the Convention on the 30th of May 1793, and by his weakness -during the crisis of the following day contributed much to the success -of the insurrection against the Girondists. He took an active part in -the _levee-en-masse_, and in November 1793 was given the task of -establishing the revolutionary government in the departments of Meuse -and Moselle, where he gained an unenviable notoriety by ordering the -execution of the sentence of death decreed by the revolutionary tribunal -on some young girls at Verdun who had offered flowers to the Prussians -when they entered the town. After the fall of Robespierre he joined the -group of "Thermidorians" and was sent on mission to the south of France, -where he closed the Jacobin club at Toulouse and set free a number of -imprisoned "suspects." On the 1st of June 1795 he was denounced and -arrested, but was soon set at liberty. In 1796 he was appointed by the -Directory commissioner for the organization of the departments of Dyle -and Mont-Tonnerre. Under the empire he was receiver of the _droits -reunis_ at Nancy, and lost his money in 1814 in raising a levy of -volunteers. Appointed sub-prefect of Avesnes during the Hundred Days, he -was imprisoned by the Prussians in revenge for the death of the maidens -of Verdun, and lived in exile during the Restoration. He returned to -France after the revolution of 1830, and died at Richemont -(Seine-Inferieure) on the 25th of July 1835. - - - - -MALLARME, STEPHANE (1842-1898), French poet and theorist, was born at -Paris, on the 18th of March 1842. His life was simple and without event. -His small income as professor of English in a French college was -sufficient for his needs, and, with his wife and daughter, he divided -the year between a fourth-floor flat in Paris and a cottage on the banks -of the Seine. His Tuesday evening receptions, which did so much to form -the thought of the more interesting of the younger French men of -letters, were almost as important a part of his career as the few -carefully elaborated books which he produced at long intervals. -_L'Apres-midi d'un faune_ (1876) and other fragments of his verse and -prose had been known to a few people long before the publication of the -_Poesies completes_ of 1887, in a facsimile of his clear and elegant -handwriting, and of the Pages of 1891 and the _Vers et prose_ of 1893. -His remarkable translation of poems of Poe appeared in 1888, "The Raven" -having been published as early as 1875, with illustrations by Manet. -_Divagations_, his own final edition of his prose, was published in -1897, and a more or less complete edition of the _Poesies_, -posthumously, in 1899. He died at Valvins, Fontainebleau, on the 9th of -September 1898. All his life Mallarme was in search of a new aesthetics, -and his discoveries by the way were often admirable. But he was too -critical ever to create freely, and too limited ever to create -abundantly. His great achievement remains unfinished, and all that he -left towards it is not of equal value. There are a few poems and a few -pieces of imaginative prose which have the haunting quality of Gustave -Moreau's pictures, with the same jewelled magnificence, mysterious and -yet definite. His later work became more and more obscure, as he seemed -to himself to have abolished limit after limit which holds back speech -from the expression of the absolute. Finally, he abandoned punctuation -in verse, and invented a new punctuation, along with a new construction, -for prose. Patience in the study of so difficult an author has its -reward. No one in our time has vindicated with more pride the -self-sufficiency of the artist in his struggle with the material world. -To those who knew him only by his writings his conversation was -startling in its clearness; it was always, like all his work, at the -service of a few dignified and misunderstood ideas. - - See also Paul Verlaine, _Les Poetes maudits_ (1884); J. Lemaitre, _Les - Contemporains_ (5th series, 1891); Albert Moekel, _Stephane Mallarme, - un heros_ (1899); E. W. Gosse, _French Profiles_ (1905) and A. Symons, - _The Symbolist Movement in Literature_ (1900). A complete bibliography - is given in the _Poetes d'aujourd'hui_ (1880-1900, 11th ed., 1905) of - MM. A. van Bever and P. Leautaud. (A. Sy.) - - - - -MALLECO, a province of southern Chile, once a part of the Indian -territory of Araucania (q.v.), lying between the provinces of Bio-Bio on -the N. and E., Cautin on the S. and Arauco on the W. Area, 2973 sq. m. -Pop. (1895), 98,032. It belongs to the rainy, forested region of -southern Chile, and is thinly populated, a considerable part of its -population being Araucanian Indians, who occupy districts in the Andean -foothills. Gold placer mining has attracted some attention, but the -output is small. The principal industries are cattle and wheat raising -and timber-cutting. The capital is Angol (pop., 7056 in 1895; estimated -at 7638 in 1902), a small town in the northern part of the province, on -the Malleco river, and a station on the Traiguen branch of the state -railway. Traiguen (pop., 5732 in 1895; estimated at 7099 in 1902) in the -southern part of the province is the second town in importance, and -Victoria (pop., 6989 in 1895; estimated at 10,002 in 1902), about 20 m. -E. of the last-named town, was for a time the terminal station of the -main line of the railway. - - - - -MALLEMUCK, from the German rendering of the Dutch _Mallemugge_ (which -originally meant small flies or midges that madly whirl round a light), -a name given by the early Dutch Arctic voyagers to the Fulmar (q.v.), of -which the English form is nowadays most commonly applied by our sailors -to the smaller albatrosses, of about the size of a goose, met with in -the Southern Ocean--corrupted into "molly mawk," or "mollymauk." A -number of species have been identified. _Diomedea irrorata_ of West Peru -is sooty-brown with white mottlings and a white head; _D. migripes_ of -the North Pacific is similar in colour but with white only near the eye -and at the base of the tail and bill; _D. immutabilis_ of Japan is -darker but has a white head. _D. melanophrys_ of the southern oceans has -been found in summer both in California, in England, and as far north as -the Faeroes. According to J. Gould the latter is the commonest species -of albatross inhabiting the Southern Ocean, and its gregarious habits -and familiar disposition make it well known to every voyager to or from -Australia, for it is equally common in the Atlantic as well as the -Pacific. The back, wings and tail are of a blackish-grey, but all the -rest of the plumage is white, except a dusky superciliary streak, whence -its name of black-browed albatross, as also its scientific epithet, are -taken. The bill of the adult is of an ochreous-yellow, while that of the -young is dark. This species breeds on the Falkland Islands. _D. bulleri_ -of the New Zealand seas is greyish-brown, with white underparts and rump -and ashy head. _Diomedea_ (or _Thalassogeron_) _culminata_ and -_chlororhyncha_ of the southern seas, _D._ (or _T._) _cauta_ of -Tasmania, _salvini_ of New Zealand and _layardi_ of the Cape resemble -_D. bulleri_, but have a strip of naked skin between the plates of the -maxilla towards its base. H. N. Moseley (_Notes of a Naturalist_, 130) -describes _D. culminata_ as making a cylindrical nest of grass, sedge -and clay, with a shallow basin atop and an overhanging rim--the whole -being about 14 in. in diameter and 10 in height. The bird lays a single -white egg, which is held in a sort of pouch, formed by the skin of the -abdomen, while she is incubating. The feet of _D. bulleri_ are red, of -_D. chlororhyncha_ flesh-coloured, of the others yellow. (A. N.) - - - - -MALLESON, GEORGE BRUCE (1825-1898), Indian officer and author, was born -at Wimbledon, on the 8th of May 1825. Educated at Winchester, he -obtained a cadetship in the Bengal infantry in 1842, and served through -the second Burmese War. His subsequent appointments were in the civil -line, the last being that of guardian to the young maharaja of Mysore. -He retired with the rank of colonel in 1877, having been created C.S.I. -in 1872. He died at Kensington, on the 1st of March 1898. He was a -voluminous writer, his first work to attract attention being the famous -"Red Pamphlet," published at Calcutta in 1857, when the Mutiny was at -its height. He continued, and considerably rewrote the _History of the -Indian Mutiny_ (6 vols., 1878-1880), which was begun but left unfinished -by Sir John Kaye. Among his other books the most valuable are _History -of the French in India_ (2nd ed., 1893) and _The Decisive Battles of -India_ (3rd ed., 1888). - - - - -MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?1705-1765), Scottish poet and dramatist, -the son of a Perthshire farmer, was born in that county, probably in -1705. In 1717 he went to the high school at Edinburgh, and some three -years later to the university, where he made the friendship of James -Thomson, author of _The Seasons_. As early as 1720 he began to publish -short poems in the manner of the period, a number of which appeared -during the next few years in collections such as the _Edinburgh -Miscellany_ and Allan Ramsay's _Tea Table Miscellany_, in which his -ballad "William and Margaret" was published in 1724. For some years from -1723 he was private tutor to the duke of Montrose's sons, with whom he -travelled on the Continent in 1727. His real name was Malloch; but this -he changed to Mallet in 1724. In 1735 he took the M.A. degree at Oxford. -He had already made the friendship of Pope, whose vanity he flattered in -a poem on _Verbal Criticism_, in 1733; and through Pope he became -acquainted with Bolingbroke and other Tory politicians, especially those -attached to the party of the prince of Wales, who in 1742 appointed -Mallet to be his paid secretary. After Pope's death, in 1744, Mallet, at -the instigation of Bolingbroke and forgetful of past favours and -friendship, vilified the poet's memory, thereby incurring the resentment -of Pope's friends. For his services as a party pamphleteer, in which -character he published an attack on Admiral Byng, Mallet received from -Lord Bute a lucrative sinecure in 1760. He died on the 21st of April -1765. Mallet was a small man, in his younger days something of a dandy -and inordinately vain. He was twice married; by his first wife he had a -daughter, Dorothy, who married Pietro Paolo Celesia, a Genoese -gentleman, and was the author of several poems and plays, notably -_Almida_, produced by Garrick at Drury Lane in 1771. - -Mallet's own works included several plays, some of which were produced -by Garrick, who was Mallet's personal friend. _Eurydice_, a tragedy, -with prologue and epilogue by Aaron Hill, was produced at Drury Lane in -1731; _Mustapha_, also a tragedy, had considerable success at the same -theatre in 1739; in 1740, in collaboration with Thomson, he produced the -masque _Alfred_, of which he published a new version in 1751, after -Thomson's death, claiming it to be almost entirely his own work. This -masque is notable as containing the well-known patriotic song, "Rule -Britannia," the authorship of which has been attributed to Mallet, -although he allowed it to appear without protest in his lifetime with -Thomson's name attached. His other writings include _Poems on Several -Occasions_ (1743); _Amyntor and Theodora, or the Hermit_ (1747); another -volume of _Poems_ (1762). - - In 1759 a collected edition of Mallet's _Works_ was published in three - volumes; and in 1857 his _Ballads and Songs_ were edited by F. - Dinsdale with notes, and a biographical memoir of the author. - - - - -MALLET, PAUL HENRI (1730-1807), Swiss writer, was born on the 20th of -August 1730, in Geneva. After having been educated there, he became -tutor in the family of the count of Calenberg in Saxony. In 1752 he was -appointed professor of _belles lettres_ to the academy at Copenhagen. He -was naturally attracted to the study of the ancient literature and -history of his adopted country, and in 1755 he published the first -fruits of his researches, under the title _Introduction a l'histoire du -Danemarck ou l'on traite de la religion, des moeurs, des lois, et des -usages des anciens Danois_. A second part, more particularly relating to -the ancient literature of the country, _Monuments de la mythologie et de -la poesie des Celtes, et particulierement des anciens Scandinaves_, was -issued in 1756, and was also translated into Danish. A translation into -English, with notes and preface, by Bishop Percy, was issued in 1770 -under the title of _Northern Antiquities_ (republished with additions in -1847). The book had a wide circulation, and attracted much attention on -account of its being the first (though a very defective) translation -into French of the _Edda_. The king of Denmark showed his appreciation -by choosing Mallet to be preceptor of the crown prince. In 1760 he -returned to Geneva, and became professor of history in his native city. -While there he was requested by the czarina to undertake the education -of the heir-apparent of Russia (afterwards the czar Paul I.), but -declined the honour. An invitation more congenial to his tastes led to -his accompanying Lord Mountstuart in his travels through Italy and -thence to England, where he was presented at court and commissioned to -write the history of the house of Brunswick. He had previously received -a similar commission from the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel for the -preparation of a history of the house of Hesse, and both works were -completed in 1785. The quietude of a literary life was rudely broken by -the shock of the Revolution, to which he was openly hostile. His -leanings to the unpopular side were so obnoxious to his fellow-citizens -that he was obliged to quit his native country in 1792, and remained in -exile till 1801. He died at Geneva, on the 8th of February 1807. - - A memoir of his life and writings, by Sismondi, was published at - Geneva in 1807. Besides the _Introduction to the History of Denmark_, - his principal works are: _Histoire du Danemarck_ (3 vols., Copenhagen, - 1758-1777); _Histoire de la maison de Hesse_ (4 vols., 1767-1785); - _Histoire de la maison de Brunswick_ (4 vols., 1767-1785); _Histoire - de la maison et des etats du Mecklenbourg_ (1796); _Histoire des - Suisses ou Helvetiens_ (4 vols., Geneva, 1803) (mainly an abridgment - of J. von Muller's great history); _Histoire de la ligue hanseatique_ - (1805). - - - - -MALLET, ROBERT (1810-1881), Irish engineer, physicist and geologist, was -born in Dublin, on the 3rd of June 1810. He was educated at Trinity -College in that city, and graduated B.A. in 1830. Trained as an -engineer, he was elected M.Inst.C.E. in 1842; he built in 1848-1849 the -Fastnet Rock lighthouse, south-west of Cape Clear, and was engaged in -other important works. Devoting much attention to pure science, he -became especially distinguished for his researches on earthquakes, and -from 1852-1858 he was engaged (with his son John William Mallet) in the -preparation of his great work, _The Earthquake Catalogue of the British -Association_ (1858). In 1862 he published two volumes, dealing with the -_Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857_ and _The First Principles of -Observational Seismology_. He then brought forward evidence to show that -the depth below the earth's surface, whence came the impulse of the -Neapolitan earthquake, was about 8 or 9 geographical miles. One of his -most important essays was that communicated to the Royal Society (_Phil. -Trans._ clxiii. 147; 1874), entitled _Volcanic Energy: an Attempt to -develop its True Origin and Cosmical Relations_. He sought to show that -volcanic heat may be attributed to the effects of crushing, contortion -and other disturbances in the crust of the earth; the disturbances -leading to the formation of lines of fracture, more or less vertical, -down which water would find its way, and if the temperature generated be -sufficient volcanic eruptions of steam or lava would follow. He was -elected F.R.S. in 1854, and he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the -Geological Society of London in 1877. He died at Clapham, London, on the -5th of November 1881. - - - - -MALLET DU PAN, JACQUES (1749-1800), French journalist, of an old -Huguenot family, was born near Geneva in 1749, the son of a Protestant -minister. He was educated at Geneva, and through the influence of -Voltaire obtained a professorship at Cassel. He soon, however, resigned -this post, and going to London joined H.S.N. Linguet in the production -of his _Annales politiques_ (1778-1780). During Linguet's imprisonment -in the Bastille Mallet du Pan continued the _Annales_ by himself -(1781-1783); but Linguet resented this on his release, and Mallet du Pan -changed the title of his own publication to _Memoires historiques_ -(1783). From 1783 he incorporated this work with the _Mercure de France_ -in Paris, the political direction of which had been placed in his hands. -On the outbreak of the French Revolution he sided with the Royalists, -and was sent on a mission (1791-1792) by Louis XVI. to Frankfort to try -and secure the sympathy and intervention of the German princes. From -Germany he travelled to Switzerland and from Switzerland to Brussels in -the Royalist interest. He published a number of anti-revolutionary -pamphlets, and a violent attack on Bonaparte and the Directory resulted -in his being exiled in 1797 to Berne. In 1798 he came to London, where -he founded the _Mercure britannique_. He died at Richmond, Surrey, on -the 10th of May 1800, his widow being pensioned by the English -government. Mallet du Pan has a place in history as a pioneer of modern -political journalism. His son JOHN LEWIS MALLET (1775-1861) spent a -useful life in the English civil service, becoming secretary of the -Board of Audit; and J. L. Mallet's second son, SIR LOUIS MALLET -(1823-1890) also entered the civil service in the Board of Trade and -rose to be a distinguished economist and a member of the Council of -India. - - Mallet du Pan's _Memoires et correspondance_ was edited by A. Sayous - (Paris, 1851). See _Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution_ (1902), - by Bernard Mallet, son of Sir Louis Mallet, author also of a biography - of his father (1900). - - - - -MALLING, EAST and WEST, two populous villages in the Medway -parliamentary division of Kent, England, respectively 5 and 6 m. W. by -N. of Maidstone, with a station on the South-Eastern and Chatham -railway. Pop. (1901), East Malling, 2391; West Malling, 2312. They are -situated in a rich agricultural district on the western slope of the -valley of the Medway, and East Malling has large paper mills. At West -Malling are remains of Malling Abbey, a Benedictine nunnery founded in -1090 by Gundulf, bishop of Rochester. The remains, which are partly -incorporated in a modern building, include the Norman west front of the -church, the Early English cloisters, the chapter-house, gate-house (the -chapel of which is restored to use), and other portions. About Addington -near West Malling are considerable prehistoric remains, including -mounds, single stones, stone circles and pits in the chalk hills; while -at Leybourne are the gateway and other fragments of the castle held by -the Leybourne family from the 12th to the 14th century. - - - - -MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL (1849- ), English author, was born at -Cockington Court, Devonshire. He was educated privately, and at Balliol -College, Oxford. He won the Newdigate prize in 1872, and took a second -class in the final classical schools in 1874. He attracted considerable -attention by his satirical story _The New Republic_ (2 vols., 1877), in -which he introduced characters easily recognized as prominent living -men, Mark Pattison, Matthew Arnold, W. K. Clifford and others. His keen -logic and gift for acute exposition and criticism were displayed in -later years both in fiction and in controversial works. In a series of -books dealing with religious questions he insisted on dogma as the basis -of religion and on the impossibility of founding religion on purely -scientific data. In _Is Life Worth Living?_ (1879) and _The New Paul and -Virginia_ (1878) he attacked Positivist theories, and in a volume on the -intellectual position of the Church of England, _Doctrine and Doctrinal -Disruption_ (1900), he advocated the necessity of a strictly defined -creed. Later volumes on similar topics were _Religion as a Credible -Doctrine_ (1903) and _The Reconstruction of Belief_ (1905). He published -several brilliant works on economics, directed against Radical and -Socialist theories: _Social Equality_ (1882), _Property and Progress_ -(1884), _Labour and the Popular Welfare_ (1893), _Classes and Masses_ -(1896) and _Aristocracy and Evolution_ (1898); and among his -anti-socialist works should be classed his novel, _The Old Order -Changes_ (1886). His other novels include _A Romance of the Nineteenth -Century_ (1881), _A Human Document_ (1892), _The Heart of Life_ (1895) -and _The Veil of the Temple_ (1904). He published a volume of _Poems_ in -1880, and in 1900 _Lucretius on Life and Death_ in verse. - - - - -MALLOW, a market town and watering place of Co. Cork, Ireland, on the -Blackwater, 144(1/2) m. S.W. from Dublin, and 21 N. from Cork by the -Great Southern and Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4542. It is a junction -for lines westward to Killarney and Co. Kerry, and eastward to Lismore -and Co. Waterford. The town owes its prosperity to its beautiful -situation in a fine valley surrounded by mountains, and possesses a -tepid mineral spring, considered efficacious in cases of general -debility and for scorbutic and consumptive complaints. A spa-house with -pump-room and baths was erected in 1828. The parish church dates from -1818, but there are remains of an earlier building adjoining it. There -are manufactures of mineral water and condensed milk, corn-mills and -tanneries. Mallow received a charter of incorporation from James I. Its -name was originally Magh Allo, that is, Plain of the Allo (the old name -used by Spenser for this part of the river), and the ford was defended -by a castle, built by the Desmonds, the ruins of which remain. A bridge -connects the town with the suburb of Ballydaheen. Mallow is a centre for -the fine salmon fishing on the Blackwater. The climate is very mild. The -town was a parliamentary borough till 1885. It is governed by an urban -district council. - - - - -MALLOW, botanically _Malva_, the typical genus of the natural order -Malvaceae, embracing about sixteen species of annual and perennial -herbaceous plants, widely distributed throughout the northern -hemisphere. The mallows possess the reniform one-celled anthers which -specially characterize the _Malvaceae_ (q.v.). The petals also are -united by their base to the tube formed by the coalesced filaments of -the stamens. The special characters which separate the genus _Malva_ -from others most nearly allied to it are the involucre, consisting of a -row of three separate bracts attached to the lower part of the true -calyx, and the numerous single-seeded carpels disposed in a circle -around a central axis, from which they become detached when ripe. The -flowers are mostly white or pinkish, never yellow, the leaves -radiate-veined, and more or less lobed or cut. Three species are natives -of Britain. The musk mallow (_Malva moschata_) is a perennial herb with -five-partite, deeply-cut leaves, and large rose-coloured flowers -clustered together at the ends of the branched stems, and is found -growing along hedges and borders of fields, blossoming in July and -August. It owes its name to a slight musky odour diffused by the plant -in warm dry weather when it is kept in a confined situation. The -round-leaved dwarf mallow (_Malva rotundifolia_) is a creeping -perennial, growing in waste sandy places, with roundish serrate leaves -and small pinkish-white flowers produced in the axils of the leaves from -June to September. It is common throughout Europe and the north of -Africa, extending to western and northern Asia. The common mallow -(_Malva sylvestris_), the _mauve_ of the French, is an erect biennial or -perennial plant with long-stalked roundish-angular serrate leaves, and -conspicuous axillary reddish-purple flowers, blossoming from May to -September. Like most plants of the order it abounds in mucilage, and -hence forms a favourite domestic remedy for colds and sore throats. The -aniline dye called mauve derives its name from its resemblance to the -colour of this plant. - - [Illustration: Mallow (_Malva sylvestris_), 1/3 nat. size. - - 1. Flower in section. - 2. Stamens showing the union of the filaments into a common tube - (monadelphous). - 3. Fruit with persistent calyx. 1, 2 and 5 enlarged. - 4. Same seen from the back showing the 3-leaved epicalyx. - 5. Seed.] - - The marsh mallow (_Althaea officinalis_), the _guimauve_ of the - French, belongs to another genus having an involucre of numerous - bracts. It is a native of marshy ground near the sea or in the - neighbourhood of saline springs. It is an erect perennial herb, with - somewhat woody stems, velvety, ovate, acute, unequally serrate leaves, - and delicate pink showy flowers blooming from July to September. The - flowers are said to yield a good deal of honey to bees. The marsh - mallow is remarkable for containing asparagin, C4H8N2O3, H2O, which, - if the root be long kept in a damp place, disappears, butyric acid - being developed. The root also contains about 25% of starch and the - same quantity of mucilage, which differs from that of gum arabic in - containing one molecule less of water and in being precipitated by - neutral acetate of lead. It is used in _pate de guimauve_ lozenges. - _Althaea rosea_ is the hollyhock (q.v.). - - The mallow of Scripture, Job xxx. 4, has been sometimes identified - with Jew's mallow (_Corchorus olitorius_), a member of the closely - allied order Tiliaceae, but more plausibly (the word [Hebrew: maluah] - implying a saline plant) with _Atriplex Halimus_, or sea orache. In - Syria the _Halimus_ was still known by the name _Malluh_ in the time - of Ibn Beitar. See Bochart, _Hieroz._ iii. 16. - - - - -MALMEDY, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, lying in a -wild and deep basin, on the Warche, 20 m. S. of Aix-la-Chapelle by rail -via Eupen. It contains two Roman Catholic churches, a modern town-hall -and a classical school. Its industries include tanning, dyeing and -paper-making. Pop. (1900), 4680. Malmedy was famous for its Benedictine -abbey, founded about 675, which was united with that of Stablo, the -abbot of the joint house being a prince of the empire. In 1802 the lands -of the abbey passed to France, and in 1815 they were divided between -Prussia and Netherlands. - - See Kellen, _Malmedy und die preussische Wallonie_ (Essen, 1897). - - - - -MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS, 1ST EARL OF (1746-1820), English diplomatist, -was born at Salisbury on the 21st of April 1746, being the son of James -Harris (q.v.), the author of _Hermes_. Educated at Winchester, Oxford -and Leiden, young Harris became secretary in 1768 to the British embassy -at Madrid, and was left as _charge d'affaires_ at that court on the -departure of Sir James Grey until the arrival of George Pitt, afterwards -Lord Rivers. This interval gave him his opportunity; he discovered the -intention of Spain to attack the Falkland Islands, and was instrumental -in thwarting it by putting on a bold countenance. As a reward he was -appointed minister _ad interim_ at Madrid, and in January 1772 minister -plenipotentiary to the court of Prussia. His success was marked, and in -1777 he was transferred to the court of Russia. At St Petersburg he made -his reputation, for he managed to get on with Catherine in spite of her -predilections for France, and steered adroitly through the accumulated -difficulties of the first Armed Neutrality. He was made a knight of the -Bath at the end of 1778, but in 1782 he returned home owing to -ill-health, and was appointed by his friend Fox to be minister at the -Hague, an appointment confirmed after some delay by Pitt (1784). He did -very great service in furthering Pitt's policy of maintaining England's -influence on the Continent by the arms of her allies, and held the -threads of the diplomacy which ended in the king of Prussia's -overthrowing the republican party in Holland, which was inclined to -France, and re-establishing the prince of Orange. In recognition of his -services he was created Baron Malmesbury of Malmesbury (Sept. 1788), and -permitted by the king of Prussia to bear the Prussian eagle on his arms, -and by the prince of Orange to use his motto "Je maintiendrai." He -returned to England, and took an anxious interest in politics, which -ended in his seceding from the Whig party with the duke of Portland in -1793; and in that year he was sent by Pitt, but in vain, to try to keep -Prussia true to the first coalition against France. In 1794 he was sent -to Brunswick to solicit the hand of the unfortunate Princess Caroline -for the prince of Wales, to marry her as proxy, and conduct her to her -husband in England. In 1796 and 1797 he was at Paris and Lille vainly -negotiating with the French Directory. After 1797 he became partially -deaf, and quitted diplomacy altogether; but for his long and eminent -services he was in 1800 created earl of Malmesbury, and Viscount -Fitzharris, of Heron Court in the county of Hants. He now became a sort -of political Nestor, consulted on foreign policy by successive foreign -ministers, trusted by men of the most different ideas in political -crises, and above all the confidant, and for a short time after Pitt's -death almost the political director, of Canning. Younger men were also -wont to go to him for advice, and Lord Palmerston particularly, who was -his ward, was tenderly attached to him, and owed many of his ideas on -foreign policy directly to his teaching. His later years were free from -politics, and till his death on the 21st of November 1820 he lived very -quietly and almost forgotten. As a statesman, Malmesbury had an -influence among his contemporaries which is scarcely to be understood -from his writings, but which must have owed much to personal charm of -manner and persuasiveness of tongue; as a diplomatist, he seems to have -deserved his reputation, and shares with Macartney, Auckland and -Whitworth the credit of raising diplomacy from a profession in which -only great nobles won the prizes to a career opening the path of honour -to ability. He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his son James Edward -(1778-1841), under-secretary for foreign affairs under Canning; from -whom the title passed to James Howard, 3rd earl of Malmesbury (q.v.). - - Malmesbury did not publish anything himself, except an account of the - Dutch revolution, and an edition of his father's works, but his - important _Diaries_ (1844) and _Letters_ (1870) were edited by his - grandson. - - - - -MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS, 3RD EARL OF (1807-1889), English -statesman, son of the 2nd earl, was born on the 25th of March 1807, and -educated at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford. He led a life of travel for -several years, making acquaintance with famous people; and in 1841 he -had only just been elected to the House of Commons as a Conservative, -when his father died and he succeeded to the peerage. His political -career, though not one which made any permanent impression on history, -attracted a good deal of contemporary attention, partly from his being -foreign secretary in 1852 and again in 1858-1859 (he was also lord privy -seal in 1866-1868 and in 1874-1876), and partly from his influential -position as an active Tory of the old school in the House of Lords at a -time when Lord Derby and Mr Disraeli were, in their different ways, -moulding the Conservatism of the period. Moreover his long life--he -survived till the 17th of May 1889--and the publication of his _Memoirs -of an Ex-Minister_ in 1884, contributed to the reputation he enjoyed. -These _Memoirs_, charmingly written, full of anecdote, and containing -much interesting material for the history of the time, remain his chief -title to remembrance. Lord Malmesbury also edited his grandfather's -_Diaries and Correspondence_ (1844), and in 1870 published _The First -Lord Malmesbury and His Friends: Letters from 1745 to 1820_. He was -succeeded as 4th earl by his nephew, Edward James (1842-1899), whose -son, James Edward (b. 1872) became the 5th earl in 1899. - - - - -MALMESBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham -parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94(1/2) m. W. of London by -the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 2854. It lies on a ridge -surrounded on all sides except the north-west by the river Avon and a -small tributary. The church of St Mary and St Aldhelm, standing high, is -a majestic fragment consisting of the greater part of the nave (with -aisles) of a Benedictine abbey church. The ruined skeleton of the great -tower arches now terminates the building eastward. The nave is -transitional Norman, with a Decorated superstructure including the -clerestory. The south porch is one of the finest Norman examples extant, -both the outer and the inner doorways (especially the first) exhibiting -the typical ornament of the period in remarkable exuberance. With the -exception of a crypt, the monastic buildings have disappeared. In the -market square stands a fine market cross of the 16th century, borne upon -an octagonal battlemented basement. Early English fragments of a -hospital of St John of Jerusalem appear in the corporation almshouse. -Malmesbury has an agricultural trade, with breweries, tanneries and -manufactures of silk and pillow lace. It is governed by a mayor, 4 -aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 178 acres. - -Maildulphus, a Scottish or Irish monk, who came into England about 635, -built a hermitage near the site of the modern Malmesbury -(_Maildulphi-urbs_, _Maldelmesburh_, _Malmesbiri_) and gathered -disciples round him, thus forming the nucleus of the later abbey of -which Aldhelm his pupil became the first abbot. Aethelstan, who was -buried here (though his tomb in the church only dates from the 16th -century), rebuilt and endowed the monastery. Round the abbey the town of -Malmesbury grew up, and by the time of the Domesday Survey it had become -one of the only two Wiltshire boroughs. The first charter, said to be a -forgery, purports to have been given by Aethelstan. It granted to the -burgesses all privileges and free customs such as they held in the time -of Edward the Elder, with many additional exemptions, in return for help -rendered against the Danes. The castle built at Malmesbury during the -reign of Henry I. gave a further impetus to the growth of the town -during the 12th and 13th centuries. It was not incorporated, however, -until 1645, when it was made a free borough under the title of "aldermen -and burgesses of the borough of Malmesbury, County Wilts." By this -charter it was governed until 1885. The borough returned two members to -parliament from 1295 to 1832 when the number was reduced to one. Finally -in 1885 its representation was merged in that of the county. A grant of -a yearly fair on the 31st of March, the feast of St Aldhelm, was -obtained from William II., and another for three days from the 25th of -July from John. In 1792 fairs were held on the 28th of March, the 28th -of April and the 29th of June, but in 1891 they had ceased entirely. -John also granted a weekly market on Thursday. In the 16th and 18th -centuries it was held on Saturday, and in 1891 on the third Wednesday in -each month. In the middle ages Malmesbury possessed a considerable cloth -manufacture, and at the Dissolution the abbey was bought by a rich -clothier and fitted with looms for weaving. The trade in wool still -flourished in 1751. - - See _Victoria County History: Wiltshire_; and _Registrum - malmesburiense_ (1879-1880). - - - - -MALMO, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_lan_) of -Malmohus, on a small bay of the Sound, 384 m. S.S.W. of Stockholm by -rail. Pop. (1800), 38,054; (1900), 60,857. It is connected with -Copenhagen, 17(1/4) m. W. by N., by steam-ferry, the Sound being kept -open in winter by an ice-breaker. It is also the first important station -in Sweden on the Berlin-Stockholm route, which crosses the sea between -Sassnitz in Rugen and Trelleborg, 20 m. S.E. of Malmo. The town, which -stands upon a level plain, formerly had strong fortifications, of which -only the citadel (Malmohus) remains; in it the earl of Bothwell was -imprisoned by Frederick II. of Denmark for some time after his departure -from Scotland in 1567. The town-hall (1546, largely restored in 1864) -contains a handsome chamber, the Knutssal, formerly used by the council -of the gild of Canute. The hall fronts the central square (_Stortorg_) -which is planted with trees and contains a colossal statue of Charles X. -by Johan Helenus Borjeson (b. 1835) erected in 1896. The most notable -church is that of St. Peter (_Peterkyrka_), dating in part from 1319. -Malmo is second to Stockholm as an industrial centre. There are -breweries and large works for the manufacture of machinery, among which -may be mentioned the Kockum mechanical works, with yards for the -construction of vessels of war, and others; of cotton and woollen goods, -gloves, chocolate, sweetmeats and tobacco. A large export trade is -carried on in butter and other agricultural produce, and matches. Coal -is the chief import. The harborage includes an outer harbour of 22 ft. -depth, and two inner basins admitting vessels of 21 ft. draught, with -dry dock and patent slip. Malmo returns four members to the second -chamber of the Riksdag (parliament). - -Malmo (Malmhauge, Malmey, Malmoye, Malmoughe), sometimes called _Ancona -Scanorum_ or _Ellenbogen_, first appears in history about the middle of -the 13th century. During the Hanseatic period it was the most important -commercial town on the Sound, but in the 16th and 17th centuries greatly -lost ground owing to the decay of its herring fisheries and the rise of -its rival, Copenhagen. Its modern prosperity is largely due to the -enterprise of Frans Snell, one of its merchants in the second half of -the 18th century, who first constructed the harbour. - - - - -MALMSEY, a strong sweet wine, originally made at Monemvasia (Gr. [Greek: -Monembasia]), Napoli di Malvasia, in the Morea, Greece. The name of the -place was corrupted in Med. Lat. into _malmasia_, whence the English -form of the word. The corruption malvasia gives the O. Fr. _malvesie_, -from which comes the alternative English form "malvoisie." The wine is -now made not only in Greece but also in Spain, Madeira and the Azores. - - - - -MALOCELLO, LANCILOTO ("LANZAROTE, the 'Lancelot Maloisiel' of the -French"), leader of the first of modern European oceanic enterprises. -This was a Genoese expedition, which about 1270 seems to have sailed -into the Atlantic, re-discovered the "Fortunate Islands" or Canaries, -and made something of a conquest and settlement in one of the most -northerly isles of this archipelago, still known (after the Italian -captain) as Lanzarote. According to a Spanish authority of about 1345, -the anonymous Franciscan's _Conoscimiento de todos los reinos_, -"Lancarote" was killed by the Canarian natives; but the castle built by -him was standing in 1402-1404, when it was utilized for the storage of -grain by the French conquerors under Gadifer de la Salle. To Malocello's -enterprise, moreover, it is probable that Petrarch (born 1304) alludes -when he tells how, within the memory of his parents, an armed fleet of -Genoese penetrated to the "Fortunatae"; this passage some would refer, -without sufficient authority, to the expedition of 1291. Malocello's -name and nationality are certainly preserved by those early _Portolani_ -or scientific charts (such as the "Dulcert" of 1339 and the "Laurentian -Portolano" of 1351), in which the African islands appear, for the first -time in history, in clear and recognizable form. Thus Dulcert reads -_Insula de Lanzarotus_ and _Marocelus_, the Laurentian map _I. de -Lanzarote_, against Lanzarote Island, which is well depicted on both -designs, and marked with the cross of Genoa. The _Conoscimiento_ (as -noticed above) explicitly derives the island-name from the Genoese -commander who perished here. Malocello's enterprise not only marks the -beginning of the oversea expansion of western Europe in exploration, -conquest and colonization (after the age of Scandinavian world-roving -had passed); it is also probably not unconnected with the great Genoese -venture of 1291 (in search of a waterway to India, which soon follows), -with which this attempt at Canarian discovery and dominion has been by -some unjustifiably identified. - - See the _Conoscimiento_, p. 100, as edited by Marcos Jimenez de la - Espada in the _Boletin de la sociedad geografica de Madrid_, (February - 1877); _Le Canarien_ in P. Margry, _Conquete des ... Canaries_, p. - 177; M. A. P. d'Avezac in vol. vi., part ii., of _L'Univers_, pp. 1-41 - (_Iles africaines de l'ocean atlantique_); C. R. Beazley, _Dawn of - Modern Geography_, iii. 411-413, 449, 451. - - - - -MALOLOS, a town and the capital of the province of Bulacan, island of -Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Pampanga Grande river. -Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Barasoain and Santa Isabel, 27,025. -There are thirty-eight villages, or barrios, of which eight had, in -1903, 1000 inhabitants or more. The principal language is Tagalog, but -Spanish is spoken to some extent. Malolos is served by the Manila & -Dagupan railway, and is a trade centre of considerable importance. The -cultivation of rice is an important industry. In 1898-99, during the -Filipino revolt, Malolos was the seat of the rebel government, but it -was captured and reduced to desolation in March 1899. In 1904 a new -municipal school building, a municipal market and a provincial building -were erected. - - - - -MALONE, EDMOND (1741-1812), Irish Shakespearian scholar and editor, was -born in Dublin, on the 4th of October 1741, the son of a barrister and a -member of the Irish House of Commons. He was educated at Trinity -College, Dublin, and was called to the Irish bar in 1767. The death of -his father in 1774 assured him a competency, and he went to London, -where he frequented literary and artistic circles. He frequently visited -Dr Johnson and was of great assistance to Boswell in revising and -proofreading his _Life_, four of the later editions of which he -annotated. He was intimate with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom he sat for -a portrait now in the National Portrait Gallery. He was one of Reynolds' -executors, and published a posthumous collection of his works (1798) -with a memoir. Horace Walpole, Burke, Canning, Lord Charlemont, and, at -first, George Steevens, were among Malone's friends. Encouraged by the -two last he devoted himself to the study of Shakespearian chronology, -and the results of his "Attempt to ascertain the Order in which the -Plays of Shakespeare were written" (1778) are still largely accepted. -This was followed in 1780 by two supplementary volumes to Steevens's -version of Dr Johnson's _Shakespeare_, partly consisting of observations -on the history of the Elizabethan stage, and of the text of doubtful -plays; and this again, in 1783, by an appendix volume. His refusal to -alter some of his notes to Isaac Reed's edition of 1785, which disagreed -with Steevens's, resulted in a quarrel with the latter. The next seven -years were devoted to Malone's own edition of Shakespeare in eleven -volumes, of which his essays on the history of the stage, his biography -of Shakespeare, and his attack on the genuineness of the three parts of -Henry VI., were especially valuable. His editorial work was lauded by -Burke, criticized by Walpole and damned by Joseph Ritson. It certainly -showed indefatigable research and proper respect for the text of the -earlier editions. Malone published a denial of the claim to antiquity of -the Rowley poems (see CHATTERTON), and in this (1782) as in his branding -(1796) of the Ireland MSS. (see IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY) as forgeries, he -was among the first to guess and state the truth. His elaborate edition -of Dryden's works (1800), with a memoir, was another monument to his -industry, accuracy and scholarly care. In 1801 the university of Dublin -made him an LL.D. At the time of his death, on the 25th of April 1812, -Malone was at work on a new octavo edition of Shakespeare, and he left -his material to James Boswell the younger; the result was the edition of -1821--generally known as the Third Variorum edition--in twenty-one -volumes. Lord Sunderlin (1738-1816), his elder brother and executor, -presented the larger part of Malone's splendid collection of books, -including dramatic varieties, to the Bodleian Library, which afterwards -bought many of his MS. notes and his literary correspondence. The -British Museum also owns some of his letters and his annotated copy of -Johnson's _Dictionary_. - - A memoir of Malone by James Boswell is included in the _Prolegomena_ - to the edition of 1821. See also Sir J. Prior's _Life of Edmond - Malone_ (1860). - - - - -MALONE, a village and the county-seat of Franklin county, in the -township of Malone, in the N.E. part of New York, U.S.A., about 60 m. -E.N.E. of Ogdensburg. Pop. (1890), 4986; (1900), 5935 (910 -foreign-born); (1905, state census), 6478; (1910), 6467. It is served by -the New York Central & Hudson River and the Rutland (N.Y. Central Lines) -railways. The village has a Memorial Park, Arsenal Green, on the site of -an arsenal and parade-ground sold by the state in 1850, a state armoury, -the Northern New York Institute for Deaf Mutes, Franklin Academy, St -Joseph's Ursuline Academy, and a detention-house for Chinamen entering -the state from Canada. From Malone tourists visit the Great North Woods, -in the Adirondack foothills, about 15 m. distant. Iron ore and Potsdam -sandstone are found near Malone. In the surrounding region hops, -potatoes, &c., are grown, and there are dairying and livestock -interests. The village is a centre for the collection of hides and -pelts. It manufactures woollen goods, paper and pulp, &c., and has -foundry and machine shops and car repair shops. Malone, being on the -line of communication between lakes Champlain and Ontario, was of -strategic importance in the war of 1812, and later was twice the -rendezvous of Fenians for attacks on Canada. The township of Malone was -settled and erected from Chateaugay in 1805. The village was first known -as Harison, was named Ezraville, in honour of Ezra L'Hommedieu, in 1808, -received its present name in 1812, and was incorporated in 1853. - - - - -MALONIC ACID, C3H4O4 or CH2(COOH)2, occurs in the form of its calcium -salt in the sugar beet. It was first prepared in 1858 by V. Dessaignes, -who obtained it by oxidizing malic acid (_Ann._, 1858, 107, p. 251). It -may also be obtained by oxidizing allylene and propylene with cold -potassium permanganate solution, by the hydrolysis of barbituric acid -(malonyl urea) with alkalis (A. Baeyer, _Ann._, 1864, 130, p. 143); by -the hydrolysis of cyanacetic acid (H. Kolbe, _Ann._, 1864, 131, p. 349; -H. Muller, _Ann._, 1864, 131, p. 352), and by the action of silver oxide -on [beta]-di-chloracrylic ester at 125 deg. C. (O. Wallach, _Ann._, 1878, -193, P. 25) - - CCl2:CH.COOC2H5 + Ag2O + H2O = - 2AgCl + HOOC.CH2.COOC2H5. - -It crystallizes in monoclinic tables, and is readily soluble in water, -alcohol and ether. The acid melts at 132 deg. C., and at a higher -temperature it rapidly decomposes into acetic acid and carbon dioxide. -When heated with bromine and water to 100 deg. C. it forms tribromacetic -acid, some bromoform being produced at the same time. Malonic acid, as -well as its esters, is characterized by the large number of condensation -products it can form. In the presence of a dehydrating agent (such as -acetic anhydride), it combines with aldehydes to form compounds of the -type R.CH:C(COOH)2, or their decomposition products (formed by loss of -CO2) R.CH:CH.COOH. - - Many salts of the acid are known and, with the exception of those of - the alkali metals, they are difficultly soluble in water. Many esters - of malonic acid have been prepared, the most important being the - _diethyl ester_ (_malonic ester_), CH2(COOC2H5)2, which is obtained by - dissolving monochloracetic acid in water, neutralizing the solution - with potassium carbonate, and then adding potassium cyanide and - warming the mixture until the reaction begins. When the reaction has - finished, the whole is evaporated and heated to about 130 deg.-140 - deg. C. and then allowed to cool. The mass is then covered with - two-thirds of its weight of alcohol, and saturated with hydrochloric - acid gas. The whole is then poured into ice-cold water, extracted by - ether and the ethereal solution distilled (L. Claisen, _Ann._, 1883, - 218, p. 131). It is a colourless liquid boiling at 197 deg.7-198 deg.2 - C. (W. H. Perkin). It is a most important synthetic reagent; with - sodium or sodium ethylate it forms sodio-malonic ester, which reacts - readily with alkyl halides, forming alkyl malonic esters, which are - again capable of forming sodium derivatives, that by further treatment - with alkyl halides yield the di-alkyl malonic esters. These esters are - readily hydrolysed and yield the mono- and di-alkyl malonic acids - which, on heating, are readily decomposed, with evolution of carbon - dioxide and the formation of mono- and di-alkyl acetic acids. The - scheme of reactions is shown thus: - - R'I - CH2(COOR)2 --> CHN_a (COOR)2 --> CHR'(COOR)2 - | NaOH - \/ - CO2 + CH2R'.COOH <-- CHR'(COOH)2 - R"I - [CHR'(COOH)2NaOH --> CNaR'(COOR)2 --> CR'R"(COOR)2 - | - \/ NaOH - CO2 + CHR'R'.COOH <-- CR'R"(COOH)2 - - When sodio-malonic ester is heated to 145 deg. C., it undergoes - condensation, with elimination of alcohol and formation of the benzene - derivative, _phloroglucin tricarboxylic ester_. The addition of urea - to an alcoholic solution of sodio-malonic ester results in the - formation of barbituric acid (A. Michael, _Jour. pr. Chem._, 1887 [2], - 35, p. 456) The half nitrile of malonic acid is _cyanacetic acid_, - CN.CH.2 COOH, which, in the form of its ester, may be obtained by the - action of a solution of potassium cyanide on monochloracetic acid. The - solution obtained is neutralized, concentrated on the water-bath, - acidified by sulphuric acid and extracted with ether. It is then - converted into the lead salt, which is decomposed by sulphuretted - hydrogen and the solution is carefully concentrated (Th. Meves, - _Ann._, 1867, 143, p. 201). It melts at 70 deg. C. and at higher - temperatures decomposes, with evolution of carbon dioxide and - formation of aceto-nitrile, CH3.CN. The true nitrile of malonic acid - is _methylene cyanide_, CH2(CN)2, which is obtained by distilling a - mixture of cyanacetamide and phosphorus pentoxide. It is a crystalline - solid, which melts at 29 deg.-30 deg. C. and boils at 218 deg.-219 - deg. C., and is readily soluble in alcohol and ether. - - - - -MALORY, SIR THOMAS, translator and compiler of the famous English -classic, the _Morte d'Arthur_. Previous to the publication of Professor -Kittredge's monograph, _Who was Sir Thomas Malory?_ the identity of this -writer remained an unsolved problem. Mr. Sidney Lee, in the _Dictionary -of National Biography_, was compelled to admit that he could find no one -of that name fulfilling the necessary conditions. Of direct evidence we -have very little; in the concluding passage of the book the author asks -the prayers of the reader for "Syr Thomas Maleore knyght," and states -that the book was ended "the ix. yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the -fourth." Caxton, in his preface, says that he printed the book "after a -copye unto me delivered whyche copye Syr Thomas Malorye dyd take oute of -certeyn bookes of frensshe and reduced it in to Englysshe"; in his -colophon he repeats this statement, adding that he himself is -responsible for the division of the work into books and chapters, and -that it was printed in 1485. It will be noted that Caxton does not say -that he received the book from Malory, only that he had received a copy -made by Malory; from this Professor Kittredge draws the conclusion that -the compiler was no longer living. The problem then is to find a Thomas -Malory who was (a) a knight, (b) alive in the ninth year of King Edward -IV. (Mar. 4, 1469-Mar. 3, 1470), and (c) who was no longer living in -July (or June) 1485. - -All these conditions Professor Kittredge finds fulfilled in the life of -Sir Thomas Malory, knight, of Newbold Revell (or Fenny Newbold), M.P. -for Warwickshire in 1445. The date of Sir Thomas's birth is uncertain, -but he succeeded his father, Sir John, in 1433 or 1434. Previously to -this he had served in France, in the retinue of the earl of Warwick, -most probably during the time that that nobleman held the office of -captain of Calais. It seems probable that he is also to be identified -with a "Thomas Malorie, miles," who in 1468 was, on account of the part -played by him in the Wars of the Roses, excluded with several others -from the operation of a pardon issued by Edward IV. As, however, on the -death of Sir Thomas on the 14th of March 1470, there was no difficulty -as to inheritance, his estates passing to his grandson, he must, if this -identification be correct, have come under the general amnesty of 1469. -It will be seen, therefore, that so far as it is in our power to state -the question this Sir Thomas Malory fulfils all the necessary -conditions. - -It is interesting to note that the career of the earl of Warwick in -France was marked by certain picturesque and chivalric features which -might well impress the imagination of a young retainer. John Rous, in -his _Life of Richard Earl of Warwick_, tells us that at a certain -tourney held near Calais at Christmastide, Earl Richard appeared three -days running in different armour, overthrowing his adversary on each -occasion--an exploit obviously imitated from the chivalric romances of -the period. - -The work with which Malory's name is connected is an abridged -compilation of the great body of Arthurian romance in its latest form. -The _Merlin_ (Vulgate and Suite), _Tristan_, _Lancelot_, _Queste_ and -_Mort Artus_ are all represented, the only branch omitted is that -dealing with the "early history" of the Grail, the _Joseph of Arimathea_ -and _Grand S. Graal_. Thanks mainly to the labours of Dr Oskar Sommer, -we can now assign the majority of the books to their separate sources, -although certain stories, such as the adventures of Sir Gareth under the -pseudonym of Beaumains, the handling of Sir Urre of Hungary, and the -details of the abduction of Guenevere by Meleagaunt, still remain -unidentified. But we do not yet know whether Malory himself was -responsible for this selection, or whether he found it ready to hand in -a MS., the "Frensshe Booke" to which he often refers. To make such a -compilation at first hand, considering the extent of the ground covered, -would involve an enormous amount of study and selection, and the access -to a very large library--conditions which scarcely seem to fit in with -the social position and activities of Sir Thomas. On the other hand it -is undeniable that the medieval copyists, at the instance of their -patrons, did make compilations from the various romances within their -reach, such as e.g. the enormous codex 112 (_fonds Franc._) of the -Bibliotheque Nationale, which includes large sections of the _Tristan_, -the _Lancelot_, and the _Merlin_ Suite. Taking into consideration alike -what Malory retains and what he omits, it seems most probable that he -was in possession, not of complete copies of the romances, but of one or -more volumes of compilations from these sources. - -From the point of view of matter it must be admitted that the _Morte d' -Arthur_ does not represent the Arthurian cycle at its best, but rather -in the period of its decadence; nor does Malory in any way endeavour to -overcome the difficulties caused by the juxtaposition of a number of -independent (and often contradictory) versions. This is especially -noticeable in his treatment of Gawain; in the section derived from the -_Lancelot_ and _Mort Artus_ he is a good and valiant knight, "a ful -noble knyghte as ever was borne," in those derived from the _Tristan_ -and the _Queste_, he is treacherous, dissolute, and a murderer of good -knights. - -The great charm of Malory's work lies in his style; stately, earnest and -dignified, it has lent to the relations between Lancelot and Guenevere a -character of truth and vitality in which the French original is wholly -lacking. Malory achieved a remarkable feat--he took the Arthurian story -in its worst and weakest form and he imparted to it a moral force and -elevation which the cycle, even in its earlier and finer stage, had, -save in the unique case of Von Eschenbach's _Parzival_, never possessed. -While genuine lovers of the Arthurian cycle must regret that the -romances should only be known to the great majority of English readers -through the versions of Malory and Tennyson, it is impossible to -withhold from the _Morte d' Arthur_ the admiration due to an -imperishable monument of English language and literature. - - See _Who was Sir Thomas Malory?_ G. L. Kittredge (_Harvard Studies and - Notes_, vol. v., 1896); _Morte d' Arthur_, ed. by Dr Oskar Sommer (an - exact reproduction of the original text in 2 vols.)--vol. iii. a study - on "_The Sources of Malory._" The sections on _Lancelot_ and _Queste_ - are unfortunately very inadequate; for these cf. _The Legend of Sir - Lancelot_, Grimm Library, vol. xii. (J. L. W.) - - - - -MALOT, HECTOR HENRI (1830-1907), French novelist and man of letters, the -son of a notary, was born at La Bouille (Seine Inferieure) on the 20th -of May 1830. He studied law at Rouen and Paris, but literature early -absorbed his attention. He collaborated in the _Biographie generale_ of -Didot, became literary critic of _L'Opinion Nationale_, and dramatic -critic of the _Lloyd francais_. He is the author of a long series of -popular novels dealing with contemporary life, including: a trilogy of -domestic novels entitled _Victimes d'amour_ (1859, 1865, 1866); _Un Beau -frere_ (1869); _Madame Obernin_ (1870); _Le Docteur Claude_ (1879); -_Justice_ (1889). _Les Aventures de Romain Kalbris_ (1869) and _Sans -famille_ (1888) are excellent stories for children. A complete edition -of Hector Malot's works appeared in 1894-1897. He died at Vincennes in -July 1907. - - - - -MALOU, JULES EDOUARD XAVIER (1810-1886), Belgian statesman, one of the -leaders of the clerical party, was born at Ypres on the 19th of October -1810. He was a civil servant in the department of justice when he was -elected to the Chamber of Deputies by his native constituency in 1841, -and was for some time governor of the province of Antwerp. He was -minister of finance in the coalition ministry of J. B. Nothomb in 1844, -and formed with B. T. de Theux a Catholic cabinet in 1846, which was -overthrown in the Liberal victory of 1847. Malou then became a member -of the senate, and his party only regained ascendancy in 1870. The -extreme clerical ministry of Baron d'Anethan retired in December 1871 -after serious rioting in Brussels, and Malou was the real, though not -the nominal, head of the more moderate clerical administrations of de -Theux and Aspremont-Lynden (1870-1878). He was wise enough to disavow -the noisy sympathy of Belgian Ultramontane politicians with the German -victims of the _Kulturkampf_, and, retaining in his own hands the -portfolio of finance, he subordinated his clerical policy to a useful -administration in commercial matters, including a development of the -railway system. It was only after the fall of the ministry in 1878 that -he adopted a frankly clerical policy, and when he became chief of a new -government in June 1884 he proceeded to undo the educational compromise -of his predecessors in the Frere-Orban ministry. His legislation in -favour of the Catholic schools caused rioting in Brussels, and in -October the king demanded the retirement of MM. Jacobs and Woeste, the -members of the cabinet against whom popular indignation was chiefly -directed. Malou followed them into retirement, and died at Woluwe Saint -Lambert, in Brabant, on the 11th of July 1886. He was a financier of -great knowledge and experience, and his works (of which a long list is -given in Koninck's _Bibliographie nationale de Belgique_) include three -series (1874-1880) of memoirs on financial questions, edited by him for -the Chamber of Deputies, besides pamphlets on railroad proposals, mining -and other practical questions. His brother Jean Baptiste Malou -(1809-1864) was a well-known divine. - - - - -MALOUET, PIERRE VICTOR, BARON (1740-1814), French publicist and -politician, was born at Riom (Puy-de-Dome) on the 11th of February 1740, -the son of a lawyer. He entered the civil service and was employed -successively at the French embassy in Lisbon, in the administrative -department of the duc de Broglie's army, as commissary in San Domingo -from 1767-1774, and, after his return to France, as commissary-general -of the marine. In 1776 he was entrusted to carry out plans of -colonization in French Guiana, but was superseded in 1779. On his return -to France he was well received at court, and the execution of his plans -in Guiana was assured. He became intendant of the port of Toulon, and in -1789 was returned to the states-general, where he soon became well known -as a defender of the monarchical principle. He emigrated to England in -September, 1792, but shortly afterwards sought in vain permission to -return to assist in the defence of Louis XVI. His name was erased from -the list of emigrants in 1801 by Napoleon, who restored him to his -position in the service and sent him to Antwerp as commissioner-general -and maritime prefect to superintend the erection of defence works, and -the creation of a fleet. He entered the council of state in 1810, but, -having offended the emperor by his plainness of speech, he was disgraced -in 1812. At the Restoration, Louis XVIII. made him minister of marine; -and he died on the 7th of September 1814. - - The most important documents for his domestic and colonial policy are - a _Collection de ses opinions a l'Assemblee Nationale_ (3 vols., - 1791-1792); and _Collection de memoires et correspondances officielles - sur l'administration des colonies et notamment sur la Guiane francaise - et hollandaise_ (5 vols., 1802). - - - - -MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694), Italian physiologist, was born at -Crevalcuore near Bologna, on the 10th of March 1628. At the age of -seventeen he began the study of philosophy; it appears that he was also -in the habit of amusing himself with the microscope. In 1649 he started -to study medicine; after four years at Bologna he graduated there as -doctor. He at once applied to be admitted to lecture in the university, -but it was not till after three years (1656) that his request was -granted. A few months later he was appointed to the chair of theoretical -medicine at Pisa, where he enjoyed the friendship and countenance of G. -A. Borelli. At the end of four years he left Pisa, on the ground of -ill-health, and returned to Bologna. A call to be professor primarius at -Messina (procured for him through Borelli, who had in the meantime -become professor there) induced him to leave Bologna in 1662. His -engagement at Messina was for a term of four years, at an annual -stipend of 1000 scudi. An attempt was made to retain him at Messina -beyond that period, but his services were secured for his native -university, and he spent the next twenty-five years there. In 1691, -being then in his sixty-fourth year, and in failing health, he removed -to Rome to become private physician to Pope Innocent XII., and he died -there of apoplexy three years later, on the 30th of November 1694. -Shortly before his death, he drew up a long account of his academical -and scientific labours, correspondence and controversies, and committed -it to the charge of the Royal Society of London, a body with which he -had been in intimate relations for more than twenty years. The -autobiography, along with some other posthumous writings, was published -in London in 1696, at the cost of the Society. The personal details left -by Malpighi are few and dry. His narrative is mainly occupied with a -summary of his scientific contributions and an account of his relations -to contemporary anatomists, and is entirely without graces of style or -elements of ordinary human interest. - - Malpighi was one of the first to apply the microscope to the study of - animal and vegetable structure; and his discoveries were so important - that he may be considered to be the founder of microscopic anatomy. It - was his practice to open animals alive, and some of his most striking - discoveries were made in those circumstances. Although Harvey had - correctly inferred the existence of the capillary circulation, he had - never seen it; it was reserved for Malpighi in 1661 (four years after - Harvey's death) to see for the first time the marvellous spectacle of - the blood coursing through a network of small tubes on the surface of - the lung and of the distended urinary bladder of the frog. We are - enabled to measure the difficulties of microscopic observation at the - time by the fact that it took Malpighi four years longer to reach a - clear understanding of the corpuscles in the frog's blood, although - they are the parts of the blood by which its movement in the - capillaries is made visible. His discovery of the capillary - circulation was given to the world in the form of two letters _De - Pulmonibus_, addressed to Borelli, published at Bologna in 1661 and - reprinted at Leiden and other places in the years following; these - letters contained also the first account of the vesicular structure of - the human lung, and they made a theory of respiration for the first - time possible. The achievement that comes next both in importance and - in order of time was a demonstration of the plan of structure of - secreting glands; against the current opinion (revived by F. Ruysch - forty years later) that the glandular structure was essentially that - of a closed vascular coil from which the secretion exuded, he - maintained that the secretion was formed in terminal acini standing in - open communication with the ducts. The name of Malpighi is still - associated with his discovery of the soft or mucous character of the - lower stratum of the epidermis, of the vascular coils in the cortex of - the kidney, and of the follicular bodies in the spleen. He was the - first to attempt the finer anatomy of the brain, and his descriptions - of the distribution of grey matter and of the fibre-tracts in the - cord, with their extensions to the cerebrum and cerebellum, are - distinguished by accuracy; but his microscopic study of the grey - matter conducted him to the opinion that it was of glandular structure - and that it secreted the "vital spirits." At an early period he - applied himself to vegetable histology as an introduction to the more - difficult study of the animal tissues, and he was acquainted with the - spiral vessels of plants in 1662. It was not till 1671 that he wrote - his _Anatome plantarum_ and sent it to the Royal Society, who - published it in the following year. An English work under a similar - title (_Anatomy of Vegetables_) had been published in London a few - months earlier, by Nehemiah Grew; so that Malpighi's priority as a - vegetable histologist is not so incontestable as it is in animal - histology. The _Anatome plantarum_ contained an appendix, - _Observations de ovo incubato_, which gave an account (with good - plates) of the development of the chick (especially of the later - stages) in many points more complete than that of Harvey, although the - observations were needlessly lessened in value by being joined to the - metaphysical notion of "praedelineation" in the undeveloped ovum. - - He also wrote _Epistolae anatomicae Marc. Malpighii et Car. - Fracassati_ (Amsterdam, 1662) (on the tongue, brain, skin, omentum, - &c.); _De viscerum structura: exercitatio anatomica_ (London, 1669); - _De structura glandularum conglobatarum_ (London, 1689); _Opera - posthuma, et vita a seipso scripta_ (London, 1697; another edition, - with preface and additions, was published at Amsterdam in 1700.). An - edition containing all his works except the last two was published in - London in 1687, in 2 vols. folio, with portrait and plates. - - - - -MALPLAQUET, a village of France in the department of the Nord, close to -the Belgian frontier and about 10 miles S. by E. of Mons, famous as the -scene of the battle, September 1709, between the Allies under the duke -of Marlborough and Prince Eugene and the French commanded by Marshal -Villars, in which the former were victorious. The country to the west -and south of Mons is enclosed by a semicircular wall of woods and broken -ground, through which there are only two important gaps--that of -Jemappes (famous in 1792) to the west, and that of Aulnois, in which -stands the village of Malplaquet, to the south. In the latter gap and -the woods on either side Villars took up his position facing -north-eastwards, on August 29/September 9. The forces in presence, over -90,000 on each side, were exceptionally large, and the French army in -particular represented the spirit of its nation to a degree unusual in -the armies of that time. Villars was the best general in the service of -Louis XIV. and the veteran Marshal Boufflers, though senior to him, had -volunteered to serve as his second in command. Marlborough and Eugene -lay with their army between Mons and the French camps, which were almost -within cannon shot. Marlborough's own wish was for an immediate battle, -but he was opposed by the Dutch deputies at his headquarters, and even -by Eugene, so that it was only on August 31/September 11 that the attack -actually took place. Villars had made full use of his respite. The -French right stood at the fringe of the wood of Laniere, the left was -strongly posted in the midst of the wood of Taisniere, and across the -two and a half miles of open ground between the woods the position was -entrenched with several successive lines of works. The troops were -almost equally distributed along the whole line as usual, and the -cavalry was massed in rear of the infantry. In the Allied army the -mounted troops were also kept back, but for the most part distributed to -the various infantry commands. - -The intention of Marlborough and Eugene, when on the morning of the -battle they examined this formidable position, was to deliver the main -attack upon the French left wing, combining the assaults of several -columns on its front and flanks. In this quarter the French not only -held the interior of the wood but also were thrown forward so as to -occupy the edges of its north-eastern salient, and upon the two faces of -this salient Count Lottum (1650-1719) with the Prussians, and Count von -der Schulenburg (1661-1747) with the Austrian infantry were to deliver a -double attack, while farther to the Allied right a column under the -English General Withers was detached to make a wide turning movement -through the woods. Marlborough took command on the right, Eugene on the -left. The centre, which was intended only to observe the enemy until the -decision had been forced at the wood of Taisniere, consisted of Lord -Orkney's British corps and the prince of Orange's Dutch contingent. -These extended across the Trouee d'Aulnois as soon as the combined -attack of Lottum and Schulenburg opened. The general advance was covered -by a heavy cannonade, and the salient of the Taisniere wood was duly -attacked on its two faces by the Prussians and Austrians about 9 a.m. -They encountered a sterner resistance than in any of the battles and -combats of the past seven campaigns, for on this field the defenders -were fighting, not as hitherto for the interests of their king, but to -defend their country, and the regiments of Picardie and Champagne which -held the salient were the oldest and most famous of the French line. -Lottum attacked the works on the eastern edge, again and again without -success, until three British battalions had to be sent to reinforce him, -and Marlborough placed himself with a corps of cavalry in close support. -At last the entrenchments were stormed. Schulenburg, with the Austrians, -had by this time fought his way through the woods and undergrowth, and -the united force pressed back the French farther and farther into the -wood. Still, so stubborn was the defence and so dense the wood that the -impetus of the assault died away and the troops on both sides broke up -into small disconnected bodies, fighting too fiercely to be amenable to -superior control. - -[Illustration: After Hon. J. W. Fortescue, _History of the British -Army_, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.] - -But the French were not reinforced from their right wing as Villars -expected. The prince of Orange, far from merely observing the hostile -right as he had been ordered to do, committed his corps, very early in -the battle, to a serious assault upon it, which Boufflers repulsed with -enormous loss. The Dutch infantry never recovered from its casualties on -this day, and the memory of Malplaquet was strong even at Fontenoy -nearly forty years afterwards. Some Hanoverian troops which took part in -this futile attack suffered equally heavily. The only advantage to the -Allies--an advantage which, as it happened, counted for much--was that -Boufflers did not dare to send reinforcements to the hard-pressed left -wing. Thanks to this the Austrians and Prussians, with the English -detached to their aid, made steady progress in the wood of Taisniere. -Villars launched the "Irish brigade" to check the advance of the Allies, -and this famous corps charged into the forest. Villars, Eugene and -Marlborough personally led their troops in the encounter which followed. -Eugene was wounded, but refused to quit the field. Villars was more -seriously hurt, and after trying in vain to direct the fighting from a -chair was carried insensible from the field. At this crisis General -Withers, who commanded the force that had been ordered to turn the -French extreme left, and had fought his way through the forest, appeared -on the scene. The British 18th regiment (Royal Irish), encountering the -French _Royal Irlandais_, put it to the rout, and Villars's -counterstroke was at an end. The French maintained themselves on this -side only by the aid of troops drawn from the centre and right, and this -gave the Allied centre the opportunity which the prince of Orange had so -rashly anticipated. The great attack over the open was carried out, in -spite of the previous repulse, with the greatest determination. Preceded -by forty guns, the corps of the prince of Orange and Lord Orkney swiftly -carried the first line of works. The Allied cavalry then pushed out to -the front, and horse, foot and artillery were combined in the last -advance. Boufflers's cavalry masses, coming into play for the first -time, fought hard, and the struggle fluctuated with the arrival of -successive reserves on either side, but in the end, shortly before 3 -p.m., Boufflers (who had been in command since Villars's fall) decided -to retreat. The Allies had no troops left intact for the pursuit, and -those engaged had expended their last efforts. Moreover Boufflers, -experienced soldier as he was, drew off his men before they had lost -their order and discipline. - -Thus this "very murdering battle" as Marlborough called it--the last and -greatest pitched battle of the war--was almost barren of results. The -Allies lost not less than twenty thousand men, or nearly a quarter of -the whole force, the thirty battalions of the Dutch infantry losing half -their numbers. On the French side there were some twelve thousand -casualties. If further evidence were necessary to prove that the French -fought their hardest, it could be found in the fact that whereas in -almost every other battle, from 1660 to 1792, there were deserters and -prisoners by the thousand, at Malplaquet only 500 of the French fell -into the hands of the victors unwounded. - - - - -MALSTATT-BURBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province on -the right bank of the Saar (Sarre), which separates it from Saarbrucken. -Pop. (1900), 31,195. It lies in the midst of an important coal-mining -and industrial district, and is itself little more than a long and -narrow row of manufactories and workmen's houses. The largest factories -are engaged in the production of iron, steel and cement. There is a -large wharf on the river for the export of coal. - - Malstatt received municipal rights in 1321. These, however, were - afterwards resigned to the newer town of Saarbrucken, and in 1818 - Malstatt and Burbach were two small villages with a joint population - of only about 800. About the middle of the century the population - began to increase rapidly, in consequence of the development of the - mining industry of the district and the extension of the railway - system, and in 1874 the two villages were united to form a town. - - - - -MALT (O. Eng., _mealt_; O. Sax., _malt_; O. Teut., _maltos_; Mod. Ger., -_Malz_; Scand., _malt_; probably derived from the Sanskrit _mrdu_, soft, -thus having reference to the fact that malt is raw grain rendered soft -or tender), the name given to grain in which germination has been caused -to proceed to a certain stage and has then been arrested by the removal -of water and the application of heat. During this limited germination -enzymes are developed (see FERMENTATION), and the constituents of the -grain modified so that the finished malt, when ground and submitted to -the mashing process (see BREWING), differs from the original raw grain -in that the greater portion dissolves. This solubility is, however, a -direct one to a slight extent only; it is due for the most part to the -action of the malt enzymes, diastase, &c. on the constituents of the -grain, the main portion of which are of themselves insoluble. Thus -starch, the main constituent of all graminaceous seeds, probably exists -in the same condition in raw grain and in malt. When however the malt is -mashed, the starch is attacked by the enzyme diastase, and converted by -the process of hydrolysis into a mixture of soluble compounds, e.g. the -crystalline sugar, maltose, and a number of gummy substances known as -maltodextrins. But to a certain extent starch and other carbohydrate -substances are rendered directly soluble and diffusible during the -malting process, some of the products serving the respiratory needs of -the growing germ, others being assimilated by the plantlet and -reconverted into reserve carbohydrates in the tissues of the germ and -rootlets, whilst the remaining portions are retained as such in the -finished malt. Similarly certain of the nitrogenous constituents of the -grain, the proteins, are broken down and rendered soluble by proteolytic -enzymes, the products being assimilated to a certain extent by the germ -and rootlets, by the cells of which they are again built up into complex -proteins, whilst others remain in their simplified form. It is now known -that proteolytic enzymes exist in finished malt, and that, when the -mashing process is conducted under certain conditions, these are able to -degrade and render soluble some of the higher proteins present in the -malt. When germination is allowed to proceed as it does when the grain -is planted in the soil, the whole of the contents are rendered soluble -by degrees and in turn assimilated by the growing plantlet. By the -limited germination which constitutes the malting process, however, the -balance of soluble compounds left in the finished malt is from 15 to 25% -of the total weight of the corn. - -Although other seeds of the natural order Gramineae are occasionally -malted, the greater portion of malt is made from the various species of -_Hordeum_, known by the name of barley (q.v.), bigg, or bere. Indeed -ordinary beer derives its characteristic flavour to the greatest extent -from barley malt. A small proportion of malted oats or malted wheat is -sometimes used in conjunction with barley malt for certain kinds of -beer, whilst rye, maize, and even rice are occasionally malted. Barley -is, however, the grain best adapted for making malt intended for brewing -beer, and accordingly some space will be devoted to a description of -those varieties of this grain which are used by the brewer. - -Barley belongs to the genus Hordeum, of which there are numerous species -and varieties. Linnaeus and the earlier botanists recognized six species -of cultivated barleys, but modern botanists usually consider all -cultivated barleys as belonging to one species to which the name _H. -sativum_ has been given. Kornicke regards _H. spontaneum_, a very long -thin-grained two-rowed barley (see below) which grows in the East, as -being the parent form; but E. S. Beaven inclines to the view that wild -species of more than one form were originally used as food and -subsequently cultivated. The last-named author has drawn up a scheme of -classification for the varieties and races of cultivated barleys. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. - - / FIG. 1.--_H. hexastichum._ - | a. Three spikelets _in situ_ on the rachis, showing short - | internodes. - | b. Spike. Median spikelets uppermost, and with lower awns - | removed. - Six-rowed< c. Spike. Lateral spikelets uppermost, and with lower awns - barleys. | removed. - | FIG. 2.--_H. vulgare._ - | a. Three spikelets _in situ_ on the rachis, showing long - | internodes. - | b. Spike. Median spikelets uppermost. - \ c. Spike. Lateral spikelets uppermost. - - / FIG. 3.--_H. zeocriton._ - | a, d. Spikelets. Rachis edgewise, showing short internodes. - | b. Var. _zeocrithum_ (fan barley). Spike converging. - Two-rowed< c. Var. _erectum_ (Goldthorpe). Spike parallel. - barleys. | FIG. 4.--_H. distichum._ - | a. d. Spikelets. Rachis edgewise, showing long internodes. - | b. Var. _nutans_ (Chevallier). - \ c. Ouchak barley. - -Figures 1-4 redrawn from a paper by E. S. Beaven in _Journ. Fed. Inst. -Brewing_ (1902), 8. 542.] - -In an ear of barley the primary axis or rachis is divided into -internodes of which there may be any number up to forty. Each internode -bears three single-flowered spikelets arranged alternately on either -side of the rachis. In the six-rowed varieties the whole of these -spikelets attain maturity, whilst in the two-rowed varieties only one on -each side of the rachis, viz. the median, develops. British beer is -brewed principally from the malt made from home-grown two-rowed barleys. -Of late years, however, it has been found advantageous to employ a -proportion of malt made from the thinner and more husky foreign barleys, -mostly six-rowed varieties. The corns of two-rowed barleys are as a rule -plumper than those of six-rowed barleys. - - The most favourite barley for malting purposes grown in the United - Kingdom is the narrow-eared two-rowed _H. distichum_, commonly known - as Chevallier, from the name of the original cultivator, the Rev. John - Chevallier. Of late years the quantity of barley of the so-called - Goldthorpe type (_H. zeocriton_), used for malting, has increased. The - paleae or outer coverings of the corns of this variety are somewhat - "greasy" in appearance, and do not adhere so closely to the corn as in - the Chevallier. The corns of Goldthorpe barley possess a small dimple - or transverse furrow near the basal end. Further the basal bristle or - rachilla (the prolongation of the axis or point from which the corn - was originally developed) is invariably covered with long hairs, - whilst in the case of Chevallier it has generally very short hairs. In - the variety of Chevallier known as Archer, however, the rachilla has - somewhat long hairs. Further the corns of Chevallier barley lie nearly - vertical, that is almost parallel to the rachis, whereas in Goldthorpe - they are spread out at a greater angle, hence the name fan or peacock - barley given to that variety commonly known as sprat. It is believed - by some brewers that Goldthorpe barleys never yield malt of so high a - quality as do Chevallier barleys. On the other hand, when well - matured, Goldthorpes work evenly and freely on the malting floors; and - from an agricultural point of view they have the advantage of standing - up better against unfavourable weather conditions on account of their - stouter straws. Numerous fresh varieties of barley are continually - being introduced as a result of artificial cross-fertilization, but - cross-fertilization rarely if ever occurs naturally. - - Hungarian two-rowed barleys are excellent as regards quality, and - command a high price. The so-called Californian Chevallier and Chilean - Chevallier contain a certain admixture of the six-rowed _H. vulgare_. - - Of the imported thin barleys may be mentioned Brewing Californian, - Brewing Chilean, Danubian and Smyrna (Yerli), all for the most part - six-rowed varieties; also Ouchak, consisting principally of a - two-rowed variety. For the manufacture of grain spirit a malt of high - diastatic activity is required, and this is largely made from a very - thin barley shipped from Odessa. - - In the common six-rowed English barley or Scottish bere (_H. - vulgare_), the two lateral rows of spikelets springing from one side - of the rachis, either partially or entirely intersect and overlap the - alternate lateral spikelets which spring from the opposite side of the - rachis. This has given rise to the term "four-rowed barley." Figs. 1-4 - show some typical barleys in the ear. - - The production of new varieties by cross-fertilization has of late - years attained a degree of almost mathematical precision by the - application of the law of inheritance first discovered by Gregor - Mendel in 1865, and brought to light in 1901 independently by de - Vries, Correns and Tschermak. - -_Constitution of Barley._--A grain of barley is shuttle-shaped; the end -containing the germ which was originally attached to the rachis is known -as the proximal end, whilst the opposite end of the corn is called the -distal end. A deep furrow runs down the more convex side, which is -accordingly denoted the ventral side, the opposite side being -distinguished as the dorsal side. Within the ventral furrow at the -proximal end is the rachilla already referred to. The skin or husk of a -barleycorn consists of two paleae, one adhering to the dorsal side (the -palea inferior) and the other to the ventral side (the palea superior); -the former overlaps the edges of the latter. The awn or beard is merely -an elongation of the palea inferior. If the two paleae are removed from -a barleycorn after soaking it in water, it will be seen that there are -other skins completely enveloping the embryo and endosperm. These are -the true skins, and are known as the pericarp and the testa -respectively. It may here be mentioned that A. J. Brown has shown -recently that the embryo and endosperm of a barleycorn are enclosed in a -semi-permeable membrane, i.e. one which allows the passage of water to -the interior of the corn, but not of certain salts and acids. This -property appears to be associated with one of the layers of the testa. -Next to these skins will be seen the triple layer of thick-walled -square-shaped aleurone cells. - -The histology of the barleycorn is best studied by the examination of -sections under the microscope. The grain consists of two main portions, -the embryo or germ, and the endosperm, the storehouse of reserve -materials for the growing plant. - - The accompanying illustrations show portions of longitudinal sections - of a barleycorn magnified to different degrees. - - On examining fig. 5, which represents a section of the germ end of a - grain of barley cut through the ventral furrow, it will be noticed - that the rudimentary leaves, stem and roots are distinguishable. The - embryo lies embedded in a mass of cells, the part dividing it from the - endosperm being known as the scutellum. Special note should be taken - of the elongated cells known as the absorptive epithelial layer, which - has certain very important functions to fulfil during the process of - germination, notably in feeding the embryo when it begins to develop - into a young plant. Next to this, actually between the scutellum and - the endosperm, will be seen a layer of empty cells. These at one time - in the history and the development of the corn contained starch - granules, but this starch was absorbed during its later development by - the embryo. It will be observed further that the endosperm is filled - with a network of thin-walled cells closely packed with starch - granules, and smaller granules of protein matter (fig. 6). Nearest the - skin will be seen the triple layer of aleurone cells already referred - to (fig. 7). - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Median longitudinal section of a barleycorn -showing the germ and its appendages. - - a, Rudimentary leaves or plumules; - b, Rudimentary stem; - c, Rudimentary root; - d, Empty starch cells of the endosperm; - e, Absorptive epithelial layer; - f, Compressed layer of empty cells; - g, Starch cells (filled).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Section showing absorptive epithelial layer more -highly magnified. - - d, Walls of starch cells; - e, Epithelial layer; - f, Compressed layer of empty cells; - g, Cells filled with starch granules; - h, Cells of the scutellum.] - -_Germination._--The barleycorn in its resting stage is in a state which -may be described as one of dormant vitality; it respires very slowly -and thus loses weight during storage. The best and driest barleys are -said to lose 1.3% of their weight in the first year, 0.9% in the second, -and 0.5% in the third. The loss is considerably more with coarse and -damp samples. When the grain is steeped this dormant vitality gives -place to that complicated series of processes comprised under the -general term germination. When germination begins, enzymes are secreted, -and these act on the reserve materials, starch and proteins of the -endosperm, converting them into simpler compounds, capable of diffusing -to various parts of the growing germ. Following this, starch and -proteins are re-formed, the former being deposited in the tissues of the -germ and in the cells of the scutellum, which previously were almost -free from starch; the protein matter deposited in the latter disappears -to a considerable extent, and the protoplasmic content of the cells -assumes a very granular appearance. The pointed mass of cells -constituting the root-sheath is pushed forward by the root which -protrudes through the base of the grain. It is at this stage that the -barley is said by the maltster to "chit." After the first rootlet has -broken through the ends of the sheath, it is followed by others. The -cotyledonary sheath begins to elongate on the third or fourth day of -germination and ruptures the true covering of the seed; it then grows -upwards between this and the husk and forms the acrospire or "spire" of -the maltster. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Section showing the aleurone layer. - - g, Starch cells; - i, Aleurone layer; - k, Layers which collectively constitute the husk. - -[Figs. 5-7 from Sykes & Ling, _Principles and Practice of Brewing_ -(1907), Charles Griffin & Co., Ltd.]] - - According to Brown and Morris, when the first rootlet is breaking - through the sheath, starch begins to appear in the tissues of the - grain, also in the protoplasm of those cells which are nearest the - epithelial layer, and it gradually invades the deeper-seated cells. - Further the cellulose walls of the endosperm, situated immediately - above the secretory layer, are partially dissolved, the dissolved - matter passing into the scutellum, there to be transformed into - starch. Brown and Morris state that this process gradually extends to - the cellulose walls of the endosperm, and until these are affected - there is no evidence of any solvent action on the starch granules - themselves. Thus according to these authors the first enzyme to be - formed is one which dissolves cell walls, and it was consequently - termed by them a "cytohydrolyst." They assert further that the - so-called mealy or modified condition, which the maltster desires to - bring about to the fullest degree, depends on the extent to which the - cell walls have been affected, and they enter into a minute - description of the entire disappearance of these during the malting - process. On the other hand, J. Gruss has pointed out that the action - which takes place on the cell walls of the endosperm during - germination does not consist in their complete solution. Schulze has - shown that these cell walls consist of two carbohydrates, an araban - and a xylan. Gruss states that the araban is completely dissolved, - whilst the xylan is more or less unattacked. The cell walls become, - however, transparent so that they can only be seen in sections which - have been stained; Brown and Morris examined unstained sections. The - writer (A. R. Ling) has proved that the cell wall is present in the - most friable and well modified finished malt. - -_Condition._--Barley is bought in the open market solely on the evidence -of certain external signs, and judgment can only be acquired by long -experience. The corns should be plump, even in size, and the colour -should be uniform from end to end. The sample should have a sweet -odour, and it should be dry to the touch. The presence of light or -weevilled corns may be detected by the fact that they float in water. -Careless threshing or dressing is responsible for much damage done to -barley. In this way many of the corns may be broken, have the palcae -partly stripped off or portions removed along with the awn. All broken -and dead corns are prone to become mouldy on the malting floors, the -contagion thus presented becoming general. E. R. Moritz drew attention -in 1895 to the ill effects of close dressing, and more recently (1905) -the matter has been brought before the Highland and Agricultural -Society, chiefly through Montagu Baird, who with C. H. Babington was -instrumental in inducing the Board of Agriculture to publish a leaflet -recommending more careful methods of threshing barley. Close dressing -was at one time practised as a means of raising the bushel weight, and -thus giving a fictitious value to the barley. Immature barley feels cold -to the hand, has a greenish-yellow colour, and, when dry, a starved -wrinkled appearance. Over-ripeness in barley is distinguished by a white -dead appearance of the corn. Mature or dry grains slip through the -fingers more readily than unripe or damp ones. The contents of the -endosperm should present a white friable or mealy appearance when the -corns are bitten or cut in two with a penknife. The condition of the -grain may be determined by means of a mechanical cutter, which cuts a -certain number of corns (fifty or more) at one time. Some cutters are -constructed to cut the corns transversely, others to cut them -longitudinally. The so-called transparency test may be used for the same -purpose. It is carried out in an apparatus known as the diaphanoscope, -which consists of a box fitted with a sliding tray, furnished with a -certain number of shuttle-shaped holes (usually 500), each of such a -size as just to hold a barleycorn longitudinally. Into the portion of -the box below this tray an electric lamp is placed, and the corns are -looked at from above. Thoroughly mealy corns are opaque, whilst steely -corns are transparent. When certain portions of a corn are steely, these -present the appearance of lakes. By this means the percentage of mealy, -steely, or half steely corns in a sample may readily be estimated. - - E. Prior points out that steeliness of barley is of two kinds, one of - which disappears after the grain has been steeped and dried, and - therefore does not necessarily influence the malting value of the - sample, and the other which is permanent, and therefore retards the - modification of the corn. He proposed to determine what he called the - coefficient of mellowness of a sample of barley by means of the - formula:-- - - (M1 - M)100 - A = ----------- + M, - 100 - M - - in which A is the degree of mellowness, M is the percentage of mealy - corns in the original barley, and M1 is the percentage of mealy corns - after steeping and drying the barley. Prior points out that, generally - speaking, the degree of mellowness varies inversely as the protein - content. - - The physical differences between steely and mealy grains were first - investigated by Johansen, who arrived at the conclusion that mealiness - is always accompanied by the presence of air spaces in the endosperm. - Munro and Beaven confirmed and extended this. Their conclusions are as - follow: "Mealy grains have a lower specific gravity than steely - grains, and contain a larger amount of interstitial air. The total - nitrogen content of mealy grains is less than that of steely grains. - Steely grains contain a relatively high proportion of nitrogenous - substances soluble (a) in 5% salt solution, and (b) in alcohol of - specific gravity 0.9. Mealy barley modifies better than steely during - germination. The process of drying damp and under-matured barley - intact at 100 deg. F. produced an apparent mellowing or maturation. - Other things being equal, maturation, which is physiologically a - post-ripening process, is correlated with the mealy appearance of the - endosperm." H. T. Brown and his collaborators point out that thin - sections of steely corns when examined under the microscope no longer - exhibit a translucent appearance, but show the mealy properties as - completely as if they had been cut from a mealy grain, and they - suggest that in a steely corn the whole of the endosperm is under a - state of tensile stress which cannot be maintained in the thin - sections. If, however, a thin section of a steely barley be cemented - to a slide with Canada balsam and then pared away with a razor, - steeliness and translucency may be preserved even in the thinnest - sections. The mealy appearance in the endosperm of barley is assumed - to be a direct consequence of the formation of interspaces around the - cell-contents and within the cell walls. Under ordinary conditions it - is conjectured that these interspaces are filled with air, but it is - pointed out that they can also be produced under circumstances which - suggest that they are at times vacuous or partly so. According to the - last-mentioned authors they appear to originate from a system of - stresses and strains induced within the endosperm by its gradual loss - of water, a break of continuity taking place which gives rise to these - interspaces when the cohesive power of the heterogeneous cell-contents - falls below a certain point. It is further suggested by them that the - most important factor in producing the stresses and strains is - probably the shrinkage of the starch granules as their water content - is reduced from, say, 40 to about 15%. It is pointed out, however, - that actual discontinuity in the cell-contents can only take place - when the tensile strength of the protoplasmic matrix in which the - starch granules are embedded has been surpassed, and this being so it - might be anticipated that those cells which contain the larger amount - of protein material would probably best resist the internal stresses - and strains, a deduction in close agreement with observed facts, - steely grains being as a rule richer in protein than mealy grains. - Brown and his co-workers determine the coefficient of mealiness of a - barley as follows: Five hundred corns are cut transversely in a corn - cutter and the percentage of mealy, half mealy and steely corns is - noted. The number 100 is taken to represent complete mealiness, 1 - complete steeliness, and 50 the intermediate class. If the percentage - of each class be multiplied by its special value, and the sum of the - products divided by 100, the result is the coefficient of mealiness. - By steeping and drying a very steely Scottish barley, the coefficient - of mealiness was raised from 29.7 to 87.1, whilst concurrently the - specific gravity fell from 1.417 to 1.289. - -Barley even of the same kind varies widely in its chemical composition, -but on an average the proximate constituents of British malting barleys -be within the following limits:-- - - Moisture 18 --12 per cent. - Nitrogenous matters expressed as proteins 8 --15 " - Fat 2 -- 2.5 " - Starch 60 --65 " - Sugars 1.5-- 2.0 " - Gums 1.7-- 2.0 " - Fibre (cellulose) 5 -- 7 " - Ash 2 -- 2.5 " - -Any sample of barley which contains more than 20% of moisture would be -considered damp. The late Professor Lintner expressed the view several -years ago that a good malting barley should not contain more than 10% of -protein, but R. Wahl asserts that in America six-rowed barleys -containing a far higher percentage of protein are used successfully, -indeed preferably, for malting purposes. The only precise knowledge we -possess of the protein compounds of barley is due to the researches of -T. B. Osborne. According to this observer, barley contains the -under-mentioned compounds of this class in the following proportions:-- - - Soluble in water / Leucosin (albumin) \ 0.30 per cent. - \ Proteose / - Soluble in salt solution: Edestin (globulin) 1.95 " - Soluble in 75% alcohol / Hordein 4.00 " - \ Insoluble protein 4.50 " - ----- - Total 10.75 " - - It should be pointed out here that the above are only average values - for the particular samples of barley investigated. Undoubtedly the - nitrogenous constituents of different barleys vary widely in nature as - well as in amount. - -Raw barley contains enzymes, thus diastase of translocation, so called -by Horace T. Brown and G. H. Morris, and catalase (H. van Laer). -Proteolytic enzymes appear only to arise with the beginning of -germination; but it has been asserted that raw barley contains -proenzymes (zymogens), which can be rendered active by treatment with -dilute lactic acid at an appropriate temperature. The action of the -diastase of raw barley on starch has been studied by Julian L. Baker. - -Barley should not be cut until it is properly ripe, but over-ripeness is -much more to be guarded against by the maltster than premature cutting, -as it is accompanied by a loss in germinative power. Moreover, unripe -corn may to a certain extent be matured in stack, whilst a great -improvement in germinative capacity is frequently produced by sweating. -Very wet seasons are prejudicial to the ripening of the grain, and when -the latter is stacked in too moist a condition it is apt to become what -is known as mow burnt. Especially is this the case with barleys -containing large percentages of nitrogen and of high enzymatic -activities. Such barleys are denoted "warm" by M. Delbruck from their -tendency to heat when stored in a moist condition. The effect of this -heating is exhibited in the corns becoming black and discoloured at the -tips; they are then said to be magpied. Even in an otherwise dry season -a large amount of rain during harvest causes the corns to become -"weathered," whilst some of them begin germinating and rot. At the same -time heavy dews at night whilst the barley lies cut in the field, or -even a sprinkling of rain, assists in mellowing the grain, which often -in consequence works the more freely on the malting floors. Properly -harvested barley is all the better for remaining in stack for two or -three months, as was the practice in former years; if, however, it has -been stacked too wet the sooner it is broken down the better. - - It is difficult to give any specific test for ripeness, but a series - of observations has been made by H. T. Brown and F. Escombe. Samples - of barley were taken from the field on the 20th, 24th and 29th of - July, and on the 2nd, 6th and 10th of August, and preserved in spirit - so that they remained in the same state as when they were gathered. - Sections were then cut of these corns, when it was found that the - progress of maturation is attended by deformation and ultimate - disintegration of the cell nuclei. The change which is denoted by the - term nuclear senescence is said to begin in the starch-containing - cells, near the periphery of the corn, immediately underlying the - layer next to the aleurone layer. This deformation is followed by - complete disintegration of the nucleus, and at the end of seven or - eight days nearly the whole of the endosperm has been involved. Brown - and Escombe state that when this nuclear test is properly applied it - stamps as immature those corns in a sample which are manifestly unripe - owing to premature desiccation as well as those in which the ratio of - nitrogen to carbohydrate is unduly high, owing to an excess of - nitrogenous manure in the soil, or to sparser sowing with its - consequent reduction of root competition. This method, interesting - though it be, is not fitted for practical use, and the agriculturist - must rely as heretofore upon empirical methods for deciding whether or - not the grain has attained ripeness or maturity. - - The bushel weight is a useful criterion in arriving at an opinion - regarding the value of a sample of barley; but in basing judgment upon - this factor regard must be paid to the fact already mentioned that if - the grains be dressed closely the bushel weight is increased. The - reason of this is that with the removal of the awns the corns pack - more closely together. The best British malting barleys should weigh - 52-56 lb. per bushel, the standard weight for malting barleys being 56 - lb. - -During the storage of barley access of air is necessary, otherwise the -grain dies from asphyxiation. Sound barley after being kiln-dried -retains its vitality for a number of years; but the statement that the -corns found in the Egyptian mummy cases, in which they had remained for -several thousands of years, were still capable of germination, is -contrary to modern experience. Moisture must also be carefully excluded, -as it initiates germination in a few cells only of the endosperm and -causes heating. A constant repetition of wetting such as may take place -on account of alterations of the atmospheric temperature, which causes -moisture to be deposited, in the form of dew, may ultimately destroy the -vitality and foster the growth and development of mould fungi which -usually grow on broken and damaged corns. In this connexion the -advantage of screening and sweating of barley before storing it will be -apparent (see below). - - An immense amount of damage is caused to the grain, during storage, by - various insects, one of the most destructive of these being the common - weevil (_Calandra granaria_). When fully developed this insect - measures (1/6)th to (1/8)th of an inch in length, and is of a bright - chestnut colour. The larvae are fleshy legless grubs, shorter than the - perfect insect, with a series of tubercles along each side of the - body; the head is round with strong jaws. The pupa is white, clear and - transparent, showing the form of the future weevil. The female bores a - hole in the grain with her snout and deposits an egg. The larva when - hatched lives on the contents of the grain and undergoes its changes - therein. Windisch asserts that only barley which has ripened in the - granary is attacked by weevil. Grain which is only slightly attacked - should be kilned at a temperature of 122 deg. F., which destroys the - weevil in all stages of development. To detect weevil in a sample of - barley, the grain should be spread out on a sheet of white paper in - bright sunlight. If weevils are present they soon appear, and betake - themselves to a position outside the sunlight, to which they are - averse. Treatment of the grain with carbon bisulphide has been - suggested as a means of destroying weevil; even if efficacious, - however, such a process could not be recommended on account of its - danger, carbon bisulphide being highly inflammable. The only practical - means of ridding a granary or shop of weevil is to clear out all the - grain and leave it empty for a year or more. - -The vitality of barley may be determined by causing a sample to -germinate in any of the well-known forms of apparatus devised for that -purpose, and counting the percentage of germinating and idle corns. The -germinative capacity of a sample of barley may frequently be raised by -sweating (see below), which, as already mentioned, brings about a kind -of artificial maturation. - -_Malting._--There are two systems of malting used in England: floor -malting and pneumatic or drum malting. These systems will be described -separately. - -A floor malting consists of a rectangular building of several storeys, -having the cisterns at one end and the kilns at the other. The uppermost -floor is devoted to barley. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Longitudinal section of 200 quarter malting at -Mortlake. (Julian L. Baker, architect.)] - - Figure 8 shows a longitudinal section of Messrs Watney, Combe, Reid & - Co.'s 200 quarter malting at Mortlake. The barley is carried to the - top of the building by the elevator A, where the screening and - dressing machinery is situated. After leaving these machines the grain - is conveyed on bands to the barley floors B and C. The floor C - contains also the steeping cisterns. The six working floors are D, E, - F, G, H, K. The floors are ventilated by louvres, N, N, N. The - cisterns are connected to the floors by means of plugs. The "pieces," - as they are termed, of germinating barley are gradually worked along - the floors to the kilns M, M, on to which they are loaded by rotary - bands. The fire-places O, O, are arranged so that the draught may be - easily controlled. The hot air and products of combustion pass up the - shafts P, P, to the hot-air chamber R, R, where they strike the baffle - plates S, S. These plates disperse the hot air and gases evenly - beneath the kiln floors T, T, through the green malt. After drying and - curing, the malt is allowed to cool and is then carried by bands to - the floor U, where by suitable machinery the coombs or rootlets are - removed. The finished malt is stored in the bins V, V, V. - -On arrival at the malting the barley has to be put through the following -operations seriatim: receiving, hoisting and weighing, rough screening, -drying and sweating, storing until required for use, screening, grading -and removing broken corns, steeping, couching, flooring, withering, -drying and curing, dressing and polishing, storing, weighing, sacking -and discharging the finished malt. - -In sweating barley the temperature should not be allowed to rise above -120 deg. F.; it is usually conducted at 100 deg. F.; and subsequently -the barley should be stored for some weeks before it is steeped. - -The capacity of a malting is described by the number of quarters which -are put through it every four days. A fifty quarter malting does not -merely mean that the cisterns have a capacity of fifty quarters, but -that this quantity of barley goes through the house every four days. The -average time the germinating barley is on the floors is twelve days, -and, as a rule, kilning occupies four days. If, as sometimes happens, -the malt has to be kept on the floors thirteen, fourteen, fifteen days, -or even longer, the malting is not being worked at the capacity under -which it is described, and the kilns may remain unused for a day or -more. Conversely, when the malt is loaded at less than twelve days, a -day or two has to be missed in steeping. In the former case when the -kilns are not being used for drying and curing malt, advantage may be -taken to utilize them for sweating barley. - -Steeping cisterns were formerly rectangular vessels, of slate, brick or -cement, from which the barley had to be discharged by shovelling it out. -The forms approved most at the present day are conical and constructed -of iron; they have arrangements at the apex of the cone, the lower -portion, for discharging the grain by gravitation. The steeping period -ranges from 48 to 70 hours; it varies according to the kind of barley, -and the time of the year. In some of the older maltings there are no -arrangements for heating the steep water, and in the winter steeping has -occasionally to be performed with water at a temperature near its -freezing-point. Steeping should be carried out at a temperature as near -as possible to 55 deg. and not higher than 60 deg. F. The usual practice -is to fill the cistern up to a certain height with water and throw the -barley into it, stirring it until it is about level; the heavy corns -will then sink directly to the bottom, whilst the light corns and refuse -float on the surface and may be skimmed off. During the time the barley -remains in the cistern it is usual to change the steep water two or -three times, generally at intervals of twelve hours or tides. The -advantage of this is not merely to keep the grain fresh and sweet, but -to bring it into contact with the air during the time it is taking up -water. Aeration of the steep has long been recognized in Germany as -promoting germination, and several arrangements are on the market -enabling air to be passed through the grain while it is in the cistern. -It has been recommended by Graham, Stopes, Moritz and Morris, and -experimental evidence as to its beneficial effects has been published by -Windisch, Bleisch, Will, and Baker and Dick. When the corn is steep ripe -it contains some 60% of water. Steeping does not consist, however, -merely in the imbibition of a certain amount of water; in order to -bring about germination this water must remain within the corn a certain -length of time. Thus, although it is quite possible to force the -necessary amount of water into the grain in less than the 48-70 hours -usually taken up by the steeping process, the grain is not steep-ripe -until certain changes initiated by the water have taken place, and these -require time for their completion. The following average data are useful -to remember in connexion with the steeping process:-- - - Amount of water in steep-ripe barley (about) 60%. - Matter removed from barley during steeping (about) 1.5%. - Increase in volume of barley due to water absorption (about) 18-20%. - - There has been much discussion as to the influence of saline matters - in water on the steeping process. The late Professor Lintner stated - that common salt in water tended to extract the nitrogenous - constituents of the grain, but impeded its germination. Mills and - Pettigrew found that waters containing calcium salts extracted a - minimum of nitrogenous compounds from the barley; they also came to - the conclusion that the esteem in which the Lichfield water is held - for steeping purposes is due to the presence of nitrates which, they - assert, have a stimulating effect on the subsequent germination of the - grain. The writer has added lime-water to the extent of one-third of - the total volume of water at the first change, believing it to promote - regularity of germination. Bearing in mind, however, the observations - of Adrian J. Brown, that the barleycorn is enclosed in a membrane - permeable to water but impermeable to most salts, it is difficult to - see how the saline constituents of water can have any effect except in - removing matter from the external portions of the grain and on those - corns which are broken. The apparent beneficial effect of lime-water - in the steep is probably entirely due to the removal of matters from - the husks or paleae. - -Malting floors may be constructed of cement, tiles or slate, the two -former being preferable to the latter. Ford, in 1849, recommended 200 -sq. ft. per quarter of barley steeped as the area of the working floors, -and he was quite convinced of the necessity of allowing ample floor -room, so that the grain could be worked on the slow, cool system. -Subsequently, however, maltsters reduced their floor area, and put the -grain rapidly through the malting, thus producing what is termed -"forced" malt. This kind of malt was, however, condemned by practical -brewers, and a chemical test whereby forcing could be detected having -been devised by E. R. Moritz and G. H. Morris, maltsters have been -compelled again to increase the area of their working floors. At the -present time the approved area may be placed at 175-200 sq. ft. per -quarter of barley steeped. The area is, however, largely ruled by the -kind of barley to be malted. - -After the barley has been thrown out of the cistern it is made up in a -rectangular heap 16-20 in. deep, called the "couch"; the object of this -is to enable it to gather heat and so start germinating. It usually -remains in couch for 12-24 hours, until in fact the interior portion of -the heap registers a temperature of about 60 deg. F. During the days of -the malt tax the exciseman gauged the quantity of the barley while it -was in the couch. After couching the barley is spread thinly and evenly -on the floor, forming what is known as the young floor or No. 1 piece. -The first visible sign of germination is the sprouting of the rootlet, -termed "chitting," and this occurs either while the grain is on the -couch or on the young floor. As already mentioned, it may be quickened -by aerating the grain in the cistern. From the time the barley is first -cast out of the cistern up to the stage of the young floor, or No. 1 -piece, it has a pleasant ethereal odour resembling apples. Drs Thomson, -Hope and Coventry stated in the earlier part of the 19th century that -they distilled "spirits" from germinating barley at this stage. In the -light of our present knowledge it would not be surprising if alcoholic -fermentation were proved to occur within the grain at this stage, since -intramolecular or anaerobic respiration in certain vegetables has been -found to be due to alcoholic fermentation. - -The thickness at which the young floor is spread depends upon the -outside temperature and the nature of the barley. If the weather be -warm, or if there be a tendency for the barley to heat, the piece must -be spread all the thinner. At this stage the grain loses its external -wet appearance. When spread too thickly the grain will begin to sweat, -and the rootlets will be thrown out suddenly and unevenly. As a rule, -under these circumstances, the rootlets will be long and thin, when they -are said to be "wild." A piece which has been allowed to get into this -condition must at once be spread thinner. If the sweating has not -continued long, the harm done may be confined to increased loss by -respiration. The young floor is usually turned with a plough twice -during twelve hours, and it may be forked between whiles, but no hard -and fast rule can be laid down as to when this is necessary; it must be -left to the maltster's judgment, as it depends entirely on what is going -on within the grain. The object of turning is in the first place to -aerate the grain and freshen it, secondly to check excessive rise of -temperature, and thirdly to promote evenness of growth. Too frequent -turning is not to be advised. After remaining four days on the young -floor three or four rootlets should have appeared, and the acrospire -should have begun to grow up the back of the corn. The apple-like odour -of the piece then gives place to one resembling that of the common rush, -and this should continue the whole time that the malt remains on the -floor. On the fifth day the piece is next moved to No. 2 position, a -stage nearer the kiln. It is here that sprinkling is resorted to when -necessary. The amount of sprinkling and the time it is given cannot be -exactly prescribed. The amount may vary from two to five gallons per -quarter, and it should only be given when the rootlets, which ought to -be short and curly, and five or more in number, show signs of losing -their freshness. If an excessive amount of sprinkling be given forced -growth ensues. It is preferable not to add the whole of the water at one -time, but to divide it over two lots; and immediately after the piece -has been sprinkled it should be thoroughly and carefully mixed, -otherwise some of the grain will receive an undue proportion of water. -When all the sprinkling water has been given to the piece, which as a -rule should not be done later than at the sixth or seventh day of -flooring, the temperature should be kept down to about 55 deg. F. by -turning. Too frequent turning may, however, detach the rootlet, and it -may cause the grain to lose its vitality prematurely, so that growth of -the acrospire stops. - -By about the eighth day of flooring the acrospire should be about -three-quarters up the corn. After this the germinating corn is moved -forward to No. 3 piece, which is at first spread as thinly on the floors -as in the previous pieces. Here it gradually dries and incipient -withering of the rootlets sets in. The only treatment which is now given -to the grain is to heap it up thicker and thicker by degrees until it is -ready for loading on the kiln. This increase in thickness of the piece -(now called the old piece) should not be too sudden, especially if the -grain be fresh in appearance and contain a large quantity of water. When -the piece is thickened up to say 10 in. in depth, while it is in a very -moist condition, heating and sweating take place, with additional growth -of acrospire and rootlet. Under such forcing conditions a large -production of sugar and degradation of the proteins will take place. -When, however, the moisture has been gradually reduced before thickening -up, the rootlet dies off; and although increase of temperature may -occur, this is accompanied by little or no further growth of the -acrospire, action being confined to the mellowing of the grain by the -enzymes. When the malt is ready for loading on the kiln it should be -possible to break down the contents of each corn between the thumb and -finger. Opinions differ as to what the final temperature on the -withering floor should be. If the moisture content of the malt be about -50%, the piece must be kept thin to avoid sweating. But under these -conditions mellowing does not occur, hence the necessity of reducing the -moisture content gradually after the last sprinkling water has been -given. When the process has been conducted properly the temperature of -the old piece may be allowed to rise as high as 70 deg. F. during the six -hours previous to loading. The moisture content of the green malt when -loaded should not be much above 40%. - -The endosperm of green malt which is ready for the kiln should be soft -and mealy, and should not exude moisture when pressed between the -thumb-nails, but should crumble and disintegrate to a chalky mass having -little or no adhesiveness. - - The foregoing observations are not to be regarded as hard and fast - rules, but they are simply intended to give some indications of the - malting process when it proceeds on normal lines; it may be that on - account of the presence of damaged corns the piece begins to develop - mould by about the tenth day, and it then has to be kept thin and - sometimes even loaded on kiln prematurely. - -The malt made for grain distillers, in which a high diastatic activity -is required, is manufactured on quite different lines from those above -indicated. It is often sprinkled late, and loaded on kiln often in a -sodden condition. In some cases sprinkling on kiln is resorted to, but -it is doubtful if this leads to the desired object. Other things being -equal, the smaller the corns--i.e. the greater number of embryos in a -given weight--the higher the diastatic activity of the malt. In -selecting a barley for the production of highly diastatic malt, the -diastatic power of the original raw grain is a factor of great -importance. - -_Kilning._--When loaded on kiln, malt intended for brewing ale and stout -is, if properly withered, in a moribund condition; nevertheless, during -the first stages of the kilning process a certain amount of vital -activity is manifested, and the malt undergoes mellowing by the action -of enzymes on the contents of the endosperm. If the malt be loaded while -the rootlets appear fresh on account of the presence of too much -moisture, rapid growth of the acrospire ensues, giving rise to overshot -corns, known in Germany as "hussars." To check this the moisture must be -rapidly removed by the passage of large volumes of air through the malt. -But under such circumstances mellowing does not occur. The ideal -conditions of kilning are when the malt has been properly withered on -the floors before loading, and, assuming that drying and curing occupy -four days, that 25-30% of the moisture be removed very gradually, this -occupying the first three days, at the end of which the malt is said to -be hand-dry. The thickness at which the malt is spread on the kiln -should not exceed 7-8 in., and until hand-dry (that is to say, reduced -to a moisture content of 12-15%) it should not be turned; if moved at -all (and that only is necessary when reek occurs), it should only be -lightly forked. The rate at which the temperature is raised depends -largely on the kind of malt to be made and the construction of the kiln. -If high flavour and colour are required, these are produced by keeping -the malt for several hours near a temperature of 160 deg. F. while it -still contains 12-15% of moisture. If more than this amount of moisture -be present when the temperature reaches the limit just mentioned, the -conditions known as stewing would obtain, with the result that "forced" -malt would be produced. A certain amount of colour is produced at the -final temperature to which the malt is raised; but when such means are -relied upon for the production of the greater part of the colour, -reduction of extract and deficiency of flavour follow, the colour being -then almost exclusively the result of caramelization of the -carbohydrates. - -The so-called curing stage constitutes the last part of the kilning -process, and the malt must then be turned frequently to ensure -uniformity of action. Mechanical turners are exceedingly useful for this -purpose. Curing in a drum, as in the so-called pneumatic malting process -(see below), also effects satisfactory curing. - - The following table will give an idea of the kilning temperatures - usually employed for the three kinds of malt mentioned, but it must be - remembered that these temperatures are largely regulated by the - construction of the kiln and the amount of draught available. In this - connexion it may be mentioned that the final curing temperature is not - necessarily a criterion of the tint of the malt. A malt may have been - finished off at a very high temperature and still be a pale malt, - provided the moisture percentage has been sufficiently reduced in the - initial stages of kilning. - - Running - Pale Malt. Ale Malt. Amber Malt. - - 1st day temp. 90-100 deg. F. 90-100 deg. F. 90-100 deg. F. - 2nd " " 100-120 100-120 100-130 - 3rd " " 120-130(10 hrs.) 120-130( 6 hrs.) 130-150( 6 hrs.) - 3rd " " 130-180( 8 " ) 130-150(12 " ) 150-160(12 " ) - 3rd " " 180-190( 6 " ) 150-180( 6 " ) 160-180( 6 " ) - 4th " " drop to 170(12 " ) 180-190(12 " ) 180-200(12 " ) - 4th " " 190-200( 6 " ) 200-220( 6 " ) - 4th " " drop to 180( 6 " ) drop to 190( 6 " ) - - - The average laboratory values obtained from malts of the descriptions - after about two months' storage should be as follows:-- - - Running - Pale Malt. Ale Malt. Amber Malt. - - Extract per standard quarter of - 336 lb. 95-98 lb. 94-96 lb. 94-96 lb. - Moisture about 2.0% in each case - Diastatic activity (Lintner) 30-35 20-30 8-10 - Tint (Lovibond 52 series neutral) 3-5 6-8 20-25 - -_Metabolic Changes._--All through the malting process metabolic changes -are proceeding, in which both carbohydrates and proteins are concerned. -In its resting stage the embryo of a barleycorn is generally free from -starch; as soon as germination sets in, however, starch appears in the -scutellum, while the amount of sucrose there present increases, these -being apparently formed from maltose originating from the action of -diastase on the starch of the endosperm. Sucrose also augments in the -aleurone layer, but starch is never formed in the aleurone cells. These -changes occur when the malt is first loaded on kiln; indeed, at no part -of the malting process is there greater physiological activity. - -Kilning has been specially studied by J. Gruss, who divides the process -into four stages, the first being that at which the temperature limit is -113 deg. F. It is characterized by a continuation of the living processes, -especially growth of the acrospire, which, as already stated, proceeds -too far if the malt be loaded too wet. In any case the rootlet dies -away. The metabolism of the carbohydrates already mentioned is -accompanied by that of the nitrogenous constituents, the reserve protein -of the sub-aleurone layer being attacked by proteolytic enzymes and -broken down into simpler compounds. This is a most important matter from -the point of view of the brewing value of barley, for the degradation -products of the proteins are necessary constituents of wort as yeast -food. Moreover, unless proper modification of these protein bodies -occurs it is impossible to produce tender malt. A barley which contains -a high percentage of reserve protein is as a rule unfitted for malting -purposes, and indeed, the higher the protein content the greater the -difficulty the maltster experiences in dealing with it. Protein -hydrolysis requires the presence of a certain amount of moisture, and if -this be removed too rapidly by a forced draught at the early stages of -kilning the proteolytic enzymes cannot perform their function. If, on -the other hand, the grain be loaded in too moist a condition, and the -temperature be raised too quickly, the proteolytic enzymes lose their -activity and the proteins remain for the most part unattacked. When -germination is allowed to proceed on the kiln too great degradation of -the protein occurs, and the malt is liable to produce fretty beers, on -account of the presence of an excessive amount of nitrogenous nutritive -matter, which leads to the development of disease organisms. - -The second stage of the kilning process, according to Gruss, is that at -which the temperatures range from 113 deg. to 167 deg. F. The life of -the corn is now suspended, but enzymatic processes continue. The starch -is further saccharified, and the dividing line of the aleurone layer at -the furrow is attacked, as are also the cell walls of the endosperm, -which are still intact, these being partially converted into gummy -substances. This change, however, also requires the presence of a -certain amount of moisture. If too much air be passed through the malt -at this stage the above-named dividing partition of the cell walls is -not attacked. The air may expand the grain to some extent and produce -malt of a low bushel weight, which, however, is not properly modified -and cannot give satisfactory results in practice. - -During the third stage of kilning, an enzyme, which Gruss claims to have -recognized, and which he denotes spermoxidase, is said to exert its -activity. - -Schonfeld has confirmed the discoveries of Gruss by practical -experiments. - - _Fuel._--The fuel used for drying and curing malt is either anthracite - or coke, and the greatest care is necessary in selecting it on account - of its liability to contain arsenic, which is to a greater or less - extent an invariable constituent of all coal. The fuel used for - malting purposes should not contain more arsenic than (1/20)th grain - per lb. Gas coke should on no account be used, unless it has been - proved to be sufficiently free from arsenic; but the best oven coke - frequently contains so little arsenic that it may be employed with - perfect safety, especially if it be mixed with a proportion (e.g. 5%) - of milk of lime, which retains the arsenic as calcium arsenate. In - Germany malt is, as a rule, dried and cured with hot air, whilst in - Great Britain the products of combustion are passed through the malt, - as it is believed that they exert a beneficial influence on the - flavour. The proportion of fuel used for drying and curing malt varies - according to the quality of the fuel and the construction of the kiln, - but on an average it may be placed at 50-80 lb. per quarter. - - [Illustration: - - [From Sykes & Ling, _Principles and Practice of Brewing_ (1907), - Charles Griffin & Co., Ltd.] - - Fig. 9.--Diagrammatic view of pneumatic malting, showing pneumatic - washing and steeping cisterns.] - - _Storing._--After the malt has passed through the curing stage it is - generally heaped up for a few hours. This is believed to increase its - flavour. The malt is then stripped from the kiln, and the rootlets, - technically known as the coombs, are removed. Formerly this was - effected by workmen treading the malt, who wore heavy boots for the - purpose. At the present time, however, the rootlets are usually - removed by machinery, special forms of which have been devised for - this as well as for dressing and polishing the malt. It is the custom - of some maltsters to store malt with the rootlets still attached; but - this is an objectionable practice, since malt coombs attract moisture, - and the presence of more than 3% of moisture in malt produces the - condition known as "slackness." When the malt is packed in bin it is - often covered with a layer of coombs, which then prevent access of - atmospheric moisture. Malt, to preserve its good qualities intact, - should be stored in bins made as nearly as possible air-tight, and it - should never be placed in bin until it is quite cool. It is probably - wrong to store malt in bins adjacent to the kilns, where it is kept at - a higher temperature than that of the surrounding atmosphere. During - storage of the malt a kind of mellowing occurs, the mechanism of which - is not understood. It is, however, known by practical brewers that the - best results cannot be obtained when new malt is used. - - _Premature Malting._--Several years ago Galland suggested germinating - barley in a drum, his idea being to do away with handling of the - grain, and also to be independent of changes of atmospheric - temperature. The latest development of this system, the so-called - Galland-Henning process of pneumatic malting, has been improved by Mr - R. Blair Robertson, and a diagrammatic view of the interior of one of - these maltings, showing the drums and conical steeping cisterns, is - shown in fig. 9. - - The drums are provided with a perforated channel for the passage of - air through the malt, which is packed in the annular space between - this channel and outside wall of the drum. Each drum is capable of - revolving on its axis, and there are arrangements for passing either - moist, saturated or dry air through the malt. The system as now - improved is capable of producing some of the best malt, especially if, - after germination has been completed in the drums, the green malt is - loaded on an ordinary kiln and the initial stages of kilning (see - above) conducted in the usual way; the curing, however, may be carried - out successfully in a special form of drum. - - _Yield and Weight._--The malting process is attended with a certain - amount of loss of dry substance of the barley, as follows:-- - - In the steep 1.5 to 2.0% - By respiration on floors and on kilns 3.0 " 5.0% - Coombs 3.0 " 4.0% - --- ----- - Total 7.5 " 11.0% - - In addition to this, barley, as already mentioned, contains from 15 to - 20% of moisture, whereas finished malt contains 1 to 2%. The total - loss in weight which barley undergoes in the malting process may be - put down at from 17 to 28%. Since, however, malt is lighter than - barley (and the quantity of both was in former years measured - exclusively by volume), it frequently happens that a given number of - quarters of barley yields a larger number of quarters of finished - malt. When this happens it is usual to speak of an increase having - been obtained. At the present time weight replaces measure for both - barley and malt, and although it is usual to speak of the quantity of - grain in terms of quarters, what is meant is not the measured quarter, - but so many weighed standard quarters. The standard quarter for - English malting barley is 448 lb. and for malt 336 lb. From this it - will be seen that when a given number of weighed quarters of barley - yields the same number of quarters of finished malt, the actual yield - is 75%, and there is then said to be neither increase nor decrease. As - a rule, in practical working the yield of malt varies from a 4% - decrease to a 10% increase, corresponding to an actual yield on the - original barley of 72 to 82.5%. - - J. Baverstock, an old writer, says that finished malt should weigh - one-fifth less than the barley from which it is produced. This - corresponds to a malting increase of about 7%, which is a high yield. - As a rule, foreign barley will give a greater malting increase than - English barley, because, on the one hand, the former usually contains - less moisture than the latter, and, further, because there is less - loss on the floors by respiration and rootlet growth. - - The yield of malt from barley may be determined in the laboratory in - an extremely simple manner. Since every grain of barley must yield a - grain of malt, if we know the respective weights of a definite number - of barley and malt grains, provided that this number is large enough - to represent the average, then obviously this gives the data requisite - for calculating the yield of malt from barley. The number of corns the - weight of which is determined for this purpose is usually 1000, and if - the weight of this number be determined on several different 1000 - corns, the average will closely approximate to the truth. Instead of - counting the corns by hand, an instrument may be used for this - purpose. - - If 1000 corns of a barley were found to weigh 42 grammes, and 1000 - corns of a finished malt from the same barley 32 grammes, then the - yield of malt is (32 X 100)/42 = 76.1, this corresponding to a 1% - increase. Assuming that the moisture content of the barley was 15% and - that of the finished malt 2%, 100 grammes of malt will contain 2 - grammes of moisture, and 76.1 grammes will contain (76.1 X 2)/100 = - 1.5 grammes moisture; therefore 76.1 grammes of malt contain 76.1 - - 1.5 = 74.6 grammes of dry matter. This was obtained from 100 - 15 = 85 - grammes of barley dry substance. Hence 100 parts of barley dry - substance will yield (74.6 X 100)/85 = 87.7 corresponding with a loss - of dry substance equal to 12.5% of the dry substance of the barley, or - with a loss of 10.7% on the barley containing 15% of moisture. - - The results obtained by this method of laboratory control when it is - accurately carried out agree very closely with those deduced from the - practical results of weighing the barley, malt and coombs in the - malting. - - _Special Malts._--In addition to the kinds of malt considered in what - precedes, there are others mostly used for imparting specific flavours - and colour to beers and stout. These are crystal malt, imperial malt, - brown or blown malt, and black or roasted malt. Crystal malt is grown - for a shortened period on the floors, and then placed in a wire - cylinder, which is rotated over a fire so that it is dried at a very - high temperature. The weight per quarter is from 250 to 280 lb. - Imperial malt is dried off on an ordinary kiln at a final temperature - of 240-270 deg. F., but it is not allowed the usual length of time on - the withering floor. It is placed on the drying kiln in a layer not - exceeding one inch and a half in thickness. A moderate heat from burnt - wood is first applied until the bulk of the moisture has been driven - off, when the temperature is suddenly raised so that the grains swell - some 25% and the malt takes up a strong empyreumatic flavour from the - products of combustion. This kind of malt weighs 270-300 lb. per - quarter. Black or roasted malt is prepared by roasting malt in a - cylinder. Ford states that perfectly malted corn gives a colour of - less intensity and permanence than does partially malted corn, and - this has been confirmed by other observers. A certain quantity of the - so-called black malt is actually made from raw barley, but this gives - a product of inferior flavour. The weight per quarter of black malt - varies as much as from 215 to 290 lb. - - _Valuation._--For the valuation of malt the following determinations - are usually carried out: Extract per standard quarter, moisture, - diastatic activity by the Lintner process, tint, and matters soluble - in cold water. The physical examination of malt is also a matter of - importance, inasmuch as direct evidence is obtained thereby of the - modification of the malt. Among the methods adopted for this purpose - may be mentioned counting the percentage of corns in which the - acrospire has grown up to one-half, two-thirds and three-fourths the - entire length of the corn. In properly made malt the modification of - the endosperm should proceed _pari passu_ with the growth of the - acrospire. The sinker test is also useful when carried out in an - intelligent manner. Those corns which sink in water and lie flat are - improperly modified. Normal malt has a specific gravity less than - water and the corns have equal density throughout; consequently they - float horizontally in water. In forced samples the proximal ends are - frequently lighter than the distal ends, and the corns float - horizontally in water, with the germ directed upwards. The latter, - however, may in some cases fill with water, and the corns lie flat or - sink. This is a characteristic of over-modified malt. It will be seen - from these remarks that it is essential to carry out the sinker test - under standard conditions. The modification of the malt may also be - determined by means of the diaphanoscope already referred to under - Barley. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--M. M. W. Baird, _Journ. Inst. Brewing_ (1905), 11, 431; - J. L. Baker, _Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans._ (1902), 81, 1177; _The Brewing - Industry_; J. L. Baker and W. D. Dick, _Journ. Inst. Brewing_ (1905), - 11, 380; J. Baverstock, _Treatise on Brewing and Malting_ (1824); E. - S. Beaven, _Journ. Fed. Inst. Brewing_ (1902), 8, 542; R. H. Biffen, - _Journ. Inst. Brewing_ (1906), 12, 366; Board of Agriculture and - Fisheries (Leaflet 149); A. J. Brown, _Annals of Botany_ (1907), 21, - 79; H. T. Brown and G. H. Morris, _Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans._ (1890), - 57, 458; H. T. Brown and others, _Trans. Guinness Research Lab._ - (1903), vol.--pt. I. (1906), pt. II.; M. Delbruck, _Journ. Inst. - Brewing_ (1906), 12, 642; Ford, _A Treatise on Malting_ (1849); C. - Graham, Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts (1874); J. Gruss, - _Wochenschrift fur Brauerei_ (1895), 12, 1257; (1896), 13, 729; - (1897), 14, 321, 409; (1898), 15, 81, 269; (1899), 16, 519, 621; (1902), 19, - 243; W. Johannsen, _Resume. Comptes rendus trav. lab. Carlsberg_ - (1884), 2, 60; A. R. Ling, _Brewers' Journal_ (1904), 40, 741; E. J. - Mills and J. B. Pettigrew, _Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans._ (1882), 41, 38; - E. R. Moritz, _Journ. Fed. Inst. Brewing_ (1895), 1, 228; E. R. Moritz - and G. H. Morris, _A Textbook of the Science of Brewing_ (1891); J. M. - H. Munro and E. S. Beaven, _Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc._ (1900), 11, pt. - II., 5; T. B. Osborne, _Report_ of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment - Station (1894); H. Stopes, _Malt and Malting_ (1895); W. J. Sykes and - A. R. Ling, _Principles and Practice of Brewing_ (1907); H. Van Laer - _Bull. de la soc. chim. de Belgique_ (1905), 337; R. Wahl, _Amer. - Brewers' Rev._ (1904), 18, 89. (A. R. L.*) - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 17, Slice 4, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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