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diff --git a/42854-0.txt b/42854-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0d9bbce --- /dev/null +++ b/42854-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18958 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42854 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE MAGNETOMETER: "... the determination of the magnetic + elements on board ship is a matter of very considerable + importance." 'determination' amended from 'determinaton'. + + ARTICLE MAGNETO-OPTICS: "The relation of the magnetic rotation to + chemical constitution has been studied in great detail by Perkin, + Wachsmuth, Jahn and Schönrock." 'constitution' amended from + 'consitution'. + + ARTICLE MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV: "... ('Magnus's green salt' is + PtCl2, 2NH3), of sulphovinic ..." 'PtCl2' amended from 'Ptll2'. + + ARTICLE MAHOMET: "With this change we may perhaps couple the + adoption of the name Allah for the Deity ..." 'Deity' amended from + 'Diety'. + + ARTICLE MAHOMMEDAN LAW: "It was rather the Moslem leaders who were + compelled to abandon their ideas and for the sake of the spread of + Islam to accept and incorporate much that was diametrically opposed + to the original legislation either of the Koran or of Mahomet's + recorded decisions." 'decisions' amended from 'decisons'. + + ARTICLE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO: "In 1611 the headquarters of the Dutch + was changed from Bantam to Jakarta, which in 1619 was renamed + Batavia, and was thenceforward the Dutch capital." 'Jakarta' + amended from 'Jakatra'. + + ARTICLE MALAYS: "When the first Europeans visited the Malay + Archipelago the Malays had already acquired the art of + manufacturing gunpowder and forging cannon." 'cannon' amended from + 'canon'. + + ARTICLE MALAY STATES: "The country is mountainous except close to + the coast. The principal rivers are the Patani and the Teloban, + long, winding and shallow, and navigable for small boats only." + 'the' amended from 'tle'. + + ARTICLE MALOCELLO, LANCILOTO: "This was a Genoese expedition, which + about 1270 seems to have sailed into the Atlantic, re-discovered + the 'Fortunate Islands' or Canaries" 'Atlantic' amended from + 'Alantic'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XVII, SLICE IV + + Magnetite to Malt + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + MAGNETITE MAJOR, JOHN + MAGNETOGRAPH MAJOR + MAGNETOMETER MAJORCA + MAGNETO-OPTICS MAJORIAN + MAGNOLIA MAJORITY + MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV MAJUBA + MAGNY, CLAUDE DRIGON MAKALAKA + MAGO MAKARAKA + MAGPIE MAKART, HANS + MAGWE MAKING-UP PRICE + MAGYARS MAKÓ + MAHABALESHWAR MAKRAN + MAHAFFY, JOHN PENTLAND MAKSOORA + MAHALLAT MALABAR + MAHAN, ALFRED THAYER MALABARI, BEHRAMJI + MAHANADI MALABON + MAHANOY CITY MALACCA + MAHAR MALACHI + MAHARAJPUR MALACHITE + MAHAVAMSA MALACHOWSKI, STANISLAW + MAHAYANA MALACHY, ST + MAHDI MALACOSTRACA + MAHDIA MALAGA (province of Spain) + MAHÉ MALAGA (city of Spain) + MAHESHWAR MALAKAND PASS + MAHI MALALAS, JOHN + MAHI KANTHA MALAN, SOLOMON CAESAR + MAHMUD I. MÄLAR + MAHMUD II. MALARIA + MAHMUD NEDIM PASHA MALATIA + MAHMUD OF GHAZNI MALAYALAM + MAHOBA MALAY ARCHIPELAGO + MAHOGANY MALAIR + MAHOMET MALAY PENINSULA + MAHOMMED AHMED IBN ABDULLAH MALAYS + MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS MALAY STATES (British) + MAHOMMEDAN LAW MALAY STATES (Siamese) + MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION MALCHIN + MAHONY, FRANCIS SYLVESTER MALCOLM + MAHOUT MALCOLM, SIR JOHN + MAHRATTAS MALDA + MAHSEER MALDEN + MAI, ANGELO MALDIVE ISLANDS + MAIA MALDON + MAIDA MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS + MAIDAN MALER KOTLA + MAIDEN MALESHERBES, CHRÉTIEN DE LAMOIGNON DE + MAIDENHAIR MALET, LUCAS + MAIDENHEAD MALHERBE, FRANÇOIS DE + MAID MARIAN MALIBRAN, MARIE FÉLICITÉ + MAIDSTONE MALIC ACID + MAIHAR MALIGNANT + MAIL MALIK IBN ANAS + MAILLY, LOUISE JULIE MALINES + MAIMANA MALLANWAN + MAIMAND MALLARMÉ, FRANÇOIS RENÉ AUGUSTE + MAIMBOURG, LOUIS MALLARMÉ, STÉPHANE + MAIMING MALLECO + MAIMON, SALOMON MALLEMUCK + MAIMONIDES MALLESON, GEORGE BRUCE + MAIN (river of Germany) MALLET, DAVID + MAIN (power or strength) MALLET, PAUL HENRI + MAINA and MAINOTES MALLET, ROBERT + MAINE, ANNE LOUISE DE BOURBON MALLET DU PAN, JACQUES + MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER MALLING, EAST and WEST + MAINE (French province) MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL + MAINE (U.S. state) MALLOW (town of Ireland) + MAINE DE BIRAN, FRANÇOIS-GONTHIER MALLOW (botanical genus) + MAINE-ET-LOIRE MALMEDY + MAINPURI MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS + MAINTENANCE MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS + MAINTENON, FRANÇOISE D'AUBIGNÉ MALMESBURY + MAINZ MALMÖ + MAIRET, JEAN DE MALMSEY + MAISTRE, JOSEPH DE MALOCELLO, LANCILOTO + MAISTRE, XAVIER DE MALOLOS + MAITLAND, EDWARD MALONE, EDMOND + MAITLAND, FREDERIC WILLIAM MALONE + MAITLAND, SIR RICHARD MALONIC ACID + MAITLAND, WILLIAM MALORY, SIR THOMAS + MAITLAND, EAST and WEST MALOT, HECTOR HENRI + MAITREYA MALOU, JULES ÉDOUARD XAVIER + MAIWAND MALOUET, PIERRE VICTOR + MAIZE MALPIGHI, MARCELLO + MAJESTY MALPLAQUET + MAJLÁTH, JÁNOS MALSTATT-BURBACH + MAJOLICA MALT + + + + +MAGNETITE, a mineral forming the natural magnet (see MAGNETISM), and +important also as an iron-ore. It is an iron-black, opaque mineral, with +metallic lustre; hardness about 6, sp. gr. 4.9 to 5.2. When scratched, +it yields a black streak. It is an oxide of iron having the formula +Fe3O4, corresponding with 72.4% of metal, whence its great value as an +ore. It may be regarded as a ferroso-ferric oxide, FeO·Fe2O3, or as iron +ferrate, Fe´´Fe2´´´O4. Titanium is often present, and occasionally the +mineral contains magnesium, nickel, &c. It is always strongly magnetic. +Magnetite crystallizes in the cubic system, usually in octahedra, less +commonly in rhombic dodecahedra, and not infrequently in twins of the +"spinel type" (fig. 1). The rhombic faces of the dodecahedron are often +striated parallel to the longer diagonal. There is no distinct cleavage, +but imperfect parting may be obtained along octahedral planes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +Magnetite is a mineral of wide distribution, occurring as grains in many +massive and volcanic rocks, like granite, diorite and dolerite. It +appears to have crystallized from the magma at a very early period of +consolidation. Its presence contributes to the dark colour of many +basalts and other basic rocks, and may cause them to disturb the +compass. Large ore-bodies of granular and compact magnetite occur as +beds and lenticular masses in Archean gneiss and crystalline schists, in +various parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Urals; as also in the +states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Michigan, as well as in +Canada. In some cases it appears to have segregated from a basic +eruptive magma, and in other cases to have resulted from metamorphic +action. Certain deposits appear to have been formed, directly or +indirectly, by wet processes. Iron rust sometimes contains magnetite. An +interesting deposit of oolitic magnetic ore occurs in the Dogger +(Inferior Oolite) of Rosedale Abbey, in Yorkshire; and a somewhat +similar pisolitic ore, of Jurassic age, is known on the continent as +chamoisite, having been named from Chamoison (or Chamoson) in the +Valais, Switzerland. Grains of magnetite occur in serpentine, as an +alteration-product of the olivine. In emery, magnetite in a granular +form is largely associated with the corundum; and in certain kinds of +mica magnetite occurs as thin dendritic enclosures. Haematite is +sometimes magnetic, and A. Liversidge has shown that magnetite is +probably present. By deoxidation, haematite may be converted into +magnetite, as proved by certain pseudomorphs; but on the other hand +magnetite is sometimes altered to haematite. On weathering, magnetite +commonly passes into limonite, the ferrous oxide having probably been +removed by carbonated waters. Closely related to magnetite is the rare +volcanic mineral from Vesuvius, called magnoferrite, or magnesioferrite, +with the formula MgFe2O4; and with this may be mentioned a mineral from +Jakobsberg, in Vermland, Sweden, called jakobsite, containing MnFe2O4. + (F. W. R.*) + + + + +MAGNETOGRAPH, an instrument for continuously recording the values of the +magnetic elements, the three universally chosen being the declination, +the horizontal component and the vertical component (see TERRESTRIAL +MAGNETISM). In each case the magnetograph only records the variation of +the element, the absolute values being determined by making observations +in the neighbourhood with the unifilar magnetometer (q.v.) and +inclinometer (q.v.). + + _Declination._--The changes in declination are obtained by means of a + magnet which is suspended by a long fibre and carries a mirror, + immediately below which a fixed mirror is attached to the base of the + instrument. Both mirrors are usually concave; if plane, a concave lens + is placed immediately before them. Light passing through a vertical + slit falls upon the mirrors, from which it is reflected, and two + images of the slit are produced, one by the movable mirror attached to + the magnet and the other by the fixed mirror. These images would be + short lines of light; but a piano-cylindrical lens is placed with its + axis horizontal just in front of the recording surface. In this way a + spot of light is obtained from each mirror. The recording surface is a + sheet of photographic paper wrapped round a drum which is rotated at a + constant speed by clockwork about a horizontal axis. The light + reflected from the fixed mirror traces a straight line on the paper, + serving as a base line from which the variations in declination are + measured. As the declination changes the spot of light reflected from + the magnet mirror moves parallel to the axis of the recording drum, + and hence the distance between the line traced by this spot and the + base line gives, for any instant, on an arbitrary scale the difference + between the declination and a constant angle, namely, the declination + corresponding to the base line. The value of this constant angle is + obtained by comparing the record with the value for the declination as + measured with a magnetometer. The value in terms of arc of the scale + of the record can be obtained by measuring the distance between the + magnet mirror and the recording drum, and in most observations it is + such that a millimetre on the record represents one minute of arc. The + time scale ordinarily employed is 15 mm. per hour, but in modern + instruments provision is generally made for the time scale to be + increased at will to 180 mm. per hour, so that the more rapid + variations of the declination can be followed. The advantages of using + small magnets, so that their moment of inertia may be small and hence + they may be able to respond to rapid changes in the earth's field, + were first insisted upon by E. Mascart,[1] while M. Eschenhagen[2] + first designed a set of magnetographs in which this idea of small + moment of inertia was carried to its useful limit, the magnets only + weighing 1.5 gram each, and the suspension consisting of a very fine + quartz fibre. + + _Horizontal Force._--The variation of the horizontal force is obtained + by the motion of a magnet which is carried either by a bifilar + suspension or by a fairly stiff metal wire or quartz fibre. The upper + end of the suspension is turned till the axis of the magnet is at + right angles to the magnetic meridian. In this position the magnet is + in equilibrium under the action of the torsion of the suspension and + the couple exerted by the horizontal component, H, of the earth's + field, this couple depending on the product of H into the magnetic + moment, M, of the magnet. Hence if H varies the magnet will rotate in + such a way that the couple due to torsion is equal to the new value of + H multiplied by M. Since the movements of the magnet are always small, + the rotation of the magnet is proportional to the change in H, so long + as M and the couple, [theta], corresponding to unit twist of the + suspension system remain constant. When the temperature changes, + however, both M and [theta] in general change. With rise of + temperature M decreases, and this alone will produce the same effect + as would a decrease in H. To allow for this effect of temperature a + compensating system of metal bars is attached to the upper end of the + bifilar suspension, so arranged that with rise of temperature the + fibres are brought nearer together and hence the value of [theta] + decreases. Since such a decrease in [theta] would by itself cause the + magnet to turn in the same direction as if H had increased, it is + possible in a great measure to neutralize the effects of temperature + on the reading of the instrument. In the case of the unifilar + suspension, the provision of a temperature compensation is not so + easy, so that what is generally done is to protect the instrument from + temperature variation as much as possible and then to correct the + indications so as to allow for the residual changes, a continuous + record of the temperature being kept by a recording thermograph + attached to the instrument. In the Eschenhagen pattern instrument, in + which a single quartz fibre is used for the suspension, two magnets + are placed in the vicinity of the suspended magnet and are so arranged + that their field partly neutralizes the earth's field; thus the + torsion required to hold the magnet with its axis perpendicular to the + earth's field is reduced, and the arrangement permits of the + sensitiveness being altered by changing the position of the deflecting + magnets. Further, by suitably choosing the positions of the deflectors + and the coefficient of torsion of the fibre, it is possible to make + the temperature coefficient vanish. (See Adolf Schmidt, _Zeits. für + Instrumentenkunde_, 1907, 27, 145.) The method of recording the + variations in H is exactly the same as that adopted in the case of the + declination, and the sensitiveness generally adopted is such that 1 + mm. on the record represents a change in H of .00005 C.G.S., the time + scale being the same as that employed in the case of the declination. + + _Vertical Component._--To record the variations of the vertical + component use is made of a magnet mounted on knife edges so that it + can turn freely about a horizontal axis at right angles to its length + (H. Lloyd, _Proc. Roy. Irish Acad._, 1839, 1, 334). The magnet is so + weighted that its axis is approximately horizontal, and any change in + the inclination of the axis is observed by means of an attached + mirror, a second mirror fixed to the stand serving to give a base line + for the records, which are obtained in the same way as in the case of + the declination. The magnet is in equilibrium under the influence of + the couple VM due to the vertical component V, and the couple due to + the fact that the centre of gravity is slightly on one side of the + knife-edge. Hence when, say, V decreases the couple VM decreases, and + hence the north end of the balanced magnet rises, and vice versa. The + chief difficulty with this form of instrument is that it is very + sensitive to changes of temperature, for such changes not only alter M + but also in general cause the centre of gravity of the system to be + displaced with reference to the knife-edge. To reduce these effects + the magnet is fitted with compensating bars, generally of zinc, so + adjusted by trial that as far as possible they neutralize the effect + of changes of temperature. In the Eschenhagen form of vertical force + balance two deflecting magnets are used to partly neutralize the + vertical component, so that the centre of gravity is almost exactly + over the support. By varying the positions of these deflecting magnets + it is possible to compensate for the effects of changes of temperature + (A. Schmidt, loc. cit.). In order to eliminate the irregularity which + is apt to be introduced by dust, &c., interfering with the working of + the knife-edge, W. Watson (_Phil. Mag._, 1904 [6], 7, 393) designed a + form of vertical force balance in which the magnet with its mirror is + attached to the mid point of a horizontal stretched quartz fibre. The + temperature compensation is obtained by attaching a small weight to + the magnet, and then bringing it back to the horizontal position by + twisting the fibre. + + The scale values of the records given by the horizontal and vertical + force magnetographs are determined by deflecting the respective + needles, either by means of a magnet placed at a known distance or by + passing an electric current through circular coils of large diameter + surrounding the instruments. + + The width of the photographic sheet which receives the spot of light + reflected from the mirrors in the above instruments is generally so + great that in the case of ordinary changes the curve does not go off + the paper. Occasionally, however, during a disturbance such is not the + case, and hence a portion of the trace would be lost. To overcome this + difficulty Eschenhagen in his earlier type of instruments attached to + each magnet two mirrors, their planes being inclined at a small angle + so that when the spot reflected from one mirror goes off the paper, + that corresponding to the other comes on. In the later pattern a third + mirror is added of which the plane is inclined at about 30° to the + horizontal. The light from the slit is reflected on to this mirror by + an inclined fixed mirror, and after reflection at the movable mirror + is again reflected at the fixed mirror and so reaches the recording + drum. By this arrangement the angular rotation of the reflected beam + is less than that of the magnet, and hence the spot of light reflected + from this mirror yields a trace on a much smaller scale than that + given by the ordinary mirror and serves to give a complete record of + even the most energetic disturbance. + + See also Balfour Stewart, _Report of the British Association_, + Aberdeen, 1859, 200, a description of the type of instrument used in + the older observatories; E. Mascart, _Traité de magnétisme terrestre_, + p. 191; W. Watson, _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1901, 6, 187, describing + magnetographs used in India; M. Eschenhagen, _Verhandlungen der + deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft_, 1899, 1, 147; _Terrestrial + Magnetism_, 1900, 5, 59; and 1901, 6, 59; _Zeits. für + Instrumentenkunde_, 1907, 27, 137; W. G. Cady, _Terrestrial + Magnetism_, 1904, 9, 69, describing a declination magnetograph in + which the record is obtained by means of a pen acting on a moving + strip of paper, so that the curve can be consulted at all times to see + whether a disturbance is in progress. + + The effects of temperature being so marked on the readings of the + horizontal and vertical force magnetographs, it is usual to place the + instruments either in an underground room or in a room which, by means + of double walls and similar devices, is protected as much as possible + from temperature changes. For descriptions of the arrangements adopted + in some observatories see the following: U.S. observatories, + _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1903, 8, 11; Utrecht, _Terrestrial + Magnetism_, 1900, 5, 49; St Maur, _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1898, 3, 1; + Potsdam, _Veröffentlichungen des k. preuss. meteorol. Instituts_, + "Ergebnisse der magnetischen Beobachtungen in Potsdam in den Jahren + 1890 und 1891;" Pavlovsk, "Das Konstantinow'sche meteorologische und + magnetische Observatorium in Pavlovsk," _Ausgabe der kaiserl. Akad. + der Wissenschaften zu St Petersburg_, 1895. (W. Wn.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Report British Association_, Bristol, 1898, p. 741. + + [2] _Verhandlungen der deutschen physikalischen Gesellschaft_, 1899, + 1, 147; or _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1900, 5, 59. + + + + +MAGNETOMETER, a name, in its most general sense, for any instrument used +to measure the strength of any magnetic field; it is, however, often +used in the restricted sense of an instrument for measuring a particular +magnetic field, namely, that due to the earth's magnetism, and in this +article the instruments used for measuring the value of the earth's +magnetic field will alone be considered. + +The elements which are actually measured when determining the value of +the earth's field are usually the declination, the dip and the +horizontal component (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL). For the instruments +and methods used in measuring the dip see INCLINOMETER. It remains to +consider the measurement of the declination and the horizontal +component, these two elements being generally measured with the same +instrument, which is called a unifilar magnetometer. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Unifilar Magnetometer, arranged to indicate +declination.] + + _Measurement of Declination._--The measurement of the declination + involves two separate observations, namely, the determination of (a) + the magnetic meridian and (b) the geographical meridian, the angle + between the two being the declination. In order to determine the + magnetic meridian the orientation of the magnetic axis of a freely + suspended magnet is observed; while, in the absence of a distant mark + of which the azimuth is known, the geographical meridian is obtained + from observations of the transit of the sun or a star. The geometrical + axis of the magnet is sometimes defined by means of a mirror rigidly + attached to the magnet and having the normal to the mirror as nearly + as may be parallel to the magnetic axis. This arrangement is not very + convenient, as it is difficult to protect the mirror from accidental + displacement, so that the angle between the geometrical and magnetic + axes may vary. For this reason the end of the magnet is sometimes + polished and acts as the mirror, in which case no displacement of the + reflecting surface with reference to the magnet is possible. A + different arrangement, used in the instrument described below, + consists in having the magnet hollow, with a small scale engraved on + glass firmly attached at one end, while to the other end is attached a + lens, so chosen that the scale is at its principal focus. In this case + the geometrical axis is the line joining the central division of the + scale to the optical centre of the lens. The position of the magnet is + observed by means of a small telescope, and since the scale is at the + principal focus of the lens, the scale will be in focus when the + telescope is adjusted to observe a distant object. Thus no alteration + in the focus of the telescope is necessary whether we are observing + the magnet, a distant fixed mark, or the sun. + + The Kew Observatory pattern unifilar magnetometer is shown in figs. 1 + and 2. The magnet consists of a hollow steel cylinder fitted with a + scale and lens as described above, and is suspended by a long thread + of unspun silk, which is attached at the upper end to the torsion head + H. The magnet is protected from draughts by the box A, which is closed + at the sides by two shutters when an observation is being taken. The + telescope B serves to observe the scale attached to the magnet when + determining the magnetic meridian, and to observe the sun or star when + determining the geographical meridian. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Unifilar Magnetometer, arranged to show + deflexion.] + + When making a determination of declination a brass plummet having the + same weight as the magnet is first suspended in its place, and the + torsion of the fibre is taken out. The magnet having been attached, + the instrument is rotated about its vertical axis till the centre + division of the scale appears to coincide with the vertical cross-wire + of the telescope. The two verniers on the azimuth circle having been + read, the magnet is then inverted, i.e. turned through 180° about its + axis, and the setting is repeated. A second setting with the magnet + inverted is generally made, and then another setting with the magnet + in its original position. The mean of all the readings of the verniers + gives the reading on the azimuth circle corresponding to the magnetic + meridian. To obtain the geographical meridian the box A is removed, + and an image of the sun or a star is reflected into the telescope B by + means of a small transit mirror N. This mirror can rotate about a + horizontal axis which is at right angles to the line of collimation of + the telescope, and is parallel to the surface of the mirror. The time + of transit of the sun or star across the vertical wire of the + telescope having been observed by means of a chronometer of which the + error is known, it is possible to calculate the azimuth of the sun or + star, if the latitude and longitude of the place of observation are + given. Hence if the readings of the verniers on the azimuth circle are + made when the transit is observed we can deduce the reading + corresponding to the geographical meridian. + + The above method of determining the geographical meridian has the + serious objection that it is necessary to know the error of the + chronometer with very considerable accuracy, a matter of some + difficulty when observing at any distance from a fixed observatory. + If, however, a theodolite, fitted with a telescope which can rotate + about a horizontal axis and having an altitude circle, is employed, so + that when observing a transit the altitude of the sun or star can be + read off, then the time need only be known to within a minute or so. + Hence in more recent patterns of magnetometer it is usual to do away + with the transit mirror method of observing and either to use a + separate theodolite to observe the azimuth of some distant object, + which will then act as a fixed mark when making the declination + observations, or to attach to the magnetometer an altitude telescope + and circle for use when determining the geographical meridian. + + The chief uncertainty in declination observations, at any rate at a + fixed observatory, lies in the variable torsion of the silk + suspension, as it is found that, although the fibre may be entirely + freed from torsion before beginning the declination observations, yet + at the conclusion of these observations a considerable amount of + torsion may have appeared. Soaking the fibre with glycerine, so that + the moisture it absorbs does not change so much with the hygrometric + state of the air, is of some advantage, but does not entirely remove + the difficulty. For this reason some observers use a thin strip of + phosphor bronze to suspend the magnet, considering that the absence of + a variable torsion more than compensates for the increased difficulty + in handling the more fragile metallic suspension. + + _Measurement of the Horizontal Component of the Earth's Field._--The + method of measuring the horizontal component which is almost + exclusively used, both in fixed observatories and in the field, + consists in observing the period of a freely suspended magnet, and + then obtaining the angle through which an auxiliary suspended magnet + is deflected by the magnet used in the first part of the experiment. + By the vibration experiment we obtain the value of the product of the + magnetic moment (M) of the magnet into the horizontal component (H), + while by the deflexion experiment we can deduce the value of the ratio + of M to H, and hence the two combined give both M and H. + + In the case of the Kew pattern unifilar the same magnet that is used + for the declination is usually employed for determining H, and for the + purposes of the vibration experiment it is mounted as for the + observation of the magnetic meridian. The time of vibration is + obtained by means of a chronometer, using the eye-and-ear method. The + temperature of the magnet must also be observed, for which purpose a + thermometer C (fig. 1) is attached to the box A. + + When making the deflection experiment the magnetometer is arranged as + shown in fig. 2. The auxiliary magnet has a plane mirror attached, the + plane of which is at right angles to the axis of the magnet. An image + of the ivory scale B is observed after reflection in the magnet mirror + by the telescope A. The magnet K used in the vibration experiment is + supported on a carriage L which can slide along the graduated bar D. + The axis of the magnet is horizontal and at the same level as the + mirror magnet, while when the central division of the scale B appears + to coincide with the vertical cross-wire of the telescope the axes of + the two magnets are at right angles. During the experiment the mirror + magnet is protected from draughts by two wooden doors which slide in + grooves. What is known as the method of sines is used, for since the + axes of the two magnets are always at right angles when the mirror + magnet is in its zero position, the ratio M/H is proportional to the + sine of the angle between the magnetic axis of the mirror magnet and + the magnetic meridian. When conducting a deflexion experiment the + deflecting magnet K is placed with its centre at 30 cm. from the + mirror magnet and to the east of the latter, and the whole instrument + is turned till the centre division of the scale B coincides with the + cross-wire of the telescope, when the readings of the verniers on the + azimuth circle are noted. The magnet K is then reversed in the + support, and a new setting taken. The difference between the two sets + of readings gives twice the angle which the magnetic axis of the + mirror magnet makes with the magnetic meridian. In order to eliminate + any error due to the zero of the scale D not being exactly below the + mirror magnet, the support L is then removed to the west side of the + instrument, and the settings are repeated. Further, to allow of a + correction being applied for the finite length of the magnets the + whole series of settings is repeated with the centre of the deflecting + magnet at 40 cm. from the mirror magnet. + + Omitting correction terms depending on the temperature and on the + inductive effect of the earth's magnetism on the moment of the + deflecting magnet, if [theta] is the angle which the axis of the + deflected magnet makes with the meridian when the centre of the + deflecting magnet is at a distance r, then + + r³H P Q + --- sin [theta] = 1 + --- + --- + &c., + 2M r r² + + in which P and Q are constants depending on the dimensions and + magnetic states of the two magnets. The value of the constants P and Q + can be obtained by making deflexion experiments at three distances. It + is, however, possible by suitably choosing the proportions of the two + magnets to cause either P or Q to be very small. Thus it is usual, if + the magnets are of similar shape, to make the deflected magnet 0.467 + of the length of the deflecting magnet, in which case Q is negligible, + and thus by means of deflexion experiments at two distances the value + of P can be obtained. (See C. Börgen, _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1896, + i. p. 176, and C. Chree, _Phil. Mag._, 1904 [6], 7, p. 113.) + + In the case of the vibration experiment correction terms have to be + introduced to allow for the temperature of the magnet, for the + inductive effect of the earth's field, which slightly increases the + magnetic moment of the magnet, and for the torsion of the suspension + fibre, as well as the rate of the chronometer. If the temperature of + the magnet were always exactly the same in both the vibration and + deflexion experiment, then no correction on account of the effect of + temperature in the magnetic moment would be necessary in either + experiment. The fact that the moment of inertia of the magnet varies + with the temperature must, however, be taken into account. In the + deflexion experiment, in addition to the induction correction, and + that for the effect of temperature on the magnetic moment, a + correction has to be applied for the effect of temperature on the + length of the bar which supports the deflexion magnet. + + See also Stewart and Gee, _Practical Physics_, vol. 2, containing a + description of the Kew pattern unifilar magnetometer and detailed + instructions for performing the experiments; C. Chree, _Phil. Mag._, + 1901 (6), 2, p. 613, and _Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1899, 65, p. 375, + containing a discussion of the errors to which the Kew unifilar + instrument is subject; E. Mascart, _Traité de magnétisme terrestre_, + containing a description of the instruments used in the French + magnetic survey, which are interesting on account of their small size + and consequent easy portability; H. E. D. Fraser, _Terrestrial + Magnetism_, 1901, 6, p. 65, containing a description of a modified Kew + pattern unifilar as used in the Indian survey; H. Wild, _Mém. Acad. + imp. sc. St Pétersbourg_, 1896 (viii.), vol. 3, No. 7, containing a + description of a most elaborate unifilar magnetometer with which it is + claimed results can be obtained of a very high order of accuracy; K. + Haufsmann, _Zeits. für Instrumentenkunde_, 1906, 26, p. 2, containing + a description of a magnetometer for field use, designed by M. + Eschenhagen, which has many advantages. + +_Measurements of the Magnetic Elements at Sea._--Owing to the fact that +the proportion of the earth's surface covered by sea is so much greater +than the dry land, the determination of the magnetic elements on board +ship is a matter of very considerable importance. The movements of a +ship entirely preclude the employment of any instrument in which a +magnet suspended by a fibre has any part, so that the unifilar is +unsuited for such observations. In order to obtain the declination a +pivoted magnet is used to obtain the magnetic meridian, the geographical +meridian being obtained by observations on the sun or stars. A carefully +made ship's compass is usually employed, though in some cases the +compass card, with its attached magnets, is made reversible, so that the +inclination to the zero of the card of the magnetic axis of the system +of magnets attached to the card can be eliminated by reversal. In the +absence of such a reversible card the index correction must be +determined by comparison with a unifilar magnetometer, simultaneous +observations being made on shore, and these observations repeated as +often as occasion permits. To determine the dip a Fox's dip circle[1] is +used. This consists of an ordinary dip circle (see INCLINOMETER) in +which the ends of the axle of the needle are pointed and rest in +jewelled holes, so that the movements of the ship do not displace the +needle. The instrument is, of course, supported on a gimballed table, +while the ship during the observations is kept on a fixed course. To +obtain the _strength_ of the field the method usually adopted is that +known as Lloyd's method.[2] To carry out a determination of the total +force by this method the Fox dip circle has been slightly modified by E. +W. Creak, and has been found to give satisfactory results on board ship. +The circle is provided with two needles in addition to those used for +determining the dip, one (a) an ordinary dip needle, and the other (b) a +needle which has been loaded at one end by means of a small peg which +fits into one of two symmetrically placed holes in the needle. The +magnetism of these two needles is never reversed, and they are as much +as possible protected from shock and from approach to other magnets, so +that their magnetic state may remain as constant as possible. Attached +to the cross-arm which carries the microscopes used to observe the ends +of the dipping needle is a clamp, which will hold the needle _b_ in such +a way that its plane is parallel to the vertical circle and its axis is +at right angles to the line joining the two microscopes. Hence, when the +microscopes are adjusted so as to coincide with the points of the +dipping needle _a_, the axes of the two needles must be at right angles. +The needle _a_ being suspended between the jewels, and the needle _b_ +being held in the clamp, the cross-arm carrying the reading microscopes +and the needle _b_ is rotated till the ends of the needle a coincide +with the cross-wires of the microscopes. The verniers having been read, +the cross-arm is rotated so as to deflect the needle _a_ in the opposite +direction, and a new setting is taken. Half the difference between the +two readings gives the angle through which the needle a has been +deflected under the action of the needle _b_. This angle depends on the +ratio of the magnetic moment of the needle _b_ to the total force of the +earth's field. It also involves, of course, the distance between the +needles and the distribution of the magnetism of the needles; but this +factor is determined by comparing the value given by the instrument, at +a shore station, with that given by an ordinary magnetometer. Hence the +above observation gives us a means of obtaining the _ratio_ of the +magnetic moment of the needle _b_ to the value of the earth's total +force. The needle _b_ is then substituted for _a_, there being now no +needle in the clamp attached to the microscope arm, and the difference +between the reading now obtained and the dip, together with the weight +added to the needle, gives the product of the moment of the needle _b_ +into the earth's total force. Hence, from the two observations the value +of the earth's total force can be deduced. In an actual observation the +deflecting needle would be reversed, as well as the deflected one, while +different weights would be used to deflect the needle _b_. + + For a description of the method of using the Fox circle for + observations at sea consult the _Admiralty Manual of Scientific + Inquiry_, p. 116, while a description of the most recent form of the + circle, known as the Lloyd-Creak pattern, will be found in + _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1901, 6, p. 119. An attachment to the + ordinary ship's compass, by means of which satisfactory measurements + of the horizontal component have been made on board ship, is described + by L. A. Bauer in _Terrestrial Magnetism_, 1906, 11, p. 78. The + principle of the method consists in deflecting the compass needle by + means of a horizontal magnet supported vertically over the compass + card, the axis of the deflecting magnet being always perpendicular to + the axis of the magnet attached to the card. The method is not + strictly an absolute one, since it presupposes a knowledge of the + magnetic moment of the deflecting magnet. In practice it is found that + a magnet can be prepared which, when suitably protected from shock, + &c., retains its magnetic moment sufficiently constant to enable + observations of H to be made comparable in accuracy with that of the + other elements obtained by the instruments ordinarily employed at sea. + (W. Wn.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Annals of Electricity_, 1839, 3, p. 288. + + [2] Humphrey Lloyd, _Proc. Roy. Irish Acad._, 1848, 4, p. 57. + + + + +MAGNETO-OPTICS. The first relation between magnetism and light was +discovered by Faraday,[1] who proved that the plane of polarization of a +ray of light was rotated when the ray travelled through certain +substances parallel to the lines of magnetic force. This power of +rotating the plane of polarization in a magnetic field has been shown to +be possessed by all refracting substances, whether they are in the +solid, liquid or gaseous state. The rotation by gases was established +independently by H. Becquerel,[2] and Kundt and Röntgen,[3] while +Kundt[4] found that films of the magnetic metals, iron, cobalt, nickel, +thin enough to be transparent, produced enormous rotations, these being +in iron and cobalt magnetized to saturation at the rate of 200,000° per +cm. of thickness, and in nickel about 89,000°. The direction of rotation +is not the same in all bodies. If we call the rotation positive when it +is related to the direction of the magnetic force, like rotation and +translation in a right-handed screw, or, what is equivalent, when it is +in the direction of the electric currents which would produce a magnetic +field in the same direction as that which produces the rotation, then +most substances produce positive rotation. Among those that produce +negative rotation are ferrous and ferric salts, ferricyanide of +potassium, the salts of lanthanum, cerium and didymium, and chloride of +titanium.[5] + + The magnetic metals iron, nickel, cobalt, the salts of nickel and + cobalt, and oxygen (the most magnetic gas) produce positive rotation. + + For slightly magnetizable substances the amount of rotation in a space + PQ is proportional to the difference between the magnetic potential at + P and Q; or if [theta] is the rotation in PQ, [Omega]_P, [Omega]_Q, + the magnetic potential at P and Q, then [theta] = R([Omega]_P - + [Omega]_Q), where R is a constant, called Verdet's constant, which + depends upon the refracting substance, the wave length of the light, + and the temperature. The following are the values of R (when the + rotation is expressed in circular measure) for the D line and a + temperature of 18° C.:-- + + Substance. R × 10^5. Observer. + + Carbon bisulphide / 1.222 Lord Rayleigh[6] and Köpsel.[7] + \ 1.225 Rodger and Watson.[8] + Water / .377 Arons.[9] + \ .3808 Rodger and Watson.[8] + Alcohol .330 Du Bois.[10] + Ether .315 Du Bois.[10] + Oxygen (at 1 atmosphere) .000179 Kundt and Röntgen (_loc. cit._) + Faraday's heavy glass 1.738 + + The variation of Verdet's constant with temperature has been + determined for carbon bisulphide and water by Rodger and Watson (_loc. + cit._). They find if R_t, R0 are the values of Verdet's constant at + t°C and 0°C. respectively, then for carbon bisulphide R_t = R0 (1 - + .0016961), and for water R_t = R0 (1 - .0000305t - .00000305t²). + + For the magnetic metals Kundt found that the rotation did not increase + so rapidly as the magnetic force, but that as this force was increased + the rotation reached a maximum value. This suggests that the rotation + is proportional to the intensity of magnetization, and not to the + magnetic force. + + The amount of rotation in a given field depends greatly upon the wave + length of the light; the shorter the wave length the greater the + rotation, the rotation varying a little more rapidly than the inverse + square of the wave length. Verdet[11] has compared in the cases of + carbon bisulphide and creosote the rotation given by the formula + + c² / di \ + [theta] = mc[gamma] --------- ( c - [lamda] --------- ) + [lambda]² \ d[lambda]/ + + with those actually observed; in this formula [theta] is the angular + rotation of the plane of polarization, m a constant depending on the + medium, [lambda] the wave length of the light in air, and i its index + of refraction in the medium. Verdet found that, though the agreement + is fair, the differences are greater than can be explained by errors + of experiment. + +Verdet[12] has shown that the rotation of a salt solution is the sum of +the rotations due to the salt and the solvent; thus, by mixing a salt +which produces negative rotation with water which produces positive +rotation, it is possible to get a solution which does not exhibit any +rotation. Such solutions are not in general magnetically neutral. By +mixing diamagnetic and paramagnetic substances we can get magnetically +neutral solutions, which, however, produce a finite rotation of the +plane of polarization. The relation of the magnetic rotation to chemical +constitution has been studied in great detail by Perkin,[13] +Wachsmuth,[14] Jahn[15] and Schönrock.[16] + +The rotation of the plane of polarization may conveniently be regarded +as denoting that the velocity of propagation of circular-polarized light +travelling along the lines of magnetic force depends upon the direction +of rotation of the ray, the velocity when the rotation is related to the +direction of the magnetic force, like rotation and translation on a +right-handed screw being different from that for a left-handed rotation. +A plane-polarized ray may be regarded as compounded of two oppositely +circularly-polarized rays, and as these travel along the lines of +magnetic force with different velocities, the one will gain or lose in +phase on the other, so that when they are again compounded they will +correspond to a plane-polarized ray, but in consequence of the change of +phase the plane of polarization will not coincide with its original +position. + +_Reflection from a Magnet._--Kerr[17] in 1877 found that when +plane-polarized light is incident on the pole of an electromagnet, +polished so as to act like a mirror, the plane of polarization of the +reflected light is rotated by the magnet. Further experiments on this +phenomenon have been made by Righi,[18] Kundt,[19] Du Bois,[20] +Sissingh,[21] Hall,[22] Hurion,[23] Kaz[24] and Zeeman.[25] The simplest +case is when the incident plane-polarized light falls normally on the +pole of an electromagnet. When the magnet is not excited the reflected +ray is plane-polarized; when the magnet is excited the plane of +polarization is rotated through a small angle, the direction of rotation +being opposite to that of the currents exciting the pole. Righi found +that the reflected light was slightly elliptically polarized, the axes +of the ellipse being of very unequal magnitude. A piece of gold-leaf +placed over the pole entirely stops the rotation, showing that it is not +produced in the air near the pole. Rotation takes place from magnetized +nickel and cobalt as well as from iron, and is in the same direction +(Hall). Righi has shown that the rotation at reflection is greater for +long waves than for short, whereas, as we have seen, the Faraday +rotation is greater for short waves than for long. The rotation for +different coloured light from iron, nickel, cobalt and magnetite has +been measured by Du Bois; in magnetite the direction of rotation is +opposite to that of the other metals. When the light is incident +obliquely and not normally on the polished pole of an electromagnet, it +is elliptically polarized after reflection, even when the plane of +polarization is parallel or at right angles to the plane of incidence. +According to Righi, the amount of rotation when the plane of +polarization of the incident light is perpendicular to the plane of +incidence reaches a maximum when the angle of incidence is between 44° +and 68°, while when the light is polarized in the plane of incidence the +rotation steadily decreases as the angle of incidence is increased. The +rotation when the light is polarized in the plane of incidence is always +less than when it is polarized at right angles to that plane, except +when the incidence is normal, when the two rotations are of course +equal. + +_Reflection from Tangentially Magnetized Iron._--In this case Kerr[26] +found: (1) When the plane of incidence is perpendicular to the lines of +magnetic force, no rotation of the reflected light is produced by +magnetization; (2) no rotation is produced when the light is incident +normally; (3) when the incidence is oblique, the lines of magnetic force +being in the plane of incidence, the reflected light is elliptically +polarized after reflection, and the axes of the ellipse are not in and +at right angles to the plane of incidence. When the light is polarized +in the plane of incidence, the rotation is at all angles of incidence in +the opposite direction to that of the currents which would produce a +magnetic field of the same sign as the magnet. When the light is +polarized at right angles to the plane of incidence, the rotation is in +the same direction as these currents when the angle of incidence is +between 0° and 75° according to Kerr, between 0° and 80° according to +Kundt, and between 0° and 78° 54´ according to Righi. When the incidence +is more oblique than this, the rotation of the plane of polarization is +in the opposite direction to the electric currents which would produce a +magnetic field of the same sign. + +The theory of the phenomena just described has been dealt with by +Airy,[27] C. Neumann,[28] Maxwell,[29] Fitzgerald,[30] Rowland,[31] H. +A. Lorentz,[32] Voight,[33] Ketteler,[34] van Loghem,[35] Potier,[36] +Basset,[37] Goldhammer,[38] Drude,[39] J. J. Thomson,[40] and +Leatham;[41] for a critical discussion of many of these theories we +refer the reader to Larmor's[42] British Association Report. Most of +these theories have proceeded on the plan of adding to the expression +for the electromotive force terms indicating a force similar in +character to that discovered by Hall (see MAGNETISM) in metallic +conductors carrying a current in a magnetic field, i.e. an electromotive +force at right angles to the plane containing the magnetic force and the +electric current, and proportional to the sine of the angle between +these vectors. The introduction of a term of this kind gives rotation of +the plane of polarization by transmission through all refracting +substance, and by reflection from magnetized metals, and shows a fair +agreement between the theoretical and experimental results. The simplest +way of treating the questions seems, however, to be to go to the +equations which represent the propagation of a wave travelling through a +medium containing ions. A moving ion in a magnetic field will be acted +upon by a mechanical force which is at right angles to its direction of +motion, and also to the magnetic force, and is equal per unit charge to +the product of these two vectors and the sine of the angle between them. +For the sake of brevity we will take the special case of a wave +travelling parallel to the magnetic force in the direction of the axis +of z. + + Then supposing that all the ions are of the same kind, and that there + are _n_ of these each with mass _m_ and charge _e_ per unit volume, + the equations representing the field are (see ELECTRIC WAVES):-- + + dX0 d[xi] d[beta] + K0 --- + 4[pi]ne ----- = -------; + dt dt dz + + dX[0] d[beta] + ----- = -------; + dz dt + + dY0 d[eta] d[alpha] + K0 --- + 4[pi]ne ------ = - -------- + dt dt dz + + dY0 d[alpha] + --- = - --------; + dz dt + + d²[xi] d[xi] / 4[pi] \ d[eta] + m ------ + R1 ----- + a[xi] = ( X0 + ----- ne[xi] ) e + He ------ + dt² dt \ 3 / dt + + d²[eta] d[eta] / 4[pi] \ d[xi] + m ------- + R1 ------ + a[eta] = ( Y0 + ----- ne[eta] ) e - He -----; + dt² dt \ 3 / dt + + where H is the external magnetic field, X0, Y0 the components of the + part of the electric force in the wave not due to the charges on the + atoms, [alpha] and [beta] the components of the magnetic force, [xi] + and [eta] the co-ordinates of an ion, R1 the coefficient of resistance + to the motion of the ions, and [alpha] the force at unit distance + tending to bring the ion back to its position of equilibrium, K0 the + specific inductive capacity of a vacuum. If the variables are + proportional to [epsilon]^[l(pt - qz)] we find by substitution that q + is given by the equation + + 4[pi]ne²p²P 4[pi]ne³Hp³ + q² - K0p² - ----------- = ± -----------, + P² - H²e²p² P² - H²e²p² + + where + + P = (a - (4/3)[pi]ne²) + R1[iota]p - mp², + + or, by neglecting R, P = m(s² - p²), where s is the period of the free + ions. If, q1², q2² are the roots of this equation, then corresponding + to q1 we have X0 = [iota]Y0 and to q2 X0 = -[iota]Y0. We thus get two + oppositely circular-polarized rays travelling with the velocities p/q1 + and p/q2 respectively. Hence if v1, v2 are these velocities, and v the + velocity when there is no magnetic field, we obtain, if we neglect + terms in H², + + 1 1 4[pi]ne³Hp + --- = -- + ------------, + v1² v² m²(s² - p²)² + + 1 1 4[pi]ne³Hp + --- = -- - ------------. + v2² v² m²(s² - p²)² + + The rotation r of the plane of polarization per unit length + + / 1 1 \ 2[pi]ne³Hp²v + = ½p ( --- - --- ) = -------------. + \ v1 v2 / m²(s² - p²)² + + Since 1/v² = K0 + 4[pi]ne²/m(s² - p²), we have if µ is the refractive + index for light of frequency p, and v0 the velocity of light in vacuo. + + µ² - 1 = 4[pi]ne²v²0 / m(s² - p²) (1) + + So that we may put + + r = (µ² - 1)²p²H / s[pi]µne v0³ (2) + + Becquerel (_Comptes rendus_, 125, p. 683) gives for r the expression + + e H dµ + ½ --- ---- ---------, + m v0 d[lambda] + + where [lambda] is the wave length. This is equivalent to (2) if µ is + given by (1). He has shown that this expression is in good agreement + with experiment. The sign of r depends on the sign of e, hence the + rotation due to negative ions would be opposite to that for positive. + For the great majority of substances the direction of rotation is that + corresponding to the negation ion. We see from the equations that the + rotation is very large for such a value of p as makes P = 0: this + value corresponds to a free period of the ions, so that the rotation + ought to be very large in the neighbourhood of an absorption band. + This has been verified for sodium vapour by Macaluso and Corbino.[43] + + If plane-polarized light falls normally on a plane face of the medium + containing the ions, then if the electric force in the incident wave + is parallel to x and is equal to the real part of A[epsilon]^[l(pt - + qz)], if the reflected beam in which the electric force is parallel to + x is represented by B[epsilon]^[l(pt + qz)] and the reflected beam in + which the electric force is parallel to the axis of y by + C[epsilon]^[l(pt + qz)], then the conditions that the magnetic force + parallel to the surface is continuous, and that the electric forces + parallel to the surface in the air are continuous with Y0, X0 in the + medium, give + + A B [iota]C + ----------------- = ----------- = ---------- + (q + q1) (q + q2) (q² - q1q2) q(q2 - q1) + + or approximately, since q1 and q2 are nearly equal, + + [iota]C q(q2 - q1) (µ² - 1)pH + ------- = ---------- = ------------. + B q² - q1² 4[pi]µne V0² + + Thus in transparent bodies for which µ is real, C and B differ in + phase by [pi]/2, and the reflected light is elliptically polarized, + the major axis of the ellipse being in the plane of polarization of + the incident light, so that in this case there is no rotation, but + only elliptic polarization; when there is strong absorption so that µ + contains an imaginary term, C/B will contain a real part so that the + reflected light will be elliptically polarized, but the major axis is + no longer in the plane of polarization of the incident light; we + should thus have a rotation of the plane of polarization superposed on + the elliptic polarization. + +_Zeeman's Effect._--Faraday, after discovering the effect of a magnetic +field on the plane of polarization of light, made numerous experiments +to see if such a field influenced the nature of the light emitted by a +luminous body, but without success. In 1885 Fievez,[44] a Belgian +physicist, noticed that the spectrum of a sodium flame was changed +slightly in appearance by a magnetic field; but his observation does not +seem to have attracted much attention, and was probably ascribed to +secondary effects. In 1896 Zeeman[45] saw a distinct broadening of the +lines of lithium and sodium when the flames containing salts of these +metals were between the poles of a powerful electromagnet; following up +this observation, he obtained some exceedingly remarkable and +interesting results, of which those observed with the blue-green cadmium +line may be taken as typical. He found that in a strong magnetic field, +when the lines of force are parallel to the direction of propagation of +the light, the line is split up into a doublet, the constituents of +which are on opposite sides of the undisturbed position of the line, and +that the light in the constituents of this doublet is circularly +polarized, the rotation in the two lines being in opposite directions. +When the magnetic force is at right angles to the direction of +propagation of the light, the line is resolved into a triplet, of which +the middle line occupies the same position as the undisturbed line; all +the constituents of this triplet are plane-polarized, the plane of +polarization of the middle line being at right angles to the magnetic +force, while the outside lines are polarized on a plane parallel to the +lines of magnetic force. A great deal of light is thrown on this +phenomenon by the following considerations due to H. A. Lorentz.[46] + + Let us consider an ion attracted to a centre of force by a force + proportional to the distance, and acted on by a magnetic force + parallel to the axis of z: then if m is the mass of the particle and e + its charge, the equations of motion are + + d²x dy + m --- + ax = -He --; + dt² dt + + d²y dx + m --- + ay = He --; + dt² dt + + d²z + m --- + ax = 0. + dt² + + The solution of these equations is + + x = A cos (p1t + [beta]) + B cos (p2t + [beta]1) + + y = A sin (p1t + [beta]) - B sin (p2t + [beta]1) + + z = C cos (pt + [gamma]) + + where + + a - mp1² = - He p1 + + a - mp2² = He p2 + + p² = [alpha]/m, + + or approximately + + He He + p1 = p + ½ ---, p2 = p - ½ ---. + m m + + Thus the motion of the ion on the xy plane may be regarded as made up + of two circular motions in opposite directions described with + frequencies p1 and p2 respectively, while the motion along z has the + period p, which is the frequency for all the vibrations when H = 0. + Now suppose that the cadmium line is due to the motion of such an ion; + then if the magnetic force is along the direction of propagation, the + vibration in this direction has its period unaltered, but since the + direction of vibration is perpendicular to the wave front, it does not + give rise to light. Thus we are left with the two circular motions in + the wave front with frequencies p1 and p2 giving the circularly + polarized constituents of the doublet. Now suppose the magnetic force + is at right angles to the direction of propagation of the light; then + the vibration parallel to the magnetic force being in the wave front + produces luminous effects and gives rise to a plane-polarized ray of + undisturbed period (the middle line of the triplet), the plane of + polarization being at right angles to the magnetic force. The + components in the wave-front of the circular orbits at right angles to + the magnetic force will be rectilinear motions of frequency p1 and p2 + at right angles to the magnetic force--so that they will produce + plane-polarized light, the plane of polarization being parallel to the + magnetic force; these are the outer lines of the triplet. + +If Zeeman's observations are interpreted from this point of view, the +directions of rotation of the circularly-polarized light in the doublet +observed along the lines of magnetic force show that the ions which +produce the luminous vibrations are _negatively_ electrified, while the +measurement of the charge of frequency due to the magnetic field shows +that e/m is of the order 10^7. This result is of great interest, as this +is the order of the value of e/m in the negatively electrified particles +which constitute the Cathode Rays (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC III. +_Through Gases_). Thus we infer that the "cathode particles" are found +in bodies, even where not subject to the action of intense electrical +fields, and are in fact an ordinary constituent of the molecule. Similar +particles are found near an incandescent wire, and also near a metal +plate illuminated by ultra-violet light. The value of e/m deduced from +the Zeeman effect ranges from 10^7 to 3.4 × 10^7, the value of e/m for +the particle in the cathode rays is 1.7 × 10^7. The majority of the +determinations of e/m from the Zeeman effect give numbers larger than +this, the maximum being about twice this value. + +A more extended study of the behaviour of the spectroscopic lines has +afforded examples in which the effects produced by a magnet are more +complicated than those we have described, indeed the simple cases are +much less numerous than the more complex. Thus Preston[47] and Cornu[48] +have shown that under the action of a transverse magnetic field one of +the D lines splits up into four, and the other into six lines; Preston +has given many other examples of these quartets and sextets, and has +shown that the change in the frequency, which, according to the simple +theory indicated, should be the same for all lines, actually varies +considerably from one line to another, many lines showing no appreciable +displacement. The splitting up of a single line into a quartet or sextet +indicates, from the point of view of the ion theory, that the line must +have its origin in a system consisting of more than one ion. A single +ion having only three degrees of freedom can only have three periods. +When there is no magnetic force acting on the ion these periods are +equal, but though under the action of a magnetic force they are +separated, their number cannot be increased. When therefore we get four +or more lines, the inference is that the system giving the lines must +have at least four degrees of freedom, and therefore must consist of +more than one ion. The theory of a system of ions mutually influencing +each other shows, as we should expect, that the effects are more complex +than in the case of a single ion, and that the change in the frequency +is not necessarily the same for all systems (see J. J. Thomson, _Proc. +Camb. Phil. Soc._ 13, p. 39). Preston[49] and Runge and Paschen have +proved that, in some cases at any rate, the change in the frequency of +the different lines is of such a character that they can be grouped into +series such that each line in the series has the same change in +frequency for the same magnetic force, and, moreover, that homologous +lines in the spectra of different metals belonging to the same group +have the same change in frequency. + +A very remarkable case of the Zeeman effect has been discovered by H. +Becquerel and Deslandres (_Comptes rendus_, 127, p. 18). They found +lines in iron when the most deflected components are those polarized in +the plane at right angles to the magnetic force. On the simple theory +the light polarized in this way is not affected. Thus the behaviour of +the spectrum in the magnetic field promises to throw great light on the +nature of radiation, and perhaps on the constitution of the elements. +The study of these effects has been greatly facilitated by the invention +by Michelson[50] of the echelon spectroscope. + +There are some interesting phenomena connected with the Zeeman effect +which are more easily observed than the effect itself. Thus Cotton[51] +found that if we have two Bunsen flames, A and B, coloured by the same +salt, the absorption of the light of one by the other is diminished if +either is placed between the poles of a magnet: this is at once +explained by the Zeeman effect, for the times of vibration of the +molecules of the flame in the magnetic field are not the same as those +of the other flame, and thus the absorption is diminished. Similar +considerations explain the phenomenon observed by Egoroff and +Georgiewsky,[52] that the light emitted from a flame in a transverse +field is partially polarized in a plane parallel to the magnetic force; +and also Righi's[53] observation that if a sodium flame is placed in a +longitudinal field between two crossed Nicols, and a ray of white light +sent through one of the Nicols, then through the flame, and then through +the second Nicol, the amount of light passing through the second Nicol +is greater when the field is on than when it is off. Voight and Wiechert +(_Wied. Ann._ 67, p. 345) detected the double refraction produced when +light travels through a substance exposed to a magnetic field at right +angles to the path of the light; this result had been predicted by +Voight from theoretical considerations. Jean Becquerel has made some +very interesting experiments on the effect of a magnetic field on the +fine absorption bands produced by xenotime, a phosphate of yttrium and +erbium, and tysonite, a fluoride of cerium, lanthanum and didymium, and +has obtained effects which he ascribes to the presence of positive +electrons. A very complete account of magneto- and electro-optics is +contained in Voight's _Magneto- and Elektro-optik_. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Experimental Researches_, Series 19. + + [2] _Comptes rendus_, 88, p. 709. + + [3] _Wied. Ann._ 6, p. 332; 8, p. 278; 10, p. 257. + + [4] _Wied. Ann._ 23, p. 228; 27, p. 191. + + [5] _Wied. Ann._ 31, p. 941. + + [6] _Phil. Trans._, A. 1885, Pt. 11, p. 343. + + [7] _Wied. Ann._ 26, p. 456. + + [8] _Phil. Trans._, A. 1895, Pt. 17, p. 621. + + [9] _Wied. Ann._ 24, p. 161. + + [10] _Wied. Ann._ 31, p. 970. + + [11] _Comptes rendus_, 57, p. 670. + + [12] _Comptes rendus_, 43, p. 529; 44, p. 1209. + + [13] _Journ. Chem. Soc._ 1884, p. 421; 1886, p. 177; 1887, pp. 362 + and 808; 1888, p. 561; 1889, pp. 680 and 750; 1891, p. 981; 1892, p. + 800; 1893, pp. 75, 99 and 488. + + [14] _Wied. Ann._ 44, p. 377. + + [15] _Wied. Ann._ 43, p. 280. + + [16] _Zeitschrift f. physikal. Chem._ 11, p. 753. + + [17] _Phil. Mag._ [5] 3, p. 321. + + [18] _Ann. de chim. et de phys._ [6] 4, p. 433; 9, p. 65; 10, p. 200. + + [19] _Wied. Ann._ 23, p. 228; 27, p. 191. + + [20] _Wied. Ann._ 39, p. 25. + + [21] _Wied. Ann._ 42, p. 115. + + [22] _Phil. Mag._ [5] 12, p. 171. + + [23] _Journ. de Phys._ 1884, p. 360. + + [24] _Beiblätter zu Wied. Ann._ 1885, p. 275. + + [25] _Messungen über d. Kerr'sche Erscheinung._ Inaugural Dissert. + Leiden, 1893. + + [26] _Phil. Mag._ [5] 5, p. 161. + + [27] _Phil. Mag._ [3] 28, p. 469. + + [28] _Die Magn. Drehung d. Polarisationsebene des Lichts_, Halle, + 1863. + + [29] _Electricity and Magnetism_, chap. xxi. + + [30] _Phil. Trans._ 1880 (2), p. 691. + + [31] _Phil. Mag._ (5) 11, p. 254, 1881. + + [32] _Arch. Néerl._ 19, p. 123. + + [33] _Wied. Ann._ 23, p. 493; 67, p. 345. + + [34] _Wied. Ann._ 24, p. 119. + + [35] _Wied. Beiblätter_, 8, p. 869. + + [36] _Comptes rendus_, 108, p. 510. + + [37] _Phil. Trans._ 182, A. p. 371, 1892; _Physical Optics_, p. 393. + + [38] _Wied. Ann._ 46, p. 71; 47, p. 345; 48, p. 740; 50, p. 722. + + [39] _Wied. Ann._ 46, p. 353; 48, p. 122; 49, p. 690. + + [40] _Recent Researches_, p. 489 et seq. + + [41] _Phil. Trans._, A. 1897, p. 89. + + [42] _Brit. Assoc. Report_, 1893. + + [43] _Comptes rendus_, 127, p. 548. + + [44] _Bull. de l'Acad. des Sciences Belg._ (3) 9, pp. 327, 381, 1885; + 12 p. 30, 1886. + + [45] _Communications from the Physical Laboratory_, Leiden, No. 33, + 1896; Phil. Mag. 43, p. 226; 44, pp. 55 and 255; and 45, p. 197. + + [46] _Arch. Néerl._ 25, p. 190. + + [47] _Phil. Mag._ 45, p. 325; 47, p. 165. + + [48] _Comptes rendus_, 126, p. 181. + + [49] _Phil. Mag._ 46, p. 187. + + [50] _Phil. Mag._ 45, p. 348. + + [51] _Comptes rendus_, 125, p. 865. + + [52] _Comptes rendus_, pp. 748 and 949, 1897. + + [53] _Comptes rendus_, 127, p. 216; 128, p. 45. + + (J. J. T.) + + + + +MAGNOLIA, the typical genus of the botanical order Magnoliaceae, named +after Pierre Magnol (1638-1715), professor of medicine and botany at +Montpellier. It contains about twenty species, distributed in Japan, +China and the Himalayas, as well as in North America. + +Magnolias are trees or shrubs with deciduous or rarely evergreen +foliage. They bear conspicuous and often large, fragrant, white, rose or +purple flowers. The sepals are three in number, the petals six to +twelve, in two to four series of three in each, the stamens and carpels +being numerous. The fruit consists of a number of follicles which are +borne on a more or less conical receptacle, and dehisce along the outer +edge to allow the scarlet or brown seeds to escape; the seeds however +remain suspended by a long slender thread (the funicle). Of the +old-world species, the earliest in cultivation appears to have been _M. +Yulan_ (or _M. conspicua_) of China, of which the buds were preserved, +as well as used medicinally and to season rice; together with the +greenhouse species, _M. fuscata_, it was transported to Europe in 1789, +and thence to North America, and is now cultivated in the Middle States. +There are many fine forms of _M. conspicua_, the best being +_Soulangeana_, white tinted with purple, _Lenné_ and _stricta_. Of the +Japanese magnolias, _M. Kobus_ and the purple-flowered _M. obovata_ were +met with by Kaempfer in 1690, and were introduced into England in 1709 +and 1804 respectively. _M. pumila_, the dwarf magnolia, from the +mountains of Amboyna, is nearly evergreen, and bears deliciously scented +flowers; it was introduced in 1786. The Indian species are three in +number, _M. globosa_, allied to _M. conspicua_ of Japan, _M. +sphenocarpa_, and, the most magnificent of all magnolias, _M. +Campbellii_, which forms a conspicuous feature in the scenery and +vegetation of Darjeeling. It was discovered by Dr Griffith in Bhutan, +and is a large forest tree, abounding on the outer ranges of Sikkim, 80 +to 150 ft. high, and from 6 to 12 ft. in girth. The flowers are 6 to 10 +in. across, appearing before the leaves, and vary from white to a deep +rose colour. + +The first of the American species brought to Europe (in 1688 by John +Banister) was _M. glauca_, a beautiful evergreen species about 15 ft. +high with obtuse leathery leaves, blue-green above, silvery underneath, +and globular flowers varying from creamy white to pale yellow with age. +It is found in low situations near the sea from Massachusetts to +Louisiana--more especially in New Jersey and the Carolinas. _M. +acuminata_, the so-called "cucumber tree," from the resemblance of the +young fruits to small cucumbers, ranges from Pennsylvania to Carolina. +The wood is yellow, and used for bowls; the flowers, 3 to 4 in. across, +are glaucous green tinted with yellow. It was introduced into England +from Virginia about 1736. _M. tripetala_ (or _M. umbrella_), is known as +the "umbrella tree" from the arrangement of the leaves at the ends of +the branches resembling somewhat that of the ribs of an umbrella. The +flowers, 5 to 8 in. across, are white and have a strong but not +disagreeable scent. It was brought to England in 1752. _M. Fraseri_ (or +_M. auriculata_), discovered by John Bartram in 1773, is a native of the +western parts of the Carolinas and Georgia, extending southward to +western Florida and southern Alabama. It grows 30 to 50 ft. high, has +leaves a foot or more long, heart-shaped and bluntly auricled at the +base, and fragrant pale yellowish-white flowers, 3 to 4 in. across. The +most beautiful species of North America is _M. grandiflora_, the "laurel +magnolia," a native of the south-eastern States, and introduced into +England in 1734. It grows a straight trunk, 2 ft. in diameter and +upwards of 70 ft. high, bearing a profusion of large, powerfully +lemon-scented creamy-white flowers. It is an evergreen tree, easily +recognized by its glossy green oval oblong leaves with a rusty-brown +under surface. In England it is customary to train it against a wall in +the colder parts, but it does well as a bush tree; and the original +species is surpassed by the Exmouth varieties, which originated as +seedlings at Exeter from the tree first raised in England by Sir John +Colliton, and which flower much more freely than the parent plant. Other +fine magnolias now to be met with in gardens are _M. cordata_, a North +American deciduous tree 40 to 50 ft. high, with heart-shaped leaves, +woolly beneath, and yellow flowers lined with purple; _M. hypoleuca_, a +fine Japanese tree 60 ft. high or more, with leaves a foot or more long, +6 to 7 in. broad, the under surface covered with hairs; _M. +macrophylla_, a handsome deciduous North American tree, with smooth +whitish bark, and very large beautiful green leaves, 1 to 3 ft. long, 8 +to 10 in. broad, oblong-obovate and heart-shaped at the base; the open +sweet-scented bell-shaped flowers 8 to 10 in. across, are white with a +purple blotch at the base of the petals; _M. stellata_ or _Halleana_, a +charming deciduous Japanese shrub remarkable for producing its pure +white starry flowers as early as February and March on the leafless +stems; and _M. Watsoni_, another fine deciduous Japanese bush or small +tree with very fragrant pure white flowers 5 to 6 in. across. + +[Illustration: _Magnolia grandiflora_, shoot with flower; rather less +than ½ nat. size. + + 1. Flower after removal of the sepals and petals, showing the + indefinite stamens, s, and carpels, c. + + 2. Fruit--the ripe carpels are splitting, exposing the seeds, some of + which are suspended by the long funicle. + + 3. Floral diagram, b, bract.] + +The tulip tree, _Liriodendron tulipifera_, a native of North America, +frequently cultivated in England, is also a member of the same family. +It reaches a height of over 100 ft. in a native condition, and as much +as 60 to 80 ft. in England. It resembles the plane tree somewhat in +appearance, but is readily recognized by lobed leaves having the apical +lobe truncated, and by its soft green and yellow tulip-like +flowers--which however are rarely borne on trees under twenty years of +age. + + For a description of the principal species of magnolia under + cultivation see J. Weathers, _Practical Guide to Garden Plants_, pp. + 174 seq., and for a detailed account of the American species see C. S. + Sargent, _Silva of North America_, vol. i. + + + + +MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870), German chemist and physicist, was +born at Berlin on the 2nd of May 1802. His father was a wealthy +merchant; and of his five brothers one, Eduard (1799-1872), became a +celebrated painter. After studying at Berlin, he went to Stockholm to +work under Berzelius, and later to Paris, where he studied for a while +under Gay-Lussac and Thénard. In 1831 he returned to Berlin as lecturer +on technology and physics at the university. As a teacher his success +was rapid and extraordinary. His lucid style and the perfection of his +experimental demonstrations drew to his lectures a crowd of enthusiastic +scholars, on whom he impressed the importance of applied science by +conducting them round the factories and workshops of the city; and he +further found time to hold weekly "colloquies" on physical questions at +his house with a small circle of young students. From 1827 to 1833 he +was occupied mainly with chemical researches, which resulted in the +discovery of the first of the platino-ammonium compounds ("Magnus's +green salt" is PtCl2, 2NH3), of sulphovinic, ethionic and isethionic +acids and their salts, and, in conjunction with C. F. Ammermüller, of +periodic acid. Among other subjects at which he subsequently worked were +the absorption of gases in blood (1837-1845), the expansion of gases by +heat (1841-1844), the vapour pressures of water and various solutions +(1844-1854), thermo-electricity (1851), electrolysis (1856), induction +of currents (1858-1861), conduction of heat in gases (1860), and +polarization of heat (1866-1868). From 1861 onwards he devoted much +attention to the question of diathermancy in gases and vapours, +especially to the behaviour in this respect of dry and moist air, and to +the thermal effects produced by the condensation of moisture on solid +surfaces. + +In 1834 Magnus was elected extraordinary, and in 1845 ordinary professor +at Berlin. He was three times elected dean of the faculty, in 1847, 1858 +and 1863; and in 1861, rector magnificus. His great reputation led to +his being entrusted by the government with several missions; in 1865 he +represented Prussia in the conference called at Frankfort to introduce a +uniform metric system of weights and measures into Germany. For +forty-five years his labour was incessant; his first memoir was +published in 1825 when he was yet a student; his last appeared shortly +after his death on the 4th of April 1870. He married in 1840 Bertha +Humblot, of a French Huguenot family settled in Berlin, by whom he left +a son and two daughters. + + See _Allgemeine deutsche Biog._ The Royal Society's _Catalogue_ + enumerates 84 papers by Magnus, most of which originally appeared in + _Poggendorff's Annalen_. + + + + +MAGNY, CLAUDE DRIGON, MARQUIS DE (1797-1879), French heraldic writer, +was born in Paris. After being employed for some time in the postal +service, he devoted himself to the study of heraldry and genealogy, his +work in this direction being rewarded by Pope Gregory XVI. with a +marquisate. He founded a French college of heraldry, and wrote several +works on heraldry and genealogy, of which the most important were +_Archives nobiliaires universelles_ (1843) and _Livre d'or de la +noblesse de France_ (1844-1852). His two sons, Edouard Drigon and +Achille Ludovice Drigon, respectively comte and vicomte de Magny, also +wrote several works on heraldry. + + + + +MAGO, the name of several Carthaginians, (1) The reputed founder of the +military power of Carthage, fl. 550-500 B.C. (Justin xviii. 7, xix. i). +(2) The youngest of the three sons of Hamilcar Barca. He accompanied +Hannibal into Italy, and held important commands in the great victories +of the first three years. After the battle of Cannae (216 B.C.) he +sailed to Carthage to report the successes gained. He was about to +return to Italy with strong reinforcements for Hannibal, when the +government ordered him to go to the aid of his other brother, Hasdrubal, +who was hard pressed in Spain. He carried on the war there with varying +success in concert with the two Hasdrubals until, in 209, his brother +marched into Italy to help Hannibal. Mago remained in Spain with +Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco. In 207 he was defeated by M. Junius +Silanus, and in 206 the combined forces of Mago and Hasdrubal were +scattered by Scipio Africanus in the decisive battle of Silpia. Mago +maintained himself for some time in Gades, but afterwards received +orders to carry the war into Liguria. He wintered in the Balearic Isles, +where the harbour Portus Magonis (Port Mahon) still bears his name. +Early in 204 he landed in Liguria, where he maintained a desultory +warfare till in 203 he was defeated in Cisalpine Gaul by the Roman +forces. Shortly afterwards he was ordered to return to Carthage, but on +the voyage home he died of wounds received in battle. + + See Polybius iii.; Livy xxi.-xxiii.; xxviii., chs. 23-37; xxix., xxx.; + Appian, _Hispanica_, 25-37; T. Friedrich, _Biographie des Barkiden + Mago_; H. Lehmann, _Der Angriff der drei Barkiden auf Italien_ + (Leipzig, 1905); and further J. P. Mahaffy, in _Hermathena_, vii. + 29-36 (1890). + +(3) The name of Mago is also attached to a great work on agriculture +which was brought to Rome and translated by order of the senate after +the destruction of Carthage. The book was regarded as a standard +authority, and is often referred to by later writers. + + See Pliny, _Nat. Hist_, xviii. 5; Columella, i. 1; Cicero, _De + oratore_, i. 58. + + + + +MAGPIE, or simply PIE (Fr. _pie_), the prefix being the abbreviated form +of a human name (Margaret[1]), a bird once common throughout Great +Britain, though now nearly everywhere scarce. Its pilfering habits have +led to this result, yet the injuries it causes are exaggerated by common +report; and in many countries of Europe it is still the tolerated or +even the cherished neighbour of every farmer, as it formerly was in +England if not in Scotland also. It did not exist in Ireland in 1617, +when Fynes Morison wrote his _Itinerary_, but it had appeared there +within a hundred years later, when Swift mentions its occurrences in his +_Journal to Stella_, 9th July 1711. It is now common enough in that +country, and there is a widespread but unfounded belief that it was +introduced by the English out of spite. It is a species that when not +molested is extending its range, as J. Wolley ascertained in Lapland, +where within the last century it has been gradually pushing its way +along the coast and into the interior from one fishing-station or +settler's house to the next, as the country has been peopled. + +Since the persecution to which the pie has been subjected in Great +Britain, its habits have altered greatly. It is no longer the merry, +saucy hanger-on of the homestead, but is become the suspicious thief, +shunning the gaze of man, and knowing that danger may lurk in every +bush. Hence opportunities of observing it fall to the lot of few, and +most persons know it only as a curtailed captive in a wicker cage, where +its vivacity and natural beauty are lessened or wholly lost. At large +few European birds possess greater beauty, the pure white of its +scapulars and inner web of the flight-feathers contrasting vividly with +the deep glossy black on the rest of its body and wings, while its long +tail is lustrous with green, bronze, and purple reflections. The pie's +nest is a wonderfully ingenious structure, placed either in high trees +or low bushes, and so massively built that it will stand for years. Its +foundation consists of stout sticks, turf and clay, wrought into a deep, +hollow cup, plastered with earth, and lined with fibres; but around this +is erected a firmly interwoven, basket-like outwork of thorny sticks, +forming a dome over the nest, and leaving but a single hole in the side +for entrance and exit, so that the whole structure is rendered almost +impregnable. Herein are laid from six to nine eggs, of a pale +bluish-green freckled with brown and blotched with ash-colour. +Superstition as to the appearance of the pie still survives even among +many educated persons, and there are several versions of a rhyming adage +as to the various turns of luck which its presenting itself, either +alone or in company with others, is supposed to betoken, though all +agree that the sight of a single pie presages sorrow. + +The pie belongs to the same family of birds as the crow, and is the +_Corvus pica_ of Linnaeus, the _Pica caudata_, _P. melanoleuca_, or _P. +rustica_ of modern ornithologists, who have recognized it as forming a +distinct genus, but the number of species thereto belonging has been a +fruitful source of discussion. Examples from the south of Spain differ +slightly from those inhabiting the rest of Europe, and in some points +more resemble the _P. mauritanica_ of north-western Africa; but that +species has a patch of bare skin of a fine blue colour behind the eye, +and much shorter wings. No fewer than five species have been +discriminated from various parts of Asia, extending to Japan; but only +one of them, the _P. leucoptera_ of Turkestan and Tibet, has of late +been admitted as valid. In the west of North America, and in some of its +islands, a pie is found which extends to the upper valleys of the +Missouri and the Yellowstone, and has long been thought entitled to +specific distinction as _P. hudsonia_; but its claim thereto is now +disallowed by some of the best ornithologists of the United States, and +it can hardly be deemed even a geographical variety of the Old-World +form. In California, however, there is a permanent race if not a good +species, _P. nuttalli_, easily distinguishable by its yellow bill and +the bare yellow skin round its eyes; on two occasions in the year 1867 a +bird apparently similar was observed in Great Britain (_Zoologist_, ser. +2, pp. 706, 1016). (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] "Magot" and "Madge," with the same origin, are names, frequently + given in England to the pie; while in France it is commonly known as + _Margot_, if not termed, as it is in some districts, _Jaquette_. + + + + +MAGWE, a district in the Minbu division of Upper Burma. Area, 2913 sq. +m.; pop. (1901), 246,708, showing an increase of 12.38% in the decade. +Magwe may be divided into two portions: the low, flat country in the +Taungdwingyi subdivision, and the undulating high ground extending over +the rest of the district. In Taungdwingyi the soil is rich, loamy, and +extremely fertile. The plain is about 45 m. from north to south. At its +southern extremity it is about 30 m. wide, and lessens in width to the +north till it ends in a point at Natmauk. On the east are the Pegu +Yomas, which at some points reach a height of 1500 ft. A number of +streams run westwards to the Irrawaddy, of which the Yin and the Pin, +which form the northern boundary, are the chief. The only perennial +stream is the Yanpè. Rice is the staple product, and considerable +quantities are exported. Sesamum of very high quality, maize, and millet +are also cultivated, as well as cotton in patches here and there over +the whole district. + + In this district are included the well-known Yenangyaung petroleum + wells. The state wells have been leased to the Burma Oil Company. The + amount of oil-bearing lands is estimated at 80 sq. m. and the portion + not leased to the company has been demarcated into blocks of 1 sq. m. + and offered on lease. The remaining land belongs to hereditary Burmese + owners called _twinsa_, who dig wells and extract their oil by the + rope and pulley system as they have always done. Lacquered wood trays, + bowls and platters, and cart-wheels, are the only manufactures of any + note in the district. + + The annual rainfall averages about 27 inches. The maximum temperature + rises to a little over 100° in the hot season, and falls to an average + minimum of 53° and 54° in the cold season. + + The town of Magwe is the headquarters of the district; pop. (1901), + 6232. It is diagonally opposite Minbu, the headquarters of the + division, on the right bank of the Irrawaddy. + + + + +MAGYARS, the name of the dominant race in Hungary, or Hungarians proper. +Though they have become physically assimilated to the western peoples, +they belong in origin and language to the Finno-Ugrian (q.v.) division +of the Ural-Altaic race. They form barely half of the population of +Hungary, but are by far the largest and most compact of all its racial +groups. Magyar is the official language of Hungary, the official name of +which (_Magyarorzág_, or "country of the Magyars") enshrines the Magyar +claim to predominance. While all Magyars are properly Hungarians, all +Hungarians are not necessarily Magyars. "Hungarian" may be used as a +generic term covering all the various races of Hungary, while "Magyar" +is strictly specific to a single group. The Magyars themselves, indeed, +sometimes apply the name _Magyarorzág_ to Hungary "proper," excluding +Croatia-Slavonia, the whole kingdom being called _Magyarbirodalom_, the +Magyar monarchy or realm. See HUNGARY. + + + + +MAHABALESHWAR, or MALCOLMPETH, a hill station in Satara district, and +the principal sanatorium in the Bombay presidency, India. Pop. (1901), +5299. It is reached by carriage from Wathar railway station (39 m.) or +by motor car from Poona (119 m.). Mahabaleshwar occupies the summit of a +ridge of the Western Ghats, with a general elevation of 4500 ft. above +sea-level. It was established in 1828 by Sir John Malcolm, governor of +Bombay, who obtained the site from the raja of Satara in exchange for +another patch of territory. The superior elevation of Mahabaleshwar +renders it much cooler than Matheran (2460 ft.), a sanatorium about 50 +m. E. of Bombay, but its heavy rainfall (292 in. annual average) makes +it almost uninhabitable during the rainy season. The mean annual +temperature is 67° F. In the hottest season (March-April) an extreme of +a little over 90° is reached during the day. Mahabaleshwar forms the +retreat usually during spring, and occasionally in autumn, of the +governor of Bombay, and the chief officers of his establishment, and has +the usual public buildings of a first-class sanatorium. + + + + +MAHAFFY, JOHN PENTLAND (1839- ), Irish classical scholar, was born in +Switzerland on the 12th of July 1839. He received his early education in +Switzerland and Germany, and later at Trinity College, Dublin, where he +held the professorship of ancient history. Mahaffy, a man of great +versatility, published numerous works, some of which, especially those +dealing with what may be called the Silver age of Greece, became +standard authorities. The following deserve mention: _History of +Classical Greek Literature_ (4th ed., 1903 seq.); _Social Life in Greece +from Homer to Menander_ (4th ed., 1903); _The Silver Age of the Greek +World_ (1906); _The Empire of the Ptolemies_ (1896); _Greek Life and +Thought from Alexander to the Roman Conquest_ (2nd ed., 1896); _The +Greek World under Roman Sway from Polybius to Plutarch_ (1890). His +translation of Kuno Fischer's _Commentary on Kant_ (1866) and his own +exhaustive analysis, with elucidations, of Kant's critical philosophy +are of great value. He also edited the Petrie papyri in the _Cunningham +Memoirs_ (3 vols. 1891-1905). + + + + +MAHALLAT, a province of central Persia, situated between Kashan and +Irak. Pop. about 20,000; yearly revenue about £2500. Until 1890 it was +one of the five "central provinces" (the other four being Irak, Ferahan, +Kezzaz, and Savah), which were under a governor appointed by the shah; +since then it has formed part of the Isfahan government. It is traversed +by the Anarbar or Kum River, and comprises the city of Mahallat, divided +into upper and lower, or Rivkan and Zanjirvan, and twenty-two +flourishing villages. It was known in former times as Anar, the Anarus +of Peutinger's tables. The city, capital of the province, is situated at +an elevation of 5850 ft. in 33° 51´ N., 50° 30´ E.; pop. about 9000. + + + + +MAHAN, ALFRED THAYER (1840- ), American naval officer and historian, +was born on the 27th of September 1840 at West Point, New York. His +father, Dennis Hart Mahan (1802-1871) was a professor in the military +academy, and the author of textbooks on civil and military engineering. +The son graduated at the naval academy in 1859, became lieutenant in +1861, served on the "Congress," and on the "Pocahontas," "Seminole," and +"James Adger" during the Civil War, and was instructor at the naval +academy for a year. In 1865 he was made lieut.-commander, commander in +1872, captain in 1885. Meanwhile he saw service in the Gulf of Mexico, +the South Atlantic, the Pacific, and Asia, and did shore duty at Boston, +New York and Annapolis. In 1886-89 he was president of the naval war +college at Newport, Rhode Island. Between 1889 and 1892 he was engaged +in special service for the bureau of navigation, and in 1893 was made +commander of the "Chicago," of the European squadron. In 1896 he retired +from active service, but was a member of the naval board of strategy +during the war between the United States and Spain. He was a member of +the peace congress at the Hague in 1899. This long and varied service +gave him extensive opportunities for observation, which he supplemented +by constant study of naval authorities and reflection on the +interpretation of the problems of maritime history. His first book was a +modest and compact story of the affairs in _The Gulf and Inland Waters_ +(1883), in a series of volumes by various writers, entitled _The Navy in +the Civil War_; in 1890 he suddenly acquired fame by the appearance of +his masterly work entitled _The Influence of Sea Power upon History, +1660-1783_. Having been impressed by the failure of historians to allow +for the influence of sea power in struggles between nations, he was led +to make prolonged investigations of this general theme (see SEA POWER). +The reception accorded the volume was instant and hearty; in England, in +particular, it was deemed almost an epoch-making work, and was studied +by naval specialists, cabinet ministers and journalists, as well as by a +large part of the general public. It was followed by _The Influence of +Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire_ (2 vols. 1892); _The +Life of Nelson, the Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain_ +(1897); and _Sea Power in its Relations to the War of 1812_ (1905). The +author's general aim in these works--some of which have been translated +into French, German and Japanese--was to make the consideration of +maritime matters paramount to that of military, political or economic +movements, without, however, as he himself says "divorcing them from +their surroundings of cause and effect in general history, but seeking +to show how they modified the latter, and were modified by them." He +selected the year 1660 as the beginning of his narrative, as being the +date when the "sailing-ship era, with its distinctive features, had +fairly begun." The series as a whole has been accepted as finally +authoritative, supplanting its predecessors of similar aim, and +almost--in the words of Theodore Roosevelt--founding a new school of +naval historical writing. + + Other works by Mahan are a _Life of Admiral Farragut_ (1892); _The + Interest of America in Sea Power_ (1897); _Lessons of the War with + Spain_ (1899); _The Story of the War with South Africa_ and _The + Problem of Asia_ (1900); _Types of Naval Officers drawn from the + History of the British Navy_ (1901); _Retrospect and Prospect_, + studies of international relations (1902). + + + + +MAHANADI, or MAHANUDDY ("The Great River"), a river of India. It rises +in 20° 10´ N., 82° E., 25 m. S. of Raipur town, in the wild mountains of +Bastar in the Central Provinces. At first an insignificant stream, +taking a northerly direction, it drains the eastern portion of the +Chhattisgarh plain, then a little above Seorinarayan it receives the +waters which its first great affluent, the Seonath, has collected from +the western portion of the plain; thence flowing for some distance due +E., its stream is augmented by the drainage of the hills of Uprora, +Korba, and the ranges that separate Sambalpur from Chota Nagpur. At +Padampur it turns towards the south, and struggling through masses of +rock, flows past the town of Sambalpur to Sonpur. From Sonpur it pursues +a tortuous course among ridges and rocky crags towards the range of the +Eastern Ghats. This mountain line it pierces by a gorge about 40 m. in +length, overlooked by forest-clad hills. Since the opening of the +Bengal-Nagpur railway, the Mahanadi is little used for navigation. It +pours down upon the Orissa delta at Naraj, about 7 m. west of Cuttack +town; and after traversing Cuttack district from west to east, and +throwing off numerous branches (the Katjori, Paika, Biropa, Chitartala, +&c.) it falls into the Bay of Bengal at False Point by several channels. + + The Mahanadi has an estimated drainage area of 43,800 sq. m., and its + rapid flow renders its maximum discharge in time of flood second to + that of no other river in India. During unusually high floods + 1,500,000 cub. ft. of water pour every second through the Naraj gorge, + one-half of which, uncontrolled by the elaborate embankments, and + heavily laden with silt, pours over the delta, filling the swamps, + inundating the rice-fields, and converting the plains into a sea. In + the dry weather the discharge of the Mahanadi dwindles to 1125 cub. + ft. per second. Efforts have been made to husband and utilize the vast + water supply thrown upon the Orissa delta during seasons of flood. + Each of the three branches into which the parent stream splits at the + delta head is regulated by a weir. Of the four canals which form the + Orissa irrigation system, two take off from the Biropa weir, and one, + with its branch, from the Mahanadi weir. On the 31st of December 1868 + the government took over the whole canal works from the East Indian + Irrigation Company, at a cost of £941,368. The canals thus taken over + and since completed, are the high-level canal, the Kendrapara canal, + the Taldanda canal and the Machgaon canal, irrigating 275,000 acres. + + + + +MAHANOY CITY, a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 56 +m. N.E. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890), 11,286; (1900), 13,504, of whom 3877 +were foreign-born, mostly Slavs; (1910 census) 15,936. It is served by +branches of the Lehigh Valley and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. +The borough is situated in the valley of Mahanoy Creek, and has an +elevation of 1240 ft. above the sea; Broad Mountain (1795 ft.), a ridge +extending through Schuylkill county, overlooks it on the S.E. The valley +is a part of the anthracite coal region of Pennsylvania, fire clay +abounds in the vicinity, and the borough's principal industries are the +mining and shipping of coal, and the manufacture of shirts and foundry +products. Mahanoy City, originally a part of Mahanoy township (pop. in +1910, 6256), was incorporated as a borough in 1863. + + + + +MAHAR, the name of a servile caste in the Deccan, India. Their special +function, apart from that of scavenger, is to act as village watchman, +as guardian of the village boundaries, and as public messenger. In some +parts they are also weavers of coarse cotton cloth. In 1901 their total +number in all India was just under three millions. + + + + +MAHARAJPUR, a village in Gwalior state, Central India. Pop. (1901), 366. +It was the scene of a battle (Dec. 29, 1843) in which Sir Hugh Gough, +accompanied by the governor-general, Lord Ellenborough, defeated the +insurgent army of the Gwalior state. + + + + +MAHAVAMSA, the _Great Chronicle_, a history of Ceylon from the 5th +century B.C. to the middle of the 5th century A.D., written in Pali +verse by Mahanama of the Dighasanda Hermitage, shortly after the close +of the period with which it deals. In point of historical value it +compares well with early European chronicles. In India proper the +decipherment of early Indian inscriptions was facilitated to a very +great extent by the data found only in the Mahavamsa. It was composed on +the basis of earlier works written in Sinhalese, which are now lost, +having been supplanted by the chronicles and commentaries in which their +contents were restated in Pali in the course of the 5th century. The +particular one on which our Mahavamsa was mainly based was also called +the Mahavamsa, and was written in Sinhalese prose with Pali memorial +verse interspersed. The extant Pali work gives legends of the Buddha and +the genealogy of his family; a sketch of the history of India down to +Asoka; an account of Buddhism in India down to the same date; a +description of the sending out of missionaries after Asoka's council, +and especially of the mission of Mahinda to Ceylon; a sketch of the +previous history of Ceylon; a long account of the reign of Devanam-piya +Tissa, the king of Ceylon who received Mahinda, and established Buddhism +in the island; short accounts of the kings succeeding him down to Duttha +Gamiin (Dadagamana or Dutegemunu); then a long account, amounting to an +epic poem, of the adventures and reign of that prince, a popular hero, +born in adversity, who roused the people, and drove the Tamil invaders +out of the island. Finally we have short notices of the subsequent kings +down to the author's time. The Mahavamsa was the first Pali book made +known to Europe. It was edited in 1837, with English translation and an +elaborate introduction, by George Turnour, then colonial secretary in +Ceylon. Its vocabulary was an important part of the material utilized in +Childer's _Pali Dictionary_. Its relation to the sources from which it +drew has been carefully discussed by various scholars and in especial +detail by Geiger. It is agreed that it gives a reasonably fair and +correct presentation of the tradition preserved in the lost Sinhalese +Mahavamsa; that, except in the earliest period, its list of kings, with +the years of each reign, is complete and trustworthy; and that it gives +throughout the view, as to events in Ceylon, of a resident in the Great +Minster at Anuradhapura. + + See _The Mahavamsa_, ed. by Geo. Turnour (Colombo, 1837); ed. by W. + Geiger (London, 1908); H. Oldenberg, in the introduction to his + edition of the _Dipavamsa_ (London, 1879); O. Franke, in _Wiener + Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes_ (1907); W. Geiger, + _Dipavamsa und Mahavamsa_ (Leipzig, 1905, trans. by Ethel M. + Coomaraswamy, Colombo, 1908). (T. W. R. D.) + + + + +MAHAYANA ("Great Vehicle"), the name given to the later Buddhism, the +popular religion which embraced all the people and had its pantheon of +Buddhas and Bodhisatvas, with attendant deities and demons, spacious +temples and images, pompous ceremonial and noisy festivals. It was thus +contrasted with the Hinayana ("Little Vehicle") of the primitive +Buddhism which had been only for the select few. (See BUDDHISM.) + + + + +MAHDI (Arab. "he who is guided aright"), a title assumed by the third +Abbasid caliph (see CALIPHATE: _Abbasids_, § 3). According to Moslem +traditionists Mahomet declared that one of his descendants, the imam of +God, who would fill the earth with equity and justice, would bear the +name of al-mahdi. The Sunnis hold that this mahdi has not yet appeared. +The name of mahdi is also given by the Shi'ite Mahommedans to the last +of the imams of the house of 'Ali. It was under the name of al-mahdi +that Mokhtar proclaimed 'Ali's son Mahommed as the opponent of the +caliph Abdalmalik, and, according to Shahrastani, the doctrine of the +mahdi, the hidden deliverer who is one day to appear and fill the +oppressed world with righteousness, first arose in connexion with a +belief that this Mahommed had not died but lived concealed at Mount +Radwa, near Mecca, guarded by a lion and a panther. The hidden imam of +the common Shi'ites is, however, the twelfth imam, Mahommed Abu'I-Qasim, +who disappeared mysteriously in 879. The belief in the appearance of the +mahdi readily lent itself to imposture. Of the many pretenders to this +dignity known in all periods of Moslem history the most famous was the +first caliph of the Fatimite dynasty in North Africa, 'Obaidallah +al-Mahdi, who reigned 909-933. After him was named the first capital of +the dynasty, the once important city of Mahdia (q.v.). Another great +historical movement, headed by a leader who proclaimed himself the mahdi +(Mahommed ibn Abdallah ibn Tumart), was that of the Almohades (q.v.). In +1881 Mahommed Ahmed ibn Seyyid Abdullah (q.v.), a Dongolese, proclaimed +himself al-mahdi and founded in the eastern Sudan the short-lived empire +overthrown by an Anglo-Egyptian force at the battle of Omdurman in 1898. +Concurrently with the claim of Mahommed Ahmed to be the mahdi the same +title was claimed by, or for, the head of the Senussites, a +confraternity powerful in many regions of North Africa. + + + + +MAHDIA (also spelt _Mehdia_, _Mehedia_, &c.), a town of Tunisia, on the +coast between the gulfs of Hammamet and Gabes, 47 m. by rail S.S.E. of +Susa. Pop. about 8000. Mahdia is built on a rocky peninsula which +projects eastward about a mile beyond the normal coast line, and is not +more than a quarter of a mile wide. The extremity of the peninsula is +called Ras Mahdia or Cape Africa--Africa being the name by which Mahdia +was designated by Froissart and other European historians during the +middle ages and the Renaissance. In the centre of the peninsula and +occupying its highest point is a citadel (16th century); another castle +farther west is now used as a prison and is in the centre of the native +town. The European quarter and the new port are on the south-west side +of the peninsula. The port is available for small boats only; steamers +anchor in the roadstead about a quarter of a mile from the shore. On the +south-east, cut out of the rock, is the ancient harbour, or _cothon_, +measuring about 480 ft by 240 ft., the entrance being 42 ft. wide. There +are manufactories of olive oil, but the chief industry is sardine +fishing, largely in the hands of Italians. + +Mahdia occupies the site of a Phoenician settlement and by some +authorities is identified with the town called Turris Hannibalis by the +Romans. Hannibal is said to have embarked here on his exile from +Carthage. After the Arab conquest of North Africa the town fell into +decay. It was refounded in 912 by the first Fatimite caliph, +'Obaidallah-al-Mahdi, after whom it was named. It became the port of +Kairawan and was for centuries a city of considerable importance, +largely owing to its great natural strength, and its position on the +Mediterranean. It carried on an active trade with Egypt, Syria and +Spain. The town was occupied by the Normans of Sicily in the 12th +century, but after holding it for about twelve years they were driven +out in 1159 by the Almohades. In 1390 a joint English and French force +vainly besieged Mahdia for sixty-one days. In the early part of the 16th +century the corsair Dragut seized the town and made it his capital, but +in 1550 the place was captured by the Spaniards, who held it until 1574. +Before evacuating the town the Spaniards dismantled the fortifications. +Under the rule of the Turks and, later, the beys of Tunis Mahdia became +a place of little importance. It was occupied by the French in 1881 +without opposition, and regained some of its former commercial +importance. + + During 1908 numbers of bronzes and other works of art were recovered + from a vessel wrecked off Mahdia in the 5th century A.D. (see + _Classical Review_, June 1909). + + + + +MAHÉ, a French settlement in the Malabar district of Madras, India, +situated in 11° 43´ N. and 75° 33´ E., at the mouth of a river of the +same name. Area, 26 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 10,298. It is the only French +possession on the west coast of India, and is in charge of a _chef de +service_, subordinate to the governor-general at Pondicherry. It is now +a decaying place. + + + + +MAHESHWAR, a town in Indore state, Central India, on the N. bank of the +Narbada (Nerbudda). Pop. (1901), 7042. Though of great antiquity and +also of religious sanctity, it is chiefly noted as the residence of +Ahalya Bai, the reigning queen of the Holkar dynasty during the last +half of the 18th century, whose ability and munificence are famous +throughout India. Close by her cenotaph stands the family temple of the +Holkars. + + + + +MAHI, a river of western India, which rises in Central India and, after +flowing through south Rajputana, enters Gujarat and falls into the sea +by a wide estuary near Cambay; total length, 300 m.; estimated drainage +area, 16,000 sq. m. It has given its name to the Mahi Kantha agency of +Bombay, and also to the mehwasis, marauding highlanders often mentioned +in Mahommedan chronicles. + + + + +MAHI KANTHA, a political agency or collection of native states in India, +within the Gujarat division of Bombay. Over half the territory is +covered by the native state of Idar. There are eleven other chiefships, +and a large number of estates belonging to Rajput or Koli thakurs, +formerly feudatories of Baroda. Several of the states are under British +administration. Total area, 3125 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 361,545, showing a +decrease of 38% in the decade, due to famine; estimated revenue, +£76,000; tribute (mostly to the gaekwar of Baroda), £9000. Many of the +inhabitants belong to the wild tribes of Bhils and Kolis. In 1897 a +metre-gauge railway was opened from Ahmedabad through Parantij to +Ahmednagar. At Sadra is the Scott College for the education of the sons +of chiefs on the lines of an English public school. There are also +Anglo-vernacular schools at Sadra, Idar and Mansa. The famine of +1899-1900 was severely felt in this tract. + + + + +MAHMUD I. (1696-1754), sultan of Turkey, was the son of Mustafa II., and +succeeded his uncle Ahmed III. in 1730. After the suppression of a +military revolt the war with Persia was continued with varying success, +and terminated in 1736 by a treaty of peace restoring the _status quo +ante bellum_. The next enemy whom Turkey was called upon to face was +Russia, later joined by Austria. War went on for four years; the +successes gained by Russia were outweighed by Austria's various +reverses, terminating by the defeat of Wallis at Krotzka, and the peace +concluded at Belgrade was a triumph for Turkish diplomacy. The sultan, +throughout desirous for peace, is said to have been much under the +influence of the chief eunuch, Haji Beshir Aga. In 1754 Mahmud died of +heart-disease when returning from the Friday service at the mosque. He +had a passion for building, to which are due numberless kiosques, where +nocturnal orgies were carried on by him and his boon companions. In this +reign the system of appointing Phanariote Greeks to the principalities +of Moldavia and Wallachia was instituted. (See PHANARIOTES.) + + + + +MAHMUD II. (1785-1839), sultan of Turkey, was the son of Abu-ul-Hamid +I., and succeeded his brother, Mustafa IV., in 1808. He had shared the +captivity of his ill-fated cousin, the ex-sultan, Selim III., whose +efforts at reform had ended in his deposition by the janissaries. Mahmud +was thus early impressed with the necessity for dissembling his +intention to institute reforms until he should be powerful enough to +carry them through. The reforming efforts of the grand vizier Bairakdar, +to whom he had owed his life and his accession, broke on the opposition +of the janissaries; and Mahmud had to wait for more favourable times. +Meanwhile the empire seemed in danger of breaking up. Not till 1812 was +the war with Russia closed by the treaty of Bucharest, which restored +Moldavia and the greater part of Wallachia to the Ottoman government. +But though the war was ended, the terms of the treaty left a number of +burning questions, both internal and external, unsettled. This was +notably the case with the claim of Russia to Poti and the valley of the +Rion (Phasis), which was still outstanding at the time of the congress +of Vienna (1814-1815) and prevented the question of a European guarantee +of the integrity of Turkey from being considered. + +Meanwhile, within the empire, ambitious valis were one by one attempting +to carve out dominions for themselves at the expense of the central +power. The ambitions of Mehemet Ali of Egypt were not yet fully +revealed; but Ali (q.v.) of Jannina, who had marched to the aid of the +sultan against the rebellious pasha Pasvan Oglu of Widdin, soon began to +show his hand, and it needed the concentration of all the forces of the +Turkish empire to effect his overthrow and death (1822). The +preoccupation of the sultan with Ali gave their opportunity to the +Greeks whose disaffection had long been organized in the great secret +society of the _Hetaeria Philike_, against which Metternich had in vain +warned the Ottoman government. In 1821 occurred the abortive raid of +Alexander Ypsilanti into the Danubian principalities, and in May of the +same year the revolt of the Greeks of the Morea began the war of Greek +Independence (see GREECE: _History_). The rising in the north was easily +crushed; but in the south the Ottoman power was hampered by the +defection of the sea-faring Greeks, by whom the Turkish navy had +hitherto been manned. After three abortive campaigns Mahmud was +compelled, infinitely against his will, to summon to his assistance the +already too powerful pasha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, whom he had already +employed to suppress the rebellious Wahhabis in Arabia. The disciplined +Egyptian army, supported by a well organized fleet, rapidly accomplished +what the Turks had failed to do; and by 1826 the Greeks were practically +subdued on land, and Ibrahim was preparing to turn his attention to the +islands. But for the intervention of the powers and the battle of +Navarino Mahmud's authority would have been restored in Greece. The news +of Navarino betrayed Mahmud into one of those paroxysms of rage to which +he was liable, and which on critical occasions were apt fatally to cloud +his usual good sense. After in vain attempting to obtain an apology for +"the unparalleled outrage against a friendly power" he issued on the +20th of December a solemn _hatti sheriff_ summoning the faithful to a +holy war. This, together with certain outstanding grievances and the +pretext of enforcing the settlement of the Greek Question approved by +the powers, gave Russia the excuse for declaring war against Turkey. +After two hardly fought campaigns (1828, 1829) Mahmud was at length, on +the 14th of September 1829, compelled to sign the peace of Adrianople. +From this moment until his death Mahmud was, to all intents and +purposes, the "vassal of Russia," though not without occasional +desperate efforts to break his chains. (For the political events of the +period between the first revolt of Mehemet Ali (Sept. 1832) and the +death of Mahmud see MEHEMET ALI.) The personal attitude of the sultan, +which alone concerns us here, was determined throughout by his +overmastering hatred of the upstart pasha, of whom he had stooped to ask +aid, and who now defied his will; and the importance of this attitude +lies in the fact that, as the result of the success of his centralizing +policy, and notably of the destruction of the janissaries (q.v.), the +supreme authority, hitherto limited by the practical power of the +ministers of the Porte and by the turbulence of the privileged military +caste, had become concentrated in his own person. It was no longer the +Porte that decided, but the Seraglio, and the sultan's private secretary +had more influence on the policy of the Ottoman empire than the grand +vizier. + +This omnipotence of the sultan in deciding the policy of the government +was in striking contrast with his impotence in enforcing his views on +his subjects and in his relations with foreign powers. Mahmud, in spite +of--or rather because of--his well-meant efforts at reform, was hated by +his Mussulman subjects and stigmatized as an "infidel" and a traitor to +Islam. He was, in fact, a victim to those "half-measures" which +Machiavelli condemns as fatal to success. Ibrahim, the conqueror of +Syria, scoffed at the sultan's idea "that reform consisted in putting +his soldiers into tight trousers and epaulettes." The criticism is not +entirely unjust. Mahmud's policy was the converse of that recommended by +Machiavelli, viz. in making a revolution to change the substance while +preserving the semblance of the old order. Metternich's advice to Mahmud +to "remain a Turk" was sound enough. His failure to do so--in +externals--left him isolated in his empire: _rayahs_ and true believers +alike distrusted and hated him. Of this hatred he was fully conscious; +he knew that his subjects, even many of his own ministers, regarded +Mehemet Ali as the champion of Islam against the "infidel sultan;" he +suspected the pasha, already master of the sacred cities, of an +intention to proclaim himself caliph in his stead. This, together with +the weakness due to military reforms but recently begun, drove him to +rely on foreign aid; which, in the actual conditions of Europe, meant +the aid of Russia. The long tradition of French friendship for Turkey +had been broken, in 1830, by the conquest of Algiers. Austria was, for +the time, but the faithful ally of the tsar. On the 9th of August 1832 +Mahmud made, through Stratford Canning, a formal proposal for an +alliance with Great Britain, which Palmerston refused to consider for +fear of offending France. Mahmud bitterly contrasted the fair +professions of England with the offers of effective help from Russia. +His old ally having deserted him, he accepted the aid of his hereditary +foe. The Russian expedition to the Bosporus, the convention of Kutaiah, +and the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (July 8, 1833) followed. Mahmud was +under no illusion as to the position in which the latter placed him +towards Russia; but his fear of Mehemet Ali and his desire to be +revenged upon him outweighed all other considerations. He resented the +action of France and England in forcing the settlement of Kutaiah upon +him, and remained shut up in his palace, inaccessible to all save his +favourites and the representative of Russia. With his single aim in view +he busied himself with the creation of a national militia, with the aid +of Moltke and other German officers. In 1834 the revolt of Syria against +Ibrahim seemed to give him his opportunity. He pleaded the duty of a +sultan to go to the aid of his subjects when oppressed by one of his +servants; but the powers were obdurate, even Russia, much occupied in +affairs nearer home, leaving him in the lurch. He was astute enough to +take advantage of the offence given to the powers by Mehemet Ali's +system of monopolies, and in 1838 signed with Great Britain, and +afterwards with others, a commercial treaty which cut at the root of the +pasha's system. A few months later his passionate impatience overcame +his policy and his fears. The hand of death was upon him, and he felt +that he must strike now or never. In vain the powers, now united in +their views, warned him of the probable consequences of any aggressive +action on his part. He would rather die, he exclaimed, or become the +slave of Russia, than not destroy his rebellious vassal. On his sole +initiative, without consulting his ministers or the council of the +empire, he sent instructions to Hafiz Pasha, commanding the Ottoman +troops concentrated at Bir on the Euphrates, to advance into Syria. The +fatal outcome of the campaign that followed he did not live to hear. +When the news of Ibrahim's overwhelming victory at Nessib (June 24, +1839) reached Constantinople, Mahmud lay dying and unconscious. Early in +the morning of the 1st of July his proud and passionate spirit passed +away. + +Mahmud II. cannot be reckoned among the great sultans, neither had he +any of the calculating statecraft which characterized Abd-ul-Hamid II.; +but his qualities of mind and heart, none the less, raised him far above +the mass of his predecessors and successors. He was well versed in state +affairs and loyal to those who advised and served him, personally brave, +humane and kindly when not maddened by passion, active and energetic, +and always a man of his word. Unhappily, however, the taint of the +immemorial corruption of Byzantium had fallen upon him too, and the +avenue to his favour and to political power lay too often through +unspeakable paths. In view of the vast difficulty of the task before him +at his succession it is less surprising that he failed to carry out his +ideas than that he accomplished so much. When he came to the throne the +empire was breaking up from within; one by one he freed the provinces +from the tyrannical rulers who, like Ali of Jannina, were carving out +independent, or quasi-independent, empires within the empire. If he +failed in his wider schemes of reform, this was only one more +illustration of a truth of which other "enlightened" sovereigns besides +himself had experienced the force, namely, that it is impossible to +impose any system, however admirable, from above on a people whose +deepest convictions and prejudices it offends. + + There is a great deal of valuable material for the history of Mahmud + and his policy in the unpublished F.O. records (1832-1839), volumes of + correspondence marked _Turkey.--From Sir Stratford Canning.--From Mr. + Mandeville.--From Lord Ponsonby._ See further works mentioned under + TURKEY: _History_; and MEHEMET ALI. (W. A. P.) + + + + +MAHMUD NEDIM PASHA (c. 1818-1883), Turkish statesman, was the son of +Nejib Pasha, ex-governor-general of Bagdad. After occupying various +subordinate posts at the Porte he became successively under-secretary of +state for foreign affairs, governor-general of Syria and Smyrna, +minister of commerce, and governor-general of Tripoli; minister +successively of justice and of marine (1869); grand vizier from 1871 to +1872 and from 1875 to 1876. He was high in favour with Sultan +Abd-ul-Aziz and fell much under the influence of General Ignatiev, the +forceful Russian ambassador before the war of 1877-78, his subserviency +to Russia earning for him the nickname of "Mahmudoff." His +administration was most unsuccessful from every point of view, and he +was largely responsible for the issue of the decree suspending the +interest on the Turkish funds. He was minister of the interior from 1879 +to 1883. + + + + +MAHMUD[1] OF GHAZNI (971-1030), son of Sabuktagin, Afghan conqueror, was +born on the 2nd of October 971. His fame rests chiefly on his successful +wars, in particular his numerous invasions of India. His military +capacity, inherited from his father, Nasir-ud-din Sabuktagin, was +strengthened by youthful experience in the field. Sabuktagin, a Turki +slave of Alptagin, governor of Khorasan under Abdalmalik I. b. Nuh of +the Samanid dynasty of Bokhara, early brought himself to notice (see +SAMANIDS). He was raised to high office in the state by Alptagin's +successor, Abu Ishak, and in A.H. 366 (A.D. 977), by the choice of the +nobles of Ghazni, he became their ruler. He soon began to make conquests +in the neighbouring countries, and in these wars he was accompanied by +his young son Mahmud. Before he had reached the age of fourteen he +encountered in two expeditions under his father the Indian forces of +Jaipal, raja of Lahore, whom Sabuktagin defeated on the Punjab frontier. + +In 994 Mahmud was made governor of Khorasan, with the title of Saif +addaula (ud-daula) ("Sword of the State") by the Samanid Nuh II. Two +years later, his father Sabuktagin died in the neighbourhood of Balkh, +having declared his second son, Ismail, who was then with him, to be his +successor. As soon as Ismail had assumed the sovereignty at Balkh, +Mahmud, who was at Nishapur, addressed him in friendly terms, proposing +a division of the territories held by their father at his death. Ismail +rejected the proposal, and was immediately attacked by Mahmud and +defeated. Retreating to Ghazni, he there yielded, and was imprisoned, +and Mahmud obtained undisputed power as sovereign of Khorasan and Ghazni +(997). + +The Ghaznevid dynasty is sometimes reckoned by native historians to +commence with Sabuktagin's conquest of Bost and Kosdar (978). But +Sabuktagin, throughout his reign at Ghazni, continued to acknowledge the +Samanid suzerainty, as did Mahmud also, until the time, soon after +succeeding to his father's dominions, when he received from Qadir, +caliph of Bagdad (see CALIPHATE, C. § 25), a _khilat_ (robe of honour), +with a letter recognizing his sovereignty, and conferring on him the +titles _Yamiin-addaula_ ("Right hand of the State"), and +_Amin-ul-Millat_ ("Guardian of the Faith"). From this time it is the +name of the caliph that is inscribed on Mahmud's coins, together with +his own new titles. Previously the name of the Samanid sovereign, Mansur +II. b. Nuh is given along with his own former title, Saif addaula +Mahmud. The earliest of those of the new form gives his name Mahmud bin +Sabuktagin. Thereafter his father's name does not appear on his coins, +but it is inscribed again on his tomb. + +The new honours received from the caliph gave fresh impulse to Mahmud's +zeal on behalf of Islam, and he resolved on an annual expedition against +the idolaters of India. He could not quite carry out this intention, but +a great part of his reign was occupied with his Indian campaigns. In +1000 he started on the first of these expeditions, but it does not +appear that he went farther than the hill country near Peshawar. The +hostile attitude of Khalaf ibn Ahmad, governor of Seistan, called Mahmud +to that province for a short time. He was appeased by Khalaf's speedy +submission, together with the gift of a large sum of money, and further, +it is said, by his subdued opponent addressing him as _sultan_, a title +new at that time, and by which Mahmud continued to be called, though he +did not formally adopt it, or stamp it on his coins. Four years later +Khalaf, incurring Mahmud's displeasure again, was imprisoned, and his +property confiscated. + +Mahmud's army first crossed the Indus in 1001, opposed by Jaipal, raja +of Lahore. Jaipal was defeated, and Mahmud, after his return from this +expedition, is said to have taken the distinctive appellation of _Ghazi_ +("Valiant for the Faith"), but he is rarely so-called. On the next +occasion (1005) Mahmud advanced, as far as Bhera on the Jhelum, when his +adversary Anang-pal, son and successor of Jaipal, fled to Kashmir. The +following year saw Mahmud at Multan. When he was in the Punjab at this +time, he heard of the invasion of Khorasan by the Ilek Khan Nasr I. +ruler of Transoxiana whose daughter Mahmud had married. After a rapid +march back from India, Mahmud repelled the invaders. The Ilek Khan, +having retreated across the Oxus, returned with reinforcements, and took +up a position a few miles from Balkh, where he was signally defeated by +Mahmud. + +Mahmud again entered the Punjab in 1008, this time for the express +purpose of chastising Sewah Pal, who, having become a Mussulman, and +been left by Mahmud in charge of Multan, had relapsed to Hinduism. The +Indian campaign of 1009 was notable. Near the Indus Mahmud was opposed +again by Anang-pal, supported by powerful rajas from other parts of +India. After a severe fight, Anang-pal's elephants were so terror-struck +by the fire-missiles flung amongst them by the invaders that they turned +and fled, the whole army retreating in confusion and leaving Mahmud +master of the field. Mahmud, after this victory, pushed on through the +Punjab to Nagar-kot (Kangra), and carried off much spoil from the Hindu +temples to enrich his treasury at Ghazni. In 1011 Mahmud, after a short +campaign against the Afghans under Mahommed ibn Sur in the hill country +of Ghur, marched again into the Punjab. The next time (1014) he advanced +to Thanesar, another noted stronghold of Hinduism, between the Sutlej +and the Jumna. Having now found his way across all the Punjab rivers, he +was induced on two subsequent occasions to go still farther. But first +he designed an invasion of Kashmir (1015), which was not carried out, as +his progress was checked at Loh-kot, a strong hill fort in the +north-west of the Punjab. Then before undertaking his longer inroad into +Hindustan he had to march north into Khwarizm (Khiva) against his +brother-in-law Mamun, who had refused to acknowledge Mahmud's supremacy. +The result was as usual, and Mahmud, having committed Khwarizm to a new +ruler, one of Mamun's chief officers, returned to his capital. Then in +1018, with a very large force, he proceeded to India again, extending +his inroad this time to the great Hindu cities of Mathra on the Jumna +and Kanauj on the Ganges. He reduced the one, received the submission of +the other, and carried back great stores of plunder. Three years later +he went into India again, marching over nearly the same ground, to the +support, this time, of the raja of Kanauj, who, having made friendship +with the Mahommedan invader on his last visit, had been attacked by the +raja of Kalinjar. But Mahmud found he had not yet sufficiently subdued +the idolaters nearer his own border, between Kabul and the Indus, and +the campaign of 1022 was directed against them, and reached no farther +than Peshawar. Another march into India the following year was made +direct to Gwalior. + +The next expedition (1025) is the most famous of all. The point to which +it was directed was the temple of Somnath on the coast of the Gujarat +peninsula. After an arduous journey by Multan, and through part of +Rajputana, he reached Somnath, and met with a very vigorous but +fruitless resistance on the part of the Hindus of Gujarat. Moslem feet +soon trod the courts of the great temple. The chief object of worship it +contained was broken up, and the fragments kept to be carried off to +Ghazni. The story is often told of the hollow figure, cleft by Mahmud's +battle-axe, pouring out great store of costly jewels and gold. But the +idol in this Sivite temple was only a tall block or pillar of hewn +stone, of a familiar kind. The popular legend is a very natural one. +Mahmud, it was well known, made Hindu temples yield up their most +precious things. He was a determined idol-breaker. And the stone block +in this temple was enriched with a crown of jewels, the gifts of wealthy +worshippers. These data readily give the Somnath exploit its more +dramatic form. For the more recent story of the Somnath gates see +SOMNATH. + +After the successes at Somnath, Mahmud remained some months in India +before returning to Ghazni. Then in 1026 he crossed the Indus once more +into the Punjab. His brilliant military career closed with an expedition +to Persia, in the third year after this, his last, visit to India. The +Indian campaigns of Mahmud and his father were almost, but not +altogether, unvarying successes. The Moslem historians touch lightly on +reverses. And, although the annals of Rajputana tell how Sabuktagin was +defeated by one raja of Ajmere and Mahmud by his successor, the course +of events which followed shows how little these and other reverses +affected the invader's progress. Mahmud's failure at Ajmere, when the +brave raja Bisal-deo obliged him to raise the siege but was himself +slain, was when the Moslem army was on its way to Somnath. Yet Mahmud's +Indian conquests, striking and important in themselves, were, after all, +in great measure barren, except to the Ghazni treasury. Mahmud retained +no possessions in India under his own direct rule. But after the +repeated defeats, by his father and himself, of two successive rajas of +Lahore, the conqueror assumed the right of nominating the governors of +the Punjab as a dependency of Ghazni, a right which continued to be +exercised by seven of his successors. And for a time, in the reign of +Masa'ud II. (1098-1114), Lahore was the place of residence of the +Ghaznevid sovereign. + +Mahmud died at Ghazni in 1030, the year following his expedition to +Persia. He is conspicuous for his military ardour, his ambition, strong +will, perseverance, watchfulness and energy, combined with great courage +and unbounded self-reliance. But his tastes were not exclusively +military. His love of literature brought men of learning to Ghazni, and +his acquaintance with Moslem theology was recognized by the learned +doctors. + + The principal histories of Mahmud's reign are--_Kitab-i-Yamini_ + (Utbi); _Tarikh-us-Subuktigin_ (Baihaki); _Tabakat i Nasiri_ (Minhaj + el-Siraj); _Rauzat-us-Safa_ (Mir Khond); _Habib-us-Sivar_ (Khondamir). + See Elliot, _History of India_; Elphinstone, _History of India_; and + Roos-Keppel's translation of the _Tarikh-i-Sultan Mahmud-i-Ghaznavi_ + (1901). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The name is strictly Mahmud. + + + + +MAHOBA, an ancient town in India, in Hamirpur district of the United +Provinces. Pop. (1901), 10,074. As the capital of the Chandel dynasty, +who ruled over Bundelkhand from the 9th to the 13th century, the +neighbourhood is covered with architectural antiquities, prominent among +which are artificial lakes, formed by banking up valleys with masonry +dams. The largest of these is more than 4 m. in circuit. + + + + +MAHOGANY, a dark-coloured wood largely used for household furniture, the +product of a large tree indigenous to Central America and the West +Indies. It was originally received from Jamaica; 521,300 ft. were +exported from that island in 1753. It is known botanically as _Swietenia +Mahogani_, and is a member of the order _Meliaceae_. It bears compound +leaves, resembling those of the ash, and clusters of small flowers, with +five sepals and petals and ten stamens which are united into a tube. The +fruit is a pear-shaped woody capsule, and contains many winged seeds. +The dark-coloured bark has been considered a febrifuge, and the seeds +were used by the ancient Aztecs with oil for a cosmetic, but the most +valuable product is the timber, first noticed by the carpenter on board +Sir Walter Raleigh's ship in 1595 for its great beauty, hardness and +durability. Dr Gibbons brought it into notice as well adapted for +furniture in the early part of the 18th century, and its use as a +cabinet wood was first practically established by a cabinet-maker named +Wollaston, who was employed by Gibbons to work up some mahogany brought +to England by his brother. It was introduced into India in 1795, and is +now cultivated in Bengal and as far north as Saharunpur. + + The timber of species of _Cedrela_ and _Melia_, other members of the + order _Meliaceae_, are used as Mahogany, and the product of the West + African _Khaya senegalensis_ is known as African mahogany. There is + some confusion between the product of these various trees. Herbert + Stone (_The Timbers of Commerce_, 1904) says: "The various species of + mahogany and cedar are so confusing that it is difficult to make + precise statements as to their structure or origin. I know of no + convincing proof that any of the American kinds met with on the + English market are the wood of _Swietenia Mahogani_, nor that those + shipped from Africa are the wood of _Khaya senegalensis_. These two + genera are very nearly allied to _Cedrela_ and _Melia_, and it is + difficult to separate any of the four from the rest by the characters + of the wood. After giving the most careful attention to every detail, + I lean to the view that most if not all of the mahoganies commonly met + with are Cedrelas." + + _Kiggelaria Dregeana_ (natural order _Bixineae_), a native of South + Africa, is known as Natal mahogany. + + + + +MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED), founder of the +religious system called in Europe after him Mahommedanism, and by +himself Islam or Hanifism. He died, according to the ordinary +synchronism, on the 7th of June 632 (12 Rabia, A.H. 11), and his +birthday was exactly sixty-three or sixty-five years earlier, the latter +number being evidently an interpretation in lunar years of a number +thought to refer to solar years. The lunar system was introduced into +Arabia by Mahomet himself quite at the close of his career; that which +existed before was certainly solar, as it involved a process of +intercalation--which, however, seems to have been arbitrarily +manipulated by priests, whence certain synchronisms cannot be got for +the events in the Prophet's career. The number 63 for the years of his +life may rest on tradition, though it is unlikely that such matters were +accurately noted; it can also be accounted for by a priori combination. +A Meccan, it is said, became a full citizen at the age of 40; this then +would be the age at which the mission might be started. The Medina +period (of which count was kept) lasted ten to eleven years; for the +Meccan period ten years would seem a likely length. Finally it was known +that for some years--about three--the mission had been conducted +secretly. The only event in contemporary history to which the Koran +alludes in its earlier parts is the Persian conquest of Palestine in +616. Clearly Mahomet had begun to prophesy at that date. + + + His Country. + +Before the rise of Islam, Mahomet's native place, Mecca, appears to +figure nowhere in historical records, unless there be a reference to it +in the "valley of Baca" (Psalm lxxxiv. 6). Its sacred, and therefore +archaic, name is _Bakkah_; hence the identification of the name with +that of the sanctuary Makoraba, known to the Greek geographers, is not +philologically tenable; although so eminent a linguist as Dozy evolved a +theory of the origin of the city from this name, which appears to be +South Arabian for "sanctuary," and has no connexion with Hebrew (as Dozy +supposed). In the 3rd century of Islam the mythology of Mecca was +collected and published in book form, but we learn little more from it +than names of tribes and places; it is clear that there was no record of +the mode in which the community inhabiting the place had got there, and +that little was remembered with accuracy of the events which preceded +the rise of its prophet. The city had a sanctuary, called the _Cube_ +(_ka'ba_), of which the nucleus was the "Black Stone," probably to be +identified with Allah, the god of the community; both still exist, or +rather their legitimate substitutes, as the Ka`ba has been repeatedly +reconstructed, and the original Black Stone was stolen by the +Carmathians in the 4th century of Islam; they afterwards returned one, +but it may or may not have been the same as that which they removed. At +some time in the 6th century--said to have been the birth-year of the +Prophet, but really much earlier--an Abyssinian invader raided Mecca +with the view of abolishing this sanctuary; but for some reason had to +desist. This expedition, known as the "Raid of the Elephant," one of +these animals being employed in it, seems to be of great importance for +explaining the rise of Islam; for a sanctuary which can repel an invader +acquires tremendous reputation. Some verses in the Koran which are +perhaps not genuine, record the miracle whereby Allah repelled the +"People of the Elephant." The sanctuary was apparently in the possession +of the tribe Koreish (Quraish), the origin of whose name is unknown, +said to have come originally from Cutha in Mesopotamia. They were known +(we are told) as the people of Allah, and, by wearing a badge, were +sacrosanct throughout Arabia. If this be true, it was probably a +privilege earned by the miraculous defence of the Ka`ba, and is +sufficient to account for the rise of Meccan commerce of which we hear +much in the biography of the Prophet, and to which some verses of the +earliest part of the Koran allude; for merchants who were safe from +attacks by bandits would have an enormous advantage. The records seem, +however, to be inconsistent with this assertion; and the growth of the +Meccan commerce is sufficiently accounted for by the fact that after the +Abyssinian invasion pilgrimage to the Ka`ba became the practice of +numerous Arab tribes, and for four months in the year (selected by +Meccan priests) raiding was forbidden, in order to enable the pilgrimage +to be safely made. In addition to this it would seem that all Mecca +counted as sanctuary--i.e. no blood might under any circumstances be +shed there. The community lived by purveying to pilgrims and the +carrying trade; and both these operations led to the immigration of +strangers. + + + Mahomet's Family. + +There seems to be no doubt that Mahomet was himself a member of the +tribe Koreish, and indeed too many of his relatives figure in history to +permit of his parentage being questioned. His cousin 'Ali, fourth +caliph, was the son of Abu Talib, whose name attests the historical +character of the kindred name `Abd al-Mottalib, Mahomet's grandfather: +for the fact that this name is in part enigmatical is certainly no +argument against its genuineness. In the 3rd century of Islam a document +was shown in which a man of San'a in Yemen acknowledged that he had +borrowed from `Abd al-Mottalib 1000 silver dirhems of the Hudaida +standard, and Allah with the two "angels" (probably a euphemism for the +goddesses Al-lat and al-`Uzza) served as witness; it is difficult to see +why such a document should have been forged. The name Hashim (for `Abd +al-Mottalib's father) may or may not be historical; here, as in the +ascending line throughout, we have subjects without predicates. The name +of `Abd al-Mottalib's son, who was Mahomet's father, is given as +`Abdallah; the correctness of this has been questioned, because "Servant +of Allah" would seem to be too appropriate, and the name was often given +by the Prophet to converts as a substitute for some pagan appellation. +This, however, is hypercritical, as the name of the father could not +easily be altered, when relatives abounded, and it would seem that at +one time the Prophet made no theological use of the name Allah, for +which he intended to substitute Rahman. The name of his mother is given +as Aminah, and with this one of his own titles, Amin, agrees; although +the Arabs do not appear to bring the two into connexion. Her father's +name is given as Wahb, and she is brought into relation with a Medinese +tribe called the Banu `Adi b. al-Najjar, to whom she is said to have +brought her son in his early infancy. The circumstances may have been +suggested by his later connexion with that place; yet in what seems a +historical narrative her grave is mentioned as known to be at Abwa, +midway between the two cities, whence this early bond between the +Prophet and his future home may have really existed. + +His own name is given in the Koran in the forms Ahmad and the familiar +Muhammad; in contemporary poetry we also find the form Mahmud. Similar +variation between derivatives from the same root is found in proper +names which occur in early poetry; the meaning of all would be "the +praised," if the root be given its Arabic signification--"the desired" +if interpreted from the Hebrew. + + The form Muhammad (ordinarily transliterated Mohammed; Mahomet, + Mehmet, &c., represent the Turkish pronunciation) is found in a + pre-Islamic inscription, and appears to have been fairly common in + Arabia. In Hag. ii. 7 a derivative of the Hebrew equivalent root + occurs in the prophecy "and the desired of all nations shall come," + and this passage has suggested the idea that the name may have been + taken by the Prophet as the equivalent of "Messiah," while the Moslems + themselves find its equivalent in the _Paraclete_ of the Fourth + Gospel, though this identification requires more ingenuity. His + _kunyah_ (i.e. the Arab title of respect, in which a man is called + after his son) is Abu'l-Qasim; other names by which he is called are + titles of honour, e.g. Mustafa "chosen." (See further the genealogical + table, _ad fin._) + + + Early Life. + +In the Koran, Allah says that He found the Prophet an orphan, poor and +astray; it is possible that all these expressions should be understood +figuratively, like the "poor, naked, blind" of Christian hymns; the +Arabs, however, take them literally, and Mahomet is said to have been a +posthumous child, whose mother died a few months or years after his +birth, and who was brought up first by his grandfather, and then by his +uncle Abu Talib, one of the poorer members of the family; in the +controversy between the Alid and Abbasid pretenders of the 2nd century +of Islam the Abbasid Mansur claims that his ancestor fed the ancestor of +`Ali, i.e. Abu Talib, otherwise he would have had to beg. There was +evidently an apparent inconsistency between Mahomet's being a poor +orphan and the favourite grandchild of the eminent and wealthy `Abd +al-Mottalib; and it was solved in this way. There was a tradition that +in his early years he was sent into the desert to acquire the habits and +the language of the Bedouins; and this seems to have been attested by +the Prophet himself. In a tribal fight he is said to have acted as +armour-bearer to one of his uncles, Zubair. There seems no doubt that he +often accompanied Meccan caravans to the countries with which the +Meccans had trade relations; such especially were Syria and south +Arabia, and perhaps Egypt and Mesopotamia. It is conceivable that he may +have visited Abyssinia by sea. For though accurate knowledge is nowhere +to be found in the Koran, it exhibits a large amount of miscellaneous +information, such as a trader might well pick up. His career as a +caravan-conductor appears to have terminated with his marriage to +Khadija, daughter of Khuwailid, represented by the tradition as a +wealthy widow, fifteen years his senior and forty years of age at the +time of the union. As she became the mother of a numerous family, a +special rule was discovered by Moslem physiologists extending the +child-bearing period of Korashite women beyond that of others. Since it +is claimed for Mahomet that he first gave Arab women the right to +inherit property, the difficulty noticed is not the only one connected +with this marriage; and Robertson Smith has called attention to some +others, unconnected with his theory of "marriage and kinship in early +Arabia." After his marriage Mahomet appears to have been partner in a +shop in Mecca; where he apparently sold agricultural produce. His style +is strongly marked by phrases and metaphors drawn from trade, though as +a statesman he never displayed any financial ability. + + + Education. + +Writing in the monumental script of South Arabia had been known for +centuries in the peninsula; and shortly before the rise of Islam a +cursive script--the parent of the ordinary Arabic character--had been +started in the Christian state of Hira, with which the beginnings of +modern Arabic literature are connected. A modification of this had been +introduced into Mecca, and was probably used for contracts and similar +documents. The word _ummi_, literally "popular" or "plebeian" (according +to one etymology), applied to Mahomet in the Koran, is said to mean "one +who can neither read nor write," and the most generally accepted view is +that he could do neither, a supposition which enters into the doctrine +of the miraculous nature of the Koran. According to another +interpretation the word means "Meccan," i.e. native of "the Mother of +the Villages" (_Umm al-Qura_); and the most probable theory is that he +could do both, but unskilfully. Indeed on one historic occasion he +erased certain words in a document; and where in the Koran he rebuts the +charge of "taking notes," he does not employ the obvious retort that he +could not write, but gives a far less convincing answer. For poetry, +which seems to have been cultivated in Arabia long before his time, he +possessed no ear; but we have little reason for supposing that either +writing or versification had yet entered into Arabian education. The +former would be acquired by those who needed it, the latter was regarded +as a natural gift. There is reason for thinking the language of the +Koran incorrect and ungrammatical in parts, but as it afterwards became +the ultimate standard of classical Arabic, this point is not easy to +prove. On the whole then his early life seems to have been such as was +normal in the case of a man belonging to one of the more important +families in a community which had not long been started on a career of +prosperity. + + + Social System. + +Of the organization of that community we unfortunately know very little, +though we hear of a council-chamber, and, as has been seen, of an +age-qualification for admission to it. It is, however, certain that the +theory of decision by majority was absolutely unknown to Mahomet's +second successor, whence we learn little from this tradition (even if it +be authentic) of the mode whereby the tribes who together formed the +Meccan population managed their common concerns, whether commercial or +political. The form of government seems to have been a rudimentary +oligarchy, directed by some masterful individual; before the Flight we +read of various prominent personages, after the Flight and the battle of +Badr (A.H. 2) one chieftain, Abu Sofian (see CALIPHATE, _ad init._), +appears to take the lead whether in war or in policy. It would seem, +however, that the right of independent action belonged to the individual +tribes, even to the extent of refusing to take part in a campaign. For +the settlement of ordinary disputes recourse was had (it appears) rather +to soothsayers, near or distant, than to any regularly constituted +authority or tribunal. On the other hand we are furnished with a list of +officials who were concerned with different parts of the festal +performances and the ordinary worship. Of these we may mention the +Custodian of the Ka`ba, and the official whose duty was _siqayah_ +("watering"), said to mean furnishing the pilgrims with water, but more +ingeniously interpreted in recent times as "rain-bringing," a function +which even in the 2nd century of Islam the governor in some places was +supposed to exercise. + + + Beginnings of the Mission. + +Of Arabian paganism we possess no trustworthy or complete account; since +we hear of no theological literature belonging to it, probably no such +account could have been given. There were doubtless a variety of +practices, many of which have been continued to this day in the +ceremonies of the pilgrimage, and offerings of different sorts to +various deities, interpreted variously by the worshippers in accordance +with their spiritual, intellectual and moral levels; e.g. as actual +stones, or as men (or more often women) residing in the stones or +otherwise connected with them, or bearing a similar relation to trees, +or stars, &c. In general every tribe had its patron of the kind, and +where there were aggregations of tribes, connexions were established +between these deities, and affiliation-theories excogitated; hence the +theory attributed in the Koran to the Meccans that the goddesses +al-`Uzza, &c. were the daughters of Allah, may well represent the +outcome of such speculation. These, however, were known to few, whereas +the practices were familiar to all. Some of these were harmless, others +barbarous; many offensive, but not very reprehensible, superstitions. + + + External Influences. + +Before Mahomet's time Arabian paganism had already been attacked both +from the outside and from the inside. On the one hand the northern +tribes had gradually been christianized, owing to the influence of the +Byzantine empire; on the other hand south Arabia had fallen successively +under Jewish, Abyssinian and Persian influence; and the last, though +little is known of Persian rule, is unlikely to have favoured pagan +cults. Christianity had also some important representation in Najran far +south of Mecca, while Jewish settlements were prospering north of Mecca +in the Prophet's future home Yathrib and its neighbourhood. Power, +civilization and learning were thus associated with monotheism +(Judaism), dualism (Mazdaism) and tritheism (as the Arabs interpreted +Christianity); paganism was the religion of ignorance (_jahiliyyah_, +interpreted by Goldziher as "barbarism," but the difference is not very +considerable). Mecca itself and the neighbouring and allied Taif are +said to have produced some monotheists or Christians, who identified the +_Allah_ of Mecca with the _Allaha_ or God of the Syrian Christians, +called by the Abyssinian Christians "Lord of the Regions," and by the +Jews "the Merciful" (_Rahmana_); one such is said to have been a cousin +of Khadija, Mahomet's wife; his name is given as Waraqah, son of Naufal, +and he is credited with copying or translating a Gospel. We even hear of +flagellant monks and persons vowed to total abstinence among the +precursors of Islam. + +With these persons Mahomet had little in common, since they do not +appear to have claimed to enforce their views upon others, or to have +interfered with politics. He appears mainly to have been struck by the +personality of the founders of the systems dominant in the civilized +world, and to have aspired from the first to occupy the place of +legislator or mouthpiece of the Deity; and that he was this was and is +the main proposition of the Mahommedan creed. The "Prophet" or "Apostle" +(at different times he employed both the Jewish and the Christian +phrase) was the divinely appointed dictator of his community; if he were +not obeyed, divine vengeance would overtake the disobedient. At this +proposition Mahomet arrived by induction from the records of the +Biblical prophets, as well as others who seem to have figured in Arabian +mythology, e.g. the destruction of the tribe Thamud (mentioned by Pliny, +and therefore historical) for their disobedience to their prophet Salih, +and of `Ad (probably mythical) for their similar treatment of Hud. The +character of the message did not affect the necessity for obedience; at +times it was condemnation of some moral offence, at others a trivial +order. Divine vengeance overtook those who disobeyed either. + + + The Prophet's Call. + +This is the theory of the prophetic office which pervades the Koran, +wherein the doctrine is formulated that every nation had its divine +guide and that Mecca before Mahomet's time had none. This place, then, +Mahomet felt a divine call to fill. But we are never likely to ascertain +what first put the idea into his mind. The fables which his biographers +tell on this subject are not worth repeating; his own system, in which +he is brought into direct communication with the Deity, though at a +later period the angel Gabriel appears to have acted as intermediary, +naturally leaves no room for such speculations; and since his +dispensation was thought to be absolutely new, and to make a _tabula +rasa_ of the pagan past, his first followers, having broken with that +past, left no intelligible account of the state of affairs which +preceded their master's call. Some generations therefore elapsed before +that past was studied with any sort of sympathy, and details could not +then be recovered, any more than they can now be supplied by conjecture. + +So far as Mahomet may be said from the first to have formulated a +definite notion of his work, we should probably be right in thinking it +to be the restoration of the religion of Abraham, or (as the Koran calls +him) Ibrahim. Though we have no reason for supposing the name of Abraham +or Ishmael to have been known in Mecca generally before Mahomet's time, +the Biblical ethnology was not apparently questioned by those who were +told of it, and there are stories, not necessarily apocryphal, of +precursors of Mahomet going abroad in search of the "religion of +Abraham." One feature of that system, associated in the Bible with the +name of Ishmael as well, was circumcision, which was actually observed +by the Meccan tribes, though it would appear with technical differences +from the Jewish method; the association of monotheism with it would seem +reasonable enough, in view of Jewish traditions, such as Mahomet may +have heard on his travels; why the doctrine of the future life should be +coupled with it is less obvious. That the Meccan temple and its rites +had been founded by these two patriarchs appears to have been deduced by +Mahomet himself, but perhaps at a later stage of his career. That these +rites, so far as they were idolatrous, were in flagrant defiance of the +religion of Abraham must have struck any one who accepted the accounts +of it which were current among Jews and Christians. The precursors, +however, appear to have felt no call to reform their fellow-citizens; +whereas it is evident that Mahomet regarded himself as charged with a +message, which he was bound to deliver, and which his God would in some +way render effective. + +As it was obvious that the claim to be God's mouthpiece was to claim +autocracy, Mahomet employed the utmost caution in his mode of asserting +this claim; on the question of his sincerity there have been different +opinions held, and it is not necessary to take any view on this matter. +For three years his followers were a secret society; and this period +appears to have been preceded by one of private preparation, the first +revelation being received when the Prophet was in religious +retirement--a ceremony called _tahannuth_, of which the meaning is +uncertain, but which can have no connexion with the Hebrew _tehinnoth_ +("supplications")--on Mount Hira, near Mecca. + + + The Koran. + +If the traditional dates assigned to the _suras_ (chapters) of the Koran +(q.v.) are correct, the earliest revelations took the form of pages or +rolls which the Prophet was to read by the "grace of God," as Joseph +Smith, the founder of the Mormon community, said of the power given him +to read the "Egyptian" characters on the gold plates which he had found. +The command to read is accompanied by the statement that "his most +generous Lord had taught man by the pen (_calamus_) that which he did +not know." Waraqah, to whom the event is said to have been communicated +by Khadija, called these communications "the Greater Law (_nomos_)." The +Prophet was directed to communicate his mission at the first only to his +nearest relatives. The utterances were from the first in a sort of +rhyme, such as is said to have been employed for solemn matter in +general, e.g. oracles or prayers. At an early period the production of a +written communication was abandoned for oral communications, delivered +by the Prophet in trance; their delivery was preceded by copious +perspiration, for which the Prophet prepared (in accordance with +instructions found in the Koran) by wrapping himself in a blanket. +Trusty followers were instructed to take these utterances down, but the +phenomena which accompanied their delivery at least in one case +suggested imposture to the scribe, who apostatized in consequence. It is +extraordinary that there is no reason to suppose that any official +record was ever kept of these revelations; the Prophet treated them +somewhat as the Sibyl did her leaves. This carelessness is equally +astounding whether the Prophet was sincere or insincere. + +If the matter afterwards collected in the Koran be genuine, the early +revelations must have been miscellaneous in content, magical, historical +and homiletic. To some strange oaths are prefixed. Apparently the +purpose to be compassed was to convince the audience of their miraculous +origin. The formulation of doctrines belongs to a later period and that +of jurisprudence to the latest of all. In that last period also, when +Mahomet was despot of Medina, the Koran served as an official chronicle, +well compared by Sprenger to the leading articles on current events in a +ministerial organ. Where the continuous paragraph is substituted for the +ejaculation, the divine author apologizes for the style. + +Certain doctrines and practices (e.g. washing of the person and the +garments) must have been enjoined from the first, but our authorities +scarcely give us any clear notion what they were. The doctrines to which +the Prophet himself throughout assigned most value seem to have been the +unity of God and the future life, or resurrection of the body. The +former necessitated the abandonment of the idolatrous worship which +formed part of the daily life of Mecca, and in which Mahomet and Khadija +had been accustomed to take their part. Yet it seems to have been due to +the initiative of the proselytes themselves rather than to the Prophet's +orders that the Meccan worship was actually flouted by them; for the +anecdote which represents the Prophet and his young cousin attempting to +pull down the images in or about the Ka'ba appears to be apocryphal. The +first Moslem ceremony would appear to have been the religious meeting +for the purpose of hearing the delivery of revelations, of which after +the Prophet's death the sermon (_khutbah_) took the place. After various +provisional meeting-places, the house of one al-Arqam on Mt. Safa was +adopted for this purpose; and here proselytes were initiated. + + + Growth of the Early Community. + +The names which the new community received from its founder are both +philological puzzles; for the natural sense of Moslem (_Muslim_) appear +to be "traitors," and to this a contemporary war-song of Mahomet's +enemies alludes; while _Hanif_ (especially applied in the Koran to +Abraham) seems to be the Hebrew word for "hypocrite." The former is +explained in the Koran to mean "one who hands over his face or person to +God," and is said to have been invented by Abraham; of the latter no +explanation is given, but it seems to signify from the context +"devotee." Since the divine name _Rahman_ was at one time favoured by +Mahomet, and this was connected with one Maslama of the tribe Hanifa, +who figures in politics at the end of Mahomet's career but must have +been a religious leader far earlier, it has been suggested that the +names originally belonged to Maslama's community. The honour of having +been Mahomet's first convert is claimed for three persons: his wife +Khadija, his cousin Ali, who must have been a lad at the commencement of +the mission, and Abu Bekr, son of Abu Quhafah, afterwards Mahomet's +first successor. This last person became Mahomet's _alter ego_, and is +usually known as the _Siddiq_ (Heb. word signifying "the saint," but to +the Arabs meaning "faithful friend)". His loyalty from first to last was +absolutely unswerving; he was selected to accompany Mahomet on the most +critical occasion of his life, the Flight from Mecca; Mahomet is said to +have declared that had he ever made a confidant of any one, that person +would have been Abu Bekr; implying that there were things which were not +confided even to him. The success of the Prophet's enterprise seems to +have been very largely due to the part played by this adherent, who +possessed a variety of attainments which he put at Mahomet's service; +who when an intermediary was required was always ready to represent him, +and who placed the commendation of the Prophet above every other +consideration, private or public. The two appear to have regularly laid +siege to those persons in Mecca whose adherence was desirable; and the +ability which many of the earlier converts afterwards displayed, whether +as statesmen or generals, is a remarkable testimony to their power of +gauging men. It seems clear that the growth of wealth in Mecca had led +to the accentuation of the difference between persons of different +station, and that many were discontented with the oligarchy which +governed the city. Converts could, therefore, be won without serious +difficulty among the aliens and in general those who suffered under +various disqualifications. Some members of the Jewish community seem +also to have joined; and some relics of the Abyssinian expedition (i.e. +descendants of the invaders). Among the most important converts of the +Meccan period were Mahomet's uncle Hamza, afterwards for his valour +called "the Lion of God"; 'Abd al-Rahman (Abdar-rahman) son of 'Auf; +Othman, son of 'Affan, who married two of the Prophet's daughters +successively, and was Mahomet's third successor; and, more important +than any save Abu Bekr, Omar, son of al-Khattab, a man of extraordinary +force of character, to whom siege seems to have been laid with +extraordinary skill. At some time he received the honourable title +_Faruq_ ("Deliverer"); he is represented as regularly favouring force, +where Abu Bekr favoured gentle methods; unlike Abu Bekr, his loyalty was +not always above suspicion. His adherence is ascribed to the period of +publicity. + +The secrecy which marked its early years was of the greatest value for +the eventual success of the mission; for when Mahomet came forward +publicly he was already the head of a band of united followers. His own +family appear to have been either firm adherents, or violent enemies, or +lukewarm and temporizing--this is the best which can be said for 'Abbas, +eponymus of the Abbasid dynasty; or finally espousers of his cause, on +family grounds, but not as believers. + + + First Period of Publicity. + +Rejecting accounts of Mahomet's first appearance as a public preacher, +which are evidently comments on a text of the Koran, we have reason for +supposing that his hand was forced by ardent followers, who many times +in his career compelled him to advance. The astute rulers of the +community perceived that the claim made by Mahomet was to be dictator or +autocrat; and while this was naturally ridiculed by them, some appear to +have been devoted adherents of the gods or goddesses whom he attacked. +The absence of dated documents for the period between this open +proclamation (which in any case commenced before 616) and the Flight to +Medina in 622 renders the course of events somewhat conjectural, though +certain details appear to be well established. Apparently there was a +war of words, followed by a resort to diplomacy and then to force; and +then a period in which Mahomet's attention was directed to foreign +conversions, resulting in his being offered and accepting the +dictatorship of Yathrib. + +Of the war of words we have an imperfect record in the Meccan suras of +the Koran, which occasionally state the objections urged by the +opponents. In the course of the debate the theological position of both +parties seems to have shifted, and the knowledge of both was probably +increased in various ways. The miracle of the Koran, which at first +consisted in its mode of production, was transformed into a marvel +connected with its contents; first by Mahomet's claiming to tell +historical narratives which had previously been unknown to him; +afterwards by the assertion that the united efforts of mankind and Jinn +would be unable to match the smallest passage of the Koran in sublimity. +Probably the first of these claims could not be long maintained, though +A. J. Davis, "the Seer of Poughkeepsie," in our own time brought a +similar one in regard to his _Principles of Nature_. Indeed both parties +evidently resorted to external aid. To those who undertook to name the +man who dictated stories of the ancients to Mahomet day and night, he +replied that the individual whom they had in mind was a foreigner, +whereas the Koran was in pure Arabic. This was obviously a quibble, for +it was scarcely asserted that he delivered the matter dictated to him +without alteration. The purity of the Arabic also appears to have been +very questionable; for several expressions appear to be Ethiopic rather +than Arabic, and the person whom the Meccans had in mind is likely to +have been an Abyssinian Christian, since the Christian technicalities of +the Koran are mainly derived from the Ethiopic Gospels and Acts. On one +occasion when some questions suggested by learned foreigners had been +propounded to the Prophet he required a fortnight's delay before the +revelation which solved them came; the matter contained in his reply was +certainly such as required research. His sources of information seem at +all times to have been legendary rather than canonical; and the +community which seemed to his opponents to agree best with his views was +that of the Sabians or Mandaeans (qq.v.). + +It has been suggested that Mahomet first threatened the Meccans with +temporal punishment, and only when this threat failed to take effect +resorted to the terrors of the Day of Judgment and the tortures of Hell; +it seems however a mistake to distinguish between the two. These threats +provided the Prophet with his most powerful sermons. The boasts of +incomparable eloquence which the Koran contains are evidence that his +oratorical power was effective with his audiences, since the more +successful among the Arabic poets talk of their compositions somewhat in +the same way. These discourses certainly led to occasional conversions, +perhaps more frequently among women than men. + + + The Exiles in Axum. + +The diplomatic war seems to have been due to the Prophet's increasing +success, which led to serious persecution of Mahomet's less influential +followers, though, as has been seen, no blood could be shed in Mecca. +Abu Talib, moreover, prevented him from being exiled, though he probably +had to endure many personal insults. Something however had to be done +for the persecuted Moslems, and (perhaps at the suggestion of his +Abyssinian helper) Mahomet endeavoured to find a refuge for them in the +realm of Axum. Abyssinia was doubtless connected in every Meccan mind +with the "Expedition of the Elephant"; and such an alliance secured by +Mahomet was a menace to the existence of the Meccan community. A +deputation was therefore sent by the Meccan leaders to demand +extradition of the exiles; and as chief of this expedition the future +conqueror of Egypt, 'Amr b. al-'As (see 'AMR IBN EL-ASS), first figures +in history. To frustrate his efforts Mahomet sent his cousin Ja'far +armed with an exposition of the Prophet's beliefs and doctrines +afterwards embodied in the Koran as the Sura of Mary (No. XIX.; though +with the addition of some anti-Christian matter). The original document +contained an account of the Nativity of Christ with various miracles not +known to either the canonical or even the apocryphal gospels which have +been preserved, but which would be found edifying rather than unorthodox +by a church one of whose most popular books is _The Miracles of the +Virgin Mary_. To this there were added certain notices of Old Testament +prophets. The Abyssinian king and his ecclesiastical advisers took the +side of Mahomet and his followers, whom they appear to have regarded as +persecuted Christians; and an attempt made probably by the astute 'Amr +to embroil them with the Abyssinians on the difficult question of the +Natures of Christ failed completely. There seems reason for thinking +that the Abyssinian king contemplated bringing back the exiles by force, +but was diverted from this purpose by frontier wars; meanwhile they were +safely harboured, though they seem to have suffered from extreme +poverty. The want of an Abyssinian chronicle for this period is a +serious disadvantage for the study of Islamic origins. The sequel shows +that regular correspondence went on between the exiles and those who +remained in Mecca, whence the former were retained within the fold of +Islam, with occasional though rare apostasies to Christianity. + +Mahomet's diplomatic victory roused the Meccan leaders to fury, and they +decided on the most vigorous measures to which they could rise; Abu +Talib, Mahomet's protector, and the clan which acknowledged him as +_sheikh_, including the Prophet and his family, were blockaded in the +quarter which they occupied; as in other sanctuaries, though blood might +not be shed, a culprit might be starved to death. That this did not +occur, though the siege appears to have lasted some months at least, was +due to the weak good nature of the Meccans, but doubtless also to the +fact that there were enlisted on Mahomet's side many men of great +physical strength and courage (as their subsequent careers proved), who +could with impunity defy the Meccan embargo. After a time however the +besieged found the situation intolerable, and any assistance which they +might have expected from the king of Axum failed to come. The course +adopted by Mahomet was retractation of those of his utterances which had +most offended the Meccans, involving something like a return to +paganism. A revelation came acknowledging the effectiveness of the +Meccan goddesses as well as Allah, and the Meccans raised the siege. +News of the reconciliation reached the Abyssinian exiles and they +proceeded to return. + +By the time they reached the Arabian coast the dispute had recommenced. +The revelation was discovered to be a fabrication of the Devil, who, it +appears, regularly interpolates in prophetic revelations; such at least +is the apology preserved in the Koran, whence the fabricated verses have +been expunged. Since our knowledge of this episode (regarded as the most +disgraceful in the Prophet's career) is fragmentary, we can only guess +that the Prophet's hand had once more been forced by the more earnest of +his followers, for whom any compromise with paganism was impossible. The +exiles went back to Abyssinia; and about this time both Abu Talib and +Khadija died, leaving the Prophet unprotected. + +He fled to the neighbouring oasis of Taif, where wealthy Meccans had +possessions, and where the goddess al-`Uzza was worshipped with special +zeal--where she is said still to exist in the form of a block of stone. +He had but little success there in proselytizing, and indeed had to +cease preaching; but he opened negotiations with various Meccan magnates +for a promise of protection in case of his return. This was at last +obtained with difficulty from one Mot`im b. `Adi. It would appear that +his efforts were now confined to preaching to the strangers who +assembled at or near Mecca for the ceremonies connected with the feasts. +He received in consequence some invitations to come and expound his +views away from Mecca, but had to wait some time before one came of a +sort which he could wisely accept. + + + The Flight to Yathrib. + +The situation which led to Mahomet's Flight (_hijra_, anglicized +incorrectly _hejira_, q.v.) was singularly favourable to Mahomet's +enterprise, and utilized by him with extraordinary caution and skill. At +the palm plantation called Yathrib, afterwards known as _al-Medina_, +Medina, "the City" (i.e. of the Prophet), there were various tribes, the +two most important, called Aus and Khazraj, being pagan, and engaged in +an internecine feud, while under their protection there were certain +Jewish tribes, whose names have come down to us as Qainuqa, Nadir and +Quraiza--implying that the Israelites, as might be expected, imitated +the totem nomenclature of their neighbours. The memory of these +Israelites is exclusively preserved by the Moslem records; the main +stream of Jewish history flowed elsewhere. In the series of combats +between the Aus and Khazraj the former had generally been worsted; the +Jews, as usual, had avoided taking any active part in the fray. Finally, +owing to an act of gross perfidy, they were compelled to fight in aid of +the Aus; and in the so-called battle of Bu`ath the Aus aided by the Jews +had won a victory, doubtless attributed to the God of the Jews. As has +been seen, the divine name employed by Mahomet (_Rahman_) was one +familiar to the Jews; and the Yathribites who visited Mecca at +feast-time were naturally attracted by a professed representative of +al-Rahman. The first Yathribite converts appear to have been +Khazrajites, and one As`ad, son of Zurarah, is the most prominent +figure. Their idea may have been in the first place to secure the aid of +the Israelitish Deity in their next battle with the Aus, and indeed the +primary object of their visit to Mecca is said to have been to request +assistance for their war. For this the plan was substituted of inviting +the Prophet to come to Mecca as dictator, to heal the feud and restore +order, a procedure to which Greek antiquity offers parallels. The new +converts were told to carry on secret propaganda in Yathrib with this +end in view. At the next feast some of the rival faction embraced Islam. +A trusty follower of Mahomet, Mus'ab b.'Umair, who resembled Mahomet in +personal appearance, was sent to Yathrib to assist in the work. The +correspondence between this person and the Prophet would, if we +possessed it, be of the greatest value for the study of Islamic +antiquity. We first hear at this time of _the conditions of Islam_, i.e. +a series of undertakings into which the convert entered: namely, to +abstain from adultery, theft, infanticide and lying, and to obey Mahomet +_in licitis et honestis_. The wholesale conversion of Yathrib was +determined by that of two chieftains, Usaid b. Huraith and Sa'd b. +Mu'adh, both Ausites. The example of these was quickly followed, and +iconoclasm became rife in the place. At the next Meccan feast a +deputation of seventy Yathribites brought Mahomet a formal invitation, +which he accepted, after imposing certain conditions. The interviews +between Mahomet and the Yathribites are known as the _'Aqabah_ (probably +with reference to a text of the Koran). The attitude of the Jews towards +the project appears to have been favourable. + + + The Refugees. + +Among the conditions imposed by Mahomet on his new adherents appears to +have been the protection and harbouring of the older proselytes, whom +Mahomet most wisely determined to send before him to Yathrib, where, in +the event of the Yathribite loyalty wavering, they could be counted on +with certainty. The welcome given these refugees (_muhajirun_), as they +were from this time known in contra-distinction to the helpers (_ansar_) +or allies from Yathrib, is said to have been of the warmest; a Helper +with two wives would hand one over to a wifeless Refugee. A yet more +important condition which preceded the Flight was readiness to fight men +of all colours in defence of the faith. + +Although the transactions with the people of Yathrib had been carried on +with profound secrecy, the nature of Mahomet's contract with his new +adherents was somewhat divulged to the Meccan magnates, and the danger +of allowing an implacable enemy to establish himself on the high-road of +their north-bound caravans flashed upon them. The rule which forbade +bloodshed in the sacred city had at last to be suspended; but elaborate +precautions were to be taken whereby every tribe (except Mahomet's own +clan) should have their share in the guilt, which would thus be spread +over the whole community fairly. When the committee appointed to +perpetrate the crime reached Mahomet's house, they found that it was too +late; Mahomet had already departed, leaving Ali in his bed. + +The actual Flight from Mecca to Yathrib has naturally been a favourite +subject for romance, and indeed appears to have been executed with the +greatest cunning. Accompanied by Abu Bekr only, Mahomet took refuge in a +cave of Mt Thaur, in the opposite direction to that which he intended to +take finally, and there remained for three days; provision had been made +of every requisite, food, powerful camels, a trusty and competent guide. +The date at which he reached Kuba, on the outskirts of Yathrib, where +there was already some sort of Moslem oratory, is given as 8 Rabia I., +of the year A.H. 1; the fact that he arrived there on the Jewish Day of +Atonement gives us the date September 20, 622. The Meccans, who had +employed professional trackers to hunt down the fugitives, proceeded to +confiscate the houses and goods of Mahomet and of his followers who had +fled. + + + Mahomet as Despot of Yathrib. + +The safe arrival of Mahomet at his destination marks the turning-point +in his career, which now became one of almost unbroken success; his +intellectual superiority over both friends and enemies enabling him to +profit by defeat little less than by victory. His policy appears to have +been to bind his followers to himself and them to each other by every +possible tie; he instituted brotherhoods between the Refugees and +Helpers, which were to count as relationships for legal purposes, and +having himself no sons, he contracted numerous marriages partly with the +same end in view; e.g. with the infant daughter of Abu Bekr, Ayesha +('A'ishah), whose ability he appears to have discerned; and the +unamiable Hafsa, daughter of Omar. Of his own daughters three were given +to faithful allies, the one by whom his line is supposed to have been +continued to our time, Fatima, was reserved for his cousin Ali. Owing to +his efforts the alliance between the Refugees and Helpers resisted +numerous attempts on the part of enemies to break it up, and only +towards the end of the Prophet's life, when he appeared to favour +Meccans unduly, do we hear of any bitterness between the two +communities. + + + The Medina Community. + +The population of Yathrib, or, as it may now be called, Medina, soon +divided into three groups: Mahomet's united followers; the Jews; and a +party known as the "Hypocrites," i.e. professing Moslems, who were +lukewarm, or disaffected, among whom the most prominent is `Abdallah b. +Ubayy, a Khazrajite chieftain, who is said to have himself aspired to be +despot of Yathrib, and who till nearly the end of Mahomet's career +figures somewhat as a leader of the opposition; of his importance there +is no question, but the reason for it and the mode whereby he made it +felt are often obscure. It would seem that the pagans remaining in +Yathrib speedily adopted Islam after the Prophet's arrival, whence we +hear little of serious opposition on their part. Coming in the capacity +of prophet of the Israelitish God, Mahomet at first seems to have +courted alliance with the Jews, and to have been ready to adopt their +system with very slight modifications--similar to those which, according +to his opinion, Jesus had come to introduce. The Jews met these advances +by submitting him to examination in the intricacies of the _Torah_, and, +finding him very poorly equipped, proceeded to denounce him as an +imposter; one of his examiners is said to have even translated the +_Torah_ into Arabic with a view of convicting him of ignorance and +imposture. They are' further charged with exercising their magical arts +on the Prophet and his followers, and to have succeeded thereby in +producing barrenness among the Moslem women. Their conduct must not of +course be judged by the statement of their enemies; it is however clear +that Mahomet soon found that there was no possibility of compromising +with them on religious questions, or of obtaining their loyal support; +meanwhile he discovered that they were incapable of united and +persistent action, and useless as warriors except against each other. He +therefore resolved on their extermination. His ruthlessness in their +case compared with his patience and forbearance in the case of the +"Hypocrites" was consistent with his principle (always faithfully +observed) that no inquiry was permissible into the motives of +conversion, and with his division of mankind into the two antagonistic +factions Believers and Unbelievers. The latter principle, as will be +seen, was somewhat modified before the end of his life. + + + Development of Islam. + +Mahomet's failure to effect a compromise with the Jews caused a reaction +in his mind towards paganism, and after about a year's residence at +Medina the direction of prayer, which had till then been towards +Jerusalem, was turned southward to the pagan temple at Mecca. With this +change we may perhaps couple the adoption of the name _Allah_ for the +Deity; in the Moslem formula "in the Name of Allah the Rahman the +Merciful," the translation attached to the word _Rahman_, and the +prefixing to it of the name _Allah_ furnish clear evidence of +theological transition, though the stages are not recorded; we know, +however, that the Meccans approved of the name _Allah_, but objected to +the name _Rahman_. Prayer (_salat_), said to have been prescribed on the +occasion of the Prophet's ascent into heaven after a miraculous journey +from Mecca to Jerusalem, began to assume a stereotyped form in the place +of assembly built by Mahomet immediately after his arrival; the +attitudes of prayer in use among many communities (e.g. the Jewish +standing, the prostration of some Christian sects) were combined. In +general it was Mahomet's principle, while taking over a practice from +some other sect, to modify it so as to render the Moslem method +absolutely distinct; thus when a summons to prayer became requisite, a +new mode (by the voice of a crier called _muaddhin_ or _muezzin_) was +preferred to the Christian hammer; a new sacred day was adopted, in lieu +of the Jewish Saturday and the Christian Sunday, in the weekday on which +he had safely reached Kuba, Friday; but the sanctity was reduced to the +actual time occupied by public worship. On the subject of food he was +satisfied with the regulations of the Council of Jerusalem, recorded in +Acts xv.; which were observed by few if any Christian sects. The +prohibition of wine, which was enacted in A.H. 3, is said to have been +occasioned by the riotous conduct of one of his followers when under the +influence of liquor; Palgrave saw in it (perhaps with justice) a +deliberate attempt to prevent harmony between Moslems and Christians, in +whose most sacred rite wine is used. The Fast of Ramadan, in which food +both liquid and solid is forbidden from sunrise to sunset, is said to be +a pagan or semi-pagan institution; its importance for military training +and discipline is not likely to have been overlooked by the Prophet. +When the direction of prayer was altered, it is probable that Mahomet +already intended to introduce into his system the whole of the pagan +pilgrimage with its antique ceremonial (with, of course, a new +interpretation); before this he is supposed to have aimed at the +abolition of the Ka`ba and all that appertained to it. + +The difference between religious and civil law has never been recognized +by Islamic jurists, whose manuals deal equally with the law of contract +and the amount of the body to be washed before prayer; the Prophet's +ordinances on both subjects were suggested by the occasion in each case, +and it would seem that the opinions of trusted advisers were regularly +heard before a revelation was issued. Even when this had been done the +ordinance might be cancelled by an abrogating revelation; it being "easy +for Allah" to substitute for a text already revealed another that was +better or at least as good. + +As Islam began to spread outside the limits of Medina both conversion to +Islam and persistence therein were reduced to simple tests; the +pronunciation of the double formula of belief in Allah and Mahomet was +sufficient to indicate conversion, whilst payment of an income-tax, +called by the Jewish names for alms (_zakat_ and _sadaqah_), was +evidence of loyalty. This income-tax, of which the definite assessment +perhaps belongs to a later period, was for the support of necessitous +converts--an element in the community whose presence accounts for the +mode in which the development of the Islamic state proceeded. + + + First Campaigns of Mahomet. + +The industries in which the Meccan Refugees had been engaged were not of +a sort which they could exercise at Medina, where the palm took the +place of the camel as the basis of society. Moreover the Prophet seems +to have given some disastrous advice on the subject of palmiculture, and +thereby to have accentuated the poverty of the place. He had, therefore, +to find some fresh source of revenue in order to deal with this +difficulty, and one of the Helpers is said to have suggested the plan +which he adopted, viz. of attacking the Meccan caravans. With this view +he organized a series of expeditions, taking the lead himself sometimes, +while at others he gave it to one of his veteran followers; and at first +only Refugees took part in them. The leaders of the caravans, however, +were expert in evading attacks of this sort, which were doubtless +regularly attempted by the desert tribes; and in the first year of his +despotism Mahomet did not score a single success of the kind intended. +The attempts were not wholly fruitless; for while on the one hand he +accustomed his followers to campaigning, on the other he made a series +of agreements with the chieftains of the tribes through whose territory +the caravans ordinarily passed. Finding continued failure intolerable, +he resolved to take advantage of his power to bind and to loose by +sending an expedition of seven men under his cousin `Abdallah b. Jahsh +to attack a caravan at the beginning of the sacred month Rajab, when, as +raiding during such a season was unknown, success was practically +certain. The commander on this, the Nakhlah raid, was given sealed +orders, to be opened after two days' march; the men were then to be +given the option of retiring, if they disapproved. Of this no one seems +definitely to have availed himself, and the raid ended successfully, for +considerable booty was captured, while of the four persons who escorted +the caravan two were made prisoners, one escaped, and one, `Amr b. +al-Hadrami, was killed; he was the first person slain fighting against +an Islamic force. The violation of the sacred month seems to have caused +considerable scandal in Arabia, but led to no serious consequence; on +the other hand the shedding of blood created a feud between the people +of Mecca and the Refugees, with whom the Meccans long declined to +identify the people of Medina. The fact that the man who had been killed +was a client, not a citizen, made no difference. The circumstance that +booty had been actually acquired appears to have helped the Prophet's +cause very considerably. + + + Attack on Meccan Caravan. + +Both these consequences, the Meccan desire to avenge the blood that had +been shed and the anxiety of the Medinese to take part in a successful +raid, manifested themselves a few months later, when an expedition was +organized by Mahomet to attack a caravan returning from Syria, which had +escaped him the previous year. Many desired to take part in the raid, +and finally some 300 persons were selected, including a large number of +"Helpers." The leader of the caravan learned somehow that an attack was +being organized by Mahomet on a large scale, and sent to Mecca for aid, +while hurrying home by forced marches. This is the first historical +appearance of Abu Sofian (the leader of the caravan), who now for some +years played the part of president in the Meccan opposition to Mahomet, +and whose son was destined to found the second Mahommedan dynasty (see +CALIPHATE, B). The day before the battle to be fought at Badr, near the +point where the northern road leaves the coast to turn eastwards to +Mecca, the Moslem army learned that the Meccan succour (some 1000 +strong) was near, but that the caravan had escaped. The Meccans, it is +asserted, would have returned home now that their object was secured, +but the patrons of the man who had been killed in the former raid were +compelled to strike for vengeance. + +The battle (Ramadan 19, A.H. 2, usually made to synchronize with March +17, 624) ended in a complete victory for Mahomet, whose followers killed +seventy of the enemy and took seventy prisoners--if we may trust what +seem to be round numbers; it was attributed by him to divine +co-operation, taking the form of an illusion wrought on the enemy, and +the despatch of a regiment of angels to the assistance of the Believers, +while on the other hand the treachery of the Devil did mischief to the +Meccans. The popular tradition attributed it to the prowess of some of +Mahomet's followers, especially his uncle Hamza and his cousin Ali. In +the narratives which have come down and which seem to be authentic the +result is amply accounted for by the excellence of the Moslem discipline +and the complete absence of any on the Meccan side. Mahomet himself is +said to have fainted at the first sight of blood, and to have remained +during the battle in a hut built for him to which swift camels were +tied, to be used in case of a defeat; yet these accounts make him +responsible for the tactics, whilst assigning the credit for the +strategy to one Hobab b. al-Mondhir. Several of Mahomet's old enemies +and friends of Meccan days perished on this occasion; notably one Abu +Jahl, his uncle, but represented as an implacable enemy; another hostile +uncle, Abu Lahab, who is cursed in the Koran, was not present but died +shortly after the battle. + +The day is called in the Koran by a Syriac expression the "Day of +Deliverance," and both for internal and external politics it was of +incalculable advantage to Islam. The booty and the ransoms of the +prisoners provided the means for dealing with distress; the story of +supernatural aid soothed the feelings of the defeated Meccans and had a +tendency to disarm resistance elsewhere; whilst Mahomet in the +popularity acquired by his victory was able to strike forcibly at his +enemies in Medina. One of the sequels to the victory was a series of +assassinations whereby critics of his actions were removed. + + + The Taking of Mecca. + +The defeat at Badr naturally led to efforts on the part of the Meccans +to avenge their dead and besides to secure the commerce, by which they +lived, from an enemy who was gradually getting all the seaboard that lay +between Jeddah and Yanbo within his sphere of influence; and the year +after Badr (A.H. 3) Abu Sofian was able to lead a force said to be three +times as great as that which had been defeated, and so numbering some +3000 men, against Medina itself; part of it was under Khalid b. +al-Walid, one of the greatest of Arab captains, afterwards conqueror of +Syria. It is said that Mahomet's plan was to remain in Medina itself, +and leave it to the Meccan commander to discover some way of taking the +place; but that his hand was forced by his more ardent followers. +Others, however, assign this advice to Abdallah b. Ubayy, and make the +Prophet anxious to fight from the first. A battle was in consequence +fought under Mt Uhud (or Ohod), north-west of Medina, wherein Khalid +succeeded in inflicting a severe defeat on Mahomet's forces; his uncle +Hamza, hero of Badr, was killed on this occasion. Fortunately for the +Moslems, the Meccans considered that they had finished their task when +they discovered that they had killed a number of the former equal to +those who had fallen at Badr on their own side; instead therefore of +pursuing their victory they went home. The immediate effect on Arabia +appears to have been to dissipate the illusion that the Prophet could +count on supernatural assistance in his wars; and we hear of some blows +being dealt him from outside. Meanwhile his relations towards the +Medinese Jews had grown more and more hostile, and these are credited +with doing their best to rouse the Meccans to a sense of the danger +which threatened them in the continuance of the Prophet's power, and in +general to stir up hostility against him in Arabia. Whether this part +was played by them or not, in the fifth year of the Prophet's stay at +Medina a fresh invasion of the territory took place by a vast +confederate force of Meccans with their allies, the tribes Fazarah, +Asad, Murrah, &c., to the number, it is said, of 10,000. This time the +intention of the leaders was undoubtedly to stamp out Islam. For the +first time in Arab warfare Mahomet resorted to the expedient of +defending his city by a trench, called by a Persian name, and suggested +by a Persian convert. But he also employed agents to sow dissension +among the confederates, and succeeded with this no less than with the +other expedient. After a brief stay, and scarcely striking a blow, the +confederacy dispersed, leaving the Jews who still remained in Medina to +the summary vengeance of the Prophet. The want of records written from +the Meccan standpoint renders the abortiveness of this last attempt at +storming the Prophet's stronghold scarcely intelligible. + +From this time, however, the road towards the eventual taking of Mecca +became easy, and we are told that such was the importance attached to +that city throughout Arabia that its acquisition meant for the Prophet +the acquisition of the whole peninsula. The next year (A.H. 6) he deemed +it advisable to make a truce with the Meccans (the Truce of Hodaibiyah), +whereby he secured for his followers the right of performing the +pilgrimage in the following year; on this occasion he even consented to +forgo his title "Prophet of Allah," when the Meccans refused to sign a +deed in which it was employed, greatly to the scandal of his more +earnest followers, including Omar; they were however too deeply +committed to Islam to be able to defy the Prophet. When the pilgrimage +was performed (A.H. 7), Mahomet not only won important converts in the +persons of Khalid and the no less able `Amr b. al-`As, but in general +impressed the population with the idea that his was the winning side. An +excuse was easily found for invading Mecca itself in the following year, +when Abu Sofian took the opportunity of embracing Islam before it was +too late. Very little resistance was now made by the Meccans, whose +chiefs were already in Mahomet's camp, and Mahomet used his victory with +great moderation; his proscription list was finally reduced to two. The +theory that all offences were cancelled by conversion was loyally +observed. Moreover the Prophet incurred the displeasure of his Medinese +friends by the anxiety which he displayed to soothe the feelings of his +former enemies and antagonists. The Medinese, however, prevailed upon +him to maintain their city as his political capital, while making Mecca +the religious centre of his system; and this arrangement accounts +perhaps more than anything else for the persistence of the system amid +so many dynastic changes. + +In the main he appears to have introduced little alteration into the +government of Mecca, and it is said that he even declined to retaliate +on those who had confiscated the possessions of the Refugees. Even the +Ka`ba was left in the keeping of its former custodian, though of course +its interior as well as its precincts were cleansed of all that could +offend monotheists. In the following year the pilgrimage was for the +first time conducted by a Moslem official, Abu Bekr. A proclamation was +made on that occasion, forbidding idolaters in future to take part in +the pilgrimage, and giving all Arabs who were not as yet converted four +months' grace before force was to be brought to bear upon them. In the +following year Mahomet conducted the Pilgrimage himself. This solemn +occasion (the "Farewell Pilgrimage") was also employed for the delivery +of an important proclamation, wherein the Prophet declared that God had +completed their religion. The principle whereon he specially insisted +was the brotherhood of Islam; but there is some difficulty in +enucleating the original sermon from later additions. + + + Conquest of Arabia. + +It would seem that Mahomet's enterprise originally comprised the +conversion of Mecca only, and that he thought of himself as sent to his +fellow-citizens only, as had been the case with earlier prophets, whose +message was for their "brethren." His views took a somewhat different +direction after his brief exile to Taif, and the conquest of Arabia was +in a way forced upon him in the course of his struggle with the Meccans. +It is not indeed perfectly clear by what process he arrived at the +resolution to exclude paganism from Arabia; at first he appears to have +tolerated it at Medina, and in some of his earlier contracts with +neighbouring tribes he is represented as allowing it, though some of our +texts make him reserve to himself the right of enforcing Islam if he +chose; only the Meccans were at first, according to the most authentic +documents, excluded from all truce or treaty. At the battle of Badr he +appears to have formulated the rule that no one might fight on his side +who had not embraced Islam; and when once he had won fame as a +successful campaigner, those who wished to share his adventures had to +pass the Islamic test. After the battle of Uhud (Ohod) we hear of a +tribe demanding missionaries to instruct them in Islamic principles; and +though in the case recorded the demand was treacherous, the idea of +sending missionaries appears not to have been unfamiliar even then, +albeit the number sent (70), if rightly recorded, implies that the +Prophet suspected the good faith of the applicants. After the taking of +Mecca, whereby the chief sanctuary at any rate of north Arabia had been +cleared of all idolatrous associations, and consecrated to monotheism, +paganism in general was conscious of being attacked; and the city had +scarcely been brought under the new régime before the Prophet had to +face a confederation of tribes called Hawazin and Thaqif. The battle +which ensued, known as the Day of Honain, was near ending disastrously +for Islam; some of Mahomet's sturdiest followers fled; but the terrible +danger of a defeat in the neighbourhood of recently conquered Mecca +roused the Prophet and Ali to heroism, and they saved the day. +Emissaries were now sent far and wide demanding the destruction of +idols, and only Taif appears to have made any considerable resistance; +against this place for the first time the Prophet made use of siege +artillery, such as was employed by the Byzantines; though compelled by +the bravery of the inhabitants to raise the siege, he was afterwards +able to take the city by capitulation. It has been observed that here +only do we read of much attachment to the old deities; in most places +they were discarded with few regrets when once their impotence had been +found out. After the taking of Mecca and the victory of Honain there +appears to have been a general desire, extending even to the extreme +south of Arabia, to make the best terms with the conqueror so soon as +possible; iconoclasm became general. Flatterers of various kinds, +including poets, came to seek the favour of the sovereign; and a mock +war of words appears to have been substituted by some tribes for more +serious fighting, to terminate in surrender. For warfare of his sort +Mahomet had a powerful helper in the poet Hassan b. Thabit, for whose +effusions a pulpit was erected in the Medina mosque, and whose verses +were said to be inspired by the Holy Spirit; though, as has been seen, +Mahomet was not himself able to judge of their artistic merit. It was +not, however, found easy to enforce the payment of the alms on these new +converts; and this taxation caused an almost general revolt so soon as +Mahomet's death had been ascertained. + + + Plan of World-conquest. + +Although the central portions of the peninsula in Mahomet's time were +practically independent, large portions of the north-west and south-east +were provinces of the Byzantine and Persian empires respectively, whence +any scheme for the conquest of Arabia would necessarily involve the +conqueror in war with these great powers. The conquest of Persia is said +to have been contemplated by the Prophet as early as A.H. 5, when the +famous Trench was being dug; but it was not till the year A.H. 7, on the +eve of the taking of Mecca, that the Prophet conceived the idea of +sending missives to all known sovereigns and potentates, promising them +safety if, but only if, they embraced Islam. The text of these letters, +which only varied in the name of the person addressed, is preserved +(doubtless faithfully) by the Moslem Oral Tradition; in the middle of +the last century a French explorer professed to discover in Egypt the +original of one of them--addressed to the mysterious personage called +the Muqauqis (Mukaukis) of Egypt--and this, it appears, is still +preserved amid other supposed relics of the Prophet in Constantinople, +though there is little reason for believing it to be genuine. The +anecdotes dealing with the reception of these letters by their +addressees are all fabulous in character. Two appear to have sent +favourable replies: the king of Axum, who now could send the exiles whom +he had so long harboured to their successful master; and the Egyptian +governor, who sent Mahomet a valuable present, including two Coptic +women for his harem. The emperor Heraclius is claimed as a secret +convert to Islam, on whom pressure had to be put by his advisers to +conceal his convictions. The Persian king is said to have sent orders to +have Mahomet arrested; his messengers arrived in Medina, but were unable +to carry out the commands of their master, who died while they were +there. Two of the letters are said to have had important results. One +was addressed to the Himyarite chiefs (called by the south Arabian +appellation _qail_) in Yemen, and effected their conversion; another to +the governor of Bostra in Roman Arabia, who put the bearer of this +insolent message to death; a force was despatched by Mahomet immediately +afterwards (beginning of A.H. 8) to avenge this outrage; and though the +Moslems were defeated in their first encounter with the Byzantine forces +at Mutah, they appear to have given a good account of themselves; it was +here that Ja`far, cousin of the Prophet, met his death. In A.H. 9 a +successful expedition was led by the Prophet himself northward, in +which, though no Byzantine force was encountered, a considerable region +was withdrawn from the Byzantine sphere of influence, and made either +Islamic or tributary to Islam. At the time of his death (of fever, after +a short illness) he was organizing an expedition for the conquest of +Syria. + + + Jewish and Christian Communities. + +The Prophet claimed throughout that his revelation confirmed the Jewish +and Christian Scriptures, and this claim is on the whole reasonable, +though his acquaintance with both was in the highest degree vague and +inaccurate. Still he reproduced the Old Testament as faithfully as he +could, and though he patriotically endeavours to shed some lustre on his +supposed ancestor Ishmael, he does not appear to have questioned the +Biblical theory according to which the founder of the north Arabian +nations was the son of a slave girl. On neither the truth of the +Biblical history and miracles nor the validity of the Mosaic legislation +does he appear to have cast any doubt. He even allows that Israel was +the chosen people. The Gospel was known to him chiefly through +apocryphal and heretical sources, which cannot certainly be identified; +but he accepted the doctrine of the Virgin-birth, the miracles of +healing the sick and raising the dead, and the ascension; the +crucifixion and resurrection were clearly denied by the sect from whom +he had received his information, and rejected by him, though certainly +not because of any miracle which the latter involved. His quarrel with +the Jews at Medina appears to have been by no means of his own seeking, +but to have arisen unavoidably, owing to his particular view of his +office being such as they could not accept; and his attempt to +discredit, not the Mosaic Law, but the form in which they presented it, +was an expedient to which he resorted in self-defence. An attempt was +made shortly after his arrival at Medina to settle the relations between +the two communities by a treaty, according to which, while their +equality was guaranteed there should be little interference between the +two; this, however, was found unworkable, and each victory of Mahomet +over the Meccans was followed by violent measures against the Medinese +Israelites. When experience had shown him their military incompetence he +appears to have been unable to resist the temptation to appropriate +their goods for the benefit of his followers; and his attack on the +flourishing Jewish settlement of Khaibar, after the affair of +Hodaibiyah, appears to have been practically unprovoked, and designed to +satisfy his discontented adherents by an accession of plunder. Yet the +consciousness that this process was economically wasteful suggested to +him an idea which Islamic states are only now abandoning, viz. that of a +tolerated caste, who should till the soil and provide sustenance for the +Believers who were to be the fighting caste. Whereas then his former +plan in dealing with Israelites had been to banish or massacre, he now +left the former owners of Khaibar (who had survived the capture of the +place) in possession of the soil, of whose produce they were to pay a +fixed proportion to the Islamic state. The same principle was adopted in +the case of later conquests of Jewish settlements. + +Disputes with Christians occur somewhat later in the Prophet's career +than those with Jews, for neither at Mecca nor Medina were the former to +be found in any numbers; individuals are likely to have been found in +both cities, and we hear of one Medinese "Abu'Amir the Monk," who after +Mahomet's arrival at Medina branded him as an impostor, and, going +himself into exile, made many an abortive attempt to discredit and +injure Mahomet's cause. The notices of him are meagre and obscure. +Mahomet's manifesto to the world, about the time of the taking of +Khaibar, appears to represent his definite breach with Christianity; and +when in the "year of the embassies" the Christians of Najran sent a +deputation to him, they found that the breach between the two systems +was not to be healed. Of the three alternatives open to +them--conversion, internecine war, and tribute, they chose the last. The +Christian tribes of north Arabia showed greater inclination towards the +first. The Prophet's policy was to give Christians lighter terms than +Jews, and though the Koran reflects the gradual adoption by the Prophet +of an attitude of extreme hostility to both systems, its tone is on the +whole far more friendly to the former than to the latter. Some other +communities are mentioned in the Koran, but merely in casual allusions: +thus we know that Mahomet's sympathy was with the Byzantines in their +struggle with Persia, but in his most tolerant utterance the Magians or +Mazdians as well as the Sabians (with whom his followers were identified +by the Meccans) are mentioned with respect. + + + Mahomet's Administration. + +The financial requirements of Mahomet's state were of the simplest kind, +for there is no trace of any form of governmental department having been +instituted by him, even when he was master of the peninsula; nor can we +name any permanent officials in his employ except his _muaddhin_ Bilal, +and perhaps his court-poet Hassan. A staff of scribes was finally +required both to take down his revelations and to conduct +correspondence; but although he encouraged the acquisition of penmanship +(indeed some of the prisoners at Badr are said to have been allowed to +ransom themselves by teaching it to the Medinese), we know of no regular +secretaries in his employ. As despot of Medina he combined the functions +of legislator, administrator, general and judge; his duties in the last +three capacities were occasionally delegated to others, as when he +appointed a governor of Medina during his absence, or leaders for +expeditions, with provision for successors in case of their falling, but +we hear of no permanent or regular delegation of them. Till near the end +of his career at Medina he maintained the principle that migration to +that city was a condition of conversion; but when, owing to the +extension of his power, this was no longer practicable, his plan was in +the main to leave the newly converted communities to manage their +internal affairs as before, only sending occasional envoys to discharge +special duties, especially instruction in the Koran and the principles +of Islam, and to collect the Alms; quite towards the end of his life he +appears to have sent persons to the provinces to act as judges, with +instructions to judge according to the Koran, and where that failed, +_the practice_ (_sunna_), i.e. the practice of the community, for which +a later generation substituted the practice of the Prophet. There were, +therefore, no regular payments to permanent officials; and the taxation +called _Alms_, which developed into an income-tax, but was at first a +demand for voluntary contributions, was wholly for the support of the +poor Moslems; it might not be used for the maintenance of the state, +i.e. Mahomet and his family. For them, and for public business, e.g. the +purchase of war material and gratuities to visitors, provision was made +out of the booty, of which Mahomet claimed one-fifth (the chieftain's +share had previously, we are told, been one-fourth), while the +remainder--or at least the bulk of it--was distributed among the +fighting men; the Prophet appears to have prided himself on the justice +of his distribution on these occasions, and doubtless won popularity +thereby, though we hear occasionally of grumbling; for difficulties +occurred when a defeated tribe embraced Islam, and so could claim +equality with their conquerors, or when portions of the spoil were +irregularly employed by Mahomet to allay resentment: the persons whose +allegiance was thus purchased were euphemistically termed "those whose +hearts were united." What afterwards proved the main source of revenue +in Islamic states dates from the taking of Khaibar; for the rent paid to +the state by tolerated communities for the right to work their land +developed long after Mahomet's time into a poll-tax for Unbelievers (see +CALIPHATE, e.g. B. § 8 and MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS), and a land-tax for +all owners of land. Immediately after the taking of Khaibar certain +communities, of which the most notable was Fadak, sent tribute before +they had been attacked and reduced; their land was regarded by Mahomet +as his private domain, but after his death it was withdrawn from his +heirs by his successor Abu Bekr, in virtue of a maxim that Prophets left +no inheritance, which in the opinion of Fatima was contrary to Koranic +doctrine, and invented by Ayesha's father expressly for the purpose of +excluding her and her husband from their rights; and this is likely to +have been the case. + +As a military organizer Mahomet, as has been seen, was anxious to adopt +the most advanced of contemporary methods, and more than once is said to +have scandalized the Arabs by foreign innovations, as at a later time +the Moslem chiefs who first used gunpowder scandalized their +co-religionists. The unit in his armies seems to have been, as of old, +the tribe, under its natural leader; that he introduced no more +scientific division, and nothing like a hierarchy of officers was +perhaps due to the difficulty of reconciling such a system with the +equality of all Moslems. + +As has been seen, the Koran only assumed the character of a civil code +as the need for one arose; and for some time after Mahomet's arrival at +Medina old-fashioned methods of settling disputes continued in use, and +doubtless in accordance with precedent where such was known. For +difficult cases, even in Arab opinion, divine inspiration was required; +and since Mahomet naturally claimed to be in sole enjoyment of this, his +utterances soon became the unique source of law, though he did not at +first think of organizing a code. Such a plan is said to have occurred +to him, and he even wished to dictate a code upon his deathbed; but his +friends supposed or professed to suppose him to be delirious. A table +regulating the "Alms" was left by him, it is said, in the possession of +Abu Bekr; but other traditions assign another origin to this document. + +Just as there were no regular officials for the arrangement of business, +so there were none for its execution; when punishment was to be +administered, any follower of Mahomet might be called upon to administer +it. In the case of the massacre of the Banu Quraizah care was taken to +see that some of the heads were struck off by their former allies, in +order that the latter might be unable at any time to bring a demand for +vengeance. The Prophet hoped by the mere terror of his name to make +complete security reign throughout Arabia, and there is no evidence that +any system of policing either it or even Medina occurred to him. + + + Domestic Life. + + Until the death of Khadija the Prophet's private life seems to have + been normal and happy, for though the loss of his sons in infancy is + said to have earned him a contemptuous epithet, he was fortunate in + his adoption of Zaid b. Harithah, apparently a prisoner ransomed by + Khadija or one of her relatives, who appears as dutiful almost to + excess and competent in affairs. The marriages of his daughters seem + all to have been happy, with, curiously, the exception of that between + Fatima and Ali. His domestic troubles, to which an unreasonable amount + of space seems to be devoted, even in the Koran, began after the + Migration, when, probably in the main for political reasons, he + instituted a royal harem. One of these political motives was the + principle which long survived, that the conquest of a state was + consummated by possession of the former monarch's wife, or daughter; + another, as has been seen, the desire to obtain the securest possible + hold on his ministers. In his marriage with the daughter of his + arch-enemy Abu Sofian, before the latter's conversion, we can see a + combination of the two. Few, therefore, of these marriages occasioned + scandal; yet public morality seemed to be violated when the Prophet + took to himself the wife of his adopted son Zaid, whose name has in + consequence the honour of mention in the Koran in the revelation which + was delivered in defence of this act. Its purpose was, according to + this, to establish the difference between adoptive and real filiation. + Serious trouble was occasioned by a charge of adultery brought against + the youthful favourite Ayesha, and this had to be refuted by a special + revelation; the charge, which was backed up apparently by Ali, seems + to have been connected with some deeper scheme for causing dissension + between the Prophet and his friends. Yet another revelation is + concerned with a mutiny in the harem organized by Omar's daughter + Hafsa, owing to undue favour shown to a Coptic concubine (Mary, mother + of a son called Ibrahim, who died in infancy; his death was marked by + an eclipse, January 27, 632); and various details of factions within + the harem are told us by Mahomet's biographers. + + Of the members of this harem the only prominent one is Ayesha, married + to the Prophet shortly after the Flight, when she had scarcely passed + the period of infancy, but who appears to have been gifted with + astuteness and ambition that were quite beyond her years, and who + maintained her ascendancy over the Prophet in spite of the fact that + many carping criticisms of his revelations are attributed to her. Some + of this may have been due to the obligations (including pecuniary + obligations) under which her father had laid Mahomet; but her + reputation seems to have been greatly enhanced by the sending down of + a revelation to exonerate her (A.H. 6), for which she thanked God and + not the Prophet. Each accession to the harem rendered the building of + a house or room necessary for the newcomer's accommodation; a fact in + which Robertson Smith perhaps rightly saw a relic of the older system + whereby the tent was the property of women. The trouble noticed above + seems to have arisen from the want of a similar arrangement in the + case of slave girls, with whom Mahomet's system permits cohabitation. + When Mahomet, whether in consequence of the fatigue incurred by the + "Farewell Pilgrimage," or, as others thought, by the working of some + poison put into his food some years before by a Jewess of Khaibar, was + attacked by the illness which proved fatal, it was to the house of + Ayesha that he was transferred (from that of another wife) to be + nursed; and he apparently died in the arms of the favourite, on whose + statements we have to rely for what we know of his last hours. + + + General Characteristics. + + The traditional description of Mahomet is "of middle height, greyish, + with hair that was neither straight nor curly; with a large head, + large eyes, heavy eyelashes, reddish tint in the eyes, thick-bearded, + broad-shouldered, with thick hands and feet"; he was in the habit of + giving violent expression to the emotions of anger and mirth. The + supposition that he at any time suffered from physical weakness seems + absolutely refuted by his career as a leader of difficult, dangerous + and wearisome expeditions, from his migration to Medina until his + death; indeed, during his last years he exhibited a capacity for both + physical and intellectual activity which implies a high degree of both + health and strength; and without these the previous struggle at Mecca + could scarcely have been carried on. The supposition that he was + liable to fits (epileptic or cataleptic) was intended to account for + certain of the phenomena supposed to accompany the delivery of + revelations; some of these however rest on very questionable + authority: and the greater number of the revelations give evidence of + careful preparation rather than spontaneity. + + The literary matter ascribed to the Prophet consists of (1) the Koran + (q.v.); (2) certain contracts, letters and rescripts preserved by his + biographers; (3) a number of sayings on a vast variety of topics, + collected by traditionalists. The references in the Koran to a form of + literature called "Wisdom" (_hikmah_) suggest that even in the + Prophet's time some attempts had been made to collect or at least + preserve some of the last; the general uncertainty of oral tradition + and the length of time which elapsed before any critical treatment of + it was attempted, and the variety of causes, creditable and + discreditable, which led to the wilful fabrication of prophetic + utterances, render the use to which No. 3 can be put very limited. + Thus the lengthy description of the journey to heaven which Sprenger + was inclined to accept as genuine is regarded by most critics as a + later fabrication. It is very much to be regretted that the number of + _pièces justificatives_ (No. 2) quoted by the biographers is so small, + and that for these oral tradition was preferred to a search for the + actual documents, some of which may well have been in existence when + the earliest biographies were written. Their style appears to have + been plain and straightforward, though the allusions which they + contain are not always intelligible. + + In his personal relations with men Mahomet appears to have been able + to charm and impress in an extraordinary degree, whence we find him + able to control persons like Omar and Khalid, who appear to have been + self-willed and masterful, and a single interview seems to have been + sufficient to turn many an enemy into a devoted adherent. Cases + (perhaps legendary) are quoted of his being able by a look or a word + to disarm intending assassins. + + Although the titles which he took were religious in character, and his + office might not be described as sovereignty, his interests appear to + have lain far more in the building up and maintenance of empire than + in ecclesiastical matters. Thus only can we account for the violent + and sudden changes which he introduced into his system, for his + temporary lapse into paganism, and for his ultimate adoption of the + cult of the Black Stone, which, it is said, gave offence to some of + his sincere adherents (e.g. Omar), and seems hard to reconcile with + his tirades against fetish-worship. The same is indicated by his + remarkable doctrine that the utterance of the creed constituted a + Moslem and not its cordial acceptance, and his practice of at times + buying adhesion. Even an historian so favourable to the Prophet as + Prince Caetani recognizes that ultimately what he regarded as most + important was that his subjects should pay their taxes. And in general + his system was not favourable to fanaticism (_al-ghulu fi`l-din_); he + repeatedly gave permission for concealment of faith when the + profession of it was dangerous; he took care to avoid institutions + which, like the Jewish Sabbath, interfered seriously with military + expeditions and the conduct of business, and permitted considerable + irregularity in the matters of prayer and fasting when circumstances + rendered it desirable. In his theory that Koranic texts could be + abrogated he made wise provision against the danger of hasty + legislation, though some of its usefulness was frustrated by his + failure to provide for such abrogation after his death. + + + Mahomet's Reforms. + +As has been seen, Mahomet claimed to introduce a wholly new +dispensation, and a maxim of his law is that Islam cancels all that +preceded it, except, indeed, pecuniary debts; it is not certain that +even this exception always held good. Hence his system swept away a +number of practices (chiefly connected with the camel) that were +associated with pagan superstitions. The most celebrated of these is the +arrow-game, a form of gambling for shares in slaughtered camels, to +which poetic allusions are very frequent. More important than this was +his attitude towards the blood-feud, or system of tribal responsibility +for homicide (whether intentional or accidental), whereby one death +regularly led to protracted wars, it being considered dishonourable to +take blood-money (usually in the form of camels) or to be satisfied with +one death in exchange. This system he endeavoured to break down, chiefly +by sinking all earlier tribal distinctions in the new brotherhood of +Islam; but also by limiting the vengeance to be demanded to such as was +no more than the equivalent of the offence committed, and by urging the +acceptance of money-compensation instead, or complete forgiveness of the +offence. The remembrance of pre-Islamic quarrels was visited by him with +condign punishment on those who had embraced Islam; and though it was +long before the tribal system quite broke down, even in the great cities +which rose in the new provinces, and the old state of things seems to +have quickly been resumed in the desert, his legislation on this subject +rendered orderly government among Arabs possible. + +Next in importance to this is the abolition of infanticide, which is +condemned even in early Suras of the Koran. The scanty notices which we +have of the practice are not altogether consistent; at times we are told +that it was confined to certain tribes, and consisted in the burying +alive of infant daughters; at other times it is extended to a wider +area, and said to have been carried out on males as well as females. +After the taking of Mecca this prohibition was included among the +conditions of Islam. + +In the laws relating to women it seems likely that he regulated current +practice rather than introduced much that was actually new, though, as +has been seen, he is credited with giving them the right to inherit +property; the most precise legislation in the Koran deals with this +subject, of which the main principle is that the share of the male +equals that of two females. Our ignorance of the precise nature of the +marriage customs prevalent in Arabia at the rise of Islam renders it +difficult to estimate the extent to which his laws on this subject were +an improvement on what had been before. The pre-Islamic family, unless +our records are wholly misleading, did not differ materially from the +Islamic; in both polygamy and concubinage were recognized and normal; +and it is uncertain that the text which is supposed to limit the number +of wives to four was intended to have that meaning. The "condition of +Islam" whereby adultery was forbidden is said to have been ridiculed at +the time, on the ground that this practice had never been approved. Yet +it would seem that certain forms of promiscuity had been tolerated, +though the subject is obscure. Against these services we must set the +abrogation of some valuable practices. His unfortunate essay in +astronomy, whereby a calendar of twelve lunar months, bearing no +relation to the seasons, was introduced, was in any case a retrograde +step; but it appears to have been connected with the abrogation of the +sanctity of the four months during which raiding had been forbidden in +Arabia, which, as has been seen, he was the first to violate. He also, +as has been noticed, permitted himself a slight amount of bloodshed in +Mecca itself, and that city perhaps never quite recovered its sacrosanct +character. Of more serious consequences for the development of the +community was his encouragement of the shedding of kindred blood in the +cause of Islam; the consequences of the abrogation of this taboo seem to +have been felt for a great length of time. His assassinations of enemies +were afterwards quoted as precedents in books of Tradition. No less +unfortunate was the recognition of the principle whereby atonement could +be made for oaths. On the question how far the seclusion of women was +enjoined or countenanced by him different views have been held. + + + Sources. + + Besides the contemporary documents enumerated above (Koranic texts, + rescripts and authentic traditions) many of the events were celebrated + by poets, whose verses were ostensibly incorporated in the standard + biography of Ibn Ishaq; in the abridgment of that biography which we + possess many of these are obelized as spurious, and, indeed, what we + know of the procedure of those who professed to collect early poetry + gives us little confidence in the genuineness of such odes. A few, + however, seem to stand criticism, and the _diwan_ (or collection of + poems) attributed to Hassan b. Thabit is ordinarily regarded as his. + Though they rarely give detailed descriptions of events, their + attestation is at times of value, e.g. for the story that the bodies + of the slain at Badr were cast by the Prophet into a pit. Besides + this, the narratives of eyewitnesses of important events, or of those + who had actually taken part in them, were eagerly sought by the second + generation, and some of these were committed to writing well before + the end of the 1st century. The practice instituted by the second + Caliph, of assigning pensions proportioned to the length of time in + which the recipient had been a member of the Islamic community, led to + the compilation of certain rolls, and to the accurate preservation of + the main sequence of events from the commencement of the mission, and + for the detailed sequence after the Flight, which presently became an + era (beginning with the first month of the year in which the Flight + took place). The procedure whereby the original dates of the events + (so far as they were remembered) were translated into the Moslem + calendar--for something of this sort must have been done--is unknown, + and is unlikely to have been scientific. + + Mahomet's conduct being made the standard of right and wrong, there + was little temptation to "whitewash" him, although the original + biography by Ibn Ishaq appears to have contained details which the + author of the abridgment omitted as scandalous. The preservation of so + much that was historical left little room for the introduction of + miraculous narrations; these therefore either belong to the obscure + period of his life or can be easily eliminated; thus the narratives of + the Meccan council at which the assassination of Mahomet was decided, + of the battles of Badr, Uhud and Honain, and the death of Sad`b. Mu + `adh, would lose nothing by the omission of the angels and the devil, + though a certain part is assigned the one or the other on all these + occasions. We should have expected biographies which were published + when the `Abbasids were reigning to have falsified history for the + purpose of glorifying `Abbas, their progenitor; the very small extent + to which this expectation is justified is a remarkable testimony to + their general trustworthiness. + + + RELATIVES OF THE PROHET[1] + + 1. _Family of `Abd al-Mottalib_, Mahomet's maternal + grandfather:--*`Abbas (d. A.H. 32 or 34), *Hamza (d. A.H. 3), + `Abdallah, father of the Prophet, *Abu Talib (said to be named `Abd + Manaf), ? *Zubair, Harith, Hajal, Moqawwam, Dirar, *Abu Lahab (said to + be named `Abd al-`Uzza, d. A.H. 2), *_Safiyyah_ (d. A.H. 20), _Umm + Hakim_, _al-Baida_, _`Atikah_, _Umaimah_, _Arwa_, _Barrah_. + + 2. _Family of Abu Talib_:--*`Aqil (d. after A.H. 40), *Ja`far (d. A.H. + 8), Talib, Tulaiq, `Ali, the caliph, _Umm Hani'_, _Jumanah_, _Raitah_. + + 3. _Family of Mahomet. Wives_:--*_Khadija_ (Children:--Qasim; ? `Abd + Manaf (Tahir, Tayyib); *_Zainab_ m. Abu'l-`As b. Rabi', d. A.H. 7; + *_Ruqayyah_, m. `Othman b. `Affan, d. A.H. 2; *_Umm Kulthum_ m. + `Othman b. `Affan, d. A.H. 9; *_Fatimah_, m. `Ali, d. A.H. 11): + *_Saudah bint Zam`ah_,? d. A.H. 54, *_`A'ishah (Ayesha) bint Abi Bekr_ + (d. A.H. 56), *_Hafsa bint `Omar_ (d. A.H. 45 or 47), *_Zainab bint + Khuzaimah_, d. before A.H. 11, *_Zainab bint Jahsh_, d. A.H. 20, *_Umm + Salimah_, d. A.H. 59, *_Maimunah_, d. A.H. 38, *_Juwairiyah_, d. A.H. + 56, *_Umm Habibah Ramlah bint Abi Sofian_, d. A.H. 44. + + _Concubines_:--*_Safiyyah bint Huyyay_, d. A.H. 36, *_Raihanah bint + Zaid_, *_Mariyah the Copt_, d. A.H. 15 or 16, mother of Ibrahim. + (Other names given by Ibn Sa`d, vol. viii.) + + _Chronological Table of Chief Events in the Life of Mahomet._[2] + + ? 570 Birth. + ? 595 Marriage with Khadija. + ? 610 Commencement of call. + ? 613 Public appearance. + 616 Persian conquest of the nearer East. + ? 617 Flight of his followers to Abyssinia. + ? 618-619 Siege in Mecca. Retractation and subsequent repudiation. + Death of Abu Talib and Khadija. + ? 620 Flight to Taif. + 622 July 16. Beginning of the Moslem era. + Sept. 20. Arrival at Kuba after the Flight. + 632 Jan. 27. Death of his son Ibrahim. + 632 June 7. Death of Mahomet. + + The following dates are given by the Arabic historians according to + their own calendar. For the reasons which have been seen it is + impossible to obtain certain synchronisms. + + A.H. + + 2. Rajab 1. Raid of `Abdallah b. Jahsh to Nakhlah. + Ramadan 19. Battle of Badr. + Shawwal 15. Attack on the Banu Qainuqa. + + 3. Rabia I. 14. Assassination of Ka`b b. al-Ashraf. + Shawwal 7. Battle of Uhud. + + 4. Saphar. Massacre of Mahomet's 70 missionaries at Bi'r Ma`unah. + Rabia I. Attack on the Banu Nadir. + Dhu'l-Qa`da. Abortive raid called "the lesser Badr." + + 5. Shaaban 2. Attack on the Banu'l-Mustaliq (according to Waqidi). + Dhu'l-Qa`da. Battle of the Trench. + Massacre of the Banu Quraizah. + + 6. Jomada i. Capture of a caravan by Zaid b. Harithah. + Futile attempt to assassinate Abu Sofian. + Dhu'l-Qa`da. Affair of Hodaibiyah. + + 7. Jomada i. Taking of Khaibar. Mission extended to the world. + Dhu'l-Qa`da. Pilgrimage to Mecca (called _'umrat al-qadiyyah_) + + 8. Jomada i. Expedition to Mutah. + Ramadan 20. Taking of Mecca. + Shawwal. Battle of Honain. + Attack on Ta`if. + + 9. Muharram. Tax-gatherers sent over Arabia. + Rajab. Expedition to Tabuk. + Rival Mosque built at Kuba, destroyed on Mahomet's return + to Medina. + Dhu'l-Hijja. Pilgrimage conducted by Abu Bekr. + Abolition of idolatry in Arabia. + + 10. Ramadan. Expedition of `Ali to Yemen. + Dhu'l-Qa`da. "Farewell Pilgrimage." + + 11. Saphar. Expedition ordered against the Byzantines. + + + _Companions of the Prophet._ + + The _sahabah_, as they are called, are the subject of a vast + literature, and the biographical dictionaries devoted to them, of + which the best known are the _Usd ul-ghaba_ of the historian Ibn Athir + and the _Isabah_ of Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, enumerate many thousands. + The following two lists are of special groups. + + (a) _Naqibs_, i.e. leaders selected by Mahomet from the Medinese + tribes: i. _Khazrajites_:--As`ad b. Zurarah, Sa`d b. al-Rabi`, + `Abdallah b. Rawahah, al-Bara' b. Ma`rur, `Abdallah b. `Amr b. Haram, + `Ubadah b. al-Samit, Sa`d b. `Ubadah, al-Mondhir b. 'Amr; ii. + _Ausites_: Usaid b. Hudair, Sa`d b. Khaithamah, Rifa`ah b. `Abd + al-Mondhir. + + (b) _Commanders of Expeditions_: names occurring in (a) are not + repeated: `Abdallah b. Jahsh, `Abd ar-Rahman b. `Auf, Abu Bekr, Abu + Qatadah, Abu `Ubaidah b. al-Jarrah, `Ali, `Alqamah b. Mujazziz, `Amr + b. al-`As (ibn el-Ass), Bashir b. Sa`d, Dahhak b. Sofian, Ghalib b. + `Abdallah, Ibn Abi'l-Auja, Ka`b b. `Umair, Khalid b. al-Walid, Kurz b. + Jabir, Marthad b. Abi Marthad, Muhammad b. Maslamah, Qutbah b. `Amir, + Sa`d b. Abi Waqqas, Sa`d d. Zaid, Salama b. `Abd al-Asad, Shuja` b. + Wahb, `Ubaidah b. al-Harith, `Ukkashah b. Mihsan, `Umar b. al-Khattab, + Usamah b. Zaid, `Uyainah b. Hisn, Zaid b. Harithah. + + AUTHORITIES.--The biography of Ibn Ishaq was before the world long + before the two chief causes for the falsification of tradition had + begun to have serious effects; these were the need for legal + precedents, and the concept of saintliness, combining those of + asceticism and thaumaturgy. These gave rise to the classical works on + the _Evidences of Mohammed's Mission_ by Abu Nu`aim (d. A.D. + 1012-1013) and Baihaqi (d. A.D. 1066). + + _Lives of the Prophet_ ([+] indicates that the work is lost); + [+]`Urwah b. Zubair (d. 712-713); [+]Musa b. `Ukbah (d. 758-759); + [+]Mohammed b. Ishaq (d. 768); Mohammed b. Hisham (d. 828-829), ed. + Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1860); reprinted in Egypt by Zubair Pasha, a + series of excerpts from the last; Mohammed b. Omar al-Waqidi (d. 823), + portion published by Kremer (Calcutta, 1855), abridged trans. of a + fuller copy by Wellhausen, _Muhammad in Medina_ (Berlin, 1882); + Mohammed b. Sa`d (d. 844-845), an encyclopaedic work on the history of + Mahomet and his followers, called _Tabaqat_, ed. Sachau and others + (Berlin, foll.); Mohammed b. Jarir al-Tabari (see TABARI). Many more + writers on this subject are enumerated in the _Fihrist_, cf. + Sprenger's _Leben Muhammads_, iii. 54-76. + + Among the most popular compilers of later times are: Ibn al-Athir + (q.v.) al Jazari, the historian (d. 1233); Ahmad b. Ali al Kastalani + (d. A.D. 1517), whose _al-Mawahib al-Laduniyyah_ was published with + commentary (Cairo, 1278); Hosain b. Mohammed al Diyarbakri (d. 1574) + whose work _Ta'rikh al-Khamis_ was published in Cairo, A.H. 1382; `Ali + b. Burhan al-din al-Halabi (d. A.D. 1634), whose biography called + _Insan al-`uyun_ was published in Cairo, A.H. 1292. To these must be + added all the collections of Tradition. + + _Modern Authorities._--The critical study of the Life of Mahomet + begins in Europe with the publication by Th. Gagnier in 1723 of the + Life by Abulfeda (q.v.). Presently there appeared an apologetic + biography by Henri Cmte. de Boulainvilliers (2nd ed., Amsterdam, + 1731), to which Gagnier replied in 1732 (_La Vie de Mahomet, + traduite_, &c. ibid.). The next considerable advance in the treatment + of the subject is marked by the biography of G. Weil (_Muhammed der + Prophet_, Stuttgart, 1843), which is wholly without religious bias; + the popular life by Washington Irving (London, 1849) is based on this. + That by J. L. Merrick (the _Life and Religion of Mohammed_, Boston, + U.S.A., 1850) rests on Shi`ite sources. The search for MSS. in India + conducted by A. Sprenger led to the discovery of fresh material, which + was utilized by Sprenger himself in his unfinished _Life of Mohammad_ + (Pt. 1, Allahabad, 1851), and his more elaborate _Das Leben und die + Lehre des Mohammad_ (Berlin, 1861-1865), and by Sir William Muir in + his _Life of Mahomet_, (London, 1858-1861) 4 vols.: afterwards + abridged in one volume and reprinted. These are still the standard + treatises on the subject; the pro-Christian bias of Muir is very + marked, while Sprenger has hazarded numerous conjectures on subjects + with which he had little familiarity. The biography by S. W. Koelle, + _Mohammed and Mohammedanism_ (London, 1889), is pro-Christian, the + popular work of Syed Ameer Ali _The Spirit of Islam_, (London, 1896) + an apology for Mahommedanism. Later treatises, resting on original + authorities, are those by H. Grimme _Mohamed_, (Münster, 1892, and + Munich, 1904), F. Buhl, _Mohameds Liv_ (Copenhagen, 1903--Danish: + since translated into German), D. S. Margoliouth _Mohammed and the + Rise of Islam_ (N.Y., 1905, &c.), and Prince Caetani _Annali del + Islam_, i. ii. (Milan, 1905-1907). For the direction of public opinion + in Mahomet's favour the Lecture on _The Hero as Prophet_ in Carlyle's + _Heroes and Hero-worship_ (London, 1846) was singularly effective; his + views were enforced by R. Bosworth Smith _Mohammed and Mohammedanism_, + (London, 1873, &c.). A somewhat similar line was taken in France by J. + Barthélémy Saint-Hilaire, _Mahomet et le Coran_, (Paris, 1865), while + the _Vie de Mahomet d'après la Tradition_ of E. Lamairesse and G. + Dujarric (Paris, 1897) is written entirely from the Moslem standpoint. + + See further CALIPHATE, _ad init._; MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS; MAHOMMEDAN + LAW; MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. (D. S. M.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] * is prefixed to names which figure on occasions which seem to be + historical. Female names are in italics. + + [2] Dates are given A.D. + + + + +MAHOMMED AHMED IBN SEYYID ABDULLAH (1848-1885), Sudanese tyrant, known +as "the Mahdi," was born in Dongola. His family, known as excellent +boat-builders, claimed to be _Ashraf_ (or _Sherifs_), i.e. descendants +of Mahomet. His father was a _fiki_ or religious teacher, and Mahommed +Ahmed devoted himself early to religious studies. When about twenty +years old he went to live on Abba Island on the White Nile about 150 m. +above Khartum. He first acquired fame by a quarrel with the head of the +brotherhood which he had joined, Mahommed asserting that his master +condoned transgression of the divine law. After this incident many +dervishes (religious mendicants) gathered round the young sheikh, whose +reputation for sanctity speedily grew. He travelled secretly through +Kordofan, where (with ample justification) he denounced to the villagers +the extortion of the tax-gatherer and told of the coming of the mahdi +who should deliver them from the oppressor. He also wrote a pamphlet +summoning true believers to purify their religion from the defilements +of the "Turks" i.e. the Egyptian officials and all non-native +inhabitants of the Sudan. The influence he gained at length aroused the +anxiety of the authorities, and in May 1881 a certain Abu Saud, a +notorious scoundrel, was sent to Abba Island to bring the sheikh to +Khartum. Abu Saud's mission failed, and Mahommed Ahmed no longer +hesitated to call himself al-Mahdi al Montasir, "The Expected Guide." In +August he defeated another force sent to Abba Island to arrest him, but +thereafter deemed it prudent to retire to Jebel Gedir, in the Nuba +country south of Kordofan, where he was soon at the head of a powerful +force; and 6000 Egyptian troops under Yusef Pasha, advancing from +Fashoda, were nearly annihilated in June 1882. By the end of 1882 the +whole of the Sudan south of Khartum was in rebellion, with the exception +of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the Equatorial Provinces. In January 1883 El +Obeid, the capital of Kordofan, was captured. In the November following +Hicks Pasha's force of 10,000 men was destroyed at Kashgil, and in the +same year the mahdi's lieutenant, Osman Digna, raised the tribes in the +eastern Sudan, and besieged Sinkat and Tokar, near Suakin, routing +General Valentine Baker's force of 2500 men at El Teb in February 1884. +The operations undertaken by Great Britain in face of this state of +affairs are narrated under EGYPT: _Military Operations_. It need only be +added that General Gordon (q.v.) was besieged at Khartum by the mahdi +and was killed there when the town was captured by the mahdists on the +25th-26th of January 1885. The mahdi himself died at Omdurman a few +months later (June 22, 1885), and was succeeded in power by his khalifa +Abdullah. + +When he announced his divine mission Mahommed Ahmed adopted the Shi`ite +traditions concerning the mahdi, and thus put himself in opposition to +the sultan of Turkey as the only true commander of the faithful. To +emphasize his position the mahdi struck coins in his own name and set +himself to suppress all customs introduced by the "Turks." His social +and religious reforms are contained in various proclamations, one of +which is drawn up in the form of ten commandments. They concern, +chiefly, such matters as ritual, prayers, soberness in food and raiment, +the cost of marriage and the behaviour of women. How far the mahdi was +the controller of the movement which he started cannot be known, but +from the outset of his public career his right-hand man was a Baggara +tribesman named Abdullah (the khalifa), who became his successor, and +after his flight to Jebel Gedir the mahdi was largely dependent for his +support on Baggara sheikhs, who gratified one of his leading tastes by +giving him numbers of their young women. In the few months between the +fall of Khartum and his death the mahdi, relieved from the incessant +strain of toil, copied in his private life all the vices of Oriental +despots while maintaining in public the austerity he demanded of his +followers. His death is variously attributed to disease and to poisoning +by a woman of his harem. On the occupation of Omdurman by the British +(Sept. 1898) the mahdi's tomb was destroyed, his body burnt and the +ashes thrown into the Nile (see SUDAN: _Anglo-Egyptian_). + + See _Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan_ by F. R. Wingate (1891); _Ten + Years' Captivity in the Mahdi's Camp_ (1882-1892) from the MS. of + Father Joseph Ohrwalder by F. R. Wingate (1892) and _Fire and Sword in + the Sudan_ (1879-1895) by Slatin Pasha (trans. F. R. Wingate, 1896). + Both Ohrwalder and Slatin were personally acquainted with the mahdi, + and their narratives contain much first-hand information. Wingate + prints many translations of the proclamations and correspondence of + the mahdi. + + + + +MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS. + + The Caliphate. + +Of all the institutions of Islam the caliphate is the oldest, the most +fundamental, and in essence the most enduring. For its history see +CALIPHATE; the present subject is its origin and nature. Mahomet enjoyed +absolute rule over his people as a divinely inspired and guided prophet. +He led the public prayers; he acted as judge; he ruled. If he consulted +with others or paid attention to public feeling or local usage, it was +as a matter of policy; the ultimate decision lay with himself. He was +the state. On his death a leader was put in his place of similar +authority, though without the divine prophetic guidance. He was called +the "successor" (_khalifa_, caliph) of the Prophet, later also the +_amir-al-mu'minin_, commander of the faithful, and was elected by the +Moslems, just as the Arab tribes had always elected their chiefs. He was +thus an absolute ruler, but was democratically elected; and such is the +essence of the caliphate among Sunnite Moslems to this day. For them it +has been a matter of agreement (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW) from the earliest +times that the Moslem community must appoint such a leader (see IMAM). +The Shi`ites, on the other hand, hold that the appointment lies with +God, and that God always has appointed, though his appointment may not +always have been known and accepted. Their position may be called a +legitimist one. Some few heretical sects have held that the necessity of +a leader was based on reason, not on the agreement of the community. +But, for all, the rule of the leader thus appointed is absolute, and all +authority is delegated from him and, in theory, can be resumed by him at +any time. Just as God can require unreasoning obedience from his +creatures (his "slaves" in Arabic), so can the caliph, his +representative on earth. + +But Abu Bekr, the first caliph, nominated his successor, Omar, and that +nomination was accepted and confirmed by the people. So a second +precedent was fixed, which was again carried a step farther, when +Moawiya I., the first Omayyad caliph, nominated his son, Yazid I., as +his successor, and caused an oath of allegiance to be taken to him. The +hereditary principle was thus introduced, though some relics of the form +of election persisted and still persist. The true election possible in +the early days of the small community at Medina became first a formal +acceptance by the populace of the capital; then an assertion, by the +palace guard, of their power; and now, in the investiture of the sultans +of the Ottoman Turks, who claim the caliphate, a formal ceremony by the +`ulema (q.v.) of Constantinople. The Ottoman claim is based on an +asserted nomination by the last Abbasid, who died in exile in Egypt in +1538, of the Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Great, as his successor. Such +a nomination in itself was a perfectly legal act, but in this case had a +fatal flaw. It is an absolute condition, laid down in tradition, that +the caliph must be of the tribe of Koreish (Quraish), that of the +Prophet. + +The duties of this democratically elected autocrat are, in theory, +generally stated as follows. He shall enforce legal decisions and +maintain the divinely revealed restrictive ordinances; guard the +frontiers and equip armies; receive the alms; put down robberies, +thieving, highwaymen; maintain the Friday services and the festivals; +decide disputes and receive evidence bearing on legal claims; marry +minors, male and female, who have no guardians; divide booty. He must be +a free, male, adult Moslem; must have administrative ability; must be an +effective governor and do justice to the wronged. So long as he fulfils +these conditions he is to be absolutely obeyed; private immorality or +even tyranny are not grounds for deposing him. This is a position +reached by Islam practically. But a caliph who openly denied the faith +would be as impossible as an unbelieving pope. The caliph, therefore, is +the highest executive officer of a system assumed to be definite and +fixed. He, in a word, administers Islam; and the content of Islam is +determined by the agreement of the Moslem people, expressed immediately +through the `ulema, and ultimately, if indirectly and half-consciously, +by the people. To depose him a _fatwa_ (see MUFTI) would be required--in +Turkey from the Sheikh-ul-Islam--that he had violated some essential of +the Moslem faith, and no longer fulfilled the conditions of a caliph. + + + The Diwans. + + But it was impossible for the caliph personally to administer the + affairs of the empire, and by degrees the supreme office was gradually + put into commission, until the caliph himself became a mere + figure-head, and vanished into the sacred seclusion of his palace. The + history of the creation of government bureaus (_diwans_; see DIVAN) + must therefore now be sketched. The first need which appeared was that + of a means of regulating and administering the system of taxation and + the revenues of the state. Immense sums flowed into Medina from the + Arab conquests; the surplus, after the requirements of the state were + met, was distributed among the believers. All Moslems had a right to a + certain share of this, which was regarded as booty. Omar, the second + caliph, regulated this distribution and also the system of taxation, + and the result was the first divan and the constitution of Omar, + looked back to now by all Sunnite Moslems as an ideal. The sources of + revenue were (i) the poor-rate (_zakat_), a tithe paid by every + Moslem; (ii) the fifth of all booty; (iii) the poll-tax (_jizya_) on + non-Moslems; and (iv) the land-tax (_kharaj_) also on non-Moslems. + Thus the constitution determined the position of all non-Moslems in a + Moslem state. The ideal was that the Moslems should be kept apart as a + superior, fighting caste, and that the non-Moslems should support them + (cf. CALIPHATE, B. § 8, on the reign of Omar II.). The Moslems, + therefore, were forbidden to acquire land in conquered countries. The + non-Moslems must retain their lands, cultivate them and pay the + land-tax (the Arabic word is also used of revenue from the work of a + slave) and the poll-tax (the Arabic word means also "ransom"), and + give contributions in kind to support the local Moslem garrisons which + were massed in great camp-cities at strategic points. If a non-Moslem + embraced Islam he entered the ruling caste; his land was distributed + among his non-Moslem fellows, and he no longer paid the land-tax but + rather received support from the public funds. The amount of these + pensions varied with the standing of the pensioner from 10,000 dirhems + (a dirhem equalled about a franc) to the widows and relations of the + Prophet down to 300. This bureau had, therefore, not only to keep the + books of the state, but also to maintain a list of all Moslems, + classified genealogically and socially. Its registers were kept by + Greeks, Copts and Persians; the Arabs, it may be said in general, + adopted the method of administration which they found in the captured + countries and drew upon the trained services of their inhabitants. + + Such a system led naturally to wholesale conversions to Islam; and the + consequent decline in revenue, combined with large donations of lands + by Othman, the third caliph, to his own family, gradually broke it + down. The first patriarchal period of conquest, unearned wealth and + the simple life--called by Moslems the period of the "four rightly + guided caliphs," and very happily by Sachau, _ein mönchisches + Imperium_--passed rapidly into the genuinely Arab empire of the + Omayyads, with whom came an immediate development of organization in + the state. The constructive genius in this was Moawiya, the first + Omayyad caliph. Under him the old simplicity vanished. A splendid and + ceremonious court was maintained at Damascus. A chamberlain kept the + door; a bodyguard surrounded the caliph, and even in the mosque the + caliph, warned by the murder of Othman and of Ali, prayed in a + railed-off enclosure. The beginning of the seclusion of the caliph had + come, and he no longer walked familiarly among his fellow Moslems. + This seclusion increased still further when the administration of the + state passed by delegation into other hands, and the caliph himself + became a sacrosanct figure-head, as in the case of the later Abbasids; + when theories of semi-divine nature and of theocratic rule appeared, + as in the case of the Fatimites; and finally when all the elaborate + court ritual of Byzantium was inherited by the Ottoman sultans. + + But Moawiya I. was still a very direct and personal ruler. He + developed a post-system for the carrying of government despatches by + relays, and thus received secret information from and kept control of + the most distant provinces. He established a sealing-bureau by which + state papers were secured against change. He dealt arbitrarily with + the revenues of the state and the pensions of the Moslems. Governors + of provinces were given a much freer hand, and were required to turn + over to the central treasury their surplus revenue only. As they were + either conquerors or direct successors of conquerors they had an + essentially military government, and were really semi-independent + rulers, unhampered except by direct action of the caliph, acting on + information sent by the postmaster, who was his local spy. Being thus + the heads of armies of occupation, they were not necessarily charged + with the control of religious ritual and of justice. These, like every + other function, inhered in the office of the caliph and he generally + appointed in each province independent cadis over the courts and imams + to be in charge of religious services. Yet the governor was sometimes + permitted to hold these two other offices (see CADI; IMAM). + + + The Vizierate. + +Further administrative developments came with the Abbasids. They created +a new city, Bagdad, between the Tigris and the Euphrates, where the +three races, Syrian, Arab and Persian, met and sought with Bagdad as a +capital to consolidate the empire. The Arab empire, it is true, had +passed away with the Omayyads; yet there might be a chance to create a +world-empire of all the Moslem peoples. But not even the genius and +administrative skill of the early Abbasids could hold together that +unwieldy mass. The semi-independent provinces soon became fully +independent, or at most acknowledged the caliph as a spiritual head and +paid a nominal tribute. His name might stand on the coinage and prayers +be offered for him in the Friday service, the two signs of sovereignty +to this day in Islam. With this crumbling of the empire went a more +elaborate organization; bureaus took the place of principles and of the +energy of individual rulers. As the system of Moslem law was built on +that of the Roman codes, so was the machinery of administration on that +of Persia. And with the Abbasids the chance of the Persians had come. +Abu 'l-Abbas, the first Abbasid caliph, was the first to appoint a +vizier (_wazir_, "helper," so Aaron is wazir to Moses in the Koran), a +confidential minister to advise him and come between him and the people. +Advisers the caliphs had had before; but not a definite adviser with +this name. He must, we are told, have a strain of the ruler in him and a +strain of the people to be able to work with both. He must know how to +be acceptable; fidelity and truthfulness are his capital; sagacity, +firmness, generosity, clemency, dignity, effectiveness of speech are +essential. It is plain that the vizier became as important as the +caliph. But Abu 'l-Abbas was fortunate in early securing as his vizier +the grandfather of the house of the Barmecides (q.v.). On this Persian +family the fortunes of the Abbasids hung, and it secured for them and +for Islam a short golden age, like that of the Antonines, until the +jealous madness of Harun al-Rashid cast them down. Thereafter the +vizierate had many vicissitudes. Technically a vizier could be either +limited or unlimited. The limited vizier had no initiative; he carried +out the commands of the caliph. The unlimited vizier, often afterwards +called the grand vizier, exercised full authority and was the _alter +ego_ of the caliph, to whom he was required only to report. Naturally +the formal distinction is a later theorizing of history; for a weak +ruler his vizier became absolute, for a strong ruler his vizier remained +subordinate. Here, as with regard to all Moslem institutions, a marked +distinction must be made between the historic facts and the speculative +edifices raised by constitutional theorizers. Compare especially +MAHOMMEDAN LAW. Until the time of Radi (934-940) the vizierate thus +fluctuated in importance. In that caliphate the vizier lost all +authority, and in his place came the _amir al-omara_--equivalent to the +_major domus_ of the Franks--the head of the Turkish bodyguard, in +terror of whom the caliph now stood. When in 945 the Buyids captured +Bagdad and the caliph became a purely spiritual sovereign, they took the +title "vizier" for their own chief minister, and the caliphs retained +only a secretary (see CALIPHATE, C. § 22). Under the Seljuks, however, +they regained their viziers and some real authority. Elsewhere, also the +vizierate had its vicissitudes. Under the Mamelukes the vizier fell to +be merely the court purveyor. Under the Omayyads of Spain the title was +given to several responsible officers of the state, but their chief was +called _hajib_, chamberlain. Under the Almohades the chamberlain was +called vizier. In the modern Turkish empire the grand vizier (called +generally _sadr A`zam_) is the sultan's representative in secular +matters, and nominally stands between the sovereign and all the other +officials. He is the president of the council of ministers, but Abd-ul +Hamid II. deprived the office of almost all its importance. + + + Other Ministers. + + Under the early Abbasids the four most important ministers were the + chief cadi, the chief of police or head of the life guards, the + minister of finance and the postmaster, who was the head of the system + of information and espionage which covered the empire. But at + different times the different bureaus varied greatly. Under Motawakkil + we find the bureau of taxes and finance; bureau of the crown estates; + bureau of state book-keeping; bureau of war, i.e. of hired troops; + bureau which kept reckoning and control of the pensions of the clients + and slaves of the ruling family; bureau of the post system; bureau of + expenditures. But in spite of this elaborate system, no Moslem + government has, except sporadically, been highly centralized. Provided + the taxes are paid, a large measure of local autonomy has always been + enjoyed by the country districts. Under the Abbasids almost the only + exception was the necessarily centralized control of the irrigation + system of the Tigris and Euphrates. And similarly elsewhere. + + In the case of all these offices, we have delegation by the caliph, + under necessity, of his too heavy burdens. But one duty of an Oriental + ruler he could not so easily lay aside. It had always to be possible + for the oppressed to come into his presence and claim justice; he must + sit in the gate and judge. Therefore, when the caliph found it + necessary to delegate the ordinary administration of justice, he found + it also necessary to set up a special court of oppressions, which + developed, to a certain extent, into a court of appeals. The first to + establish such a separate court was Abdalmalik the Omayyad (685-705), + and his example was followed by the more vigorous of the caliphs up to + the time of Mohtadi the Abbasid (869-870). If any other than the + caliph presided over this court it had to be a man whose dignity, + independence and authority commanded respect. He was not bound by + strict rules of evidence, method and literal application of law as was + the cadi. Rather, he applied a system of equity suited to the absolute + source of authority which he represented. + + As the chief of police, mentioned above, was rather the head of the + caliph's bodyguard, there was also a police system after our ideas, + but more thoroughgoing. The _muhtasib_ had charge in the broadest + sense of public order and morals in the streets, and had oversight as + to weights, measures and adulterations; but had no right to interfere + privately or enter houses save in the clearest and most necessary + cases. He had a summary jurisdiction in all minor cases where no trial + was necessary; but where witnesses and oaths entered the case must go + to the cadi. Slaves and beasts of burden were under his guardianship; + he prevented public scandals, such as the sale of wine; he regulated + the public conduct of Jews and Christians. In the interest of public + morals he had to find suitable husbands for widows and see that they + did not marry before the legal time; questions of paternity also he + had to investigate. The outdoor costume of the people he could + regulate. It should, of course, be remembered that the canon law of + Islam covers minutely all sides of life (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). + +It is impossible in Islam to separate logically from the mass of +institutions those which we should call religious, as Islam on all sides +is for the Moslem equally religious. But perhaps the following may +practically be separated under that rubric. Islam, runs a tradition, is +built on five things: testimony that there is no god save Allah, and +that Mahomet is the apostle of Allah; prayer; the poor-rate; pilgrimage; +fasting. For these see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. + + The law and usage of religious foundations in perpetuity (_waqf_, + mortmain) became as important in Islam as monastic endowments in + medieval Europe, and such foundations tended similarly to absorb the + greater part of the national wealth. It was the only safe way of + providing for posterity. A pious foundation could be erected in such a + way that either so much from its funds would be paid yearly in + perpetuity to the descendants of the erector, or those descendants + would be employed as officials of the foundation. + + + The Imam. + + When it became impossible for the caliph to lead the people personally + in prayer in the mosque, he delegated that part of his duties to + another, hence called imam (q.v.). Naturally, then, the appointment of + the imam would lie with the supreme ruler. This holds of the daily + prayers in the principal mosque (_al-masjid al-jami'_) supported by + the ruler where the Friday service is held, but in the separate + smaller mosques built by each community the community chooses its own + imam. With regard to the Friday service, the schools of law disagree + as to the necessity of the presence of an imam appointed by the chief + ruler. But the imam should certainly make mention of the ruler in his + sermon and pray for him. At the occasional prayers, such as those for + rain, &c., the presence of an imam appointed by the ruler is not + necessary. The imam appoints the _muaddhin_, the announcer of the hour + of prayer from the minaret, and both have a claim on the state + treasury. + + Another office exercised when possible by the caliph, but very + frequently delegated to some high dignitary, such as the heir to the + caliphate or a prince, was the leadership of the pilgrimage caravan to + Mecca and back. Sometimes this official, called _amir-al-hajj_, was + appointed imam as well. He then led all the pilgrimage ceremonies at + Mecca. When outside of towns where there was a cadi he exercised also + over the caravan the rights of a judge. + + + The Cadi. + + Mahommedan law (q.v.) is treated separately. Here, again, as judging + is a duty of the caliph, a cadi is the delegate, or, when appointed by + a vizier or governor, a delegate of his delegate. He examines into + disputes brought before him and enforces his judgments, he names + administrators of the estates of minors, the insane, &c.; he + supervises the _waqf_ property of mosques and schools in his district + and inspects highways and public buildings; he watches over the + execution of wills; he inflicts the due legal penalties for apostasy, + neglect of religious duties, refusal to pay taxes, theft, adultery, + outrages, murder; he can inflict the penalties of imprisonment, fine, + corporal punishment, death; if there is no imam, he can perform his + duty, as in fact can anyone who has the requisite knowledge. But it + should be noticed that all this holds only of the un-europeanized + Moslem state. + + + The Army. + +For the existence of an army in Islam, there are two grounds, the holy +war (_jihad_, q.v.) against unbelievers without the state and the +suppression of rebellion within. Under the ordinance of Omar the entire +community was preserved and used as a weapon for the subduing of the +world to Islam, and every able-bodied male Moslem was theoretically a +fighting man, part of the national militia. This army was divided into +corps situated in the conquered lands, as armies of occupation, where +they eventually came to form military colonies in great camp-cities. The +occupied countries had to support them, and they were bound to render +military service at any time. But as the ideal of Omar broke down before +facts the use of mercenary and slave troops finally increased; although +there has always continued in Moslem armies acting against unbelievers a +proportion of volunteers not paid a fixed wage but subsidized by the +state from the poor-rate and alms funds. The generals were appointed by +the caliph, and had either unlimited authority to act as his +representatives, concluding peace, acting as cadi and imam, distributing +booty; or were restricted within limits, e.g. to simple leading of the +troops and carrying on military operations. They, in turn, appointed +their subordinates; this principle of giving a head full powers and full +responsibility was very generally applied in Islam. It was controlled of +course by the espionage of the postal system. As war by a Moslem power +is essentially sacred war, the regulations of _jihad_ must be considered +here. Unbelievers must first be invited to embrace Islam and, if they +follow a sacred book and are not idol-worshippers, are given a choice +between (a) becoming Moslems; or (b) submitting to the Moslems and +entering on a treaty with them of protection and tribute; or (c) +fighting. If they accept Islam, their lives, families and property are +secure, and they form henceforth part of the Moslem community. The +ability of Islam to create a common feeling between highly different +races is one of its most striking features. If they submit and enter on +treaty relations, they pay a poll-tax, for which their personal safety +is assured, and assume a definitely inferior status, having no technical +citizenship in the state, only the condition of protected clients +(_dhimmis_). If they elect to fight, the door of repentance is open, +even when the armies are face to face. But after defeat their lives are +forfeit, their families are liable to slavery, and all their goods to +seizure. It is open to the sovereign either to put them to death; or to +enslave them; or to give them their liberty; or to exchange them for +ransom or against Moslem prisoners. The sovereign will choose that which +is best for Islam. As for their families and wealth, the sovereign can +release them only with consent of the army that has captured them. +Apostates must be put to death. Four-fifths of the booty after a battle +goes to the conquering army. + +The technical art of war seems to have been little studied among +Moslems; they have treatises on archery but very little upon tactics. +Their writers recognize, however, the essential difference between the +European and Persian methods of charging in solid lines and holding the +ground stubbornly, and the Arab and Berber method of flying attacks and +retreats by clouds of cavalry. Therefore, one explained, the custom grew +of using a mass of European mercenaries as a fixed nucleus and +rallying-point. The early Moslem armies, too, had used the solid, +unyielding charge, which may have been the secret of their success. For +one of the greatest puzzles of history is the cause which changed the +erratic, untrustworthy swarms of Arab horsemen with their childish +strategy into the ever-victorious legions of the first caliphs. They +certainly learned rapidly. Byzantium and Persia taught them the use of +military engines and the entrenched camp. Before that they had been, at +the best, single knights with mail-shirt, helmet, sword and lance. +Bowmen, too, they used, but the principal use of the bow seems to have +come with the Turks. + + + Education. + + The glory of Moslem education was its university system, which fed the + higher learning and did not serve everyday needs. Its primary system + was very poor, almost non-existent; and technical education has never + been recognized in Islam. Primary teachers were despised as ignorant + and foolish. Apparently, if we may trust the many stories of how + ignorant men set up for themselves, there was no control of them by + the state. Their pupils were young only; they taught the rudiments of + reading, Koran, catechism, prayer, writing and arithmetic, but very + little of the latter. Technical education was given by the gilds + through their apprentice system, teaching mechanical arts and crafts. + This was genuine instruction, but was not so regarded; it was looked + upon rather as are the mysteries and secrets of operative masonry. It + produced artisans of independent character, but not artists. Thus + there was no distinction between architect and builder; there was no + sculpture; and painting, so far as it went, was like carving, a craft. + All Moslem university education, like all Moslem science, revolved + round theology. There were, apparently, only two outstanding + exceptions to this rule, the academy of Mamun (813-833) at Bagdad, and + the hall of wisdom of the Fatimites at Cairo (1004-1171); both of + these are explained by their environment. From the earliest times, + independent scholars instructed classes in mosques--the common places + of meeting for the community--and gave their pupils personal + certificates. Their subjects were the reading and interpretation of + the Koran; the body of traditions from the Prophet; the thence deduced + system of theology; the canon law. But the interpretation of the Koran + involved grammatical and lexicographical studies of early Arabic, and + hence of the early Arabic literature. Theology came to involve + metaphysical and logical studies. Canon law required arithmetic and + mensuration, practical astronomy, &c. But these last were strictly + ancillary; the object of the instruction was primarily to give + knowledge of value for the life of the next world, and, secondarily, + to turn out theologians and lawyers. Medicine was in Jewish and + Christian hands; engineering, architecture, &c., with their + mathematical bases, were crafts. Then this instruction was gradually + subsidized and organized by the state, or endowed by individuals. How + early this took place is uncertain. But the individual teacher, with + his certificate, remained the object of the student; there was nothing + corresponding to our general degrees. Thirdly, educational + institutions came to be equipped with scholarships of money or in kind + for the students. The first instance of this is generally ascribed to + Nishapur (Naisabur) in 1066; but it soon became general in the system + and afforded a means of control and centralization. A final, and most + important, characteristic was the wide journeying of the students "in + search of knowledge." Aided by Arabic as the universal language of + learning, students journeyed from teacher to teacher, and from + Samarkand to the Atlantic, gathering on their way hundreds of personal + certificates. Scholars were thus kept in touch all over the Moslem + world, and intellectual unity was maintained. + + + The Sayyids. + +To the democratic equality of Islam, in which the slave of to-day may be +the prime minister of to-morrow, there is one outstanding exception. The +descendants of the Prophet and of his relatives (the family of Hashim) +formed and form a special class, held in social reverence, and guarded +from contamination and injury. These are the _sayyids_ (lords), and +genealogical registers of them are carefully preserved. They are of all +degrees of wealth and poverty, but are guarded legally from +_mésalliances_ with persons of ignoble origin or equivocal occupation. +Their influence is very great, and in some parts of the Moslem world +they have the standing and reverence of saints. + + See Von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte des Orients_, based largely on + Mawardi's _Ahkam_, trans. in part by Ostrorog; McG. de Slane's trans. + of Ibn Khaldun, _Prolégomènes_; Lane, _Manners and Customs of the + Modern Egyptians_; R. F. Burton, _Pilgrimage to Mekka_; Snouck + Hurgronje, _Mekka_; Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_; Juynboll, _De + Mohammedaansche Wet_; Macdonald, _Development of Muslim Theology_, &c. + For women in Islam, see HAREM. (D. B. Ma.) + + + + +MAHOMMEDAN LAW. The legal situation in the Moslem world is of the +highest complexity, and can be made intelligible only by tracing its +historical development. First came the system (_fiqh_, _sharia_) which +takes the place in Islam of canon law in Roman Christendom. It begins +with Mahomet sitting as judge over the primitive Moslem community at +Medina. He was the Prophet of God, and judged, as he ruled, absolutely; +any decision of his was valid. But he found it, in general, advisable +and fitting to follow the local law or usage of Medina when the new +faith did not require a change. It thus came about that his decisions +followed, at one time, the usage of the Arab tribes of Medina; at +another, the law respected by the Jewish tribes there--a rabbinic +development of the law of Moses, deeply affected by Roman law; at +another, the more developed commercial law of Mecca, known to his +followers who had fled thence with him; or, finally, his own personal +judgment, stated it might be as his own sense of right or as the +decision of Allah and even incorporated in the Koran. In his use of +these he was an eclectic opportunist, and evidently, except as regards +such frequently recurring subjects as inheritance, marriage, &c., had no +thought of building up a system or code. At his death he left behind +only a few specific prescriptions in the Koran and a mass of recorded +decisions of cases that had come before him. He had used himself, in our +terms, common law, equity, legislation; to guide his followers he left +his legislative enactments and the record of his use of common law. +Since his death there has been no new legislation in orthodox Islam. + +With the death of Mahomet began the development and codification of +Moslem law. It was at first entirely practical. Cases had to be decided, +and to decide them there was, first, the Koran; secondly, if nothing _ad +rem_ was found in the Koran, there were the decisions of the Prophet; +thirdly, if these failed, there was the common law of Medina; and, +fourthly, if it, in turn, failed, the common sense of the judge, or +equity. A knowledge of the decisions of Mahomet came thus to be of great +importance, and records of such decisions were eagerly sought and +preserved. But this was simply a part of a much wider movement and +tendency. As among primitive peoples in general, custom and usage have +always been potent among the Arabs. The ways of the fathers, the old +paths, they love to tread. Very early there arose a special reverence +for the path and usage (_sunna_) of Mahomet. Whatever he did or said, or +left unsaid or undone, and how he did it, has become of the first +importance to the pious Moslem, who would act in every way as did the +Prophet. There is evidence that for this purpose the immediate +companions of Mahomet took notes, either in memory or in writing, of his +table talk and wise sayings, just as they took down or learned by heart +for their private use the separate fragments of the Koran. His sayings +and doings, manners and customs, his answers to questions on religious +life and faith, above all his decisions in legal disputes, came to be +recorded on odd sheets in private notebooks. This was the beginning of +the enormous literature of traditions (_hadith_) in Islam. The +collecting and preserving of these, which was at first private, for +personal guidance and edification, finally became one of the most +powerful weapons of political and theological propaganda, and coloured +the whole method and fabric of Moslem thought. All knowledge tended to +be expressed in that form, and each element of it to be traced back to, +and given in the words of, some master or other through a chain of +transmitters. Above all there grew up an enormous mass of evidently +forged sayings put into the mouth of Mahomet. At every important +political or theological crisis each party would invent and put into +circulation a tradition from him, supporting its view. By a study of +these flatly opposed "sayings" it is possible to reconstruct the +different controversies of Islam in the past, and to discover what each +party regarded as the essence of its position. + + The first collecting of traditions was for private purposes, and the + first publication dealing with them was legal. This was the Muwatta' + of Malik ibn Anas (d. 795), a _corpus juris_ based partly on + traditions, and a protest in its methods against the too speculative + character of the books of canon law which preceded it. Thereafter came + collections of two different types. The earlier kind was arranged + according to the companions of Mahomet, on whose authority the + traditions were transmitted; after each companion came the traditions + going back to him. The best known example of this kind is the _Musnad_ + of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. The other kind, called _Musannaf_ (classified), + contains traditions arranged in chapters according to their subject + matter. That of Bukhari is the most famous, and is arranged to give a + traditional basis for a complete system of canon law; its rubrics are + those of such a system. Another is that of Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, who + paid less attention to legal aspects and more to minute accuracy. + There are many others of more or less acceptance and canonicity. + Bukhari's book enjoys a reverence only second to that of the Koran. + But in all these publications the primary object was to purify the + mass of traditions of forged accretions and to give to the believer a + sound basis for his knowledge of the usages of the Prophet, whether + for his personal or for public use. These two kinds were a natural + development. In the Moslem community there were from the first + students of tradition proper whose interest lay in collecting, testing + and transmitting, not in combining, systematizing and elucidating; + whose preference was to take a single statement from the Prophet and + apply it to a case, without reasonings or questionings. And there were + students of canon law who were interested rather in the system and + results, and who, while they used traditions, used them only to an end + and insisted on the free application of speculative principles. The + conflict of the future was to be between these traditionalists, on the + one hand, and rationalists, on the other; and the result was to be a + compromise. + +With the wide sweep of Moslem conquest another element came into the +development. This was Roman law, which the Moslem jurist found at work +in the conquered Roman provinces and in the law courts of which they +went to school. It is to be remembered that the Arab armies were not +devastating hordes; they recognized the need of law and order wherever +they went, and it was the policy of their leaders to take over the +administrative systems of the countries which they seized. Even the +Arabic legal nomenclature shows evident signs of literal translation +from Latin, and many Moslem principles can be traced to the Roman codes. +One important development was plainly influenced by the liberty involved +in the _Responsa prudentium_ of Roman lawyers, and by the broad +conception of the law of nature in the Edict of the Praetor. In its +earliest stages Moslem law recognized in the judge a liberty of opinion +(_ra'y_) which went beyond even that of the _Responsa_ and became plain +equity, in the English sense, and one school (the Hanifite) established +as a basis the right of preference (_istihsan_) even when the analogy of +the code dictated otherwise; while another (the Malikite) used the term +_istislah_, "a seeking of (general) benefit" to the community, in a +similar situation. But these developments were bitterly contested, and +the liberty of opinion was in the end narrowed down to a principle of +analogy (_qiyas_), the nearest approach to which in Western law is legal +fiction. + +It is necessary now to return to the first successors of Mahomet. "For +thirty years after my death," he is said to have declared, "my people +will tread in my path (_sunna_); thereafter will come kings and +princes." This tradition crystallizes the later feeling of Islam. The +first thirty years were a golden age; the centre of the state was the +Prophet's own city of Medina; the conditions of the state continued in +close conformity to those of his own time. The study of tradition, i.e. +of his usage, went hand in hand with the study of law. They were vital +functions of the state, and it encouraged both. + +Then came the great _débâcle_. The _ancien régime_, a semi-monkish, +theocratic empire, went down, and the Omayyad dynasty, kings and princes +of the old Arab type, took its place (see CALIPHATE, B). The public life +of the state was no longer deeply religious; the pious said that it was +godless. Under these conditions law was indeed still needed; but it had +to be opportunist. Its development went on, but became speculative. The +study of tradition was now private, and its students were more and more +the personally pious. There were, thus, two results. On the one hand, +the framers of systems of canon law--as it now was--no longer lived in +contact with reality; hypothetical and ideal structures were reared +which could never stand the touch of the practical law-court. And on +another, traditions and law, even this hypothetical law, came to take +separate roads. The interest of the students of tradition became the +gathering of traditions for their own sake, going no farther than a +striving to regulate each detail of life by some specific, concrete, +prophetic dictum. They had no use for systems that went beyond the mere +registering of these dicta. The feeling also became widespread that any +system of government which did not simply reproduce the patriarchal form +of Medina was of the world and the devil--a thing with which no +religious man could have aught to do. At every turn he would have to +peril his soul. + +Here we must place the transition of this law with which we have +hitherto dealt from being the law of the land to being in essence a +variety of canon law. It was always broader than any western secular +law. It regulated all the aspects of life--duty to God, to one's +neighbour, to one's self. It was really a system of duties, ethical, +legal, religious. It did not limit itself to defining the forbidden +(_haram_); but designated actions also as required (_fard_, _wajib_), +recommended (_mandub_, _mustahabb_), indifferent (_ja`iz_, _mubah_), +disliked (_makruh_). It played the part of, or rendered necessary, a +religious director quite as much as a lawyer. And for a time at Medina +it was really the law of the land. But from the Omayyad period on it has +held the position of the canon law of the Roman Church in countries that +will not recognize it and yet dare not utterly reject it. It governs, in +one or other of its four schools, the private lives of all pious +Moslems; it regulates some semi-public relationships--e.g. marriage, +divorce, inheritance; it compels respect, if not acceptance, from the +state; and by its ideal standard the world, filled with righteousness by +the Mahdi, will be ruled in the Moslem millennium. + +The rise of the Abbasids brought a change, but not a great one. They had +promised a return to the old religious attitudes, and the promise was +formally kept. But in substance they were as much as the Omayyads, and +though the state was outwardly on a pious footing, and the religious +sentiment of the people was respected, the old, absolute canon law was +not restored. It was made possible for more theologians and lawyers to +work with the state, but an irreconcilable party still remained, and the +situation was fixed as it is to this day. It is true that the struggle +to adapt such a single and detailed system to all the varying +conditions, climates and times of the great empire was impossible; but +the failure marked the great rent in the supposed unity of Islam between +the church and the world, religion and law. + +Yet the Abbasids did, in their way, encourage legal studies, and under +them processes and results, long pursued in private, became public. +Almost within the first century of their dynasty the four legal schools, +or rites, were formed and the principles established which survive to +this day. + + The first school to take definite form was the Hanifite, founded by + Abu Hanifa (d. 767), who left behind him a definite system and many + enthusiastic pupils. He was a man of means, in touch with commercial, + but not with practical legal life, a speculative or philosophical + jurist. Being of non-Arab origin, the usage of Medina had small + interest for him. He therefore used few traditions, and preferred to + go back to the Koran, and extract from it by reasoning the rulings + which fitted his ideas. This he called the use of analogy (_qiyas_); + but, in his hands, it became practically legal fiction, the + application of a law in some sense undreamed by its first imposer. But + he had another, and still freer instrument. The effect of differences + in local conditions had been early observed and admitted in general + terms. Abu Hanifa reduced it to a subjective formula. Under such + conditions he claimed the right of preference (_istihsan_) of a ruling + suited to the local needs, even when the strict analogy indicated + otherwise. This met and meets with vehement protest when formally + stated, but the usage of Islam has practically accepted it. His + system, finally, was not developed through the exigencies of actual + cases, but was worked out as a system of casuistry, though in a good + sense. He tried, that is, to construct a system of rules to answer any + conceivable question. After his death his pupils elaborated it still + further, and accepted public office. The `Abbasids adopted his school, + and threw their influence on its side; its philosophic breadth and + casuistic possibilities evidently commended it to them. Later, the + Ottoman Turks also adopted it, and it may be said to hold now a + leadership among the four legal rites. Its influence has undoubtedly + tended to broaden and humanize Moslem law. + + Twenty-eight years after Abu Hanifa, Malik ibn Anas, the founder of + the Malikite school, died at Medina. In many points his situation was + precisely opposite to that of Abu Hanifa, and yet his results were + very similar. He was a working jurist, in practical touch with actual + life; he was in the centre of the tradition of the usage of the + Prophet, in the line, one might say, of the apostolic succession. He, + therefore, used traditions much more generally than did Abu Hanifa, + and when he, under pressure, took refuge in opinion, he certainly felt + that he, under his conditions, had a better right to do so than any + outsider. But two of his principles marked a distinct advance and + showed that he was no mere traditionalist. For one, he laid down the + conception of public advantage (_istislah_); when a rule founded on + even a valid analogy would work a general injury it was to be set + aside; justice must not be overcome by logic. And, for the other, he + laid stress on the conception of the agreement (_ijma`_), an idea + which was to have indefinite importance in the future. When the + surviving companions of the Prophet, after his death, agreed upon any + point as belonging to their store of tradition and experience, their + agreement was accepted as final. In the first instance they agreed + that such had been the statement of the Prophet. That easily passed + over into an agreement that such was the true Moslem view, and finally + into an acceptance of the principle that the Moslem Church, when + unanimous, could formulate truth--practically as in the canon of + Vincent of Lérins, _Quod semper, quod ubique, quod ab omnibus_. But + such a broadly catholic position was still in the future, and for + Malik, juristic agreement meant the agreement of Medina, though there + are signs that he permitted the same latitude to other places also. It + was a way of allowing for local conditions rather than of reaching the + voice of the Church. His law book, the _Muwatta'_, the earliest in our + possession written by the founder of a school, has already been + mentioned. It is a collection of about seventeen hundred traditions of + juristic importance, arranged according to subject, with appended + remarks on the usage of Medina and on his own view of each matter. + + So far opinion and local usage had fully held their own, and the + philosophical jurist had been free to work out his system. The + difference between the _istihsan_ of Abu Hanifa and the _istislah_ of + Malik was not great; students attended the lectures of both and + combined their systems. But a reaction now began, and the + traditionalist party finally made itself felt. We have the inevitable + rivalry between the historical-empirical and the + speculative-philosophical schools of jurisprudence, rendered all the + more bitter in that the historical lawyers believed, in this case, + that they were defending a divine institution. There resulted, first, + one of the most important schools, the Shafi`ite; secondly, an + extremely literal school for which ash-Shafi`i did not go far enough, + and which has now vanished; and thirdly, the Hanbalite school, still + surviving in small numbers, more moderately traditional than the last. + + The school founded by ash-Shafi`i (d. 820), a pupil of Malik, came + first in order of time. The others were really revolts against the + mildness of his compromise. His characteristics were a broad-minded, + steady grasp of means and ends, a perception of what could and what + could not be done, a willingness to admit all the tried principles in + due balance, and, at one point especially, the insight of genius as to + the possibilities of these principles. He laid great stress on + tradition; a clear, authentic tradition he regarded as no less valid + than the Koran itself. If the tradition was chronologically later than + a Koranic passage and corrected that passage, he followed the + tradition. But in this he was only regulating a fixed tendency. The + Koran may be regarded theoretically as the first of all the sources of + law and theology; practically its clear statements have been + over-ridden in many cases. Most important of all, the principle of + agreement (_ijma`_) came finally with him to its full rights. The + agreement of the Moslem peoples was to be the voice of God. "My + people," said a tradition from Mahomet, "will never agree in an + error." And so, over traditions and over the Koran itself, the + agreement tacitly or explicitly ruled and rules. It stamps as + authoritative that which the other principles lay down. At the head of + each section of a Shafi`ite law book we read, "The basis of this, + before the agreement, is such and such." But with the aid of a + principle of this breadth it was easy to reject the opinion which was + so objectionable to the traditionalist party. In its place he took + analogy (_qiyas_), which, discreetly used, could serve almost the same + purpose. The Koranic passage or the tradition with which an analogy + was suggested should, he taught, be examined to see if there was a + reason clearly stated for the command. If so, that reason would give a + basis for the analogy. Analogy based on the mechanical or external + could not hold. + + The four bases thus laid down by ash-Shafi`i--Koran; prophetic usage + as expressed in traditions; analogy; agreement--have come to be + accepted by all existing schools. This applies to all spheres of life, + ethical, social, theological, legal, and it should never be forgotten + that the Koran is only one of the sources for Moslem faith and + conduct. + + Few words are needed for the other, reactionary schools. One, now long + extinct, was founded by a certain Da`ud uz-Zahiri, "David the + Literalist," born three or four years before the death of ash-Shafi`i, + and so called because he insisted upon an absolutely literal + interpretation of his texts--Koran or tradition--without account of + context or metaphor. In consequence he had to reject analogy, and + limited agreement to that of the companions of Mahomet; the Church of + Islam was to have no constructive authority. In one point he showed + great sanity of judgment, namely in his rejection of the principle + _jurare in verba magistri_, otherwise regnant in Islam. His school had + long and interesting consequences, mostly theological, but is now + extinct, and never took rank with the others. The Moslem world found + his positions too impossible, and now no one swears to his words. The + other, the Hanbalite school, was founded by the scholars of Ahmad ibn + Hanbal after his death in 885. He himself would never have revolted + against his master, ash-Shafi`i, but it was soon felt that his system, + so far as he had any, was in essential opposition. He had been no + lawyer, but a theologian and a collector and student of traditions. + All his life had been a protest against speculation in divine things. + Where the Koran and traditions were silent, he, too, had been silent. + For this agnostic principle he had witnessed and suffered, and his + standing with the people was that of a saint. Naturally, then, the + last still existent school of traditionalist protest was launched in + his name. It minimizes agreement and analogy, is literal in its + interpretations, and is now by far the smallest of the four surviving + schools. Its external history is that of a testifying and violent + minority. + + Other men, such as Tabari, the historian and commentator, have had + dreams that they, too, might join the Four Imams (see IMAM) as + founders of legal rites, but none has succeeded. The Four remain the + ultimate exponents of this canon law, and under the banner of one or + other of them every Moslem must range himself. As there is a principle + of unity in Islam, expressed in the alleged prophetic saying, "My + people will never agree in an error," so there is a principle of + variety, also expressed in an alleged prophetic saying, "The + disagreement of my people is a mercy from God." The four rites may + differ upon many points, yet the adherents of one never dream of + regarding the adherents of the others as outside the Church of Islam; + they are not "dissenters" in the English sense. God is merciful to his + creatures, and gives them so much liberty of choice. Yet in practice + this liberty is not great. The principle of swearing to the words of + the master is a dead hand laid upon Islam. A man's legal rite is + generally settled by the place and other conditions of his birth, and + after he has once accepted a rite, he must, if good and pious, follow + it in all its details. Only the avowed sceptic or the recognized + eccentric can be an eclectic. + + The geographical distribution of the rites is roughly as follows: + Moslems in Central Asia and northern India and the Turks everywhere + are Hanifites; in Lower Egypt, Syria, southern India and the Malay + Archipelago they are Shafi`ites; in Upper Egypt and in north Africa, + west of Egypt, they are Malikites; only the Wahhabis (q.v.) in central + Arabia are Hanbalites. But the will of the sovereign has also had a + powerful influence and has frequently dictated the legal, as well as + the theological, affiliations of his subjects. The Turks, for example, + have thrown their weight almost everywhere on the Hanifite side. Their + policy is to appoint only Hanifite judges (see CADI), although for + private and personal questions they appoint and pay Muftis (q.v.) of + the other rites. In other cases, with a population of mixed legal + adherence, the government has been known to appoint judges of + different rites. + + The Shi`ite canon law is dealt with separately, but some mention of + two outstanding sects is here in place. The Ibadites (see MAHOMMEDAN + RELIGION: _Sects_) have a system of canon law which in essentials is + of older codification than that of any of the orthodox schools, going + back to Abdallah ibn Ibad himself, of the first century of the Hijra + (Hejira). Its basis is above all the Koran, then a sparing use of + traditions, natural to their early origin, and finally the agreement + of their own learned men, again natural to an extreme dissenting sect, + and it still rules the Ibadite communities at Oman, Zanzibar and the + Mzab in southern Algeria. At all these places they, the last + descendants of the Kharijites, hold severely apart, while the other + Moslems shrink from them as heretics of the worst. Not nearly so far + from ordinary Islam, but still of an extreme self-conscious Puritanism + are the Wahhabis. They are really Hanbalites, but apply the rules of + that school with uncompromising, reforming energy. The doctrine of the + agreement of the Church of Islam they reject; only that of the + immediate companions of Mahomet is valid. The people of Mahomet can + err and has erred; each man must, on his own responsibility, draw his + doctrine from the Koran and the traditions. Here they follow the + Zahirites. + +All these schools of law administer a scheme of duties, which, as has +already been remarked, comes nearest to the canon law of the Roman +Church, and which for centuries has had only a partial connexion with +the real legal systems of the Moslem peoples. Among the Wahhabis and +Ibadites alone is it the whole of law. Elsewhere, since the Omayyad +period, its courts have been in great part pushed aside by others, and +its scheme has come to be regarded as an expression of impossible +theory, to be realized at best with the coming of the millennium. The +causes and methods of this change call now for detailed notice. + +As Islam spread beyond the desert and the conditions in which the life +of Mahomet and his companions had been cast, it came to regions, +climates, customs, where the Arabian usages no longer held. Not only +were the prescripts of Medina ill adapted to the new conditions; the new +people had legal usages of their own to which they clung and which +nothing could make them abandon. It was rather the Moslem leaders who +were compelled to abandon their ideas and for the sake of the spread of +Islam to accept and incorporate much that was diametrically opposed to +the original legislation either of the Koran or of Mahomet's recorded +decisions. As in religion the faiths of the conquered peoples were +thinly veneered with Moslem phrases, so in law there grew up a customary +code (_`adat_) for each country, differing from every other, which often +completely obscured and annulled the prescriptions of the canon law. The +one was an ideal system, studied and praised by the pious learned; the +other was the actual working of law in the courts. + +But besides the obstinate adherence of various peoples to their old +paths, the will of individual rulers was a determining factor. When +these ceased to be saints and students of divine things, and came to be +worldly statesmen and opportunists, followers of their own objects and +pleasures, no system could hold which set a limit to their authority. +The Oriental ruler must rule and judge on his own initiative, and the +schools of canon law tended to reduce everything to an academic +fixedness. There thus arose a new and specific statute law, emanating +from the sovereign. At first he judged in the gate as seemed good in his +eyes and as was his right and duty (cf. "court of oppressions"; see +MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS); later, his will was codified as in the Turkish +statute law (_qawanin_) derived from various European codes. Thus there +has grown up in almost every Moslem country at least two systems of +courts, the one administering this canon law, and taking cognisance of +private and family affairs, such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, its +officials also giving rulings on purely personal religious questions, +such as details of the ritual law, the law of oaths and vows, &c.; the +other, the true law courts of the land, administering codes based on +local custom and the decrees of the local rulers. + +A rift almost as important entered the legal life of the Moslem lands on +another side. Non-Moslem communities, settled in Moslem territory, have +been uniformly permitted to administer and judge themselves according to +their own customs and laws. Save when they come into direct contact and +conflict with Moslems, they are left to themselves with a contemptuous +tolerance. The origin of this attitude in Islam appears to be threefold: +(i) The Islam of theory cannot conceive of a mixed state; it takes +account, only, of a state containing none but Moslems, and its ideal is +that the whole world will, in the end, form such a state. In practice, +then, Moslems try to shut their eyes to the existence of non-Moslems in +their midst and make no provision for them until compelled. That a +non-Moslem should have the same civil position as a Moslem is +unthinkable. (ii) This, of course, produces an attitude of extreme +contempt. The only citizens are Moslems and all others are to be looked +down upon and left to themselves. What they do or think among themselves +does not matter; they are outside the ring-fence of Islam. (iii) A +different, but equally important, cause is the Moslem indolence. When +the Arabs conquered, they knew that they must administer the conquered +lands, and they, very wisely, sought help from the machinery which they +found in operation. But besides the ordinary organization of the state, +they found also various ecclesiastical organizations, Christian and +Jewish, and to these they gave over the administration of the non-Moslem +sections of the community, making their rabbis and bishops their +responsible heads and the links of contact with the Moslem rulers. They, +unquestionably, found the same method in use by the Byzantine +government; but in Moslem hands it went so far as to make a number of +little states (_millet_, _milal_) within the state and effectually to +preclude the possibility of ever welding all the inhabitants of the land +into one corporate life. + +But this indolence, when applied to resident aliens, had consequences +still more serious, because external as well as internal. Following the +same method of leaving the unbeliever to settle his affairs for himself, +the European merchant, living and trading in the East, was put first by +usage and finally by treaty under the jurisdiction and control of his +own consul. Thus there grew up the extra-territorial law of the +capitulations and conventions, by which the sanctity of the person and +household of an ambassador is extended to every European. And this in +turn, has reacted on the status of the non-Moslem subject races, and has +come to be the indirect but chief support on which they lean. Through +it, an element has developed which makes it practically impossible for a +Moslem state to introduce legal changes even remotely affecting its +non-Moslem population, alien or subject, without the consent of the +European embassies. Any change may be upset by their refusal to accept +it as incompatible with the capitulations and conventions. The embassies +have thus, as interpreters of a part, at least, of the constitution, +come to hold a position remarkably, if absurdly, like that of the +Supreme Court of the United States (see Young, _Corps de droit Ottoman, +passim_). + +There may be said, then, in short, to be three elements in the legal +life of a Moslem state: the sacred and fixed canon law of Islam; the +civil law, based on the usages of the different peoples, Moslem and +non-Moslem, and on statutes going back to the will of rulers; the +international law of the capitulations, with a contractual sanction of +its own. The hope for the future in Islam, there can be little doubt, +lies in the principle of the agreement of the Moslem people, with its +conception of catholic unity, and its ability, through that unity, to +make and abrogate laws. As the Moslem peoples advance, their law can, +thus, advance with them, and the grasp of the dead hand of the canon law +be gradually and legally released. + + See I. Goldziher, _Muhammedanische Studien_, I. and II. (Halle a.S., + 1889-1890); _Zahiriten_ (Leipzig, 1884); E. Sachau, _Zur ältesten + Geschichte des muhammedanischen Rechts_ (Vienna Akad., 1870) and + _Muhammedanisches Recht_ (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1897); Snouck + Hurgronje, review of preceding in _Z.D.M.G._ liii. 125 seq. and "Le + droit musulman" (_Rev. de l'hist. des religions_, xxxvii. 1 seq. and + 174 seq.); Juynboll, _Handleiding tot de Kennis von de mohammedaansche + Wet_ (Leiden, 1903); Von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte des Orients unter + den Chalifen_, i. 470 seq. (Vienna, 1875-1877); Hughes, _Dictionary of + Islam_, pp. 285 seq. (London, 1896); D. B. Macdonald, _Development of + Muslim Theology_, &c., pp. 65 seq. (New York, 1903); Bukhari, _Les + Traditions islamiques traduites ... par O. Houdas et W. Marcel_ + (Paris, 1906); N. B. E. Bailie, _Digest of Moohummadan Law_ (2 vols., + London, 1875-1887). A good bibliography appeared in the _Bulletin of + the New York Public Library_ for January 1907. (D. B. Ma.) + + + + +MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. The Mahommedan religion is generally known as +_Islam_--the name given to it by Mahomet himself--and meaning the +resigning or submitting oneself to God. The participle of the same +Arabic verb, _Muslim_ (in English usually spelt Moslem), is used for one +who professes this religion. The expression "Mahommedan religion" has +arisen in the West probably from analogy with "Christian religion," but +is not recognized as a proper one by Moslem writers. Islam claims to be +a divinely revealed religion given to the world by Mahomet, who was the +last of a succession of inspired prophets. Its _doctrine_ and +_practices_ are to be found in (i) the Book of God--the Koran--which was +sent down from the highest heaven to Gabriel in the lowest, who in turn +revealed it in sections to Mahomet; (2) the collections of tradition +(_hadith_) containing the sayings and manner of life (_sunna_) of the +Prophet; (3) the use of analogy (_qiyas_) as applied to (i) and (2); and +(4) the universal consent (_ijma'_) of the believers. The _worship_ of +Islam consists in (1) the recital of the creed; (2) the recital of the +ordained prayers; (3) the fast during the month of Ramadhan; (4) +alms-giving; (5) the _hajj_, the pilgrimage to Mecca. The _theology_ of +Islam finds its first public expression among the orthodox in the +teaching of al-Ash`ari (d. after 932), but had its real beginning among +the sects that arose soon after the death of Mahomet. + +Islam is the latest of the so-called world-religions, and as several of +the others were practised in Arabia at the time of Mahomet, and the +Prophet undoubtedly borrowed some of his doctrines and some of his +practices from these, it is necessary to enumerate them and to indicate +the extent to which they prevailed in the Arabian world. + +_Relations with Other Religions._--The religions practised in Arabia at +the time of Mahomet were heathenism, Judaism, Christianity, and +Zoroastrianism. + + i. _Heathenism_ was the religion of the majority of the Arabs. In the + cities of south Arabia it was a survival from the forms represented in + the Sabaean, Minaean and Himyaritic inscriptions of south Arabia (see + ARABIA: _Antiquities_). The more popular form current among the nomads + is known very imperfectly from the remains of pre-Islamic poetry and + such works as the _Kitab ul-Asnam_ contained in Yaqut's geography, + from Shahrastani's work on the sects, and from the few references in + classical writers. From these we have mostly names of local deities + (cf. J. Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentums_, 2nd ed., Berlin, + 1897) and ancient religious customs, which remained in part after the + introduction of Islam (cf. W. Robertson Smith, _The Religion of the + Semites_, Edinburgh, 1889, and _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, + Cambridge, 1885). From these sources we learn that Arabian religion + was a nature-worship associated with fetishism. Sun, moon and stars + were worshipped, some tribes being devoted to the worship of special + constellations. Certain stones, wells and trees were regarded as + sacred and as containing a deity. Many (perhaps most) tribes had their + own idols. Hobal was the chief god of the Ka`ba in Mecca with its + sacred stone, but round him were grouped a number of other tribal + idols. It was against this association (_shirk_) of gods that Mahomet + inveighed in his attempt to unify the religion and polity of the + Arabs. But there were features in this heathenism favourable to unity, + and these Mahomet either simply took over into Islam or adapted for + his purpose. The popularity of the Ka`ba in Mecca as a place of resort + for worshippers from all parts of Arabia led Mahomet not only to + institute the _hajj_ as a duty, but also to take over the customs + connected with the heathen worship of these visits, and later to make + Mecca the _qibla_, i.e. the place to which his followers turned when + they prayed. The name of Allah, who seems to have been the god of the + Koreish (cf. D. S. Margoliouth, _Mohammed_, p. 19, London, 1905), was + accepted by Mahomet as the name of the one God, though he abandoned + the corresponding female deity Al-lat. + + 2. _Judaism_ had long been known in Arabia at the time of the Prophet. + Whether Hebrews settled in Arabia as early as the time of David (cf. + R. Dozy, _Die Israeliten zu Mecca_, Leipzig, 1864), or not, is of + little importance here as Judaism cannot be said to have existed until + the end of the 5th century B.C. The Seleucid persecutions and the + political troubles that ended with the fall of Jerusalem (A.D. 70) + probably sent many Jews to Arabia. In the 5th and 6th centuries the + history of south Arabia and of Nejran is largely that of the strife + between Jews and Christians. In the north-west the Jews possessed + Tema, Khaibar, Yathrib (Medina), Fadak, and other smaller settlements. + In these they lived as self-contained communities, not seeking to + proselytize but working at their trades, especially concerned with + money and jewelry. Mahomet seems to have expected their help in his + proclamation of monotheism, and his first _qibla_ was Jerusalem. It + was only when they refused to accept him as prophet that he turned in + anger against them. They had, however, supplied him with much material + from the Old Testament, and the stories of creation, the patriarchs + and early kings and prophets occur continually in the Koran, told + evidently as they were recited by the common people and with many + mistakes caused by his own misunderstanding. + + 3. _Christianity_, though later than Judaism, had a sure footing in + Arabia. It had suffered persecution in Nejran and had been supported + in the south by the Abyssinian invasions. The kingdom of Hira was + largely Christian; the same is true of the north Arabian tribes of + Bakr and Taghlib, and east of the Jordan and on the Syrian boundary as + well as in Yemama Christianity had made progress. Pre-Islamic + literature contains many allusions to the teaching and practices of + Christianity. Of the time of its introduction little is known; little + also of the form in which it was taught, save that it came from the + Eastern Church and probably to a large extent through Monophysite and + Nestorian sects. Tradition says that Mahomet heard Christian preaching + at the fair of Ukaz, and he probably heard more when he conducted the + caravans of Khadija. Gospel stories derived apparently from + uncanonical works, such as the Gospel of the Nativity, occur in the + Koran. The asceticism of the monks attracted his admiration. A + mistaken notion of the Trinity was sharply attacked by him. It is + curious that his followers in the earliest times were called by the + heathen Arabs, Sabians (q.v.), this being the name of a semi-Christian + sect. In the time of the Omayyads Christianity led to some of the + earliest theological sects of Islam (see below). + + 4. _Zoroastrianism_ was known to the Arab tribes in the north-east, + but does not seem to have exercised any influence in Mecca or Medina + except indirectly through Judaism in its angelology. As soon, however, + as the armies of Islam conquered Mesopotamia it began to penetrate the + thought and practices of Islam (see below). + +_Sources of Authority._--Islam, as we have said, is founded on: (1) the +Koran; (2) the tradition or rather the _sunna_ (manner of life of +Mahomet) contained in the tradition (_Hadith_); (3) _ijma`_; the +universal agreement; (4) _qiyas_ (analogy). + +1. The _Koran_[1] (properly _Qur'an_ from _qara'a_ to collect, or to +read, recite) is the copy of an uncreated original preserved by God (see +below), sent down from the seventh heaven to Gabriel in the first +heaven, and revealed to Mahomet in sections as occasion required. These +revelations were recited by the Prophet and in many cases written down +at once, though from ii. 100 it would seem that this was not always the +case. God is the speaker throughout the revelations. It seems probable +that the whole Koran was written in Mahomet's lifetime, but not brought +together as a whole or arranged in order. + + As it exists now the Koran consists of 114 chapters called _suras_ + (from _sura_, a row of bricks in a wall, a degree or step). The first + is the _Fatiha_ (opening), which occupies the place of the Lord's + Prayer in Christianity. The others are arranged generally in order of + length, the longest coming first, the shortest (often the earliest in + date) coming at the end. Certain groups, however, indicated by initial + unvowelled letters, seem to have been kept together from the time of + the Prophet. At the head of each _sura_ is a title, the place of its + origin (Mecca or Medina) and the number of its verses (_ayat_) + together with the formula, "In the name of God the Merciful, the + Compassionate" (except in _sura 9_). For liturgical purposes the whole + book is divided into 60 sections (_ahzab_) or into 30 divisions + (_ajza_), each subdivided into a number of prostrations (_ruk`a_ or + _sajda_). The origin of the collected and written Koran is due to + Omar, who in the caliphate of Abu Bekr pointed out that many + possessors of _suras_ were being slain in the battles of Islam and + their property lost, that there was a danger in this way that much of + the revelation might disappear, and that men were uncertain what was + to be accepted as genuine revelation. Accordingly Zaid ibn Thabit who + had been secretary to Mahomet, was commissioned to collect all he + could find of the revelation. His work seems to have been simply that + of a collector. He seems to have done his work thoroughly and made a + copy of the whole for Abu Bekr. The collection was thus chiefly a + private matter, and this copy passed after Abu Bekr's death into the + hands of Omar, and after his death to Hafsa, daughter of Omar, a widow + of Mahomet. In the caliphate of Othman it was discovered that there + were serious differences between the readings of the Koran possessed + by the Syrian troops and those of the Eastern soldiers, and Othman was + urged to have a copy prepared which should be authoritative for the + Moslem world. He appointed Zaid ibn Thabit and three members of the + tribe of Koreish (Quraish) to do the work. Each of these made a copy + of Abu Bekr's collection, carefully preserving Koreishite forms of + words. How far the text was amended by the help of other copies is + doubtful; in any case the mode of procedure was undoubtedly very + conservative. The four similar manuscripts were sent, one each to + Medina, Cufa (Kufa), Basra and Damascus, and an order was issued that + all differing copies should be destroyed. In spite of the personal + unpopularity of Othman this recension was adopted by the Moslem world + and remains the only standard text. A few variant readings and + differences of order of the _suras_ in the collections of Ubay ibn + Ka`b and of Ibn Mas`ud were, however, known to later commentators. The + only variants after the time of Othman were owing to different + possible ways of pronouncing the consonantal text. These are usually + of little importance for the meaning. As the text is now always + vowelled, variations are found in the vowels of different copies, and + the opinions of seven leading "readers" are regarded as worthy of + respect by commentators (see Th. Nöldeke, _Geschichte des Qorans_, pp. + 279 seq., Göttingen, 1860). Various characteristics enable one to + establish with more or less certainty the relative chronological order + of the _suras_ in the Koran, at any rate so far as to place them in + the first or second Meccan period or that of Medina. The form of the + sentences is a guide, for the earliest parts are usually written in + the _saj`_ form (see ARABIA: _Literature_). The expressions used also + help; thus the "O ye people" of the Meccan period is replaced in the + Medina _suras_ by "O ye who believe." The oaths in the first Meccan + period are longer, in the second shorter, and are absent in the + Medinan. In the earliest period the style is more elevated and + passionate. Occasionally the time of origin is determined by reference + to historical events. In accordance with such principles of criticism + two leading scholars, Nöldeke (_loc. cit._) and H. Grimme (in his + _Mohammed Zweiter Teil_. _Einleitung in den Koran. System der + koranischen Theologie_, Münster, 1895), have arranged the _suras_ as + follows:-- + + + _Order of Suras in Koran._ + + NÖLDEKE. + + _Mecca._ + + 1st to 5th yr. (a). + 96. 74. 111. 106. 108. 104. 107. 102. 105. 92. 90. 94. 93. 97. 86. + 91. 80. 68. 87. 95. 103. 85. 73. 101. 99. 82. 81. 53. 84. 100. 79. + 77. 78. 88. 89. 75. 83. 69. 51. 52. 56. 70. 55. 112. 109. 113. 114. + 1. + + 5th and 6th yr. (b). + 54. 37. 71. 76. 44. 50. 20. 26. 15. 19. 38. 36. 43. 72. 67. 23. 21. + 25. 17. 27. 18. + + 7th yr. to Flight (c). + 32. 41. 45. 16. 30. 11. 14. 12. 40. 28. 39. 29. 31. 42. 10. 34. 35. + 7. 46. 6. 13. + + _Medina._ + + 2. 98. 64. 62. 8. 47. 3. 61. 57. 4. 65. 59. 33. 63. 24. 58. 22. 48. + 66. 60. 110. 49. 9. 5. + + GRIMME. + + _Mecca_, (1). + [2] In old saj` form: 111. 107. 106. 105. 104. [103=]. 102. 101. + 100. 99. 108. 96. 95. 94. 93. 92. 91. 90. 89. 88. [87=]. 86. [85=]. + [84=]. 83. 82. [81.=] 80. 79. [78=]. 77. [76=]. 75. [74=]. [73=]. + 70. 69. 68. 114. 113. 36. 55. 54. [53=]. 52. 51. 50. 15. [22=]. + [14=]. + + (2). + In loosened _saj`_ form: 46. 72. 45. 44. 41. 97. 40. 39. 38. 37. 36. + 35. 34. 32. 31. 67. 30. [29=]. 28. 27. 26. 71. 25. 20. 23. 43. 21. + 19. 1. 42. 18. 17. + + _Medina._ + [16=]. 13. 12. 11. 10. [7=]. 6. 98. (112. 109). + + From the Flight to Badr. + [2=]. 62. 5_(15.88.108-120). 47 and some interpolations in Meccan + _suras_. + + From Badr to Ohod + 8. 24. 59. + + From Ohod to capture of Mecca. + 3. 29_(1-12). 4. 57. 64. 61. 60. 58. 65. 33. 63. 49. 110. 48. + 5_(1-14). 66. 9_(1-24). + + After capture of Mecca. + 9_(25-124). + + + Theology. + +On the supposition that the arrangements given above are at any rate +approximately correct, it is possible to trace a certain development in +the teaching of the Koran on some of the chief dogmas. It must, however, +be borne in mind that orthodox Islam recognizes the Koran as the work +not of Mahomet but of God. Yet Moslem theologians recognize that some +revelations are inconsistent with others, and so have developed the +doctrine of _nasikh_ and _mansukh_ ("abrogating" and "abrogated"), +whereby it is taught that in certain definite cases a later revelation +supersedes an earlier. A critical study of the Koran shows in the +earlier revelations the marks of a reflective mind trained under the +influence of Arabian education and stirred by an acquaintance (somewhat +imperfect) with Judaism and Christianity. The later revelations seem to +be influenced by the now dominant position of the Prophet and a desire +after the capture of Mecca to incorporate such heathen religious +ceremonies as are national. God is one and universal from the beginning. +His unity is emphasized as against the mistaken conception of the +Christian Trinity. At first his might is taught by the name _Rabb_ +(Lord) which is generally used with an attribute as "the highest Lord," +"Lord of the worlds," "Lord of men," "Lord of heaven and earth," "Lord +of the East and West," or "our Lord." Then he is identified with the god +Allah (see above) and the first part of the later Moslem creed is +announced--_la ilaha illa-llaha_, "there is no god but Allah." But every +act of creation is a proof not only of God's power but also of his +beneficence (xiv. 37), and so he becomes known as _ar-Rahman_, "the +Compassionate." The attributes of God may all be arranged in the three +classes of his power, unity and goodness. They are expressed by the +ninety-nine "beautiful names" applied to him in the Koran (see E. H. +Palmer, _The Quran_ in "Sacred Books of the East," vol. vi., Introd. pp. +67-68, Oxford, 1880). In the Medina period of Mahomet's life the nature +of God is not so clear, and the description of it varies according to +the moods of the Prophet. + + + Spirits. + +Beside God are two other uncreated beings: (1) the original of the +Koran, the "mother of the Book" (xliii. 3) on a "preserved tablet" +(_lauh mahfuz_) (lxxxv. 22), in accordance with which God acts, and (2) +the throne (_kursi_) (ii. 256). When the heavens are created, God sits +on his throne in the seventh heaven; around him are angels, pure, +sexless beings, some of whom bear the throne, while some are engaged in +praising him continually. They are also his messengers and are sent to +fight with the believers against the heathen. Some are the guardian +angels of men, others are the watchmen of hell. Mediate beings between +God and man are the "word" (_amr_) and from it the "spirit" (_ruh_) or +"holy spirit" (_ruh ul-qudus_). Another manifestation of God to the +believers only is the "glory" (_sakina_). + + + Cosmology. + + Ethics. + +God created the world in six days according to the plan of the Book. Each +new life was created by God's breathing into it a soul. The duality of +soul and body is maintained. In each man is a good and a bad impulse. The +bad impulse which was latent in Adam was roused to action by Satan +(_Iblis_). Adam by his fall lost the grace of God, which was restored to +him solely by the gracious choice of God. Between men and angels in their +nature are the genii (_jinn_) male and female, inhabitants of desert +places, created from smokeless fire. They had been accustomed to spy +round heaven, but in Mahomet's time could learn no more of its secrets. +Some of them were converted by the Prophet's teaching. Lowest of creation +in his estate is Satan (_Shaitan_), who was an angel but was expelled +from heaven because he refused to worship Adam at his Lord's command. God +has revealed himself to man by (1) writing (_kitab_), and (2) prophets. +As he had given to the Jews the Law (_Taurat_) and to the Christians the +Gospel (_Injil_) so he revealed to Mahomet the Koran (Qur`an, known also +by other names, e.g. _al-Furqan_, _at-Tafsil_, &c.), each single +revelation being called an aya. With his revelation God has also sent an +apostle or prophet to each people. Several of these are mentioned in the +Koran, Moses the prophet of the Jews, Jesus (_Isa_) that of the +Christians. Mahomet is not only the apostle of the Moslems but the "seal +of the prophets," i.e. the final member of the class. His mission at +first was to warn men of imminent judgment. Later he became more of a +teacher. At first he seems to have relied for the salvation of men on his +natural faculties, but later announced the doctrine of God's election. +The ethics of the Koran are based on belief (_iman_) and good works, the +latter alone occurring in the early Meccan _suras_. Fear of the judgment +of God was a motive of action; this is followed by repentance and turning +to God. A complete surrender to God's will (_islam_) is the necessary +condition of religious life and is expressed in the phrase so common in +everyday speech among the Moslems--_inshallah_, "if God will." God has +full power to overlook evil deeds if he will. Unbelievers can acquire no +merit, however moral their actions. A short account of the chief ethical +requirements of the Koran is given in xvii. 23-40:-- + + "Put not God with other gods, or thou wilt sit despised and forsaken. + Thy Lord has decreed that ye shall not serve other than Him; and + kindness to one's parents, whether one or both of them reach old age + with thee, and say not to them, 'Fie,' and do not grumble at them, but + speak to them a generous speech. And lower to them the wing of + humility out of compassion, and say, 'O Lord! have compassion on them + as they brought me up when I was little!' Your Lord knows best what is + in your souls if ye be righteous, and, verily, He is forgiving unto + those who come back penitent. + + "And give thy kinsman his due and the poor and the son of the road; + and waste not wastefully, for the wasteful were ever the devil's + brothers, and the devil is ever ungrateful to his Lord. + + "But if thou dost turn away from them to seek after mercy from thy + Lord, which thou hopest for, then speak to them an easy speech. + + "Make not thy hand fettered to thy neck, nor yet spread it out quite + open, lest thou shouldest have to sit down blamed and straightened in + means. Verily, thy Lord spreads out provision to whomsoever He will or + He doles it out. Verily, He is ever well aware of and sees His + servants. + + "And slay not your children for fear of poverty; we will provide for + them; beware! for to slay them is ever a great sin. + + "And draw not near to fornication; verily, it is ever an abomination, + and evil is the way thereof. + + "And slay not the soul that God has forbidden you, except for just + cause; for he who is slain unjustly we have given his next of kin + authority; yet let him not exceed in slaying; verily, he is ever + helped. + + "And draw not near to the wealth of the orphan, save to improve it, + until he reaches the age of puberty, and fulfil your compacts; verily, + a compact is ever enquired of. + + "And give full measure when ye measure out, and weigh with a right + balance; that is better and a fairer determination. + + "And do not pursue that of which thou hast no knowledge; verily, the + hearing, the sight and the heart, all of these shall be enquired of. + + "And walk not on the earth proudly; verily, thou canst not cleave the + earth, and thou shalt not reach the mountains in height. + + "All this is ever evil in the sight of your Lord and abhorred." + + (E. H. Palmer's translation.) + + + Eschatology. + +The eschatology of the Koran is especially prominent in its earlier +parts. The resurrection, last judgment, paradise and hell are all +described. At death the body again becomes earth, while the soul sinks +into a state of sleep or unconsciousness. At a time decreed, known as +"the hour" (_as-Sa`a_), "the day of resurrection" (_yaum ul-qiyyama_), +"day of judgment" (_yaum-ud-din_), &c., an angel will call or will sound +a trumpet, the earth will be broken up, and the soul will rejoin the +body. God will appear on his throne with angels. The great book will be +opened, and a list of his deeds will be given to every man, to the good +in his right hand, to the evil in his left (_sura 69_). A balance will +be used to weigh the deeds. The _jinn_ will testify against the +idolaters. The righteous will then obtain eternal peace and joy in the +garden (_al-janna_) and the wicked will be cast into the fiery ditch +(_Jahannam_), where pains of body and of soul are united. + +2. The _Tradition._--The revelation of God is twofold--in a writing and +by a prophet. The former was contained in the Koran, the latter was +known from the actions of Mahomet in the different circumstances of +life. The manner of life of the Prophet (_sunna_) was contained in the +tradition (_al-hadith_). The information required was at first naturally +obtained by word of mouth from the companions and helpers of Mahomet. +These in turn bequeathed their information to their younger companions, +who quoted traditions and gave decisions in their names. + + For long these traditions circulated orally, the authority of each + depending on the person who first gave it and the reliability of the + chain (_isnad_) of men who had passed it on from him. At first this + tradition was regarded as explanatory of, or at the most supplementary + to, the teaching of the Koran. Early Moslem teachers pointed to the + Jews as having two law-books--the _Taurat_ and the _Mishna_--while + Islam had only one--the Koran. But opinion changed, the value of + tradition as an independent revelation came to be more highly esteemed + until at last it was seriously discussed whether a tradition might not + abrogate a passage of the Koran with which it was at variance. The + writing of traditions was at first strongly discouraged, and for more + than a century the stories of the Prophet's conduct passed from mouth + to mouth. Had all the narrators been pious men, this might have been + tolerable, but this was not the case. The Omayyad dynasty was not a + pious one. Men who were not religious but wished to appear so invented + traditions to justify their manner of life. The sectarians did not + hesitate to adopt the same means of spreading their own teaching. Many + Moslem writers testify to the fact that forged traditions were + circulated, and that religious opinion was confused thereby. The need + for some sort of authoritative collection seems to have been felt by + the one pious Omayyad caliph, Omar II. (717-720), who is said to have + ordered Ibn Shihab uz-Zuhri to make such a collection. Of this work, + if it was carried out, we know nothing further. It was, however, by a + man born during this reign that the first systematic collection of + traditions was made--the _Muwatta`_ of Malik ibn Anas (q.v.). Yet this + work is not a book of tradition in the religious sense, it is really a + corpus juris and not a complete one. The object of Malik was simply to + record every tradition that had been used to give effect to a legal + decision. The work of sifting the vast mass of traditions and + arranging them according to their relation to the different parts of + religious life and practice was first undertaken in the 3rd century of + Islam (A.D. 815-912). In this century all the six collections + afterwards regarded as canonical by the Sunnites (orthodox) were made. + By this time an immense number of traditions was in circulation. + Bukhari in the course of sixteen years' journeying through Moslem + lands collected 600,000, and of these included 7275 (or, allowing for + repetitions, 4000) in his work. The six collections of tradition + received by the Sunnites as authoritative are: (i) The _Kitab ul-jami` + us-Sahih_ of Bukhari (q.v.) (810-870). This is the most respected + throughout the Moslem world and most carefully compiled (ed. L. Krehl + and T. W. Juynboll, Leiden, 1862--and frequently in the East; also + with many commentaries. French translation by O. Houdas and W. + Marcais, Paris, 1903 sqq.). (ii) The _Sahih_ of Muslim (817-875) with + an introduction on the science of tradition (ed. Calcutta, 1849, &c.). + (iii) The _Kitab us-Sunan_ of Abu Da`ud (817-888) (ed. Cairo, 1863, + Lucknow, 1888, Delhi, 1890). (iv) The _Jami` us-Sahih_ of Tirmidhi + (q.v.). (v) _The Kitab us-Sunan_ of Nasa` i (830-915) (ed. Cairo, + 1894). (vi) The _Kitab us-Sunan_ of Ibn Maja (824-866) (ed. Delhi, + 1865 and 1889). The last four are not held in the same repute as the + first two. + +3. _Ijma`_ is the universal consent which is held to justify practices +or beliefs, although they are not warranted by the Koran or tradition, +and may be inconsistent with the apparent teaching of one or both of +these. These beliefs and practices, which had often come from the +pre-Islamic customs of those who had become believers, seem to have +escaped notice until the Abbasid period. They were too deeply rooted in +the lives of men to be abolished. It became necessary either to find a +tradition to abrogate the earlier forbidding one, or to acknowledge that +_ijma`_ is higher than the tradition. The former expedient was resorted +to by some later theologians (e.g. Nawawi) by a fiction that such a +tradition existed though it was not found now in writing. But in earlier +times some (as Ibn Qutaiba) had adopted the latter alternative, saying +that the truth can be derived much earlier from the _ijma`_ than from +the tradition, because it is not open to the same chances of corruption +in its transmission as the latter. Tradition itself was found to confirm +this view, for the Prophet is related to have said, "My people does not +agree to an error." + + But _ijma`_ itself has been used in different senses: (i) The _ijma`_ + of Medina was used to indicate the authority coming from the practices + of the people of Medina (see below). (ii) The _ijma`_ of the whole + community of Moslems is that most commonly recognized. It was used to + support fealty to the Abbasid dynasty. By it the six books of + tradition mentioned above are recognized as authoritative, and it is + the justification of the conception of Mahomet as superhuman. (iii) + Some of the more thoughtful theologians recognize only the _ijma`_ of + the doctors or the teachers of Islam (the _mujtahidun_), these being + restricted by the orthodox to the first few generations after Mahomet, + while the Shi`ites allow the existence of such up to the present time. + +4. The fourth basis of Islam is _qiyas_, i.e. analogy. It is that +process by which a belief or practice is justified on the ground of +something similar but not identical in the Koran, the tradition or +_ijma`_. Originally it seems to have been instituted as a check upon the +use of private opinion (_ra'y_) in the teaching of doctrine. The extent +to which it may be used is a subject of much discussion among +theologians. Some would apply it only to a "material similarity," others +to similarity of motive or cause as well. + +_Worship and Ritual._--The acts of worship required by Islam are five in +number: (i) the recital of the creed; (ii.) observance of the five daily +prayers; (iii) the fast in the month of Ramadhan; (iv) giving of the +legal alms; (v) the pilgrimage to Mecca. + + + Creed. + + i. The creed is belief--"la ilaha illa-llahu, Muhammad rasul allahi," + "there is no god but God (Allah), Mahomet is the apostle of God." It + is required that this shall be recited at least once in a lifetime + aloud, correctly, with full understanding of its meaning and with + heartfelt belief in its truth. It is to be professed without + hesitation at any time until death. + + + Prayer. + + ii. Every man who professes Islam is required in ordinary life to pray + five times in each day. In the Koran these prayers are commanded, + though four only are mentioned. "Wherefore glorify God, when the + evening overtaketh you, and when ye rise in the morning, and unto Him + be praise in Heaven and earth; and in the evening and when ye rest at + noon" (xxx. 16-17), but commentators say the "evening" includes the + sunset and after sunset. The five times therefore are: (1) Dawn or + just before sunrise, (2) just after noon, (3) before sunset, (4) just + after sunset, and (5) just after the day has closed. Tradition decides + within what limits the recitals may be delayed without impairing their + validity. Prayer is preceded by the lesser ablution (_wadu_) + consisting in the washing of face, hands (to the elbows) and feet in + prescribed manner. Complete washing of the body (_ghusl_) is required + only after legal pollution. In prayer the worshipper faces the _qibla_ + (direction of prayer), which was at first Jerusalem, but was changed + by the Prophet to Mecca. In a mosque the _qibla_ is indicated by a + niche (_mihrab_) in one of the walls. The prayers consist of + prescribed ejaculations, petitions, and the recital of parts of the + Koran, always including the first _sura_, accompanied by prostrations + of the body. Detailed physical positions are prescribed for each part + of the worship; these vary slightly in the four orthodox schools (see + below). On a journey, in time of war or in other special + circumstances, the set form of prayers may be modified in accordance + with appointed rules. Besides these private prayers, there is the + prayer of the assembly, which is observed on a Friday (_yaum + ul-jam'a_, "the day of assembly") in a mosque, and is usually + accompanied by an address or declamation (_khutba_) delivered from a + step of the pulpit (_minbar_). Special prayers are also prescribed for + certain occasions, as on the eclipse of the sun or the moon, &c. Among + the Sufis special attention is given to informal prayer, consisting + chiefly in the continual repetition of the name of God (_dhikr_) (see + SUFI'ISM). This is still a characteristic of some of the dervish + (q.v.) communities. + + + Fasting. + + iii. The command to fast begins with the words, "O ye who believe! + There is prescribed for you the fast, as it was prescribed for those + before you." The expression "those before you" has been taken to refer + to the Jews, who fasted on the day of atonement, but more probably + refers to the long fast of thirty-six days observed by the Eastern + Christians. In the passage of the Koran referred to (ii. 179-181) + Moslems are required to fast during the month of Ramadhan, "wherein + the Koran was revealed," but if one is on a journey or sick he may + fast "another number of days," and if he is able to fast and does not, + "he may redeem it by feeding a poor man," but "if ye fast, it is + better for you." This fast was probably instituted in the second year + at Medina. At that time the corrected lunar year was in use and + Ramadhan, the ninth month, was always in the winter. A few years later + Mahomet decreed the use of the uncorrected lunar year, which remains + the standard of time for the Moslem world, so that the month of + fasting now occurs at all seasons of the year in turn. The fast is + severe, and means entire abstinence from food and drink from sunrise + to sunset each day of the month. The fast is associated with the + statement that in this month God sent down the Koran from the seventh + heaven to Gabriel in the lowest that it might be revealed to the + Prophet. + + + Alms. + + iv. Alms are of two kinds: (1) the legal and determined (_zakat_), and + (2) voluntary (_sadaqat_). The former were given in cattle, grain, + fruit, merchandise and money once a year after a year's possession. + For cattle a somewhat elaborate scale is adopted. Of grain and fruit a + tenth is given if watered by rain, a twentieth if the result of + irrigation. Of the value of merchandise and of money a fortieth is + prescribed. In the early days of Islam the alms were collected by + officials and used for the building of mosques and similar religious + purposes. At the present time the carrying of these prescriptions is + left to the conscience of the believers, who pay the alms to any needy + fellow-Moslem. A good example of a _sadaqa_ is found in a gift to an + unbeliever (see C. M. Doughty, _Arabia deserta_, i. 446, ii. 278, + Cambridge, 1888). + + + Pilgrimage. + + v. The fifth religious duty of the Moslem is the pilgrimage (_hajj_) + to Mecca, which should be performed once by every Moslem "if he is + able," that is if he can provide or obtain the means to support + himself on pilgrimage and his family during his absence, and if he is + physically capable. The pilgrimage is made at one time of the (Moslem) + year, namely, from the 7th to the 10th of the month Dhu'l-Hijja. For + the arrangements for the journey from various countries to Mecca see + CARAVAN. When the pilgrim arrives within five or six miles of the holy + city he puts off his ordinary dress after ablution and prayer, and + puts on the two seamless wrappers which form the dress of the pilgrim + (the _ihram_), who goes without head-covering or boots or shoes. He + must not shave at all, or trim the nails or anoint the head during the + ceremonial period. The chief parts of the ceremonial are the visit to + the sacred mosque (_masjid ul-haram_), the kissing of the black stone, + the compassing of the Ka`ba (the _Tawaf_) seven times, three times + running, four times slowly, the visit to the Maqam Ibrahim, the ascent + of Mount Safa and running from it to Mount Marwa seven times, the run + to Mount `Arafat, hearing a sermon, and going to Muzdalifa, where he + stays the night, the throwing of stones at the three pillars in Mina + on the great feast day, and the offering of sacrifice there (for the + localities see MECCA). After the accomplishment of these ceremonies + the ordinary dress is resumed, the pilgrimage is finished, but the + pilgrim usually remains another three days in Mecca, then visits + Medina to pay his respects to the tomb of Mahomet. Beside the _hajj_ + (great pilgrimage) Islam also recognizes the merit of the _`umra_ (or + lesser pilgrimage), i.e. a religious visit to Mecca at any time + accompanied by most of the ceremonies of the _hajj_. + + The ceremonies of the _hajj_ have been described by several European + travellers who have witnessed them, such as J. L. Burckhardt in 1814, + Sir Richard Burton in 1853 (see bibliography to MECCA). A concise + account of them is given in T. P. Hughes, _Notes on Muhammadanism_ + (3rd ed., London, 1894). Details in vol. i. of Bukhari's traditions + (Houdas and Marcais's French translation, i. 493-567). + +_The Development of Islam._--The battle of Siffin (657) between `Ali and +Moawiya was the occasion of the first breach in the unity of Islam, and +the results remain to this day. The occasion was in the first case +political, but politics were at that time too intimately connected with +religion to be considered apart from it. After the battle (see +CALIPHATE) `Ali was practically compelled to submit his claims to +arbitration, whereupon a number of his supporters broke away from him, +saying that there should have been no appeal save to the Book of God. +These men were for the most part country Arabs, and, inspired by the +free spirit of the desert, were democratic, claiming that the caliph +should be elected by the whole community from any family (and not from +the Koreish alone), and that the caliph might be deposed for sin. A few +extremists were republicans and would do without a caliph altogether. +The whole party was known as the Kharijites (Kharijiyya or Khawarij). +The Moslems who disagreed with them were regarded by them as renegades +and were to be put to death. They were soon divided into extremists and +moderates. The former put to death the children of unbelievers and +refused to hold intercourse in daily life with unbelievers. The +moderates, who came to be known as Ibadites (from their leader `Abdallah +ibn `Ibad), would allow the children of unbelievers to grow up, and +would then deal with them according to their choice. In ordinary life +they would mix with all men, but marriage with other Moslems outside +their own ranks was forbidden. These still remain in Oman, parts of +Algeria and East Africa. + +Another party, consisting mainly of city Arabs infected with Persian +ideas as to the divinity of the ruler, clung to `Ali with inconvenient +affection. They regarded `Ali and his descendants as the only legitimate +caliphs, and came to be known as Shi`ites (q.v.). They remain to-day the +largest part of Islam outside orthodoxy. During the Omayyad caliphate +(661-750) there were three centres of religious thought and influence; +students and teachers often passed from one to the other, thus making +universal the teachings which in their origin were due to local +circumstances. These centres were Damascus (the seat of the caliphate), +Medina and the East (Irak, &c.). In Damascus the court was worldly and +indifferent to the interests of Islam. The early Omayyads were +distinguished for their striving after dominion (_mulk_). Instead of +attempting to propagate Islam, they tolerated other religions and +favoured Christians who were distinguished as poets (e.g. Akhtal) or +officials (John of Damascus), or men likely to be of use to them in any +way. The doctrines of Christianity began to influence even serious +Moslems and to affect their way of stating Moslem belief. John of +Damascus (d. before 767), the Greek theologian, and his pupil, Theodorus +Abucara (d. 826), have written controversial works on Islam, from which +it seems probable that disputations on subjects pertaining to religion +were held between Christians and Moslems. Two schools of heretical +Moslem sects arose under these influences--that of the Murjiites and +that of the Qadarites. The Murjiites ("postponers") were so called +because they postponed the judgment of human actions until the Day of +Judgment. In politics they accepted the Omayyads as _de facto_ rulers, +since they were Moslems, and left the judgment of their actions to God. +As theologians they taught that religion consists in belief (_iman_) in +the unity of God and in his apostle, and in that alone, consequently no +one who held this faith would perish eternally, though he had been a +sinner. This was opposed to the Kharijite doctrine that the unrepentant +sinner would perish eternally, even though he had professed Islam. + +The Qadarites were concerned with the doctrine of predestination and +free-will. So long as Moslems were fighting the battles of Islam they +naturally paid most attention to those revelations which laid stress on +the absolute determination of a man's destiny by God. They fought with +great bravery because they believed that God had foreordained their +death or life and they could not escape His will. In the quieter realm +of town and court life and in their disputations with Christians they +were called upon to reconcile this belief with the appeals made in the +Koran to man's own self-determination to good, to courage, &c. Mahomet +was not a systematic theologian and had done nothing to help them. The +Qadarites declared that man had power over his own actions. But the +teaching of predestination had gained too great a hold on Moslems to be +thus displaced. The teaching of the Qadarites was held to be heresy, and +one of its first professors, Ma`bad ul-Juhani, was put to death in +699.[3] During this period Medina was the home of tradition. Those who +had been in closest relation with the Prophet dwelt there. The very +people of the city derived a certain splendour and authority from the +fact that Mahomet had lived and was buried there. Free thought in +religion had little chance of arising, less of expressing itself, in the +holy city. But the Koran was diligently studied, traditions were +collected (and invented) though not yet written in books, and innovation +(_bid`a_) was resolutely avoided. At the same time it really did +contribute a new element to religious practice, for the custom (_ijma`_, +see above) of Medina gained a certain authority even in Syria and the +East. + +In the East, on the other hand, there was more mental activity, and the +religious teachers who came from Medina had to be prepared to meet with +many questions. The wits of the Moslems were sharpened by daily contact +with Christians, Buddhists, Manichaeans and Zoroastrians. Hasan ul-Basri +(q.v.), who has been claimed as one of the first mystics, also as one of +the first systematic theologians of Islam, was remarkable alike for his +personal piety and his orthodoxy. Yet it was among his pupils that the +great rationalist movement originated. Its founder was Wasil ibn `Ata, +who separated himself (whence his followers were called Motazilites, +strictly Mu`tazilites, "Separatists") from his teacher and founded a +school which became numerous and influential. The Mu`tazilites objected +to the attributes of God being considered in any way as entities beside +God; they explained away the anthropomorphisms used in speaking of the +deity; they regarded the Koran as created and as a product of Mahomet +writing under the divine influence. Briefly, they asserted the supremacy +of reason (_`aql_) as distinct from faith received by tradition +(_naql_). They also called themselves "the people of justice and unity" +(_Ahl ul-`adl wat-tauhid_). Such a faith as this naturally found favour +rather with the thinking classes than with the uneducated multitude, and +so went through many vicissitudes. At the time of its appearance and +until the reign of Ma`mun its adherents were persecuted as heretics. +After discussions among the theologians Ma`mun took the decided step of +proclaiming that the Koran was created, and that a belief in this dogma +was necessary. Other Mu`tazilite doctrines were proclaimed later. +Mu`tazilites were appointed to official posts, and an inquisition +(_mihna_) was appointed to enforce belief in their doctrines. This +movement was strongly opposed by the orthodox and especially by Ahmad +ibn Hanbal (q.v.). By him the founding of theology on reason was +rejected, and he suffered persecution for his faith (see W. N. Patton, +_Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna_, Leiden, 1897). Mu`tazilism retained +its sway until 849, when the caliph Motawakkil again declared the Koran +uncreate and restored orthodoxy. It was during the early years of the +Abbasid rule that the four legal schools of Abu Hanifa (d. 767), Malik +ibn Anas (d. 795), ash-Shafi'i (d. 819) and Ibn Hanbal (d. 855) came +into existence (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). As the bases of religion and law +were the same, so the methods applied in the treatment of the one +affected the other. Abu Hanifa depended little on tradition, but +referred back to the Koran, making use of individual opinion (_ra`y_) as +controlled by analogy (_qiyas_) with a written ordinance. Malik Ibn Anas +supplemented the Koran and Sunna by customary law founded largely on the +custom (_ijma`_) of Medina, and by what he conceived to be for the +public good (_istislah_). Shafi`i recognized tradition as equal to the +Koran, and even as being able to supersede its ordinances, while he also +recognized the universal custom (_ijma`_) of the Moslem world as divine +and binding. His four bases of religion--Koran, sunna, qiyas and +ijma`--have been generally accepted in Islam (see above). Ibn Hanbal's +position has been already mentioned. All these four schools are reckoned +orthodox, and all orthodox Moslems belong to one or another of them. +Another teacher of this time, who founded a school which did not succeed +in being recognized as orthodox, was Da`ud uz-Zahiri. Trained as a +Shafi`ite, he became too strict for this school, rejected analogy, +restricted _ijma`_ to the agreement or custom of the companions of +Mahomet, and accepted the whole of the Koran and tradition in the most +literal and external sense. His followers were called Zahirites (i.e. +externalists). After Ash`ari's time these principles were applied to +theology by Ibn Hazm (q.v.) see I. Goldziher, _Die Zahiriten, ihr +Lehrsystem und ihre Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1884). + +Before turning to the reform of Ash`ari and the introduction into +orthodox theology of scholastic philosophy it is necessary to notice +another phase of religious life which became the common property of +orthodox and heretics. This was the introduction of asceticism in +religions practice and of mysticism in religious thought. Sufi`ism +(q.v.), which combined these two, is rightly not counted among the sects +of Islam. Asceticism seems to have won a certain amount of approval from +Mahomet himself, who much respected the Christian monks. The attention +paid in early Islam to the joys and punishments of the future life led +to self-denial and simple living in this world. An Arabian writer, +speaking of the simplicity of manners of the first four caliphs, says +that their affairs were conducted with more consideration of the future +life than of this world. Many Moslems went even farther than these +caliphs, and gave up all concern as far as possible with the affairs of +this world and lived in poverty, in wanderings or in retirement (see +DERVISH). For the historical development of this movement, with its +accompanying mysticism, see SUFI`ISM. Ash`ari (d. before 942) was for +forty years a Mu`tazilite, then became orthodox (see ASH`ARI), and at +once applied rational methods for the support and interpretation of the +orthodox faith. Before him, reason had not been allowed any scope in +orthodox theology. He was not the first to use it; some teachers (as +al-Junaid) had employed it in teaching, but only in secret and for the +few. The methods of scholastic philosophy were now introduced into +Moslem theology. The chief characteristic of his religious teaching was +the adoption of the _via media_ between materialistic grossness and the +ideas of pure speculative philosophy. Thus he taught, as to the +attributes of God, that they exist, but are not to be compared with +human attributes; as to His visibility, that He can be seen but without +the limitations of human sight. As to the great question of free will, +he denied man's power but asserted his responsibility. So he passed in +review the doctrines of God, faith, the Koran, sin, intercession, &c., +and for the first time in the history of Islam produced a systematic +theology. The teaching of Ash`ari was taken up and propagated by the +Buyids soon after his death, and was developed and perfected by Abu Bekr +ul-Baqilani, the Cadi (d. 1012), but up to the middle of the 5th century +of Islam (c. A.D. 1058) was suspected elsewhere and confounded with +Mu`tazilism. The Ash`arite al-Juwaini (known as Imam ul-Haramain) was +persecuted under Toghrul Beg (c. 1053) and exiled, but was restored +under Alp Arslan by the vizier Nizam ul-Mulk, who founded an Ash`arite +college (the Nizamiyya). In the West, Ibn Hazm (q.v.) fiercely opposed +the system, but Ghazali established its orthodoxy in the East, and it +spread from Persia to Syria and Egypt under the Ayyubites and Mamelukes +and thence to the Almohades in Africa under Ibn Tumart (1130). It +remains the predominating influence to the present day, its only serious +rival being the theological system of al-Mataridi, a Hanifite (d. 945), +whose creed as represented in that of an-Nasafi is still used largely by +the Turks. Since the 12th century no great theological movement has been +made in Islam. The quiet of religious life has twice been broken, once +by Wahhabism (q.v.) in Arabia, once by Babism (q.v.) in Persia. + + +THE SECTS + +According to an early tradition Mahomet said that Islam would be divided +into seventy-three parties (sects),[4] of which seventy-two would perish +and one would be saved. The orthodox Arabian writers on heretical sects +of Islam feel compelled by this tradition to make up their number to +seventy-two, and, as different writers adopt different divisions or are +familiar with different parties, the names of sects amount to some +hundreds. Each writer, however, adopts certain main classes under which +he attempts to group the others. Abu Muti` Makhul at the beginning of +the 10th century in his "Refutation" (MS. in Bodleian Library) has six +such chief classes: Harurites (i.e. Kharijites), Rafidites (i.e. +Shi`ites), Qadarites, Jabarites, Jahmites and Murjiites. Ibn Hazm (q.v.) +adopts four classes: Mu`tazilites (Motazilites), Murjiites, Shi`ites and +Kharijites. Shahrastani (q.v.) complains of the want of system in +earlier writers, and suggests as bases of classification the position of +parties with regard to the doctrines as to (1) the divine attributes, +(2) predestination and free-will (3) promises and threats, faith and +error, (4) revelation, reason, the imamate. In one part of his preface +he gives as the chief parties the Qadarites, Sifatites, Kharijites and +Shi`ites, proposing to divide these classes according to leaders who +agreed with the main doctrines of their class but differed in some +points. In another place he mentions four opposite pairs of sects: (1) +the Qadarites with their doctrine of free-will, and the Jabarites, who +are necessitarians; (2) the Sifatites, who maintain the eternal nature +of the attributes of God, and the Mu`tazilites, who deny it; (3) the +Murjiites, who postpone judgment of actions until the Last Day, and the +Wa`idites, who condemn in this life; (4) the Kharijites, who consider +the caliphate a human institution, and the Shi`ites, who deify their +ruler. In his detailed treatment of the sects Shahrastani arranged them +under the headings: Mu`tazilites, Jabarites, Sifatites, Kharijites, +Murjiites and Shi`ites. About the same time as Shahrastani two other +Arabian writers wrote on the sects--Tahir ul-Isfaraini (d. 1078), whose +MS. is in the Berlin library, and `Abd ul-Qadir ul-Jilani (1078-1166) in +his _Kitab ul-Ghaniyya li-Talibi Tariq il-Haqqi_ (Cairo, 1871). Both +adopt as main classes Rafidites (or Shi`ites), Qadarites (or +Mu`tazilites), Kharijites, Murjiites, Najjarites, Dirarites, Jahmites, +Mushabbiha, to which Tahir adds Bakrites, Karramites, and a class +including those sects which are not reckoned as Moslem though they have +sprung from Islam. Jilani adds to the eight the Kilabites. + +The following list is not a complete list of names of sects but is +founded on that of Shahrastani.[5] + + _Aftahites._--Shi`ites of the Imamite class, who ascribe the imamate + to `Abdallah ul-Aftahi, the son of Sadiq. + + _Ajarida._--Kharijites, followers of Ibn `Ajarrad, who agreed for the + most part with the Najadat (below), considered grave sins as + equivalent to unbelief, but remained friendly with those who professed + Islam but did not fight for it. They rejected _sura_ 7 as a fable. + Shahrastani enumerates seven divisions of this sect. + + _Akhnasites._--A section of the Tha`aliba not so strict in treatment + of those who fear to fight for Islam. + + _Ash`arites._--Followers of Ash`ari (q.v.) who are counted by + Shahrastani among the Sifatites. + + _Atrafites._--A division of the `Ajarida who agree with the Hamzites + except that they excuse the lower classes for inaction when they are + ignorant of the law. + + _Azraqites._--Kharijites who followed al-Azraq in the days of Ibn + Zubair. They held `Ali to be an unbeliever; those who did not fight + were unbelievers; the children of unbelievers were to be put to death + and went to hell. Sin is unbelief. + + _Bahshamites._--Mu`tazilites akin to the Jubba`ites. + + _Baihasites._--Kharijites, followers of Abu Baihas ul-Haitham, who was + put to death by the caliph Walid. They asserted the necessity of + knowledge for religion. + + _Baqirites._--Shi`ites who followed Abu Ja`far ul-Baqir, the fifth + imam, and looked for his return. + + _Batinites._--Isma`ilites, so called because they believe that every + external has an internal (_batin_), and every passage in the Koran has + an allegoric meaning. + + _Bishrites._--Mu`tazilites, followers of Bishr ibn Mu`tamir, one of + the most learned men of his party. His teaching was philosophical and + was distinguished by his doctrine of "origination" (_tawallud_). + + _Bunanites._--Kaisanites, followers of Bunan ibn Sim`an un-Nahdi, who + claimed that the imamate passed from Abu Hashim to himself and that he + had also acquired the divine element of `Ali. + + _Butrites._--Zaidites, followers of Kathir un-Nawa ul-Abtar, who + agreed with the Suleimanites (Sulaimanites) except that he suspended + judgment as to whether Othman was a believer or not. + + _Dirarites._--Jabarites who empty God of his attributes, and assert + that man has a sixth sense by which he will see God on the day of + resurrection. The actions of man are "created" and acquired by him. A + caliph need not be chosen from the Koreish. + + _Ghaliites_ (Ghula) are the extreme Shi`ites (q.v.) in ascribing deity + to the imams. Their heresies are said to be four in number: (1) Making + God resemble man, (2) ascribing change of mind to God, (3) looking for + the return of the imam, (4) metempsychosis. They are divided by + Shahrastani into ten classes. + + _Ghassanites._--Murjiites, followers of Ghassan ibn ul-Kufi, who say + that faith consists of knowledge of God, his apostle, and the Koran in + general not in detail, and that faith increases but is not diminished. + + _Habities_ = Hayitites (below). + + _Hadathites_ (Hudabites) are Mu`tazilites, followers of Fadl ibn + ul-Hadathi, who agreed with the Hayitites (below). + + _Hafsites._--Ibadites, followers of Hafs ibn abi-l-Miqdam, who + distinguished between idolatry (_shirk_) and unbelief (_kufr_). + + _Hamzites._--`Ajarida, followers of Hamza ibn Adrak in Sijistan. They + agree with the Maimunites, but condemn the children of unbelievers to + hell. + + _Harithites._--Ibadites who differ from others in holding the + Mu`tazilite doctrine of free-will. + + _Harurites._--A name given to the first Kharijites, who rebelled + against `Ali, and met in Harura near Kufa. + + _Hashimites._--Shi`ites who supported Abu Hashim, son of Mahommed ibn + ul-Hanafiyya, although they held that his father had gone astray. + + _Hashwiites._--A party who asserted the eternity even of the letters + of the Koran. They are not mentioned as a separate sect by + Shahrastani; cf. van Vloten, "_Les Hachwia et Nabita_," in the _Acts + of the 11th Oriental Congress_ (Paris, 1899), pt. iii., pp. 99 sqq. + + _Hayitites._--Mu`tazilites who agreed with the Nazzamites, but added + three heresies of their own: (1) the divinity of the Messiah, (2) + metempsychosis, (3) the interpretation of all references to the vision + of God as referring to the "first Reason" or "creative Reason." + + _Hishamites._--A name given to two sects: (1) Mu`tazilites, strong in + their assertion of man's free-will, even opposing the statement of the + Koran. (2) Shi`ites of the extreme kind, who attributed to God a body + with quantities (measurements) and qualities. + + _Hudabites._--See Hadathites. + + _Hudhailites_ (Hodhailites).--Mu`tazilites, followers of Abu-l Hudhail + Hamdan, who was a leading teacher of his party and developed the + philosophical side of its teaching. Ten of his main doctrines are + given by Shahrastani. + + _Ibadites._--Kharijites of moderate tendencies (see above). + + _Ilbaites._--Ghaliites who put `Ali above Mahomet and blamed the + latter because he called men to himself instead of to `Ali. + + _Imamites._--One of the chief divisions of the Shi`ites (q.v.). + + _Ishaqites._--Ghaliites agreeing with the Nusairites except that they + incline to speak of the imams' participation in the prophetic office + rather than of their divinity. + + _Isma`ilites._--This name is applied to all who consider Isma`il ibn + Ja`far the last imam, some believing that he did not die but will + return, others, that at his death his son Mahommed became imam (see + ASSASSINS); it is also used as equivalent to the Batinites. + + _Ithna`asharites._--Imamites who accept the twelve imams (see + SHI`ITES). + + _Jabarites._--Those who deny all actions and power to act to man and + ascribe all to God (see above). + + _Ja`farites._--Imamites who carry the imamate no farther than Ja`far + us-Sadiq. + + _Jahizites._--Mu`tazilites, followers of the celebrated writer Jahiz + (q.v.), who indulged in philosophical speculations, believed in the + eternity of matter, and was regarded as a naturalist (_taba`i_) rather + than a theist (_allahi_). + + _Jahmites._--Jabarites, followers of Jahm ibn Safwan, who was put to + death at Merv toward the close of the Omayyad period. He was extreme + in his denial of the attributes of God. + + _Jarudites._--Zaidites who held that Mahomet designated `Ali as imam, + not by name but by his attributes, and that the Moslem sinned by not + taking sufficient trouble to recognize these attributes. + + _Jubba`ites._--Mu`tazilites who followed the philosophical teaching of + Abu `Ali Mahommed ul-Jubba`i of Basra. + + _Kaisanites._--A main class of the Shi`ites (q.v.). + + _Kamilites._--Ghaliites, followers of Abu Kamil, who condemned the + companions (_Ansar_) because they did not do allegiance to `Ali, and + `Ali because he surrendered his claims. + + _Karramites._--Sifatites, followers of Ibn Karram, who went so far as + to ascribe a body to God, and assimilated his nature to human nature. + + _Kayyalites._--Ghaliites, followers of Ahmad ibn Kayyal, who, after + supporting a propaganda for an Aliite, claimed to be the imam himself + on the ground of his power over the spheres. + + _Khalafites._--`Ajarida of Kerman and Multan, who believed that God + wills good and evil, but condemned the children of unbelievers to + hell. + + _Kharijites._--One of the earliest sects of Islam (see above). + + _Kharimites._--`Ajarida, agreeing mostly with the Shu`aibites and + teaching that the relation of God to a man depends on what he + professes at the end of his life. + + _Khattabites._--Ghaliites, followers of Abu-l Khattab, who was put to + death by Ibn Musa at Kufa. He was a violent supporter of Ja`far + us-Sadiq, who however disowned him. + + _Khayyatites._--Mu`tazilites, followers of Abu-l Hosain ul-Khayyat, a + teacher in Bagdad, part of whose philosophical teaching was that the + non-existent is a thing. + + _Ma`badites._--Tha`labites who differed from the Akhnasites on the + question of the marriage of believing women and from Tha`lab on the + question of taking alms from slaves. + + _Maimunites._--`Ajarida, followers of Maimun ibn Khalid, who believed + that God wills good only and that man determines his actions. + + _Majhulites._--Tha`labites, agreeing generally with the Kharimites, + but teaching that he who knows some names and attributes of God and is + ignorant of some knows God. + + _Ma`lumites._--Tha`labites agreeing generally with the Kharimites but + alleging that a believer must know all the names and attributes of + God. + + _Mansurites._--Ghaliites, followers of Abu Mansur ul-`Ijli, who at + first supported al-Baqir, but, rejected by him, claimed the imamate + for himself. He was crucified by the caliph Hisham ibn `Abd ul-Malik + (Abdalmalik). + + _Mu`ammarites._[6]--Mu`tazilites who strongly denied the + predestination of God, and affirmed that God created bodies only, and + that the accidents spring naturally from them. + + _Mufaddalites._[6]--The same as the Musaites (q.v.). + + _Mughirites._[6]--Ghaliites, followers of Mughira ibn Sa`id ul-`Ijli, + who claimed the imamate and prophetic office and held extremely gross + views of God. + + _Muhakkima_[6] (the first).--Another name for the Harurites (above). + + _Mukarramites._[6]--Tha`labites who taught that sin consists in + ignorance of God. + + _Mukhtarites._[6]--Kaisanites, followers of al-Mukhtar ibn `Ubaid, who + held to Mahommed ibn ul-Hanafiyya but was disowned by him. He allowed + the possibility of change of mind on the part of God. + + _Murjiites._--Those who postponed judgment of actions until the Day of + Judgment. See above. + + _Musaites._--Imamites who held to the imamate of Musa ibn Ja`far, who + was imprisoned by Harun al-Rashid and poisoned. + + _Mushabbiha._[6]--Sifatites who compared God's actions with human + actions. They said that the Koran was eternal with all its letters, + accents and written signs. + + _Mu`tazilites._[6]--The rationalists of Islam. See above, cf. also H. + Steiner, _Die Mu`taziliten oder die Freidenker im Islam_ (Leipzig, + 1865). + + _Muzdarites._[6]--Mu`tazilites, followers of al-Muzdar, a pupil of + Bishr (cf. Bishrites) whose teaching he developed further. He taught + that God has power to do evil, but, if he acted thus, would be an evil + God; also that man can produce the equal of the Koran. + + _Najadat_ (also known as _`Adhirites_).--Kharijites, who followed + Najda ibn `Amir of Yemama as he went to join the Azraqites but + withdrew from these, being more orthodox than they. He held that fear + of fighting was not sin. + + _Nawisites_ take their name from a person or a place. They are + Ja`farites who believe in Sadiq as the mahdi. + + _Nazzamites._--Mu`tazilites, followers of Ibrahim ibn Sayyar + un-Nazzam, who was an extremist in his teaching of man's free-will and + other philosophical doctrines. + + _Nu`manites._[6]--Ghaliites agreeing in some points with Hishamites, + but holding that God is a light in the form of a man, yet not a body. + + _Nusairites._[6]--Ghaliites who agree with the Ishaqites except that + they lay more stress on the incorporation of the deity. + + _Qadarites._--The upholders of free-will (see above). + + _Qata`ites._--Musaites who regard the rank of the imams as closed with + the death of Musa. + + _Rafidites._--A term used by some writers to denote the Shi`ites as a + whole; by others given to a class of the Shi`ites who forsook Zaid ibn + `Ali because he forbade them to abuse the Companions. + + _Rashidites._--Tha`labites, followers of Rashid ut-Tusi, sometimes + called `Ushrites ("tithers") because they differed from others on the + question of tithing the produce of land watered by rivers and canals. + + _Rizamites._--Kaisanites of Khorasan at the time of Abu Muslim, to + whom they ascribed the imamate and the Spirit of God. They also + believed in metempsychosis. + + _Saba`ites._--Ghaliites, who followed `Abdallah ibn Saba (see + SHI`ITES). + + _Salihites._--(a) Zaidites, followers of al-Hasan ibn Salih, who + agreed with the teachings of the Butrites (above); (b) Murjiites, + followers of Salih ibn Amr, who united with the doctrines of their own + party those of the Qadarites. + + _Saltites._--`Ajarida who had nothing to do with the children of + believers until they had grown up and professed Islam. + + _Shaibanites._--Tha`labites, followers of Shaiban ibn Salama, who was + killed in the time of Abu Muslim (Moslem). They arose chiefly in + Jorjan and Armenia and agreed in doctrine with the Jahmites. + + _Shamitites._--Ja`farites, followers of Yahya ibn Abu Shamit. + + _Shi`ites._--See separate article. + + _Shu`aibites._--`Ajarida who said that God creates the actions of men, + and men appropriate them. + + _Sifatites_ are those who ascribe eternity to all the attributes of + God, whether they denote essence or action, or are of the class called + descriptive attributes. + + _Sifrites_, the same as Ziyadites (below). + + _Sulaimanites_ (Suleimanites).--Zaidites, followers of Suleiman ibn + Jarir, who held that the appointment to the imamate was a matter of + consultation and that the imamates of Abu Bekr and Omar were legal + although `Ali had a better claim. + + _Tha`labites._--A party of the Kharijites, followers of Tha`lab ibn + Amir, who agreed with the `Ajarida except that he was friendly with + children until they actually denied the faith. He also took alms from + slaves when they were rich, and gave alms to poor slaves. + + _Thaubanites._--Murjiites who said that faith consists in the + knowledge and confession of God and His apostle, and what the + intellect is not capable of doing. What the intellect can do (or + leave) is not of faith. + + _Thumamites._--Mu`tazilites, followers of Thumama ibn Ashras in the + days of Mamun, who taught that all non-Moslems would become dust on + the day of resurrection. + + _Tumanites._--Murjiites who taught that faith depends on obedience + rather to the principles than to the commands of Islam. + + _`Ubaidites._--Murjiites who believed that anything but idolatry might + be forgiven, and that if a man died professing the unity of God his + sins would not hurt him. + + _Wa`idites._--Those who, opposed to the Murjiites, pronounced judgment + in this life; they are not counted as a separate sect by Shahrastani + (see above). + + _Wasilites._--A name given to those who followed Wasil ibn `Ata, the + founder of Mu`tazilitism, who denied the attributes of God, asserted + the power of man over his own actions, taught the existence of a + middle place between heaven and hell, and despised the parties of + Othman and `Ali alike. + + _Yazidites._--Ibadites who said that they followed the religion of the + Sabians in the Koran, and believed that God would send an apostle from + the Persians. + + _Yunusites._--Murjiites who taught that faith consists in knowledge of + God, subjection to Him, abandonment of pride before Him, and love in + the heart. Obedience apart from knowledge is not of faith. + + _Zaidites._--The moderate Shi`ites (see SHI`ITES). + + _Ziyadites._--Kharijites, followers of Ziyad ibn ul-Asfar, who did not + regard those who abstained from fighting for Islam as unbelievers, and + did not kill the children of idolaters or condemn them to hell. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the philosophy and theology of Ash`ari see M. A. F. + Mehren, _Exposé de la réforme de l'Islamisme par Abou-`l Hasan Ali + el-Ash`ari_ (Leiden, 1878); W. Spitta, _Zur Geschichte Abu-l Hasan + al-Ash`aris_ (Leipzig, 1876); M. Schreiner, _Zur Geschichte des + Ash`aritenthums_ (Leiden, 1891); D. B. Macdonald, _Development of + Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory_ (London, + 1903). The last work contains translations of the creeds of Ash`ari + and Nasafi (Mataridite). A further bibliography of works on the faith + and outlook of Islam will be found in D. B. Macdonald's _Muslim + Theology_. + + The text of the Koran has been edited by G. Flügel, Leipzig, various + dates; and by G. M. Redslob, Paris, 1868 and 1880. There are also + hundreds of Eastern editions. Concordances have been published by G. + Flügel, Leipzig, 1842 (several times reprinted), also in Egypt, + Palestine and India. A dictionary and glossary were published by J. + Penrice, London, 1873. English translations have been made by G. Sale, + London, 1734 (the fullest edition is that with notes by E. M. Wherry, + 4 vols., London, 1882-1886); by J. M. Rodwell with notes, London, 1861 + and 1876; and by E. H. Palmer in vols, vi. and ix. of the "Sacred + Books of the East," Oxford, 1880-1882. Among the best or best-known + Arabic commentaries are those of Tabari (q.v.), Zamakhshari (q.v.), + Baidhawi (q.v.), the Jalalain (see SUYUTI), and such later ones as the + Mafatih ul-Ghaib of ar-Razi (d. 1210). The composition and theology of + the Koran are treated in the works of Nöldeke and Grimme referred to + above. + + On the eschatology of Islam see M. Wolff, _Muhammedanische + Eschatologie_ (Leipzig, 1872); and on the doctrine of revelation. Otto + Pautz, _Muhammeds Lehre von der Offenbarung_ (Leipzig, 1898). + (G. W. T.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See also KORAN. + + [2] Underlined = with interpolations. + + [3] For the doctrines of these two sects see Shahrastani's _Book of + Sects_, and for the Qadarites, A. de Vlieger's _Kitab ul-Qadr, + matériaux pour servir à l'étude de la doctrine de la prédestination + dans la théologie musulmane_ (Leiden, 1903). + + [4] For the origin and significance of this number see M. + Steinschneider, "Die kanonische Zahl der muhammedanischen Secten und + die Symbolik der Zahl, 70-73," _in Zeitschr. d. deutschen morgenl. + Gesellschaft_, iv., 145-170 (1850); and I. Goldziher, "Le + Denombrement des sectes mohamétanes" in _Revue de l'hist. des + religions_, xxvi. 129-137 (1892). + + [5] The names are given throughout in the anglicized form on the + analogy of Shi`ites, which is recognized in common usage. The strict + termination according to the scheme of transliteration adopted in + this work is _iyya_, or _iya_, e.g. Hishamiyya for Hishamites. For + information regarding the important sects see separate articles and + the preceding portion of this article. + + [6] All these names are alternatively spelt Mo- instead of Mu-. + + + + +MAHONY, FRANCIS SYLVESTER (1804-1866), known as "Father Prout," Irish +priest and author, son of a woollen manufacturer, was born in Cork in +1804. His classical education was chiefly obtained at a Jesuit college +at Amiens, and after studying in Paris he entered the Jesuit college at +Rome and was admitted into the Society of Jesus. He served in +Switzerland and at Clongoweswood, Ireland, where he was prefect of +studies and subsequently master of rhetoric. Here he was involved in +scandals that led to his resignation. On going to Italy he was told at +Florence that he was expelled from the Society. He succeeded, however, +in obtaining priest's orders at Rome in 1832, and returned to Ireland, +but subsequently went to London, officiating for some time in the chapel +of the Bavarian Legation. While there he fell in with William Maginn, +and about 1834 began to contribute his celebrated "Prout Papers" to +_Fraser's Magazine_. These consist of episodes in the life of the parish +priest "Father Prout," and dialogues after the model of "Christopher +North," varied by translations of well-known English songs into Latin, +Greek, French and Italian verse, which he humorously represents as being +the true originals from which the English authors had merely plagiarized +them. Mahony's translations have been universally admired for the +extraordinary command which they display of the various languages into +which his renderings are made, and for their spirit and freedom both of +thought and expression. His original verse tends chiefly to show that +with all his sarcastic and cynical wit his genius had also its tender, +serious and sentimental side. His "Bells of Shandon" has always been +greatly admired. In 1846 Mahony became correspondent at Rome to the +_Daily News_, and his letters from that capital gave very vivid pictures +of the first years of the reign of Pius IX. The last twelve or fifteen +years of his life were spent in Paris, whence he supplied the _Globe_ +with a series of piquant letters on the incidents of the day. He died in +Paris on the 18th of May 1866. + + The _Reliques of Father Prout_ were collected from _Fraser's Magazine_ + and published in two volumes in 1836; _The Final Reliques of Father + Prout_, chiefly extracted from the _Daily News_ and the _Globe_, were + edited by Blanchard Jerrold in 1876, and an edition of his works, + edited by Charles Kent, was published in 1881. + + + + +MAHOUT (Hind. _mahawat_), an elephant-driver. The mahout sits on the +elephant's neck and directs him by voice and by the use of a goad called +_ankus_. + + + + +MAHRATTAS, a people of India, inhabiting the district known by the +ancient name of Maharashtra (Sans. "great kingdom or region"). This +large tract, extending from the Arabian Sea on the west to the Satpura +mountains in the north, comprises a good part of western and central +India, including the modern provinces of the Konkan, Khandesh, Berar, +the British Deccan, part of Nagpur, and about half the nizam's Deccan. + +The etymology of the word Mahratta (_Maratha_) is uncertain. The name +does not indicate a social caste, or a religious sect; it is not even +tribal. Strictly, it is confined to the upper class from whom Sivaji's +generals were mostly drawn, and who sometimes claim a Rajput origin. In +a wider sense it may be extended to include all who inhabit Maharashtra +and speak Mahratti as their mother-tongue. In 1901 the total number of +speakers of Mahratti in all India exceeded 18 millions. + +The Mahrattas have always been a separate nation or people, and still +regard themselves as such, though nowadays they are almost all under +British or Mahommedan jurisdiction; that is, they belong either to +British India or to the nizam's dominions. There are indeed still three +large native states nominally Mahratta: that of Sindhia near the borders +of Hindustan in the north, that of Holkar in Malwa in the heart of the +Indian continent, and that of the gaekwar in Gujarat on the western +coast. But in these states the prince, his relatives and some of his +ministers or officials only are Mahrattas; the mass of the people belong +to other sections of the Hindu race. These states then are not to be +included in the Mahratta nation, though they have a share in Mahratta +history. + + In general terms the Mahrattas, in the wider sense, may be described + under two main heads: first the Brahmans, and secondly the low-caste + men. The Mahratta Brahmans possess, in an intense degree, the + qualities of that famous caste, physical, intellectual and moral. They + have generally the lofty brow, the regular features, the spare upright + figure, and the calm aspect which might be expected in a race + maintained in great purity yet upon a broad basis. In modern times + they have proved themselves the most able and ambitious of all the + Brahmans in the Indian Empire. They are notably divided into two + sections: the Konkanast, coming from the Konkan or littoral tract on + the west coast below the Western Ghat mountains; and the Deshast, + coming from the uplands or Deccan, on the east of the mountains. + Though there have been many distinguished Deshasts, yet the most + remarkable of all have been Konkanasts. For instance, the peshwas, or + heads of the Mahratta confederation which at one time dominated nearly + all India, were Konkanast Brahmans. The birthplaces of these persons + are still known, and to this day there are sequestered villages, + nestling near the western base of the Ghats, which are pointed to as + being the ancestral homes of men who two centuries ago had political + control over half India. + + Apart from the Brahmans, the Mahrattas may be generally designated as + Sudras, the humblest of the four great castes into which the Hindu + race is theoretically divided. But the upper classes claim to be + Kshattriyas or Rajputs. They probably are aborigines fundamentally, + with a mixture of what are now called the Scythian tribes, which at a + very early time overran India. The ordinary Mahrattas, who form the + backbone of the nation, have plain features, an uncouth manner, short + stature, a small but wiry frame. Though not powerful physically as + compared with the northern races of the Punjab and Oudh, they have + much activity and an unsurpassed endurance. Born and bred in or near + the Western Ghat mountains and the numerous tributary ranges, they + have all the qualities of mountaineers. In recent times they enter + military service less and less, betaking themselves mainly to + cultivation and to the carrying business connected with agriculture. + As husbandmen they are not remarkable; but as graziers, as cartmen, as + labourers, they are excellent. As artisans they have seldom signalized + themselves, save as armourers and clothweavers. + + In the Konkan there are some superior proprietors termed Khots. With + this and perhaps some other exceptions, there are not in the Mahratta + country many large landlords, nor many of the superior tenure-holders + whose position relatively to that of the peasantry has caused much + discussion in other parts of India. There are indeed many Mahratta + chiefs still resident in the country, members of the aristocracy which + formerly enjoyed much wealth and power. They are sometimes in the + position of landlords, but often they are the assignees of the land + revenue, which they are entitled under special grants to collect for + themselves instead of for government, paying merely a small sum to + Government by way of quit-rent. Under them the cultivators are by + British arrangements placed in the position of peasant proprietors. + The village community has always existed as the social unit in the + Mahratta territories, though with less cohesion among its members than + in the village communities of Hindustan and the Punjab. The ancient + offices pertaining to the village, as those of the headmen (_patel_), + the village accountant, &c., are in working order throughout the + Mahratta country. + + The Mahratta peasantry possess manly fortitude under suffering and + misfortune. Though patient and good-tempered in the main, they have a + latent warmth of temper, and if oppressed beyond a certain limit they + would fiercely turn upon their tormentors. As a rule they are orderly + and law-abiding, but traditions of plunder have been handed down to + them from early times, and many of them retain the predatory instincts + of their forefathers. The neighbourhood of dense forests, steep + hill-sides, and fastnesses hard of access offers extraordinary + facilities to plunderers for screening themselves and their booty. + Thus gang robbery is apt to break out, gains head with rapidity, and + is suppressed with difficulty. In times of peace it is kept under, but + during war, or whenever the bands of civil order are loosened, it + becomes a cause of anxiety and a source of danger. The women have + frankness and strength of character; they work hard in the fields, and + as a rule evince domestic virtue. + + The peasantry preserve a grave and quiet demeanour, but they have + their humble ideas of gaiety, and hold their gatherings on occasions + of births or marriages. They frequently beguile their toil with + carols. They like the gossiping and bartering at the rural markets and + in the larger fairs, which are sometimes held in strikingly + picturesque localities. They are superstitious, and worship with + hearty veneration any being or thing whose destructive agency they + fear. They even speak of the tiger with honorific titles. They are + Hindus, but their Hinduism is held to be of a non-Aryan type. They are + sincerely devout in religion, and feel an awe regarding "the holy + Brahmans," holding the life and the person of a Brahman sacred, even + though he be a criminal of the deepest dye. They of course regard the + cow as equally sacred. There are two principal sects among modern + Hindus--those who follow Vishnu, and those who follow Siva. The + Mahrattas generally follow Siva and his wife, a dread goddess known + under many names. The Mahratta war-cry, "Har, Har, Mahadeo," referred + to Siva. All classes high and low are fond of the religious festivals, + the principal of which, the Dasahra, occurs in October, when the first + harvest of the year has been secured and the second crops sown. This + has always been held with the utmost pomp and magnificence at every + centre of Mahratta wealth and power. The people frequently assemble in + bowers and arbours constructed of leafy boughs to hear kathas recited. + These recitations are partly religious, partly also romantic and + quasi-historical. After them national resolves of just resistance or + of aggressive ambition have often been formed. + + Apart from the Mahratta Brahmans, as already mentioned, the Mahratta + nobles and princes are not generally fine-looking men. There is + general truth in what was once said by a high authority to the effect + that, while there will be something dignified in the humblest Rajput, + there will be something mean in the highest Mahratta. Bluff + good-nature, a certain jocoseness, a humour pungent and ready, though + somewhat coarse, a hot or even violent disposition, are + characteristics of Mahratta chieftains. They usually show little + aptitude for business or for sedentary pursuits; but, on the other + hand, they are born equestrians and sportsmen. Mahratta ladies and + princesses have often taken a prominent part, for good or evil, in + public affairs and dynastic intrigues. + + Though they have produced some poetry, the Mahrattas have never done + much for literature. Nor have they been distinguished in industrial + art. Their architecture in wood, however, was excellent; and the teak + forests of their country afforded the finest timber for building and + for carving. They had also much skill in the construction of works for + the supply of drinking water on a large scale and for irrigation. + +The range of the Western Ghats enabled the Mahrattas to rise against +their Mahommedan conquerors, to reassert their Hindu nationality against +the whole power of the Mogul Empire, and to establish in its place an +empire of their own. It is often stated that in India British conquest +or annexation succeeded Mahommedan rule; and to a considerable extent +this was the case. But, on the other hand, the principal power, the +widest sovereignty, which the British overthrew in India was that of the +Mahrattas. + +During the earlier Moslem invasions in 1100 and in subsequent years, the +Mahrattas do not seem to have made much resistance. They submitted to +several Mahommedan kings under the changing circumstances of those +times. It was against the Mahommedan king of Bijapur in the Deccan that +Sivaji, the hero of Mahratta history, first rebelled in 1657. Sivaji and +his fighting officers were Mahrattas of humble caste, but his ministers +were Brahmans. When the Mogul Empire absorbed the Bijapur kingdom he +defied the emperor. He imparted a self-reliant enthusiasm to his +countrymen, formed them into an army, and organized them as a political +community; his mountaineer infantry, though limited in numbers, proved +desperately courageous; his cavalry was daring and ubiquitous. The +Moslems, having once overcome the Hindus in almost all parts of India, +had not for centuries met with any noteworthy uprising. Sivaji, however, +planned their expulsion, and before the end of his restless life made +much progress in the execution of that design. The new state which he +founded was maintained under various vicissitudes after his death. +Mahratta resistance, once aroused by him, was never extinguished, and +the imperial resources were worn out by ceaseless though vain efforts to +quell it. The great Mogul emperor's impoverished and enfeebled successor +was fain to recognize the Mahratta state by a formal instrument. The +Mahratta king, a descendant of Sivaji, had become a _roi fainéant_, and +the arrangement was negotiated by his Brahman minister, whose official +designation was the peshwa. The office of peshwa then became hereditary +in the minister's family, and grew in importance as the Mahratta kingdom +rose, while the king sunk into the condition of a puppet. Thus the +Mahratta power was consolidated throughout nearly the whole of +Maharashtra under the Brahman peshwa as virtual sovereign, with his +capital at Poona, while the titular Mahratta raja or king had his court +at the neighbouring city of Satara. Despite his political importance, +however, the raja was still venerated as the descendant of Sivaji. + +Then several chiefs carved out principalities of their own from among +the ruins of the Mogul Empire. Thus Raghoji Bhonsla established himself +in the tracts lying underneath the southern base of the Satpura range +(namely, Nagpur and Berar), overran Orissa and entered Bengal. Damaji +Gaekwar descended from the Western Ghats upon the alluvial plains of +Gujarat around Baroda; Tukoji Holkar subdued the uplands of Malwa beyond +the Vindhya range on the north bank of the Nerbudda; and Mahadji Sindhia +obtained possession of large tracts immediately south of Agra and Delhi, +marched into Hindustan and became virtually the master of the Mogul +emperor himself (see GWALIOR). Sivaji's own father had founded a +dominion at Tanjore in the extreme south, which, however, never had +relations with the central power at Poona. The same may be said of the +state of Kolhapur, allotted to a younger branch of Sivaji's family. + +But these principalities, though independent respecting internal +administration, and making war or peace with their neighbours according +to opportunity, owned allegiance to the peshwa at Poona as the head of +the Mahratta race. On state occasions heads of principalities would +visit Poona by way of acknowledging the superior position of the peshwa. +On the other hand, the peshwa was careful to obtain the sanction of his +nominal sovereign at Satara to every important act of state. Thus a +confederation was formed of which the Brahman peshwa or head was at +Poona, governing the adjacent territories, while the members, belonging +to the lower castes, were scattered throughout the continent of India. +Such was the Mahratta Empire which supplanted the Mogul Empire. The +Mahratta power grew and prospered till it embraced all western and most +of central India. Its culminating point was reached about 1750, or about +a century after Sivaji first rebelled against his Mahommedan sovereign. + +Its armies drew soldiers from all parts of India. The infantry was not +of good quality; but its cavalry was really an enormous force, numbering +fully a hundred thousand in all. The horsemen were splendidly audacious +in riding for long distances into the heart of a hostile country, +without support, striking some terrific blows, and then returning +rapidly beyond reach of pursuit. They could truly boast of having +watered their horses in every Indian river from the Cauvery to the +Indus. If attacked, however, in a competent manner, they would not +stand; and afterwards, in conflict with the British, whole masses of +them behaved in a dastardly manner. As their ambition grew the chiefs +began to organize their troops after the system learnt from the English +and French. In this way several Frenchmen--Benoit de Boigne, Perron and +others--rose in the Mahratta service to a position dangerous to the +British. But the new system was unsuited to the Mahratta genius; it +hampered the meteoric movements of the cavalry, which was obliged to +manoeuvre in combination with the new artillery and the disciplined +battalions. Mahratta elders hence uttered predictions of military +disaster which were in the end more than fulfilled. + +The rapid and amazing success of the Mahratta confederation rendered it +the largest Hindu power that ever existed in India. But it lacked the +elements of true greatness. It was founded by plundering expeditions, +and its subsequent existence was tainted by the baseness of this +predatory origin. With the exception of the peshwas, its chiefs were +little more than free-booting warriors, for the most part rude, violent +and unlettered. Their custom was to offer their neighbours or victims +the alternative of paying _chouth_, that is, one-fourth of the revenue, +or being plundered and ravaged. Thus the Mahratta _chouth_ came to have +an ominous significance in Indian history. Desultory efforts were made +to establish a civil government, but in the main there was no +administration formed on statesmanlike principles. The peshwas, on the +other hand, as Brahmans, were men of the highest education then possible +in India. But they were absorbed by the direction of military and +political combinations, and by intrigues for the preservation of their +own power; and, even allowing for all this, they failed to evince the +civil capacity which might have been anticipated. While several +displayed commanding abilities, and some possessed many virtues, one +alone attempted to conduct an administration in an enlightened manner, +and he died prematurely. + +There were at the same time powers existing in India to keep the +Mahrattas in check, and some parts of India were excepted from their +depredations. The English power was rising at Calcutta, Madras and +Bombay. The nascent Sikh power prevented Mahratta incursions from being +permanently successful in the Punjab. As the Mogul Empire broke up, some +separate Mahommedan powers rose upon its ruins. The nizam of the Deccan +established himself at Hyderabad, comparatively near the headquarters of +the peshwa. Hyder Ali was proclaimed sultan of Mysore in the south. +Ahmed Shah Abdali burst upon India from Afghanistan. The Mahrattas +bravely encountered him at Panipat near Delhi in 1761, and were +decisively defeated. The defeat, however, did not essentially shake the +Mahratta confederation. It was collision with the English that broke +that wonderful fabric to pieces. + +The first collision with the English occurred in 1775, arising from a +disputed succession to the peshwaship. The English government at Bombay +supported one of the claimants, and the affair became critical for the +English as well as for the Mahrattas. It was at this conjuncture that +Warren Hastings displayed his political genius and rendered signal +service to his country, by succouring from Bengal the defeated Bombay +army and negotiating a peace (in 1782) that restored the _status quo_. + +The next collision happened in 1803. The peshwa had fallen into grave +difficulties with some of the principal members of the Mahratta +confederation. He therefore placed himself under British protection, and +this led to the great Mahratta War, in which the Marquis Wellesley +displayed those talents for military and political combination which +rendered him illustrious. It was during the campaigns which ensued that +General Arthur Wellesley defeated Sindhia and the Bhonsla raja at +Assaye, and General Lake won the victories of Farrukhabad, Dig and +Laswari over Sindhia and Holkar. The three confederates, Sindhia, Holkar +and the Bhonsla, concluded peace with the British government, after +making large sacrifices of territory in favour of the victor, and +submitting to British control politically. It was during these events +that the British won the province of Orissa, the old Hindustan +afterwards part of the North-Western Provinces, and a part of the +western coast in Gujarat. + +The third collision came to pass between 1816 and 1818, through the +conduct, not only of the confederates, but also of the peshwa (Baji Bao) +himself. During the previous war the peshwa had been the protégé and +ally of the British; and since the war he had fallen more completely +than before under British protection--British political officers and +British troops being stationed at his capital. He apparently felt +encouraged by circumstances to rebel. Holkar and the Bhonsla committed +hostile acts. The predatory Pindaris offered a formidable resistance to +the British troops. So the peshwa ventured to take part in the +combination against the British power, which even yet the Mahrattas did +not despair of overthrowing. After long-protracted menaces, he attacked +the British at Kirkee, but failed utterly, and fled a ruined man. +Ultimately he surrendered to Sir John Malcolm, and was sent as a state +pensioner to Bithur, near Cawnpore. The British, however, released the +raja of Satara from the captivity in which he had been kept during the +peshwa's time, and reinstated him on the throne, with a limited +territory. Owing to these events the British government became possessed +of the Konkan and of the greater part of the Deccan. + +It remains to mention briefly the fortunes of each remaining member of +the once imperial confederation. The principality of Satara was held to +have lapsed in 1848 by the death of the raja without lineal heirs, and +was annexed by the British government. The Bhonsla raja of Nagpur died +without lineal heirs in 1853, and his territory was likewise annexed. +The house of Holkar remained faithful to its engagements with the +British government, and its position as a feudatory of the empire was +maintained. In Sindhia's territory, by reason of internal feuds, the +British had to undertake measures which were successfully terminated +after the battles of Maharajpur and Panniar in 1843. But on the whole +the house of Sindhia remained faithful. Sindhia himself was actively +loyal during the Mutiny. The gaekwar gradually fell under British +control towards the close of the 18th century, and his house never +engaged in hostilities with the British government. The ex-peshwa lived +to old age at Bithur, and died in 1857. His adopted son grew up to be +the Nana Sahib, of infamous memory, who took a leading part in the +Mutiny. + + See J. Grant Duff, _History of the Mahrattas_ (3 vols., 1826); T. D. + Broughton, _Letters written in a Mahratta Camp_ (1813); M. G. Ranade, + _Rise of the Maratha Power_ (Bombay, 1900). (R. T.; J. S. Co.) + + + + +MAHSEER, or MAHASEER (_Barbus mosal_), a kind of barbel, abundant in the +rivers of India, especially in pools of the upper and more rapid streams +where they issue from the mountainous part of the country. It is one of +the largest species of the Cyprinid family, attaining to a length of 3 +to 5 ft., and sometimes exceeding a weight of 70 lb. Its body is +well-proportioned, rather elongate, and somewhat like that of the +European barbel, but covered with very large scales, of which there are +only twenty-five or twenty-seven placed along the lateral line; the +dorsal fin is armed with a long and strong spine, and the mouth provided +with four slender and short barbels. The lips are sometimes produced +into fleshy lobes. To the fisherman in India the mahseer affords the +same kind of sport as the salmon in the British Isles, and it rivals +that fish as regards size, strength and activity. Its flesh is likewise +much esteemed. + + + + +MAI, ANGELO (1782-1854), Italian cardinal and philologist, was born of +humble parents at Schilpario in the province of Bergamo, Lombardy, on +the 7th of March 1782. In 1799 he entered the Society of Jesus, and in +1804 he became a teacher of classics in the college of Naples. After +completing his studies at the Collegium Romanum, he lived for some time +at Orvieto, where he was engaged in teaching and palaeographical +studies. The political events of 1808 necessitated his withdrawal from +Rome (to which he had meanwhile returned) to Milan, where in 1813 he was +made custodian of the Ambrosian library. He now threw himself with +characteristic energy and zeal into the task of examining the numerous +MSS. committed to his charge, and in the course of the next six years +was able to restore to the world a considerable number of long-lost +works. Having withdrawn from the Society of Jesus, he was invited to +Rome in 1819 as chief keeper of the Vatican library. In 1833 he was +transferred to the office of secretary of the congregation of the +Propaganda; on the 12th of February 1838 he was raised to the dignity of +cardinal. He died at Castelgandolfo, near Albano, on the 8th of +September 1854. + +It is on his skill as a reader of palimpsests that Mai's fame chiefly +rests. To the period of his residence at Milan belong: Fragments of +Cicero's _Pro Scauro, Pro Tullio, Pro Flacco, In Clodium et Curionem, De +aere alieno Milonis, De rege_ (_Alexandrino_ (1814); _M. Corn. Frontonis +opera inedita, cum epistolis item ineditis, Antonini Pii, Marci Aurelii, +Lucii Veri et Appiani_ (1815; new ed., 1823, with more than 100 +additional letters found in the Vatican library); portions of eight +speeches of Quintus Aurelius Symmachus; fragments of Plautus; the +oration of Isaeus _De hereditate Cleonymi_; the last nine books of the +_Antiquities_ of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and a number of other +works. _M. Tullii Ciceronis de republica quae supersunt_ appeared at +Rome in 1822; _Scriptorum veterum nova collectio, e vaticanis codicibus +edita_ in 1825-1838; _Classici scriptores e vaticanis codicibus editi_ +in 1828-1838; _Spicilegium romanum_ in 1839-1844; and _Patrum nova +bibliotheca_ in 1845-1853. His edition of the celebrated _Codex +vaticanus_, completed in 1838, but not published (ostensibly on the +ground of inaccuracies) till four years after his death (1858), is the +least satisfactory of his labours and was superseded by the edition of +Vercellone and Cozza (1868), which itself leaves much to be desired. +Although Mai was not as successful in textual criticism as in the +decipherment of manuscripts, he will always be remembered as a laborious +and persevering pioneer, by whose efforts many ancient writings have +been rescued from oblivion. + + See B. Prina, _Biografia del cardinale Angelo Mai_ (Bergamo, 1882), a + scientific work, which gives a full and, at the same time, a just + appreciation of his work; Cozza-Luzi, _Epistolario del card. Angelo + Mai_ (Bergamo, 1883); life by G. Poletto (Siena, 1887). + + + + +MAIA, in Greek mythology, the eldest of the Pleiades, the seven +daughters of Atlas and the Oceanid Pleïone. She and her sisters, born on +Mt Cyllene in Arcadia, are sometimes called mountain goddesses. In a +cave of Cyllene Maia became by Zeus the mother of the god Hermes. The +story is told in the _Hymn to Hermes_ attributed to Homer. She was +identified by the Romans with Maia Majesta, an old Italian goddess of +spring, to whom a sacrifice was offered on the 1st of May by the priest +of Vulcan. + + + + +MAIDA, a town of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Catanzaro, from +which it is 30 m. W.S.W. direct, and 12 m. N.N.E. of Pizzo by rail (the +station is 8 m. W. of the town). Pop. (1901), 5190. The town gives its +name to the plain of Maida, where in 1806 British troops under Sir John +Stuart defeated the French under Regnier. The names Maida Hill and Maida +Vale in London are derived from this battle. + + + + +MAIDAN, an Indian term for any open plain. The Maidan is the name of the +park in Calcutta, surrounding Fort William, where society people drive +in the afternoon. The name is also applied to one of the valleys in the +Afridi country of Tirah, and to the plateau portion of the state of +Mysore. + + + + +MAIDEN, or MAID, a young unmarried girl. "Maid" is a shortened form of +"maiden," O. Eng. _maegden_, which represents a diminutive of a Teutonic +word meaning "young person," of either sex. An old English word "may," +meaning a kinsman or kinswoman, and also a virgin or girl, represents +the original. In early usage "maiden" as meaning "virgin" is frequently +applied to the male sex, thus, in Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_, Sir +Percyvale is called a "parfyte clene megden." Apart from the direct +applications of the word to the unmarried state, such as "maiden name," +"maiden lady," &c., the word is used adjectivally, implying the +preservation of the first state of an object, or indicating a first +effort of any kind. Probably a "maiden" fortress is one which has never +fallen, though the _New English Dictionary_ suggests that the various +"maiden castles" in England, usually ancient earthworks, may have been +so called from being so strong that they could be defended by maidens, +and points out that Edinburgh Castle, called "maiden-castle" by William +Drummond of Hawthornden (_Speech for Edinburgh to the King_), is styled +_Castrum puellarum_, the "castle of the maidens," in Geoffrey of +Monmouth. A "maiden" assize, circuit or session is one at which there +are no prisoners for trial; a "maiden over" or "maiden" in cricket is an +over from which no runs are scored. A "maiden speech" is the first +speech made by a member of parliament in the house. In the _Annual +Register_ for 1794 (quoted in _N.E.D._) the expression, with reference +to Canning's first speech, is said to be "according to the technical +language of the house." "Maiden" is applied to several objects, to a +movable framework or horse for drying and airing of linen, to a +washerwoman's "dolly" or wooden beater, to the "kirnbaby" formed of the +last sheaf of corn reaped which formerly figured in the Scottish harvest +homes, and to the beheading instrument, known as the "Scottish maiden" +(see below). "Maid," apart from its primary sense of an unmarried woman, +is chiefly used for a domestic female servant, usually with a qualifying +word prefixed, such as "housemaid," "parlour-maid," &c. + +The title of "MAID OF HONOUR" is given to an unmarried lady attached to +the personal suite of a queen. The custom of sending young girls of +noble or good birth to the court of a prince or feudal superior, for the +purpose, primarily, of education, goes back to early feudal times, and +is parallel with the sending of boys to act as pages and squires to the +feudal castles. The regular establishment of maids of honour (_filles +d'honneur_) appears first in the royal court of France. This has usually +been attributed to Anne of Brittany, wife of Charles VIII.; she had a +group of unmarried girls of high rank at her court as part of her +household, in whom she took a lively and parental interest, educating +them and bestowing a dowry upon them on their marriage. A slightly +earlier instance, however, has been found. When the young Margaret of +Austria came to France on her espousal to Charles VIII., broken by his +marriage to Anne of Brittany, there were in her train several _filles +d'honneur_, whose names appear in the _Comptes d'argenterie de la reine +Marguerite d'Autriche_, from 1484-1485 and 1488-1489 (_Archives de +l'empire K. K. 80 and 81_ quoted by A. Jal, _Dictionnaire critique de +biographie et d'histoire_). It is from the days of Francis I. that the +_chroniques scandaleuses_ begin which circle round the maids of honour +of the French court. The maids of Catherine de Medici, celebrated as the +"flying squadron," _l'escadron volant_, are familiar from the pages of +Pierre de l'Estoile (1574-1611) and Brantôme. Among those whose beauty +Catherine used in her political intrigues, the most famous were Isabelle +de Limeuil, Mlle de Montmorency-Fosseux, known as _la belle Fosseuse_, +and Charlotte de Baune. The _filles d'honneur_, as an institution, were +suppressed in the reign of Louis XIV., at the instigation of Mme de +Montespan--who had been one of them--and their place was taken by the +_dames de palais_. In the English court, this custom of attaching "maids +of honour" to the queen's person was no doubt adopted from France. At +the present day a queen regnant has eight maids of honour, a queen +consort four. They take precedence next after the daughters of barons, +and where they have not by right or courtesy a title of their own, they +are styled "Honourable." + + THE SCOTTISH MAIDEN was an instrument of capital punishment formerly + in use in Scotland. It is said to have been invented by the earl of + Morton, who is also said to have been its first victim. This, however, + could not have been the case, as the maiden was first used at the + execution of the inferior agents in the assassination of Rizzio (1561) + and Morton was not beheaded till 1581. The maiden was practically an + early form of guillotine. A loaded blade or axe moving in grooves was + fixed in a frame about ten feet high. The axe was raised to the full + height of the frame and then released, severing the victim's head from + his body. At least 120, suffered death by the maiden, including the + regent Morton, Sir John Gordon of Haddo, President Spottiswood, the + marquis and earl of Argyll. In 1710 it ceased to be used; it is now + preserved in the museum of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, in + Edinburgh. + + + + +MAIDENHAIR, in botany, the common name for a fern, _Adiantum +Capillus-Veneris_, characterized by the spreading hairlike branches of +the frond, the ultimate pinnules of which are ½ to 1 in. long with a +rounded crenate outer edge and repeatedly forked veins; the sori (or +masses of spore-capsules) are in the crenatures of the pinnules, and are +protected by a kidney-shaped involucre. The plant is widely distributed +in temperate and tropical regions, and is occasionally found in the +western counties of England, the Isle of Man, and west Ireland, growing +on damp rocks or walls especially near the sea. The genus _Adiantum_ is +a large one containing many handsome species both tropical and +temperate, well known in greenhouse and hothouse cultivation. + + MAIDENHAIR-TREE is a popular name for _Ginkgo biloba_, a remarkable + and handsome gymnospermous tree, the fan-shaped leaves of which with + their forked veins recall those of the maidenhair (see GYMNOSPERMS). + + + + +MAIDENHEAD, a market town and municipal borough in the Wokingham +parliamentary division of Berkshire, England; 24½ m. W. of London by the +Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 12,980. Area, 2125 acres. It is +pleasantly situated on and above the west (right) bank of the Thames, +and is much in favour as a residential town and a resort of boating +parties. Though of high antiquity it is wholly modern in appearance, and +a large number of handsome houses have been built in its vicinity. A +beautiful timbered house of the 15th century, however, survives in +Ockwells, a short distance south of the town. The stone bridge carrying +the London road over the Thames dates from 1772; but the crossing is of +ancient importance. Maidenhead has trade in malt and grain. The borough +is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. + +The history of Maidenhead (Maydenhutt, Maydenhith) is bound up with that +of the ancient bridge. It is not mentioned in Domesday. Edward I. (1297) +gave a grant of pontage in aid of the bridge, which was almost broken +down; similar grants to the "bailiffs and good men of Maydenhithe" were +made by succeeding sovereigns. In 1451 Henry VI. incorporated the gild +of the Brethren and Sisters of Maydenhith to provide certain necessaries +for the celebration of Mass and to keep the bridge in order: the gild, +dissolved at the Reformation, was revived by Elizabeth, who, however, +later (1581) substituted for it a corporation consisting of a warden, +bridgemaster, burgesses and commonalty: the governing charter until the +19th century was that of James I. (1685) incorporating the town under +the title of the mayor, bridgemaster and burgesses. In 1400 Thomas +Holand, earl of Kent, held the bridge in the interests of the deposed +Richard II., but was eventually forced to retire. In 1643 a meeting took +place in the town between Charles I. and three of his children. In the +18th century a considerable trade was done in carrying malt, meal and +timber in barges to London: at that time three fairs were held which +have now practically disappeared. The Wednesday market is held under a +charter of Elizabeth (1582). + + + + +MAID MARIAN, a personage incorporated in the English legend of Robin +Hood. There is no evidence that she had originally any connexion with +the Robin Hood cycle. She seems to have been an essential feature of the +morris dance, and in the may-game was paired sometimes with Robin-Hood, +but oftener with Friar Tuck. The well-known pastoral play of Adam de la +Hale, _Jeu de Robin et Marion_, and the many French songs on the +subject, account for the association of the names. In the ballads on +Robin Hood her name is twice casually mentioned, but there is a late +ballad, by a certain S. G. (F. J. Child, _English and Scottish Ballads_, +i. 219), which tells how Maid Marian sought Robin in the forest +disguised as a page, and fought with him for an hour before she +recognized him by his voice. S. G. was perhaps acquainted with the two +plays, written in 1598, of _The Downfall and The Death of Robert Earl of +Huntingdon_, by Anthony Munday and Harry Chettle. In _The Downfall_ +Matilda Fitz Walter escapes from the persecution of King John by +following her lover to Sherwood Forest, where they took the names of +Robin Hood and Maid Marian, and lived apart until they could be legally +united. Perhaps this tale has some connexion with the romance of the +outlaw Fulk Fitz Warin. Matilda or Mahaud, widow of Theobald Walter, +escaped from John's solicitations by marrying the outlawed Fulk and +following him to the forest. There were in semi-historical legends three +Matildas pursued by King John, of whom particulars are given by H. L. D. +Ward in his _Catalogue of Romances_ (i. 502). Their several histories +were fused by the Elizabethan dramatists, and associated with the Maid +Marian of the morris dance, who up to that time had probably only a +vague connexion with Robin Hood. + + + + +MAIDSTONE, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough, and +the county town of Kent, England, 41 m. E.S.E. of London by the South +Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), 33,516; area, 4008 acres. It +lies principally on the eastern bank of the river Medway, the modern +part spreading over the western slopes of a picturesque valley, which is +intersected and environed by orchards and hop gardens, this being the +richest agricultural district of Kent. The hop grounds form the +so-called middle growth of Kent, and the town has the principal grain +market in the county. Archbishop Boniface in 1260 established a hospital +here (Newark hospital) for poor pilgrims, the chapel of which, with +modern additions, is now St Peter's Church. The parish church of St +Mary, which had existed from Norman times, was demolished in 1395 by +Archbishop Courtenay, who erected on the site the present church of All +Saints. This fine Perpendicular building contains, besides many +excellent monuments, the richly carved sedilia and the twenty-eight oak +seats used by the collegiate priests. Courtenay also founded a college +of secular canons, the ruins of which are an interesting specimen of +14th-century architecture. From the reign of John until the Reformation +the archbishops had a residence here, at which Stafford and Courtenay +died. This Perpendicular building, with its Elizabethan east front, was +acquired by the corporation as a memorial of Queen Victoria's Jubilee in +1887, and houses the school of science and art. The rectory, with the +manor, passed into lay hands at the Reformation; and, having been a +perpetual curacy for three hundred and twenty years, the living became a +vicarage in 1866. The grammar school was founded in 1549, and endowed +with the estates of the local Corpus Christi fraternity, then dissolved; +the hall in which the gild assembled remains, but the school is +established in modern buildings on a new site. There are oil-mills, +rope, sacking and twine factories, and cement, lime, and brick works. +There is a considerable carrying trade on the Medway. A museum, with +public library, was opened in 1858, in an interesting building of the +early part of the 16th century. This is the headquarters of the Kent +Archaeological Society, founded by the Rev. L. B. Larking in 1858. In +1890 an art gallery was added. The West Kent and General hospital, the +county ophthalmic hospital, county gaol and barracks may be mentioned +among other institutions. From Saxon times down to 1830 condemned +malefactors were executed, and all the great county meetings were held, +on Penenden Heath, a common situated about a mile north-east of the +town, and enclosed by the corporation as a public recreation ground. The +parliamentary borough of Maidstone returns one member. The town is +governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. + +There is evidence of a Roman settlement at Maidstone. The name Maidstone +(Medwegestun, Meddestane, Maydestan), probably meaning Medway Town, is +presumably of Saxon origin. At the time of the Domesday Survey it +belonged to the archbishop of Canterbury, and from the reign of John the +archbishops had a residence there. Its position in the centre of Kent +gave it an early importance; the shire-moot was held on Penenden Heath +in the 11th century, and Maidstone was an assize town in the reign of +Edward I. In 1537 Cranmer exchanged the manor of Maidstone with the +king, and it was granted by Edward VI. to Sir Thomas Wyatt. Edward also +incorporated the town by the title of the mayor, jurats and commonalty; +it had formerly been governed by a portreve and 12 "brethren." This +charter was forfeited through Wyatt's rebellion; a second charter was +granted by Elizabeth in 1559 and confirmed by subsequent sovereigns. A +new charter constituting a governing body of a mayor, 12 jurats and 40 +common councilmen was given at the petition of the inhabitants by George +II. in 1747, and remained the governing charter until 1835. Four fairs +were granted by the charter of 1559; these are now held on the 13th of +February, the 12th of May, the 20th of June and the 17th of October. A +Thursday market was granted by Henry III. to Archbishop Boniface, and a +market every second Tuesday in the month by charter of George II. A corn +market on Tuesday and a cattle market on Thursday are still held. The +manufacture of linen and woollen goods was introduced by Walloons, who +settled here in 1567. This was succeeded by paper-making, now the chief +industry of the town. The cultivation of hops has been carried on since +the 17th century. + +Maidstone has been associated with various incidents of general history. +Wat Tyler broke into the prison, liberated John Ball the rebel preacher, +and committed various depredations. Several of the leading inhabitants +joined Jack Cade's rising. The rising of the Kentish Royalists in 1648 +collapsed at Maidstone, where on the 1st of June Fairfax, after five +hours' obstinate fighting, captured the town at midnight. + + See _Victoria County History, Kent_; I. M. Russell, _History of + Maidstone_ (1881). + + + + +MAIHAR, a native state of Central India, in the Baghelkhand agency. +Area, 407 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 63,702; estimated revenue, £4700. The +state, which is watered by the Tons river, consists mainly of alluvial +soil covering sandstone, and is fertile except in the hilly district of +the south. A large area is under forest, the produce of which provides a +small export trade. The chief, whose title is raja, claims descent from +the Kachwaha Rajput clan. The state suffered severely from famine in +1896-1897. The town of Maihar (pop. 6802) is on the East Indian railway, +97 m. N. of Jubbulpore. Extensive ruins of shrines and other buildings +in its neighbourhood indicate a former much greater extent of the place. + + + + +MAIL. (1) (Through Fr. _maille_, from Lat. _macula_, a spot or hole, the +mesh of a net), properly a metal ring or link which, joined closely with +other links, formed the fabric of body and other armour in the middle +ages, till it was superseded by plate-armour. The word "mail," properly +applied to this form of chain-armour, is also used of armour generally, +whether plate or chain, and is also transferred to the horny defensive +coverings of animals, such as the tortoise, crab, &c. (see ARMS AND +ARMOUR). (2) (O. Eng. _mál_, speech; probably the same as O. Saxon +_mahal_, assembly; in meaning connected with O. Norse _mále_, +stipulation), a Scots law term meaning rent, tax. "Mails and duties" are +the rents, whether in kind or money, of an estate. In English the word +only survives in "blackmail" (q.v.). (3) (Through O. Fr. _male_, mod. +_malle_, a Teutonic word surviving in Dutch _maal_), properly a bag, +especially one used in travelling; this word, which appears in Chaucer, +is now applied chiefly to the despatch and delivery of postal matter. In +this sense "mail" is properly the bag in which such matter is conveyed, +and hence is applied to the contents of the mail, postal matter +collectively, and to the train, carts, or other means used in the +despatch and delivery of the same. In general usage "mail" is confined +to the "foreign" as opposed to the "inland" despatch of letters, &c., +and to which the word "post" is chiefly applied; in official language, +the word refers to the inland despatch. The word appears also in +"mail-coach," a coach used for conveying the mails, and in "mail-cart," +a cart similarly employed. This word is also applied to a light low +vehicle propelled or drawn by hand, suitable for young children. The +"mail phaeton" is a type of phaeton with high seat for two persons and +drawn by a pair of horses. + + + + +MAILLY, LOUISE JULIE, COMTESSE DE (1710-1751), mistress of Louis XV. of +France, was the daughter of Louis, marquis de Nesle. She was the eldest +of three sisters who succeeded one another as favourites of the king. In +1726 she married her cousin, Louis Alexandre de Mailly. Although Louis +XV. had paid her attentions from 1732, she did not become titular +mistress until 1738. She did not use her position either to enrich +herself or to interfere in politics. She was supplanted by her sister, +the duchess of Châteauroux, and obliged to leave court in 1742. + + See E. and J. de Goncourt, _La Duchesse de Châteauroux et ses soeurs_ + (1879); Toussaint, _Anecdotes curieuses de ... Louis XV._ (2 vols., + 1905); J. B. H. R. Capefigue, _Mesdemoiselles de Nesle et la jeunesse + de Louis XV._ (1864). + + + + +MAIMANA, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The town is situated +100 m. S.W. of Balkh, and only some 25 m. from the frontier of Russian +Turkestan. It is about two-thirds the size of Herat, square built and +surrounded by a ruined wall and moat. The khanate was for long in +dispute between Bokhara and Kabul, but in 1868 Abdur Rahman laid siege +to the town, and it was compelled to come to terms. Its political status +as an Afghan province was definitely fixed by the Russo-Afghan boundary +commission of 1885. The inhabitants are chiefly Uzbegs. + + + + +MAIMAND, a town in the province of Fars, Persia, a few miles east of +Firuzabad and about 70 m. from Shiraz. It has a population of about +5000, almost wholly occupied with the manufacture and sale of +rose-water, which is largely exported to many parts of Persia as well as +to Arabia, India and Java. The district also produces great quantities +of almonds. The rose gardens cover several square miles. In 1349 a +great part of Maimand and of three little villages belonging to it +became _wakf_ (pious endowment) of the shrine at Shiraz of Mïr Ahmed, +surnamed Shah Chiragh, a son of Musa Kazim, the seventh imam of the +Shiahs, and the remainder of the Maimand grounds was given to the shrine +by Mir Habbib Ullah Sharifi and by Shah Ismail in 1504; the +administration of the Maimand property as well as the guardianship of +the shrine is still with the descendants of Mir Habbib Ullah. + + + + +MAIMBOURG, LOUIS (1610-1686), French Jesuit and historian, was born at +Nancy. He entered the Society of Jesus at the age of sixteen, and after +studying at Rome became a classical master in the Jesuit college at +Rouen. He afterwards devoted himself to preaching, but with only +moderate success. After having taken some part in minor controversies he +threw himself with energy into the dispute which had arisen as to the +Gallican liberties; for his _Traité historique sur les prérogatives de +l'Église de Rome_ (1682) he was by command of Innocent XI. expelled from +the Society, but rewarded by Louis XIV. with a residence at the abbey of +St Victor, Paris, and a pension. He died on the 13th of August 1686. His +numerous works include histories of Arianism, the iconoclastic +controversy, the Greek schism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, and of the +pontificates of Leo I. and Gregory I.; they are mere compilations, +written indeed in a very lively and attractive style, but inaccurate and +untrustworthy. + + _The History of Arianism_ was published in English (1728-1729) by + William Webster, with an appendix on the English writers in the + Socinian and Arian controversies. + + + + +MAIMING, mutilation, a physical injury which involves the loss of, or +incapacity to use, a bodily member. The verb "to maim," in M. E. +_maynhe_, _mahayme_, _mayme_, &c. was adopted from O. Fr. _mahaignier_: +cf. It. _magagnars_, Med. Lat. _mahemiare_, _mahennare_, &c. (see Du +Cange, _Gloss._, _s.v._ "Mahamium"). Maiming or mutilation is and has +been practised by many races with various ethnical and religious +significances, and was a customary form of punishment on the principle +of an "eye for an eye" (see MUTILATION). In law "maiming" is a criminal +offence; the old law term for a special case of maiming of persons was +"mayhem" (q.v.), an Anglo-French variant form of the word. Maiming of +animals by others than their owners is a particular form of the offences +generally grouped as "malicious damage." For the purpose of the law as +to this offence animals are divided into cattle, which includes horses, +pigs and asses, and other animals which are either subjects of larceny +at common law or are usually kept in confinement or for domestic +purposes. The punishment for maiming of cattle is three to fourteen +years' penal servitude. Malicious injury to other animals is a +misdemeanour punishable on summary conviction. For a second offence the +penalty is imprisonment with hard labour for over twelve months. +(Malicious Damage Act 1861.) Maiming of animals by their owner falls +under the Cruelty to Animals Acts. + + + + +MAIMON, SALOMON (1754-1800), German philosopher, was born of Jewish +parentage in Polish Lithuania, and died at Nieder-Siegersdorf on the +22nd of November 1800. He married at the age of twelve, and studied +medicine in Berlin. In 1770 he severed his connexion with his orthodox +co-religionists by his critical commentary on the _Moreh Nebuhim_ of +Maimonides, and devoted himself to the study of philosophy on the lines +of Wolff and Moses Mendelssohn. After many vicissitudes he found a +peaceful residence in the house of Count Kalkreuth at Nieder-Siegersdorf +in 1790. During the ensuing ten years he published the works which have +made his reputation as a critical philosopher. Hitherto his life had +been a long struggle against difficulties of all kinds. From his +autobiography, it is clear that his keen critical faculty was developed +in great measure by the slender means of culture at his disposal. It was +not till 1788 that he made the acquaintance of the Kantian philosophy, +which was to form the basis of his lifework, and as early as 1790 he +published the _Versuch über die Transcendentalphilosophie_, in which he +formulates his objections to the system. He seizes upon the fundamental +incompatibility of a consciousness which can apprehend, and yet is +separated from, the "thing-in-itself." That which is object of thought +cannot be outside consciousness; just as in mathematics [root](-1) is an +unreal quantity, so "things-in-themselves" are _ex hypothesi_ outside +consciousness, i.e. are unthinkable. The Kantian paradox he explains as +the result of an attempt to explain the origin of the "given" in +consciousness. The _form_ of things is admittedly subjective; the mind +endeavours to explain the _material_ of the given in the same terms, an +attempt which is not only impossible but involves a denial of the +elementary laws of thought. Knowledge of the given is, therefore, +essentially incomplete. Complete or perfect knowledge is confined to the +domain of pure thought, to logic and mathematics. Thus the problem of +the "thing-in-itself" is dismissed from the inquiry, and philosophy is +limited to the sphere of pure thought. The Kantian categories are, +indeed, demonstrable and true, but their application to the given is +meaningless and unthinkable. By this critical scepticism Maimon takes up +a position intermediate between Kant and Hume. Hume's attitude to the +empirical is entirely supported by Maimon. The casual concept, as given +by experience, expresses not a necessary objective order of things, but +an ordered scheme of perception; it is subjective and cannot be +postulated as a concrete law apart from consciousness. The main argument +of the _Transcendentalphilosophie_ not only drew from Kant, who saw it +in MS., the remark that Maimon alone of his all critics had mastered the +true meaning of his philosophy, but also directed the path of most +subsequent criticism. + + Maimon's chief works, in addition to the above quoted, are _Philos. + Wörterbuch_ (1791); _Streifereien im Gebiete der Philos._(1793); _Über + die Progresse der Philos._ (1793); _Die Kategorien des Aristoteles mit + Anmerkungen erläutert_ (1794); _Versuch einer neuen Logik_ (1794 and + 1798); _Kritische Untersuchungen über den menschl. Geist_ (1797). See + _S. Maimons Lebensgeschichte von ihm selbst beschrieben_ (1792, ed. K. + P. Moritz; Eng. trans. by J. C. Murray, 1888); Wolff, _Maimoniana_ + (1813); Witte, _S. Maimon_ (1876). + + + + +MAIMONIDES, the common name of RABBI MOSES BEN MAIMON (1135-1204), also +known from the initials of these last words as RAMBAM, Jewish +philosopher. His life falls into three epochs, which may be typified by +the towns in which they were passed, viz. Cordova, Fez and Cairo. He was +born in Cordova on the 20th of March 1135, the eve of Passover; he had a +brother, David, and one sister. His early years were spent in his native +town, which had then just passed the zenith of its glory. The Arab +rulers had fostered the development of science, art, medicine, +philosophy, literature and learning. All these influences played their +part in the education of Maimonides, whose father, besides training him +in all branches of Hebrew and Jewish scholarship, implanted in the youth +a sound knowledge of these secular studies as well. In 1148 Cordova was +taken from the last Fatimite caliph by the victorious Almohades, who had +spread over Spain from N. Africa. These militant revivalists strove to +re-establish Islam in what they considered its primitive simplicity. +They laid great stress on the unity of God, and tolerated neither schism +within the faith nor dissent without. The position of the orthodox +Spanish Jews became intolerable, and Maimon, after ten years of +hardships, wanderings and escapes, decided to take his family out of the +country. He settled in Fez. The years which Maimonides spent there +(1160-1165) were memorable for his friendship with Abdul Arab Ibn +Muisha--a Moslem poet and theologian--and for the commencement of his +literary activity. His energies were diverted towards stimulating the +religious feelings of his brethren and combating assimilation. In +consequence he became alarmed for his own safety, and in 1165 left for +Egypt, where he settled after a passing visit to the Holy Land. Cordova +taught him the humanities; Fez humanity. Cairo, besides giving him +prominence at court and in the Jewish community, was the centre of the +almost world-wide influence which he exercised over Jewry by his +monumental writings and dominant personality. By 1177 Maimonides was the +recognized chief of the Cairene congregation and consulted on important +matters by communities far and wide. Here he was joined by his most +famous disciple, Joseph Aknin. But his early life in Egypt was fraught +with deep sorrow. His father died soon after their arrival, and +Maimonides himself suffered severely from prostration and sickness. His +brother David, jointly with whom he carried on a trade in gems, was +shipwrecked in the Indian Ocean. With him perished the entire fortune of +the family. Forced to earn a livelihood, Maimonides turned to medicine. +The fame of his skill eventually brought him the appointment of body +physician to Saladin, to whom, it is said, he was so attached that when +Richard I. wrote from Ascalon, offering him a similar post at the +English court, Maimonides refused. He married the sister of Ibn al Mali, +one of the royal secretaries. In 1186, his son Abraham was born. His +remaining years were spent in ceaseless activity and in controversy, +which he sought to avoid. He died amidst universal sorrow and +veneration. + + The works of Maimonides fall into three periods: (a) To the Spanish + period belong his commentary on the whole Talmud (not fully carried + out), a treatise on the calendar (_Maamar ha-ibbur_), a treatise on + logic (_Milloth Higgayon_), and his commentary on the _Mishnah_ (this + was called _Siraj_ or _Maor_, i.e. "Light": begun 1158, completed + 1168 in Egypt). (b) While he was in Fez, he wrote an essay on the + Sanctification of the Name of God (_Maamar Kiddush Hashem_, _Iggereth + Hashemad_). (c) The works written in Egypt were: Letter to the + Yemenites (_Iggereth Teman_ or _Pethah Tiqvah_); _Responsa_ on + questions of law; Biblical and Rabbinical Code (_Misnheh Torah_ or + _Yad Hahazaka_, completed 1180); _Sepher hamitzvoth_, an abbreviated + handbook of the preceding; and his great philosophical work _Moreh + Nebuhim_ or "the guide of the perplexed" (1190). To these must be + added certain portions of the _Mishnah_ commentary, such as the "Eight + Chapters," the discussion on reward and punishment and immortality, + the Jewish Creed, which have acquired fame as independent works. + +The influence of Moses ben Maimon is incalculable. "From Moses unto +Moses there arose not one like Moses," is the verdict of posterity. +Maimonides was the great exponent of reason in faith and toleration in +theology. One of the main services to European thought of the "Guide" +was its independent criticism of some of Aristotle's principles. His +codification of the Talmud was equally appreciated in the study of the +scholar and in practical life. Christian Europe owed much to Maimonides. +Not only did his "Guide" influence scholasticism in general, but it was +from his Code that the Church derived its medieval knowledge of the +Synagogue. + + A complete bibliography will be found in _Maimonides_, by David Yellin + and Israel Abrahams (London, 1903); the final chapter of that work + gives a summary of the influence of Maimonides on Christian + philosophers such as Aquinas, and Jewish such as Spinoza. The "Guide" + has been translated into English by M. Friedlander (1881-1885; new + ed., 1905). See also _Jewish Encyclopedia_, articles _s.v._, and the + volumes edited by Guttmann, _Moses ben Maimon_ (Leipzig, 1908, &c.). + (H. Le.) + + + + +MAIN (Lat. _Moenus_), a river of Germany, and the most important +right-bank tributary of the Rhine. It has two sources, the Weisse Main +(White Main), which rises in the Fichtelgebirge on the east side of the +Ochsenkopf, and the Rote Main (Red Main), which, rising on the eastern +slope of the Frankish Jura, flows past Bayreuth. They unite 3 m. below +Kulmbach, 920 ft. above the sea. Hence the river, already of +considerable size, pursues a north-westerly direction, skirting the +spurs of the Frankish Jura in a pleasant valley. At Lichtenfels the +river takes a south-westerly course, which it retains until entering the +fertile basin of Bamberg. Here it receives from the south-east the +waters of its chief tributary, the Regnitz, and enters upon its middle +course. Its direction is now again north-west, and meandering through +pleasant vales and pastures it passes Hassfurt and reaches Schweinfurt. +Its course is now almost due south to Ochsenfurt, when it again proceeds +north-west. Continuing in this direction amid vine-clad hills, it washes +the walls of the university city of Würzburg, and thence, dividing the +forest-clad ranges of the Spessart and the Odenwald, reaches Gemünden. +Here it is joined from the right by the Frankish Saale and, turning +abruptly south, receives at Wertheim the beautiful Tauber. Feudal +castles and medieval towns now crown its banks, notably, Freudenberg and +Miltenberg. From the latter it proceeds due north to Aschaffenburg, +whence passing Frankfort it pours its yellow waters into the green +waters of the Rhine just above Mainz. The Main has a total length of 310 +m. and drains a basin of approximately 11,000 sq. m. It is navigable +from the confluence of the Regnitz, 240 m. from its mouth, for barges +and other small craft, and through the Ludwig Canal is connected with +the Danube. + + See Ulrici, _Das Maingebiet in seiner natürlichen Beschaffenheit_ + (Kassel, 1885); E. Faber, _Zur Hydrographie des Maingebiets_ (Munich, + 1895), and Lill, _Mainthal, Main und Mainschiffahrt_ (Berlin, 1904). + + + + +MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in "may" and "might," and Lat. +_magnus_, great), a word meaning properly power or strength, especially +physical. This use chiefly survives in the expression "with might and +main." The word is more common as a substantival elliptical use of the +adjective, which usually has the sense of principal or chief in size, +strength, importance, &c. Thus "the main," the high open sea, is for +"main sea," cf. "mainland," the principal part of a territory excluding +islands and sometimes far-projecting peninsulas. The expression "the +Spanish main" properly meant that part of the main land of the N.E. +coast of South America stretching from the Orinoco to the Isthmus of +Panama, and the former Spanish possessions in Central America bordering +on the Caribbean Sea, but it is often loosely used, especially in +connexion with the buccaneers, of the Caribbean Sea itself. The term +"main" is also thus used of a principal pipe or cable for conducting +gas, water, electricity, &c. The elliptical use does not appear, +however, in such expressions as main road, line, stream. Another use of +the word "main" has a somewhat obscure history. It appears as a term in +the game of hazard, and also in cock-fighting. In the last it is used +for a match, and for the cocks engaged in a match. In hazard it is the +number called by the "caster" before the dice are thrown; this may be +any number from five to nine inclusive. The usual derivation is from the +French _main_, a hand, but according to the _New English Dictionary_ +there is no evidence for this, and the more probable explanation is that +it is an adaptation of "main" meaning principal or chief. From this use +of the word in hazard the expression "main chance" is derived. "Main," a +shortened form of domain or demesne, only now survives in Scotland, +usually in the plural "mains" for a home farm. + + + + +MAINA (or MANI) and MAINOTES, a district and people of the Peloponnesus, +the modern Morea. Maina is the country occupied by the mountain range of +Taygetus from Sparta to Cape Matapan, the ancient Taenarum. It is now +divided between the modern districts Oetylos and Gythion. Before the +organization of the present kingdom of Greece, Maina was subdivided into +[Greek: Exô Manê], Outer Maina, from the frontier of Kalamata, on the +Gulf of Messenia, to Vitylo (Oetylos) and inland to the summit of +Taygetus; [Greek: Katô Manê], Lower Maina, from Vitylo to Cape Matapan; +and [Greek: Mesa Manê], or Inner Maina, on the east, and on the Gulf of +Laconia as far as the plain of Elos. It contained over a hundred +villages. The country is mountainous and inaccessible, a formation to +which it owes its historical importance. The Mainotes claim to descend +from the Spartans, and probably represent the Eleuthero, or free, +Laconians who were delivered by Rome from the power of Sparta, as is +suggested by the traces of ancient Greek in their dialect and by their +physical type. Their country being a natural fortress, they were able to +defend themselves against the Byzantine emperors, the barbarians who +broke into the empire, the Latin princes of Achaea of the house of +Villehardouin, and the Turks. As their country is also poor and +maritime, they were early tempted to take to piratical adventure. Gibbon +says that "in the time of Constantine Porphyrogenitus they had acquired +the name of Mainotes, under which they dishonour the claim of liberty by +the inhuman pillage of all that is shipwrecked on their rocky shore." +Their neighbours gave their country the name of "Kakaboulia"--the land +of wicked counsels. The passes of their mountains were elaborately +fortified and their villages were full of fortified towers (_pyrgoi_) +from which they formed their own favourite epithet, Maina +Polypyrgos--many-towered Maina. On the western side it also contains the +remains of feudal keeps, erected by William II. de Villehardouin +(1245-1278) and other Latin princes of Achaea. The Mainotes did not +become Christians till the 9th century. From the 15th till the 17th +century they recognized a family which claimed to belong to the Comneni +of Trebizond as head chiefs. But the real power was in the hands of the +chiefs of the different families and villages, who formed a turbulent +and martial aristocracy. Enduring and ferocious feuds were common among +them. In the course of the 18th century the family of Mavromicheli +(Black Michael), which belonged to lower Maina, established a general +headship over the Mainotes after much strife and many murders. When +Russia endeavoured to promote a rising against the Turks in the Morea in +1770 the Mainotes acted with her, and the strength of their country +enabled them to escape the vengeance of the Turks when the Christians +were cynically deserted by the Russians. In 1777 their practical +independence was recognized by the sultan's officers. During the Greek +war of independence the Mainotes were chiefly led by Petros (Petro Bey) +Mavromicheli, known to his countrymen as the king of Maina, who +undoubtedly cherished the hope of establishing a principality for +himself. The freedom of Greece, for which he had fought in his own way, +proved the ruin of his ambition. He found the new order less compatible +with his schemes than the Turkish dominion. Petro Bey was imprisoned by +the Greek president Capodistrias (see CAPO D'ISTRIA, COUNT.), who was in +revenge murdered by the Mavromichelis. The family were finally content +to become courtiers and officials in the reign of King Otto I. In the +19th century Maina was but little affected by civilization, except in so +far as the efficiency of modern navies debarred the Mainotes from their +old resource of piracy. + + See W. Martin Leake, _Travels in the Morea_ (1830); M. E. Yemeniz, "La + Maina," in _Revue des deux mondes_ (March 1, 1865); and Philipson, + "Zur Ethnographie des Peloponnes," in _Petermanns Mittheilungen_, vol. + 36 (Gotha). + + + + +MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BÉNÉDICTE DE BOURBON, DUCHESSE DU (1676-1753), +daughter of Henri Jules de Bourbon, prince de Condé and Anne of Bavaria, +was born on the 8th of November 1676. On the 19th of March 1692 she +married Louis Auguste de Bourbon, duc du Maine, son of Louis XIV. and +Mme de Montespan. The duchesse du Maine held a little court at Sceaux, +where she gave brilliant entertainments and immersed herself in +political intrigues. Displeased with the action of the regent Orleans in +degrading the illegitimate children of Louis XIV. from their precedence +above the peers of France, she induced her husband to join in the +Cellamare conspiracy for the transference of the regency to the king of +Spain. The plot, however, was discovered, and she was imprisoned in +1719. The following year she returned to Sceaux, where she resumed her +salon and gathered round her a brilliant company of wits and poets. She +died in Paris on the 23rd of January 1753. + + See Général de Piépape, _La Duchesse du Maine_ (1910). + + + + +MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822-1888), English comparative jurist +and historian, son of Dr James Maine, of Kelso, Roxburghshire, was born +on the 15th of August 1822. He was at school at Christ's Hospital, and +thence went up to Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1840. At Cambridge he +was one of the most brilliant classical scholars of his time. He won a +Craven scholarship and graduated as senior classic in 1844, being also +senior chancellor's medallist in classics. Shortly afterwards he +accepted a tutorship at Trinity Hall. In 1847 he was appointed regius +professor of civil law, and he was called to the bar three years later; +he held this chair till 1854. Even the rudiments of Roman law were not +then included in the ordinary training of English lawyers; it was +assumed at the universities that any good Latin scholar could qualify +himself at short notice for keeping up such tradition of civilian +studies as survived. Maine cannot have known much Roman law in 1847, +but in 1856 he contributed to the _Cambridge Essays_ the essay on Roman +law and legal education, republished in the later editions of _Village +Communities_, which was the first characteristic evidence of his genius. +Meanwhile he had become one of the readers appointed by the Inns of +Court, in the first of their many half-hearted attempts at legal +education, in 1852. Lectures delivered by Maine in this capacity were +the groundwork of _Ancient Law_ (1861), the book by which his reputation +was made at one stroke. Its object, as modestly stated in the preface, +was "to indicate some of the earliest ideas of mankind, as they are +reflected in ancient law, and to point out the relation of those ideas +to modern thought." Within a year of its publication the post of legal +member of council in India was offered to Maine, then a junior member of +the bar with little practice, few advantages of connexion, and no +political or official claims. He declined once, on grounds of health; +the very next year the office was again vacant. This time Maine was +persuaded to accept, not that his health had improved, but that he +thought India might not make it much worse. It turned out that India +suited him much better than Cambridge or London. His work, like most of +the work done by Englishmen in India in time of peace, was not of a +showy kind--its value is shown by the fact that he was asked to prolong +his services beyond the regular term of five years, and returned to +England only in 1869. The subjects on which it was his duty to advise +the government of India were as much political as legal. They ranged +from such problems as the land settlement of the Punjab, or the +introduction of civil marriage to provide for the needs of unorthodox +Hindus, to the question how far the study of Persian should be required +or encouraged among European civil servants. On the civil marriage +question in particular, and some years earlier on the still more +troublesome one of allowing the remarriage of native converts to +Christianity, his guidance, being not only learned but statesmanlike, +was of the greatest value. Plans of codification, moreover, were +prepared, and largely shaped, under Maine's direction, which were +carried into effect by his successors, Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen and Dr +Whitley Stokes. The results are open to criticism in details, but form +on the whole a remarkable achievement in the conversion of unwritten and +highly technical law into a body of written law sufficiently clear to be +administered by officers to many of whom its ideas and language are +foreign. All this was in addition to the routine of legislative and +consulting work and the establishment of the legislative department of +the government of India on substantially its present footing. + +Maine's power of swiftly assimilating new ideas and appreciating modes +of thought and conduct remote from modern Western life came into contact +with the facts of Indian society at exactly the right time, and his +colleagues and other competent observers expressed the highest opinion +of his work. In return Maine brought back from his Indian office a store +of knowledge which enriched all his later writings, though he took India +by name for his theme only once. This essay on India was his +contribution to the composite work entitled _The Reign of Queen +Victoria_ (ed. T. H. Ward, 1887). Not having been separately published, +it is perhaps the least known of Maine's writings; but its combination +of just perception and large grasp with command of detail is not easily +matched outside W. Stubbs's prefaces to some of the chronicles in the +Rolls series, and (more lately) F. W. Maitland's monographs. As +vice-chancellor of the university of Calcutta, Maine commented, with his +usual pregnant ingenuity, on the results produced by the contact of +Eastern and Western thought. Three of these addresses were published, +wholly or in part, in the later editions of _Village Communities_; the +substance of others is understood to be embodied in the Cambridge Rede +lecture of 1875, which is to be found in the same volume. The practical +side of Maine's experience was not long lost to India; he became a +member of the secretary of state's council in 1871, and remained so for +the rest of his life. In the same year he was gazetted a K.C.S.I. In +1869 Maine was appointed to the chair of historical and comparative +jurisprudence newly founded in the university of Oxford by Corpus +Christi College. Residence at Oxford was not required, and the election +amounted to an invitation to the new professor to resume and continue in +his own way the work he had begun in _Ancient Law_. During the +succeeding years he published the principal matters of his lectures in a +carefully revised literary form: _Village Communities in the East and +the West_ (1871); _Early History of Institutions_ (1875); _Early Law and +Custom_ (1883). In all these works the phenomena of societies in an +archaic stage, whether still capable of observation or surviving in a +fragmentary manner among more modern surroundings or preserved in +contemporary records, are brought into line, often with singular +felicity, to establish and illustrate the normal process of development +in legal and political ideas. + +In 1877 the mastership of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where Maine had +formerly been tutor, became vacant. There were two strong candidates +whose claims were so nearly equal that it was difficult to elect either; +the difficulty was solved by a unanimous invitation to Maine to accept +the post. His acceptance entailed the resignation of the Oxford chair, +though not continuous residence at Cambridge. Ten years later +considerations of a somewhat similar kind led to his election to succeed +Sir William Harcourt as Whewell professor of international law at +Cambridge. His all too short performance in this office is represented +by a posthumous volume which had not received his own final revision, +_International Law_ (1888). + +Meanwhile Maine had published in 1885 his one work of speculative +politics, a volume of essays on _Popular Government_, designed to show +that democracy is not in itself more stable than any other form of +government, and that there is no necessary connexion between democracy +and progress. The book was deliberately unpopular in tone; it excited +much controversial comment and some serious and useful discussion. + +In 1886 there appeared in the _Quarterly Review_ (clxii. 181) an article +on the posthumous work of J. F. M'Lennan, edited and completed by his +brother, entitled "The Patriarchal Theory." The article, though +necessarily unsigned (in accordance with the rule of the _Quarterly_ as +it then stood), was Maine's reply to the M'Lennan brothers' attack on +the historical reconstruction of the Indo-European family system put +forward in _Ancient Law_ and supplemented in _Early Law and Custom_. +Maine was generally averse from controversy, but showed on this occasion +that it was not for want of controversial power. He carried the war back +into the invader's country, and charged J. F. M'Lennan's theory of +primitive society with owing its plausible appearance of universal +validity to general neglect of the Indo-European evidence and +misapprehension of such portions of it as M'Lennan did attempt to +handle. + +Maine's health, which had never been strong, gave way towards the end of +1887. He went to the Riviera under medical advice, and died at Cannes on +the 3rd of February 1888. He left a wife and two sons, of whom the elder +died soon afterwards. + +An excellent summary of Maine's principal writings may be seen in Sir +Mountstuart Grant Duff's memoir. The prompt and full recognition of +Maine's genius by continental publicists must not pass unmentioned even +in the briefest notice. France, Germany, Italy, Russia have all +contributed to do him honour; this is the more remarkable as one or two +English publicists of an older school signally failed to appreciate him. +Maine warned his countrymen against the insularity which results from +ignorance of all law and institutions save one's own; his example has +shown the benefit of the contrary habit. His prominent use of Roman law +and the wide range of his observation have made his works as +intelligible abroad as at home, and thereby much valuable +information--for example, concerning the nature of British supremacy in +India, and the position of native institutions there--has been made the +property of the world of letters instead of the peculiar and obscure +possession of a limited class of British public servants. Foreign +readers of Maine have perhaps understood even better than English ones +that he is not the propounder of a system but the pioneer of a method, +and that detailed criticism, profitable as it may be and necessary as in +time it must be, will not leave the method itself less valid or diminish +the worth of the master's lessons in its use. The rather small bulk of +Maine's published and avowed work may be explained partly by a fine +literary sense which would let nothing go out under his name unfinished, +partly by the drawbacks incident to precarious health. Maine's +temperament was averse from the labour of minute criticism, and his +avoidance of it was no less a matter of prudence. But it has to be +remembered that Maine also wrote much which was never publicly +acknowledged. Before he went to India he was one of the original +contributors to the _Saturday Review_, founded in 1855, and the inventor +of its name. Like his intimate friend Fitzjames Stephen, he was an +accomplished journalist, enjoyed occasional article-writing as a +diversion from official duties, and never quite abandoned it. The +practice of such writing probably counted for something in the freedom +and clearness of Maine's style and the effectiveness of his dialectic. +His books are a model of scientific exposition which never ceases to be +literature. + + See Sir A. Lyall and others, in _Law Quart. Rev._ iv. 129 seq. (1888); + Sir F. Pollock, "Sir Henry Maine and his Work," in _Oxford Lectures, + &c._ (1890); "Sir H. Maine as a Jurist," _Edin. Rev._ (July 1893); + Introduction and Notes to new ed. of _Ancient Law_ (1906); Sir M. E. + Grant Duff, _Sir Henry Maine: a brief Memoir of his Life, &c._ (1892); + _Notes from a Diary_, _passim_; L. Stephen, "Maine" in _Dict. Nat. + Biog._ (1893); Paul Vinogradoff, _The Teaching of Sir Henry Maine_ + (1904). (F. Po.) + + + + +MAINE, an old French province, bounded N. by Normandy, E. by Orléanais, +S. by Touraine and Anjou, and W. by Brittany. Before the Roman Conquest +the region occupied by this province was inhabited by the Aulerci +Cenomanni and the Aulerci Diablintes; under the Roman empire it +consisted of two _civitates_ comprised in the Provincia Lugdunensis +Tertia--the Civitas Cenomannorum and the Civitas Diablintum, whose chief +towns were Le Mans and Jublains. These two _civitates_ were united +during the barbarian period and formed a single bishopric, that of Le +Mans, suffragan to the metropolitan see of Tours. Under the Merovingians +and Carolingians the diocese of Le Mans corresponded to the Pagus +Cenomanensis, and in the feudal period to the county of Maine. In the +16th century the county of Maine, with the addition of Perche, formed a +military government--the province of Maine. Since 1790 this province has +been represented approximately by the departments of Sarthe and Mayenne, +the respective capitals of which are Le Mans and Laval. In 1855 the +bishopric of Laval was separated from that of Le Mans. Maine was +evangelized in the 3rd century by St Julian. After forming part of the +kingdom of Syagrius, it was conquered by Clovis at the end of the 5th +century. Owing to the scarcity of documents the history of Maine until +the end of the 9th century is merged in the history of the bishops of Le +Mans, which has come down to us in the _Actus pontificum Cenomannis in +urbe degentium_ (ed. Busson-Ledru, Le Mans, 1901), composed under the +direction of Bishop Aldric (832-857). Roger (_c._ 892-_c._ 898) was +perhaps the first hereditary count of Maine; the counts whose existence +is certain are Hugh I. (_c._ 939-before 992), Hugh II. (before +992-1015), Herbert I. (1015-1032 to 1036), Hugh III. (1032 to +1036-1051), Herbert II. (1051-1062), William the Bastard (1063-1087), +Robert Curthose (1087-1091), Hugh IV. (1091-1092) and Helias +(1092-1110). Maine, which was in the vassalage of Anjou as early as the +9th century, was united to Anjou in 1110 by the marriage of Count +Helias's daughter to Fulk V., count of Anjou, and passed to the English +crown in 1154, when Henry Plantagenet (who was born at Le Mans) became +king of England. In 1204, after the confiscation of the estates of John +of England, Maine was united to France; in 1246 it was separated from +France by Louis IX., who handed it over to his brother Charles, count of +Provence. Again united to France in 1328, it was given in 1356 as an +apanage to Louis, second son of King John II., and did not definitely +return to the French crown until 1481, after the death of Charles II., +count of Maine. During the Hundred Years' War Maine was taken in 1425 by +the English, who lost it in 1448. + + See _Histoire de l'église du Mans_, by Dom Piolin (Paris, 1851-1858), + which is useful but out of date; _Revue historique et archéologique du + Maine_ (1876); _La Province du Maine_ (1893); B. Hauréau, _Histoire + littéraire du Maine_ (1870-1877). + + + + +MAINE, a North Atlantic state of the United States of America, the most +north-easterly state in the Union, and the largest of the New England +group. It lies between 43° 4´ and 47° 27´ 33´´ N., and between 66° 56´ +48´´ and 71° 6´ 41´´ W. It is bounded N.W. by the Canadian province of +Quebec; N. and E. by the Canadian province of New Brunswick, from which +it is separated in part by the natural barriers of the Saint John River, +the Grand (or Schoodic) Lakes, the Saint Croix River, and Passamaquoddy +Bay; S.S.E. by the Atlantic Ocean; and W. by New Hampshire, the +Piscataqua and Salmon Falls rivers being the natural boundary lines at +the S.W. The area of the state is 33,040 sq. m., 3145 sq. m. being water +surface. + +Maine attracts more summer visitors than any other state in the Union. +This is due to the cool and refreshing summer climate; the picturesque +coast and its many islands, which are favourite grounds for camps and +summer cottages; the mountains, and the beautiful lakes and rivers, many +of which afford opportunities for good fishing and canoeing. Among the +more widely known resorts are Mount Desert Island, on which is Bar +Harbor, a fashionable summer place of great beauty; Long Island, Orr's +and other islands in Casco Bay; Old Orchard, with a gently sloping white +sand sea-beach 9 m. long, Rangeley and Moosehead Lakes, favourite +resorts of fishermen and hunters; Mt Katahdin, in the heart of the moose +country; and Poland Springs (38 m. by rail from Portland) in +Androscoggin county, near lake Anasigunticook. About 1870, camps, summer +cottages, summer hotels and boarding houses began to multiply throughout +the state. The needs of this summer population gave a new impulse and a +new turn to agriculture; and the demand for souvenirs revived among the +Indians basket-weaving, moccasin-making, and such crafts. + + _Physical Features._--The surface is a gently rolling upland, forming + a part of the "New England uplands," above which rise isolated + mountain peaks and clusters of peaks, and below which are cut numerous + river valleys.[1] The highest peak is Mt Katahdin (5200 ft.), a little + N.E. of the centre of the state in Piscataquis county, which rises + from a comparatively level upland. South-west of Katahdin, in Franklin + county, are most of the other high peaks of the state: Saddleback + Mountain (4000 ft.), Mt Abraham (3388 ft.), Mt Bigelow (3600 ft.), and + Mt Blue (3200 ft.). A little N. of this line of mountain peaks is the + water-parting which divides the state into a north slope and a south + slope. The north slope descends gently both to the N. and to the E.; + although quite hilly in the middle and western portions it is so + poorly drained that swamps abound in all sections. The south slope + which contains nearly all the mountains and is generally more hilly, + has a mean descent toward the sea of about 7 ft. to the mile, the fall + being greater in the W., where the mountains are high at the N. and + the shore low at the S., and less to the E., where the water-parting + is lower and the shore high and rocky. + + After the uplift which caused the rivers to cut below the general + "uplands," and develop well marked valleys for themselves, came the + period of the great continental glaciation. The glacier or ice sheet + overran all Maine, irregularly scouring out the bed rock to produce + rock basins, damming up many river valleys with glacial deposits and + completely disarranging the drainage lines. When the ice melted, the + rock basins and the dammed-up valleys filled with water to produce + lakes. This is the origin of the numerous lakes of Maine, which give + it some of its most beautiful scenery, and help to make it a holiday + resort in summer. These lakes are about 1600 in number, are scattered + in all parts of the state, are especially numerous at high elevations, + and have an aggregate area of more than 2000 sq. m. Few other regions + have so many large lakes so variously situated, and with such beauty + of aspect and surroundings. They contribute largely to a constant + supply of water power for which the course of the rivers of S.W. Maine + are exceptionally well adapted, many of them abound in trout, salmon, + togue, black bass and pickerel; and near them there is still much + game. Moosehead Lake (about 120 sq. m.; 35 m. long and from 2 m. to 10 + m. wide), on the boundary between Piscataquis and Somerset counties, + is the largest in Maine and the largest inland body of water wholly in + New England; the Kennebec River is its principal outlet and Mt Kineo + rises abruptly to about 1760 ft. above the sea (about 700 ft. above + the lake) on its eastern shore. Other lakes, such as the Rangeley + Lakes,[2] Chesuncook and Twin Lakes on the Penobscot, and the Grand or + Schoodic Lakes, in the western boundary at the head waters of the + Saint Croix River, equal or surpass Moosehead in picturesqueness. The + glacier or ice sheet, above referred to, deposited till or boulder + clay, which was compacted under the enormous pressure of the ice sheet + to form the "hard-pan" referred to later. The glaciation is also + responsible for the poor soil of most of the state, for, although the + rocks are the same crystallines which give good soils further south in + unglaciated regions, all the decayed portions of the Maine rocks have + been removed by glacial erosion, revealing fresh, barren rock over + great areas, or depositing the rather sterile hard-pan as a thin + coating in other places. + + After the uplift came a period of subsidence, during which this region + sank one or more thousand feet, allowing the sea to encroach on the + land and run far inland into the previously made river valleys. This + depression probably occurred during the glacial period, perhaps toward + its close, and is responsible for the second most important feature of + Maine physiography, the embayed coast. To this subsidence are due the + picturesque coastal scenery, the numerous islands and bays, the good + harbours and the peculiar coast-line. + + The shortest distance between the N.E. and the S.W. extremities of the + coast is only 225 m.; but, on account of projections and indentations, + the coast-line measures not less than 2500 m. The headlands, the deep + indentations and the numerous islands in the bays and beyond produce a + beautiful mingling of land and sea and give to the whole ocean front + the appearance of a fringed and tasselled border; west of the mouth of + the Kennebec River are a marshy shore and many low grassy islands; but + east of this river the shore becomes more and more bold, rising in the + precipitous cliffs and rounded summits of Mt Desert and Quoddy Head, + 1527 and 1000 ft. high respectively. All along the coast-line there + are capacious and well-protected harbours, Casco, Penobscot, + Frenchman's, Machias and Passamaquoddy bays being especially + noteworthy. + + After the subsidence came another period of uplift, possibly still in + progress. This uplift has brought up submarine deposits of sand, &c., + to form little coastal plains at some points along the coast, + providing good land for settlement and clay for brick and pottery. + Further evidence of this uplift is found in old beach lines now well + above sea-level. + + The principal river systems of Maine are the Saint John on the north + slope, and the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Androscoggin, and the Saco + on the south slope. The mean height of the basin of the St John is + exceeded only by that of the Androscoggin, but the fall of the St John + River through the greater part of its course in Maine is only + sufficient to give a sluggish or a gentle current. The Penobscot, + Kennebec, Androscoggin and Saco have numerous falls and rapids. + + _Fauna._--The animal life of Maine shows a mixture of northern and + southern forms, and very little that is peculiar as compared with + surrounding regions. The state has moose, caribou and deer, especially + in the northern part. The black bear, wolf, catamount, wolverine, wild + cat, fox, beaver, racoon, marten, sable, woodchuck, skunk, otter, + mink, rabbit and squirrel are also found. Geese, ducks and other water + fowl frequent the lakes and bays in the migratory season, and eagles, + gulls, hawks, kingfishers, owls, plover, woodcock, "partridge" (ruffed + grouse), robins, orioles, bobolinks, blue birds, swallows, sparrows, + and many other insectivorous birds are common. In the inland waters + salmon, trout, togue (_Salvelinus namaycush_), pickerel and bass + abound; along the shore there are lobsters, clams and scallops + (_Pecten irradians_); and off the shore are herring, alewives, + mackerel, cod, halibut, haddock, smelts, hake, menhaden, porgies and + porpoises. The game in the North Woods attracts large numbers of + sportsmen during the autumn season. + + [Illustration: Map of Maine.] + + _Flora._--Maine was formerly covered with forests, principally of + white pine and spruce, but mixed with these were some hemlock, + tamarack, cedar, and, on the south slope, birch, poplar, oak, maple + and beech. Chestnut and walnut are rare and are found only near the + south-west border. In 1900 about 21% of the state's area was cleared, + and much besides had once been cleared, but not being suited to + agriculture had become reforested. Of fruit trees the chief is the + apple. The plum, cherry and pear also thrive. The peach grows well + only in the south-west near the border. Species of grape, gooseberry + and currant are native, and others are cultivated with advantage. The + blackberry, raspberry, blueberry and strawberry grow wild in profusion + throughout the state. + + _Climate._--The climate of the state is moist and, for its latitude, + cold. Extremes of temperature are not so great as farther inland in + the same latitude; for the summer heats are tempered by the sea and + the cool north winds, and the winter cold is so constant as to be less + severely felt than the changing temperature of more southern + districts. The summers are short, there being only about 4½ months + between frosts even in the southern sections, and the mean summer + temperature is about 62° F. The mean winter temperature is + approximately 20° F., and the mean annual temperature for the entire + state is 42° F., that for the north slope being about 5° F. less than + that for the south slope. Although the temperature remains pretty + steadily below the freezing point for at least three months of the + year, many of the harbours remain unobstructed; for the tides and the + prevailing off-shore winds break up and drive off the ice. The + precipitation is about 42 in. annually, and is distributed very evenly + throughout the year, 10-11 in. of rain or its equivalent in snow + falling each season. During 4½ months about 44% of the precipitation + is in the form of snow; but the snow-fall varies from about 60 in. on + the coast to more than 100 in. on the north slope. The winds are + variable; at no season of the year is it usual for them to blow from + the same direction for many days in succession. But, with the + exception of those from the west, they are maritime and consequently + moisture-bearing. In summer, especially in the latter part of it, the + cool and moist N. or N.E. winds often cause a considerable part of the + state to be enveloped in fog for several days in succession. + + _Agriculture._--The soil is for the most part glacial drift, + containing a large mixture of clay with sand or gravel, and the + subsoil is mostly "hard-pan," i.e. mingled clay and boulders which + have been so much compressed by glacial action as to make the mixture + hard and ledge-like. Except in the valley of the Aroostook and along + the Kennebec, the Penobscot, and some other rivers, the soil is + generally unfit for cultivation, there being too little alluvium mixed + with it to make it fertile. In the Aroostook valley, however, is the + largest undivided area of good arable land in all New England, the + soil being a deep, porous, yellow loam well adapted to the growth of + cereals and to market gardening. The most sterile regions are on the + mountains and along the coast. Because of the cold climate, the large + areas in which there is little or no good arable land, the growing + demand for timber land, and the large and constant supply of + water-power afforded by the principal rivers, agriculture in Maine, as + in all the other New England states except Vermont, is a smaller + industry than manufacturing; in 1900 there were 87,932 people engaged + in manufacturing and only 76,932 engaged in agriculture. Only 32.9% of + the state's land area was in that year included in farms, only 37.9% + of this farm land was improved, and only 16.3% of the improved land + was in crops other than hay and forage. Nevertheless, as indicated by + the unusually large proportion of farmers who either own their farms + or pay cash rent for them, farming usually is profitable. The number + of farms in 1900 was 59,299; of these 18,644 contained between 50 and + 100 acres and 17,191 contained between 100 and 175 acres, the average + size being 106.2 acres; 54,263 (or 91.5%) were operated by their + owners, 775 were operated by part owners, 2030 by cash tenants, and + only 745 by share tenants. Beginning with the middle of the 19th + century, the increasing competition of the more productive soils of + the West, the growth of urban population in the state, and the number + of summer visitors effected the reforesting of much poor land and the + more intensive cultivation of the better arable land. The cultivation + of cereals, for example, has given way to a marked extent in nearly + all the farming districts except in Aroostook county to market + gardening, dairying, and egg and poultry production. The number of + dairy cows increased from 157,240 in 1890 to 183,000 in 1908, and the + annual production of milk increased from 57,969,791 gallons in 1890 to + 99,586,188 gallons in 1900. The number of other neat cattle (180,878 + in 1900; 151,000 in 1908) decreased during every decade from 1860 to + 1900; the number of sheep in 1900 was 427,209 (31.9% less than in + 1890), and in 1908 it was 267,000; but the number of horses in 1890 + and 1900 was about the same (140,310 in 1960, but only 116,000 in + 1908). Hay is still by far the largest crop, the acreage of it and of + forage in 1899 being 1,270,254 acres, or 76.5% of that of all crops, + and the yield was 1,133,932 tons; in 1907 the acreage was 1,400,000 + acres, and the crop was 2,100,000 tons. The acreage of cereals + decreased from 187,013 in 1880, when agriculture in Aroostook county + was little developed, to 166,896 in 1899, when the cereal acreage in + Aroostook county alone was 82,069. Maine potatoes are of a superior + quality, and the acreage of this crop increased from 49,617 in 1889 to + 118,000 in 1907. Sweet Indian corn, cabbages, turnips, cucumbers and + tomatoes are grown in large quantities. The fruit crop consists very + largely of apples and strawberries (1,421,773 bushels of apples and + 1,066,860 quarts of strawberries in 1899). The output of eggs + increased from 9,369,534 dozen in 1889 to 13,304,150 dozen in 1899. + The most productive dairy section of the state is a belt extending + from the south-west corner N.E. entirely across the state and + embracing the whole or parts of the counties of York, Oxford, + Cumberland, Androscoggin, Kennebec, Penobscot and Aroostook. + + _Lumber Industry._--Except in the remote parts, the valuable white + pine, for which Maine was long noted, has been cut; but the woodland + of the state was estimated in 1900 at 23,700 sq. m. or 79% of its + area. The tendency is for this area to increase, for the establishment + between 1890 and 1900 of large paper and pulp mills on some of the + principal rivers of the south slope greatly increased the value of + forests, especially those of spruce and poplar. The state makes large + appropriations for preventing and extinguishing forest fires, and in + 1903 established a department of forestry in the university of Maine. + Good spruce, which is by far the most valuable timber in the state and + is used most largely for the manufacture of paper and pulp, stands in + large quantities in the St John, Penobscot, Androscoggin and Kennebec + basins. Poplar, also used for the manufacture of paper, abounds in + several sections of the south slope, but is most abundant in the basin + of the Kennebec. White birch, used largely for the manufacture of + spools, is found throughout a wide belt extending across the middle of + the state. There is much cedar on the north slope. Oak, maple and + beech are rather scarce. A new growth of white pine and other timber + is gradually becoming valuable. The value of the timber product + increased from $11,849,654 in 1890 to $13,489,401 in 1900, and to + $17,937,683 in 1905. + + _Fisheries._--Fishing has always been an important industry in Maine. + From 1901 to 1904 inclusive, the average annual catch amounted to + 195,335,646 lb., and its average value was $5,557,083. In 1908, + according to state reports, the catch was 185,476,343 lb., valued at + $3,849,900. Herrings are caught in largest quantities (in 1908, + according to state reports, 68,210,800 lb., valued at $450,665), and + Maine is noted for the canning of the smaller herrings under the name + of "sardines." In 1908, according to state reports, the take of + lobsters was 17,635,980 lb. valued at $1,558,252. Maine markets more + clams than any other state in the Union, and the catches of cod, hake, + haddock, smelt, mackerel, swordfish, shad, pollock, cusk, salmon, + alewives, eels and halibut are of importance. The scallop fishery is + becoming more and more valuable. For the protection and promotion of + the lobster fishery the United States government has established a + lobster hatchery at Boothbay Harbor; and the state legislature enacted + a law in 1895 prohibiting the taking of lobsters less than 10-1/2 in. + in length (one effect of this law being to drive the lobster-canning + industry from the state) and another law in 1903 for the protection of + lobsters with eggs attached. This latter law directs the state fish + commissioner to purchase such lobsters whenever caught and either to + liberate them or to sell them to the United States for keeping in a + fish hatchery. + + _Minerals._--The principal mineral products are granite, limestone, + slate, clay products and mineral waters. In 1905 Maine held first rank + among the states of the Union as a producer of granite, the value of + the output being $2,713,795. In 1907 Maine's granite was valued at + $2,146,420, that of Massachusetts at $2,328,777, and that of Vermont + at $2,693,889. The stone is of superior quality, and the largest part + of it is used for building purposes; much of it is used as paving + blocks and some for monuments. It abounds all along the coast east of + the Kennebec and on the adjacent islands, and is found farther inland, + especially about the Rangeley lakes in Franklin and Oxford counties, + and, near Mt Katahdin, in Penobscot and Piscataquis counties. The + principal quarries, however, are situated in positions most convenient + for shipment by water, in the vicinity of Penobscot bay and in + Kennebec county, and these have supplied the bulk of the material used + in the construction of many prominent buildings and monuments in the + United States. The Fox Island granite comes from the quarries on + Vinalhaven Island and the surrounding islands, and on Vinalhaven were + quarried monolithic columns 51.5 to 54 ft. long and 6 ft. in diameter + for the Cathedral of St John the Divine in New York City. Black + granite was quarried in 1907 at 12 quarries, in York, Lincoln, Waldo, + Penobscot and Washington counties. Limestone abounds, especially in + the south-east part of the state, but it is quarried chiefly in Knox + county. As its colour--blue and blue-black streaked with + white--renders it undesirable for building purposes, nearly all of it + is burned into lime, which has become a very important article of + manufacture in the city of Rockland; the industry dates back to 1733 + in Knox county. In 1907 the quantity of lime burned in Maine was + 159,494 tons and its value was $747,947. Slate is quarried chiefly in + Piscataquis county, most of it being used for roofing, but some for + blackboards; in 1907 the amount quarried in Maine was valued at + $236,106. About 1896 some remarkably white and pure feldspar began to + be quarried in Androscoggin, Oxford and Sagadahoc counties, but + afterwards the spar mined in Maine was of less excellent quality; in + 1907 the production in Maine was valued at $157,334, the total for the + entire country being $499,069. Clay is obtained in various places, and + in 1905 the total value of the clay products was $619,294. In Oxford + county tourmaline, spodumene (or kunzite) and beryl occur, the + tourmaline crystals being notably large and beautiful. Mineral water + occurs in many localities, particularly in Androscoggin, York, + Cumberland and Oxford counties; the most famous springs are the Poland + Springs in Androscoggin county. Most of the mineral waters bottled in + the state are chalybeate and slightly alkaline--saline; their average + temperature is about 43°. In 1908 27 springs were reported, their + aggregate sales amounting to 1,182,322 gallons. Copper, gold alloyed + with platinum, iron ore, barytes, graphite and lead occur in small + quantities in the state. In 1908 the total mineral product of the + state was valued at $7,044,678. + + _Manufactures._--Although Maine has no coal and only a very small + amount of iron ore within her borders for the encouragement of + manufacturing, yet the abundance of fine timber and the numerous + coves, bays and navigable streams along or near the coast promoted + ship-building from the first, and this was the leading industry of the + state until about the middle of the 19th century, when wooden ships + began to be supplanted by those of iron and steel. Until about the + same time, when the Maine liquor law was passed, the manufacture of + rum from molasses, received in exchange for lumber and fish in the + West Indies, was also an important industry. It was not until early in + the 19th century that the large and constant supply of water power + afforded by the rivers began to be used to any considerable extent. + The first cotton mill was built at Brunswick on the Androscoggin about + 1809, and from 1830 the development of cotton manufacturing was rapid; + woollen mills followed, and late in the 19th century were erected some + of the largest paper and pulp mills in the country, which are run by + water power from the rivers, and use the spruce and poplar timber in + the river basins. The total value of the manufactures of the state + increased from $95,689,500 in 1890 to $127,361,485 in 1900; and in + 1905 the value of factory-made products alone was $144,020,197, or + 27.5% greater than their value in 1900.[3] Measured by the value of + the output, paper and wood pulp rose from fifth among the state's + manufactures in 1890 to third in 1900 and to first in 1905; from + $3,281,051 in 1890 to $13,223,275 in 1900, an increase of 303% within + the decade, and to $22,951,124 in 1905, a further increase of 73.6% in + this period. Lumber and timber products ranked second + (1905)--$11,849,654 in 1890, $13,489,401 in 1900, and $17,937,683 in + 1905. Cotton goods ranked third (1905) in value--$15,316,909 in 1890, + $14,631,086 in 1900, and $15,404,823 in 1905. Woollen goods ranked + fourth (1905)--$8,737,653 in 1890, $13,744,126 in 1900, an increase of + 57.3% within the decade; and the value of the factory-made product + alone in 1905 was $13,969,600, or 20.1% greater than in 1900. Boots + and shoes ranked fifth (1905)--$12,295,847 in 1900, and $12,351,293 in + 1905. Fish, canned and preserved, followed next, $1,660,881 in 1890 + and $4,779,773 in 1900, an increase within the decade of 187.8%, most + of which was in one branch--the canning of small herring under the + name "sardines"; from 1900 to 1905 the increase was slight, only + $275,358, or 5.8%. In the value of its manufactures as compared with + those of the other states of the Union, in wooden ships and boats, + Maine in 1900 and in 1905 was outranked by New York only; in canned + and preserved fish by Washington only (the value of fish canned and + preserved in Maine in 1900 was 21.7% of the total for the United + States, and in 1905 19.2%); in the output of woollen mills by + Massachusetts and Pennsylvania only; in the output of paper mills by + New York and Massachusetts only. It ranked ninth in 1900 and tenth in + 1905 in the value of its cotton goods. Portland, Lewiston, Biddeford, + and Auburn are the leading manufacturing cities, and in 1905 the total + value of their manufactures was 21.5% of those of the entire state. + But from 1900 to 1905 the value of manufactures grew most rapidly in + Rockland (especially noted for lime), the increase being from + $1,243,881 to $1,822,591 (46.5%), and in Waterville, where the + increase was from $2,283,536 to $3,069,309 (34.4%). Among the largest + paper mills are those at Millinocket, in Penobscot county, at Madison + on the Kennebec river, and at Rumford Falls on the Androscoggin river. + Lewiston leads in the manufacture of cotton goods; Auburn, Bangor and + Augusta, in the manufacture of boots and shoes; Bath, in ship and boat + building; Eastport and Lubec, in canning "sardines." + + _Transportation and Commerce._--The south-western part of the state, + including the manufacturing, the quarrying, and much of the older + agricultural district, early had fairly satisfactory means of + transportation either by water or by rail; for the coast has many + excellent harbours, the Kennebec river is navigable for coast vessels + to Augusta, the Penobscot to Bangor, and railway service was soon + supplied for the villages of the south-west, but it was not until the + last decade of the 19th century that the forests, the farming lands, + and the summer resorts of Aroostook county were reached by a railway, + the Bangor & Aroostook. The first railway in the state, from Bangor to + Old Town, was completed in 1836, and the state's railway mileage + increased from 12 m. in that year to 245 m. in 1850, to 1377.47 m. in + 1890, and to 2210.79 in January 1909. The principal railway systems + are the Maine Central, which enters every county but one, the Boston & + Maine, the Bangor & Aroostook, the Grand Trunk and the Canadian + Pacific. Lines of steamboats ply regularly between the largest cities + of the state and Boston, between Portland and New York, and between + Portland and several Canadian ports. + + The foreign trade, especially that with the West Indies and with Great + Britain, decreased after 1875, and yet much trade from the West that + goes to Montreal during the warmer months passes through Portland + during the winter season. The chief exports to foreign countries are + textile fabrics, Indian corn, meat, dairy products, apples, paraffin, + boards and shooks; the chief imports from foreign countries are sugar, + molasses and wool. Fish, canned goods, potatoes, granite, lime, paper, + and boots and shoes are also exported to foreign countries to some + extent, but they are shipped in larger quantities to other states of + the Union, from which Maine receives in return cotton, coal, iron, + oil, &c. The ports of entry in Maine are Bangor, Bath, Belfast, + Castine, Eastport, Ellsworth, Houlton, Kennebunk, Machias, Portland, + Wiscasset and York. + +_Population._--The population in 1880 was 648,936; in 1890, 661,086; in +1900, 694,466; and in 1910, 742,371.[4] From 1880 to 1900 there was an +increase of only 7%, a percentage which was exceeded in every other +state in the Union except Nevada and Vermont. Of the total population of +1900, 599,291, or 86.3%, were native whites, 93,330 were foreign-born, +1,319 were negroes, 798 were Indians, 119 were Chinese, and 4 were +Japanese. Of the inhabitants born in the United States, 588,211, or +97.8%, were natives of New England and 560,506 were natives of Maine, +and of the foreign-born 67,077, or 71.8%, were natives of Canada (36,169 +English and 30,908 French), and 10,159, or 10.8%, were natives of +Ireland. Of the total population, 199,734 were of foreign +parentage--i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-born--and 89,857 +were of Canadian parentage, both on the father's and on the mother's +side (41,355 English and 48,502 French). The French-speaking inhabitants +probably number considerably more than 50,000. They are of two quite +distinct classes. One, numbering about 15,000, includes those who became +citizens by the establishment of the northern boundary in 1842 and their +descendants. They are largely of Acadian stock. The state has +established among them a well-appointed training school for teachers, +conducted in the English language, the graduates of which render +excellent service in the common schools. The other class is of +French-Canadian immigrants, who find profitable employment in the +manufacturing centres. The colony of Swedes established by the state +near its north-eastern border in 1870 has proved in every way +successful. The Indians are remnants of the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy +tribes, the Passamaquoddies being a little the more numerous. The +Penobscots' chief gathering places are on the islands of the Penobscot +river north of Old Town; the Passamaquoddies', on the shores of +Passamaquoddy Bay and the banks of the Saint Croix river. + +Roman Catholics are more numerous than all the Protestant sects taken +together, having in 1906 a membership of 113,419 out of a total of +212,988 in all denominations. In the last decade of the 19th century the +urban population (i.e. population of places having 4,000 inhabitants or +more) increased from 226,268 to 251,685, or 11.2%; the semi-urban +population (i.e. population of incorporated places, or the approximate +equivalent, having less than 4,000 inhabitants) increased from 14,221 to +26,674, or 87.5%; while the rural population (i.e. population outside of +incorporated places) decreased from 420,597 to 416,134, or 1%. The +principal cities of the state are: Portland, pop. (1910), 58,571; +Lewiston, 26,247; Bangor, 24,803; Biddeford, 17,079; Auburn, 15,064; +Augusta (the capital), 13,211; Waterville, 11,458; Bath, 9,396; +Westbrook, 8,281; and Rockland, 8,174. + +_Administration._--Maine has had but one state constitution; this was +ratified in December 1819, about three months before the admission of +the state into the Union. It admits of amendment by a two-thirds vote of +both houses of the legislature followed by a majority vote of the +electorate at the next September election; or, as provided by an +amendment adopted in 1875, the legislature may by a two-thirds vote of +each house summon a constitutional convention. From 1819 to 1875 twelve +amendments were adopted; in 1875, after nine more were added, the +twenty-one were incorporated in the text; and between 1875 and 1899 nine +more were adopted. Suffrage is conferred by the constitution on all male +citizens of the United States who are at least twenty-one years of age +and have, for some other reason than because of being in the military, +naval or marine service of the United States, or of being students at +college, lived in the state for three months next preceding any +election; the following classes, however, are excepted: paupers, persons +under guardianship, Indians not taxed, and, as provided by an amendment +adopted in 1892, persons intellectually incapable of reading the state +constitution in the English language or of writing their names. State +elections were annual until 1897 when they were made biennial; they are +held on the second Monday in September in even numbered years, Maine +being one of the few states in the Union in which they are not held in +November. + + The governor is the only executive officer of the state elected by + popular vote. There is no lieutenant-governor, the president of the + Senate succeeding to the office of governor in case of a vacancy, but + there is a council of seven members elected by the legislature (not + more than one from any one senatorial district), whose sole function + is to advise the governor. The governor's term of office is two years + (before 1879 it was one year); and the constitution further directs + that he shall be at least thirty years of age at the beginning of his + term, that he shall be a native-born citizen of the United States, + that when elected he shall have been a resident of the state for five + years, and that he shall reside in the state while in office. His + power of appointment is unusually extensive and the advice and consent + of the council (instead of that of the Senate as in other states) are + required for his appointments. He appoints all judges, coroners and + notaries public, besides all other civil and military officers for + whose appointment neither the constitution nor the laws provide + otherwise. The governor is commander-in-chief of the state militia. + Any bill of which he disapproves he can within five days after its + passage prevent from becoming a law unless it is passed over his veto + by a two-thirds vote of each house of the legislature. He and the + council examine and pass upon election returns; he may summon extra + sessions of the legislature, and he may grant pardons, reprieves, and + commutations in all cases except impeachment, but the manner of + hearing applications for pardon is in a measure prescribed by statute, + and he must present to the legislature an account of each case in + which he grants a pardon. His salary is $2,000 a year. The seven + members of the council, the secretary of state, the treasurer, the + attorney general and the commissioner of agriculture are elected + biennially by a joint ballot of the two houses of the legislature, + which also elects, one every two years, the three state assessors, + whose term is six years. + + The legislature meets biennially at Augusta, the capital, and is + composed of a Senate of thirty-one members and a House of + Representatives of one hundred and fifty-one members. Members of each + house are elected for a term of two years: one senator from each + senatorial district and one to seven representatives (one for a + population of 1,500, and seven for a population of 26,250) from each + township, or, where the township or plantation has less than 1,500 + inhabitants, from each representative district, according to its + population. There is a new reapportionment every ten years, counting + from 1821. Every senator and every representative must at the + beginning of his term have been for five years a citizen of the United + States, for one year a resident of the state, and for three months + next preceding his election, as well as during his term of office, a + resident of the township or district which he represents; and every + senator must be at least twenty-five years of age. All revenue bills + must originate in the House of Representatives, but to such bills the + Senate may propose amendments provided they relate solely to raising + revenue. Other bills may originate in either house. In September 1908 + a constitutional amendment was adopted providing for referendum and + initiative by the people. Any bill proposed in the legislature or + passed by it must be referred to popular vote before becoming law, if + there is a referendum petition therefor signed by 10,000 voters; and a + petition signed by 12,000 voters initiates new legislation. + + At the head of the department of justice is the supreme judicial + court, which consists of a chief justice and seven associate justices + appointed by the governor and council for a term of seven years. When + it sits as a law court, at least five of its justices must be present, + and it holds three such sessions annually: one at Augusta, one at + Bangor, and one at Portland. But only one of its justices is required + for a trial court, and trial courts are held two or three times a year + in each county for the trial of both civil and criminal cases which + come before it in the first instance or upon appeal. In Cumberland and + Kennebec counties there is a superior court presided over by one + justice and having extensive civil and criminal jurisdiction; and in + each of the counties there are a probate court for the settlement of + the estates of deceased persons and courts of the trial justice and + the justice of the peace for the trial of petty offences and of civil + cases in which the debt or damage involved does not exceed $20. + + The principal forms of local government are the town (or township), + the plantation, the county and the city. As in other parts of New + England, the town is the most important of these. At the regular town + meeting held in March the electorate of the town assembles, decides + what shall be done for the town during the ensuing year, elects + officers to execute its decisions with limited discretion, and votes + money to meet the expenses. The principal officers are the selectmen + (usually three), town clerk, assessors, collector, treasurer, school + committee and road commissioner. A populous section of a town, in + order to promote certain financial ends, is commonly incorporated as a + village without however becoming a governing organization distinct + from the town. Maine is the only state in the Union that retains what + is known as the organized plantation. This is a governmental unit + organized from an unincorporated township having at least 200 + inhabitants,[5] and its principal officers are the moderator, clerk, + three assessors, treasurer, collector, constable and school committee. + The county is a sort of intermediate organization between the state + and the towns to assist chiefly in the administration of justice, + especially in the custody of offenders, and in the making and care of + roads. Its officers are three commissioners, a treasurer, a register + of deeds, a judge and a register of probate, and a sheriff. They are + all elected: the commissioners for a term of six years, one retiring + every two years, the register of deeds and the judge and the register + of probate for a term of four years, and the others for two years. + Among other duties the commissioners care for county property, manage + county business and take charge of county roads. Maine has no general + law under which cities are chartered, and does not even set a minimum + population. A town may, therefore, be incorporated as a city whenever + it can obtain from the legislature a city charter which a majority of + its electorate prefers to a continuance under its town government; + consequently there is much variety in the government of the various + cities of the state. + +By the laws of Maine the property rights of a wife are approximately +equal to those of a husband. A woman does not lose nor a man acquire +right to property by marriage, and a wife may manage, sell, or will her +property without the assent of her husband. She may even receive as her +own the wages of her personal labour which was not performed for her own +family. In the absence of a will, bar or release, there is no legal +distinction between the rights of a widower in the estate of his +deceased wife and those of a widow in the estate of her deceased +husband. The grounds for divorce in the state are adultery, impotence, +extreme cruelty, desertion for three consecutive years next preceding +the application, gross and confirmed habits of intoxication, cruel and +abusive treatment, or a husband's gross or wanton refusal or neglect to +provide a suitable maintenance for his wife. + +Under the laws of Maine a householder owning and occupying a house and +lot may hold the same, or such part of it as does not exceed $500 in +value, as a homestead exempt from attachment, except for the +satisfaction of liens for labour or material, by filing in the registry +of deeds a certificate stating his desire for such an exemption, +provided he is not the owner of an exempted lot purchased from the +state; and the exemption may be continued during the widowhood of his +widow or the minority of his children. A considerable amount of personal +property, including apparel, household furniture not exceeding $100 in +value, a library not exceeding $150 in value, interest in a pew in a +meeting-house, and a specified amount of fuel, provisions, tools or +farming implements, and domestic animals, and one fishing boat, is also +exempt from attachment. + +Maine was the first state in the Union to enact a law for prohibiting +the sale of intoxicating liquors. An act for restricting the sale of +such liquors was passed in 1846; the first prohibitory act was passed, +largely through the influence of Neal Dow, in 1851; this was frequently +amended; and in 1884 an amendment to the constitution was adopted which +declares the manufacture of intoxicating liquors and their sale, except +"for medicinal and mechanical purposes and the arts," forever +prohibited. By the law enacted for enforcing this prohibition the +governor and council appoint a state liquor commissioner from whom alone +the selectmen of a town, the mayor or aldermen of a city, are authorized +to receive the liquors which may be sold within the exceptions named in +the amendment, and the selectmen, mayor or aldermen appoint an agent who +alone is authorized to sell any of these liquors within their +jurisdiction and who is forbidden to sell any whatever to minors, +Indians, soldiers and drunkards. But the law labours under the +disadvantage of all laws not vigorously sustained by general public +sentiment, and is grossly violated. For the most part it is executed to +the degree demanded by local sentiment in the several municipalities, +thus operating in practice much the same as a "local option" law. The +law looks to checking the demand by preventing the supply; and since +habitual reliance on the stringency of law tends to the neglect of other +influences for the removal of evils from the community, the citizens +seem to absolve themselves from personal responsibility, both for the +execution of the law and for the existence of the evil itself. There has +been a strong movement for the repeal of the law, and the question of +prohibition has long been an important one in state politics. + +The death penalty was abolished in Maine in 1876, restored in 1883, and +again abolished in 1887. + + _Penal and Charitable Institutions._--The state penal and reformatory + institutions consist of the state prison at Thomaston, the state + (reform) school for boys at South Portland, and a state industrial + school for girls at Hallowell, established in 1875 and taken over by + the state in 1899. The two schools are not places of punishment, but + reformatory schools for delinquent boys (from 8 to 16 years of age) + and girls (from 6 to 16 years), who have been committed by the courts + for violations of law, and, in the case of girls, who, by force of + circumstances or associations, are "in manifest danger of becoming + outcasts of society." The prison is in charge of a board of three + inspectors and a warden, and each of the other two institutions is in + charge of a board of trustees; the inspectors, warden, and trustees + are all appointed by the governor and council. Convicts in the prison + are usually employed in the manufacture of articles that are not + extensively made elsewhere in the state, such as carriages, harness, + furniture and brooms. The inmates of the state school for boys receive + instruction in farming, carpentry, tailoring, laundry work, and + various other trades and occupations; and the girls in the state + industrial school are trained in housework, laundering, dressmaking, + &c. Paupers are cared for chiefly by the towns and cities, those + wholly dependent being placed in almshouses and those only partially + dependent receiving aid at their homes. The charitable institutions + maintained by the state are: the military and naval orphan asylum at + Bath, the Maine institution for the blind at Portland, the Maine + school for the deaf (established in 1876, and taken over by the state + in 1897) at Portland, the Maine insane hospital at Augusta, the + Eastern Maine insane hospital at Bangor, and a school for the + feeble-minded (established in 1907) at West Pownal, each of which is + governed by trustees appointed by the governor and council, with the + exception of a part of those of the orphan asylum, who are appointed + by the corporation. Besides the strictly state institutions, there are + a number of private charitable institutions which are assisted by + state funds; among these are the eye and ear infirmary at Portland, + the Maine state sanatorium at Hebron for the treatment of + tuberculosis, and various hospitals, orphanages, &c. The national + government has a branch of the national home for disabled volunteer + soldiers at Togus, and a marine hospital at Portland. + + _Education._--The school-district system was established in 1800 while + Maine was still a part of Massachusetts and was maintained by the + first school law passed, in 1821, by the state legislature; but, + beginning in the next year, one town after another received the + privilege of abolishing its districts, and in 1893 the system was + abolished by act of the legislature. A state board of education, + composed of one member from each county, was established in 1846, but + for this was substituted, in 1852, a commissioner of schools for each + county, appointed by the governor, and two years later a state + superintendent of schools was substituted for the county + commissioners. County supervision by county supervisors was tried in + 1869-1872. Since these several changes the common school system has + been administered by towns and cities subject to an increasing amount + of control through enactments of the state legislature and the general + supervision of the state superintendent. The town officers are a + superintending school committee of three members and a superintendent. + The members of the committee are elected for a term of three years, + one retiring every year, and women as well as men are eligible for the + office. The superintendent may be elected by the town or appointed by + the committee, or towns having not less than twenty or more than fifty + schools may unite in employing a superintendent. In cities the + committee is usually larger than in towns and is commonly elected by + wards. Since 1889 each town and city has been required to furnish + textbooks, apparatus and supplies, without cost to the pupils. The + minimum length of the school year is fixed by a statute of 1893 at + twenty weeks; the average length is about twenty-eight weeks. A + compulsory education law, enacted in 1901, requires the attendance at + some public or approved private school of each child between the ages + of seven and fifteen during all the time that school is in session, + except that necessary absences may be excused. For the maintenance of + the common schools each town is required (since 1905) to raise + annually at least fifty-five cents _per capita_, exclusive of what may + be received from other sources, and to this is added the proceeds of a + state tax of one and a half mills on a dollar, one-half the proceeds + of the tax on savings banks, a 6% income from the permanent school + fund (derived mainly from the sale of school lands), and state + appropriations for the payment in part of the superintendence in towns + that have united for that purpose. Any section of a town may establish + and maintain a high school provided there be not more than two such + schools in one town, and the state makes appropriations for the + support of such schools equal to one-half the cost of instruction, but + the maximum grant to any one such school is $250. + + The state maintains five normal schools: that at Farmington + (established 1864), that at Castine (1866), that at Gorham (1879); + that at Presque Isle (the Aroostook state normal school, 1903), and + the Madawaska training school at Fort Kent, each of which is under the + direction of a board of trustees consisting of the governor, the state + superintendent of schools, and five other members appointed by the + governor and council for not more than three years. At the head of the + public school system is the university of Maine, near the village of + Orono in Orono township (pop. in 1900, 3257), Penobscot county. This + institution was founded in 1865 as the state college of agriculture + and the mechanic arts; in 1897 the present name was adopted. It + embraces a college of arts and sciences, a college of agriculture, a + college of technology (including a department of forestry), a college + of law (at Bangor), and a college of pharmacy. The most conspicuous of + its twenty-five buildings is the library, built with funds contributed + by Andrew Carnegie. In 1908-1909 the university had 104 instructors + and 884 students, of whom 113 were in the college of law at Bangor and + 420 in the college of technology. The university is maintained with + the proceeds of an endowment fund derived chiefly from public lands + given by the national government in accordance with the land grant, or + Morrill, Act of 1862 (see Morrill, Justin S.) and from the bequest + ($100,000) of Abner Coburn (1803-1885); by appropriations of Congress + under the second Morrill Act (1890), and under the Nelson Amendment of + 1907, by appropriations of the state legislature, and by fees paid by + the students. Connected with the university is an agricultural + experiment station, established and maintained under the Hatch Act + (1887) and the Adams Act (1906) of the national Congress. The + government of the university is entrusted, subject to inspection of + the governor and council, to a board of eight trustees. Among the + important institutions of learning which have no official connexion + with the state are Bowdoin College (opened in 1802), at Brunswick; + Colby College (Baptist, opened in 1818), at Waterville; and Bates + College (originally Free Baptist but now unsectarian; opened in 1863), + at Lewiston. In 1900 5.1% of the state's inhabitants ten years of age + and over were illiterate (i.e. could neither read nor write, or could + read but not write); of the native whites within this age limit 2.4% + were illiterate, of the foreign whites, 19.4%. Of the foreign-born + whites 15.7% were unable to speak English. + + _Finance._--The chief sources of the state's revenue are a general + property tax and taxes on the franchises of corporations, especially + those of railway and insurance companies and savings banks; among the + smaller sources are licences or fees, a poll tax, and a collateral + inheritance tax. The general property tax for state and local purposes + is assessed by local assessors, but their work is reviewed for the + purpose of equalization among the several towns and counties by a + board of state assessors, which also assesses the corporations. This + board of three members (not more than two of whom may be of the same + political party) is elected by a joint ballot of the two houses of the + legislature for a term of six years, one member retiring every two + years. The state is prohibited by the constitution from creating a + debt exceeding $300,000 except for the suppression of a rebellion, for + repelling an invasion, or for war purposes; and every city and town is + forbidden by an amendment adopted in 1877 from creating one exceeding + 5% of the assessed value of its property. But the state was authorized + by an amendment adopted in 1868 to issue bonds for the reimbursement + of the expenses incurred by its cities, towns, and plantations on + account of the Civil War, and these bonds, with those issued by the + state itself during the Civil War, constituted the largest part of the + state's bonded indebtedness. The bonded debt, however, is rapidly + being paid; in January 1901 it was $2,103,000, and in January 1909 + only $698,000. + +_History._--During the 16th century and the early part of the 17th, the +coast of Maine attracted various explorers, among them Giovanni da +Verrazano (1524), Estéban Gomez (1525), Bartholomew Gosnold (1602), +Martin Pring (1603), Pierre du Guast, Sieur De Monts (1604), George +Weymouth (1605), and John Smith (1614), who explored and mapped the +coast and gave to the country the name New England; but no permanent +English settlement was established within what are now the borders of +the state until some time between 1623 and 1629. In 1603 De Monts +received from Henry IV. of France a charter for all the region between +40° and 46° N. under the name of Acadie, or Acadia, and in 1604 he built +a fort on Neutral Island at the mouth of the Saint Croix river. This he +abandoned in 1605, but some of his followers were in the vicinity a few +years later. In the same year George Weymouth explored the south-west +coast, kidnapped five Indians, and carried them to England, where three +of them lived for a time in the family of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, who +soon became the leader in founding Maine. In 1607 the Plymouth Company, +of which he was an influential member and which had received a grant of +this region from James I. of England in the preceding year, sent out a +colony numbering 120 under George Popham (c. 1550-1608), brother of Sir +John Popham, and Raleigh Gilbert, son of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. The +colony established itself at the mouth of the Kennebec river in August, +but, finding its supplies insufficient, about three-fifths of its number +returned to England in December; a severe winter followed and Popham +died; then Gilbert, who succeeded to the presidency of the council for +the colony, became especially interested in his claim to the territory +under his father's charter,[6] and in 1608 the colony was abandoned. In +1609 the French Jesuits Biard and Masse established a fortified mission +station on the island of Mount Desert, and although this as well as the +remnant of De Monts' settlement at the mouth of the Saint Croix was +taken in 1613 by Sir Samuel Argall (d. 1626), acting under the +instructions of the English at Jamestown, Virginia, some of these +colonists returned later. In 1620 the Council for New England, the +successor of the Plymouth Company, obtained a grant of the country +between latitude 40° and 48° N. extending from sea to sea, and two years +later Gorges and John Mason (1586-1635) received from the Council a +grant of the territory between the Merrimac and the Kennebec rivers for +60 m. inland under the name of the Province of Maine. In 1629 they +divided their possession, Gorges taking the portion between the +Piscataqua and the Kennebec. Numerous grants of land in this vicinity +followed within a few years; and in the meantime permanent settlements +at York, Saco, Biddeford, Port Elizabeth, Falmouth (now Portland) and +Scarborough were established in rapid succession. The Council for New +England surrendered its charter in 1635. In the division of its +territory Gorges retained the portion previously granted to him, and the +region between the Kennebec and the Saint Croix north to the Saint +Lawrence, though still claimed by the French as part of Acadia, was +conveyed to Sir William Alexander (1567?-1640); later, in 1664, this was +conveyed to the duke of York, afterwards James II. of England. + +Gorges named his tract the County of New Somersetshire, and immediately +began the administration of government, setting up in 1635 or 1636 a +court at Saco under the direction of his kinsman William Gorges. In 1639 +he procured for his province a royal charter modelled after that of +Maryland, which invested him with the feudal tenure of a county palatine +and vice-regal powers of government. He called into existence a +formidably large number of officers to govern it, but his charter was in +conflict with the other (mutually conflicting) grants of the Council for +New England, east of the Piscataqua; and Gorges and his agents met with +a determined opposition under the leadership of George Cleeve, the +deputy-president of the Lygonia, or "Plough" Patent, which extended +along the coast from Cape Porpoise to Casco, and in issuing which the +Council for New England had granted governmental as well as territorial +rights. Moreover, Puritan Massachusetts, which was naturally hostile to +the Anglicanism of Gorges and his followers, interpreted her charter so +as to make her northern boundary run east and west from a point 3 m. +north of the source of the Merrimac river, and on this basis laid claim +to practically the whole of Maine then settled. The factional quarrels +there, together with the Commonwealth government in England, made it +easy for Massachusetts to enforce this claim at the time, and between +1652 and 1658 Maine was gradually annexed to Massachusetts. In 1672 +Massachusetts extended her boundary eastward as far as Penobscot Bay. +Ferdinando Gorges, a grandson of the original proprietor, brought before +parliament his claim to Maine and in 1664 a committee of that body +decided in his favour; but Massachusetts successfully resisted until +1677, when the king in council decided against her. She then quietly +purchased the Gorges claim for £1,250 and held the province as a +proprietor until 1691, when by the new Massachusetts charter Maine was +extended to the Saint Croix river, and was made an integral part of +Massachusetts. + +The French still claimed all territory east of the Penobscot, and not +only was Maine an exposed frontier and battleground during the long +struggle of the English against the Indians and the French, but its +citizens bore a conspicuous part in the expeditions beyond its borders. +Port Royal was taken in May 1690 by Sir William Phipps and Louisburg in +June 1745 by Sir William Pepperell, both these commanders being from +Maine. These expeditions were such a drain on Maine's population that +Massachusetts was called upon to send men to garrison the little forts +that protected the homes left defenceless by men who had gone to the +front. During the War of Independence, the town of Falmouth (now +Portland), which had ardently resisted the claims of the British, was +bombarded and burned, in 1775; in the same year Benedict Arnold followed +the course of the Kennebec and Dead rivers on his expedition to Quebec; +and from 1779 to 1783 a British force was established at Castine. The +embargo and non-intercourse laws from 1807 to 1812 were a severe blow to +Maine's shipping, and in the War of 1812 Eastport, Castine, Hampden, +Bangor and Machias fell into the hands of the British. + +Maine was in general well governed as a part of Massachusetts, but a +geographical separation, a desire to be rid of the burden of a large +state debt, and a difference of economic interests as well as of +politics (Maine was largely Democratic and Massachusetts was largely +Federalist) created a desire for an independent commonwealth. This was +felt before the close of the War of Independence and in 1785-1787 +conventions were held at Falmouth (Portland) to consider the matter, but +the opposition prevailed. The want of protection during the War of 1812 +revived the question, and in 1816 the General Court in response to a +great number of petitions submitted to a vote in the towns and +plantations of the District the question: "Shall the legislature be +requested to give its consent to the separation of the District of Maine +from Massachusetts, and the erection of said District into a separate +state?" The returns showed 10,393 yeas to 6501 nays, but they also +showed that less than one-half the full vote had been cast. Acting upon +these returns the legislature passed a bill prescribing the terms of +separation, and directed another vote of the towns and plantations upon +the question of separation and the election of delegates to a convention +at Brunswick which should proceed to frame a constitution in case the +second popular vote gave a majority of five to four for separation; but +as that vote was only 11,969 yeas to 10,347 nays the advocates of +separation were unsuccessful. But a large source of opposition to +separation was removed in 1819 when Congress, dividing the east coast of +the United States into two great districts, did away with the regulation +which, making each state a district for entering and clearing vessels, +would have required coasting vessels from the ports of Maine as a +separate state to enter and clear on every trip to or from Boston; as a +consequence, the separation measures were carried by large majorities +this year, a constitution was framed by a convention which met at +Portland in October, this was ratified by town meetings in December, and +Maine applied for admission into the Union. Owing to the peculiar +situation at the time in Congress, arising from the contest over the +admission of Missouri, the question of the admission of Maine became an +important one in national politics. By an Act of the 3rd of March 1820, +however, Maine was finally admitted into the Union as a separate state, +her admission being a part of the Missouri compromise (q.v.). + +The boundary on the north had not yet been ascertained, and it had long +been a subject of dispute between the United States and Great Britain. +The treaty of 1783 (Article II.) had defined the north-east boundary of +the United States as extending along the middle of the river St Croix +"from its mouth in the bay of Fundy to its source" and "due north from +the source of St Croix river to the highlands; along the said highlands +which divide those rivers that empty themselves into the river St +Lawrence from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean, to the +north-westernmost head of Connecticut river; thence down along the +middle of that river to the forty-fifth degree of north latitude." Great +Britain claimed that the due north line was 40 m. long and ran to Mars +Hill in Aroostook county, and that the highlands ran thence westerly 115 +m. to the source of the Chaudière; the United States, on the other hand, +claimed that the northerly line was 140 m. long, running to highlands +dividing the Ristigouche and the tributaries of the Metis; and there was +a further disagreement with regard to the side of the highlands on which +the boundary should be, and as to what stream was the "north-westernmost +head of Connecticut river." The fifth article of the Jay treaty of 1794 +provided for a commission to decide what the St Croix river actually +was, and this commission in 1798 defined the St Croix, saying that its +mouth was in Passamaquoddy bay and that the boundary ran up this river +and the Cheputnatecook to a marked monument. The treaty of Ghent in 1814 +(Article IV.) referred the question of the ownership of the islands in +Passamaquoddy bay to a commission which gave Moose, Dudley and Frederick +islands to the United States; and the same treaty by Article V. provided +for the survey (which was made in 1817-1818) of a part of the disputed +territory, and for a general commission. The general commissioners met +at St Andrews, N.B., in 1816, and in New York City in 1822, only to +disagree; and when the king of the Netherlands, chosen as arbitrator in +1829 (under the Convention of 1827) rendered in 1831 a decision against +which the state of Maine protested, the Federal Senate withheld its +assent to his decision. In 1838-1839 the territory in dispute between +New Brunswick and Maine became the scene of a border "war," known as the +"Aroostook disturbance"; Maine erected forts along the line she claimed, +Congress authorized the president to resist any attempt of Great Britain +to enforce exclusive jurisdiction over the disputed territory, and an +armed conflict seemed imminent. General Winfield Scott was sent to take +command on the Maine frontier, and on the 21st of March 1839 he arranged +a truce and a joint occupancy of the territory in dispute until a +satisfactory settlement should be reached by the United States and Great +Britain. The Webster-Ashburton treaty of 1842 was a compromise, which +allowed Maine about 5500 sq. m. less than she had claimed and allowed +Great Britain about as much less than her claim; all grants of land +previously made by either party within the limits of the territory which +by this treaty fell within the dominions of the other party were to be +"held valid, ratified and confirmed to the persons in possession under +such grants, to the same extent as if such territory had ... fallen +within the dominions of the party by whom such grants were made"; and +the government of the United States agreed to pay to Maine and +Massachusetts[7] "in equal moieties" the sum of $300,000 as +compensation for the lands which they had claimed and which under the +treaty they were called upon to surrender. The long controversy, which +is known in American history as "The North-East boundary dispute," was +not finally settled however until 1910. + +It was the Democratic majority in the district of Maine that effected +the separation from Massachusetts, and from the date of that separation +until 1853 Maine was classed as a Democratic state, although it elected +a Whig governor in 1838 and in 1840, and cast its electoral vote for +John Quincy Adams in 1824 and 1828 and for W. H. Harrison in 1840. As a +result of the slavery question, there was a party disintegration between +1850 and 1855, followed by the supremacy of the Republican party from +1856 to 1878. In 1878, of the 126,169 votes cast in the election for +governor, Selden Connor (b. 1839), re-nominated by the Republicans, +received 56,554; Joseph L. Smith ("National" or "Greenback"), 41,371; +Alonzo Garcelon (1813-1906) (Democratic), 28,218; as no candidate +received a majority of the votes, the election was left to the +legislature.[8] The vote of the House eliminated Connor, and Garcelon +was chosen in the Senate by a Democratic-National fusion. Again there +was no election by popular vote in 1879, and Garcelon and his council, +to secure the election of a fusion government, counted-in a fusion +majority in the legislature by evident falsification of the returns. On +the 3rd of January 1880 the Supreme Court declared the governor and +council in error in counting in a fusion majority, but on the 7th the +governor swore in a legislature with 78 fusion and only two Republican +members, and, the governor's term having expired, the president of the +Senate, James D. Lamson, became governor, ex-officio. On the 12th the +legislative chambers were seized by the Republicans, whose organized +legislature was declared legal by the Supreme Court, and who chose as +governor Daniel Franklin Davis (1843-1897); whereupon, on the 17th, +Joshua L. Chamberlain, to whom the peaceful solution of the difficulty +had largely been due, retired from the task assigned him by Garcelon on +the 5th of January "to protect the public property and institutions of +the state" until Garcelon's successor should be duly qualified. In 1880 +the Democrats and Greenbacks united and elected their candidate, but +after 1883 Maine was strongly Republican until 1910. + + The governors of the state have been as follows:-- + + William King Democrat 1820 + William Durkee Williamson (acting) " 1821 + Benjamin Ames (acting) " 1821 + Albion Keith Parris " 1822 + Enoch Lincoln " 1827 + Nathan Cutler (acting) " 1829 + Jonathan G. Hunton " 1830 + Samuel Emerson Smith " 1831 + Robert Pinckney Dunlap " 1834 + Edward Kent Whig 1838 + John Fairfield Democrat 1839 + Edward Kent Whig 1841 + John Fairfield Democrat 1842 + Edward Kavanagh (acting) " 1843 + Hugh J. Anderson " 1844 + John Winchester Dana " 1847 + John Hubbard " 1850 + William George Crosby Whig and Free Soil 1853 + Anson Peaslee Morrill Republican 1855 + Samuel Wells Democrat 1856 + Hannibal Hamlin Republican 1857 + Joseph H. Williams (acting) " 1857 + Lot Myrick Morrill " 1858 + Israel Washburn " 1861 + Abner Coburn " 1863 + Samuel Cony Republican 1864 + Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain " 1867 + Sidney Perham " 1871 + Nelson Dingley " 1874 + Selden Connor " 1876 + Alonzo Garcelon Democrat 1879 + Daniel F. Davis Republican 1880 + Harris Merrill Plaisted Democrat-Greenback 1881 + Frederick Robie Republican 1883 + Joseph R. Bodwell " 1887 + Sebastian S. Marble (acting) " 1887 + Edwin C. Burleigh " 1889 + Henry B. Cleaves " 1893 + Llewellyn Powers " 1897 + John Fremont Hill " 1901 + William T. Cobb " 1905 + Bert M. Fernald " 1909 + Frederick W. Plaisted Democrat 1911 + + See S. L. Boardman, _Climate, &c., of Maine_ (Washington, 1884); + Walton Wells, _The Water Power of Maine_ (Augusta, 1869); G. H. + Hitchcock, _General Report on the Geology of Maine_ (Augusta, 1861); + G. H. Stone, _The Glacial Gravels of Maine and their Associated + Deposits_ (Washington, 1899); T. Nelson Dale, _The Granites of Maine_ + (Washington, 1907), being Bulletin 313 of the U. S. Geological Survey; + B. F. De Costa, _Sketches of the Coast of Maine and Isle of Shoals_ + (New York, 1869); H. D. Thoreau, _The Maine Woods_ (Boston, 1881 ); L. + L. Hubbard, _Woods and Lakes of Maine_ (Boston, 1883); T. S. Steele, + _Canoe and Camera, a Two Hundred Mile Tour through the Maine Forests_ + (New York, 1882); William MacDonald, _The Government of Maine, Its + History and Administration_ (New York, 1902); _Maine Historical + Society Collections_ (Portland, 1831- ); W. D. Williamson, _History + of the State of Maine_ (Hallowell, 1832); J. P. Baxter, _Sir + Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of Maine_ (Boston, 1890) and + _George Cleeve of Casco Bay_ (Portland, 1885); George Folsom, _History + of Saco and Biddeford, with notices of other Early Settlements and of + the Proprietary Governments in Maine_ (Saco, 1830); J. L. Chamberlain, + _Maine, Her Place in History_ (Augusta, 1877); E. S. Whitin, _Factory + Legislation in Maine_ (New York, 1908). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This condition results from the fact that Maine and the adjacent + region were worn down nearly to sea-level by stream erosion, except + certain peaks and ridges inland; then the region was elevated and + numerous river valleys were cut down below the general erosion + surface formed before. Thus we have a general "upland surface," above + which the mountain remnants tower, and below which the rivers have + been entrenched. + + [2] This name is applied to a chain of lakes (the Rangeley, or + Oquossoc, the Cupsuptic, the Mooselookmeguntic, the Molechunkamunk or + Upper Richardson, the Welokenebacook or Lower Richardson, and the + Umbagog) in Franklin and Oxford counties, in the western part of the + state; the Umbagog extends into New Hampshire and its outlet helps to + form the Androscoggin River. These lakes are connected by straits, + have a total area of between 80 and 90 sq. m., and are from 1200 to + 1500 ft. above the sea. They are sometimes called the Androscoggin + Lakes. + + [3] The census of 1905 was taken under the direction of the United + States census bureau, but the statistics for hand trades were + omitted. + + [4] According to previous censuses the population was as follows: + (1790) 96,540; (1800) 151,719; (1810) 228,705; (1820) 298,335; (1830) + 399,455; (1840) 501,793; (1850) 583,169; (1860) 628,279; (1870) + 626,915. + + [5] An unincorporated township containing less than 200 inhabitants + may, on the application of three resident voters, be organized as a + plantation, but does not pay state or county taxes unless by special + legislative order. Other unincorporated districts, especially islands + along the coast, are called "grants," "surpluses," "gores" or + "tracts." + + [6] By this charter, issued in 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert was + entitled to all territory lying within two hundred leagues of any + colony that he might plant within six years; although it had long + since lapsed, Raleigh Gilbert seems not to have been aware of it. + + [7] An article in the Act relating to the separation of Maine from + Massachusetts stipulated that the lands within the District of Maine + which prior to the separation had belonged to Massachusetts should + after the separation belong one-half to Maine and one-half to + Massachusetts. In 1826 the wild lands of Maine were surveyed and + divided between the two states; and in 1853 Maine acquired from + Massachusetts, for $362,500, all of this land still remaining in + possession of the latter state. + + [8] According to Art. V. of the constitution a majority of the total + number of votes cast was required for election; in case no candidate + should receive a majority, it was prescribed that the "House of + Representatives shall, by ballot, from the persons having the four + highest numbers of votes on the lists, if so many there be, elect two + persons and make returns of their names to the Senate, of whom the + Senate shall, by ballot, elect one, who shall be declared the + governor." An amendment, which became a part of the constitution on + the 9th of November 1880, provided that a plurality of the total + number of votes cast should be sufficient for election. + + + + +MAINE DE BIRAN, FRANÇOIS-PIERRE-GONTHIER (1766-1824), French +philosopher, was born at Bergerac, on the 29th of November, 1766. The +name Maine he assumed (some time before 1787) from an estate called Le +Maine, near Mouleydier. After studying with distinction under the +_doctrinaires_ of Périgueux, he entered the life-guards of Louis XVI., +and was present at Versailles on the memorable 5th and 6th of October +1789. On the breaking up of the _gardes du corps_ Biran retired to his +patrimonial inheritance of Grateloup, near Bergerac, where his retired +life preserved him from the horrors of the Revolution. It was at this +period that, to use his own words, he "passed _per saltum_ from +frivolity to philosophy." He began with psychology, which he made the +study of his life. After the Reign of Terror Maine de Biran took part in +political affairs. Having been excluded from the council of the Five +Hundred on suspicion of royalism, he took part with his friend Laîné in +the commission of 1813, which gave expression for the first time to +direct opposition to the will of the emperor. After the Restoration he +held the office of treasurer to the chamber of deputies, and habitually +retired during the autumn recess to his native district to pursue his +favourite study. He died on the 20th (16th, or 23rd, according to +others) of July 1824. + +Maine de Biran's philosophical reputation has suffered from two +causes--his obscure and laboured style, and the fact that only a few, +and these the least characteristic, of his writings appeared during his +lifetime. These consisted of the essay on habit (_Sur l'influence de +l'habitude_, 1803), a critical review of P. Laromiguière's lectures +(1817), and the philosophical portion of the article "Leibnitz" in the +_Biographie universelle_ (1819). A treatise on the analysis of thought +(_Sur la décomposition de la pensée_), although sent to press, was never +printed. In 1834 these writings, together with the essay entitled +_Nouvelles considérations sur les rapports du physique et du moral de +l'homme_, were published by Victor Cousin, who in 1841 added three +volumes, under the title _Oeuvres philosophiques de Maine de Biran_. But +the publication (in 1859) by E. Naville (from MSS. placed at his +father's disposal by Biran's son) of the _Oeuvres inédites de Maine de +Biran_, in three volumes, first rendered possible a connected view of +his philosophical development. At first a sensualist, like Condillac and +Locke, next an intellectualist, he finally shows himself a mystical +theosophist. The _Essai sur les fondements de la psychologie_ +represents the second or completest stage of his philosophy, the +fragments of the _Nouveaux essais d'anthropologie_ the third. + + Maine de Biran's first essays in philosophy were written avowedly from + the point of view of Locke and Condillac, but even in them he was + brought to signalize the essential fact on which his later speculation + turns. Dealing with the formation of habits, he is compelled to note + that passive impressions, however transformed, do not furnish a + complete or adequate explanation. With Laromiguière he distinguishes + attention as an active effort, of no less importance than the passive + receptivity of sense, and with Butler distinguishes passively formed + customs from active habits. He finally arrived at the conclusion that + Condillac's notion of passive receptivity as the one source of + conscious experience was not only an error in fact but an error of + method--in short, that the mechanical mode of viewing consciousness as + formed by external influence was fallacious and deceptive. For it he + proposed to substitute the genetic method, whereby human conscious + experience might be exhibited as growing or developing from its + essential basis in connexion with external conditions. The essential + basis he finds in the real consciousness, of self as an active + striving power, and the stages of its development, corresponding to + what one may call the relative importance of the external conditions + and the reflective clearness of self-consciousness he designates as + the affective, the perceptive and the reflective. In connexion with + this Biran treats most of the obscure problems which arise in dealing + with conscious experience, such as the mode by which the organism is + cognized, the mode by which the organism is distinguished from + extra-organic things, and the nature of those general ideas by which + the relations of things are known to us--cause, power, force, &c. + + In the latest stage of his speculation Biran distinguishes the animal + existence from the human, under which the three forms above noted are + classed, and both from the life of the spirit, in which human thought + is brought into relation with the supersensible, divine system of + things. This stage is left imperfect. Altogether Biran's work presents + a very remarkable specimen of deep metaphysical thinking directed by + preference to the psychological aspect of experience. + + The _Oeuvres inédites_ of Maine de Biran by E. Naville contain an + introductory study; in 1887 appeared _Science et psychologie: + nouvelles oeuvres inédites_, with introduction by A. Bertrand. See + also O. Merton, _Étude critique sur Maine de Biran_ (1865); E. + Naville, _Maine de Biran, sa vie et ses pensées_ (1874); J. Gérard, + _Maine de Biran, essai sur sa philosophie_ (1876); Mayonade, _Pensées + et pages inédites de Maine de Biran_ (Périgueux, 1896); G. Allievo, + "Maine de Biran e la sua dottrina antropologica" (Turin, 1896, in + _Memorie dell' accademia delle scienze_, 2nd ser., xlv, pt. 2); A. + Lang, _Maine de Biran und die neuere Philosophie_ (Cologne, 1901); + monographs by A. Kühtmann (Bremen, 1901) and M. Couailhac (1905); N. + E. Truman in _Cornell Studies in Philosophy_, No. 5 (1904) on Maine de + Biran's Philosophy of Will. + + + + +MAINE-ET-LOIRE, a department of western France, formed in 1790 for the +most part out of the southern portion of the former province of Anjou, +and bounded N. by the departments of Mayenne and Sarthe, E. by +Indre-et-Loire, S.E. by Vienne, S. by Deux-Sèvres and Vendée, W. by +Loire-Inférieure, and N.W. by Ille-et-Vilaine. Area, 2786 sq. m. Pop. +(1906), 513,490. Maine-et-Loire is made up of two distinct regions, the +line of demarcation running roughly from north to south along the valley +of the Sarthe, then turning south-west and passing Brissac and Doué; +that to the west consists of granites, felspars, and a continuation of +the geological formations of Brittany and Vendée; to the east, schists, +limestone and chalk prevail. The department is traversed from east to +west by the majestic valley of the Loire, with its rich orchards, +nurseries and market-gardens. The highest altitudes are found in the +south-west, where north-east of Cholet one eminence reaches 689 ft. +Elsewhere the surface is low and undulating in character. The department +belongs entirely to the basin of the Loire, the bed of which is wide but +shallow, and full of islands, the depth of the water in summer being at +some places little more than 2 ft. Floods are sudden and destructive. +The chief affluent of the Loire within the department is the Maine, +formed a little above Angers by the junction of the Mayenne and the +Sarthe, the latter having previously received the waters of the Loire. +All three are navigable. Other tributaries of the Loire are the Thouet +(with its tributary the Dive), the Layon, the Evre, and the Divatte on +the left, and the Authion on the right. The Mayenne is joined on the +right by the Oudon, which can be navigated below Segré. The Erdre, which +joins the Loire at Nantes, and the Moine, a tributary of the +Sèvre-Nantaise, both rise within this department. The climate is very +mild. The mean annual temperature of Angers is about 53°, slightly +exceeding that of Paris; the rainfall (between 23 and 24 in. annually) +is distinctly lower than that of the rest of France. Notwithstanding +this deficiency, the frequent fogs, combined with the peculiar nature of +the soil in the south-east of the department, produce a degree of +moisture which is highly favourable to meadow growths. The winter colds +are never severe, and readily permit the cultivation of certain trees +which cannot be reared in the adjoining departments. + +The agriculture of the department is very prosperous. The produce of +cereals, chiefly wheat, oats and barley, is in excess of its needs, and +potatoes and mangels also give good returns. Extensive areas in the +valley of the Loire are under hemp, and the vegetables, melons and other +fruits of that region are of the finest quality. Good wine is produced +at Serrant and other places near Angers, and on the right bank of the +Layon and near Saumur, the sparkling white wine of which is a rival of +the cheaper brands of champagne. Cider is also produced, and the +cultivation of fruit is general. Forests and woodland in which oak and +beech are the chief trees cover large tracts. The fattening of cattle is +an important industry round Cholet, and horses much used for light +cavalry are reared. Several thousand workmen are employed in the slate +quarries in the vicinity of Angers, tufa is worked in the river valleys, +and freestone and other stone, mispickel, iron and coal are also found. +Cholet, the chief industrial town, and its district manufacture +pocket-handkerchiefs, as well as linen cloths, flannels, cotton goods, +and hempen and other coarse fabrics, and similar industries are carried +on at Angers, which also manufactures liqueurs, rope, boots and shoes +and parasols. Saumur, besides its production of wine, makes beads and +enamels. The commerce of Maine-et-Loire comprises the exportation of +live stock and of the various products of its soil and industries, and +the importation of hemp, cotton, and other raw materials. The department +is served by the railways of the state and the Orléans and Western +companies. The Mayenne, the Sarthe and the Loir, together with some of +the lesser rivers, provide about 130 m. of navigable waterway. In the +south-east the canal of the Dive covers some 10 m. in the department. + +There are five arrondissements--Angers, Baugé, Cholet, Saumur and Segré, +with 34 cantons and 381 communes. Maine-et-Loire belongs to the académie +(educational division) of Rennes, to the region of the VIII. army corps, +and to the ecclesiastical province of Tours. Angers (q.v.), the capital, +is the seat of a bishopric and of a court of appeal. Other principal +places are Cholet, Saumur, and Fontevrault, which receive separate +treatment. For architectural interest there may also be mentioned the +châteaux of Brissac (17th century), Serrant (15th and 16th centuries), +Montreuil-Bellay (14th and 15th centuries), and Ecuillé (15th century), +and the churches of Puy-Notre-Dame (13th century) and St +Florent-le-Vieil (13th, 17th, and 19th centuries), the last containing +the fine monument to Charles Bonchamps, the Vendean leader, by David +d'Angers. Gennes has remains of a theatre and other ruins of the Roman +period, as well as two churches dating in part from the 10th century. +Ponts-de-Cé, an interesting old town built partly on islands in the +Loire, is historically important, because till the Revolution its +bridges formed the only way across the Loire between Saumur and Nantes. + + + + +MAINPURI, or MYNPOOREE, a town and district of British India, in the +Agra division of the United Provinces. The town has a station on a +branch of the East Indian railway recently opened from Shikohabad. Pop. +(1901), 19,000. It consists of two separate portions, Mainpuri proper +and Mukhamganj. Holkar plundered and burned part of the town in 1804, +but was repulsed by the local militia. Since the British occupation the +population has rapidly increased and many improvements have been carried +out. The Agra branch of the Grand Trunk road runs through the town, +forming a wide street lined on both sides by shops, which constitute the +principal bazaar. Mainpuri has a speciality in the production of carved +wooden articles inlaid with brass wire. The American Presbyterian +mission manages a high school. + +The DISTRICT OF MAINPURI lies in the central Doab. Area, 1675 sq. m. +Pop. (1901), 829,357, an increase of 8.8% in the decade. It consists of +an almost unbroken plain, intersected by small rivers, with a few +undulating sand ridges. It is wooded throughout with mango groves, and +isolated clumps of _bábul_ trees occasionally relieve the bareness of +its saline _usar_ plains. On the south-western boundary the Jumna flows +in a deep alluvial bed, sometimes sweeping close to the high banks which +overhang its valley, and elsewhere leaving room for a narrow strip of +fertile soil between the river and the upland plain. From the low-lying +lands thus formed a belt of ravines stretches inland for some 2 m., +often covered with jungle, but affording good pasturage for cattle. The +district is watered by two branches of the Ganges canal, and is +traversed by the main line of the East Indian railway. + + Mainpuri anciently formed part of the great kingdom of Kanauj, and + after the fall of that famous state it was divided into a number of + petty principalities, of which Rapri and Bhongaon were the chief. In + 1194 Rapri was made the seat of a Moslem governor. Mainpuri fell to + the Moguls on Baber's invasion in 1526, and, although temporarily + wrested from them by the short-lived Afghan dynasty of Shere Shah, was + again occupied by them on the reinstatement of Humayun after the + victory of Panipat. Like the rest of the lower Doab, Mainpuri passed, + towards the end of the 18th century, into the power of the Mahrattas, + and finally became a portion of the province of Oudh. When this part + of the country was ceded to the British, in 1801, Mainpuri town became + the headquarters of the extensive district of Etawah, which was in + 1856 reduced by the formation of Etah and Mainpuri into separate + collectorates. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 the regiment + stationed at Mainpuri revolted and attacked the town, which was + successfully defended by the few Europeans of the station for a week, + until the arrival of the Jhansi mutineers made it necessary to abandon + the district. + + + + +MAINTENANCE (Fr. _maintenance_, from _maintenir_, to maintain, support, +Lat. _manu tenere_, to hold in the hand). The action of giving support, +supplying means of subsistence, keeping efficient or in working order. +In English law maintenance is an officious intermeddling in an action +that in no way belongs to one by maintaining or assisting either party, +with money or otherwise, to prosecute or defend it. It is an indictable +offence, both at common law and by statute, and punishable by fine and +imprisonment. It invalidates all contracts involving it. It is also +actionable. There are, however, certain cases in which maintenance is +justifiable, e.g. any one who has an interest, even if it be only +contingent, in the matter at variance can maintain another in an action +concerning the matter; or several parties who have a common interest in +the same thing may maintain one another in a suit concerning the same. +Neither is it reckoned maintenance to assist another in his suit on +charitable grounds, or for a master to assist his servant, or a parent +his son, or a husband his wife. The law with regard to the subject is +considered at length in _Bradlaugh_ v. _Newdegate_, 1883, 11 Q.B.D. 1. +See also CHAMPERTY. For the practice of "livery and maintenance" see +ENGLISH HISTORY, §§ v. and vi. + + A CAP OF MAINTENANCE, i.e. a cap of crimson velvet turned up with + ermine, is borne, as one of the insignia of the British sovereign, + immediately before him at his coronation or on such state occasions as + the opening of parliament. It is carried by the hereditary bearer, the + marquess of Winchester, upon a white wand. A similar cap is also borne + before the lord mayor of London. The origin of this symbol of dignity + is obscure. It is stated in the _New English Dictionary_ that it was + granted by the pope to Henry VII. and Henry VIII. It is probably + connected with the "cap of estate" or "dignity," sometimes also styled + "cap of maintenance," similar to the royal symbol with two peaks or + horns behind, which is borne as a heraldic charge by certain families. + It seems originally to have been a privilege of dukes. Where it is + used the crest is placed upon it, instead of on the usual wreath. + + + + +MAINTENON, FRANÇOISE D'AUBIGNÉ, MARQUISE DE (1635-1719), the second wife +of Louis XIV., was born in a prison at Niort, on the 27th of November +1635. Her father, Constant d'Aubigné, was the son of Agrippa d'Aubigné, +the famous friend and general of Henry IV., and had been imprisoned as a +Huguenot malcontent, but her mother, a fervent Catholic, had the child +baptized in her religion, her sponsors being the duc de la +Rochefoucauld, father of the author of the _Maxims_, and the comtesse de +Neuillant. In 1639 Constant d'Aubigné was released from prison and took +all his family with him to Martinique, where he died in 1645, after +having lost what fortune remained to him at cards. Mme d'Aubigné +returned to France, and from sheer poverty unwillingly yielded her +daughter to her sister-in-law, Mme de Villette, who made the child very +happy, but converted or pretended to convert her to Protestantism. When +this was known an order of state was issued that she should be entrusted +to Mme de Neuillant, her godmother. Every means was now used to convert +her back to Catholicism, but at the last she only yielded on the +condition that she need not believe that the soul of Mme de Villette was +lost. Once reconverted, she was neglected and sent home to live with her +mother, who had only a small pension of 200 livres a year, which ceased +on her death in 1650. The chevalier de Meré, a man of some literary +distinction, who had made her acquaintance at Mme de Neuillant's, +discovered her penniless condition, and introduced his "young Indian," +as he called her, to Scarron, the famous wit and comic writer, at whose +house all the literary society of the day assembled. Scarron took a +fancy to the friendless girl, and offered either to pay for her +admission to a convent, or, though he was deformed and an invalid, to +marry her himself. She accepted his offer of marriage, and became Mme +Scarron in 1651. For nine years she was not only his most faithful +nurse, but an attraction to his house, where she tried to bridle the +licence of the conversation of the time. On the death of Scarron, in +1660, Anne of Austria continued his pension to his widow, and even +increased it to 2000 livres a year, which enabled her to entertain and +frequent the literary society her husband had made her acquainted with; +but on the queen-mother's death in 1666 the king refused to continue her +pension, and she prepared to leave Paris for Lisbon as lady attendant to +the queen of Portugal. But before she started she met Mme de Montespan, +who was already, though not avowedly, the king's mistress, and who took +such a fancy to her that she obtained the continuance of her pension, +which put off for ever the question of going to Portugal. Mme de +Montespan did yet more for her, for when, in 1669, her first child by +the king was born, Mme Scarron was established with a large income and a +large staff of servants at Vaugirard to bring up the king's children in +secrecy as they were born. In 1674 the king determined to have his +children at court, and their governess, who had now made sufficient +fortune to buy the estate of Maintenon, accompanied them. The king had +now many opportunities of seeing Mme Scarron, and, though at first he +was prejudiced against her, her even temper contrasted so advantageously +with the storms of passion and jealousy exhibited by Mme de Montespan, +that she grew steadily in his favour, and had in 1678 the gratification +of having her estate at Maintenon raised to a marquisate and herself +entitled Mme de Maintenon by the king. Such favours brought down the +fury of Mme de Montespan's jealousy, and Mme de Maintenon's position was +almost unendurable, until, in 1680, the king severed their connexion by +making the latter second lady in waiting to the dauphiness, and soon +after Mme de Montespan left the court. The new _amie_ used her influence +on the side of decency, and the queen openly declared she had never been +so well treated as at this time, and eventually died in Mme de +Maintenon's arms in 1683. The queen's death opened the way to yet +greater advancement; in 1684 Mme de Maintenon was made first lady in +waiting to the dauphiness, and in the winter of 1685-1686 she was +privately married to the king by Harlay, archbishop of Paris, in the +presence, it is believed, of Père la Chaise, the king's confessor, the +marquis de Montchevreuil, the chevalier de Forbin, and Bontemps. No +written proof of the marriage is extant, but that it took place is +nevertheless certain. Her life during the next thirty years can be fully +studied in her letters, of which many authentic examples are extant. As +a wife she was wholly admirable; she had to entertain a man who would +not be amused, and had to submit to that terribly strict court etiquette +of absolute obedience to the king's inclination, which Saint-Simon so +vividly describes, and yet be always cheerful and never complain of +weariness or ill-health. Her political influence has probably been +exaggerated, but it was supreme in matters of detail. The ministers of +the day used to discuss and arrange all the business to be done with the +king beforehand with her, and it was all done in her cabinet and in her +presence, but the king in more important matters often chose not to +consult her. Such mistakes as, for instance, the replacing of Catinat by +Villeroi may be attributed to her, but not whole policies--notably, +according to Saint-Simon, not the policy with regard to the Spanish +succession. Even the revocation of the edict of Nantes and the +dragonnades have been laid to her charge, but recent investigations have +tended to show that in spite of ardent Catholicism, she at least +opposed, if not very vigorously, the cruelties of the dragonnades, +although she was pleased with the conversions they procured. She was +apparently afraid to imperil her great reputation for devotion, which +had in 1692 obtained for her from Innocent XII. the right of visitation +over all the convents in France. Where she deserves blame is in her use +of her power for personal patronage, as in compassing the promotions of +Chamillart and Villeroi, and the frequent assistance given to her +brother Comte Charles d'Aubigné. Her influence was on the whole a +moderating and prudent force. Her social influence was not as great as +it might have been, owing to her holding no recognized position at +court, but it was always exercised on the side of decency and morality, +and it must not be forgotten that from her former life she was intimate +with the literary people of the day. Side by side with this public life, +which wearied her with its shadowy power, occasionally crossed by a +desire to be recognised as queen, she passed a nobler and sweeter +private existence as the foundress of St Cyr. Mme de Maintenon was a +born teacher; she had so won the hearts of her first pupils that they +preferred her to their own mother, and was similarly successful later +with the young and impetuous duchess of Burgundy, and she had always +wished to establish a home for poor girls of good family placed in such +straits as she herself had experienced. As soon as her fortunes began to +mend she started a small home for poor girls at Ruel, which she +afterwards moved to Noisy, and which was the nucleus of the splendid +institution of St Cyr, which the king endowed in 1686, at her request, +out of the funds of the Abbey of St Denis. She was in her element there. +She herself drew up the rules of the institution; she examined every +minute detail; she befriended her pupils in every way; and her heart +often turned from the weariness of Versailles or of Marly to her "little +girls" at St Cyr. It was for them that Racine wrote his _Esther_ and his +_Athalie_, and it was because he managed the affairs of St Cyr well that +Michel Chamillart became controller-general of the finances. The later +years of her power were marked by the promotion of her old pupils, the +children of the king and Mme de Montespan, to high dignity between the +blood royal and the peers of the realm, and it was doubtless under the +influence of her dislike for the duke of Orleans that the king drew up +his will, leaving the personal care of his successor to the duke of +Maine, and hampering the duke of Orleans by a council of regency. On or +even before her husband's death she retired to St Cyr, and had the +chagrin of seeing all her plans for the advancement of the duke of Maine +overthrown by means of the parliament of Paris. However, the regent +Orleans in no way molested her, but, on the contrary, visited her at St +Cyr and continued her pension of 48,000 livres. She spent her last years +at St Cyr in perfect seclusion, but an object of great interest to all +visitors to France, who, however, with the exception of Peter the Great, +found it impossible to get an audience with her. On the 15th of April +1719 she died, and was buried in the choir at St Cyr, bequeathing her +estate at Maintenon to her niece, the only daughter of her brother +Charles and wife of the maréchal de Noailles, to whose family it still +belongs. + + L. A. la Beaumelle published the _Lettres de Madame de Maintenon_, but + much garbled, in 2 vols. in 1752, and on a larger scale in 9 vols. in + 1756. He also, in 1755, published _Mémoires de Madame de Maintenon_, + in 6 vols., which caused him to be imprisoned in the Bastille. All + earlier biographies were superseded by Théophile Lavallée's _Histoire + de St Cyr_, reviewed in _Causeries du lundi_, vol. viii., and by his + edition of her _Lettres historiques et édifiantes_, &c., in 7 vols. + and of her _Correspondance générale_, in 4 vols. (1888), which latter + must, however, be read with the knowledge of many forged letters, + noticed in P. Grimblot's _Faux autographes de Madame de Maintenon_. + Saint-Simon's fine but biased account of the court in her day and of + her career is contained in the twelfth volume of Chéruel and Regnier's + edition of his _Mémoires_. See also Mademoiselle d'Aumale's _Souvenirs + sur Madame de Maintenon_, published by the Comte d'Haussonville and G. + Hanotaux (Paris, 3 vols., 1902-1904); an excellent account by A. + Geffroy, _Madame de Maintenon d'après sa correspondance authentique_ + (Paris, 2 vols., 1887); P. de Noailles, _Histoire de Madame de + Maintenon et des principaux évènements du règne de Louis XIV._ (4 + vols., 1848-1858); A. de Boislisle, _Paul Scarron et Françoise + d'Aubigné d'après des documents nouveaux_ (1894); É. Pilastre, _Vie et + caractère de Madame de Maintenon d'après les oeuvres du duc de + Saint-Simon et des documents anciens ou récents_ (1907); A. Rosset, + _Madame de Maintenon et la révocation de l'édit de Nantes_ (1897). + (H. M. S.) + + + + +MAINZ (Fr. Mayence) a city, episcopal see and fortress of Germany, +situated on the left bank of the Rhine, almost opposite the influx of +the Main, at the junction of the important main lines of railway from +Cologne to Mannheim and Frankfort-on-Main, 25 m. W. of the latter. Pop. +(1905), 91,124 (including a garrison of 7500 men), of whom two-thirds +are Roman Catholic. The Rhine, which here attains the greatest breadth +of its upper course, is crossed by a magnificent bridge of five arches, +leading to the opposite town of Castel and by two railway bridges. The +old fortifications have recently been pushed farther back, and their +place occupied by pleasant boulevards. The river front has been +converted into a fine promenade, commanding extensive views of the +Taunus range of mountains, and the "Rheingau," the most favoured wine +district of Germany. Alongside the quay are the landing-places of the +steamboats navigating the Rhine. The railway, which formerly incommoded +the bank, has been diverted, and now, following the ceinture of the new +line of inner fortifications, runs into a central station lying to the +south of the city. The interior of the old town consists chiefly of +narrow and irregular streets, with many quaint and picturesque houses. +The principal street of the new town is the Kaiserstrasse, leading from +the railway station to the river. + +The first object of historical and architectural interest in Mainz is +the grand old cathedral, an imposing Romanesque edifice with numerous +Gothic additions and details (for plan, &c. see ARCHITECTURE: +_Romanesque and Gothic in Germany_). It was originally erected between +975 and 1009, but has since been repeatedly burned down and rebuilt, and +in its present form dates chiefly from the 12th, 13th and 14th +centuries. The largest of its six towers is 300 ft. high. The whole +building was restored by order of Napoleon in 1814, and another thorough +renovation was made more recently. The interior contains the tombs of +Boniface, the first archbishop of Mainz, of Frauenlob, the Minnesinger, +and of many of the electors. Mainz possesses nine other Roman Catholic +churches, the most noteworthy of which are those of St Ignatius, with a +finely painted ceiling, of St Stephen, built 1257-1328, and restored +after an explosion in 1857, and of St Peter. The old electoral palace +(1627-1678), a large building of red sandstone, now contains a valuable +collection of Roman and Germanic antiquities, a picture gallery, a +natural history museum, the Gutenberg Museum, and a library of 220,000 +volumes. Among the other principal buildings are the palace of the grand +duke of Hesse, built in 1731-1739 as a lodge of the Teutonic order, the +theatre, the arsenal, and the government buildings. A handsome statue of +Gutenberg, by Thorwaldsen, was erected at Mainz in 1837. Mainz still +retains many relics of the Roman period, the most important of which is +the Eigelstein, a monument believed to have been erected by the Roman +legions in honour of Drusus. It stands within the citadel, which +occupies the site of the Roman castrum. A little to the south-west of +the town are the remains of a large Roman aqueduct, of which upwards of +sixty pillars are still standing. The educational and scientific +institutions of Mainz include an episcopal seminary, two gymnasia and +other schools, a society for literature and art, a musical society, and +an antiquarian society. The university, founded in 1477, was suppressed +by the French in 1798. + +The site of Mainz would seem to mark it out naturally as a great centre +of trade, but the illiberal rule of the archbishops and its military +importance seriously hampered its commercial and industrial development, +and prevented it from rivalling its neighbour Frankfort. It is now, +however, the chief emporium of the Rhenish wine traffic, and also +carries on an extensive transit trade in grain, timber, flour, +petroleum, paper and vegetables. The natural facilities for carriage by +water are supplemented by the extensive railway system. Large new +harbours to the north of the city were opened in 1887. The principal +manufactures are leather goods, furniture, carriages, chemicals, musical +instruments and carpets, for the first two of which the city has +attained a wide reputation. Other industries include brewing and +printing. Mainz is the seat of the administrative and judicial +authorities of the province of Rhein-Hessen, and also of a Roman +Catholic bishop. + +_History._--Mainz, one of the oldest cities in Germany, was originally a +Celtic settlement. Its strategic importance was early recognized by the +Romans, and about 13 B.C. Drusus, the son-in-law of Augustus, erected a +fortified camp here, to which the _castellum Mattiacorum_ (the modern +Castel) on the opposite bank was afterwards added, the two being +connected with a bridge at the opening of the Christian era. The Celtic +name became latinized as _Maguntiacum_, or _Moguntiacum_, and a town +gradually arose around the camp, which became the capital of Germania +Superior. During the Völkerwanderung Mainz suffered severely, being +destroyed on different occasions by the Alamanni, the Vandals and the +Huns. Christianity seems to have been introduced into the town at a very +early period, and in the 6th century a new Mainz was founded by Bishop +Sidonius. In the middle of the 8th century under Boniface it became an +archbishopric, and to this the primacy of Germany was soon annexed. +Charlemagne, who had a palace in the neighbourhood, gave privileges to +Mainz, which rose rapidly in wealth and importance, becoming a free city +in 1118. During the later middle ages it was the seat of several diets, +that of 1184 being of unusual size and splendour. In 1160 the citizens +revolted against Archbishop Arnold, and in 1163 the walls of the city +were pulled down by order of the emperor Frederick I. But these events +did not retard its progress. In 1244 certain rights of self-government +were given to the citizens; and in 1254 Mainz was the centre and +mainspring of a powerful league of Rhenish towns. Owing to its +commercial prosperity it was known as _goldene_ Mainz, and its +population is believed to have been as great as it is at the present +day. But soon a decline set in. In 1462 there was warfare between two +rival archbishops, Diether or Dietrich II. of Isenburg (d. 1463) and +Adolph II. of Nassau (d. 1475). The citizens espoused the cause of +Diether, but their city was captured by Adolph; it was then deprived of +its privileges and was made subject to the archbishop. Many of the +inhabitants were driven into exile, and these carried into other lands a +knowledge of the art of printing, which had been invented at Mainz by +Johann Gutenberg in 1450. During the Thirty Years' War Mainz was +occupied by the Swedes in 1631 and by the French in 1644, the +fortifications being strengthened by the former under Gustavus Adolphus; +in 1688 it was captured again by the French, but they were driven out in +the following year. In 1792 the citizens welcomed the ideas of the +French Revolution; they expelled their archbishop, Friedrich Karl Joseph +d'Erthal, and opened their gates to the French troops. Taken and retaken +several times during the next few years, Mainz was ceded to France by +the treaty of Campo Formio in 1797, and again by the Treaty of Lunéville +in 1801. In 1814 it was restored to Germany and in 1816 it was handed +over to the grand duke of Hesse; it remained, however, a fortress of the +German confederation and was garrisoned by Prussian and Austrian troops. +Since 1871 it has been a fortress of the German Empire. There were +disturbances in the city in 1848. + + See Brühl, _Mainz, geschichtlich, topographisch und malerisch_ (Mainz, + 1829); C. A. Schaab, _Geschichte der Stadt Mainz_ (Mainz, 1841-1845); + K. Klein, _Mainz und seine Umgebungen_ (1868); C. G. Bockenheimer, + _Beiträge zur Geschichte der Stadt Mainz_ (1874); Neeb, _Führer durch + Mainz und Umgebung_ (Stuttgart, 1903); and O. Beck, _Mainz und sein + Handel_ (Mainz, 1881). + +The ARCHBISHOPRIC OF MAINZ, one of the seven electorates of the Holy +Roman Empire, became a powerful state during the middle ages and +retained some of its importance until the dissolution of the empire in +1806. Its archbishop was president of the electoral college, +arch-chancellor of the empire and primate of Germany. Its origin dates +back to 747, when the city of Mainz was made the seat of an archbishop, +and a succession of able and ambitious prelates, obtaining lands and +privileges from emperors and others, made of the district under their +rule a strong and vigorous state. Among these men were Hatto I. (d. +913), Siegfried III. of Eppstein (d. 1249), Gerhard of Eppstein (d. +1305), and Albert of Brandenburg (d. 1545), all of whom played important +parts in the history of Germany. There were several violent contests +between rivals anxious to secure so splendid a position as the +electorate, and the pretensions of the archbishops occasionally moved +the citizens of Mainz to revolt. The lands of the electorate lay around +Mainz, and were on both banks of the Rhine; their area at the time of +the French Revolution was about 3200 sq. m. The last elector was Karl +Theodor von Dalberg. The archbishopric was secularized in 1803, two +years after the lands on the left bank of the Rhine had been seized by +France. Some of those on the right bank of the river were given to +Prussia and to Hesse; others were formed into a grand duchy for Dalberg. +The archbishopric itself was transferred to Regensburg. + + For the history of the electorate see the _Scriptores rerum + moguntiacarum_, edited by G. C. Joannis (Frankfort, 1722-1727); + Schunk, _Beiträge zur Mainzer Geschichte_ (Frankfort, 1788-1791); + Hennes, _Die Erzbischöfe von Mainz_ (Mainz, 1879); Ph. Jaffé, + _Monumenta moguntina_ (Berlin, 1866), and J. F. Böhmer and C. Will, + _Regesta archiepiscoporum moguntinensium_ (Innsbruck, 1877-1886). + + + + +MAIRET, JEAN DE (1604-1686), French dramatist, was born at Besançon, and +baptized on the 10th of May 1604. His own statement that he was born in +1610 has been disproved. He went to Paris to study at the Collège des +Grassins about 1625, in which year he produced his first piece +_Chriséide et Arimand_, followed in 1626 by _Sylvie_, a "pastoral +tragi-comedy." In 1634 appeared his masterpiece, _Sophonisbe_, which +marks, in its observance of the rules, the beginning of the "regular" +tragedies. Mairet was one of the bitterest assailants of Corneille in +the controversy over _The Cid_. It was perhaps his jealousy of Corneille +that made him give up writing for the stage. He was appointed in 1648 +official representative of the Franche-Comté in Paris, but in 1653 he +was banished by Mazarin. He was subsequently allowed to return, but in +1668 he retired to Besançon, where he died on the 31st of January 1686. +His other plays include _Silvanire ou la Morte-vive_, published in 1631 +with an elaborate preface on the observance of the unities, _Les +Galanteries du duc d'Orsonne_ (1632), _Virginie_ (1633), _Marc-Antoine_ +(1635), and _Le Grand et dernier Solyman_ (1637). + + See G. Bizos, _Étude sur la vie et les oeuvres de Jean de Mairet_ + (1877). _Sophonisbe_ was edited by K. Vollmöller (Heilbronn, 1888), + and _Silvanire_ by R. Otto (Bamberg, 1890). + + + + +MAISTRE, JOSEPH DE (1754-1821), French diplomatist and polemical writer, +was born at Chambéry on the 1st of April 1754. His family was an ancient +and noble one, enjoying the title of count, and is said to have been of +Languedocian extraction. The father of Joseph was president of the +senate of Savoy, and held other important offices. Joseph himself, after +studying at Turin, received various appointments in the civil service of +Savoy, finally becoming a member of the senate. In 1786 he married +Françoise de Morand. The invasion and annexation of Savoy by the French +Republicans made him an exile. He did not take refuge in that part of +the king of Sardinia's domains which was for the time spared, but betook +himself to the as yet neutral territory of Lausanne. There, in 1796, he +published his first important work (he had previously written certain +discourses, pamphlets, letters, &c.), _Considérations sur la France_. In +this he developed his views, which were those of a Legitimist, but a +Legitimist entirely from the religious and Roman Catholic point of view. +The philosophism of the 18th century was Joseph de Maistre's lifelong +object of assault. + +After the still further losses which, in the year of the publication of +this book, the French Revolution inflicted on Sardinia, Charles Emmanuel +summoned Joseph de Maistre to Turin, and he remained there for the brief +space during which the king retained a remnant of territory on the +mainland. Then he went to the island of Sardinia, and held office at +Cagliari. In 1802 he was appointed envoy extraordinary and minister +plenipotentiary at St Petersburg, and journeyed thither the next year. +Although his post was no sinecure, its duties were naturally less +engrossing than the official life, with intervals of uneasy exile and +travelling, which he had hitherto known, and his literary activity was +great. He only published a single treatise, on the _Principe générateur +des Constitutions_; but he wrote his best and most famous works, _Du +Pape_, _De L'église gallicane_ and the _Soirées de St Pétersbourg_, the +last of which was never finished. _Du Pape_, which the second-named book +completes, is a treatise in regular form, dealing with the relations of +the sovereign pontiff to the Church, to temporal sovereigns, to +civilization generally, and to schismatics, especially Anglicans and the +Greek Church. It is written from the highest possible standpoint of +papal absolutism. The _Soirées de St Pétersbourg_, so far as it is +anything (for the arrangement is somewhat desultory), is a kind of +_théodicée_, dealing with the fortunes of virtue and vice in this world. +It contains two of De Maistre's most famous pieces, his panegyric on the +executioner as the foundation of social order, and his acrimonious, and +in part unfair, but also in part very damaging, attack on Locke. The _Du +Pape_ is dated May 1817; on the _Soirées_ the author was still engaged +at his death. Besides these works he wrote an examination of the +philosophy of Bacon, some letters on the Inquisition (an institution +which, as may be guessed from the remarks just noticed about the +executioner, was no stumbling-block to him), and, earlier than any of +these, a translation of Plutarch's "Essay on the Delay of Divine +Justice," with somewhat copious notes. After 1815 he returned to Savoy, +and was appointed to high office, while his _Du Pape_ made a great +sensation. But the world to which he had returned was not altogether in +accordance with his desires. He had domestic troubles; and chagrin of +one sort and another is said to have had not a little to do with his +death by paralysis on the 26th of February 1821 at Turin. Most of the +works mentioned were not published till after his death, and it was not +till 1851 that a collection of _Lettres et opuscules_ appeared, while +even since that time fresh matter has been published. + +Joseph de Maistre was one of the most powerful, and by far the ablest, +of the leaders of the neo-Catholic and anti-revolutionary movement. The +most remarkable thing about his standpoint is that, layman as he was, it +was entirely ecclesiastical. Unlike his contemporary Bonald, Joseph de +Maistre regarded the temporal monarchy as an institution of altogether +inferior importance to the spiritual primacy of the pope. He was by no +means a political absolutist, except in so far as he regarded obedience +as the first of political virtues, and he seldom loses an opportunity of +stipulating for a tempered monarchy. But the pope's power is not to be +tempered at all, either by councils or by the temporal power or by +national churches, least of all by private judgment. The peculiarity of +Joseph de Maistre is that he supports his conclusions, or if it be +preferred his paradoxes, by the hardest and heaviest argument. Although +a great master of rhetoric, he never makes rhetoric do duty for logic. +Every now and then it is possible to detect fallacies in him, but for +the most part he has succeeded in carrying matters back to those +fundamental differences of opinion which hardly admit of argument, and +on which men take sides in consequence chiefly of natural bent, and of +predilection for one state of things rather than for another. The +absolute necessity of order may be said to have been the first principle +of this thinker, who, in more ways than one, will invite comparison with +Hobbes. He could not conceive such order without a single visible +authority, reference to which should settle all dispute. He saw that +there could be no such temporal head, and in the pope he thought that he +saw a spiritual substitute. The anarchic tendencies of the Revolution in +politics and religion were what offended him. It ought to be added that +he was profoundly and accurately learned in history and philosophy, and +that the superficial blunders of the 18th-century _philosophes_ +irritated him as much as their doctrines. To Voltaire in particular he +shows no mercy. + + Of the two works named as his masterpieces, _Du Pape_ and the _Soirées + de St Pétersbourg_, editions are extremely numerous. No complete + edition of his works appeared till 1884-1887, when one was published + at Lyons in 14 volumes. This had been preceded, and has been followed, + by numerous biographies and discussions: C. Barthélemy, _L'Esprit de + Joseph de Maistre_ (1859); R. de Sézeval, _Joseph de Maistre_ (1865), + and J. C. Glaser, _Graf Joseph Maistre_ (same year); L. I. Moreau, + _Joseph de Maistre_ (1879); F. Paulhan, _Joseph de Maistre et sa + philosophie_ (1893); L. Cogordan, "Joseph de Maistre" in the _Grands + écrivains français_ (1894); F. Descostes, _Joseph de Maistre avant la + révolution_ (1896), and other works by the same writer; J. Mandoul, + _Un Homme d'état italien: Joseph de Maistre et la politique de la + maison de Savoie_ (1900); and E. Grasset, _Joseph de Maistre_ (1901). + (G. Sa.) + + + + +MAISTRE, XAVIER DE (1763-1852), younger brother of Joseph de Maistre, +was born at Chambéry in October 1763. He served when young in the +Piedmontese army, and wrote his delightful fantasy, _Voyage autour de ma +chambre_ (published 1794) when he was under arrest at Turin in +consequence of a duel. Xavier shared the politics and the loyalty of his +brother, and on the annexation of Savoy to France, he left the service, +and took a commission in the Russian army. He served under Suvarov in +his victorious Austro-Russian campaign and accompanied the marshal to +Russia. He shared the disgrace of his general, and supported himself for +some time in St Petersburg by miniature painting. But on his brother's +arrival in St Petersburg he was introduced to the minister of marine. He +was appointed to several posts in the capital, but also saw active +service, was wounded in the Caucasus, and attained the rank of +major-general. He married a Russian lady and established himself in his +adopted country, even after the overthrow of Napoleon, and the +consequent restoration of the Piedmontese dynasty. For a time, however, +he lived at Naples, but he returned to St Petersburg and died there on +the 12th of June 1852. He was only once in Paris (in 1839), when +Sainte-Beuve, who has left some pleasant reminiscences of him, met him. +Besides the _Voyage_ already mentioned, Xavier de Maistre's works (all +of which are of very modest dimensions) are _Le Lépreux de la cité +d'Aoste_ (1811), a touching little story of human misfortune; _Les +Prisonniers du Caucase_, a powerful sketch of Russian character, _La +Jeune Sibérienne_, and the _Expédition nocturne_, a sequel to the +_Voyage autour de ma chambre_ (1825). His style is of remarkable ease +and purity. + + His works, with the exception of some brief chemical tractates, are + included in the collections of Charpentier, Garnier, &c. See + Sainte-Beuve's _Portraits contemporains_, vol. iii. + + + + +MAITLAND, EDWARD (1824-1897), English humanitarian writer, was born at +Ipswich on the 27th of October 1824, and was educated at Caius College, +Cambridge. The son of Charles David Maitland, perpetual curate of St +James's Chapel, Brighton, he was intended for the Church, but his +religious views did not permit him to take holy orders. For some years +he lived abroad, first in California and then as a commissioner of +Crownlands in Australia. After his return to England in 1857 he took up +an advanced humanitarian position, and claimed to have acquired a new +sense by which he was able to discern the spiritual condition of other +people. He was associated with Mrs Anna Kingsford (1846-1888), the +lady-doctor and supporter of vegetarianism and anti-vivisectionism, who, +besides being one of the pioneers of higher education for women, had +become a devotee of mystical theosophy; with her he brought out _Keys of +the Creeds_ (1875), _The Perfect Way: or the Finding of Christ_ (1882), +and founded the Hermetic Society in 1884. After her death he founded the +Esoteric Christian Union in 1891, and wrote her _Life and Letters_ +(1896). He died on the 2nd of October 1897. + + + + +MAITLAND, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1850-1906), English jurist and historian, +son of John Gorham Maitland, was born on the 28th of May 1850, and +educated at Eton and Trinity, Cambridge, being bracketed at the head of +the moral sciences tripos of 1872, and winning a Whewell scholarship +for international law. He was called to the bar (Lincoln's Inn) in 1876, +and made himself a thoroughly competent equity lawyer and conveyancer, +but finally devoted himself to comparative jurisprudence and especially +the history of English law. In 1884 he was appointed reader in English +law at Cambridge, and in 1888 became Downing professor of the laws of +England. Though handicapped in his later years by delicate health, his +intellectual grasp and wide knowledge and research gradually made him +famous as a jurist and historian. He edited numerous volumes for the +Selden Society, including _Select Pleas for the Crown, 1200-1225_, +_Select Pleas in Manorial Courts_ and _The Court Baron_; and among his +principal works were _Gloucester Pleas_ (1884), _Justice and Police_ +(1885), _Bracton's Note-Book_ (1887), _History of English Law_ (with Sir +F. Pollock, 1895; new ed. 1898; see also his article ENGLISH LAW in this +encyclopaedia), _Domesday Book and Beyond_ (1897), _Township and +Borough_ (1898), _Canon Law in England_ (1898), _English Law and the +Renaissance_ (1901), the _Life of Leslie Stephen_ (1906), besides +important contributions to the _Cambridge Modern History_, the _English +Historical Review_, the _Law Quarterly Review_, _Harvard Law Review_ and +other publications. His writings are marked by vigour and vitality of +style, as well as by the highest qualities of the historian who +recreates the past from the original sources; he had no sympathy with +either legal or historical pedantry; and his death at Grand Canary on +the 19th of December 1906 deprived English law and letters of one of +their most scholarly and most inspiring representatives, notable alike +for sweetness of character, acuteness in criticism, and wisdom in +counsel. + + See P. Vinogradoff's article on Maitland in the _English Historical + Review_ (1907); Sir F. Pollock's in the _Quarterly Review_ (1907); G. + T. Lapsley's in _The Green Bag_ (Boston, Mass., 1907); A. L. Smith, + _F. W. Maitland_ (1908); H. A. L. Fisher, _F. W. Maitland_ (1910). + + + + +MAITLAND, SIR RICHARD (LORD LETHINGTON) (1496-1586), Scottish lawyer, +poet, and collector of Scottish verse, was born in 1496. His father, Sir +William Maitland of Lethington and Thirlestane, fell at Flodden; his +mother was a daughter of George, Lord Seton. He studied law at the +university of St Andrews, and afterwards in Paris. His castle at +Lethington was burnt by the English in 1549. He was in 1552 one of the +commissioners to settle matters with the English about the debateable +lands. About 1561 he seems to have lost his sight, but this did not +render him incapable of attending to public business, as he was the same +year admitted an ordinary lord of session with the title of Lord +Lethington, and a member of the privy council; and in 1562 he was +appointed keeper of the Great Seal. He resigned this last office in +1567, in favour of John, prior of Coldingham, his second son, but he sat +on the bench till he attained his eighty-eighth year. He died on the +20th of March 1586. His eldest son, by his wife Mary Cranstoun of +Crosbie, was William Maitland (q.v.): his second son, John (c. +1545-1595), was a lord of session, and was made a lord of parliament in +1590, with the title of Lord Maitland of Thirlestane, in which he was +succeeded by his son John, also for some time a lord of session, who was +created earl of Lauderdale in 1624. One of Sir Richard's daughters, +Margaret, assisted her father in preparing his collection of old Scots +verse. + +The poems of Sir Richard Maitland, none of them lengthy, are for the +most part satirical, and are principally directed against the social and +political abuses of his time. He is chiefly remembered as the industrial +collector and preserver of many pieces of Scots poetry. These were +copied into two large volumes, one in folio and another in quarto, the +former written by himself, and the latter by his daughter. After being +in the possession of his descendant the duke of Lauderdale, these +volumes were purchased at the sale of the duke's library by Samuel +Pepys, and have since been preserved in the Pepysian Library, Magdalene +College, Cambridge. They lay there unnoticed for many years till Bishop +Percy published one of the poems in his _Reliques of English Poetry_. +Several of the prices were then transcribed by John Pinkerton, who +afterwards published them under the title of _Ancient Scottish Poems_ (2 +vols., 1786.) + + For an account of the Maitland Folio MS. see Gregory Smith's + _Specimens of Middle Scots_, 1902 (p. lxxiii.). The Scottish Text + Society has undertaken an edition of the entire manuscript. Maitland's + own poems were reprinted by Sibbald in his _Chronicle of Scottish + Poetry_ (1802), and in 1830 by the Maitland Club, named after him, and + founded for the purpose of continuing his efforts to preserve the + remains of early Scots literature. Sir Richard left in manuscript a + history of the family of Seton, and a volume of legal decisions + collected by him between the years 1550 and 1565. Both are preserved + in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh; the former was published by the + Maitland Club, in 1829. + + + + +MAITLAND (MAITLAND OF LETHINGTON), WILLIAM (c. 1528-1573), Scottish +statesman, eldest son of the preceding, was educated at St Andrews. At +an early age he entered public life and began in various ways to serve +the regent, Mary of Lorraine, becoming her secretary of state in 1558. +In 1559, however, he deserted her and threw in his lot with the lords of +the congregation, to whom his knowledge of foreign, and especially of +English, politics and his general ability were assets of the highest +value. The lords sent him to England to ask for assistance from +Elizabeth, and his constant aim throughout his political career was to +bring about a union between the two crowns. He appears to have feared +the return of Mary Queen of Scots to Scotland, but after her arrival in +1561 he was appointed secretary of state, and for about six years he +directed the policy of Scotland and enjoyed the confidence of the queen. +His principal antagonist was John Knox; there were several tussles +between them, the most famous, perhaps, being the one in the general +assembly of 1564, and on the whole Maitland held his own against the +preachers. He was doubtless concerned in the conspiracy against David +Rizzio, and after the favourite's murder he was obliged to leave the +court and was himself in danger of assassination. In 1567, however, he +was again at Mary's side. He was a consenting party to the murder of +Darnley, although he had favoured his marriage with Mary, but the enmity +between Bothwell and himself was one of the reasons which drove him into +the arms of the queen's enemies, among whom he figured at Langside. He +was one of the Scots who met Elizabeth's representatives at York in +1568; here he showed a desire to exculpate Mary and to marry her to the +duke of Norfolk, a course of action probably dictated by a desire to +avoid all revelations about the Darnley murder. But this did not prevent +him from being arrested in September 1569 on account of his share in the +crime. He was, however, delivered from his captors by a ruse on the part +of his friend, Sir William Kirkcaldy of Grange, and was brought into +Edinburgh Castle, while his trial was put off because the city was +thronged with his adherents. Maitland now became the leader of the +remnant which stood by the cause of the imprisoned queen. Already a +physical wreck, he was borne into Edinburgh Castle in April 1571 and +with Kirkcaldy he held this fortress against the regent Morton and his +English auxiliaries. The castle surrendered in May 1573 and on the 7th +or the 9th of June following Maitland died at Leith, there being very +little evidence for the theory that he poisoned himself. "Secretary +Maitland" was a man of great learning with a ready wit and a caustic +tongue. He was reputed to be the most versatile and accomplished +statesman of his age, and almost alone among his Scottish contemporaries +he placed his country above the claims of either the Roman Catholic or +the Protestant religions. Among the testimonies to his great abilities +are those of Queen Elizabeth, of William Cecil and of Knox. By his +second wife, Mary Fleming, one of Queen Mary's ladies, whom he married +in 1567, he had a son and daughter. His son James died without issue +about 1620. + + See John Skelton, _Maitland of Lethington_ (1894); A. Lang, _History + of Scotland_, vol. ii. (1902). + + + + +MAITLAND, EAST and WEST, adjoining municipalities in Northumberland +county, New South Wales, Australia, 120 m. by rail N. of Sydney. Pop. +(1901), West Maitland, 6798; East Maitland, 3287. These towns are +situated in a valley on the Hunter River, which is liable to sudden +floods, to guard against which the river is protected by stone +embankments at West Maitland, while there are flood-gates at East +Maitland. Maitland is the centre of the rich agricultural district of +the Hunter Valley, which produces maize, wheat and other cereals, +lucerne, tobacco, fruit and wine; excellent coal also is worked in the +vicinity. East Maitland is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop, whose +cathedral (St John's), however, is situated in the larger town. Besides +this, West Maitland contains several handsome public and commercial +buildings. + + + + +MAITREYA, the name of the future Buddha. In one of the works included in +the Pali canon, the _Digha Nikaya_, a prophecy is put into the Buddha's +mouth that after the decay of the religion another Buddha, named +Metteyya, will arise who will have thousands of followers instead of the +hundreds that the historical Buddha had. This is the only mention of the +future Buddha in the canon. For some centuries we hear nothing more +about him. But when, in the period just before and after the Christian +era, some Buddhists began to write in Sanskrit instead of Pali, they +composed new works in which Maitreya (the Sanskrit form of Metteyya) is +more often mentioned, and details are given as to his birthplace and +history. These are entirely devised in imitation of the details of the +life of the historical Buddha, and have no independent value. Only the +names differ. The document in which the original prophecy occurs was put +together at some date during the 1st century after the Buddha's death +(see NIKAYA). It is impossible to say whether tradition was, at that +time, correct in attributing it to the Buddha. But whoever chose the +name (it is a patronymic or family, not a personal name), had no doubt +regard to the etymological connexion with the word for "love," which is +Metta in Pali. This would only be one of those punning allusions so +frequent in Indian literature. + +Long afterwards, probably in the 6th or 7th century, a reformer in south +India, at a time when the incoming flood of ritualism and superstition +threatened to overwhelm the simple teaching of the earlier Buddhism, +wrote a Pali poem, entitled the _Anagata Vamsa_. In this he described +the golden age of the future when, in the time of Metteyya, kings, +ministers and people would vie one with the other in the maintenance of +the original simple doctrine, and in the restoration of the good times +of old. The other side also claimed the authority of the future Buddha +for their innovations. Statues of Maitreya are found in Buddhist +temples, of all sects, at the present day; and the belief in his future +advent is universal among Buddhists. + + Authorities.--_Digha Nikaya_, vol. iii., edited by J. E. Carpenter, + (London, 1908); "_Anagata Vamsa_," edited by J. Minayeff in _Journal + of the Pali Text Society_ (1886); _Watters on Yuan Chwang_, edited by + Rhys Davids and S. W. Bushell (London, 1904-1905). (T. W. R. D.) + + + + +MAIWAND, a village of Afghanistan, 50 m. N.W. of Kandahar. It is chiefly +notable for the defeat inflicted on a British brigade under General +Burrows by Ayub Khan on the 27th of July 1880 during the second Afghan +War (see AFGHANISTAN). Ayub Khan, Shere Ali's younger son, who had been +holding Herat during the British operations at Kabul and Kandahar, set +out towards Kandahar with a small army in June 1880, and a brigade under +General Burrows was detached from Kandahar to oppose him. Burrows +advanced to the Helmund, opposite Girishk, to oppose Ayub Khan, but was +there deserted by the troops of Shere Ali, the wali of Kandahar, and +forced to retreat to Kushk-i-Nakhud, half way to Kandahar. In order to +prevent Ayub passing to Ghazni, Burrows advanced to Maiwand on the 27th +of July, and attacked Ayub, who had already seized that place. The +Afghans, who numbered 25,000, outflanked the British, the artillery +expended their ammunition, and the native portion of the Brigade got out +of hand and pressed back on the few British infantry. The British were +completely routed, and had to thank the apathy of the Afghans for +escaping total annihilation. Of the 2476 British troops engaged, 934 +were killed and 175 wounded or missing. This defeat necessitated Sir +Frederick Roberts' famous march from Kabul to Kandahar. + + See Lord Roberts, _Forty-one Years in India_ (1896). + + + + +MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN, _Zea Mays_ (from [Greek: zeá] or [Greek: zeiá], +which appears to have been "spelt," _Triticum spelta_, according to the +description of Theophrastus), a plant of the tribe Maydeae of the order +Gramineae or grasses (see fig. 1). It is unknown in the native state, +but is most probably indigenous to tropical America. Small grains of an +unknown variety have been found in the ancient tombs of Peru, and Darwin +found heads of maize embedded on the shore in Peru at 85 ft. above the +present sea-level. Bonafous, however (_Histoire naturelle du maïs_), +quotes authorities (Bock, 1532, Ruel and Fuchs) as believing that it +came from Asia, and maize was said by Santa Rosa de Viterbo to have been +brought by the Arabs into Spain in the 13th century. A drawing of maize +is also given by Bonafous from a Chinese work on natural history, +_Li-chi-tchin_, dated 1562, a little over sixty years after the +discovery of the New World. It is not figured on Egyptian monuments, nor +was any mention made of it by Eastern travellers in Africa or Asia prior +to the 16th century. Humboldt, Alphonse de Candolle and others, however, +do not hesitate to say that it originated solely in America, where it +had been long and extensively cultivated at the period of the discovery +of the New World; and that is the generally accepted modern view. Some +hold the view that maize originated from a common Mexican fodder grass, +_Euchlaena mexicana_, known as Teosinte, a closely allied plant which +when crossed with maize yields a maize-like hybrid. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. + +Maize--_Zea Mays_--unripe cob. The membranous spathes have been cut and +drawn aside, revealing the spike of fruit which bears the long silky +styles. One-third nat. size.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Spike of Male Flowers.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Male Spikelet.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Female Spike.] + +The plant is monoecious, producing the staminate (male) flowers in a +large feathery panicle at the summit, and the (female) dense spikes of +flowers, or "cobs," in the axils of the leaves below, the long pink +styles hanging out like a silken tassel. They are invested by the +sheaths of leaves, much used in packing oranges in south Europe, and the +more delicate ones for cigarettes in South America. Fig. 2 shows a +branch of the terminal male inflorescence. Fig. 3 is a single spikelet +of the same, containing two florets, with the three stamens of one only +protruded. Fig. 4 is a spike of the female inflorescence, protected by +the sheaths of leaves--the blades being also present. Usually the +sheaths terminate in a point, the blades being arrested. Fig. 5 is a +spikelet of the female inflorescence, consisting of two outer glumes, +the lower one ciliated, which enclose two florets--one (a) barren +(sometimes fertile), consisting of a flowering glume and pale only, and +the other (b) fertile, containing the pistil with elongated style. The +mass of styles from the whole spike is pendulous from the summit of the +sheaths, as in fig. 4. Fig. 6 shows the fruit or grain. More than three +hundred varieties are known, which differ more among themselves than +those of any other cereal. Some come to maturity in two months, others +require seven months; some are as many feet high as others are inches; +some have kernels eleven times larger than others. They vary similarly +in shape and size of ears, colour of the grain, which may be white, +yellow, purple, striped, &c., and also in physical characters and +chemical composition. Dr E. Lewis Sturtevant, who has made an extended +study of the forms and varieties, classes into seven groups those grown +primarily for the grain, the distinguishing characters of which are +based on the grains or kernels; there are, in addition, forms of +horticultural interest grown for ornament. Pod corn (var. _tunicata_) is +characterized by having each kernel enclosed in a husk. Pop corn (var. +_everta_) has a very large proportion of the "endosperm"--the nutritious +matter which with the small embryo makes up the grain--of a horny +consistency, which causes the grain to pop when heated, that is to say, +the kernel becomes turned inside out by the explosion of the contained +moisture. It is also characterized by the small size of the grain and +ear. Flint corn (var. _indurata_) has a starchy endosperm enclosed in a +horny layer of varying thickness in the different varieties. The colour +of the grain is white, yellow, red, blue or variegated. It is commonly +cultivated in Canada and northern United States, where the seasons are +too short for Dent corn, and has been grown as far north as 50° N. lat. +Dent or field corn (var. _indentata_) has the starchy endosperm +extending to the summit of the grain, with horny endosperm at the sides. +The top of the grain becomes indented, owing to the drying and shrinkage +of the starchy matter; the character of the indented surface varies with +the height and thickness of the horny endosperm. This is the form +commonly grown in the United States; the varieties differ widely in the +size of the plants and the appearance of the ear. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Female Spikelet.] + +The colour of the grain varies greatly, being generally white, yellow, +mottled red, or less commonly red. Soft corn (var. _amylacea_) has no +horny endosperm, and hence the grains shrink uniformly. It is cultivated +only to a limited extent in the United States, but seems to have been +commonly grown by the Indians in many localities in North and South +America. Sweet corn (var. _saccharata_) is characterized by the +translucent horny appearance of the grains and their more or less +wrinkled condition. It is pre-eminently a garden vegetable, the ear +being used before the grain hardens, when it is well filled but soft and +milky. It is often cooked and served in the cob; when canned it is cut +from the cob. Canned sweet corn is an important article of domestic +commerce in Canada and the United States. In starchy sweet corn (var. +_amylea-saccharata_) the grain has the external appearance of sweet +corn, but examination shows the lower half to be starchy, the upper +horny and translucent. A form of flint corn, with variegated leaves, is +grown for ornament under the name _Zea japonica_ or Japanese striped +corn. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Grain.] + +Chemical analysis, like common experience, shows that Indian corn is a +very nutritious article of food, being richer in albuminoids than any +other cereals when ripe (calculated in the dry weight). It can be grown +in the tropics from the level of the sea to a height equal to that of +the Pyrenees and in the south and middle of Europe, but it cannot be +grown in England with any chance of profit, except perhaps as fodder. +Frost kills the plant in all its stages and all its varieties; and the +crop does not flourish well if the nights are cool, no matter how +favourable the other conditions. Consequently it is the first crop to +disappear as one ascends into the mountain regions, and comparatively +little is grown west of the great plains of North America. In Brittany, +where it scarcely ripens the grain, it furnishes a strong crop in the +autumn upon sandy soil where clover and lucerne will yield but a poor +produce. It prefers a deep, rich, warm, dry and mellow soil, and hence +the rich bottoms and fertile prairies of the Mississippi basin +constitute the region of its greatest production. It is extensively +grown throughout India, both for the ripe grain and for use of the +unripe cob as a green vegetable. It is the most common crop throughout +South Africa, where it is known as mealies, being the staple food of the +natives. It is also largely used for fodder and is an important article +of export. + +As an article of food maize is one of the most extensively used grains +in the world. Although rich in nitrogenous matter and fat, it does not +make good bread. A mixture of rye and corn meal, however, makes an +excellent coarse bread, formerly much used in the Atlantic states, and a +similar bread is now the chief coarse bread of Portugal and some parts +of Spain. It is either baked into cakes, called _tortilla_ by the +Indians of Yucatan, or made into a kind of porridge, as in Ireland. When +deprived of the gluten it constitutes oswego, maizena or corn flour. +Maize contains more oil than any other cereal, ranging from 3.5 to 9.5% +in the commercial grain. This is one of the factors in its value for +fattening purposes. In distilling and some other processes this oil is +separated and forms an article of commerce. When maize is sown, +broadcast or closely planted in drills the ears may not develop at all, +but the stalk is richer in sugar and sweeter; and this is the basis of +growing "corn-fodder." The amount of forage that may be produced in this +way is enormous; 50,000 to 80,000 lb. of green fodder are grown per +acre, which makes 8000 to 12,000 lb. as field-cured. Sugar and molasses +have from time to time been manufactured from the corn stalks. + + See articles on corn and _Zea Mays_ in L. H. Bailey's _Cyclopaedia of + American Horticulture_ (1900-1902); and for cultivation in India, + Watt's _Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_, vi. (1893). + + + + + +MAJESTY (Fr. _majesté_; Lat. _majestas_, grandeur, greatness, from the +base _mag-_, as in _magnus_, great, _major_, greater, &c.), dignity, +greatness, a term especially used to express the dignity and power of a +sovereign. This application is to be traced to the use of _majestas_ in +Latin to express the supreme sovereign dignity of the Roman state, the +_majestas reipublicae_ or _populi Romani_, hence _majestatem laedere_ or +_minuere_, was to commit high treason, _crimen majestatis_. (For the +modern law and usage of _laesa majestas, lèse majesté, +Majestätsbeleidigung_, see TREASON.) From the republic _majestas_ was +transferred to the emperors, and the _majestas populi Romani_ became the +_majestas imperii_, and _augustalis majestas_ is used as a term to +express the sovereign person of the emperor. Honorius and Theodosius +speak of themselves in the first person as _nostra majestas_. The term +"majesty" was strictly confined in the middle ages to the successors of +the Roman emperors in the West, and at the treaty of Cambrai (1529) it +is reserved for the emperor Charles V. Later the word is used of kings +also, and the distinction is made between imperial majesty (_caesareana +majestas_) and kingly or royal majesty. From the 16th century dates the +application of "Most Christian and Catholic Majesty" to the kings of +France, of "Catholic Majesty" to the kings of Spain, of "Most Faithful +Majesty" to the kings of Portugal, and "Apostolic Majesty" to the kings +of Hungary. In England the use is generally assigned to the reign of +Henry VIII., but it is found, though not in general usage, earlier; thus +the _New English Dictionary_ quotes from an _Address of the Kings Clerks +to Henry II._ in 1171 (Materials for the History of Archbishop Becket, +vii. 471, Rolls Series, 1885), where the king is styled _vestra +majestas_, and Selden (_Titles of Honour_, part i. ch. 7, p. 98, ed. +1672) finds many early uses in letters to Edward I., in charters of +creation of peers, &c. The fullest form in English usage is "His Most +Gracious Majesty"; another form is "The King's Most Excellent Majesty," +as in the English Prayer-book. "His Sacred Majesty" was common in the +17th century; and of this form Selden says: "It is true, I think, that +in our memory or the memory of our fathers, the use of it first began in +England." "His Majesty," abbreviated H.M., is now the universal European +use in speaking of any reigning king, and "His Imperial Majesty," +H.I.M., of any reigning emperor. + +From the particular and very early use of "majesty" for the glory and +splendour of God, the term has been used in ecclesiastical art of the +representation of God the Father enthroned in glory, sometimes with the +other persons of the Trinity, and of the Saviour alone, enthroned with +an aureole. + + + + +MAJLÁTH, JÁNOS, or JOHN, COUNT (1786-1855), Hungarian historian and +poet, was born at Pest on the 5th of October 1786. First educated at +home, he subsequently studied philosophy at Eger (Erlau) and law at Györ +(Raab), his father, Count Joseph Majláth, an Austrian minister of state, +eventually obtaining for him an appointment in the public service. +Majláth devoted himself to historical research and the translation into +German of Magyar folk-tales, and of selections from the works of the +best of his country's native poets. Moreover, as an original lyrical +writer, and as an editor and adapter of old German poems, Majláth showed +considerable talent. During the greater part of his life he resided +either at Pest or Vienna, but a few years before his death he removed to +Munich, where he fell into a state of destitution and extreme +despondency. Seized at last by a terrible infatuation, he and his +daughter Henriette, who had long been his constant companion and +amanuensis, drowned themselves in the Lake of Starnberg, a few miles +south-west of Munich, on the 3rd of January 1855. + + Of his historical works the most important are the _Geschichte der + Magyaren_ (Vienna, 1828-1831, 5 vols.; 2nd ed., Ratisbon, 1852-1853) + and his _Geschichte des österreichischen Kaiserstaats_ (Hamburg, + 1834-1850, 5 vols.). Specially noteworthy among his metrical + translations from the Hungarian are the _Magyarische Gedichte_ + (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1825); and _Himfy's auserlesene Liebeslieder_ + (Pest, 1829; 2nd ed., 1831). A valuable contribution to folk-lore + appeared in the _Magyarische Sagen, Märchen und Erzählungen_ (Brünn, + 1825; 2nd ed., Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1837, 2 vols.). + + + + +MAJOLICA, a name properly applied to a species of Italian ware in which +the body is coated with a tin-enamel, on which is laid and fired a +painted decoration. It is also applied to similar wares made in +imitation of the Italian ware in other countries. The word in Italian is +_maiolica_. Du Cange (_Gloss. s.v._ "Majorica") quotes from a chronicle +of Verona of 1368, in which the form _majolica_ occurs for the more +usual Latin form _majorica_. It has usually been supposed that this type +of pottery was first made in the island of Majorca, but it is more +probable that the name was given by the Italians to the lustred Spanish +ware imported by ships hailing from the Balearic Islands. (See CERAMICS: +_Medieval and Later Italian_.) + + + + +MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550), Scottish theological and historical +writer, was born at the village of Gleghornie, near North Berwick, +Scotland, in the year 1470. He was educated at the school of Haddington, +where John Knox was later a pupil. After a short period spent at +Cambridge (at God's House, afterwards Christ's College) he entered the +university of Paris in 1493, studying successively at the colleges of St +Barbe, Montaigu and Navarre, and graduating as master of arts in 1496. +Promoted to the doctorate in 1505, he lectured on philosophy at Montaigu +College and on theology at Navarre. He visited Scotland in 1515 and +returned in 1518, when he was appointed principal regent in the +university of Glasgow, John Knox being among the number of those who +attended his lectures there. In 1522 he removed to St Andrew's +University, where in 1525 George Buchanan was one of his pupils. He +returned to the college of Montaigu in 1525, but was once more at St +Andrew's in 1531, where he was head of St Salvator's College from 1534 +until his death. + +Major's voluminous writings may be grouped under (a) logic and +philosophy, (b) Scripture commentary, and (c) history. All are in Latin, +all appeared between 1503 and 1530, and all were printed at Paris. The +first group includes his _Exponabilia_ (1503), his commentary on Petrus +Hispanus (1505-1506), his _Inclitarum artium libri_ (1506, &c.), his +commentary on Joannes Dorp (1504, &c.), his _Insolubilia_ (1516, &c.), +his introduction to Aristotle's logic (1521, &c.), his commentary on the +ethics (1530), and, chief of all, his commentary on Peter Lombard's +_Sentences_ (1509, &c.); the second consists of a commentary on Matthew +(1518) and another on the Four Gospels (1529); the last is represented +by his famous _Historia Majoris Britanniae tam Angliae quam Scotiae per +J. M._ (1521). In political philosophy he maintained the Scotist +position, that civil authority was derived from the popular will, but in +theology he was a scholastic conservative, though he never failed to +show his approbation of Gallicanism and its plea for the reform of +ecclesiastical abuses. He has left on record that it was his aim and +hope to reconcile realism and nominalism in the interests of theological +peace. He had a world-wide reputation as a teacher and writer. +Buchanan's severe epigram, perhaps the only unfriendly words in the +flood of contemporary praise, may be explained as a protest against the +compromise which Major appeared to offer rather than as a personal +attack on his teacher. Major takes a more independent attitude in his +_History_, which is a remarkable example of historical accuracy and +insight. He claims that the historian's chief duty is to write +truthfully, and he is careful to show that a theologian may fulfil this +condition. + + The _History_, on which his fame now rests, was reprinted by Freebairn + (Edinburgh, 1740), and was translated in 1892 by Archibald Constable + for the Scottish History Society. The latter volume contains a full + account of the author by Aeneas J. G. Mackay and a bibliography by + Thomas Graves Law. + + + + +MAJOR (Lat. for "greater"), a word used, both as a substantive and +adjective, for that which is greater than another in size, quality, +degree, importance, &c., often opposed correlatively to that to which +"minor" is applied in the same connotation. In the categorical syllogism +in logic, the major term is the term which forms the predicate of the +conclusion, the major premise is that which contains the major term. +(For the distinction between major and minor intervals, and other +applications in music, see MUSIC and HARMONY.) + +The use of _Major_ as part of an official title in Med. Lat. has given +the Span. _mayor_, Fr. _maire_, and Eng. "_mayor_" (q.v.). In English the +unadapted form "major" is the title of a military officer now ranking +between a captain and a lieutenant-colonel. Originally the word was used +adjectivally in the title "sergeant-major," an officer of high rank +(third in command of an army) who performed the same duties of +administration, drill and encampments on the staff of the chief commander +as the sergeant in a company performs as assistant to the captain. This +was in the latter half of the 16th century, and very soon afterwards the +"sergeant-major" became known as the "sergeant-major-general"--hence the +modern title of major-general. By the time of the English Civil War +"majors" had been introduced in each regiment of foot, who corresponded +in a lesser sphere to the "major-general" of the whole army. The major's +sphere of duties, precedence and title have since varied but little, +though he has, in the British service, taken the place of the +lieutenant-colonel as second in command--the latter officer exercising +the command of the cavalry regiment, infantry battalion or artillery +brigade, and the colonel being, save for certain administrative +functions, little more than the titular chief of his regiment. Junior +majors command companies of infantry; squadrons of cavalry and batteries +of artillery are also commanded by majors. In most European armies, +however, and of late years in the army of the United States also, the +major has become a battalion commander under the orders of a regimental +commander (colonel or lieutenant-colonel). The word appears also in the +British service in "brigade-major" (the adjutant or staff officer of a +brigade). "Town-majors" (garrison staff officers) are now no longer +appointed. In the French service up to 1871 the "major-general" was the +chief of the general staff of a field army, and thus preserved the +tradition of the former "sergeant-major" or "sergeant-major-general." + + + + +MAJORCA (_Mallorca_), the largest of the group of Spanish islands in the +Mediterranean Sea known as the Balearic Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900), +248,191; area, 430 sq. m. Majorca has the shape of a trapezoid, with the +angles directed to the cardinal points; and its diagonal, from Cape +Grozer in the west to Cape Pera in the east, is about 60 m. On the +north-west the coast is precipitous, but on the other sides it is low +and sloping. On the north-east there are several considerable bays, of +which the chief are those of Alcudia and Pollensa; while on the +south-west is the still more important bay of Palma. No fewer than +twelve ports or harbours are enumerated round the island, of which may +be mentioned Andraitx and Sóller. In the north-west Majorca is traversed +by a chain of mountains running parallel with the coast, and attaining +its highest elevation in Silla de Torrellas (5154 ft.). Towards the +south and east the surface is comparatively level, though broken by +isolated peaks of considerable height. The northern mountains afford +great protection to the rest of the island from the violent gales to +which it would otherwise be exposed, and render the climate remarkably +mild and pleasant. The scenery of Majorca has all the picturesqueness of +outline that usually belongs to a limestone formation. Some of the +valleys, such as those of Valdemosa and Sóller, with their luxuriant +vegetation, are delightful resorts. There are quarries of marble of +various grains and colours--those near Santañy, in the district of +Manacor, being especially celebrated; while lead, iron and cinnabar have +also been obtained. Coal of a jet-like character is found at Benisalem, +where it was first worked in 1836; at Selva, where it has been mined +since 1851; near Santa Maria and elsewhere. It is used in the industrial +establishments of Palma, and in the manufacture of lime, plaster and +bricks near the mines. A considerable quantity is also exported to +Barcelona. + +The inhabitants are principally devoted to agriculture, and most of the +arable land is cultivated. The mountains are terraced; and the old pine +woods have in many places given way to the olive, the vine and the +almond tree, to fields of wheat and flax, or to orchards of figs and +oranges. For the last-mentioned fruits the valley of Sóller is one of +the most important districts, the produce being largely transmitted to +France. The yield of oil is very considerable, and Inca is the centre of +the oil district. The wines are light but excellent, especially the +Muscadel and Montona. During the summer there is often great scarcity of +water; but, according to a system handed down by the Moors, the rains of +autumn and winter are collected in enormous reservoirs, which contain +sufficient water to last through the dry season; and on the payment of a +certain rate, each landholder has his fields flooded at certain +intervals. Mules are used in the agriculture and traffic of the island. +The cattle are small, but the sheep are large and well fleeced. Pigs are +reared for export to Barcelona, and there is abundance of poultry and +small game. Brandy is made and exported in large quantities. Excellent +woollen and linen cloths are woven; the silkworm is reared and its +produce manufactured; and canvas, rope and cord are largely made, from +both native and foreign materials. + +The roads are excellent, the four principal being those from Alcudia, +Manacor, Sóller and Andraitx to the capital. Forty-eight miles of +railway were open at the beginning of the 20th century. The main line +runs from Palma to Manacor and Alcudia. The telegraphic system is fairly +complete, and there is regular steam communication with Barcelona and +Alicante. The principal towns include--besides Palma (63,937), Felanitx +(11,294) and Manacor (12,408), which are described in separate +articles--Andraitx (6516), Inca (7579), Llummayor (8859), Pollensa +(8308), Santañy (6692) and Sóller (8026). + + + + +MAJORIAN (JULIUS VALERIUS MAJORIANUS), emperor of the West from 457 to +461. He had distinguished himself as a general by victories over the +Franks and Alemanni, and six months after the deposition of Avitus he +was declared emperor by the regent Ricimer. After repelling an attack by +the Vandals upon Campania (458) he prepared a large force, composed +chiefly of barbarians, to invade Africa, which he previously visited in +disguise. Having during his stay in Gaul defeated and concluded an +alliance with Theodoric the Visigoth, at the beginning of 460 he crossed +the Pyrenees for the purpose of joining the powerful fleet which he had +collected at Carthagena. The Vandal king Genseric, however, after all +overtures of peace had been rejected, succeeded through the treachery of +certain officers in surprising the Roman fleet, most of the ships being +either taken or destroyed. Majorian thereupon made peace with Genseric. +But his ill-success had destroyed his military reputation; his efforts +to put down abuses and improve the condition of the people had roused +the hatred of the officials; and Ricimer, jealous of his fame and +influence, stirred up the foreign troops against him. A mutiny broke out +in Lombardy, and on the 2nd of August 461 Majorian was forced to resign. +He died five days afterwards, either of dysentery or by violence. +Majorian was the author of a number of remarkable laws, contained in the +Theodosian Code. He remitted all arrears of taxes, the collection of +which was for the future placed in the hands of the local officials. He +revived the institution of _defensores_, defenders of cities, whose duty +it was to protect the poor and inform the emperor of abuses committed in +his name. The practice of pulling down the ancient monuments to be used +as building material, which was connived at by venal officials, was +strictly prohibited. He also passed laws against compulsory ordination +and premature vows of celibacy. + + See Sidonius Apollinaris, _Panegyric of Majorian_; Gibbon, _Decline + and Fall_, ch. xxxvi. (where an outline of the "novels" of Majorian is + given); J. B. Bury, _Later Roman Empire_, bk. iii. + + + + +MAJORITY (Fr. _majorité_; Med. Lat. _majoritas_; Lat. _major_, greater), +a term signifying the greater number. In legislative and deliberative +assemblies it is usual to decide questions by a majority of those +present at a meeting and voting. In law, majority is the state of being +of full age, which in the United Kingdom is twenty-one years of age. A +person attains his majority at twelve o'clock at night of the day +preceding his twenty-first birthday (see INFANT; AGE). + + + + +MAJUBA (properly AMAJUBA, Zulu for "the hill of doves"), a mountain in +northern Natal, part of the Drakensberg range, rising about 7000 ft. +above the sea and over 2000 ft. above the level of the surrounding +country. It overlooks the pass through the Drakensberg known as Laing's +Nek, is 8 m. S. of the Transvaal border and 18 m. N. of the town of +Newcastle. The railway from Durban to Johannesburg skirts the base of +the mountain. During the Boer War of 1880-81 Majuba was occupied on the +night of the 26th of February 1881 by some 600 British troops under Sir +George Pomeroy Colley. On the following morning the hill was stormed by +the Boers under Piet Joubert and the British routed, Colley being among +the slain. + + + + +MAKALAKA, a general designation used by the Bechuana, Matabele and +kindred peoples, for conquered or slave tribes. Thus many of the tribes +subjugated by the Makololo chief, Sebituane, about 1830 were called +Makalaka (see David Livingstone's _Missionary Travels and Researches in +South Africa_, London, 1857). By early writers on south-central Africa +certain of the inhabitants of Barotseland were styled Makalaka; the name +is more frequently used to designate the Makalanga, one of the tribes +now classed as Mashonas (q.v.), who were brought into subjection by the +Matabele. + + + + +MAKARAKA, or IDDIO ("Cannibals"), a negroid people of Central Africa, +closely related to the powerful Azandeh or Niam-Niam race, occupying the +Bahr-el-Ghazal west of Lado. They came originally from the country of +the Kibas, north of the Welle. Dr W. Junker described them as among the +most trustworthy, industrious and intelligent people of the +Bahr-el-Ghazal. They are a reddish-black, with nose less flat and +cheek-bones less prominent than the ordinary negroes, and, unlike the +latter, do not extract the incisors. Their long silky hair is built up +in the most fantastic form by means of vegetable substances. They are +well-known for strength and staying power. + + See W. Junker, _Travels in Africa_ (1890-1892). + + + + +MAKART, HANS (1840-1884), Austrian painter, born at Salzburg, was the +son of an inspector of the imperial castle. He has been aptly called the +first German _painter_ of the 19th century. When he, as a youth, entered +the Vienna Academy German art was under the rule of Cornelius's cold +classicism. It was entirely intellectual and academic. Clear and precise +drawing, sculpturesque modelling, and pictorial erudition were the +qualities most esteemed; and it is not surprising that Makart, poor +draughtsman to the very last, with a passionate and sensual love of +colour, and ever impatient to escape the routine of art-school drawing, +was found to be "devoid of all talent" and forced to leave the Vienna +Academy. He went to Munich, and after two years of independent study +attracted the attention of Piloty, under whose guidance he made rapid +and astonishing progress. The first picture he painted under Piloty, +"Lavoisier in Prison," though timid and conventional, attracted +attention by its sense of colour. In the next, "The Knight and the Water +Nymphs," he first displayed the decorative qualities to which he +afterwards sacrificed everything else in his work. With the "Cupids" and +"The Plague in Florence" of the next year his fame became firmly +established. "Romeo and Juliet" was soon after bought by the Austrian +emperor for the Vienna Museum, and Makart was invited to come to Vienna, +where a large studio was placed at his disposal. In Vienna Makart became +the acknowledged leader of the artistic life of the city, which in the +'seventies passed through a period of feverish activity, the chief +results of which are the sumptuously decorated public buildings of the +Ringstrasse. + +The enthusiasm of the time, the splendour of the fêtes over which Makart +presided, and the very obvious appeal of his huge compositions in their +glowing richness of colour, in which he tried to emulate Rubens, made +him appear a very giant to his contemporaries in Vienna, and indeed in +all Austria and Germany. The appearance of each of his ambitious +historical and allegorical paintings was hailed with enthusiasm--the +"Catherina Cornaro," "Diana's Hunt," "The Entry of Charles V. into +Antwerp," "Abundantia," "Spring," "Summer," "The Death of Cleopatra" and +the "Five Senses." He reached the zenith of his fame when, in 1879, he +designed, single-handed, the costumes, scenic setting, and triumphal +cars of the grand pageant with which the citizens of Vienna celebrated +the silver wedding of their rulers. Some 15,000 people participated in +the pageant, all dressed in the costumes of the Rubens and Rembrandt +period. Makart died in Vienna in October 1884. + + Unfortunately Makart was in the habit of using such villainous + pigments and mediums that in the few decades which have passed since + his death, the vast majority of his large paintings have practically + perished. The blues have turned into green; the bitumen has eaten away + the rich glow of the colour harmonies; the thickly applied paint has + cracked and in some instances crumbled away. And this loss of their + chief quality has accentuated the weaknesses of these pictures--the + faulty drawing, careless and hasty execution, lack of deeper + significance and prevalence of glaring anachronisms. Important + examples of his work are to be found at the galleries of Vienna, + Berlin, Hamburg and Stuttgart. For the Vienna Museum he also executed + a series of decorative lunettes. + + + + +MAKING-UP PRICE, a term used in the London and other British Stock +Exchanges, to denote the price at which speculative bargains are carried +over from one account to the next. The carrying over of a "bull" +position in Eries, for example, implies a sale for cash and a +simultaneous repurchase for the new account, both bargains being done at +the making-up price. This is fixed at noon on carry-over day, in +accordance with the market price then current (see ACCOUNT; STOCK +EXCHANGE). The term is also used in New York, where the making-up prices +are fixed at the end of a day's business, in accordance with the +American system of daily settlements. + + + + +MAKÓ, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Csanád 135 m. S.E. of +Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 33,701. It is situated near the right +bank of the Maros, and is a typical Hungarian town of the Alföld. The +most noteworthy building is the palace of the bishop of Csanád, whose +usual residence is in Temesvár. The town possesses numerous mills, and +the surrounding country is fertile. The communal lands are extensive; +they afford excellent pasturage for horses and sheep and also for large +herds of horned cattle, for the size and quality of which Makó has +obtained a high repute. + + + + +MAKRAN, or MEKRAN, a province of Baluchistan, fringing the Arabian Sea +from Persia almost to Sind for about 200 m. It is subject to the khan of +Kalat under British political supervision. Estimated area, 26,000 sq. +m.; estimated pop. (1903), 78,000. The long lateral valley of Kej is +usually associated with Makran in early geographical records. The +Kej-Macoran of Marco Polo is the Makran of to-day. + +The long stretch of sandy foreshore is broken on the coast-line by the +magnificent cliffs of Malan, the hammer-shaped headlands of Ormarah and +Gwadar, and the precipitous cliffs of Jebel Zarain, near Pasni. Within +them lies the usual frontier band of parallel ridges, alternating with +narrow valleys. Amongst them the ranges called Talana and Talur are +conspicuous by their height and regular configuration. The normal +conformation of the Baluchistan frontier is somewhat emphasized in +Makran. Here the volcanic action, which preceded the general upheaval of +recent strata and the folding of the edges of the interior highlands, is +still in evidence in occasional boiling mud volcanoes on the coast-line. +It is repeated in the blazing summit of the Kuh-i-taftan (the burning +mountain of the Persian frontier) which is the highest active volcano in +Asia (13,000 ft.), and probably the farthest inland. Evidence of extinct +mud volcanoes exists through a very wide area in Baluchistan and +Seistan. Probably the _miri_, or fort, at Quetta represents one of them. +The coast is indented by several harbours. Ormarah, Khor Kalmat, Pasni +and Gwadar are all somewhat difficult of approach by reason of a +sand-bar which appears to extend along the whole coast-line, and which +is very possibly the last evidence of a submerged ridge; and they are +all subject to a very lively surf under certain conditions of wind. Of +these the port of Gwadar (which belongs to Muscat and is therefore +foreign territory) is the most important. They all are (or were) +stations of the Indo-Persian telegraph system which unites Karachi with +Bushire. With the exception of the Kej valley, and that of the Bolida, +which is an affluent of the Kej, there are no considerable spaces of +cultivation in Makran. These two valleys seem to concentrate the whole +agricultural wealth of the country. They are picturesque, with thick +groves of date palms at intervals, and are filled with crops and +orchards. They are indeed exceedingly beautiful; and yet the surrounding +waste of hills is chiefly a barren repetition of sun-cracked crags and +ridges with parched and withered valleys intersecting them, where a +trickle of salt water leaves a white and leprous streak amongst the +faded tamarisk or the yellow stalks of last season's grass. Makran is +the home of remnants of an innumerable company of mixed people gathered +from the four corners of Asia and eastern Africa. The ancient +Dravidians, of whom the Brahui is typical, still exist in many of the +districts which are assigned to them in Herodotus. Amongst them there is +always a prominent Arab element, for the Arabs held Makran even before +they conquered Sind and made the Kej valley their trade highway to +India. There are negroes on the coast, bred from imported slaves. The +Meds of the Indus valley still form the greater part of the fishing +population, representing the Ichthyophagi of Arrian. The old Tajik +element of Persia is not so evident in Makran as it is farther north; +and the Karak pirates whose depredations led to the invasion of India +and the conquest of Sind, seem to have disappeared altogether. The +fourth section includes the valleys formed by the Rakshan and Mashkel, +which, sweeping downwards from the Kalat highlands and the Persian +border east and west, unite to break through the intervening chain of +hills northward to form the Mashkel swamps, and define the northern +limits of Makran. In these valleys are narrow strips of very advanced +cultivation, the dates of Panjgur being generally reckoned superior even +to those of the Euphrates. The great Mashkel swamp and the Kharan desert +to the east of it, mark the flat phase of southern Baluchistan +topography. It is geologically part of an ancient inland lake or sea +which included the present swamp regions of the Helmund, but not the +central depression of the Lora. The latter is buttressed against hills +at a much higher elevation than the Kharan desert, which is separated +from the great expanse of the Helmund desert within the borders of +Afghanistan by a transverse band of serrated hills forming a distinct +watershed from Nushki to Seistan. Here and there these jagged peaks +appear as if half overwhelmed by an advancing sea of sand. They are +treeless and barren, and water is but rarely found at the edges of their +foothills. The Koh-i-Sultan, at the western extremity of the northern +group of these irregular hills, is over 6000 ft. above sea-level, but +the general level of the surrounding deserts is only about 2000 ft., +sinking to 1500 ft. in the Mashkel Hamun and the Gaod-i-Zirreh. + +The whole of this country has been surveyed by Indian surveyors and the +boundary between Persian and British Baluchistan was demarcated by a +commission in 1895-1896. In 1898 a column of British troops under +Colonel Mayne was despatched to Makran by sea, owing to a rebellion +against the authority of the khan of Kalat, and an attack made by some +Makran chiefs on a British survey party. The campaign was short and +terminated with the capture of the Kej citadel. Another similar +expedition was required in 1901 to storm the fort at Nodiz. The +headquarters of the native governor, under the khan of Kalat, are at +Turbat, with deputies at Tump, Kolwa, Pasni and Panjgur. A levy corps, +with two British officers, is stationed along the western frontier. The +port of Gwadur forms an enclave belonging to the sultan of Muscat. + + _Baluchistan District Gazetteer_, vol. vii. (Bombay, 1907). + (T. H. H.*) + + + + +MAKSOORA, the term in Mahommedan architecture given to the sanctuary or +praying-chamber in a mosque, which was sometimes enclosed with a screen +of lattice-work; the word is occasionally used for a similar enclosure +round a tomb. + + + + +MALABAR, a district of British India, in the Madras Presidency. +Geographically the name is sometimes extended to the entire western +coast of the peninsula. Properly it should apply to the strip below the +Ghats, which is inhabited by people speaking the Malayalam language, a +branch of the Dravidian stock, who form a peculiar race, with castes, +customs and traditions of their own. It would thus be coextensive with +the old kingdom of Chera, including the modern states of Travancore and +Cochin, and part of Kanara. In 1901 the total number of persons speaking +Malayalam in all India was 6,029,304. + +The district of Malabar extends for 145 m. along the coast, running +inland to the Ghats with a breadth varying from 70 to 25 m. The +administrative headquarters are at Calicut. Area, 5795 sq. m. Malabar is +singularly diversified in its configuration; from the eastward, the +great range of the Western Ghats, only interrupted by the Palghat gap, +looks down on a country broken by long spurs, extensive ravines, dense +forests and tangled jungle. To the westward, gentler slopes and downs, +and gradually widening valleys closely cultivated, succeed the forest +uplands, till, nearer the seaboard, the low laterite table-lands shelve +into rice plains and backwaters fringed with coco-nut palms. The coast +runs in a south-easterly direction, and forms a few headlands and small +bays, with a natural harbour in the south at Cochin. In the south there +is considerable extent of table-land. The mountains of the Western Ghats +run almost parallel to the coast, and vary from 3000 to 7000 ft. in +height. One of the most characteristic features of Malabar is an all but +continuous chain of lagoons or backwaters lying parallel to the coast, +which have been formed by the action of the waves and shore currents in +obstructing the waters of the rivers. Connected by artificial canals, +they form a cheap means of transit; and a large local trade is carried +on by inland navigation. Fishing and fishcuring is an important +industry. The forests are extensive and of great value, but they are +almost entirely private property. The few tracts which are conserved +have come into government hands by escheat or by contract. Wild animals +include the elephant, tiger, panther, bison, _sambhar_, spotted deer, +Nilgiri ibex, and bear. The population in 1901 was 2,800,555, showing an +increase of 5.6% in the decade. + +The staple crop is rice, the next most important product being +coco-nuts. Coffee is grown chiefly in the upland tract known as the +Wynaad, where there are also a few acres under tea. The Madras railway +crosses the district and has been extended from Calicut to Cannanore +along the coast. There are eleven seaports, of which the principal are +Calicut, Tellicherry, Cannanore and Cochin. The principal exports are +coffee, coco-nut products and timber. There are factories for cleaning +coffee, pressing coir and making matting, making tiles, sawing timber +and weaving cotton. + + See _Malabar District Gazetteer_ (Madras, 1908). + + + + +MALABARI, BEHRAMJI (1853- ), Indian journalist and social reformer, was +born in 1853 at Baroda, the son of a poor Parsi in the employment of the +state, who died shortly after his birth. His mother took him to Surat, +where he was educated in a mission school, but he never succeeded in +gaining an academical degree. Coming to Bombay, he fell under the +influence of Dr John Wilson, principal of the Scottish College. As early +as 1875 he published a volume of poems in Gujarati, followed in 1877 by +_The Indian Muse in English Garb_, which attracted attention in England, +notably from Tennyson, Max Müller, and Florence Nightingale. His life +work began in 1880 when he acquired the _Indian Spectator_, which he +edited for twenty years until it was merged in the _Voice of India_. In +1901 he became editor of _East and West_. Always holding aloof from +politics, he was an ardent and indefatigable advocate of social reform +in India, especially as regards child marriage and the remarriage of +widows. It was largely by his efforts, both in the press and in tours +through the country, that the Age of Consent Act was passed in 1891. His +account of his visits to England, entitled _The Indian Eye on English +Life_ (1893), passed through three editions, and an earlier book of a +somewhat satirical nature, _Gujarat and the Gujaratis_ (1883), was +equally popular. + + See R. P. Karkaria, _India, Forty Years of Progress and Reform_, + (London, 1896). + + + + +MALABON, a town of the province of Rizal, Luzon, Philippine Islands, 1 +m. inland from the shore of Manila Bay and 3 m. N. of the city of +Manila, with which it is connected by an electric tramway. Pop. (1903), +20,136. The leading industries are the refining of sugar, fishing, +trade, the weaving of jusi cloth, the making of cigars, and the +cultivation of ilang-ilang-trees (_Cananga odorata_) for their flowers, +from which a fine perfume is distilled; ilang-ilang is one of the +principal exports, mostly to France. Tagalog and Spanish are the +principal languages. Malabon was formerly known as Tambóbong. + + + + +MALACCA, a town on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, in 2° 14´ N., +102° 12´ E., which, with the territory lying immediately around and +behind it forms one of the Straits Settlements, and gives its name to +the Straits which divide Sumatra from the Malay Peninsula. Its name, +which is more correctly transliterated _melaka_, is that of a species of +jungle fruit, and is also borne by the small river on the right bank of +which the old Dutch town stands. The Dutch town is connected by a bridge +with the business quarter on the left bank, which is inhabited almost +exclusively by Chinese, Eurasians and Malays. + +Malacca, now a somnolent little town, a favourite resort of rich Chinese +who have retired from business, is visited by few ships and is the least +important of the three British settlements on the Straits which give +their name to the colony. It has, however, a remarkable history. The +precise date of its foundation cannot be ascertained, but there is +strong reason to believe that this event took place at the earliest in +the 14th century. The Roman youth Ludovigo Barthema is believed to have +been the first European to visit it, some time before 1503; and in 1509 +Diogo Lopez de Siqueira sailed from Portugal for the express purpose of +exploiting Malacca. At first he was hospitably received, but +disagreements with the natives ensued and word was brought to Siqueira +by Magellan, who was one of his company, that a treacherous attack was +about to be made upon his ships. Siqueira then sent a native man and +woman ashore "with an arrow passed through their skulls" to the sultan, +"who was thus informed," says de Barros, "through his subjects that +unless he kept a good watch the treason which he had perpetrated would +be punished with fire and sword." The sultan retaliated by arresting Ruy +de Araujo, the factor, and twenty other men who were ashore with him +collecting cargo for the ships. Siqueira immediately burned one of his +vessels and sailed direct for Portugal. In 1510 Mendez de Vasconcellos +with a fleet of four ships set out from Portugal "to go and conquer +Malacca," but d'Alboquerque detained him at Goa, and it was not until +1511 that d'Alboquerque himself found time to visit Malacca and seek to +rescue the Portuguese prisoners who all this time had remained in the +hands of the sultan. An attack was delivered by d'Alboquerque on the +25th of July 1511, but it was only partially successful, and it was not +until the 4th of August, when the assault was repeated, that the place +finally fell. Since that time Malacca has continued to be the possession +of one or another of the European Powers. It was a Portuguese possession +for 130 years, and was the headquarters of their trade and the base of +their commercial explorations in south-eastern Asia while they enjoyed, +and later while they sought to hold, their monopoly in the East. It was +from Malacca, immediately after its conquest, that d'Alboquerque sent +d'Abreu on his voyage of discovery to the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, +which later were the objective of Magellan's voyage of circumnavigation. +During the Portuguese tenure of Malacca the place was attacked at least +twice by the Achinese; its shipping was harried by Lancaster in 1592, +when the first British fleet made its way into these seas; it was +besieged by the Dutch in 1606, and finally fell to a joint attack of the +Dutch and the Achinese in 1641. It was under the Portuguese government +that St Francis Xavier started a mission in Malacca, the first Christian +mission in Malayan lands. + +The Dutch held Malacca till 1795, when it was taken from them by Great +Britain, and the Dutch system of monopoly in the straits was forthwith +abolished. The colony was restored to the Dutch, however, in 1818, but +six years later it came finally into the hands of Great Britain, being +exchanged by a treaty with Holland for the East India Company's +settlement of Benkulen and a few other unimportant places on the western +coast of Sumatra. By this treaty the Dutch were precluded from +interference in the affairs of the Malay Peninsula, and Great Britain +from similar action in regard to the States of Sumatra, with the sole +exception of Achin, the right to protect that state being maintained by +Great Britain until 1872 when it was finally abandoned by a treaty +concluded with Holland in that year. The Dutch took advantage of this +immediately to invade Achin, and the strife begun in 1873 still +continues and is now a mere war of extermination. It was not until 1833 +that the whole territory lying at the back of Malacca was finally +brought under British control, and as late as 1887 the Negri Sembilan, +or Nine States, which adjoin Malacca territory on the east and +north-east, were completely independent. They to-day form part of the +Federated Malay States, which are under the protection of Great Britain, +and are governed with the assistance and by the advice of British +officers. + +Malacca, in common with the rest of the Straits Settlements, was +administered by the government of India until 1867, when it became a +crown colony under the control of the Colonial Office. It is to-day +administered by a resident councillor, who is responsible to the +governor of the Straits Settlements, and by a number of district +officers and other officials under his direction. The population of the +town and territory of Malacca in 1901 was 94,487, of whom 74 were +Europeans and Americans, 1598 were Eurasians, the rest being Asiatics +(chiefly Malays with a considerable sprinkling of Chinese). The +population in 1891 was 92,170, and the estimated population for 1905 was +97,000. The birth-rate is about 35 per thousand, and the death-rate +about 29 per thousand. The trade of this once flourishing port has +declined, most of the vessels being merely coasting craft, and no large +line of steamers holding any communication with the place. This is due +partly to the shallowness of the harbour, and partly to the fact that +the ports of Penang and Singapore, at either entrance to the straits, +draw all the trade and shipping to themselves. The total area of the +settlement is about 700 sq. m. The colony is wholly agricultural, and +the land is almost entirely in the hands of the natives. About 50,000 +acres are under tapioca, and about 9000 acres are under rubber +(_hevea_). This cultivation is rapidly extending. There are still +considerable areas unoccupied which are suitable for rubber and for +coco-nuts. The settlement is well opened up by roads; and a railway, +which is part of the Federated Malay States railway system, has been +constructed from the town of Malacca to Tampin in the Negri Sembilan. +There is a good rest-house at Malacca and a comfortable seaside bungalow +at Tanjong Kling, seven miles from the town. Malacca is 118 m. by sea +from Singapore and 50 m. by rail from Seremban, the capital of the Negri +Sembilan. There is excellent snipe-shooting to be had in the vicinity of +Malacca. + + See _The Commentaries of d'Alboquerque_ (Hakluyt Society); _The + Voyages and Adventures of Fernand Mendez Pinto_ (London, 1653); _An + Account of the East Indies_, by Captain Alexander Hamilton (Edinburgh. + 1727); Valentyn's _History of Malacca_, translated by Dudley Hervey; + _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_; "Our + Tropical Possessions in Malayan India," by the same author, _ibid._; + _Further India_, by Hugh Clifford (London, 1904); _British Malaya_, by + Sir Frank Swettenham (London, 1906). (H. Cl.) + + + + +MALACHI, the name assigned to the last book of the Old Testament in +English (the last of the "prophets" in the Hebrew Bible), which +according to the title (Mal. i. 1) contains the "word of Yahweh to +Israel by the hand of Malachi." In form the word means "my messenger." +It could be explained as a contraction of Malachiah, "messenger of +Yahweh"; but the Septuagint is probably right in not regarding it as a +proper name ("by the hand of His messenger"). Not only do we know +nothing from internal or external evidence of the existence of a prophet +of this name,[1] but the occurrence of the word in the title is +naturally explained as derived from iii. 1: "Behold, I send my +messenger" (cf. ii. 7). The prophecy must, therefore, be regarded as +anonymous; the title was added by the compiler who wrote similar +editorial titles to the anonymous prophecies beginning Zech. ix. 1, xii. +1. + +The contents of the prophecy fall into a series of clearly marked +sections, as in the paragraph division of the Revised Version. These +apply, in various ways, the truth emphasized at the outset: Yahweh's +love for Israel in contrast with his treatment of Edom (i. 2-5). +Israel's response should be a proper regard for the ritual of His +worship; yet any offering, however imperfect, is thought good enough for +Yahweh's altar (i. 6-14). Let the priests, who are responsible, take +warning, and return to their ancient ideals (ii. 1-9). Again, the common +Fatherhood of God should inspire a right relation among fellow +Israelites, not such conduct as the divorce of Israelite wives in order +to marry non-Israelite women (ii. 10-16).[2] The prevalence of +wrong-doing has provoked scepticism as to righteous judgment; but the +messenger of Yahweh is at hand to purge away indifferentism from worship +and immorality from conduct (ii. 17-iii. 6). The payment of tithes now +withheld will be followed by the return of prosperity (iii. 7-12). +Religion may seem useless, but Yahweh remembers His own, and will soon +in open judgment distinguish them from the irreligious (iii. 13-iv. 3). +The book closes with an appeal to observe the law of Moses, and with a +promise that Elijah shall come before the threatened judgment.[3] + +The topics noticed clearly relate the prophecy to the period of Ezra and +Nehemiah, when the Temple had been rebuilt (i. 10; iii. 1, 10), the +province of Judah was under a Persian governor (i. 8), and there had +been time enough for the loss of earlier enthusiasm. The majority of +modern scholars are agreed that the prophet prepares for the work of +those reformers (Ezra, 458; Nehemiah, 444, 432 B.C.). The abuses of +which he particularly complains are such as were found rampant by Ezra +and Nehemiah--marriage with foreign women (ii. 11; cf. Ezra ix.; Neh. +xiii. 23 seq.; Deut. vii. 3) and failure in payment of sacred dues (iii. +8 seq.; cf. Neh. x. 34 seq.; xiii. 10 seq.; Deut. xxvi. 12 seq.). The +priests have fallen into contempt (ii. 9) and have neglected what is +still one of their chief trusts, the oral law (ii. 6 seq.). The priestly +code of written law was not promulgated until 444 B.C. (Neh. viii.-x.); +"Malachi" writes under the influence of the earlier Code of Deuteronomy +only,[4] and must therefore belong to a date prior to 444. The +independent character of the attack on current abuses also suggests +priority to the work of Ezra in 458. The prophecy affords an interesting +and valuable glimpse of the post-exilic community, with its various +currents of thought and life. The completion of the second Temple (516 +B.C.) has been followed by disillusionment as to the anticipated +prosperity, by indifference to worship, scepticism as to providence, and +moral laxity.[5] In view of these conditions, the prophet's message is +to reassert the true relation of Israel to Yahweh, and to call for a +corresponding holiness, especially in regard to questions of ritual and +of marriage. He saw that "the disobedience of his time was the outcome +of a lowered morality, not of a clearer spiritual vision."[6] A strong +sense of the unique privileges of the children of Jacob, the objects of +electing love (i. 2), the children of the Divine Father (ii. 10), is +combined with an equally strong assurance of Yahweh's righteousness +notwithstanding the many miseries that pressed on the unhappy +inhabitants of Judaea. At an earlier date the prophet Haggai had taught +that the people could not expect Yahweh's blessing while the Temple lay +in ruins. In Malachi's time the Temple was built (i. 10) and the priests +waited in their office, but still a curse seemed to rest on the nation's +labours (iii. 9). To Malachi the reason of this is plain. The "law of +Moses" was forgotten (iv. 4 [iii. 22]); let the people return to Yahweh, +and He will return to them. It was in vain to complain, saying, "Every +one that doeth evil is good in the eyes of Yahweh," or "Where is the God +of judgment?"--vain to ask "Wherein shall we return?" Obedience to the +law is the sure path to blessing (ii. 17-iii. 12). + +He calls the people to repentance, and he enforces the call by +proclaiming the approach of Yahweh in judgment against the sorcerers, +the adulterers, the false swearers, the oppressors of the poor, the +orphan and the stranger. Then it shall be seen that He is indeed a God +of righteous judgment, distinguishing between those that serve Him and +those that serve Him not. The Sun of Righteousness shall shine forth on +those that fear Yahweh's name; they shall go forth with joy, and tread +the wicked under foot. The conception of the day of final decision, when +Yahweh shall come suddenly to His temple (iii. 1) and confound those who +think the presumptuous godless happy (iii. 15), is taken from earlier +prophets, but is applied wholly within the Jewish nation. The day of +Yahweh would be a curse, not a blessing, if it found the nation in its +present state: the priests listlessly performing a fraudulent service +(i. 7-ii. 9), the people bound by marriage to heathen women, while the +tears of the daughters of Israel, thrust aside to make way for +strangers, cover the altar (ii. 11-16), all faith in divine justice gone +(ii. 17; iii. 14 seq.), sorcery, uncleanness, falsehood and oppression +rampant (iii. 5), the house of God deprived of its dues (iii. 8), and +the true fearers of God a little flock gathered together in private +exercises of religion (perhaps the germ of the later synagogue) in the +midst of a godless nation (iii. 16). That the day of Yahweh is delayed +in such a state of things is but a new proof of His unchanging love +(iii. 6), which refuses to consume the sons of Jacob. Meantime He is +about to send His messenger to prepare His way before Him. The prophet +Elijah must reappear to bring back the hearts of fathers and children +before the great and terrible day of Yahweh come. Elijah was the +advocate of national decision in the great concerns of Israel's +religion; and it is such decision, a clear recognition of what the +service of Yahweh means, a purging of His professed worshippers from +hypocritical and half-hearted service (iii. 3) that Malachi with his +intense religious earnestness sees to be the only salvation of the +nation. In thus looking to the return of the ancient prophet to do the +work for which later prophecy is too weak, Malachi unconsciously +signalizes the decay of the order of which he was one of the last +representatives; and the somewhat mechanical measure which he applies to +the people's sins, as for example when he teaches that if the sacred +dues were rightly paid prosperous seasons would at once return (iii. +10), heralds the advent of that system of formal legalism which thought +that all religious duty could be reduced to a system of set rules. Yet +Malachi himself is no mere formalist. To him, as to the Deuteronomic +legislation, the forms of legal observance are of value only as the +fitting expression of Israel's peculiar sonship and service, and he +shows himself a true prophet when he contrasts the worthless ministry of +unwilling priests with the pure offering of prayer and praise that rises +from the implicit monotheism of even Gentile worship[7] (i. 11), or when +he asserts the brotherhood of all Israelites under their one Father +(ii. 10), not merely as a ground of separation from the heathen, but as +inconsistent with the selfish and cruel freedom of divorce current in +his time.[8] The book is a significant landmark in the religious history +of Israel. Its emphasis on the observance of ritual finds fullest +development in the Priestly Code, subsequently promulgated; its protest +against foreign marriages is made effective through the reforms of Ezra +and Nehemiah;[9] the influence of its closing words on later expectation +is familiar to every reader of the new Testament.[10] + +The style of Malachi, like his argument, corresponds in its generally +prosaic character to that transformation or decay of prophecy which +began with Ezekiel; and Ewald rightly called attention to the fact that +the conduct of the argument already shows traces of the dialectic manner +of the schools. Yet there is a simple dignity in the manner not unworthy +of a prophet, and rising from time to time to poetical rhythm. + + LITERATURE.--Nowack, _Die kleinen Propheten_ (1897; 2nd ed., 1904); + Wellhausen, id. (iii. 1898); G. A. Smith, _The Book of the Twelve_ + (ii. 1898); A. C. Welch, art. "Malachi" in Hastings's _Dict. of the + Bible_, iii. 218-222 (1900); C. C. Torrey, id. in _Ency. Bib._ iii. c. + 2907-2910 (1902); Marti, _Dodekapropheton_ (1904); Stade, _Biblische + Theologie des Alten Test._ § 141 (1905); Driver, _The Minor Prophets_, + ii. (Century Bible, 1906). (W. R. S.; H. W. R.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] A Hebrew tradition given in the Targum of Jonathan, and approved + by Jerome, identifies Malachi with Ezra the priest and scribe. + + [2] Torrey (_Ency. Bib._ c. 2908) holds that the reference here is + purely figurative; "Judah has dealt falsely with the wife of his + youth, the covenant religion, and is wedding a strange cult." But he + assigns the book to the 4th century. + + [3] This closing prophecy may possibly be a later addition (so Marti) + rounding off the prophetic canon by reference to the two great names + of Moses and Elijah, and their characteristic activities. In this + case, "Elijah" will represent an early interpretation (cf. Ecclus. + xlviii. 10) of the "messenger," originally conceived as a purely + ideal figure. The only other passage in the book whose originality is + not generally accepted is that referring to mixed marriages (ii. 11, + 12). + + [4] It is the Deuteronomic law that is most familiar to him, as + appears from his use of the name Horeb for the mountain of the law, + and the Deuteronomic phrase "statutes and judgments" (iv. 4), from + his language as to tithes and offerings (iii. 8, 10; cf. Deut. xii. + 11; xxvi. 12), and especially from his conception of the priesthood + as resting on a covenant with Levi (ii. 4 seq.). Malachi indeed + assumes that the "whole tithe"--the Deuteronomic phrase for the tithe + in which the Levites shared--is not stored in each township, but + brought into the treasury at the Temple. But this was a modification + of the Deuteronomic law naturally called for under the circumstances + of the return from Babylon, and Neh. x. and xiii. produce the + impression that it was not introduced for the first time by Ezra and + Nehemiah, though the collection of the tithe was enforced by them. + See further, W.R.S. in _O.T.J.C._ ii. 425-427. + + [5] Cf. Stade's reconstruction, _G.V.I._ ii. 128-138. + + [6] Welch in _D.B._ iii. 220. + + [7] This remarkable utterance is sometimes (as by W.R.S.) interpreted + of the worship of Jews scattered in the Dispersion: reasons for the + above view are given by Driver. + + [8] In ii. 16 the Targum renders "If thou hatest her put her away." + It is characteristic of later Judaism that an arbitrary exegesis + transformed the above anticipation of the doctrine of marriage laid + down in the gospel into an express sanction of the right of the + husband to put away his wife at will. + + [9] "The permanence of Judaism depended on the religious separateness + of the Jews" (Ryle, _Ezra and Nehemiah_, p. 143). + + [10] Matt. xvii. 3, 4, 10-13; xxvii. 47, 49; John i. 21, 25. + + + + +MALACHITE, a copper-ore of fine green colour, sometimes polished as an +ornamental stone. The name is derived from Gr. [Greek: maláchê], the +mallow, in allusion to the colour of the mineral being rather like that +of the mallow-leaf. Malachite was perhaps one of the green minerals +described by Theophrastus under the general name of [Greek: smaragdos]; +and according to the late Rev. C. W. King it was probably the _smaragdus +medicus_ of Pliny, whilst his _molochites_ seems to have been a +different stone from our malachite and may have been a green jasper. It +is suggested by J. L. Myres (_Ency. Bib._) that malachite may have been +the Heb. _soham_, of the high priest's breastplate. + +Malachite is a basic cupric carbonate, represented by the formula +CuCO3Cu(HO)2, and has usually been formed by the action of meteoric +agencies on other copper-minerals; hence it is found in the upper part +of ore-deposits, often as an incrustation, and occasionally as a +pseudomorph after cuprite, chalcocite, &c. When formed, as commonly +happens, by the alteration of copper-pyrites the iron of this mineral +usually takes the form of limonite, which may remain associated with the +malachite. Occasionally, though but rarely, malachite occurs in small +dark-green prismatic crystals of the monoclinic system. Its usual mode +of occurrence is in nodular or stalagmitic forms, with a mammillated, +reniform or botryoidal surface, whilst in other cases it forms fibrous, +compact or even earthy masses. The nodules, though commonly dull on the +outside, may display on fracture a beautiful zonary structure, the +successive layers often succeeding each other as curved deposits of +light and dark tints. The colours include various shades of apple-green, +grass-green, emerald-green and verdigris-green. Certain varieties +exhibit a finely fibrous structure, producing on the fractured surface a +soft silky sheen. + +Whilst malachite is found in greater or less quantity in most +copper-mines, the finer varieties useful for ornamental purposes are of +very limited occurrence, and the lapidary has generally drawn his supply +from Russia and Australia. The principal source in recent years has been +the Medno-Rudiansk mine near Nizhne Tagilsk, on the Siberian side of the +Urals, but it was formerly obtained from mines near Bogoslovsk to the +north and Gumishev to the south of this locality. A mass from Gumishev, +preserved in the museum of the Mining Institute of St Petersburg weighs +3240lb. and still larger masses have been found near Nizhne Tagilsk. The +mineral is prized in Russia for use in mosaic-work, and for the +manufacture of vases, snuff-boxes and various ornamental objects. Even +folding doors, mantelpieces, table-tops and other articles of furniture +have been executed in malachite, the objects being veneered with thin +slabs cleverly fitted together so as to preserve the pattern, and having +the interspaces filled up with fragments and powder of malachite applied +with a cement. The malachite is sawn into slabs, ground with emery and +polished with tripoli. Its hardness is less than 4, but it takes a good +polish like marble: it is rather denser than marble, having a specific +gravity of 3.7 to 4, but it is more difficult to work, in consequence of +a tendency to break along the curved planes of deposition. Exceptionally +fine examples of the application of malachite are seen in some of the +columns of St Isaac's Cathedral in St Petersburg, which are hollow iron +columns encrusted with malachite. Large masses of ornamental malachite +have been found in Australia, especially at the old Burra Burra +copper-mine in South Australia. The Copper Queen and other mines in +Arizona have yielded fine specimens of malachite associated with +azurite, and polished slabs of the mixed minerals sometimes show the +vivid green and the deep blue carbonate in very striking contrast. This +natural association, cut as an ornamental stone, has been named, by Dr +G. F. Kunz, azurmalachite. Malachite is occasionally used for +cameo-work, and some fine antique examples are known. It was formerly +worn as an amulet to preserve the wearer from lightning, contagion and +witchcraft. + + The mineral, when ground, has been used as a pigment under the name of + "mountain green." The coarser masses are extensively used, with other + minerals, as ores of copper, malachite containing about 57% of metal. + "Blue malachite" is a name sometimes given to azurite (q.v.), whilst + "siliceous malachite" is a term inappropriately applied to chrysocolla + (q.v.). (F. W. R.*) + + + + +MALACHOWSKI, STANISLAW (1736-1809), Polish statesman, the younger son of +Stanislaw Malachowski, palatine of Posen, the companion in arms of +Sobieski. From his youth Malachowski laboured zealously for the good of +his country, and as president of the royal court of justice won the +honourable title of the "Polish Aristides." He was first elected a +deputy to the Coronation Diet of 1764, and the great Four Years' Diet +unanimously elected him its speaker at the beginning of its session in +1788. Accurately gauging the situation, Malachowski speedily gathered +round him all those who were striving to uphold the falling republic and +warmly supported every promising project of reform. He was one of the +framers of the constitution of the 3rd of May 1791, exceeding in +liberality all his colleagues and advocating the extension of the +franchise to the towns and the emancipation of the serfs. He was the +first to enter his name as a citizen of Warsaw in the civic register and +to open negotiations with his own peasantry for their complete +liberation. Disappointed in his hopes by the overthrow of the +constitution, he resigned office and left the country in 1792, going +first to Italy and subsequently to his estates in Galicia, where he was +imprisoned for a time on a false suspicion of conspiracy. In 1807 +Malachowski was placed at the head of the executive committee appointed +at Warsaw after its evacuation by the Prussians, and when the grand +duchy of Warsaw was created Malachowski became president of the senate +under King Frederick Augustus of Saxony. In the negotiations with the +Austrian government concerning the Galician salt-mines Malachowski came +to the assistance of the depleted treasury by hypothecating all his +estates as an additional guarantee. In 1809 he died at Warsaw. His death +was regarded as a public calamity, and multitudes followed his remains +to their last resting-place in the Church of the Holy Cross. In all the +other towns of the grand duchy funeral services were held simultaneously +as a tribute of the respect and gratitude of the Polish nation. + + See August Sokolowski, _Illustrated History of Poland_ (Pol.), vol. + iv. (Vienna, 1900); _Life and Memoirs of S. Malachowski_, edited by + Lucyan Siemienski (Pol; Cracow, 1853). (R. N. B.) + + + + +MALACHY, ST (c. 1094-1148), otherwise known as Maol-Maodhog (or +Maelmaedhog) Ua Morgair, archbishop of Armagh and papal legate in +Ireland, was born at Armagh. His father, an Irish clergyman, the +_Fearleighlinn_, or _lector_, at the university, was said to have been +of noble family. Having been ordained to the priesthood, he for some +time acted as vicar of Archbishop Celsus or Ceallach of Armagh, and +carried out many reforms tending to increase conformity with the usage +of the Church of Rome. In order to improve his knowledge of the Roman +ritual he spent four years with Malchus, bishop of Lismore (in Munster), +a strong advocate of Romanism. Here he became acquainted with Cormac +MacCarthy, king of Desmond, who had sought refuge with Malchus, and, +when he subsequently regained his kingdom, rendered great services to +Malachy. On his return from Lismore, Malachy undertook the government of +the decayed monastery of Bangor (in Co. Down), but very soon afterwards +he was elected bishop of Connor (now a small village near Ballymena). +After the sack of that place by the king of Ulster he withdrew into +Munster; here he was kindly received by Cormac MacCarthy, with whose +assistance he built the monastery of Ibrach (in Kerry). Meanwhile he had +been designated by Celsus (in whose family the see of Armagh had been +hereditary for many years) to succeed him in the archbishopric; in the +interests of reform he reluctantly accepted the dignity, and thus became +involved for some years in a struggle with the so-called heirs. Having +finally settled the diocese, he was permitted, as had been previously +stipulated by himself, to return to his former diocese, or rather to the +smaller and poorer portion of it, the bishopric of Down. Although the +Roman party had by this time obtained a firm hold in the north of +Ireland, the organization of the Church had not yet received the +sanction of the pope. Accordingly, in 1139, Malachy set out from Ireland +with the purpose of soliciting from the pope the pallium (the token of +archiepiscopal subjection to Rome) for the archbishop of Armagh. On his +way to Rome he visited Clairvaux, and thus began a lifelong friendship +with St Bernard. Malachy was received by Innocent II. with great honour, +and made papal legate in Ireland, though the pope refused to grant the +pallium until it had been unanimously applied for "by a general council +of the bishops, clergy and nobles." On his way home Malachy revisited +Clairvaux, and took with him from there four members of the Cistercian +order, by whom the abbey of Mellifont (in the county of Louth) was +afterwards founded in 1141. For the next eight years after his return +from Rome Malachy was active in the discharge of his legatine duties, +and in 1148, at a synod of bishops and clergy held at Inis-Patrick (St +Patrick's Island, near Skerries, Co. Dublin), he was commissioned to +return to Rome and make fresh application for the pallium; he did not, +however, get beyond Clairvaux, where he died in the arms of St Bernard +on the 2nd of November 1148. The object of his life was realized four +years afterwards, in 1152, during the legateship of his successor. +Malachy was canonized by Clement III. in 1190. + +The influence of Malachy in Irish ecclesiastical affairs has been +compared with that of Boniface in Germany. He reformed and reorganized +the Irish Church and brought it into subjection to Rome; like Boniface, +he was a zealous reformer and a promoter of monasticism. But perhaps his +chief claim to distinction is that of having opened the first Cistercian +monastery in Ireland, five more being soon afterwards established. +Several works are attributed to him, but are all probably spurious. The +most curious of these is a _Prophecy concerning the Future Roman +Pontiffs_, which has produced an extensive literature. It is now +generally attributed to the year 1590, and is supposed to have been +forged to support the election of Cardinal Simoncelli to the papal +chair. + + St Bernard's _Life_ of Malachy, and two sermons on his death will be + found in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia Latina_; clxxxii., clxxxiii.; see + also _Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters_, ed. J. + O'Donovan (Dublin, 1851); G. Germano, _Vita, gesti e predittioni del + padre san Malachia_ (Naples, 1670); the ecclesiastical histories of + Ireland by J. Lanigan (1829) and W. D. Killen (1875); A. Bellesheim, + _Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Irland_, Bd. I. (Mainz, 1890); + G. T. Stokes, _Ireland and the Celtic Church_ (6th ed., 1907); J. + O'Hanlon, _Life of Saint Malachy_ (Dublin, 1859); articles in + _Dictionary of National Biography_ and Herzog-Hauck's + _Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie_. On the _Prophecy_, + see the treatise by C. F. Menêtrier (Paris, 1689); Marquis of Bute in + _Dublin Review_ (1885); A. Harnack in _Zeitschrift für + Kirchengeschichte_, Bd. III. + + + + +MALACOSTRACA. Under this zoological title are included several groups of +Crustacea (q.v.), united by characters which attest their common origin, +though some, and probably all of them, were already separated in distant +geological ages, and some have now attained a peculiar isolation. +Throughout the whole, the researches made since 1860 have not only added +a great throng of new species, genera and families, but have thrown a +flood of light upon questions of their phylogeny, systematic +arrangement, horizontal and bathymetric distribution, organization, +habits of life and economic importance. There are at least seven orders: +the stalk-eyed Brachyura, Macrura, Schizopoda, Stomatopoda, and the +sessile-eyed Sympoda, Isopoda, Amphipoda. An ocular segment claimed by +the former division is not present or in no case demonstrable in the +latter. In neither does the terminal segment or telson, whether large or +obsolescent, whether articulated or coalescent, carry appendages, unless +occasionally in fusion with itself. Between the eyes and the tail-piece +in all the orders nineteen segments are counted, the proof of a +segment's existence depending on its separateness, complete or partial, +or on a sutural indication, or else on the pair of appendages known to +belong to it. All these marks may fail, and then the species must be +proved to be Malacostracan by other evidence than the number of its +segments; but if some exceptions exhibit fewer, none of the Malacostraca +exhibits more than 19 (+1 or + 2) segments, unless the Nebaliidae be +included. Of the corresponding pairs of appendages thirteen belong to +the head and trunk, two pairs of antennae, one pair of mandibles, two +pairs of maxillae, followed by three which may be all maxillipeds or may +help to swell the number of trunk-legs to which the next five pairs +belong. The abdomen or pleon carries the remaining six pairs, of which +from three to five are called pleopods and the remainder uropods. +Underlying the diversity of names and functions and countless varieties +of shape, there is a common standard to which the appendages in general +can be referred. In the maxillipeds and the trunk-legs it is common to +find or otherwise easy to trace a seven-jointed stem, the endopod, from +which may spring two branches, the epipod from the first joint, the +exopod from the second.[1] The first antennae are exceptional in +branching, if at all, at the third joint. In the mandibles and maxillae +some of the terminal joints of the stem are invariably wanting. In the +rest of the appendages they may either be wanting or indistinguishable. +The latter obscurity results either from coalescence, to which all +joints and segments are liable, or from subdivision, which occasionally +affects joints even in the trunk-legs. The carapace, formerly referred +only to the antennar-mandibular segments, may perhaps in fact contain +elements from any number of other segments of head and trunk, Huxley, +Alcock, Bouvier giving support to this opinion by the sutural or other +divisional lines in _Potamobius_, _Nephrops_, _Thalassina_, and various +fossil genera. Not all questions of classification internal to this +division are yet finally settled. Between the Brachyura and Macrura some +authors uphold an order Anomura, though in a much restricted sense, the +labours of Huxley, Boas, Alcock and conjointly Alphonse Milne-Edwards +and Bouvier, having resulted in restoring the Dromiidea and Raninidae to +the Brachyura, among which de Haan long ago placed them. The French +authors argue that from the macruran lobsters (_Nephropsidae_) anciently +diverged two lines: one leading through the Dromiidea to the genuine +Brachyura; or crabs, the other independently to the Anomura proper, +which may conveniently be named and classed as _Macrura anomala_. Spence +Bate maintained that the Schizopoda ought not to form a separate order, +but to be ranged as a macruran tribe, "more nearly allied to the +degraded forms of the Penaeidea than to those of any other group" +(_"Challenger" Reports_, "Macrura," p. 472, 1888). According to Sars, +the Sympoda (or Cumaceans), in spite of their sessile eyes, have closer +affinities with the stalk-eyed orders. H. J. Hansen and others form a +distinct order Tanaidea for the decidedly anomalous group called by Sars +_Isopoda chelifera_. + + 1. BRACHYURA.--For the present, as of old, the true Brachyura are + divided into four tribes: _Cyclometopa_, with arched front as in the + common eatable crab; _Catometopa_, with front bent down as in the + land-crabs and the little oyster-crab; _Oxyrhyncha_, with sharpened + beak-like front as in the various spider-crabs; _Oxystomata_, + including the Raninidae, and named not from the character of the front + but from that of the buccal frame which is usually narrowed forwards. + In these tribes the bold and active habits, the striking colours, or + the fantastic diversities of structure, have so long attracted remark + that recent investigations, while adding a multitude of new species + and supplying the specialist with an infinity of new details, have not + materially altered the scientific standpoint. New light, however, has + been thrown upon the "intellectual" capacity of Crustacea by the proof + that the spider-crabs deliberately use changes of raiment to harmonize + with their surroundings, donning and doffing various natural objects + as we do our manufactured clothes. Others have the power of producing + sounds, one use to which they put this faculty being apparently to + signal from their burrow in the sand that they are "not at home" to an + inopportune visitor. Deep-sea exploration has shown that some species + have an immensely extended range, and still more, that species of the + same genus, and genera of the same family, though separated by great + intervals of space, may be closely allied in character. A curious + effect of parasitism, well illustrated in crabs, though not confined + to them, has been expounded by Professor Giard, namely, that it tends + to obliterate the secondary sexual characters. Modern research has + discovered no crab to surpass _Macrocheira kämpferi_, De Haan, that + can span between three and four yards with the tips of its toes, but + at the other end of the scale it has yielded _Collodes malabaricus_, + Alcock, "of which the carapace, in an adult and egg-laden female, is + less than one-sixth of an inch in its greatest diameter." The most + abyssal of all crabs yet known is _Ethusina abyssicola_, Smith, or + what is perhaps only a variety of it, _E. challengeri_, Miers. Of the + latter the "Albatross" obtained a specimen from a depth of 2232 + fathoms (Faxon, 1895), of the former from 2221 fathoms, and of this S. + I. Smith remarks that it has "distinctly faceted black eyes," although + in them "there are only a very few visual elements at the tips of the + immobile eye-stalks." + + The _Brachyura anomala_, or Dromiidea, "have preserved the external + characters and probably also the organization of the Brachyura of the + Secondary epoch" (Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, 1901). They agree with + the true crabs in not having appendages (uropods) to the sixth segment + of the pleon, the atrophy being complete in the Homolidae and + Homolodromiidae, whereas in the Dromiidae and Dynomenidae a pair of + small plates appear to be vestiges of these organs. In the family + Homolidae stands the strange genus _Latreillia_, Roux, with long + slender limbs and triangular carapace after the fashion of oxyrhynch + spider-crabs. In _Homola_ the carapace is quadrilateral. Between these + two a very interesting link was discovered by the "Challenger" in the + species _Latreillopsis bispinosa_. Henderson. Bouvier (1896) has shown + that _Palaeinachus longipes_, Woodward, from the Forest Marble of + Wiltshire, is in close relationship, not to the oxyrhynch Inachidae, + but to the genera _Homolodromia_ and _Dicranodromia_ of the + Homolodromiidae, and that the Jurassic crabs in general, of the family + Prosoponidae (Meyer), are Dromiidea. + + 2. MACRURA.--The _Macrura anomala_, or Anomura in restricted sense, + are popularly known through the hermit-crabs alone. These only + partially represent one of the three main divisions, Paguridea, + Galatheidea, Hippidea. The first of these is subdivided into + _Pagurinea_, _Lithodinea_, _Lomisinea_, each with a literature of its + own. Among the Pagurinea is the _Birgus latro_, or robber-crab, whose + expertness in climbing the coco-nut palm need no longer be doubted, + since in recent years it has been noted and photographed by + trustworthy naturalists in the very act. Alcock "observed one of these + crabs drinking from a runnel of rain-water, by dipping the fingers of + one of its chelipeds into the water and then carrying the wet fingers + to its mouth." Hermits of the genus _Coenobita_ he found feeding + voraciously on nestling sea-terns. That pagurids must have the usually + soft pleon or abdomen protected by the shell of a mollusc is now known + to be subject to a multitude of exceptions. _Birgus_ dispenses with a + covering; _Coenobita_ can make shift with half the shell of a + coco-nut; _Chlaenopagurus_ wraps itself up in a blanket of colonial + polyps; _Cancellus tanneri_, Faxon, was found in a piece of dead coral + rock; _Xylopagurus rectus_, A. Milne-Edwards, lodges in tubes of + timber or bits of hollow reed. The last-named species has a straight + symmetrical abdomen, with the penultimate segment expanded and + strongly calcified to form a back-door to the very unconventional + habitation. This it enters head-foremost from the rear, while + "hermits" in general are forced to go backwards into their spiral or + tapering shelters by the front. Some of the species can live in the + ocean at a depth of two or three miles. Some can range inland up to a + considerable height on mountains. The advantage that this group has + derived from the adoption of mollusc shells as houses or fortresses, + ready built and light enough for easy transport, is obviously + discounted by a twofold inconvenience. There is nothing to ensure that + the supply will be equal to the demand, and Nature has not arranged + that the borrowed tenement shall continue to grow with the growth of + its new tenant. To meet these defects it is found that numerous + species encourage or demand the companionship of various zoophytes, + simple or colonial. These sometimes completely absorb the shell on + which they are settled, but then act as a substitute for it, and in + any case by their outgrowth they extend the limits of the dwelling, so + that the inmate can grow in comfort without having to hunt or fight + for a larger abode. Among the _Lithodinea_, or stone crabs, besides + important readjustments of classification (Bouvier, 1895, 1896), + should be noticed the evidence of their cosmopolitan range, and the + species _Neolithodes agassizii_ (Smith) and _N. grimaldii_, + Milne-Edwards and Bouvier, which carry to an extreme the spinosity + characteristic of the group (fig. 1). S. I. Smith's investigations on + the early stages of _Hippa talpoida_, Say, were published in 1877. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Neolithodes grimaldii_, A. Milne-Edwards and + Bouvier.] + + With regard to the accessions to knowledge in the enormous group of + the genuine Macrura, reference need only be made to the extensive + reports in which Spence Bate, S. I. Smith, Faxon, Wood-Mason, Alcock, + and others have made known the results of celebrated explorations. + Various larval stages have been successfully investigated by Sars. + Alcock (1901) describes from his own observation the newly hatched + _Phyllosoma_ larva of _Thenus orientalis_, Fabricius. An admirable + discrimination of the larval and adult characters of the genus + _Sergestes_ has been given by H. J. Hansen (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, + London, 1896). Singularity excites our wonder in _Thaumastocheles + zaleucus_, v. Willemoes Suhm, which makes up for its vanished eyes by + its extraordinarily elongate and dentated claws; in _Psalidopus + huxleyi_, Wood-Mason and Alcock (1892), bristling with spikes from + head to tail; in the Nematocarcinidae, with their long thread-like + limbs and longer antennae; in species of _Aristaeopsis_ reported by + Chun from deep water off the east coast of Africa, bright red prawns + nearly a foot long, with antennae about five times the length of the + body. That certain species, particularly many from deep water, have + disproportionately large eggs, is explained by the supposition that + the young derive the advantage of being hatched in an advanced stage + of development. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Anaspides tasmaniae_, Thomson.] + + 3. SCHIZOPODA.--This order of animals for the most part delicately + beautiful, has for the moment five families--Lophogastridae, + Eucopiidae, Euphausiidae, Mysidae and Anaspididae. In the Euphausiidae + the digitiform-arborescent branchiae, as if conscious of their own + extreme elegance, remain wholly uncovered. In the two preceding + families they are partially covered. In the Mysidae the branchiae are + wanting, and some would form this family into a separate order, + Mysidacea. In _Anaspides_, a peculiar fresh-water genus discovered in + 1892 by G. M. Thomson on Mount Wellington, in Tasmania, the gills are + not arborescent, and there are seven segments of the trunk free of the + carapace (fig. 2). A membranaceous carapace separates the Eucopiidae + from the more solidly invested Lophogastridae. Among many papers that + the student will find it necessary to consult may be mentioned the + "_Challenger_" _Report_ on Schizopoda, by Sars, 1885, dealing with + the order at large; "British Schizopoda," by Norman _Ann. Nat. Hist._ + (1892); "Decapoden und Schizopoden," _Plankton-Expedition_ (Ortmann, + 1893); "Euphausiidae," by Stebbing, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London, 1900); + _Mysidae of the Russian Empire_, by Czerniavski (1882-1883); and + _Mysidae of the Caspian_, by Sars (1893-1895-1897). + + 4. STOMATOPODA.--This order, at one time a medley of heterogeneous + forms, is now confined to the singularly compact group of the + Squillidae. Here the articulation of the ocular segment is unusually + distinct, and here two characters quite foreign to all the preceding + groups come into view. The second maxillipeds are developed into + powerful prehensile organs, and the branchiae, instead of being + connected with the appendages of head and trunk, are developed on the + pleopods, appendages of the abdomen. At least three segments of the + trunk are left uncovered by the carapace. The developing eggs are not + carried about by the mother, but deposited in her subaqueous burrow, + "where they are aerated by the currents of water produced by the + abdominal feet of the parent." An excellent synopsis of the genera and + species is provided by R. P. Bigelow (_Proc. U.S. Mus._ vol. xvii., + 1894). For the habits and peculiarities of these and many other + Crustaceans, A. E. Verrill and S. I. Smith on the _Invertebrates of + Vineyard Sound_ should be consulted (1874). The general subject has + been illuminated by the labours of Claus, Miers, Brooks (_"Challenger" + Report_, 1886), and the latest word on the relationship between the + various larvae and their respective genera has been spoken by H. J. + Hansen (_Plankton-Expedition Report_, 1895). The striking forms of + _Alima_ and _Erichthus_, at one time regarded as distinct genera, are + now with more or less certainty affiliated to their several squillid + parents. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--_Pseudocuma pectinatum_, Sowinsky.] + + 5. SYMPODA.--This order of sessile-eyed decapods was absolutely + unknown to science till 1779. A species certainly belonging to it was + described by Lepekhin in 1780, but the obscure _Gammarus esca_, "food + Gammarus" beloved of herrings, described by J. C. Fabricius in the + preceding year, may also be one of its members. Nutritious + possibilities are implied in _Diastylis rathkii_, Kröyer, one of the + largest forms, which, though slender and rarely an inch long, in its + favourite Arctic waters is found "in incalculable masses, in thousands + of specimens" (Stuxberg, 1880). Far on in the 19th century eminent + naturalists were still debating whether in this group there were eyes + or no eyes, whether the eyes were stalked or sessile, whether the + animals observed were larval or adult. The American T. Say in 1818 + gave a good description of a new species and founded the premier genus + _Diastylis_, but other investigators derived little credit from the + subject till more than sixty years after its introduction by the + Russian Lepekhin. Then Goodsir, Kröyer, Lilljeborg, Spence Bate and + one or two others made considerable advances, and in 1865 a memorable + paper by G. O. Sars led the way to the great series of researches + which he has continued to the present day. The name _Cumacea_, + however, which he uses cannot be retained, being founded on the + preoccupied name _Cuma_ (Milne-Edwards, 1828). The more recent name + _Sympoda_ (see Willey, _Results_, pt. v. p. 609, 1900) alludes to the + huddling together of the legs, which is conspicuous in most of the + species. Ten families are now distinguished--Diastylidae, Lampropidae, + Platyaspidae, Pseudocumidae, all with an articulated telson; without + one, the Bodotriidae (formerly called _Cumidae_), Vaunthompsoniidae, + Leuconidae, Nannastacidae, Campylaspidae, Procampylaspidae. All the + Leuconidae and Procampylaspidae are blind, and some species in most of + the other families. Usually the sides of the carapace are strangely + produced into a mock rostrum in front of the ocular lobe, be it + oculiferous or not. The last four or five segments of the trunk are + free from the carapace. The slender pleon has always six distinct + segments, the sixth carrying two-branched uropods, the preceding five + armed with no pleopods in the female, whereas in the male the number + of pairs varies from five to none. The resemblance of these creatures + to miniature Macrura is alluded to in the generic name _Nannastacus_, + meaning dwarf-lobster. In this genus alone of the known Sympoda the + eyes sometimes form a pair, in accordance with the custom of all other + malacostracan orders except this and of this order itself in the + embryo (Sars, 1900). The most but not the only remarkable character + lies in the first maxillipeds. These, with the main stem more or less + pediform, have the epipod and exopod modified for respiratory + purposes. The backward-directed epipods usually carry branchial + vesicles. The forward-directed exopods either act as valves or form a + tube (rarely two tubes), protensile and retractile, for regulating + egress of water from the branchial regions. This mechanism as a whole + is unique, although, as Sars observes, the epipod of the first + maxillipeds has a respiratory function also in the Lophogastridae and + Mysidae and in the cheliferous isopods. As a rule armature of the + carapace is much more developed in the comparatively sedentary female + than in the usually more active male. Only in the male do the second + antennae attain considerable length, with strong resemblance to what + is found in some of the Amphipoda. About 150 species distributed among + thirty-four genera are now known, many from shallow water and from + between tide-marks, some from very great depths. H. J. Hansen + concludes that "they are all typically ground animals, and as yet no + species has been taken under such conditions that it could be reckoned + to the pelagic plankton." As they have been found in all zones and + chiefly by a very few observers, it is probable that a great many more + species remain to be discovered. In recent years thirteen species, all + belonging to the same genus _Pseudocuma_ (fig. 3), have been recorded + by Sars from the Caspian Sea. A bibliography of the order is given in + that author's _Crustacea of Norway_, vol. iii. (1899-1900). + + [Illustration: Fig. 4.--_Rhabdosoma piratum_, Stebbing.] + + 6. ISOPODA.--This vast and populous order can be traced far back in + geological time. It is now represented in all seas and lands, in + fresh-water lakes and streams, and even in warm springs. It adapts + itself to parasitic life not only in fishes, but in its own class + Crustacea, and that in species of every order, its own included. In + this process changes of structure are apt to occur, and sometimes + unimaginable sacrifices of the normal appearance. The order has been + divided into seven tribes, of which a fuller summary than can here be + given will be found in Stebbing, _History of Crustacea_ (1893). The + first tribe, called Chelifera, from the usually chelate or + claw-bearing first limbs, may be regarded as _Isopoda anomala_, of + which some authors would form a separate order, Tanaidea. Like the + genuine isopods, they have seven pairs of trunk-legs, but instead of + having seven segments of the middle body (or peraeon) normally free, + they have the first one or two of its segments coalesced with the + head. Instead of the breathing organs being furnished by the + appendages of the pleon with the heart in their vicinity, the + respiration is controlled by the maxillipeds, with the heart in the + peraeon (see Delage, _Arch. Zool. expér. et gén._, vol. ix., 1881). + There are two families, Tanaidae and Apseudidae. Occasionally the + ocular lobes are articulated. + + The genuine Isopoda are divided among the _Flabellifera_, in which the + terminal segment and uropods form a flabellum or swimming fan; the + _Epicaridea_, parasitic on Crustaceans; the _Valvifera_, in which the + uropods fold valve-like over the branchial pleopods; the _Asellota_, + in which the first pair of pleopods of the female are usually + transformed into a single opercular plate; the _Phreatoicidea_, a + fresh-water tribe, known as yet only from subterranean waters in New + Zealand and an Australian swamp nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level; and + lastly, the _Oniscidea_, which are terrestrial. Only the last of + these, under the contemptuous designation of wood-lice, has + established a feeble claim to popular recognition. Few persons hear + without surprise that England itself possesses more than a score of + species in this air-breathing tribe. Those known from the world at + large number hundreds of species, distributed among dozens of genera + in six families. That a wood-louse and a land-crab are alike + Malacostracans, and that they have by different paths alike become + adapted to terrestrial life, are facts which even a philosopher might + condescend to notice. Of the other tribes which are aquatic there is + not space to give even the barest outline. Their swarming multitudes + are of enormous importance in the economy of the sea. If in their + relation to fish it must be admitted that many of them plague the + living and devour the dead, in return the fish feed rapaciously upon + them. Among the most curious of recent discoveries is that relating to + some of the parasitic _Cymothoidae_, as to which Bullar has shown that + the same individual can be developed first as a male and then as a + female. Of lately discovered species the most striking is one of the + deep-sea Cirolanidae, _Bathynomus giganteus_, A. M. Edwards (1879), + which is unique in having supplementary ramified branchiae developed + at the bases of the pleopods. Its eyes are said to contain nearly 4000 + facets. The animal attains what in this order is the monstrous size of + 9 in. by 4. A general uniformity of the trunk-limbs in Isopoda + justifies the ordinal name, but the valviferous Astacillidae, and + among the Asellota the Munnopsidae, offer some remarkable exceptions + to this characteristic. Among many essential works on this group may + be named the _Monogr. Cymothoarum_ of Schiödte and Meinert + (1879-1883); "_Challenger_" _Report_, Beddard (1884-1886); + _Cirolanidae_, H. J. Hansen (1890); _Isopoda Terrestria_, Budde-Lund + (1885); _Bopyridae_, Bonnier (1900); _Crustacea of Norway_, vol. ii. + (Isopoda), Sars (1896-1899), while their multitude precludes + specification of important contributions by Benedict, Bovallius, + Chilton, Dohrn, Dollfus, Fraisse, Giard and Bonnier, Harger, Haswell, + Kossmann, Miers, M'Murrich, Norman, Harriet Richardson, Ohlin, Studer, + G. M. Thomson, A. O. Walker, Max Weber and many others. + + 7. AMPHIPODA.--As in the genuine Isopoda, the eyes of Amphipoda are + always sessile, and generally paired, and, in contrast to crabs and + lobsters, these two groups have only four pairs of mouth-organs + instead of six, but seven pairs of trunk-legs instead of five. From + the above-named isopods the present order is strongly differentiated + by having heart and breathing organs not in the pleon, but in the + peraeon, or middle body, the more or less simple branchial vesicles + being attached to some or all of the last six pairs of trunk-legs. + Normally the pleon carries six pairs of two-branched appendages, of + which the first three are much articulated flexible swimming feet, the + last three few-jointed comparatively indurated uropods. There are + three tribes, _Gammaridea_, _Caprellidea_, _Hyperiidea_. The middle + one contains but two families, the cylindrical and often thread-like + skeleton shrimps, Caprellidae, and their near cousins, the broad, + flattened, so-called whale-lice, Cyamidae. This tribe has the pleon + dwindled into insignificance, whereas in the other two tribes it is + powerfully developed. The Hyperiidea are distinguished by having their + maxillipeds never more than three-jointed. In the companion tribes + these appendages have normally seven joints, and always more than + three. The order thus sharply divided is united by an intimate + interlacing of characters, and forms a compact whole at present + defying intrusion from any other crustacean group. Since 1775, when J. + C. Fabricius instituted the genus _Gammarus_ for five species, of + which only three were amphipods, while he left five other amphipods in + the genus _Oniscus_, from this total of eight science has developed + the order, at first very slowly, but of late by great leaps and + bounds, so that now the _Gammaridea_ alone comprise more than 1300 + species, distributed among some 300 genera and 39 families. They + burrow in the sands of every shore; they throng the weeds between + tide-marks; they ascend all streams; they are found in deep wells, in + caverns, in lakes; in Arctic waters they swarm in numbers beyond + computation; they find lodgings on crabs, on turtles, on weed-grown + buoys; they descend into depths of the ocean down to hundreds or + thousands of fathoms; they are found in mountain streams as far above + sea-level as some of their congeners live below it. The Talitridae, + better known as sandhoppers, can forgo the briny shore and content + themselves with the damp foliage of inland forests or casual humidity + in the crater of an extinct volcano. Over the ocean surface, as well + as at various depths, float and swim innumerable _Hyperiidea_--the + wonderful _Phronima_, glass-like in its glassy barrel hollowed out of + some Tunicate; the _Cystisoma_, 4 or 5 in. long, with its eye-covered + head; the _Rhabdosoma_, like a thin rod of glass, with needle-like + head and tail, large eyes, but limbs and mouth-organs all in + miniature, and the second antennae of the male folding up like a + carpenter's rule (fig. 4). On jelly-fishes are to be found species of + _Hyperia_ and their kindred, so fat and wholesome that they have been + commended to shipwrecked men in open boats as an easily procurable + resource against starvation. Many of the Amphipoda are extremely + voracious. Some of them are even cannibals. The Cyamidæ afflict the + giant whale by nibbling away its skin; the _Chelura terebrans_ is + destructive to submerged timber. But, on the other hand, they largely + help to clear the sea and other waters of refuse and carrion, and for + fishes, seals and whales they are food desirable and often + astoundingly copious. From the little flea-like species, scarcely a + tenth of an inch long, up to the great and rare but cosmopolitan + _Eurythenes gryllus_, Lichtenstein, and the still larger _Alicella + gigantea_, Chevreux, nearly half a foot long, captured by the prince + of Monaco from a depth of 2936 fathoms, not one of these ubiquitous, + uncountable hordes has ever been accused of assailing man. For the + naturalist they have the recommendation that many are easy to obtain, + that most, apart from the very minute, are easy to handle, and that + all, except as to the fleeting colours, are easy to preserve. + + A nearly complete bibliography of the order down to 1888 will be found + in the "_Challenger_" _Reports_, vol. xxviii., and supplementary + notices in Della Valle's _Monograph of the Gammarini_ (1893), the + scope of his work, however, not covering the Hyperiidea and + Oxycephalidae of Bovallius (1889, 1890); but since these dates very + numerous additions to the literature have been made by Birula, + Bonnier, Norman, Walker and others, especially the _Crustacea of + Norway_, vol. i. (_Amphipoda_), Sars (1890-1895), demanding attention, + and the quite recent _Amphipoda of the Hirondelle_, Chevreux (1900), + and _Hyperiidea of the Plankton-Expedition_, Vosseler (1901). + (T. R. R. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In Huxley's terminology the first two or three joints of the stem + constitute a "protopodite," from which spring the "endopodite" and + "exopodite." + + + + +MALAGA, a maritime province of southern Spain, one of the eight modern +subdivisions of Andalusia; bounded on the W. by Cadiz, N. by Seville and +Cordova, E. by Granada, and S. by the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900), +511,989; area, 2812 sq. m. The northern half of Malaga belongs to the +great Andalusian plain watered by the Guadalquivir, the southern is +mountainous, and rises steeply from the coast. Of the numerous sierras +may be mentioned that of Alhama, separating the province from Granada, +and at one point rising above 7000 ft.; its westward continuation in the +Sierra de Abdalajis and the Axarquia between Antequera and Malaga; and +not far from the Cadiz boundary the Sierras de Ronda, de Mijas, de Tolox +and Bermeja, converging and culminating in a summit of nearly 6500 ft. +The rivers which rise in the watershed formed by all these ranges reach +the sea after a short and precipitous descent, and in rainy seasons are +very liable to overflow their banks. In 1907 great loss of life and +destruction of property were caused in this manner. The principal river +is the Guadalhorce, which rises in the Sierra de Alhama, and, after a +westerly course past the vicinity of Antequera, bends southward through +the wild defile of Peñarrubia and the beautiful _vega_ or vale of +Malaga, falling into the sea near that city. The only other considerable +stream is the Guadiaro, which has the greater part of its course within +the province and flows past Ronda. There is an extensive salt lagoon +near the northern boundary. The mountains are rich in minerals, lead, +and (in the neighbourhood of Marbella) iron, being obtained in large +quantities. There are warm sulphurous springs and baths at Carratraca. +Though the methods of agriculture are for the most part rude, the yield +of wheat in good seasons is considerably in excess of the local demand; +and large quantities of grapes and raisins, oranges and lemons, figs and +almonds, are annually exported. The oil and wines of Malaga are also +highly esteemed, and after 1870 the manufacture of beet and cane sugar +developed into an important industry. In 1905 there were about 500 flour +mills and 230 oil factories beside 95 stills and 100 wine-presses in the +province. Malaga has suffered severely from the agricultural depression +prevalent throughout southern Spain, but its manufacturing industries +tend to expand. The fisheries are important; a fleet of about 300 boats +brings in 18,000,000 lb. annually, of which 25% is exported. The +internal communications are in many parts defective, owing to the broken +nature of the surface; but the province is traversed from north to south +by the Cordova-Malaga railway, which sends off branches from Bobadilla +to Granada and Algeciras. A branch line along the coast from Malaga to +Vélez Malaga was opened in 1908. + + Malaga, the capital (pop. 130,109), Antequera (31,609), Vélez Malaga + (23,586), Ronda (20,995), Coín (12,326), and Alora (10,325), are + described in separate articles. Other towns with more than 7000 + inhabitants are Marbella (9629), Estepona (9310), Archidona (8880) and + Nerja (7112). The population of the province tends gradually to + decrease, as many families emigrate to South America, Algeria and + Hawaii. + + + + +MALAGA, the capital of the province of Malaga, an episcopal see, and, +next to Barcelona, the most important seaport of Spain, finely situated +on the Mediterranean coast, at the southern base of the Axarquia hills +and at the eastern extremity of the fertile vega (plain) of Malaga in +36° 43´ N. and 4° 25´ W. Pop. (1900), 130,109. From the clearness of its +sky, and the beautiful sweep of its bay, Malaga has sometimes been +compared with Naples. The climate is one of the mildest and most equable +in Europe, the mean annual temperature being 66.7° Fahr. The principal +railway inland gives access through Bobadilla to all parts of Spain, and +a branch line along the coast to Vélez-Malaga was opened in 1908. Malaga +lies principally on the left bank of a mountain torrent, the +Guadalmedina ("river of the city"); the streets near the sea are +spacious and comparatively modern, but those in the older part of the +town, where the buildings are huddled around the ancient citadel, are +narrow, winding and often dilapidated. Well-built suburbs have also +spread on all sides into the rich and pleasant country which surrounds +Malaga, and several acres of land reclaimed from the sea have been +converted into a public park. There are various squares or plazas and +public promenades; of the former the most important are the Plaza de +Riego (containing the monument to General José Maria Torrijos, who, with +forty-eight others, was executed in Malaga on the 11th of December 1831, +for promoting an insurrection in favour of the constitution) and the +Plaza de la Constitucion; adjoining the quays is the fine Paseo de la +Alameda. The city has no public buildings of commanding architectural or +historical importance. The cathedral, on the site of an ancient mosque, +was begun about 1528; after its construction had been twice interrupted, +it was completed to its present state in the 18th century, and is in +consequence an obtrusive record of the degeneration of Spanish +architecture. The woodwork of the choir, however, is worthy of +attention. The church of El Cristo de la Victoria contains some relics +of the siege of 1487. There are an English church and an English +cemetery, which dates from 1830; up to that year all Protestants who +died in Malaga were buried on the foreshore, where their bodies were +frequently exposed by the action of wind and sea. Of the old Moorish +arsenal only a single horseshoe gateway remains, the rest of the site +being chiefly occupied by an iron structure used as a market; the +Alcazába, or citadel, has almost disappeared. The castle of Gibralfaro, +on a bold eminence to the north-east dates from the 13th century, and is +still in fairly good preservation. + +During the 19th century so much silt accumulated in the harbour that +vessels were obliged to lie in the roads outside, and receive and +discharge cargo by means of lighters; but new harbour works were +undertaken in 1880, and large ships can now again load or discharge at +the quays, which are connected with the main railway system by a branch +line. About 2150 ships of 1,750,000 tons enter at Malaga every year. +Iron, lead, wine, olive oil, almonds, fresh and dried fruit, palmetto +hats and canary seed are exported in large quantities, while the imports +include grain, codfish, fuel, chemicals, iron and steel, machinery, +manures and staves for casks. Although trade was impeded during the +early years of the 20th century by a succession of bad harvests and by +the disastrous floods of September 1907, the number of industries +carried on in and near Malaga tends steadily to increase. There are +large cotton mills, iron foundries, smelting works and engineering +works. Pottery, mosaic, artificial stone and tiles are produced chiefly +for the home market, though smaller quantities are sent abroad. There is +a chromo-lithographic establishment, and the other industries include +tanning, distilling and the manufacture of sugar, chocolate, soap, +candles, artificial ice, chemical products, white lead and pianos. +Foreign capital has played a prominent part in the development of +Malaga; a French syndicate owns the gas-works, and the electric lighting +of the streets is controlled by British and German companies. + +Malaga is the [Greek: Málaka] of Strabo (iii. 156) and Ptolemy (ii. 4, +7) and the _Malaca foederatorum_ of Pliny (iii. 3). The place seems to +have been of some importance even during the Carthaginian period; under +the Romans it became a municipium, and under the Visigoths an episcopal +see. In 711 it passed into the possession of the Moors, and soon came to +be regarded as one of the most important cities of Andalusia. It was +attached to the caliphate of Cordova, but on the fall of the Omayyad +dynasty it became for a short time the capital of an independent +kingdom; afterwards it was dependent on Granada. In 1487 it was taken +and treated with great harshness by Ferdinand and Isabella after a +protracted siege. In 1810 it was sacked by the French under General +Sebastiani. The citizens of Malaga are noted for their opposition to the +Madrid government; they took a prominent part in the movements against +Espartero (1843), against Queen Isabella (1868) and in favour of a +republic (1873). + + + + +MALAKAND PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West Province of India, +connecting the British district of Peshawar with the Swat Valley. It is +now a military post and the headquarters of a political agency. It came +into prominence for the first time in 1895 during the Chitral campaign, +when 7000 Pathans held it against Sir Robert Low's advance, but were +easily routed. After the campaign was over a fortified camp was formed +on the Malakand to guard the road to Chitral. During the frontier +risings of 1897 the Swatis made a determined attack on the Malakand, +where 700 were killed, and on the adjacent post of Chakdara, where 2000 +were killed. This was the origin of the Malakand Expedition of the same +year. (See SWAT.) + + + + +MALALAS (or MALELAS) (Syriac for "orator"), JOHN (c. 491-578), Byzantine +chronicler, was born at Antioch. He wrote a [Greek: Chronographia] in 18 +books, the beginning and the end of which are lost. In its present state +it begins with the mythical history of Egypt and ends with the +expedition to Africa under Marcianus, the nephew of Justinian. Except +for the history of Justinian and his immediate predecessors, it +possesses little historical value; it is written without any idea of +proportion and contains astonishing blunders. The writer is a supporter +of Church and State, an upholder of monarchical principles. The work is +rather a chronicle written round Antioch, which he regarded as the +centre of the world, and (in the later books) round Constantinople. It +is, however, important as the first specimen of a chronicle written not +for the learned but for the instruction of the monks and the common +people, in the language of the vulgar, with an admixture of Latin and +Oriental words. It obtained great popularity, and was conscientiously +exploited by various writers until the 11th century, being translated +even into the Slavonic languages. It is preserved in an abridged form in +a single MS. now at Oxford. + + For the authorities consulted by Malalas, the influence of his work on + Slavonic and Oriental literature, the state of the text, the original + form and extent of the work, the date of its composition, the relation + of the concluding part to the whole, and the literature of the + subject, see C. Krumbacher's _Geschichte der byzantinischen + Litteratur_ (1897). See also the _editio princeps_, by E. Chilmead + (Oxford, 1691), containing an essay by Humphrey Hody and Bentley's + well-known letter to Mill; other editions in the Bonn _Corpus + scriptorum hist. byz._, by L. Dindorf (1831), and in J. P. Migne + _Patrologia graeca_, xcvii. + + + + +MALAN, SOLOMON CAESAR (1812-1894), British divine and orientalist, was +by birth a Swiss descended from an exiled French family, and was born at +Geneva on the 22nd of April 1812, where his father, Dr Henry Abraham +Caesar Malan (1787-1864) enjoyed a great reputation as a Protestant +divine. From his earliest youth he manifested a remarkable faculty for +the study of languages, and when he came to Scotland as tutor in the +marquis of Tweeddale's family at the age of 18 he had already made +progress in Sanskrit, Arabic and Hebrew. In 1833 he matriculated at St +Edmund Hall, Oxford; and English being almost an unknown tongue to him, +he petitioned the examiners to allow him to do his paper work of the +examination in French, German, Spanish, Italian, Latin or Greek, rather +than in English. But his request was not granted. After gaining the +Boden and the Pusey and Ellerton scholarships, he graduated 2nd class in +_Lit. hum._ in 1837. He then proceeded to India as classical lecturer at +Bishop's College, Calcutta, to which post he added the duties of +secretary to the Bengal branch of the Royal Asiatic Society; and +although compelled by illness to return in 1840, laid the foundation of +a knowledge of Tibetan and Chinese. After serving various curacies, he +was presented in 1845 to the living of Broadwindsor, Dorset, which he +held until 1886. During this entire period he continued to augment his +linguistic knowledge, which he carried so far as to be able to preach in +that most difficult language, Georgian, on a visit which he paid to +Nineveh in 1872. His translations from the Armenian, Georgian and Coptic +were numerous. He applied his Chinese learning to the determination of +important points connected with Chinese religion, and published a vast +number of parallel passages illustrative of the Book of Proverbs. In +1880 the university of Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree +of D.D. No modern scholar, perhaps, has so nearly approached the +linguistic omniscience of Mezzofanti; but, like Mezzofanti, Dr Malan was +more of a linguist than a critic. He made himself conspicuous by the +vehemence of his opposition to Westcott and Hort's text of the New +Testament, and to the transliteration of Oriental languages, on neither +of which points did he in general obtain the suffrages of scholars. His +extensive and valuable library, some special collections excepted, was +presented by him in his lifetime to the Indian Institute at Oxford. He +died at Bournemouth on the 25th of November 1894. His life has been +written by his son. + + + + +MÄLAR, a lake of Sweden, extending 73 m. westward from Stockholm, which +lies at its junction with the Saltsjö, an arm of the Baltic Sea. The +height of the lake is normally only from 11 in. to 2 ft. above +sea-level, and its outflow is sometimes reversed. The area is 449 sq. m. +The bottom consists of a series of basins separate by ridges from which +rise numerous islands. The deepest sounding is 210 ft. The outline is +very irregular, the mean breadth being about 15 m., but an arm extends +northward for 30 m. nearly to the city of Upsala with many +ramifications. The area of the drainage basin is 8789 sq. m., of which +1124 are occupied by lakes. The navigable connexions with the lake +are--(1) with lake Hjelmar to the south-west by the Arboga river and the +Hjelmar canal; and by the Eskilstuna river and the Thorshälla canal; (2) +with the Baltic southward through the Södertelge canal, the route +followed by the Göta canal steamers; (3) with the Baltic by two channels +at Stockholm. The more important towns, besides Stockholm, are Vesterås +on the north, Södertelge and Eskilstuna near the south shore. The lake +offers a field for recreation fully appreciated by the inhabitants of +the capital, and many of those whose business lies at Stockholm have +their residences on the shores of Mälar. On Drottningholm (Queen's +Island, named from Catherine, wife of John III.) is a palace with a fine +park and formal gardens. John III. built a palace at the close of the +16th century, but the existing building, by Nicodemus Tessin and his son +Nicodemus, dates from the second half of the 17th century. At Mariefred +on the south shore there is the castle of Gripsholm (1537), built by +Gustavus Vasa, a picturesque erection with four towers, richly adorned +within, and containing a large collection of portraits. Strengnäs, on +the same shore, became an episcopal see in 1291, when the fine +cathedral, much altered since, was consecrated. In the episcopal palace, +a building of the 15th century now used as a school, Gustavus Vasa was +elected to the throne of Sweden in 1523. On the northward arm of the +lake is the palace of Rosenberg, used as a school of gunnery, in a +well-wooded park. On a branch of the same arm is Sigtuna, a village +whose ruined churches are a memorial of its rank among the principal +towns of Sweden after its foundation in the 11th century. Remains prove +that on Björkö, an island in the eastern part of the lake, there was a +large settlement of earlier importance than Sigtuna. Here a cross +commemorates the preaching of Christianity by St Ansgar in 829. Finally, +on the northern arm about 10 m. south of Upsala, there is the château of +Skokloster, occupying the site of a monastery, and presented by Gustavus +Adolphus to Marshal Herman Wrangel, whose son Charles Gustavus Wrangel +stored it with a remarkable collection of trophies from Germany, taken +during the Thirty Years' War; including a library, an armoury, and a +great accumulation of curios. + + + + +MALARIA, an Italian colloquial word (from _mala_, bad, and _aria_, air), +introduced into English medical literature by Macculloch (1827) as a +substitute for the more restricted terms "marsh miasm" or "paludal +poison." It is generally applied to the definite unhealthy condition of +body known by a variety of names, such as ague, intermittent (and +remittent) fever, marsh fever, jungle fever, hill fever, "fever of the +country" and "fever and ague." A single paroxysm of simple ague may come +upon the patient in the midst of good health or it may be preceded by +some malaise. The ague-fit begins with chills proceeding as if from the +lower part of the back, and gradually extending until the coldness +overtakes the whole body. Tremors of the muscles more or less violent +accompany the cold sensations, beginning with the muscles of the lower +jaw (chattering of the teeth), and extending to the extremities and +trunk. The expression has meanwhile changed: the face is pale or livid; +there are dark rings under the eyes; the features are pinched and sharp, +and the whole skin shrunken; the fingers are dead white, the nails blue. + +All those symptoms are referable to spasmodic constriction of the small +surface arteries, the pulse at the wrist being itself small, hard and +quick. In the interior organs there are indications of a compensating +accumulation of blood, such as swelling of the spleen, engorgement (very +rarely rupture) of the heart, with a feeling of oppression in the +chest, and a copious flow of clear and watery urine from the congested +kidneys. The body temperature will have risen suddenly from the normal +to 103° or higher. This first or cold stage of the paroxysm varies much +in length; in temperate climates it lasts from one to two hours, while +in tropical and subtropical countries it may be shortened. It is +followed by the stage of dry heat, which will be prolonged in proportion +as the previous stage is curtailed. The feeling of heat is at first an +internal one, but it spreads outwards to the surface and to the +extremities; the skin becomes warm and red, but remains dry; the pulse +becomes softer and more full, but still quick; and the throbbings occur +in exposed arteries, such as the temporal. The spleen continues to +enlarge; the urine is now scanty and high-coloured; the body temperature +is high, but the highest temperatures occur during the chill; there is +considerable thirst; and there is the usual intellectual unfitness, and +it may be confusion, of the feverish state. This period of dry heat, +having lasted three or four hours or longer, comes to an end in +perspiration, at first a mere moistness of the skin, passing into +sweating that may be profuse and even drenching. Sleep may overtake the +patient in the midst of the sweating stage, and he awakes, not without +some feeling of what he has passed through, but on the whole well, with +the temperature fallen almost or altogether to the normal, or it may be +even below the normal; the pulse moderate and full; the spleen again of +its ordinary size; the urine that is passed after the paroxysm deposits +a thick brick-red sediment of urates. The three stages together will +probably have lasted six to twelve hours. The paroxysm is followed by a +definite interval in which there is not only no fever, but even a fair +degree of bodily comfort and fitness; this is the intermission of the +fever. Another paroxysm begins at or near the same hour next day +(quotidian ague), which results from a double tertian infection, or the +interval may be forty-eight hours (tertian ague), or seventy-two hours +(quartan ague). It is the general rule, with frequent exceptions, that +the quotidian paroxysm comes on in the morning, the tertian about noon, +and the quartan in the afternoon. Another rule is that the quartan has +the longest cold stage, while its paroxysm is shortest as a whole; the +quotidian has the shortest cold stage and a long hot stage, while its +paroxysm is longest as a whole. The point common to the various forms of +ague is that the paroxysm ceases about midnight or early morning. +Quotidian intermittent is on the whole more common than tertian in hot +countries; elsewhere the tertian is the usual type, and quartan is only +occasional. + +If the first paroxysm should not cease within the twenty-four hours, the +fever is not reckoned as an intermittent, but as a remittent. + + _Remittent_ is a not unusual form of the malarial process in tropical + and subtropical countries, and in some localities or in some seasons + it is more common than intermittent. It may be said to arise out of + that type of intermittent in which the cold stage is shortened while + the hot stage tends to be prolonged. A certain abatement or remission + of the fever takes place, with or without sweating, but there is no + true intermission or interval of absolute apyrexia. The periodicity + shows itself in the form of an exacerbation of the still continuing + fever, and that exacerbation may take place twenty-four hours after + the first onset, or the interval may be only half that period, or it + may be double. A fever that is to be remittent will usually declare + itself from the outset: it begins with chills, but without the + shivering and shaking fit of the intermittent; the hot stage soon + follows, presenting the same characters as the prolonged hot stage of + the quotidian, with the frequent addition of bilious symptoms, and it + may be even of jaundice and of tenderness over the stomach and liver. + Towards morning the fever abates; the pulse falls in frequency, but + does not come down to the normal; headache and aching in the loins and + limbs become less, but do not cease altogether; the body temperature + falls, but does not touch the level of apyrexia. The remission or + abatement lasts generally throughout the morning; and about noon there + is an exacerbation, seldom ushered in by chills, which continues till + the early morning following, when it remits or abates as before. A + patient with remittent may get well in a week under treatment, but the + fever may go on for several weeks; the return to health is often + announced by the fever assuming the intermittent type, or, in other + words, by the remissions touching the level of absolute apyrexia. + Remittent fevers (as well as intermittents) vary considerably in + intensity; some cases are intense from the outset, or pernicious, with + aggravation of all the symptoms--leading to stupor, delirium, + collapse, intense jaundice, blood in the stools, blood and albumen in + the urine, and, it may be, suppression of urine followed by + convulsions. The severe forms of intermittent are most apt to occur in + the very young, or in the aged, or in debilitated persons generally. + Milder cases of malarial fever are apt to become dangerous from the + complications of dysentery, bronchitis or pneumonia. Severe remittents + (pernicious or bilious remittents) approximate to the type of yellow + fever (q.v.), which is conventionally limited to epidemic outbreaks in + western longitudes and on the west coast of Africa. + +Of the mortality due to malarial disease a small part only is referable +to the direct attack of intermittent, and chiefly to the fever in its +pernicious form. Remittent fever is much more fatal in its direct +attack. But probably the greater part of the enormous total of deaths +set down to malaria is due to the _malarial cachexia_. The dwellers in a +malarious region like the Terai (at the foot of the Himalayas) are +miserable, listless and ugly, with large heads and particularly +prominent ears, flat noses, tumid bellies, slender limbs and sallow +complexions; the children are impregnated with malaria from their birth, +and their growth is attended with aberrations from the normal which +practically amount to the disease of rickets. The malarial cachexia that +follows definite attacks of ague consists in a state of ill-defined +suffering, associated with a sallow skin, enlarged spleen and liver, and +sometimes with dropsy. + +_Causation._--From the time of Hippocrates onwards the malarial or +periodical fevers have engaged the attention of innumerable observers, +who have suggested various theories of causation, and have sometimes +anticipated--vaguely, indeed, but with surprising accuracy--the results +of modern research; but the true nature of the disease remained in doubt +until the closing years of the 19th century. It has now been +demonstrated by a series of accurate investigations, contributed by many +workers, that malaria is caused by a microscopic parasite in the blood, +into which it is introduced by the bites of certain species of mosquito. +(See PARASITIC DISEASES and MOSQUITOES.) + + + History of Discovery. + +The successive steps by which the present position has been reached form +an interesting chapter in the history of scientific progress. The first +substantial link in the actual chain of discovery was contributed in +1880 by Laveran, a French army surgeon serving in Algeria. On the 6th of +November in that year he plainly saw the living parasites under the +microscope in the blood of a malarial patient, and he shortly afterwards +communicated his observations to the Paris Académie de Médecine. They +were confirmed, but met with little acceptance in the scientific world, +which was preoccupied with the claims of a subsequently discredited +Bacillus malariae. In 1885 the Italian pathologists came round to +Laveran's views, and began to work out the life history of his +parasites. The subject has a special interest for Italy, which is +devastated by malaria, and Italian science has contributed materially to +the solution of the problem. The labours of Golgi, Marchiafava, Celli +and others established the nature of the parasite and its behaviour in +the blood; they proved the fact, guessed by Rasori so far back as 1846, +that the periodical febrile paroxysm corresponds with the development of +the organisms; and they showed that the different forms of malarial +fever have their distinct parasites, and consequently fall into distinct +groups, defined on an etiological as well as a clinical basis--namely, +the mild or spring group, which includes tertian and quartan ague, and +the malignant or "aestivo-autumnal" group, which includes a tertian or a +semi-tertian and the true quotidian type. Three distinct parasites, +corresponding with the tertian, quartan and malignant types of fever, +have been described by Italian observers, and the classification is +generally accepted; intermediate types are ascribed to mixed and +multiple infections. So far, however, only half the problem, and from +the practical point of view the less important half, had been solved. +The origin of the parasite and its mode of introduction into the blood +remained to be discovered. An old popular belief current in different +countries, and derived from common observation, connected mosquitoes +with malaria, and from time to time this theory found support in more +scientific quarters on general grounds, but it lacked demonstration and +attracted little attention. In 1894, however, Sir Patrick Manson, +arguing with greater precision by analogy from his own discovery of the +cause of filariasis and the part played by mosquitoes, suggested that +the malarial parasite had a similar intermediate host outside the human +body, and that a suctorial insect, which would probably be found to be a +particular mosquito, was required for its development. Following up this +line of investigation, Major Ronald Ross in 1895 found that if a +mosquito sucked blood containing the parasites they soon began to throw +out flagellae, which broke away and became free; and in 1897 he +discovered peculiar pigmented cells, which afterwards turned out to be +the parasites of aestivo-autumnal malaria in an early stage of +development, within the stomach-wall of mosquitoes which had been fed on +malarial blood. He further found that only mosquitoes of the genus +_Anopheles_ had these cells, and that they did not get them when fed on +healthy blood. Then, turning his attention to the malaria of birds, he +worked out the life-history of these cells within the body of the +mosquito. "He saw that they increased in size, divided, and became full +of filiform spores, then ruptured and poured out their multitudinous +progeny into the body-cavity of their insect host. Finally, he saw the +spores accumulate within the cells of the salivary glands, and +discovered that they actually passed down the salivary ducts and along +the grooved hypopharynx into the seat of puncture, thus causing +infection in a fresh vertebrate host" (Sambon). To apply these +discoveries to the malaria of man was an obvious step. In working out +the details the Italian school have again taken a prominent part. + + + Experiment. + +Thus we get a complete scientific demonstration of the causation of +malaria in three stages: (1) the discovery of the parasite by Laveran; +(2) its life-history in the human host and connexion with the fever +demonstrated by the Italian observers; (3) its life-history in the +alternate host, and the identification of the latter with a particular +species of mosquito by Ross and Manson. The conclusions derived from the +microscopical laboratory were confirmed by actual experiment. In 1898 it +was conclusively shown in Italy that if a mosquito of the _Anopheles_ +variety bites a person suffering from malaria, and is kept long enough +for the parasite to develop in the salivary gland, and is then allowed +to bite a healthy person, the latter will in due time develop malaria. +The converse proposition, that persons efficiently protected from +mosquito bites escape malaria, has been made the subject of several +remarkable experiments. One of the most interesting was carried out in +1900 for the London School of Tropical Medicine by Dr Sambon and Dr Low, +who went to reside in one of the most malarious districts in the Roman +Campagna during the most dangerous season. Together with Signor Terzi +and two Italian servants, they lived from the beginning of July until +the 19th of October in a specially protected hut, erected near Ostia. +The sole precaution taken was to confine themselves between sunset and +sunrise to their mosquito-proof dwelling. All escaped malaria, which was +rife in the immediate neighbourhood. Mosquitoes caught by the +experimenters, and sent to London, produced malaria in persons who +submitted themselves to the bites of these insects at the London School +of Tropical Medicine. Experiments in protection on a larger scale, and +under more ordinary conditions, have been carried out with equal success +by Professor Celli and other Italian authorities. The first of these was +in 1899, and the subjects were the railwaymen employed on certain lines +running through highly malarious districts. Of 24 protected persons, all +escaped but four, and these had to be out at night or otherwise +neglected precautions; of 38 unprotected persons, all contracted malaria +except two, who had apparently acquired immunity. In 1900 further +experiments gave still better results. Of 52 protected persons on one +line, all escaped except two, who were careless; of 52 protected on +another line, all escaped; while of 51 unprotected persons, living in +alternate houses, all suffered except seven. Out of a total of 207 +persons protected in these railway experiments, 197 escaped. In two +peasants' cottages in the Campagna, protected with wire netting by +Professor Celli, all the inmates--10 in number--escaped, while the +neighbours suffered severely; and three out of four persons living in a +third hut, from which protection was removed owing to the indifference +of the inmates, contracted malaria. In the malarious islet of Asinara a +pond of stagnant water was treated with petroleum and all windows were +protected with gauze. The result was that the houses were free from +mosquitoes and no malaria occurred throughout the entire season, though +there had been 40 cases in the previous year. Eight Red Cross +ambulances, each with a doctor and attendant, were sent into the most +malarious parts of the Campagna in 1900. By living in protected houses +and wearing gloves and veils at night all the staff escaped malaria +except one or two attendants. These and other experiments, described by +Dr Manson in the _Practitioner_ for March 1900, confirming the +laboratory evidence as they do, leave no doubt whatever of the +correctness of the mosquito-parasitic theory of malaria. + +It is possible, though not probable, that malaria may also be contracted +in some other way than by mosquito bite, but there are no +well-authenticated facts which require any other theory for their +explanation. The alleged occurrence of the disease in localities free +from mosquitoes or without their agency is not well attested; its +absence from other localities where they abound is accounted for by +their being of an innocent species, or--as in England--free from the +parasite. The old theory of paludism or of a noxious miasma exhaled from +the ground is no longer necessary. The broad facts on which it is based +are sufficiently accounted for by the habits of mosquitoes. For +instance, the swampy character of malarial areas is explained by their +breeding in stagnant water; the effect of drainage, and the general +immunity of high-lying, dry localities, by the lack of breeding +facilities; the danger of the night air, by their nocturnal habits; the +comparative immunity of the upper storeys of houses, by the fact that +they fly low; the confinement of malaria to well-marked areas and the +diminution of danger with distance, by their habit of clinging to the +breeding-grounds and not flying far. Similarly, the subsidence of +malaria during cold weather and its seasonal prevalence find an adequate +explanation in the conditions governing insect life. At the same time it +should be remembered that many points await elucidation, and it is +unwise to assume conclusions in advance of the evidence. + + + Parasites. + +With regard to the parasites, which are the actual cause of malaria in +man, an account of them is given under the heading of PARASITIC +DISEASES, and little need be said about them here. They belong to the +group of Protozoa, and, as already explained, have a double cycle of +existence: (1) a sexual cycle in the body of the mosquito, (2) an +asexual cycle in the blood of human beings. They occupy and destroy the +red corpuscles, converting the haemoglobin into melanin; they multiply +in the blood by sporulation, and produce accessions of fever by the +liberation of a toxin at the time of sporulation (Ross). The number in +the blood in an acute attack is reckoned by Ross to be not less than 250 +millions. A more general and practical interest attaches to the insects +which act as their intermediate hosts. These mosquitoes or gnats--the +terms are synonymous--belong to the family _Culicidae_ and the genus +_Anopheles_, which was first classified by Meigen in 1818. It has a wide +geographical distribution, being found in Europe (including England), +Asia Minor, Burma, Straits Settlements, Java, China, Formosa, Egypt; +west, south and Central Africa; Australia, South America, West Indies, +United States and Canada, but is generally confined to local centres in +those countries. About fifty species are recognized at present. It is +believed that all of them may serve as hosts of the parasite. The +species best known in connexion with malaria are _A. maculipennis_ +(Europe and America), _A. funestus_ and _A. costales_ (Africa). In +colour _Anopheles_ is usually brownish or slaty, but sometimes buff, and +the thorax frequently has a dark stripe on each side. The wings in +nearly all species have a dappled or speckled appearance, owing to the +occurrence of blotches on the front margin and to the arrangement of the +scales covering the veins in alternating light and dark patches +(Austen). The genus with which _Anopheles_ is most likely to be +confounded is _Culex_, which is the commonest of all mosquitoes, has a +world-wide distribution, and is generally a greedy blood-sucker. A +distinctive feature is the position assumed in resting; _Culex_ has a +humpbacked attitude, while in _Anopheles_ the proboscis, head and body +are in a straight line, and in many species inclined at an angle to the +wall, the tail sticking outwards. In the female of _Culex_ the palpi are +much shorter than the proboscis; in _Anopheles_ they are of the same +length. The wings in _Culex_ have not the same dappled appearance. +_Anopheles_ is also a more slender insect, with a smaller head, narrower +body and thinner legs. There are further differences in the other stages +of life. Mosquitoes go through four phases: (1) ovum, (2) larva, (3) +nympha, (4) complete insect. The ova of _Anopheles_ are tiny black +rod-shaped objects, which are deposited on the water of natural puddles, +ponds, or slowly moving streams, by preference those which are well +supplied with vegetation; they float, singly or attached to other +objects or clustered together in patterns. They can live in brackish and +even in sea water. The larva has no breathing-tube, and floats +horizontally at the surface, except when feeding; it does not frequent +sewage or foul water. The ova of _Culex_, on the other hand, are +deposited in any stagnant water, including cesspools, drains, cisterns, +or water collected in any vessel; they float in boat-shaped masses on +the surface. The larva has a breathing-tube, and floats head downwards; +when disturbed it wriggles to the bottom (Christy). Some observers +maintain that _Anopheles_ does not "sing," like the common mosquito, and +its bite is much less irritating. Only the females suck blood; the act +is believed to be necessary for fertilization and reproduction. +_Anopheles_ rarely bites by day, and then only in dark places. In the +daytime "the gorged females rest motionless on the walls and ceilings of +rooms, choosing always the darkest situations for this purpose" +(Austen). In temperate climates the impregnated females hibernate during +the winter in houses, cellars, stables, the trunks of trees, &c., coming +out to lay their eggs in the spring. The four phases are passed in +thirty days in a favourable season, and consequently there are +ordinarily four or five generations from April to September (Celli). + +The most important question raised by the mosquito-parasitic theory of +malaria is that of prevention. This may be considered under two heads: +(1) individual prophylaxis; (2) administrative prevention on a large +scale. + + + Prophylaxis. + +(1) In the first place, common sense suggests the avoidance, in +malarious countries, of unhealthy situations, and particularly the +neighbourhood of stagnant water. Among elements of unhealthiness is next +to be reckoned the proximity of native villages, the inhabitants of +which are infected. In the tropics "no European house should be located +nearer to a native village than half a mile" (Manson), and, since +children are almost universally infected, "the presence of young natives +in the house should be absolutely interdicted" (Manson). When unhealthy +situations cannot be avoided, they may be rendered more healthy by +destroying the breeding-grounds of mosquitoes in the neighbourhood. All +puddles and collections of water should be filled in or drained; as a +temporary expedient they may be treated with petroleum, which prevents +the development of the larvae. When a place cannot be kept free from +mosquitoes the house may be protected, as in the experiments in Italy, +by wire gauze at the doors and windows. The arrangement used for the +entrance is a wire cage with double doors. Failing such protection +mosquito curtains should be used. Mosquitoes in the house may be +destroyed by the fumes of burning sulphur or tobacco smoke. According to +the experiments of Celli and Casagrandi, these are the most effective +culicides; when used in sufficient quantity they kill mosquitoes in one +minute. The same authorities recommend a powder, composed of larvicide +(an aniline substance), chrysanthemum flowers, and valerian root, to be +burnt in bedrooms. Anointing the skin with strong-smelling substances is +of little use in the open air, but more effective in the house; +turpentine appears to be the best. Exposure at night should be avoided. +All these prophylactic measures are directed against mosquitoes. There +remains the question of protection against the parasite. Chills are +recognized as predisposing both to primary infection and to relapses, +and malnutrition is also believed to increase susceptibility; both +should therefore be avoided. Then a certain amount of immunity may be +acquired by the systematic use of quinine. Manson recommends five to ten +grains once or twice a week; Ross recommends the same quantity every day +before breakfast. There is some evidence that arsenic has a prophylactic +effect. An experiment made on the railway staff at Bovino, a highly +malarious district on the Adriatic, gave a striking result. The number +of persons was 78, and they were divided into two equal groups of 39 +each. One group was treated with arsenic, and of these 36 escaped +altogether, while three had mild attacks; the remaining 39 who were not +treated, all had fever. In a more extended experiment on 657 railwaymen +402 escaped. This was in 1889; but in spite of the encouraging results +the use of arsenic does not appear to have made any further progress. +Experiments in immunizing by sero-therapeutic methods have not as yet +met with success. + + + Administrative Measures. + +(2) Much attention has been directed in scientific circles to the +possibility of "stamping out" epidemic malaria by administrative +measures. The problem is one of great practical importance, especially +to the British Empire. There are no data for estimating the damage +inflicted by malaria in the British colonies. It is, indeed, quite +incalculable. In Italy the annual mortality from this cause averages +15,000, which is estimated to represent two million cases of sickness +and a consequent loss of several million francs. In British tropical +possessions the bill is incomparably heavier. There is not only the +heavy toll in life and health exacted from Europeans, but the virtual +closing of enormous tracts of productive country which would otherwise +afford scope for British enterprise. The "deadly" climates, to which so +much dread attaches, generally mean malaria, and the mastery of this +disease would be equivalent to the addition of vast and valuable areas +to the empire. The problem, therefore, is eminently one for the +statesman and administrator. A solution may be sought in several +directions, suggested by the facts already explained. The existence of +the parasite is maintained by a vicious interchange between its +alternate hosts, mosquitoes and man, each infecting the other. If the +cycle be broken at any point the parasite must die out, assuming that it +has no other origin or mode of existence. The most effective step would +obviously be the extermination of the _Anopheles_ mosquito. A great deal +may be done towards this end by suppressing their breeding-places, which +means the drying of the ground. It is a question for the engineer, and +may require different methods in different circumstances. Put +comprehensively, it involves the control of the subsoil and surface +waters by drainage, the regulation of rivers and floods, suitable +agriculture, the clearing of forests or jungles, which tend to increase +the rainfall and keep the ground swampy. + +The city of Rome is an example of what can be done by drainage; situated +in the midst of malaria, it is itself quite healthy. Recent reports also +show us how much may be done in infected districts. At Ismailia malaria +was reduced from 1551 cases in 1902 to 37 cases in 1905. The cost of +operations amounted to an initial expenditure of 6.25 francs, and an +annual expenditure of about 2.3 francs per head of the population. "The +results are due to mosquito reduction together with cinchonization." The +following is a tabulated list of the cases. The population of Ismailia +is about 6000. + + +------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+--------+ + | Year | 1900 | 1901 | 1902* | 1903 | 1904 | 1905 | + +------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+--------+ + | Cases of Malaria | 2250 | 1990 | 1548 | 214 | 90 | 372[2] | + +------------------+------+------+-------+------+------+--------+ + + * Drainage works begun. + +Klang and Port Swettenham are contiguous towns in the Federated Malay +States, having a population of 4000 and a rainfall of 100 in. a year. At +Klang the expenditure has been £3100, with an annual expenditure of +£270, devoted to clearing and draining 332 acres. At Port Swettenham +£7000, with an annual upkeep of £240, has been devoted to treating 110 +acres. In Hong-Kong similar measures were carried out, with the result +that the hospital admissions for malaria diminished from 1294 in 1901, +the year when operations were begun, to 419 in 1905. + + Klang and Port Swettenham. + + +------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+ + | Year | 1900 | 1901* | 1902 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905 | + +------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+ + | Cases of Malaria | 510 | 610 | 199 | 69 | 32 | 23 | + +------------------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+ + + * Nearly all were relapses of previous infection. + +A systematic campaign for the destruction of breeding-places has been +inaugurated in the British West African colonies, with encouraging +results. The planting of eucalyptus trees is out of favour at present, +but it appears to have been successful in Portugal, not from any +prophylactic virtues in the plant, but through the great absorption of +moisture by its deep roots, which tends to dry the subsoil. Treating the +breeding-ponds with petroleum or similar preparations seems to be hardly +applicable on a large scale, and in any case can only be a temporary +expedient. H. Ziemann advocates the destruction of mosquito larvae by +the growing of such plants as the water-pest (_Anacharis alsinatrum_) +which covers the surface of the water and suffocates larvae and nymphae. +Short of suppressing mosquitoes, the parasitic cycle may theoretically +be broken by preventing them from giving the infection to man or taking +it from him. The means of accomplishing the former have been already +pointed out, but they are obviously difficult to carry out on a large +scale, particularly in native communities. It is one thing to protect +individuals from mosquito bites, another to prevent the propagation of +the parasite in a whole community. Perhaps the converse is more feasible +in some circumstances--that is to say, preventing mosquitoes from having +access to malarial persons, and so propagating the parasite in +themselves. It could be carried out where the infected persons are few, +by isolating and protecting them, but not where many are infected, as in +native villages. Koch has suggested that the disinfection of malarial +persons by quinine would have the desired effect, but other authorities +of greater experience do not consider it practicable. In spite of the +difficulties, however, there is no doubt that a great deal can be done +to reduce, if not stamp out, malaria by the methods indicated, which +should be applied according to circumstances. An encouraging example is +afforded by the remarkable fact that malaria, which was once rife in +certain districts of England, has now died out, although the _Anopheles +maculipennis_ mosquito still exists there. The parasitic cycle has been +broken, and the insect is no longer infected. The suggested causes are +(1) reduction of insects by drainage, (2) reduced population, (3) the +use of quinine. Sir Patrick Manson has suggested that the problem of +stamping out malaria may be assisted by the discovery of some at present +unknown factors. He has pointed out that certain areas and certain +islands are entirely free from the disease, while neighbouring areas and +islands are devastated. This immunity is apparently not due to the +absence of favourable conditions, but rather to the presence of some +inimical factor which prevents the development of the parasite. If this +factor could be discovered it might be applied to the suppression of the +disease in malarious localities. + +A few other points may be noted. The pathological changes in malaria are +due to the deposition of melanin and the detritus of red corpuscles and +haemoglobin, and to the congregation of parasites in certain sites +(Ross). In chronic cases the eventual effects are anaemia, melanosis, +enlargement of the spleen and liver, and general cachexia. Apparently +the parasites may remain quiescent in the blood for years and may cause +relapses by fresh sporulation. Recent discoveries have done little or +nothing for treatment. Quinine still remains the one specific. In +serious cases it should not be given in solid form, but in solution by +the stomach, rectum, or--better--hypodermically (Manson). According to +Ross, it should be given promptly, in sufficient doses (up to 30 +grains), and should be continued for months. Euquinine is by some +preferred to quinine, but it is more expensive. Nucleogen and Aristochin +have also been recommended instead of quinine. The nature of immunity is +not known. Some persons are naturally absolutely immune (Celli), but +this is rare; immunity is also sometimes acquired by infection, but as a +rule persons once infected are more predisposed than others. Races +inhabiting malarious districts acquire a certain degree of resistance, +no doubt through natural selection. Children are much more susceptible +than adults. + +_Malaria in the Lower Vertebrates._--Birds are subject to malaria, which +is caused by blood parasites akin to those in man and having a similar +life-history. Two species, affecting different kinds of birds, have been +identified. Their alternate hosts are mosquitoes of the _Culex_ genus. +Oxen, sheep, dogs, monkeys, bats, and probably horses also suffer from +similar parasitic diseases. In the case of oxen the alternate host of +the parasite is a special tick (Smith and Kilborne). In the other +animals several parasites have been described by different observers, +but the alternate hosts are not known. + + AUTHORITIES.--Celli, _Malaria_; Christy, _Mosquitoes and Malaria_; + Manson, _Tropical Diseases_; Allbutt's _System of Medicine_; Ross, + "Malaria," Quain's _Dictionary of Medicine_, 3rd ed.; _The + Practitioner_, March, 1901 (Malaria Number); _Lancet_ (Sept. 29, + 1907); _British Medical Journal_ (Oct. 19, 1907); _Indian Medical + Gazette_ (February 1908). (A. Sl.; H. L. H.) + + + + +MALATIA (MALATIEH or ASPUZU) the chief town of a sanjak of the same name +in the Mamuret el-Aziz vilayet of Asia Minor, and a military station on +the Samsun-Sivas-Diarbekr road, altitude 2900 ft., situated about 10 m. +S.W. of the junction of the Tokhma Su (med. Kubakib) with the Euphrates, +near the south end of a fertile plain, and at the northern foot of the +Taurus. Pop. about 30,000, including, besides many Armenian Christians, +bodies of Kurds and "Kizilbash." It is a wholly modern place, rebuilt +since the earthquake of 1893, contains fine public buildings, and is +noted for its fruit orchards. There are Protestant (American) and Roman +Catholic missions, and an Armenian Catholic archbishop has his seat +here. Eskishehr or Old Malatia (_Melitene_), 5 m. N.E. and 3 m. from the +great medieval bridge (Kirkgeuz) over the Tokhma Su, is said to owe its +present desolation largely to its occupation by Hafiz Pasha as his +headquarters in 1838 before his advance to fight the disastrous battle +of Nizib with the Egyptian, Ibrahim. But it has still many inhabitants +and large gardens and many ruinous mosques, baths, &c., relics of +Mansur's city. It was the residence of von Moltke for some months, while +attached to Hafiz's army. The earliest site was possibly Arslan Tepe +about 2 m. south of Eskishehr were two "Hittite" stelae, representing +hunting scenes, now in the Constantinople and Paris museums, were found +in 1894. + + In the time of Strabo (xii. 537) there was no town in the district of + Melitene, which was reckoned part of Cappadocia. Under Titus the place + became the permanent station of the 12th ("Thundering") legion; Trajan + raised it to a city. Lying in a very fertile country at the crossing + point of important routes, including the Persian "Royal Road," and two + imperial military highways from Caesarea and along the Euphrates bank, + it grew in size and importance, and was the capital of Armenia Minor + or Secunda. Justinian, who completed the walls commenced by + Anastasius, made it the capital of Armenia Tertia; it was then a very + great place (Procop., _De aed._, iii. 4). The town was burnt by + Chosroes on his retreat after his great defeat there in 577. Taken by + the Saracens, retaken and destroyed by Constantine Copronymus, it was + presently recovered to Islam, and rebuilt under Mansur (A.D. 756). It + again changed hands more than once, being reckoned among the frontier + towns of Syria (Istakhry, pp. 55, 62). At length the Greeks recovered + it in 934, and Nicephorus II., finding the district much wasted, + encouraged the Jacobites to settle in it, which they did in great + numbers. A convent of the Virgin, and the great church which bears his + name, were erected by the bishop Ignatius (Isaac the Runner). From + this time Malatia continued to be a great seat of the Jacobites, and + it was the birthplace of their famous maphrian Barhebraeus (or + Abulfaragius). At the commencement of the 11th century the population + was said to number 60,000 fighting men (Assem., _Bib. Or._, ii. 149; + cf. Barheb., _Chr. Eccl._, i. 411, 423). At the time of the first + crusade, the city, being hard pressed by the Turks under Ibn + Danishmend, was relieved by Baldwin, after Bohemund had failed and + lost his liberty in the attempt. But the Jacobites had no cause to + love Byzantium, and the Greek governor Gabriel was so cruel and + faithless that the townsmen were soon glad to open their gates to Ibn + Danishmend (1102), and the city subsequently became part of the realm + of Kilij Arslan, sultan of Iconium. + + See H. C. B. v. Moltke, _Briefe über Zustände, &c. in der Türkei_ + (1835-1839). (D. G. H.) + + + + +MALAYALAM, a language of the Dravidian family, spoken on the west coast +of southern India. It is believed to have developed out of Tamil as +recently as the 9th century. It possesses a large literature, in which +words borrowed from Sanskrit are conspicuous. In 1901 the total number +of speakers of Malayalam in all India was just about six millions. + + + + +MALAY ARCHIPELAGO[1] (variously called _Malaysia_, the _Indian +Archipelago_, the _East Indies_, _Indonesia_, _Insulinde_), the largest +group of islands in the world, lying south-east of Asia and north and +north-west of Australia. It includes the Sunda Islands, the Moluccas, +New Guinea, and the Philippine Islands, but excludes the Andaman-Nicobar +group. The equator passes through the middle of the archipelago; it +successively cuts Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes and Halmahera, four of the +most important islands. A. R. Wallace (who includes the Solomon Islands +as well as New Guinea in the group) points out that the archipelago +"includes two islands larger than Great Britain; and in one of them, +Borneo, the whole of the British Isles might be set down, and would be +surrounded by a sea of forests. Sumatra is about equal in extent to +Great Britain; Java, Luzon, and Celebes are each about the size of +Ireland. Eighteen more islands are on the average as large as Jamaica; +and more than a hundred are as large as the Isle of Wight." + + +------------------------+---------+-----------------------+ + | | Area. | Estimated Population. | + +------------------------+---------+-----------------------+ + | Sunda Islands | 459,578 | 32,632,400 | + | Moluccas, with Celebes | 115,334 | 3,000,000 | + | New Guinea | 312,329 | 800,000 | + | Philippine Islands | 115,026 | 7,635,400 | + +------------------------+---------+-----------------------+ + +The islands of the archipelago nearly all present bold and picturesque +profiles against the horizon, and at the same time the character of the +scenery varies from island to island and even from district to district. +The mountains are arranged for the most part in lines running either +from north-west to south-east or from west to east. In Sumatra and in +the islands between Sumatra and Borneo the former direction is +distinctly marked, and the latter is equally noticeable in Java and the +other southern islands. The mountains of Borneo, however, rise rather in +short ridges and clusters. Nothing in the general physiognomy of the +islands is more remarkable than the number and distribution of the +volcanoes, active or extinct. Running south-east through Sumatra, east +through Java and the southern islands to Timor, curving north through +the Moluccas, and again north, from the end of Celebes through the whole +line of the Philippines, they follow a line roughly resembling a +horseshoe narrowed towards the point. The loftiest mountain in the +archipelago would appear to be Kinabalu in Borneo (13,698 ft.). An +important fact in the physical geography of the archipelago is that +Java, Bali, Sumatra and Borneo, and the lesser islands between them and +the Asiatic mainland, all rest on a great submerged bank, nowhere more +than 100 fathoms below sea-level, which may be considered a continuation +of the continent; while to the east the depth of the sea has been found +at various places to be from 1000 to 2500 fathoms. As the value of this +fact was particularly emphasized by Wallace, the limit of the shallow +water, which is found in the narrow but deep channel between Bali and +Lombok, and strikes north to the east of Borneo, has received the name +of "Wallace's Line." The Philippines on the other hand, "are almost +surrounded by deep sea, but are connected with Borneo by means of two +narrow submarine banks" (A. R. Wallace, _Island Life_). The archipelago, +in effect, is divided between two great regions, the Asiatic and the +Australian, and the fact is evident in various branches of its +geography--zoological, botanical, and even human. It is believed that +there was a land-connexion between Asia and Australia in the later part +of the Secondary epoch, and that the Australian continent, when +separated, became divided into islands before the south-eastern part of +the Asiatic did so. + + The most notable fact in the geological history of the archipelago is + the discovery in Java of the fossil remains of _Pithecanthropus + erectus_, a form intermediate between the higher apes and man. In its + structure and cranial capacity it is entitled to a higher place in the + zoological scale than any anthropoid, for it almost certainly walked + erect; and, on the other hand, in its intellectual powers it must have + been much below the lowest of the human race at present known. The + strata in which it was found belong to the Miocene or Upper Pliocene. + Among the rocks of economic importance may be mentioned granite of + numerous kinds, syenite, serpentine, porphyry, marble, sandstones and + marls. Coal is worked in Sumatra, Borneo and Labuan. Diamonds are + obtained in Borneo, garnets in Sumatra, Bachian and Timor, and topazes + in Bachian, antimony in Borneo and the Philippines; lead in Sumatra, + Borneo and the Philippines; copper and malachite in the Philippines, + Timor, Borneo and Sumatra; and, most important of all, tin in Banka, + Billiton and Singkep. Iron is pretty frequent in various forms. Gold + is not uncommon in the older ranges of Sumatra, Banka, Celebes, + Bachian, Timor and Borneo. Manganese could be readily worked in Timor, + where it lies in the Carboniferous Limestone. Platinum is found in + Landak and other parts of Borneo. Petroleum is a valuable product of + Sumatra and Java, and is also found in Borneo. + +_Climate_, _Flora_, _Fauna._--The most striking general fact as regards +climate in the archipelago is that wherever that part of the south-east +monsoon which has passed over Australia strikes, the climate is +comparatively dry, and the vegetation is less luxuriant. The east end of +Java, e.g. has a less rainfall than the west; the distribution of the +rain on the north coast is quite different from that on the south, and a +similar difference is observed between the east and the west of Celebes. +The north-west monsoon, beginning in October and lasting till March, +brings the principal rainy season in the archipelago. + + Most of the islands of the archipelago belong to the great equatorial + forest-belt. In its economical aspect the vegetation, whether natural + or cultivated, is of prime interest. The list of fruits is very + extensive, though few of them are widely known. These, however, + include the orange, mango, mangosteen, shaddock, guava and the durian. + The variety of food-plants is equally notable. Not only are rice and + maize, sugar and coffee, among the widely cultivated crops, but the + coco-nut, the bread-fruit, the banana and plantain, the sugar-palm, + the tea-plant, the sago-palm, the coco-tree, the ground-nut, the yam, + the cassava, and others besides, are of practical importance. The + cultivation of sugar and coffee owes its development mainly to the + Dutch; and to them also is due the introduction of tea. They have + greatly encouraged the cultivation of the coco-nut among the natives, + and it flourishes, especially in the coast districts, in almost every + island in their territory. The oil is largely employed in native + cookery. Pepper, nutmegs and cloves were long the objects of the most + important branch of Dutch commerce; and gutta-percha, camphor, dammar, + benzoin and other forest products have a place among the exports. + + To the naturalist the Malay Archipelago is a region of the highest + interest; and from an early period it has attracted the attention of + explorers of the first rank. The physical division between the Asiatic + and Australian regions is clearly reflected in the botany and zoology. + The flora of the Asiatic islands (thus distinguished) "is a special + development of that prevailing from the Himalayas to the Malay + Peninsula and south China. Farther east this flora intermingles with + that of Australia" (F. H. H. Guillemard, _Australasia_). Similarly, in + the Asiatic islands are found the great mammals of the continent--the + elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, anthropoid ape, &c., which are wanting + in the Australian region, with which the eastern part of the + archipelago is associated. (For details concerning flora and fauna, + see separate articles, especially JAVA.) + +[Illustration: Map of Malay Archipelago.] + +_Inhabitants._--The majority of the native inhabitants of the Malay +Archipelago belong to two races, the Malays and the Melanesians +(Papuans). As regards the present racial distribution, the view accepted +by many anthropologists, following A. H. Keane, is that the Negritos, +still found in the Philippines, are the true aborigines of Indo-China +and western Malaysia, while the Melanesians, probably their kinsmen, +were the earliest occupants of eastern Malaysia and western Polynesia. +At some date long anterior to history it is supposed that Indo-China was +occupied first by a fair Caucasian people and later by a yellow +Mongolian race. From these two have come all the peoples--other than +Negrito or Papuan--found to-day from the Malay Peninsula to the farthest +islands of Polynesia. The Malay Archipelago was thus first invaded by +the Caucasians, who eventually passed eastward and are to-day +represented in the Malay Archipelago only by the Mentawi islanders. They +were followed by an immigration of Mongol-Caucasic peoples with a +preponderance of Caucasic blood--the Indonesians of some, the pre-Malays +of other writers--who are to-day represented in the archipelago by such +peoples as the Dyaks of Borneo and the Battas of Sumatra. At a far later +date, probably almost within historic times, the true Malay race, a +combination of Mongol and Caucasic elements, came into existence and +overran the archipelago, in time becoming the dominant race. A Hindu +strain is evident in Java and others of the western islands; Moors and +Arabs (that is, as the names are used in the archipelago, Mahommedans +from various countries between Arabia and India) are found more or less +amalgamated with many of the Malay peoples; and the Chinese form, from +an economical point of view, one of the most important sections of the +community in many of the more civilized districts. Chinese have been +established in the archipelago from a very early date: the first Dutch +invaders found them settled at Jacatra; and many of them, as, for +instance, the colony of Ternate, have taken so kindly to their new home +that they have acquired Malay to the disuse of their native tongue. +Chinese tombs are among the objects that strike the traveller's +attention at Amboyna and other ancient settlements. + + There is a vast field for philological explorations in the + archipelago. Of the great number of distinct languages known to exist, + few have been studied scientifically. The most widely distributed is + the Malay, which has not only been diffused by the Malays themselves + throughout the coast regions of the various islands, but, owing partly + to the readiness with which it can be learned, has become the common + medium between the Europeans and the natives. The most cultivated of + the native tongues is the Javanese, and it is spoken by a greater + number of people than any of the others. To it Sundanese stands in the + relation that Low German holds to High German, and the Madurese in the + relation of a strongly individualized dialect. Among the other + languages which have been reduced to writing and grammatically + analysed are the Balinese, closely connected with the Javanese, the + Batta (with its dialect the Toba), the Dyak and the Macassarese. + Alfurese, a vague term meaning in the mouths of the natives little + else than non-Mahommedan, has been more particularly applied by Dutch + philologists to the native speech of certain tribes in Celebes. The + commercial activity of the Buginese causes their language to be fairly + widely spoken--little, however, by Europeans. + +_Political Division._--Politically the whole of the archipelago, except +British North Borneo, &c. (see BORNEO), part of Timor (Portuguese), New +Guinea east of the 141st meridian (British and German), and the +Philippine Islands, belongs to the Netherlands. The Philippine Islands +which had been for several centuries a Spanish possession, passed in +1898 by conquest to the United States of America. For these several +political units see the separate articles; a general view, however, is +here given of the government, economic conditions, &c., of the Dutch +possessions, which the Dutch call _Nederlandsch-Indië_. + + +NETHERLANDS INDIA + + _Administration._--The Dutch possessions in Asia lie between 6° N. and + 11° S. and 95° E. and 141° E. Politically they are divided into lands + under the direct government of the Netherlands vassal lands and + confederated lands. Administratively they are further divided into + residencies, divisions, regencies, districts, and _dessas_ or + villages. In the principal towns and villages there are parish + councils, and in some provinces county councils have been established. + Natives, Chinese and Arabs, are given seats, and in certain instances + some of the members are elected, but more generally they are appointed + by government. The islands are often described as of two groups, Java + and Madura forming one, and the other consisting of Sumatra, Borneo, + Riouw-Lingga Archipelago, Banka, Billiton, Celebes, Molucca + Archipelago, the small Sunda Islands, and a part of New Guinea--the + Outposts as they are collectively named. The Outposts are divided into + 20 provinces. A governor-general holds the superior administrative and + executive authority, and is assisted by a council of five members, + partly of a legislative and partly of an advisory character, but with + no share in the executive work of the government. In 1907 a Bill was + introduced to add four extraordinary members to the council, but no + immediate action was taken. The governor-general not only has supreme + executive authority, but can of his own accord pass laws and + regulations, except in so far as these, from their nature, belong of + right to the home government, and as he is bound by the constitutional + principles on which, according to the _Regulations for the Government + of Netherlands India_, passed by the king and States-General in 1854, + the Dutch East Indies must be governed. There are nine departments, + each under a director: namely, justice; interior; instruction, public + worship and industry; agriculture (created in 1905); civil public + works; government works (created in 1908); finance; war; marine. The + administration of the larger territorial divisions (_gouvernement_, + _residentie_) is in the hands of Dutch governors, residents, assistant + residents and _contrôleurs_. In local government a wide use is made of + natives, in the appointment of whom a primary consideration is that if + possible the people should be under their own chieftains. In Surakarta + and Jokjakarta in Java, and in many parts of the Outposts, native + princes preserve their positions as vassals; they have limited power, + and act generally under the supervision of a Dutch official. In + concluding treaties with the vassal princes since 1905, the Dutch have + kept in view the necessity of compelling them properly to administer + the revenues of their states, which some of them formerly squandered + in their personal uses. Provincial banks have been established which + defray the cost of public works. + + _Population._--The following table gives the area and population of + Java (including Madura) and of the Outposts:-- + + +------------------------------+--------+-------------------------+ + | | Area: | Pop. | + | |English +-----------+-------------+ + | | sq. m. | 1900. | 1905. | + +------------------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+ + | Java and Madura | 50,970 |28,746,688 | 30,098,008 | + | / Sumatra, West Coast| 31,649 | 1,527,297 |\ | + | | Sumatra, East Coast| 35,312 | 421,090 || | + | | Benkulen | 9,399 | 162,396 || | + | Sumatra< Lampong Districts | 11,284 | 142,426 | > 4,029,505 | + | | Palembang | 53,497 | 804,299 || | + | \ Achin | 20,471 | 110,804 |/ | + | Riouw-Lingga Archipelago | 16,301 | 86,186 | 112,216 | + | Banka | 4,446 | 106,305 | 115,189 | + | Billiton | 1,863 | 43,386 | 36,858 | + | Borneo, West Coast | 55,825 | 413,067 |\ | + | Borneo, South and East | | | > 1,233,655 | + | Districts |156,912 | 716,822 |/ | + | Celebes / Celebes | 49,390 | 454,368 | 415,499 | + | \ Menado | 22,080 | 429,773 | 436,406 | + | Molucca Islands | 43,864 | 410,190 | 407,419 | + | Timor Archipelago | 17,698 | 119,239 | 308,600 | + | Bali and Lombok | 4,065 | 1,041,696 | 523,535 | + | New Guinea to 141° E. |151,789 | 200,000 | .... | + +------------------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+ + | Total |736,815 |36,000,000 | 37,717,377*| + +------------------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+ + + * Including 487 in Merauke, the capital of Dutch New Guinea. + + In no case are the above figures for population more than fairly + accurate, and in some instances they are purely conjectural. The + population is legally divided into Europeans and persons assimilated + to them, and natives and persons assimilated to them. The first class + includes half-castes (who are numerous, for the Dutch are in closer + relationship with the natives than is the case with most colonizing + peoples), and also Armenians, Japanese, &c. The total number of this + class in 1900 was 75,833; 72,019 of these were called Dutch, but + 61,022 of them were born in Netherlands India; there were also 1382 + Germans, 441 British and 350 Belgians. Among the natives and persons + assimilated to them were about 537,000 Chinese and 27,000 Arabs. In + the decade 1890-1900 the increase of the European population was + 30.9%, of the Arabs 26.6%, and of the Chinese 16.5%. A large + proportion of the Europeans are government officials, or retired + officials, for many of the Dutch, once established in the colonies, + settle there for life. The remaining Europeans are mostly planters and + heads of industrial establishments; the Arabs are nearly all traders, + as are some of the Chinese, but a large number of the latter are + labourers in the Sumatra tobacco plantations and the tin mines of + Banka, Billiton, &c. The bulk of the natives are agriculturists. + + _Religion and Instruction._--Entire liberty is granted to the members + of all religious confessions. The Reformed Church has about 40 + ministers and 30 assistants, the Roman Catholic 35 curates and 20 + priests, not salaried out of the public funds. There are about 170 + Christian missionaries, and the progress of their work may be + illustrated by showing that the number of Christians among the natives + and foreign Orientals was:-- + + +--------------------+---------+---------+---------------+ + | | In 1873.| In 1896.| In 1903. | + +--------------------+---------+---------+---------------+ + | In Java and Madura | 5,673 | 19,193 | About 34,000 | + | In the Outposts | 148,672 | 290,065 | " 390,000 | + +--------------------+---------+---------+---------------+ + + About 10,000 natives go annually to Mecca on pilgrimage. + + Both the government and private enterprise maintain vernacular + schools. Large sums have been voted in Holland for the establishment + of primary and secondary schools, and the government has undertaken to + assist in the establishment of parochial schools, the object being + that every village, at least in Java, should possess one. There are + schools for higher education at Batavia, Surabaya and Semarang; at the + first two of these towns are government schools for mechanical + engineering, and at Batavia a crafts school and a medical school for + natives. There are five colleges for native schoolmasters and four for + sons of native officials. Government schools for the European + education of Chinese children are established in the principal towns. + Private mechanical and crafts schools are established at Jokjakarta, + Surabaya and Semarang, and there is an agricultural school at + Buitenzorg. + + _Justice._--As regards the administration of justice, the distinction + is maintained between (1) Europeans and persons assimilated with them + (who include Christians and Japanese), and (2) natives, together with + Chinese, Arabs, &c. The former are subject to laws closely resembling + those of the mother country, while the customs and institutions of + natives are respected in connexion with the administration of justice + to the latter. In 1906 a bill was passed somewhat modifying the + existing status of the classes above mentioned, and especially + directing new ordinances with regard to the judicial treatment of + Christian natives. A general judicial revision being also in + contemplation, this bill did not immediately come into force. Justice + for Europeans is administered by European judges, but, as with + administration at large so in judicial matters, native chiefs have + extensive powers in native affairs. For European justice the High + Court of Justice is established at Batavia; there are councils of + justice at Batavia, Semarang and Surabaya, with authority not only + over Java but over parts of the Outposts; there is a resident court of + justice in each residency. For native justice there are courts in the + districts and regencies; residents act as police judges; provincial + councils have judicial powers, and there are councils of priests with + powers in matrimonial disputes, questions of succession, &c. + + As regards pauperism, the government subsidizes Protestant and + Catholic orphan houses. + + _Finance._--The revenue of Netherlands India has been derived mainly + from customs, excise, ground-tax, licences, poll-tax, &c., from + monopolies--opium, salt and pawn-shops (the management of which began + to be taken over by the government in 1903, in place of the previous + system of farming-out), coffee, &c., railways, tin mines and forests, + and from agricultural and other concessions. But attempts have been + made, and have been largely successful, to make the revenue dependent + to a less extent on monopolies and the products (especially + agricultural) of the land; and to abolish licences and substitute + direct taxes. There is a progressive income-tax for Europeans, and the + system has also been applied in the case of natives. + + The following table affords comparisons in the revenue and + expenditure:-- + + +------+-------------+--------------+ + | Year.| Revenue. | Expenditure. | + +------+-------------+--------------+ + | 1880 | £12,236,500 | £12,244,666 | + | 1890 | 11,482,457 | 10,644,728 | + | 1900 | 11,832,417 | 12,313,854 | + | 1905 | 12,951,497 | 13,844,173 | + +------+-------------+--------------+ + + The monetary system is similar to that of Holland (the unit being the + _guilder_), but there are also certain silver and copper coins of + small value bearing Malay or Javanese inscriptions. The Java Bank, + established in 1828, with headquarters at Batavia, is the only bank + issuing notes, two-fifths of the amount of which must be covered by + specie or bullion. The government has a control over the + administration of this bank. + + _Defence._--The army is purely colonial, i.e. distinct from that of + the Netherlands. Its strength is a little under 40,000, about + one-third being Europeans of various nationalities and two-thirds + natives of various races. No portion of the regular army of the + Netherlands is allowed to be sent on colonial service, but individual + soldiers are at liberty to enlist, by permission of their commanding + officers, in the army of Netherlands India, and they form its nucleus. + Native and European soldiers are generally mixed together in the same + battalions, though in separate companies. The officers were all Dutch + till 1908, when a trial was made of native officers from noble + Javanese families. The artillery is composed of European gunners, with + native riders, while the cavalry are Europeans and natives. A military + academy is established at Meester Cornelis, near Batavia. Schools for + soldiers are attached to every battalion. There are certain local + forces outside the regular army--militia in some of the large towns, + native infantry in Madura, and guards of some of the vassal princes. + Unlike the army, which is purely colonial, the navy in Netherlands + India is partly colonial, partly belonging to the royal navy of the + Netherlands, and its expenses are therefore borne partly by the mother + country and partly by the colony. About six ironclads and twenty + smaller vessels of the royal navy are stationed in colonial waters; + the vessels of the colonial marine number about twenty-four, and + undertake police supervision, prevention of slave trading, &c. + + _Trade and Industries._--The principal articles of export are sugar, + tobacco, copra, forest products (various gums, &c.), coffee, + petroleum, tea, cinchona, tin, rice, pepper, spices and gambier. The + average annual value of exports during 1900-1905 was £22,496,468, and + of imports £17,050,338. A great proportion of the exports goes to the + mother country, though a considerable quantity of rice is exported to + China. An indication of the mineral products has already been given; + as regards the export trade, tin is the most important of these, but + the Ombilin coalfields of Sumatra, connected by a railway with the + coast, call for mention here also. Agricultural labour is very + carefully regulated by law, in the enforcement of which the residents + and lower officials have wide powers. One day's gratuitous labour out + of seven or more can be demanded of labourers either on private or on + government estates; but in 1882 this form of labour was for the most + part abolished as far as government estates were concerned, each + labourer so exempted paying one guilder per year. The principal + private agricultural estates are in the west of Java, in which island + the greater part of the soil is government property. Such estates have + increased greatly in number and extent, not only in Java but + elsewhere, since the agrarian law of 1870, under which it became + possible for settlers to obtain waste lands on hereditary lease for 75 + years. In 1899 the total acreage of land ceded was 1,002,766 acres; in + 1903 it was 1,077,295. The government ceased to cultivate sugar in + 1891, but coffee, and to some extent cinchona, are cultivated on + government plantations, though not in equal quantity to that grown on + land held on emphyteusis. The average annual yield of sugar in + 1900-1905 was 852,400 tons, but it increased steadily during that + period. The average annual yield of coffee during the same period was + 101,971,132 lb.; it fluctuates greatly. The average annual production + of tobacco is about fifty million pounds from each of the islands of + Java and Sumatra. The total annual yield of the tin mines is about + 15,000 tons, and of the coal mines 240,000 tons. The average output of + petroleum annually in 1900-1905 was 120,000,000 gallons; this, again, + has fluctuated greatly. There are upwards of 3000 miles of railways + and steam tramways in Netherlands India, but these are almost entirely + in Java; elsewhere only Sumatra has a few short lines. The principal + steamship company in the archipelago is the Royal Packet (_Koninklyke + Paketvaart_) Company. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See _Aardrijkskundig en statistisch Woordenboek van + Nederl. Indië_ (Amsterdam, 1869), to which P. J. Veth and other + specialists were contributors. A general survey of the people, + administration and resources of the Dutch colony is provided in + _Twentieth Century Impressions of Netherlands India_, ed. by Arnold + Wright (London, 1910). See also A. R. Wallace, _Malay Archipelago_ + (London, 1869, and later editions, notably for zoological + distribution) and _Island Life_ (London, 1880, notably for + ornithology). H. O. Forbes, _A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern + Archipelago_ (London, 1885); P. van der Lith, _Nederlandsch Oostindië_ + (2nd ed., Leiden, 1893-1895); F. H. H. Guillemard, _Australasia_, vol. + ii., in _Stamford's Compendium_ (London, 1894); _Encyclopaedie van + Nederlandsch-Indië_ (the Hague, 1895-1904); _Guide à travers la + section des Indes néerlandaises_, Paris Exhibition (the Hague, 1900); + A. R. Colquhoun, _The Mastery of the Pacific_ (London, 1902); M. + Weber, _Der indo-australische Archipel und die Geschichte seiner + Tierwelt_ (Jena, 1902); G. Karsten and H. Schenck, + _Vegetationsbilder_, vol. ii. (Jena, 1903); J. van Bemmelen and G. B. + Hooyer, _Guide through Netherlands India_ (London, 1903); D. Bezemer, + _Nederlandsch Oost-Indië_ (the Hague, 1904); H. Blink, _Nederlandsch + Oost- en West-Indië, geographisch, ethnologisch, en economisch + beschreven_ (Leiden, 1904, sqq.). Among Dutch official publications + may be mentioned _Jaarcijfers door het Centraal Bureau voor de + Statistiek_; _Jaarboek van het Mijnwezen in Nederlandsch Oost-Indië_ + (Amsterdam); _Koloniale-Economische Bijdragen_ (the Hague); _Koloniaal + Verslag_ (the Hague); _Regeerings-Almanak voor Nederlandsch-Indië_ + (Batavia). A number of important periodicals (_Tijdschrift_) of + various institutions are issued at Batavia, &c. _Languages_: P. J. + Veth in _De Gids_ (1864); R. N. Cust, _Sketch of the Modern Languages + of the East Indies_ (London, 1878); and for bibliography, Boele van + Neusbroek, _De Beoefening der oostersche talen ..._ (Leiden, 1875). + + +HISTORY + +_Portuguese and Spanish Ascendancy, 1511-1595._--Ptolemy and other +ancient geographers describe the Malay Archipelago, or part of it, in +vague and inaccurate terms, and the traditions they preserved were +supplemented in the middle ages by the narratives of a few famous +travellers, such as Ibn Batuta, Marco Polo, Odoric of Pordenone and +Niccolò Conti. Malay and Chinese records also furnish material for the +early history of individual islands, but the known history of the +archipelago as a whole begins in the 16th century. At this period a +civilization, largely of Hindu origin, had flourished and decayed in +Java, where, as in all the more important islands, Mahommedanism had +afterwards become the dominant creed. But the smaller islands and the +remoter districts, even of Java and Sumatra, remained in a condition of +complete savagery. + +The Portuguese were the first Europeans to colonize any part of the +archipelago. A Portuguese squadron under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira arrived +off Sumatra in 1509, explored the north coast for some distance, and +noted that the inhabitants of the interior were cannibals, while those +of the littoral were civilized and possessed a gold coinage. The main +object of the Portuguese was to obtain a share in the lucrative spice +trade carried on by the Malays, Chinese and Japanese; the trade-routes +of the archipelago converged upon Malacca, which was the point of +departure for spice merchants trading with every country on the shores +of the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. In 1511 the Portuguese under +Alphonso d'Albuquerque occupied Malacca, and in November of that year an +expedition under Antonio de Abreu was despatched to find a route to the +Moluccas and Banda Islands, then famous for their cloves and nutmegs. +The explorers reached Amboyna and Ternate, after gaining some knowledge +of Java, Madura, Sumbawa and other islands, possibly including New +Guinea. During the return voyage the second-in-command, Francisco +Serrão, was shipwrecked, but succeeded in making his way in a native +boat to Mindanao. Thus the Philippines were discovered: In 1514 a second +Portuguese fleet arrived at Ternate, which during the next five years +became the centre of Portuguese enterprise in the archipelago; regular +traffic with Malacca and Cochin was established, and the native raja +became a vassal of Portugal. + +Meanwhile the Spanish government was considering whether the Moluccas +did not fall within the Spanish sphere of influence as defined by the +Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494; and in August 1519 an expedition +commanded by Ferdinand Magellan (q.v.) sailed from Seville to seek a +westward passage to the archipelago. After losing the commander in the +Philippines and discovering Borneo, the two surviving ships reached the +Moluccas late in 1520. One vessel returned to Seville by the Cape route, +thus completing the first voyage round the world; the other attempted to +return by the Pacific, but was driven back to Tidore and there welcomed +by the natives as a useful ally against the Portuguese. Reinforcements +from Spain arrived in 1525 and 1528; but in 1529 a treaty was concluded +between the emperor Charles V. and John III. of Portugal, by which, in +return for 350,000 gold ducats, the Spanish claim to the Moluccas was +withdrawn. The boundary between the Spanish and Portuguese spheres was +fixed at 17° E. of the Moluccas, but by a geographical fiction the +Philippines were included within the Spanish sphere. Further disputes +occurred from time to time, and in 1542 a Spanish fleet came into +conflict with the Portuguese off Amboyna; but after 1529 the supremacy +of each power in its own sphere was never seriously endangered. + +Though the Portuguese traders frequented the coast of Java, they annexed +no territory either there or in Sumatra; but farther east they founded +numerous forts and factories, notably in Amboyna, the Banda Island, +Celebes and Halmahera. Ternate remained the seat of the governor of the +Moluccas, who was the highest official in the archipelago, though +subordinate to the viceroy or governor of Portuguese India. The first +attempt to enter into relations with the states of Borneo was made by D. +Jorge de Menezes, who visited Brunci in 1526, and in 1528 sent an envoy +to its raja. The embassy failed in a curious manner. Among the gifts +sent by Menezes was a piece of tapestry representing the marriage of +Catherine of Aragon to Arthur, prince of Wales. The raja was persuaded +that these mysterious figures were demons under a spell, which might +come to life and kill him as he slept. The envoy was therefore +dismissed. + +In 1536, after a period of war and anarchy caused by the tyrannical rule +of Menezes, Antonio Galvão, the historian, was appointed governor of the +Moluccas. He crushed the rebellion and won the affection of the natives +by his just and enlightened administration, which had no parallel in the +annals of Portuguese rule in the archipelago. He returned to Europe in +1540 (see PORTUGAL: _Literature_), after inaugurating an active +missionary movement, which was revived in 1546-1547 by Francis Xavier +(q.v.). At this period the Portuguese power in the East was already +beginning to wane; in the archipelago it was weakened by administrative +corruption and by incessant war with native states, notably Bintang and +Achin; bitter hostility was aroused by the attempts which the Portuguese +made to establish a commercial monopoly and to force Christianity upon +their native subjects and allies (see PORTUGAL: _History_). From 1580 to +1640 Portugal was itself united to Spain--a union which differed from +annexation in little but name. + +_The English and Dutch, 1595-1674._--Pirates from Dieppe visited the +archipelago between 1527 and 1539. It is possible that they reached +Australia[2]--more than sixty years before the first voyage thither of +which there is any clear record; but their cruise had no political +significance, and the Spaniards and Portuguese remained without European +competitors until the appearance of Sir Francis Drake in 1579. An +English squadron under Sir James Lancaster came into conflict with the +Portuguese in 1591, and an expedition under Sir Henry Middleton traded +in the archipelago in 1604. But the English were simple traders or +explorers; far more formidable were the Dutch, who came to the East +partly to avenge the injuries inflicted on their country by the +Spaniards, partly to break the commercial monopoly of the peninsular +states. As middlemen they already possessed a large interest in the +spice trade, for the Portuguese, having no direct access to the +principal European markets, had made a practice of sending cargo to the +Netherlands for distribution by way of the Scheldt and Rhine. The Dutch +now sought to monopolize not only the distribution but the production of +spices--an enterprise facilitated by the co-operation of many exiled +Portuguese Jews who had settled in Holland. + +The first Dutch fleet sailed from Texel, under the command of Cornelis +Houtman, on the 2nd of April 1595 and reached Sumatra on the 1st of +January 1596. It visited Madura, and came into conflict with the +Portuguese at Bantam in Java, returning to Holland in 1597. Though not a +commercial success, the expedition had demonstrated the weakness of the +Portuguese. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company (q.v.) was +incorporated, and for nearly two centuries this organization played the +chief part in the history of the archipelago. By 1604 the Dutch could +already claim to be the stronger power at sea. They had attacked the +Portuguese in Ceylon (1601), established friendly relations with Achin +(1602), and defeated a powerful fleet off Banda (1602). In 1606 they +concluded a treaty of alliance with the sultan of Johor, and in 1608 +they forced the Portuguese to assent to an armistice for twelve years. +On the 29th of November 1609 Pieter Both was chosen by the +states-general, on the nomination of the Dutch East India Company, as +first governor-general of Netherlands India. In 1611 the headquarters of +the Dutch was changed from Bantam to Jakarta, which in 1619 was renamed +Batavia, and was thenceforward the Dutch capital. Meanwhile the English +East India Company, chartered in 1600, had also extended its operations +to the archipelago. After 1611 the commercial rivalry between the Dutch +and British became acute, and in 1613, 1615 and 1618 commissioners met +in London to discuss the matters in dispute. The result of their +deliberations was the Treaty of Defence, signed on the 2nd of June 1619 +and modified on the 24th of January 1620, which arranged for +co-operation between the Dutch and British companies, and especially for +the maintenance of a joint fleet. But neither company could restrain +its agents in the East from aggressive action, and many fresh causes of +dispute arose, the chief being the failure of the British to provide the +naval forces required for service against the Portuguese, and the +so-called "massacre of Amboyna" (q.v.) in 1623. The Treaty of Defence +lapsed in 1637, but as early as 1634 the British made peace with +Portugal. Even without allies, however, the Dutch continued to extend +their trade and to annex fresh territory, for the British were weakened +by civil war at home, while, after 1640, the Portuguese were struggling +to maintain their independence against Spain. The Dutch company opened +up a profitable trade with Japan and China, and prosecuted the war +against Portugal with great vigour, invading Portuguese India and +capturing Point de Galle in 1640, Malacca in 1641, Cochin and Cannanore +in 1663. The war with England in 1652-54 and the renewal of the +Anglo-Portuguese alliance by the marriage of Charles II. to Catherine of +Braganza in 1661 were unable to check the growth of Dutch power; more +serious was the resistance offered by some of the native states. +Rebellions in Java (1629) and the Moluccas (1650) were suppressed with +great severity, but in 1662 the company suffered a heavy reverse in +Formosa, all its colonists being expelled from the island. A new war +between Great Britain and Holland broke out in 1672 and was terminated +by the Treaty of Westminster (February 17, 1674), by which the points at +issue between the two companies were referred first to commissioners and +finally to an arbitrator. The full details of the settlement are +unknown, but thenceforward the British company devoted its energies +chiefly to the development of its Indian possessions, while the Dutch +were left supreme in the archipelago. In 1684 the British even evacuated +Bantam, their chief settlement, and retired to Benkulen in Sumatra, +which remained for more than a century their sole territorial possession +in the archipelago. + +_Dutch Ascendancy, 1674-1749._--The weakness of Spain and Portugal and +the withdrawal of the British left the Dutch company free to develop its +vast colonial and commercial interests. In 1627 the so-called Dutch +"colonial system" had been inaugurated by the fourth governor-general, +Jan Pieterszoon Coen (q.v.). Under this system, which was intended to +provide Netherlands India with a fixed population of European descent, +Dutch girls were sent to the archipelago to be married to white +settlers, and subsequently marriages between Dutchmen and captive native +women were encouraged. As early as 1624 vast fortunes had been acquired +by trade: two members of the company who died in that year were stated +to possess seven and eight tons of gold respectively, an amount +approximately equivalent, in the aggregate, to £2,000,000. The use of +slave labour, and the application of the _corvée_ system to natives who +were nominally free, enabled the company to lower the cost of +production, while the absence of competition enabled it to raise prices. +The hardship inflicted on the native races provoked an insurrection +throughout Java, in which the Chinese settlers participated; but the +Dutch maintained naval and military forces strong enough to crush all +resistance, and a treaty between the company and the Susuhunan in +November 1749 made them practically supreme throughout the island. + +_Decline of Dutch Power, 1749-1811._--In the second half of the 17th +century the monopoly system and the employment of slaves and forced +labour gave rise to many abuses, and there was a rapid decline in the +revenue from sugar, coffee and opium, while the competition of the +British East India Company, which now exported spices, indigo, &c. from +India to Europe, was severely felt. The administration was corrupt, +largely because of the vast powers given to officials, who were +invariably underpaid; and the financial methods of the company +precipitated its ruin, large dividends being paid out of borrowed money. +The burden of defence could no longer be sustained; piracy and smuggling +became so common that the company was compelled to appeal to the +states-general for aid. In 1798 it was abolished and its authority +vested in a "Council of the Asiatic Possessions." In 1803 a commission +met to consider the state of the Dutch colonies, and advocated drastic +administrative and commercial reforms, notably freedom of trade in all +commodities except firearms, opium, rice and wood--with coffee, pepper +and spices, which were state monopolies. Some of these reforms were +carried out by H. W. Daendels (1808-1811), who was sent out as +governor-general by Louis Bonaparte, after the French conquest of +Holland. Daendels, however, maintained the existing restrictions upon +trade and even made rice a state monopoly. His harsh rule aroused great +antagonism; in 1811 he was recalled and J. W. Janssens became +governor-general. + +_British Occupation, 1811-1816._--Netherlands India was at this time +regarded as a part of the Napoleonic Empire, with which Great Britain +was at war. A British naval squadron arrived in the Moluccas in February +1810 and captured Amboyna, Banda, Ternate and other islands. In 1811 a +strong fleet was equipped by Lord Minto, then governor-general of India, +for the conquest of Java; a British force was landed on the 4th of +August; Batavia was captured on the 26th, and on the 18th of September +Janssens and the remnant of his army surrendered. Lord Minto had issued +a proclamation establishing British rule on the 11th of September, and +Thomas (afterwards Sir Thomas) Stamford Raffles was appointed +lieutenant-governor. Raffles (q.v.) held office until March 1816, and +introduced many important changes in the departments of revenue, +commerce and judicature. He was succeeded by John Fendall, who in 1816 +carried out the retrocession of Netherlands India to the Dutch, in +accordance with the Treaty of Vienna (1814). + +_Restoration and Reform of Dutch Power, 1816-1910._--Various disputes +between Great Britain and the Netherlands, arising chiefly out of the +transfer of power in Java and the British occupation of Singapore +(1819), were settled by treaty between the two powers in 1824. By this +treaty the Dutch were given almost entire freedom of action in Sumatra, +while the Malay Peninsula was recognized as within the British sphere of +influence. In 1825-30 a serious rebellion in Java involved the despatch +of a large military force from the Netherlands, and was with difficulty +suppressed. An outbreak of Mahommedan fanaticism in Sumatra also gave +much trouble. + +The reform movement inaugurated by the commission of 1803 was resumed in +1830, when Governor-General Johannes van den Bosch endeavoured to +improve the conditions of land-tenure and agriculture by introducing the +so-called "culture system." The native cultivators were to be exempted +from the ground-tax, but were to cultivate one-fifth of their land as +the government might direct, the government taking the produce. This +culture-system worked fairly during Van den Bosch's tenure of office, +but gave rise to many abuses between 1833 and 1844, involving, as it +did, a combination of the _métayer_ and _corvée_ systems. + +In 1848 the _Grondwet_, or fundamental law of the Netherlands, +recognized for the first time the responsibility of the Dutch nation for +its colonial dependencies. The _Grondwet_ involved certain important +changes, which were embodied in an act passed in 1854 and commonly known +as the _Regulations for the Government of Netherlands India_. The +_Regulations_ substituted statute law for administrative and military +despotism, and made the governor-general in council responsible to the +minister of the colonies at the Hague. They reformed the judicature, +introduced elementary education for the natives, and abolished slavery +in Java as from the 1st of January 1860. They also prepared the way for +further legislation tending towards the gradual emancipation of the +natives from the culture system, and from semi-feudal servitude to their +native rulers. That servitude existed in many forms all over the +archipelago, but among the most curious must be reckoned the +_pandelingschap_ or "pledgedom," which originated in Borneo, and +according to which a man had the power to make his debtors his serfs +until their debts were paid. + +The reform movement was aided by the publication in 1860 of _Max +Havelaar_, a romance by E. Douwes Dekker (q.v.), which contained a +scathing indictment of the colonial system. Many important financial and +agrarian measures were carried between 1860 and 1890. In 1863 Fransen +van de Putte, minister for the colonies, introduced the first of the +annual colonial budgets for which the _Regulations_ had provided, thus +enabling the states-general to control the revenue and expenditure of +Netherlands India; in 1865 he reduced and in 1872 abolished the +differentiation of customs dues in favour of goods imported from +Holland, substituting a uniform import duty of 6% and establishing a +number of free ports throughout the archipelago. The import duty was +considered so moderate that an increase required for revenue purposes +was readily conceded in 1886. In 1876 the practice of paying a yearly +surplus (_batig slot_) from the revenues of Netherlands India to the +treasury at the Hague was discontinued. The chief reforms in the land +system were those introduced by De Waal, then minister for the colonies, +in 1870. The cultivation of pepper, cochineal, cinnamon and indigo for +the government had already ceased; De Waal restricted the area of the +sugar plantations (carried on by forced native labour) as from 1878, and +provided for their abolition after 1890. He also enabled natives to +secure proprietary rights over the land they cultivated, and legalized +the leasing of Crown forest-lands to Europeans. + +The extension of Dutch political power--notably in Java, Sumatra, +Celebes, the Moluccas, Borneo, the Sunda Islands and New +Guinea--proceeded simultaneously with the reform movement, and from time +to time involved war with various native states. A large expedition was +sent to Lombok in 1894, and almost the whole of that island was +incorporated in the Dutch dominions. The long and costly war with Achin +(q.v.) began in 1873 and reached its climax in the military occupation +of the country after 1905, when the native sultan surrendered and was +deported. A guerrilla war was still carried on by his subjects, but +their principal leader, the chief Panglima Polim, was captured in 1907; +in 1908-1910 the condition of Achin under the military rule of General +Swart was one of almost unbroken peace, and taxes were regularly paid. + +While the Dutch were thus consolidating their authority, other countries +were acquiring new commercial or colonial interests in the archipelago. +Immigration from China and Japan steadily increased, especially towards +the end of the period 1816-1910. The enterprise of Sir James Brooke +(q.v.) led, after 1838, to the establishment of British sovereignty in +North Borneo; in 1895 New Guinea was divided between Great Britain, +Germany and the Netherlands; and the Spanish-American War of 1898 +resulted in the cession of the Philippines, Sulu Island and the largest +of the Mariana Islands to the United States, and the sale of the +Caroline group to Germany. Australian and Japanese trade in the +archipelago was stimulated by the establishment of the Australian +Commonwealth (1901) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5). In 1910 the +nations most directly interested in the future of the archipelago were +the Netherlands, Great Britain, the United States, Germany, Japan, China +and Portugal. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the period 1511-1595, the chief Portuguese + authorities are the chronicles of Barros, Corrêa, Castanheda and Couto + (see PORTUGAL: _History_), with the letters of Xavier (q.v.), and the + _Tratado_ of A. Galvão (Lisbon, 1563 and 1731), of which a translation + entitled _Discoveries of the World_ was made for Richard Hakluyt and + reprinted by the Hakluyt Society (London, 1862). See also M. F. de + Navarette, _Coleccion de los viages_ (vols. 4 and 5, Madrid, 1837). + For later history see John Crawfurd, _History of the Indian + Archipelago_ (Edinburgh, 1820), which quotes from native as well as + European records, and _Twentieth-Century Impressions of Netherlands + India_ (ed. A. Wright, London, 1910), which gives references to the + principal English and Dutch authorities. Further bibliography will be + found in J. A. van der Chijs, _Proeve eener nederlandsch-indische + Bibliografie, 1659-1870_ (Batavia, 1875). (K. G. J.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For more detailed information respecting the several islands and + groups of the archipelago, see the separate articles BORNEO; JAVA; + PHILIPPINE ISLANDS; SUMATRA, &c. + + [2] See _The Geographical Journal_, ix. 80 seq. (London, 1897). + + + + +MALAIR, a small province of Persia, situated between Hamadan and +Burujird. It has a population of about 70,000, and, together with the +district Tusirkhan, pays a yearly revenue of about £13,000. It produces +much corn and fruit; a great quantity of the latter, dried, is exported. +Its capital and seat of government is Doletabad (Dowletabad), a thriving +little city, with a population of about 5000, situated at an elevation +of 5680 ft., 38 m. from Hamadan and 32 m. from Burujird. It has post and +telegraph offices. + + + + +MALAY PENINSULA (called by the Malays _Tanah Malayu_, i.e. the Malay +Land), a lozenge-shaped strip of land projecting into the China Sea, +and forming the most southerly portion of the continent of Asia. +Geographically, the peninsula begins at the isthmus of Kra, 10° N., at +which point it is only between 60 and 70 m. in width, and the distance +from sea to sea is further diminished by a large irregular salt-water +inlet. Politically and anthropologically, however, this upper portion +must be regarded as a continuation of the kingdom of Siam rather than as +a section of Malaya. From the isthmus of Kra the peninsula extends south +with a general inclination towards the east, the most southerly point +being Tanjong Bulus in 1° 16½´ N. A line drawn diagonally down the +centre from the isthmus of Kra to Cape Romania (Ramunya) gives the +extreme length at about 750 miles. The breadth at the widest point, from +Tanjong Pen-unjut in Trengganu to Tanjong Hantu in the Dindings +territory, is about 200 m. The area is estimated at about 70,000 sq. m. +The peninsula is bounded on the N. by Siam, on the S. by the island and +strait of Singapore, on the E. by the China Sea, and on the W. by the +Strait of Malacca. + + _Physical Characteristics._--A range of granite mountains forms a + backbone which divides the peninsula into two unequal portions, the + larger of which lies to the east and the smaller to the west of the + chain. Smaller ranges run parallel to the main mountain chain in many + places, and there are numerous isolated spurs which have no connexion + with either. The country is covered with limestone in many parts, and + large isolated bluffs of this formation stand up in the plains both on + the eastern and the western slopes. The descent from the summits of + the range into the plain is somewhat less abrupt on the western than + it is on the eastern side, and between the foot of the mountains and + the Strait of Malacca the largest known alluvial deposits of tin are + situated. On the eastern side of the range, after a steep descent, the + granite formation speedily gives place to slates of vast depth, + intersected here and thereby fissures of quartz containing gold, and + in many places covered by limestone which has been superimposed upon + the slates. The highest known peak in the main range is that of Gunong + Korbu, 7217 ft. above sea-level. The highest mountain is believed to + be Gunong Tahan, which forms part of an isolated range on the eastern + side, between Pahang and Kelantan, and is estimated at about 8000 ft. + The west coast throughout its whole length is covered to a depth of + some miles with mangrove swamps, with only a few isolated stretches of + sandy beach, the dim foliage of the mangroves and the hideous mud + flats presenting a depressing spectacle. On the east coast the force + of the north-east monsoon, which beats upon the shores of the China + Sea annually from November to February, has kept the land for the most + part free from mangroves, and the sands, broken here and there by + rocky headlands thickly wooded, and fringed by _casuarina_ trees, + stretch for miles without interruption. The islands on each coast + present the features of the shore to which they are adjacent. On both + the east and the west coast the islands are thickly wooded, but + whereas the former are surrounded by beautiful sands and beaches, the + latter are fringed by mangrove-swamps. The whole peninsula may be + described as one vast forest, intersected in every direction by + countless streams and rivers which together form the most lavish + water-system in the world. Only an insignificant fraction of these + forests has ever been visited by human beings, the Malays and even the + aboriginal tribe having their homes on the banks of the rivers, and + never, even when travelling from one part of the country to another, + leaving the banks of a stream except for a short time when passing + from one river-system to another. The bulk of the jungle, therefore, + which lies between stream and stream, has never been trodden by the + foot of man. The principal rivers on the west coast are the Perak, the + Bernam and the Muar. The first-named is far finer than its fellows, + and is navigable for steamers for about 40 m. from its mouth, and for + native craft for over 250 m. It is exceedingly shallow, however, and + is not of much importance as a waterway. The Bernam runs through flat + swampy country for the greater part of its course, and steam-launches + can penetrate to a distance of over 100 m. from its mouth, and it is + therefore probably the deepest river. The country which it waters, + however, is not of any value, and it is not much used. The Muar waters + a very fertile valley, and is navigable for native boats for over 150 + m. On the east coast the principal streams are the Petani, Telubin, + Kelantan, Besut, Trengganu, Dungun, Kmamun, Kuantan, Pahang, Rompin, + Endau and Sedeli, all guarded by difficult bars at their mouths, and + dangerous during the continuance of the north-east monsoon. The + deepest rivers are the Kuantan and Rompin; the largest are the + Kelantan and the Pahang, both of which are navigable for native boats + for a distance of over 250 m. The Trengganu river is obstructed by + impassable rapids at a distance of about 30 m. from its mouth. The + rivers on the east coast are practically the only highways, the Malays + always travelling by boat in preference to walking, but they serve + their purpose very indifferently, and their great beauty is their + chief claim to distinction. Magnificent caves are found on both slopes + of the peninsula, those at Batu in Selangor being the finest on the + west coast, while those of Chadu and Koto Glanggi in Pahang are the + most extensive yet visited by Europeans on the east coast. They are + all of limestone formation. So far as is known, the Malay Peninsula + consists of an axial zone of crystalline rocks, flanked on each side + by an incomplete band of sedimentary deposits. Granite is the most + widely spread of the crystalline rocks; but dikes of various kinds + occur, and gneiss, schist and marble are also met with. These rocks + form the greater part of the central range, and they are + often--especially the granite--decomposed and rotten to a considerable + depth. The sedimentary deposits include slate, limestone and + sandstone. Impure coal has also been recorded. The limestone has + yielded _Proetus_, _Chonetes_ and other fossils, and is believed to be + of Carboniferous age. In the sandstone Myophoria and other Triassic + fossils have been found, and it appears to belong to the Rhaetic or + Upper Trias.[1] The minerals produced are tin, gold, iron, galena and + others, in insignificant quantities. + + The tin occurs in the form of cassiterite, and is found chiefly in or + near the crystalline rocks, especially the granite. As stream tin it + occurs abundantly in some of the alluvial deposits derived from the + crystalline area, especially on the west coast. Only two tin lodes are + worked, however, and both are situated on the east coast, the one at + Kuantan in Pahang, the other at Bandi in Trengganu territory. On the + west coast no true lode has yet been discovered, though the vast + alluvial deposits of tin found there seem to make such a discovery + probable in the future. Since 1890 the tin produced from these + alluvial beds has supplied between 50% and 75% of the tin of the + world. Gold is worked with success in Pahang, and has been exploited + from time immemorial by the natives of that state and of Kelantan. + Small quantities have also been found on the western slope in Perak. + + _Climate, &c._--It was formerly the custom to speak of the Malay + Peninsula as an unhealthy climate, and even to compare it with the + west coast of Africa. It is now generally admitted, however, that, + though hot, it compares favourably with that of Burma. The chief + complaint which Europeans make concerning it is the extreme humidity, + which causes the heat to be more oppressive than is the case where the + air is dry. On the other hand, the thermometer, even at Singapore on + the southern coast, which is the hottest portion of the peninsula, + seldom rises above 98° in the shade, whereas the mean for the year at + that place is generally below 80°. On the mainland, and more + especially on the eastern slope, the temperature is cooler, the + thermometer seldom rising above 93° in the shade, and falling at night + below 70°. On an average day in this part of the peninsula the + temperature in a European house ranged from 88° to 68°. The number of + rainy days throughout the peninsula varies from 160 to over 200 in + each year, but violent gusts of wind, called "Sumatras," accompanied + by a heavy downpour of short duration, are more common than persistent + rain. The rainfall on the west coast varies from 75 to 120 in. per + annum, and that of the east coast, where the north-east monsoon breaks + with all its fury, is usually about 155 in. per annum. Malarial fevers + make their appearance in places where the forest has been recently + felled, or where the surface earth has been disturbed. It is noticed + that labourers employed in deep mines worked by shafts suffer less + from fever than do those who are engaged in stripping the alluvial + deposits. This, of course, means that a new station, where clearing, + digging, and building are in progress, is often unhealthy for a time, + and to this must be attributed the evil reputation which the peninsula + formerly enjoyed. To Europeans the climate is found to be relaxing and + enervating, but if, in spite of some disinclination for exertion, + regular exercise is taken from the beginning, and ordinary precautions + against chills, more especially to the stomach, are adopted, a + European has almost as good a chance of remaining in good health in + the peninsula as in Europe. A change of climate, however, is + imperatively necessary every five or six years, and the children of + European parents should not be kept in the peninsula after they have + attained the age of four or five years. The Chinese immigrants suffer + chiefly from fever of a malarial type, from beri-beri, a species of + tropical dropsy, and from dysentery. The Malays formerly suffered + severely from smallpox epidemics, but in the portion of the peninsula + under British rule vaccination has been introduced, and the ravages of + the disease no longer assume serious dimensions. Occasional outbreaks + of cholera occur from time to time, and in the independent states + these cause terrible loss of life, as the natives fly from the disease + and spread the infection in every direction. As a whole, the Malays + are, however, a remarkably healthy people, and deformity and + hereditary diseases are rare among them. There is little leprosy in + the peninsula, but there is a leper hospital near Penang on Pula + Deraja and another on an island on the west coast for the reception of + lepers from the Federated Malay States. + + _Flora and Fauna._--The soil of the peninsula is remarkably fertile + both in the plains and on the mountain slopes. In the vast forests the + decay of vegetable matter during countless ages has enriched the soil + to the depth of many feet, and from it springs the most marvellous + tangle of huge trees, shrubs, bushes, underwood, creepers, climbing + plants and trailing vines, the whole hung with ferns, mosses, and + parasitic growths, and bound together by rattans and huge rope-like + trailers. In most places the jungle is so dense that it is impossible + to force a way through it without the aid of a wood-knife, and even + the wild beasts use well-worn game-tracks through the forest. In the + interior brakes of bamboos are found, many of which spread for miles + along the river banks. Good hard-wood timber is found in plenty, the + best being the _merabau_, _penak_, _rasok_ and _chengal_. Orchids of + countless varieties abound. The principal fruit trees are the + _duri-an_, mangosteen, custard-apple, pomegranate, _rambut-an_, + _pulas-an_, _langsat_, _rambai_, jack-fruit, coco-nut, areca-nut, + sugar-palm, and banana. Coffee, tobacco, sugar-cane, rice, pepper, + gambier, cotton and sago are cultivated with success. Great + developments have been made of recent years in the cultivation of + rubber in British Malaya. The principal jungle products are gutta and + rubber of several varieties, and many kinds of rattan. The mangrove + grows on the shores of the west coast in profusion. Agilawood, the + camphor tree, and ebony are also found in smaller quantities. + + The fauna of the peninsula is varied and no less profuse than is the + vegetable life. The Asiatic elephant; the _seladang_, a bison of a + larger type than the Indian gaur; two varieties of rhinoceros; the + honey bear (_bruang_), the tapir, the sambhur (_rusa_); the speckled + deer (_kijang_), three varieties of mouse-deer (_napoh_, _plandok_ and + _kanchil_); the gibbon (_ungka_ or _wawa'_), the _siamang_, another + species of anthropoid ape, the _brok_ or coco-nut monkey, so called + because it is trained by the Malays to gather the nuts from the + coco-nut trees, the _lotong_, _kra_, and at least twenty other kinds + of monkey; the _binturong_ (_arctictis binturong_), the lemur; the + Asiatic tiger, the black panther, the leopard, the large wild cat + (_harimau akar_), several varieties of jungle cat; the wild boar, the + wild dog; the flying squirrel, the flying fox; the python, the cobra, + and many other varieties of snake, including the hamadryad; the + alligator, the otter and the gavial, as well as countless kinds of + squirrel, rat, &c., are found throughout the jungles of the peninsula + in great numbers. On the east coast peafowl are found, and throughout + the interior the argus pheasant, the firebacked pheasant, the blue + partridge, the adjutant-bird, several kinds of heron and crane, duck, + teal, cotton-teal, snipe, wood-pigeon, green-pigeon of several + varieties, swifts, swallows, pied-robins, hornbills, parakeets, + fly-catchers, nightjars, and many other kinds of bird are met with + frequently. A few specimens of solitary goose have been procured, but + the bird is rarely met with. The forests literally swarm with insects + of all kinds, from _cicadae_ to beautiful butterflies, and from stick- + and leaf-insects to endless varieties of ants. The scorpion and the + centipede are both common. The study of the insect life of the + peninsula opens a splendid field for scientific research, and the + profusion and variety of insects found in these forests probably + surpass those to be met with anywhere else in the world. + +_Political Divisions and Population._--Politically the Malay Peninsula +is divided into four sections: the colony of the Straits Settlements and +the Federated Malay States; the independent Malay State of Johor, which +is within the British sphere of influence; the non-federated states +under British protection; and the groups of states to the north of Perak +and Pahang which are now recognized as lying within the sphere of +influence of Siam. The colony of the Straits Settlements consists of the +islands of Singapore, Penang and the Dindings, the territory of Province +Wellesley, on the mainland opposite to Penang, the insignificant +territory of the Dindings, and the town and territory of Malacca. The +Federated Malay States under British protection consist of the +sultanates of Perak, Selangor and the Negri Sambilan on the west coast, +and the sultanate of Pahang on the east coast. Johor is the only Malay +state in the southern portion of the peninsula, the whole of which is +within the British sphere, which has been suffered to remain under +native rule. The non-federated states under British protection (since +1909) are Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis (Palit). The population +of the peninsula numbers about 2,000,000, of whom about 600,000 inhabit +the colony of the Straits Settlements, about 900,000 the Federated Malay +States, about 200,000 the Malay State of Johor, and about 250,000 to +300,000 the remainder of the peninsula. The population of the peninsula +includes about 850,000 Chinese, mostly immigrants or descendants of +immigrants from the southern provinces of China, of whom about 300,000 +reside in the colony of the Straits Settlements, 365,000 in the +Federated Malay States, 150,000 in Johor, and the remainder in smaller +communities or as isolated traders scattered throughout the villages and +small towns of the peninsula. The Malay population of the peninsula, +including immigrants from the eastern archipelago, number some 750,000 +to 800,000, while the Tamils and other natives of India number about +100,000, the aboriginal natives of the peninsula perhaps 20,000, +Europeans and Americans about 6500, and Eurasians about 9000. The colony +of the Straits Settlements, and to a lesser extent the towns of the +Federated Malay States, carry a considerable heterogenous population, in +which most of the races of Asia find their representatives. + +[Illustration: Map of Malay Peninsula.] + + _Races of the Peninsula._--Excluding the Tai, or Siamese, who are + undoubtedly recent intruders from the north, there are three races + which for an extended period of time have had their home in the Malay + Peninsula. These are the Semang or Pangan, the Sakai or Jakun, and the + Malays. The Semang, as they are most usually called by the Malays, are + Negritos--a small, very dark people, with features of the negroid + type, very prognathous, and with short, woolly hair clinging to the + scalp in tiny crisp curls. These people belong to the race which would + seem to be the true aboriginal stock of southern Asia. Representatives + of it are found scattered about the islands from the Andaman group + southwards. The state of civilization to which they have attained is + very low. They neither plant nor have they any manufactures except + their rude bamboo and rattan vessels, the fish and game traps which + they set with much skill, and the bows, blow-pipes and bamboo spears + with which they are armed. They are skilful hunters, however, catch + fish by ingeniously constructed traps, and live almost entirely on + jungle-roots and the produce of their hunting and fishing. The most + civilized of these people is found in Upper Perak, and the members of + this clan have acquired some knowledge of the art of planting, &c. + They cannot, however, be taken as typical of their race, and other + specimens of this people are seldom seen even by the Sakai. From time + to time they have been raided by the latter, and many Negritos are to + be found in captivity in some of the Malayan villages on the eastern + side of the peninsula. The mistake of speaking of the Sakai tribes as + practically identical with the Semang or Pangan has very frequently + been made, but as a matter of fact the two races are absolutely + distinct from one another. It has also been customary to include the + Sakai in the category of Malayan races, but this too is undoubtedly + incorrect. The Sakai still inhabit in greatest numbers the country + which forms the interior of Pahang, the Plus and Kinta districts of + Perak, and the valley of Nenggiri in Kelantan. Representatives of + their race are also found scattered among the Malayan villages + throughout the country, and also along the coast, but these have + intermixed so much with the Malays, and have acquired so many customs, + &c., from their more civilized neighbours, that they can no longer be + regarded as typical of the race to which they belong. The pure Sakai + in the interior have a good knowledge of planting rice, tapioca, &c., + fashion pretty vessels from bamboos, which they decorate with patterns + traced by the aid of fire, make loin-cloths (their only garment) from + the bark of the _trap_ and _ipoh_ trees; are very musical, using a + rude lute of bamboo, and a nose-flute of a very sweet tone, and + singing in chorus very melodiously; and altogether have attained in + their primitive state to a higher degree of civilization than have the + Semang. They are about as tall as the average Malay, are slimly built, + light of colour, and have wavy fine hair. In their own language they + usually have only three numerals, viz. _na-nun_, one; _nar_, two; and + _ne'_, three, or variants of these; all higher arithmetical ideas + being expressed by the word _kerpn_, which means "many." A few cases + have been recorded, however, of tribes who can count in their own + tongue up to four and five. Among the more civilized, however, the + Malay numerals up to ten are adopted by the Sakai. An examination of + their language seems to indicate that it belongs to the Mon-Khmer + group of languages, and the anthropological information forthcoming + concerning the Sakai points to the conclusion that they show a greater + affinity to the people of the Mon-Khmer races than to the Malayan + stock. Though they now use metal tools imported by the Malays, it is + noticeable that the names which they give to those weapons which most + closely resemble in character the stone implements found in such + numbers all over the peninsula are native names wholly unconnected + with their Malay equivalents. On account of this, it has been + suggested that in a forgotten past the Sakai were themselves the + fashioners of the stone implements, and certain it is that all tools + which have no representatives among the stone kelts are known to the + Sakai by obvious corruptions of their Malayan names. The presence of + the Sakai, a people of the Mon-Khmer stock, in the interior of the + peninsula has also been considered as one of many proofs that the + Malays intruded from the south and approached the peninsula by means + of a sea-route, since had they swept down from the north, being driven + thence by the people of a stronger breed, it might be expected that + the fringe of country dividing the two contending races would be + inhabited by men of the more feeble stock. Instead, we find the Sakai + occupying this position, thus indicating that they have been driven + northward by the Malays, and that the latter people has not been + expelled by the Mon-Khmer races from the countries now represented by + Burma, Siam and French Indo-China. The Sakai population is dying out, + and must eventually disappear. (With regard to the Malay, see MALAYS.) + + _Archaeology._--The only ancient remains found in the peninsula are + the stone implements, of which mention has already been made, and some + remarkable ancient mines, which are situated in the Jelai valley in + Pahang. The stone implements are generally of one or two types: a long + rectangular adze or wedge rudely pointed at one end, and used in + conjunction with a mallet or flat stone, and a roughly triangular + axe-head, which has evidently been fixed in the cleft of a split + stick. A few stones, which might perhaps be arrowheads, have been + found, but they are very rare. The mines, which have been constructed + for the purpose of working quartz lodes containing gold, are very + extensive, and argue a high stage of civilization possessed by the + ancient miners. They consist of a number of circular or rectangular + pits sunk from the cap of a hill, and going down to a depth of in some + cases as much as 120 ft., until in fact the miners have been stopped + by being unable to cope with the quantity of water made when the level + of the valley was reached. The shafts are placed so close together + that in many instances they are divided by only a couple of feet of + solid ground, but at their bases a considerable amount of gallery work + has been excavated, though it is possible that this was done by miners + who came after the people who originally sank the shafts. Native + tradition attributes these mines to the Siamese, but no importance can + be attached to this, as it is very general for the Malays to give this + explanation for anything which is obviously not the work of their own + ancestors. A theory, which seems to have some probability in its + favour, is that these mines were worked by the Khmer people during the + period of power, energy and prosperity which found its most lofty + expression in the now ruined and deserted city of Angkor Thom; while + another attributes these works to the natives of India whose Hindu + remains are found in Java and elsewhere, whose influence was at one + time widespread throughout Malayan lands, and of whose religious + teaching remnants still linger in the superstitions of the Malays and + are preserved in some purity in Lombok and Bali. In the absence, + however, of any relics of a kind which might lead to the + identification of the ancient miners, their nationality and origin are + matters which must continue to be mere questions of speculation and + conjecture. + +_History._--The first hint to reach Europe concerning the existence of +habitable lands to the eastward of the Ganges is to be found in the +writings of Pomponius Mela (A.D. 43) which speak of Chryse, or the +Golden Isle, as lying off Cape Tamus--supposed to be the most easterly +point in Asia--and over against the estuary of the Ganges. Thereafter +there occur vague references to Chryse in the _Periplus of the Erythrean +Sea_, &c., but the earliest trace of anything resembling first-hand +knowledge concerning the peninsula of Indo-China and Malaya is revealed +in the writings of Ptolemy, whose views were mainly derived from those +of his predecessor Marinus of Tyre, who in his turn drew his deductions +from information supplied to him by the mariner Alexander who, there is +every reason to think, had himself voyaged to the Malay Peninsula and +beyond. In the light of present knowledge concerning the trade-routes of +Asia, which had been in existence for thousands of years ere ever +Europeans attempted to make use of them, it is safe to identify +Ptolemy's Sinus Perimulicus with the Gulf of Siam, the Sinus Sabaricus +with the Straits of Malacca from their southern portals to the Gulf of +Martaban, the Aurea Chersonesus with the Malay Peninsula, and the island +of Iabadius or Sabadius--the reading of the name is doubtful--with +Sumatra, not as has often been mistakenly attempted with Java. Although +the first definite endeavour to locate the Golden Chersonese thus dates +from the middle of the 2nd century of our era, the name was apparently +well known to the learned of Europe at a somewhat earlier period, and in +his _Antiquities of the Jews_, written during the latter half of the 1st +century, Josephus says that Solomon gave to the pilots furnished to him +by Hiram of Tyre commands "that they should go along with his stewards +to the land that of old was called Ophir, but now the Aurea Chersonesus, +which belongs to India, to fetch gold." After the time of Ptolemy no +advance in knowledge concerning the geography of south-eastern Asia was +made until Cosmas Indicopleustes, a monk and an Alexandrian Greek, wrote +from personal knowledge between A.D. 530 and 550. His primary object was +to prove that the world was built after the same shape and fashion as +the Ark made by the Children of Israel in the desert; but he was able to +show that the Malay Peninsula had to be rounded and thereafter a course +steered in a northerly direction if China was to be reached. Meanwhile +inter-Asiatic intercourse by means of sea-routes had been steadily on +the increase since the discovery of the way to utilize the monsoons and +to sail directly to and fro across the Indian Ocean (attributed to the +Greek pilot Hippalus) had been made. After the decline of the power of +Rome, the dominant force in Asiatic commerce and navigation was Persia, +and from that time onward, until the arrival of the Portuguese upon the +scene early in the 16th century the spice trade, whose chief emporia +were in or near the Malay Peninsula, was in Persian or Arab hands. +There is considerable reason to think, however, that the more frequent +ports of call in the Straits of Malacca were situated in Sumatra, rather +than on the shores of the Malay Peninsula, and two famous medieval +travellers, Marco Polo and Ibn Batuta, both called and wintered at the +former, and make scant mention of the latter. + +The importance of the Malay Peninsula, as has been noted, consisted in +the privilege which its locality conferred upon it of being the +distributing centre of the spices brought thither from the Moluccas _en +route_ for India and Europe. As early as the 3rd century B.C. +Megasthenes makes mention of spices brought to the shores of the Ganges +from "the southern parts of India," and the trade in question was +probably one of the most ancient in the world. So long, however, as +India held the monopoly of the clove, the Malay Peninsula was ignored, +the Hindus spreading their influence through the islands of the +archipelago and leaving traces thereof even to this day. The Mahommedan +traders from Persia and Arabia, following the routes which had been +prepared for them by their forebears, broke down the Hindu monopoly and +ousted the earlier exploiters so effectually that by the beginning of +the 16th century the spice trade was almost exclusively in their hands. +These traders were also missionaries of their religion, as indeed is +every Mahommedan, and to them is due the conversion of the Malays from +rude pantheism, somewhat tinctured by Hindu mythology, to the Mahommedan +creed. The desire to obtain the monopoly of the spice trade has been a +potent force in the fashioning of Asiatic history. The Moluccas were, +from the first, the objective of the Portuguese invaders, and no sooner +had the white men found their way round the Cape of Good Hope and +established themselves successively upon the coast of East Africa, in +the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Aden and the Malabar coast, than +Malacca, then the chief trading centre of the Malayan Archipelago, +became the object of their desire. The first Portuguese expedition sent +out to capture Malacca was under the command of Diogo Lopez de Siqueira +and sailed from Portugal in 1508. At Cochin Siqueira took on board +certain adherents of Alphonso d'Alboquerque who were in bad odour with +his rival d'Almeida, among them being Magellan, the future +circumnavigator of the world, and Francisco Serrão, the first European +who ever lived in the Spice Islands. Siqueira's expedition ended in +failure, owing partly to the aggressive attitude of the Portuguese, +partly to the very justifiable suspicions of the Malays, and he was +presently forced to destroy one of his vessels, to leave a number of his +men in captivity, and to sail direct for Portugal. In 1510 a second +expedition against Malacca was sent out from Portugal under the command +of Diogo Mendez de Vasconcellos, but d'Alboquerque retained it at Cochin +to aid him in the retaking of Goa, and it was not until 1511 that the +great viceroy could spare time to turn his attention to the scene of +Siqueira's failure. After some futile negotiations, which had for their +object the recovery of the Portuguese captives before hostilities should +begin, an assault was delivered upon Malacca, and though the first +attempt to take the city failed after some hard fighting, a second +assault made some days later succeeded, and Malacca passed for ever into +European hands. The Portuguese were satisfied with the possession of +Malacca itself and did not seek further to extend their empire in +Malaya. Instead they used every endeavour to establish friendly +relations with the rulers of all the neighbouring kingdoms, and before +d'Alboquerque returned to India he despatched embassies to China, Siam, +and several kingdoms of Sumatra, and sent a small fleet, with orders to +assume a highly conciliatory attitude toward all natives, in search of +the Moluccas. Very soon the spice trade had become a Portuguese +monopoly, and Malacca was the great headquarters of the trade. It should +moreover be noted that Magellan's famous expedition had for its object +not the barren feat of circumnavigation but the breaking down of this +monopoly, without violating the terms of the papal bull which gave to +Spain the conquest of the West, to Portugal the possession of the East. +In 1528 a French expedition sailed from Dieppe, penetrated as far as +Achin in Sumatra, but returned without reaching the Malay Peninsula. It +was, however, the first attempt ever made to defy the papal bull. In +1591, three years after the defeat of the Armada, Raymond and Lancaster +rounded the Cape, and after cruising off Penang, decided to winter in +Achin. They subsequently hid among the Pulau Sambilan near the mouth of +the Perak river, and thence captured a large Portuguese vessel which was +sailing from Malacca in company with two Burmese ships. In 1595 the +first Dutch expedition sailed from the Texel, but it took a more +southerly course than its predecessors and confined its operations to +Java and the neighbouring islands. During this period Achin developed a +determined enmity to the Portuguese, and more than one attempt was made +to drive the strangers from Malacca. Eventually, in 1641, a joint attack +was made by the Achinese and the Dutch, but the latter, not the people +of the sturdy little Sumatran kingdom, became the owners of the coveted +port. Malacca was taken from the Dutch by the British in 1795; was +restored to the latter in 1818; but in 1824 was exchanged for Benkulen +and a few more unimportant places in Sumatra. The first British factory +in the peninsula was established in the native state of Patani on the +east coast in 1613, the place having been used by the Portuguese in the +16th century for a similar purpose; but the enterprise came to an +untimely end in 1620 when Captain Jourdain, the first president, was +killed in a naval engagement in Patani Roads by the Dutch. Penang was +purchased from Kedah in 1786, and Singapore from the then sultan of +Johor in 1819. The Straits Settlements--Singapore, Malacca and +Penang--were ruled from India until 1867, when they were erected into a +crown colony under the charge of the Colonial Office. In 1874 the Malay +state of Perak was placed under British protection by a treaty entered +into with its sultan; and this eventually led to the inclusion in a +British protectorate of the neighbouring Malay States of Selangor, +Sungei Ujong, the cluster of small states called the Negri Sembilan and +Pahang, which now form the Federated Malay States. By a treaty made +between Great Britain and Siam in 1902 the northern Malay states of the +peninsula were admitted to lie within the Siamese sphere of influence, +but by a treaty of 1909 Siam ceded her suzerain rights over the states +of Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis to Britain. + +Singapore is the political, commercial and administrative headquarters +of the colony of the Straits Settlements, and the governor for the time +being is _ex officio_ high commissioner of the Federated Malay States, +British North Borneo, Sarawak, the Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Islands, +and governor of Labuan. + + See Sir F. Swettenham, _British Malaya_ (1906); H. Clifford, _Further + India_ (1904); _Journal of the Malay Archipelago_, Logan (Singapore); + _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_ + (Singapore); Weld, Maxwell, Swettenham and Clifford in the _Journal of + the Royal Colonial Institute_ (London); Clifford in the _Journal of + the Royal Geographical Society_ (London). (H. Cl.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See R. B. Newton, "Notes on Literature bearing upon the Geology + of the Malay Peninsula; with an Account of a Neolithic Implement from + that Country" (Geol. Mag., 1901, pp. 128-134). See also the various + reports by J. B. Scrivenor in _Suppl. Perak Gov. Gazette_, 1905. + + + + +MALAYS, the name given by Europeans to the people calling themselves +_Orang Malayu_, i.e. Malayan folk, who are the dominant race of the +Malay Peninsula and of the Malay Archipelago. Broadly speaking, all the +brown races which inhabit the portion of Asia south of Siam and +Indo-China, and the islands from the Philippines to Java, and from +Sumatra to Timor, may be described as belonging to the Malayan family, +if the aboriginal tribes, such as the Sakai and Semang in the Malay +Peninsula, the Bataks in Sumatra, and the Muruts in Borneo, be excepted. +For the purposes of this article, however, only those among these races +which bear the name of Orang Malayu, speak the Malayan language, and +represent the dominant people of the land, can be included under the +title of Malays. These people inhabit the whole of the Malayan Peninsula +to the borders of lower Siam, the islands in the vicinity of the +mainland, the shores of Sumatra and some portions of the interior of +that island, Sarawak and Brunei in Borneo, and some parts of Dutch +Borneo, Batavia and certain districts in Java, and some of the smaller +islands of the archipelago. Though in these lands they have for not less +than a thousand years enjoyed the position of the dominant race, they +all possess a tradition that they are not indigenous, and that their +first rulers "came out of the sea," with a large band of Malayan +warriors in their train. In the peninsula especially, where the +presence of the Malays is more recent than elsewhere, many traditions +exist which point to a comparatively recent occupation of the country. +It has been remarked that there is evidence that the Malays had attained +to a certain stage of civilization before ever they set foot in Malaya. +For instance, the names which they give to certain fruits, such as the +_duri-an_, the _rambut-an_ and the _pulas-an_, which are indigenous in +the Malayan countries, and are not found elsewhere, are all compound +words meaning respectively the thorny, the hairy and the twisted fruit. +These words are formed by the addition of the substantial affix "-_an_," +the use of which is one of the recognized methods by which the Malays +turn primitive words into terms of more complex meaning. This may be +taken to indicate that when first the Malays became acquainted with the +fruits which are indigenous in Malayan lands they already possessed a +language in which most primary words were represented, and also that +their tongue had attained to a stage of development which provided for +the formation of compound words by a system sanctioned by custom and the +same linguistic instinct which causes a Malay to-day to form similar +compounds from European and other foreign roots. For any aboriginal race +inhabiting these countries, such important articles of diet as the +_duri-an_, &c., could not fail to be among the first natural objects to +receive a name, and thus we find primary terms in use among the Sakai +and Semang, the aborigines of the Peninsula, to describe these fruits. +The use by the Malays of artificially constructed terms to denote these +things may certainly be taken to strengthen the opinion that the Malays +arrived in the lands they now inhabit at a comparatively late period in +their history, and at a time when they had developed considerably from +the original state of primitive man. + +In the Malay Peninsula itself there is abundant evidence, ethnological +and philological, of at least two distinct immigrations of people of the +Malayan stock, the earlier incursions, it is probable, taking place from +the eastern archipelago to the south, the later invasion spreading +across the Straits of Malacca from Sumatra at a comparatively recent +date. The fact that the semi-wild tribes, which are ethnologically +Malayan and distinct from the aboriginal Semang and Sakai, are met with +almost invariably in the neighbourhood of the coast would seem to +indicate that they reached the peninsula by a sea, not by a land route, +a supposition which is strengthened by their almost amphibious habits. +Many of these tribes have retained their pristine paganism, but many +others it is certain have adopted the Mahommedan religion and have been +assimilated by the subsequent and stronger wave of Sumatran immigrants. +A study of the local dialects to be met with in some of the districts of +the far interior, e.g. the Tembeling valley in Pahang, whose people are +now Mahommedans and in many respects indistinguishable from the ordinary +Malays of the peninsula, reveals the fact that words, current in the +archipelago to the south but incomprehensible to the average peninsula +Malays, by whom these more ancient populations are now completely +surrounded, have been preserved as local words, whereas they really +belong to an older dialect once spoken widely in the peninsula, as +to-day it is spoken in the Malayan islands. This would seem to show that +in some instances the earlier Malay immigrants fell or were driven by +the later invaders back from the coast and sought refuge in the far +interior. + + + Theories of Origin. + +Until recently many eminent scientists held the theory that the Malayan +peoples were merely an offspring of the Mongol stock, and that their +advance into the lands they now inhabit had taken place from the cradle +of the Mongolian race--that is to say, from the north. In the fifth +edition of his _Malay Archipelago_, A. R. Wallace notes the resemblance +which he traced between the Malays and the Mongolians, and others have +recorded similar observations as to the physical appearance of the two +races. To-day, however, fuller data are available than when Wallace +wrote, and the more generally accepted theory is that the Malayan race +is distinct, and came from the south, until it was stayed by the +Mongolian races living on the mainland of southern Asia. The cranial +measurements of the Malays and an examination of their hair sections +seem to bear out the theory that they are distinct from the Mongolian +races. Their language, which is neither monosyllabic nor tonic, has +nothing in common with that of the Mon-Annam group. It has, moreover, +been pointed out that had the Malays been driven southwards by the +stronger races of the mainland of Asia, it might be expected that the +people inhabiting the country nearest to the border between Siam and +Malaya would belong to the Malayan and not to the Mon-Annam or Mon-Khmer +stock. As a matter of fact the Sâkai of the interior of the peninsula +belong to the latter race. It might also be anticipated, were the theory +of a southward immigration to be sustained, that the Malays would be +new-comers in the islands of the archipelago, and have their oldest +settlements on the Malayan Peninsula. The facts, however, are in exact +contradiction to this; and accordingly the theory now most generally +held by those who have studied the question is that the Malays form a +distinct race, and had their original home in the south. Where this home +lay it is not easy to say, but the facts recorded by many writers as to +the resemblance between the Polynesian and the Malayan races, and the +strong Malayan element found in the languages of the former (see +Tregear's _Maori and Comparative Polynesian Dictionary_, London, 1891), +have led some students to think that the two races may have had a common +origin. John Crawfurd, in the Dissertation to his _Dictionary of the +Malay Language_, published in 1840, noted the prevalence of Malayan +terms in the Polynesian languages, and attributed the fact to the +casting away of ships manned by Malays upon the islands of the +Polynesian Archipelago. The appearance of the same Malayan words in +localities so widely separated from each other, however, cannot be +satisfactorily accounted for by any such explanation, and the theory is +now more generally held that the two races are probably allied and may +at some remote period of history have shared a common home. It has been +suggested that their separation did not take place until after the +continent which once existed in the north Pacific had become submerged, +and that the Malays wandered northward, while the Polynesian race spread +itself over the islands of the southern archipelago. All this, however, +must necessarily be of the nature of the purest speculation, and the +only facts which we are able to deduce in the present state of our +knowledge of the subject may be summed up as follows: (a) That the +Malays ethnologically belong to a race which is allied to the +Polynesians; (b) that the theory formerly current to the effect that the +Sakai and other similar races of the peninsula and archipelago belonged +to the Malayan stock cannot be maintained, since recent investigations +tend to identify them with the Mon-Annam or Mon-Khmer family of races; +(c) that the Malays are, comparatively speaking, new-comers in the lands +which they now inhabit; (d) that it is almost certain that their +emigration took place from the south; (e) and that, at some remote +period of their history, they came into close contact with the +Polynesian race, probably before its dispersion over the extensive area +which it now occupies. + + + Religion and Superstitions. + + The Malays to-day are Sunni Mahommedans of the school of Shafi'i, and + they habitually use the terms _Orang Malayu_, i.e. a Malay, and _Orang + Islam_, i.e. a Mahommedan, as synonymous expressions. Their conversion + from paganism took place during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries of + our era. The raja of Achin, in northern Sumatra, is said to have been + converted as early as 1206, while the Bugis people in Celebes are + supposed not to have become Mahommedans until 1495. Mahommedanism + undoubtedly spread to the Malays of the peninsula from Sumatra, but + their conversion was slow and gradual, and may even now in some + respects be regarded as imperfect. Upon the bulk of the Malayan + peoples their religion sits but lightly. Few are found to observe the + law concerning the Five Hours of Prayer, and many fail to put in an + appearance at the Friday congregational services in the mosques. The + Fast of Ramadhan, however, is generally observed with some + faithfulness. Compared with other Mahommedan peoples, the Malays are + not fanatical, though occasionally an outbreak against those of a + different creed is glorified by them into a holy war. The reason of + such outbreaks, however, is usually to be found in political and + social rather than in religious grievances. Prior to their conversion + to Mahommedanism the Malays were subjected to a considerable Hindu + influence, which reached them by means of the traders who visited the + archipelago from India. In the islands of Bali and Lombok the people + still profess a form of Hinduism, and Hindu remains are to be found in + many other parts of the archipelago, though their traces do not extend + to the peninsula. Throughout, however, the superstitions of the Malays + show indications of this Hindu influence, and many of the demons whom + their medicine-men invoke in their magic practices are clearly + borrowed from the pantheon of India. For the rest, a substratum of + superstitious beliefs, which survives from the days when the Malays + professed only their natural religion, is to be found firmly rooted in + the minds of the people, and the influence of Mahommedanism, which + regards such things with horror, has been powerless to eradicate this. + Mr W. W. Skeat's _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900) is a compilation of all + the writings on the subject of Malay superstitions by the best + authorities and contains considerable original matter. + + + Mode of Life, &c. + + The Malays of the coast are a maritime people, and were long famous + for the daring character of their acts of piracy. They are now + peaceable fisher-folk, who show considerable ingenuity in their + calling. Inland the Malays live by preference on the banks of rivers, + building houses on piles some feet from the ground, and planting + groves of coco-nut, betel-nut, sugar-palm and fruit-trees around their + dwellings. Behind their villages the rice-fields usually spread, and + rice, which is the staple food of the people, is the principal article + of agriculture among them. Sugar-cane, maize, tapioca and other + similar products are grown, however, in smaller quantities. In + planting rice three methods are in use: the cultivation of swamp-rice + in irrigated fields; the planting of ploughed areas; and the planting + of hill-rice by sowing each grain separately in holes bored for the + purpose. In the irrigated fields the rice plants are first grown in + nurseries, and are subsequently transplanted when they have reached a + certain stage of development. The Malays also work jungle produce, of + which the most important are gutta, rattans, agila wood, camphor wood, + and the beautiful _kamuning_ wood which is used by the natives for the + hilts of their weapons. The principal manufactures of the Malays are + cotton and silk cloths, earthenware and silver vessels, mats and + native weapons. The best cotton cloths are those manufactured by the + Bugis people in Celebes, and the _batek_ cloths which come from Java + and are stamped with patterns. The best silks are produced by the + natives of Pahang, Kelantan and Johor in the Malay Peninsula. Lord + Leighton pronounced the silver ware from Malaya to be the most + artistic of any exhibited at the Colonial Exhibition held in London in + 1886. The pottery of the Malays is rude but curious. When the first + Europeans visited the Malay Archipelago the Malays had already + acquired the art of manufacturing gunpowder and forging cannon. The + art of writing also appears to have been independently invented by the + Malayan races, since numerous alphabets are in use among the peoples + of the archipelago, although for the writing of Malay itself the + Arabic character has been adopted for some hundreds of years. The + Malays are excellent boat-builders. + + + Character, &c. + + While the Malays were famous almost exclusively for their piratical + expeditions they naturally bore an evil reputation among Europeans, + but now that we have come into closer contact with them, and have + learned to understand them better, the old opinions concerning them + have been greatly modified. They used to be described as the most + cruel and treacherous people in the world, and they certainly are + callous of the pain suffered by others, and regard any strategy of + which their enemies are the victims with open admiration. In ordinary + circumstances, however, the Malay is not treacherous, and there are + many instances recorded in which men of this race have risked their + own lives on behalf of Europeans who chanced to be their friends. As a + race they are exceedingly courteous and self-respecting. Their own + code of manners is minute and strict, and they observe its provisions + faithfully. Unlike many Orientals, the Malays can be treated with a + friendly familiarity without such treatment breeding lack of respect + or leading to liberties being taken with the superior. The Malays are + indolent, pleasure-loving, improvident beyond belief, fond of bright + clothing, of comfort, of ease, and they dislike toil exceedingly. They + have no idea of the value of money, and little notion of honesty where + money is concerned. They would always borrow rather than earn money, + and they feel no shame in adopting the former course. They will + frequently refuse to work for a wage when they most stand in need of + cash, and yet at the invitation of one who is their friend they will + toil unremittingly without any thought of reward. They are much + addicted to gambling, and formerly were much given to fighting, though + they never display that passion for war in the abstract which is + characteristic of some of the white races, and their courage on the + whole is not high if judged by European standards. It is notorious, + however, on the coasts that a Malay gang on board a ship invariably + gets the better of any fight which may arise between it and the + Chinese crew. The sexual morality of the Malays is very lax, but + prostitution is not common in consequence. Polygamy, though allowed by + their religion, is practised for the most part among the wealthy + classes only. The Malays are an intensely aristocratic people, and + show a marvellous loyalty to their rajas and chiefs. Their respect for + rank is not marred by any vulgarity or snobbery. The ruling classes + among them display all the vices of the lower classes, and few of the + virtues except that of courtesy. They are for the most part, when + left to their own resources, cruel, unjust, selfish and improvident. + + Much has been written concerning the acts of homicidal mania called + amuck (_amok_), which word in the vernacular means to attack. It was + formerly believed that these outbursts were to be attributed to + madness _pur et simple_, and some cases of _amok_ can certainly be + traced to this source. These are not, however, in any sense typical, + and might equally have been perpetrated by men of another race. The + typical _amok_ is usually the result of circumstances which render a + Malay desperate. The motive is often inadequate from the point of view + of a European, but to the Malay it is sufficient to make him weary of + life and anxious to court death. Briefly, where a man of another race + might not improbably commit suicide, a Malay runs _amok_, killing all + whom he may meet until he himself is slain. + + The nervous affliction called _latah_, to which many Malays are + subject, is also a curious trait of the people. The victims of this + affliction lose for the time all self-control and all sense of their + own identity, imitating the actions of any person who chances to rivet + their attention. Accounts of these manifestations will be found in + Swettenham's _Malay Sketches_ (London, 1895) and Clifford's _Studies + in Brown Humanity_ (London, 1897). + + + Costume, Weapons, &c. + + The Malays wear a loose coat and trousers, and a cap or head-kerchief, + but the characteristic item of their costume is the _sarong_, a silk + or cotton cloth about two yards long by a yard and a quarter wide, the + ends of which are sewn together, forming a kind of skirt. This is worn + round the waist folded in a knot, the women allowing it to fall to the + ankle, the men, when properly dressed in accordance with ancient + custom, folding it over the hilt of their waist-weapon, and draping it + around them so that it reaches nearly to the knee. In the hall of a + raja on state occasions a head-kerchief twisted into a peak is worn, + and the coat is furnished with a high collar extending round the back + of the neck only. This coat is open in front, leaving the chest bare. + The trousers are short and of a peculiar cut and material, being + coloured many hues in parallel horizontal lines. The _sarong_ is of + Celebes manufacture and made of cotton, to the surface of which a high + polish is imparted by friction with a shell. The typical fighting + costume of the Malay is a sleeveless jacket with texts from the Koran + written upon it, short tight drawers reaching to the middle of the + thigh, and the _sarong_ is then bound tightly around the waist, + leaving the hilt of the dagger worn in the girdle exposed to view. The + principal weapon of the Malays is the _kris_, a short dagger with a + small wooden or ivory handle, of which there are many varieties. The + blade of a _kris_ may either be wavy or straight, but if wavy the + number of waves must always be uneven in number. The _kris_ most + prized by the Malays are those of Bugis (Celebes) manufacture, and of + these the kind called _tuasek_ are of the greatest value. Besides the + short _kris_, the Malays use long straight _kris_ with very narrow + blades, shorter straight _kris_ of the same form, short broad swords + called _sundang_, long swords of ordinary pattern called _pedang_, + somewhat shorter swords curved like scimitars with curiously carved + handles called _chenangkas_, and short stabbing daggers called _tumbok + lada_. The principal tools of the Malays are the _parang_ or _gôlok_, + a heavy knife used in the jungle, without which no peasant ever stirs + abroad from his house, the _beliong_ or native axe, and the _pisau + raut_, which is used for scraping rattan. Their implements are very + primitive, consisting of a plough fashioned from a fork of a tree, and + a rude harrow. Reaping is usually performed by the aid of a curious + little knife which severs each ear of grain separately. The + fisher-folk use many kinds of nets, which they manufacture themselves. + Sails, paddles, oars and punting-poles are all in use. + + + MALAY LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE + + The Malay language is a member of the Malayan section of the + Malayo-Polynesian class of languages, but it is by no means a + representative type of the section which has taken its name from it. + The area over which it is spoken comprises the peninsula of Malacca + with the adjacent islands (the Rhio-Lingga Archipelago), the greater + part of the coast districts of Sumatra and Borneo, the seaports of + Java, the Sunda and Banda Islands. It is the general medium of + communication throughout the archipelago from Sumatra to the + Philippine Islands, and it was so upwards of three hundred and fifty + years ago when the Portuguese first appeared in those parts. + + There are no Malay manuscripts extant, no monumental records with + inscriptions in Malay, dating from before the spreading of Islam in + the archipelago, about the end of the 13th century. By some it has + been argued from this fact that the Malays possessed no kind of + writing prior to the introduction of the Arabic alphabet (W. Robinson, + J. J. de Hollander); whereas others have maintained, with greater show + of probability, that the Malays were in possession of an ancient + alphabet, and that it was the same as the Rechang (Marsden, + Friederich), as the Kawi (Van der Tuuk), or most like the Lampong + (Kern)--all of which alphabets, with the Battak, Bugi and Macassar, + are ultimately traceable to the ancient Cambojan characters. With the + Mahommedan conquest the Perso-Arabic alphabet was introduced among the + Malays; it has continued ever since to be in use for literary, + religious and business purposes. Where Javanese is the principal + language, Malay is sometimes found written with Javanese characters; + and in Palembang, in the Menangkabo country of Middle Sumatra, the + Rechang or Renchong characters are in general use, so called from the + sharp and pointed knife with which they are cut on the smooth side of + bamboo staves. It is only since the Dutch have established their + supremacy in the archipelago that the Roman character has come to be + largely used in writing and printing Malay. This is also the case in + the Straits Settlements. + + By the simplicity of its phonetic elements, the regularity of its + grammatical structure, and the copiousness of its nautical vocabulary, + the Malay language is singularly well fitted to be the _lingua franca_ + throughout the Indian archipelago. It possesses the five vowels _a_, + _i_, _u_, _e_, _o_, both short and long, and one pure diphthong, _au_. + Its consonants are _k_, _g_, _ng_, _ch_, _j_, _ñ_, _t_, _d_, _n_, _p_, + _b_, _m_, _y_, _r_, _l_, _w_, _s_, _h_. Long vowels can only occur in + open syllables. The only possible consonantal nexus in purely Malay + words is that of a nasal and mute, a liquid and mute and vice versa, + and a liquid and nasal. Final _k_ and _h_ are all but suppressed in + the utterance. Purely Arabic letters are only used in Arabic words, a + great number of which have been received into the Malay vocabulary. + But the Arabic character is even less suited to Malay than to the + other Eastern languages on which it has been foisted. As the short + vowels are not marked, one would, in seeing, e.g. the word _bntng_, + think first of _bintang_, a star; but the word might also mean a large + scar, to throw down, to spread, rigid, mutilated, enceinte, a kind of + cucumber, a redoubt, according as it is pronounced, _bantang_, + _banting_, _bentang_, _buntang_, _buntung_, _bunting_, _bonteng_, + _benteng_. + + Malay is essentially, with few exceptions, a dissyllabic language, and + the syllabic accent rests on the penultimate unless that syllable is + open and short; e.g. datang, namaña, besár, diumpatkanñalah. Nothing + in the form of a root word indicates the grammatical category to which + it belongs; thus, _kasih_, kindness, affectionate, to love; _ganti_, a + proxy, to exchange, instead of. It is only in derivative words that + this vagueness is avoided. Derivation is effected by infixes, + prefixes, affixes and reduplication. Infixes occur more rarely in + Malay than in the cognate tongues. Examples are--_guruh_, a rumbling + noise, _gumuruh_, to make such a noise; _tunjuk_, to point, + _telunjuk_, the forefinger; _chuchuk_, to pierce, _cheruchuk_, a + stockade. The import of the prefixes--me (meng, meñ, men, mem), pe + (peng, peñ, pen, pem ber (bel), per, pel, ka, di, ter,--and + affixes--an, kan, i, lah--will best appear from the following + examples--root word _ajar_, to teach, to learn; _mengajar_, to + instruct (expresses an action); _bleajar_, to study (state or + condition); _mengajari_, to instruct (some one, trans.); + _mengajarkan_, to instruct (in something, causative); _pengajar_, the + instructor; _pelajar_, the learner; _pengajaran_, the lesson taught, + also the school; _pelajaran_, the lesson learnt; _diajar_, to be + learnt; _terajar_, learnt; _terajarkan_, taught; _terajari_, + instructed; _[peraja_ (from _raja_, prince), to recognize as prince; + _perajakan_, to crown as prince; karajaan, royalty]; _ajarkanlah_, + teach! Examples of reduplication are--_ajar-ajar_, a sainted person; + _ajar-berajar_ (or _belajar_), to be learning and teaching by turns; + similarly there are forms like _ajar-mengajar_, _berajar-ajaran_, + _ajar-ajari_, _memperajar_, _memperajarkan_, _memperajari_, + _terbelajarkan_, _perbelajarkan_, &c. Altogether there are upwards of + a hundred possible derivative forms, in the idiomatic use of which the + Malays exhibit much skill. See especially H. von Dewall, _De + vormveranderingen der Maleische taal_ (Batavia, 1864) and I. + Pijnappel, _Maleisch-Hollandsch Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam, 1875), + "Inleiding." In every other respect the language is characterized by + great simplicity and indefiniteness. There is no inflexion to + distinguish number, gender or case. Number is never indicated when the + sense is obvious or can be gathered from the context; otherwise + plurality is expressed by adjectives such as _sagala_, all, and + _bañak_, many; more rarely by the repetition of the noun, and the + indefinite singular by _sa_ or _satu_, one, with a class-word. Gender + may, if necessary, be distinguished by the words _laki-laki_, male, + and _perampuan_, female, in the case of persons, and of _jantan_ and + _betina_ in the case of animals. The genitive case is generally + indicated by the position of the word after its governing noun. Also + adjectives and demonstrative pronouns have their places after the + noun. Comparison is effected by the use of particles. Instead of the + personal pronouns, both in their full and abbreviated forms, + conventional nouns are in frequent use to indicate the social position + or relation of the respective interlocutors, as, e.g. _hamba tuan_, + the master's slave, i.e. I. These nouns vary according to the + different localities. Another peculiarity of Malay (and likewise of + Chinese, Shan, Talaing, Burmese and Siamese) is the use of certain + class-words or coefficients with numerals, such as _orang_ (man), when + speaking of persons, _ekor_ (tail) of animals, _keping_ (piece) of + flat things, _biji_ (seed) of roundish things; e.g. _lima biji, + telor_, five eggs. The number of these class-words is considerable. + Malay verbs have neither person or number nor mood or tense. The last + two are sometimes indicated by particles or auxiliary verbs; but these + are generally dispensed with if the meaning is sufficiently plain + without them. The Malays avoid the building up of long sentences. The + two main rules by which the order of the words in a sentence is + regulated are--subject, verb, object; and qualifying words follow + those which they qualify. This is quite the reverse of what is the + rule in Burmese. + + The history of the Malays amply accounts for the number and variety of + foreign ingredients in their language. Hindus appear to have settled + in Sumatra and Java as early as the 4th century of our era, and to + have continued to exercise sway over the native populations for many + centuries. These received from them into their language a very large + number of Sanskrit terms, from which we can infer the nature of the + civilizing influence imparted by the Hindu rulers. Not only in words + concerning commerce and agriculture, but also in terms connected with + social, religious and administrative matters that influence is + traceable in Malay. See W. E. Maxwell, _Manual of the Malay Language_ + (1882), pp. 5-34, where this subject is treated more fully than by + previous writers. This Sanskrit element forms such an integral part of + the Malay vocabulary that in spite of the subsequent infusion of + Arabic and Persian words adopted in the usual course of Mahommedan + conquest it has retained its ancient citizenship in the language. The + number of Portuguese, English, Dutch and Chinese words in Malay is not + considerable; their presence is easily accounted for by political or + commercial contact. + + The Malay language abounds in idiomatic expressions, which constitute + the chief difficulty in its acquisition. It is sparing in the use of + personal pronouns, and prefers impersonal and elliptical diction. As + it is rich in specific expressions for the various aspects of certain + ideas, it is requisite to employ always the most appropriate term + suited to the particular aspect. In Maxwell's _Manual_, pp. 120 seq., + no less than sixteen terms are given to express the different kinds of + striking, as many for the different kinds of speaking, eighteen for + the various modes of carrying, &c. An unnecessary distinction has been + made between _High Malay_ and _Low Malay_. The latter is no separate + dialect at all, but a mere brogue or jargon, the medium of intercourse + between illiterate natives and Europeans too indolent to apply + themselves to the acquisition of the language of the people; its + vocabulary is made up of Malay words, with a conventional admixture of + words from other languages; and it varies, not only in different + localities, but also in proportion to the individual speaker's + acquaintance with Malay proper. A few words are used, however, only in + speaking with persons of royal rank--e.g. _santap_, to eat (of a raja) + instead of _makan_; _beradu_, to sleep, instead of ti_dor_; _gring_, + unwell, instead of _sakit_; _mangkat_, to die, instead of _mati_, &c. + The use is different as regards the term _Jawi_ as applied to the + Malay language. This has its origin in the names Great Java and Lesser + Java, by which the medieval Java and Sumatra were called, and it + accordingly means the language spoken along the coasts of the two + great islands. + + + Literature. + + The Malays cannot, strictly speaking, be said to possess a literature, + for none of their writings can boast any literary beauty or value. + Their most characteristic literature is to be found, not in their + writings, but in the folk-tales which are transmitted orally from + generation to generation, and repeated by the wandering minstrels + called by the people _Peng-lipor Lara_, i.e. "Soothers of Care." Some + specimens of these are to be found in the _Journal of the Straits + Branch of the Asiatic Society_ (Singapore). The collections of _Malay + Proberbs_ made by Klinkert, Maxwell and Clifford also give a good idea + of the literary methods of the Malays. Their verse is of a very + primitive description, and is chiefly used for purposes of + love-making. There are numerous rhymed fairy tales, which are much + liked by the people, but they are of no literary merit. The best Malay + books are the _Hikayat Hang Tuak_, _Bestamam_ and the _Hikayat + Abdullah_. The latter is a diary of events kept during Sir Stamford + Raffle's administration by his Malay scribe. + + AUTHORITIES.--Hugh Clifford, _In Court and Kampong_ (London, 1897); + _Studies in Brown Humanity_ (London, 1898); _In a Corner of Asia_ + (London, 1899); _Bush-whacking_ (London 1901); Clifford and + Swettenham, _Dictionary of the Malay Language_, parts i. to v. A-G. + Taiping (Perak, 1894-1898); John Crawfurd, _History of the Indian + Archipelago_ (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1820); _Grammar and Dictionary of + the Malay Language_ (2 vols., London, 1852); _A Descriptive Dictionary + of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries_ (London, 1856); _Journal + of the Indian Archipelago_ (12 vols., Singapore, 1847-1862); _Journal + of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 33 Nos. + (Singapore, 1878-1900); H. C. Klinkert, _Nieuw Maleisch-Nederlandisch + Woordenboek_ (Leiden, 1893); John Leyden, _Malay Annals_ (London, + 1821); William Marsden, _The History of Sumatra_ (London, 1811); + _Malay Dictionary_ (London, 1824); Sir William Maxwell, _A Manual of + the Malay Language_ (London, 1888); T. J. Newbold, _Political and + Statistical Account of the British Settlements in the Straits of + Malacca_; W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900); Skeat and + Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ (London, 1906); Sir + Frank Swettenham, _Malay Sketches_ (London, 1895); _The Real Malay_ + (London, 1899); _British Malaya_ (London, 1906); H. von-de Wall, + edited by H. N. van der Tuuk, _Maleisch-Nederlandisch Woordenboek_ + (Batavia, 1877-1880); _Malay Dictionary_ (Singapore, 1903), Wilkinson. + (H. Cl.) + + + + +MALAY STATES (BRITISH). The native states of the Malay Peninsula under +British protection are divided into two groups: (1) federated, and (2) +non-federated. + + +I.--FEDERATED STATES + +The federated states, under the protection of Great Britain, but not +British possessions, are Perak, Selangor and the confederation of small +states known as the Negri Sembilan (i.e. Nine States) on the west +coast, and the state of Pahang on the east coast. Each state is under +the rule of a sultan, who is assisted in his legislative duties by a +state council, upon which the resident, and in some cases the secretary +to the resident, has a seat, and which is composed of native chiefs and +one or more Chinese members nominated by the sultan with the advice and +consent of the resident. The council, in addition to legislative and +other duties, revises all sentences of capital punishment. The +administrative work of each state is carried on by the resident and his +staff of European officials, whose ranks are recruited by successful +candidates in the competitive examinations held annually by the Civil +Service commissioners. The sultan of each state is bound by treaty with +the British government to accept the advice of the resident, who is thus +practically paramount; but great deference is paid to the opinions and +wishes of the sultans and their chiefs, and the British officials are +pledged not to interfere with the religious affairs of the Mahommedan +community. In the actual administration of the Malay population great +use is made of the native aristocratic system, the peasants being +governed largely by their own chiefs, headmen and village elders, under +the close supervision of British district officers. The result is a +benevolent autocracy admirably adapted to local conditions and to the +character and traditions of the people. A recognition of the fact that +the welfare of the Malays, who are the people of the land and whose +sultans have never ceded their territories to the British, must be +regarded as the first consideration has been the guiding principle of +the administration of the Malay States, and this has resulted in an +extraordinary amelioration of the condition of the natives, which has +proceeded concurrently with a notable development of the country and its +resources, mineral and agricultural. To the work of development, +however, the Malays have themselves contributed little, sound +administration having been secured by the British officials, enterprise +and capital having been supplied mainly by the Chinese, and the labour +employed being almost entirely Chinese or Tamil. Meanwhile the Malays +have improved their ancestral holdings, have enjoyed a peace and a +security to which their past history furnishes no parallel, have +obtained easy access to new and important markets for their agricultural +produce, and for the rest have been suffered to lead the lives best +suited to their characters and their desires. Each principal department +of the administration has its federal head, and all the residents +correspond with and are controlled by the resident-general, who, in his +turn, is responsible to the high commissioner, the governor of the +Straits Settlements for the time being. + + The estimated aggregate area of the Federated Malay States is 28,000 + sq. m., and the estimated population in 1905 was 860,000, as against + 678,595 in 1901. Of these only about 230,000 are Malays. The revenue + of the federation in 1905 was $23,964,593 (about £2,795,000), and the + expenditure was $20,750,395 (about £2,460,000). The imports for the + same year were valued at $50,575,455 (about £5,900,000), and the + exports at $80,057,654 (about £9,340,000), making a total trade of + nearly 15¼ millions sterling. The principal sources of revenue are an + export duty on tin, the rents paid for the revenue farms of the right + to collect import duties on opium, wine and spirits, and to keep + licensed gambling-houses for the exclusive use of the Chinese + population, railway receipts, land and forest revenue and postal + revenue. The tin is won from large alluvial deposits found in the + states of the western seaboard, and the mines are worked almost + exclusively by Chinese capital and labour. Since 1889 the Federated + Malay States have produced considerably more than half the tin of the + world. Recently there has been a great development in agricultural + enterprise, especially with regard to rubber, which is now grown in + large quantities, the estates being mainly in the hands of Europeans, + and the labour mostly Tamil. The states are opened up by over 2500 m. + of some of the best metalled cart-roads in the world, and by a railway + system, 350 m. of which, extending from the mainland opposite Penang + to the ancient town of Malacca, are open to traffic. Another 150 m. of + railway is under construction. The government offices at Kuala Lumpor, + the federal capital of the states, are among the finest buildings of + the kind in Asia. The whole of this extraordinary development, it + should be noted, has been effected by careful, sound and wise + administration coupled with a courageous and energetic policy of + expenditure upon public works. Throughout, not one penny of debt has + been incurred, the roads, railways, &c., being constructed entirely + from current balances. This of course has only been rendered possible + by the extraordinary mineral wealth which the states on the western + seaboard have developed in the hands of Chinese miners amid the peace + and security which British rule has brought to these once lawless + lands. The value of the tin output for the year 1905 amounted to + $69,460,993 (£8,104,199). Although agricultural enterprise in the + Malay States is assuming considerable proportions and a growing + importance, the total value of the principal agricultural products, + including timber, for the year 1905 only aggregated $2,435,513 + (£289,143). + + The whole of the Malay Peninsula is one vast forest, through which + flow countless streams that form one of the most lavish water-systems + in the world. The rivers, though many of them are of imposing + appearance and of considerable length, are uniformly shallow, only a + few on the west coast being navigable by ships for a distance of some + 40 m. from their mouths. In spite of the notable development above + referred to, only a very small fraction of the entire area of the + states has as yet been touched either by mining or agricultural + enterprise. It is not too much to assert that the larger half of the + forest-lands has never been trodden by the foot of man. (For + information concerning the botany, geology, &c., of the Malay States + see MALAY PENINSULA. For the ethnology see MALAYS.) + +PERAK is situated between the parallels 3° 37´ and 6° 5´ N. and 100° 3´ +to 101° 51´ E. on the western side of the Malay Peninsula. It is bounded +on the N. by the British possession of Province Wellesley and the Malay +state of Kedah; on the S. by the protected native state of Selangor; on +the E. by the protected native state of Pahang and the independent +states of Kelantan and Petani; and on the W. by the Straits of Malacca. +The coast-line is about 90 m. in length. The extreme distance from the +most northerly to the most southerly portions of the state is about 172 +m., and the greatest breadth from east to west is about 100 m. The total +area of the country is estimated at about 10,000 sq. m. + + The Perak river, which runs in a southerly direction almost parallel + with the coast for nearly 150 m. of its course, is navigable for small + steamers for about 40 m. from its mouth, and by native trading boats + for nearly 200 m. The Plus, Batang, Padang and Kinta rivers are its + principal tributaries, all of them falling into the Perak on its left + bank. The other principal rivers of the state are the Krian, Kurau, + Larut and Bruas to the north of the mouth of the Perak, and the Bernam + to the south. None of these rivers is of any great importance as a + waterway, although the Bernam River is navigable for small steamers + for nearly 100 m. of its course. The mountain ranges, which cover a + considerable area, run from the north-east to the south-west. The + highest altitudes attained by them do not exceed 7500 ft., but they + average about 2500 ft. They are all thickly covered with jungle. The + ranges are two, running parallel to one another, with the valley of + the Perak between them. The larger is a portion of the main chain, + which runs down the peninsula from north to south. The lesser is + situated in the district of Larut. There are several hill sanatoria in + the state at heights which vary from 2500 to 4700 ft. above sea-level, + but the extreme humidity of the atmosphere renders the coolness thus + obtainable the reverse of enjoyable. + + + Geology. + + Mr Leonard Wray, curator of the Perak museum, writes as follows on the + subject of the geological formation of the state: "There are really + only four formations represented--firstly, the granitic rocks; + secondly, a large series of beds of gneiss, quartzite, schist and + sandstone, overlaid in many places by thick beds of crystalline + limestone; thirdly, small sheets of trap rock; and fourthly, + river-gravels and other Quaternary deposits. The granites are of many + varieties, and also, in all probability, of several different + geological periods. The series of quartzites, schists, and limestone + are of great age, but as no fossils have ever been found in any of + them, nothing definite can be stated as to their exact chronological + position. Their lithological characteristics and the total absence of + all organic remains point to the Archaean period. The failure to + discover signs of life in them is, of course, merely negative + evidence, and the finding of a single fossil would at once upset it. + However, until this happens they may be conveniently classed as + Laurentian. It is at present impossible to form anything approaching + an accurate estimate of the thickness of this extensive series, but it + is probable that it is somewhere between 4000 and 5000 ft. + Unconformability has been noticed between the limestones and the beds + beneath, but whether this is sufficient to separate them or not is a + matter for future investigation.... The taller hills are exclusively + composed of granite, as also are some of the lower ones.... The ores + of the following metals have been found in the formations named: + Granite--tin, lead, iron, arsenic, tungsten and titanium; + Laurentian--tin, gold, lead, silver, iron, arsenic, copper, zinc, + tungsten, manganese and bismuth; Quaternary--tin, gold, copper, + tungsten, iron and titanium. This is not to be considered a complete + list, as small quantities of other metals have also been found." + + + History. + + The early history of Perak is obscure, the only information on the + subject being obtained from native traditions, which are altogether + untrustworthy. According to these authorities, however, a settlement + was first made by Malays in Perak at Bruas, and the capital was later + moved to the banks of the Perak River, the site chosen being a little + village called Temong, which lies some miles up stream from Kuala + Kangsar, the present residence of the sultan. When the Malacca + sultanate fell, owing to the invasion of the Portuguese in 1511, a + member of that royal house is said to have migrated to Perak, and the + present dynasty claims to have been descended from him. As this boast + is also made by almost every ruling family in the peninsula, the + tradition is not worthy of any special attention. What is more certain + is the tradition that Perak was twice invaded by the Achinese, and its + rulers carried off into captivity, one of them, Sultan Mansur Shah, + subsequently becoming the ruler of Achin. The first European + settlement in Perak was made by the Dutch in 1650, under a treaty + entered into with the Achinese, but the natives of the country rose + against the Dutch again and again, and it was abandoned in 1783, + though it was afterwards reoccupied, the Dutch being finally ejected + by the British in 1795. In 1818 the Siamese conquered Perak, but its + independence was secured by a treaty between the British and Siamese + governments in 1824. From that date until 1874 Perak was ruled by its + own sultans, but in that year, owing to internal strife, Sultan + Abdullah applied to the then governor of the Straits Settlements, Sir + Andrew Clarke, for the assistance of a British Resident. The treaty of + Pangkor was concluded on the 20th of January 1874, and the first + resident, Mr J. W. W. Birch, was murdered on the 2nd of November 1875. + A punitive expedition became necessary; sultan Abdullah and the other + chiefs concerned in the murder were banished, the actual murderers + were hanged, and Raja Muda Jusuf was declared regent. He died in 1888, + and was succeeded by the sultan Raja Idris, K.C.M.G., a most + enlightened ruler, who was from the first a strong and intelligent + advocate of British methods of administration. Sir Hugh Low was + appointed resident, a position which he held until 1889, when he was + succeeded by Sir Frank Swettenham. Since then the history of Perak has + been one of continuous peace and growing prosperity and wealth. + Although the federal capital is Kuala Lumpor in Selangor, Perak still + enjoys the honour of being the senior and leading state of the + federation. + + + Population. + + By the census taken on the 5th of April 1891 the population of Perak + was shown to be as follows: Europeans, 366; Eurasians, Jews and + Armenians, 293; Malays, 96,719; Chinese, 94,345; Tamils, 13,086; + aborigines, 5779; other nationalities, 3666; thus making a grand total + of 214,254, of whom 156,408 were males and 57,846 were females. The + estimated population in 1905 was 400,000, of whom 200,000 were Chinese + and 160,000 were Malays, but owing to the disparity of the proportions + between the sexes the deaths in each year largely outnumber the + births, and the increase in the population is accounted for solely by + the number of immigrants, chiefly from the mainland of China, and to a + lesser extent from India also. + + The revenue of Perak in 1874 amounted to $226,333. That for 1905 + amounted to $12,242,897. Of this latter sum $4,876,400 was derived + from duty on exported tin, $2,489,300 from railway receipts, $505,300 + from land revenue and $142,800 from postal and telegraphic revenue. + The remainder is mainly derived from the revenue farms, which are + leased to Chinese capitalists for a short term of years, conveying to + the lessee the right to collect import duties upon opium, wine and + spirits, to keep pawnbroking shops, and to keep public licensed + gambling-houses for the use of Chinese only. The expenditure for 1905 + amounted to $10,141,980. Of this sum $4,236,000 was expended upon + railway upkeep and construction and $2,176,100 upon public works. The + value of the imports into Perak during 1905 was over $20,000,000, and + that of the exports exceeded $40,000,000, making a total of over + $60,000,000, equivalent to about seven million sterling. The output of + tin from Perak ranged between 18,960 tons, valued at $23,099,506 in + 1899, and 26,600 tons, valued at $35,500,000, in 1905. The fluctuating + character of the output is due, not to any exhaustion of the mineral + deposits of the state--that is not to be anticipated for many years + yet to come--but to the uncertainty of the labour supply. The mining + population is recruited exclusively from the districts of southern + China, and during certain years an increased demand for labourers in + China itself, in French Indo-China, in the Dutch colonies, and in + South Africa temporarily and adversely affected immigration to the + Straits of Malacca. The output has, moreover, been affected from time + to time by the price of tin, which was $32.20 per pikul in 1896, rose + to $42.96 in 1898, to $74.15 in 1900, and averaged $80.60 in 1905. + Exclusive of tin, the principal exports were $108,000 worth of Para + rubber, $181,000 of copra, $54,000 of hides, $48,000 of patchouli, and + considerable quantities of timber, rattans and other jungle produce. + The agricultural development of the state is still in its infancy, but + rubber is cultivated in rapidly increasing areas, and the known + fertility of the soil, the steady and regular rainfall, the excellent + means of communication, and the natural and artificial conditions of + the country, justify the expectation that the future of Perak as an + agricultural country will be prosperous. + + + General. + + Although so much has been done to develop the resources of Perak, by + far the greater portion of the state is still covered by dense and + virgin forest. In 1898 it was calculated that only 330,249 acres of + land were occupied or cultivated out of a total acreage of 6,400,000. + The area of agricultural holdings has notably increased, but a + considerable period must yet elapse before it will amount to even + one-tenth of the whole. A line of railway connects the port of Teluk + Anson with the great mining district of Kinta, whence the line runs, + crossing the Perak River at Enggor, to Kuala Kangsar, the residence of + the sultan, thence to Taiping, the administrative capital of the + state, and via Krian to a point opposite to the island of Penang. A + second line runs south from Perak and connects with the railway system + of Selangor, which in its turn connects with the Negri Sembilan and + Malacca line, thus giving through railway communication between the + last-named town and Penang. Perak also possesses some 600 miles of + excellent metalled cart-road, and the length of completed road is + annually increasing. + + For administrative purposes the state is divided into six districts: + Upper Perak, Kuala Kangsar and Lower Perak, on the Perak River; Kinta; + Batany Padang and Larut and Krian. Of these, Larut and Kinta are the + principal mining centres, while Krian is the most prosperous + agricultural district. The districts on the Perak River are mostly + peopled by Malays. The administrative capital is Taiping, the chief + town of Larut. Kuala Kangsar is chiefly memorable as having been the + scene of the first federal meeting of native chiefs, who, with the + British Residents from each state, met together in 1897 for friendly + discussion of their common interests for the first time in history, + under the auspices of the high commissioner, Sir Charles H. B. + Mitchell. This, in the eyes of those who are acquainted with the + character of the Malays and of the relations which formerly subsisted + between the rulers of the various states, is perhaps the most signal + token of the changes which British influence has wrought in the + peninsula. + +SELANGOR is situated between the parallels 2° 32´ and 3° 37´ N. and 100° +38´ and 102° E., on the western side of the Malay Peninsula. It is +bounded on the N. by the protected native state of Perak, on the S. by +the protected states of the Negri Sembilan, on the E. by Pahang and the +Negri Sembilan, and on the W. by the Straits of Malacca. The coast-line +is about 100 m. in length, greatest length about 104 m., and greatest +breadth about 48 m., total area estimated at about 3000 sq. m. + + The state consists of a narrow strip of land between the mountain + range which forms the backbone of the peninsula and the Straits of + Malacca. Compared with other states in the peninsula, Selangor is + poorly watered. The principal rivers are the Selangor, the Klang and + the Langat. The principal port of the state is Port Swettenham, + situated at the mouth of the Klang River, and is connected with the + capital, Kuala Lumpor, by a railway. The geology of the state closely + resembles that of Perak. The state is possessed of most valuable + deposits of alluvial tin, and mining for this metal is the chief + industry of the population. Kuala Lumpor is also the federal capital + of the Malay States. + + + History. + + According to native tradition, the ruling house of Selangor is + descended from a Bugis raja, who, with two of his brothers, settled in + the state in 1718, the son of the youngest brother eventually becoming + ruler of the country. In 1783 the then sultan of Selangor joined with + the Iang-di-per-Tuan Muda of Riau in an unsuccessful attack upon the + Dutch who then held Malacca. In retaliation the Dutch, under Admiral + Van Braam, invaded Selangor and drove the sultan out of his country. + In 1785, aided by the Bendahara of Pahang, Sultan Ibrahim of Selangor + reconquered his state; but the Dutch blockaded his ports, and + eventually forced him to enter into a treaty whereby he consented to + acknowledge their sovereignty. The earliest British political + communication with Selangor began in 1818, when a commercial treaty + was concluded with the governor of Penang. In 1867 Sultan Abdul Samad + of Selangor appointed his son-in-law, Tungku Dia Udin, to be viceroy; + and this gave rise to a civil war which lasted almost without + intermission till 1873, when the enemies of Tungku Dia Udin were + finally vanquished, largely by the agency of the Bendahara of Pahang, + who, at the invitation of the governor of the Straits Settlements, + sent a warlike expedition to the assistance of the viceroy. In 1874 + the occurrence of an atrocious act of piracy off the mouth of the + Langat River led to the governor, Sir Andrew Clarke, appointing, at + the request of the sultan, a British Resident to aid him in the + administration of his kingdom. Since that date there has been no + further breach of the peace, and the prosperity of Selangor has + increased annually. + + By the census taken on the 5th of April 1891 the population of + Selangor was given at 81,592 souls, of whom 67,051 were males and only + 14,541 were females. The census taken on the 5th of April 1901 gave a + total population of 168,789 souls, of whom 136,823 were males and + 31,966 females. Of these 108,768 were Chinese, 33,997 were Malays, + 16,748 were Tamils, and only 487 were Europeans. The returns deal with + nearly a score of different nationalities. Since 1901 the population + has been much increased and now certainly exceeds 200,000 souls. Now, + however, that instead of a single port of entry there exist easy means + of access to the state by rail both from the north and the south, it + is no longer possible to estimate the annual increase by immigration + with any approach to accuracy. It will be noted that the inhabitants + of this erstwhile Malayan state were, even at the time of the census + of 1901, over 64% Chinese, while the Malays were little more than 20% + of the population. In Selangor, as elsewhere in the Malay Peninsula, + the deaths annually far outnumber the births recorded (e.g. in 1905 + births 8293, deaths 12,500). The disproportion of the female to the + male sections of the population is greater in Selangor than in any + other part of the colony or Malay States. The development of planting + enterprise in Selangor, and more especially the cultivation of rubber, + has led during recent years to the immigration of a considerable + number of Tamil coolies, but the Tamil population is still + insignificant as compared with the Chinese. + + + Finance, Trade, &c. + + The revenue of Selangor in 1875 amounted to only $115,656; in 1905 it + had increased to $8,857,793. Of this latter sum $3,195,318 was derived + from duty on tin exported, $1,972,628 from federal receipts, and + $340,360 from land revenue. The balance is chiefly derived from the + revenue farms, which include the right to collect import duty on opium + and spirits. The expenditure for 1905 amounted to $7,186,146, of which + sum $3,717,238 was on account of federal charges and $1,850,711 for + public works. The value of the imports in 1905 was $24,643,619 and + that of the exports was $26,683,316, making a total of $51,326,935, + equivalent to £5,988,000. Tin is the principal export. The amount + exported in 1905 was 17,254 tons. The total area of alienated mining + land at the end of 1905 amounted to 65,573 acres, and it was estimated + that over 60,000 Chinese were employed in the mines. + + The main trunk line of the Federated Malay States railways passes + through Selangor. It enters the state at Tanjong Malim on the Perak + boundary, runs southward through Kuala Lumpor and so into the Negri + Sembilan. It runs for 81 m. in Selangor territory. A branch line 27 m. + long connects Kuala Lumpor with Port Swettenham on the Klang Straits + where extensive wharves, capable of accommodating ocean-going vessels, + have been constructed. A second branch line, measuring rather more + than 4 m. in length, has been opened to traffic. It connects the caves + at Batu with Kuala Lumpor. Frequent communication is maintained by + steamer between Port Swettenham and Singapore, and by coasting vessels + between the former port and those on the shores of the Straits of + Malacca. All the principal places in the state are connected with one + another by telegraph. + + For administrative purposes Selangor is divided into six districts: + Kuala Lumpor, in which the capital and the principal tin-fields are + situated; Ulu Selangor, which is also a prosperous mining district; + Kuala Selangor, which is agricultural, and poorly populated by Malays; + Ulu Langat, mining and agricultural; Kuala Langat, the residence of + the late sultan Abdul Samad, agricultural; and Klang, the only + prosperous port of the state. Much money has been expended upon the + capital, Kuala Lumpor, which possesses some fine public buildings, + waterworks, &c., and where the principal residence of the + Resident-General is situated. In some sort Kuala Lumpor is the capital + not only of Selangor, but also of the whole federation. Its scenery is + very attractive. + +NEGRI SEMBILAN (the Nine States) is a federation of small native states +which is now treated as a single entity, being under the control of a +British Resident, and is situated between parallels 2° 28´ and 3° 18´ N. +and 101° 45´ and 102° 45´ E., on the western side of the Malay +Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the protected state of Pahang, on +the S. by the territory of Malacca, on the E. by Pahang and the +independent state of Johor, and on the W. by the Straits of Malacca. The +coast-line is about 28 m. in length, and the extreme distance from north +to south is 55 m., and that from east to west about 65 m. The estimated +area is about 3000 sq. m. Port Dickson, or Arang-Arang, is the only port +on the coast. It is connected with the capital, Seremban, by a railway +24 m. in length. Most of the states comprising the federation depend +largely for their prosperity upon agriculture, but in some of the +districts tin is being worked in considerable quantities, with good +results. + + + History. + + As is the case with the history of most Malayan states, much rests + upon no surer ground than tradition, in so far as the records of the + Negri Sembilan are concerned. At the same time the native story that + the states which now form the federation of the Negri Sembilan were + originally peopled by tribes of Sakai, or aborigines of the peninsula, + who descended from the mountains of the interior and peopled the + valleys, is supported by much corroborative evidence. Not only does + the Malay's contempt for the Sakai make it exceedingly unlikely that + the tradition, which is hardly a matter for pride, should have been + preserved if it were not true, but also many of the laws and customs + in force in these states are wholly foreign to those of the Malays, + and can plainly be traced to the aborigines. As an instance, the + custom of inheriting rank and property through the mother instead of + through the father may be mentioned. Tradition further relates that + towards the end of the 18th century a raja of the royal house of + Menangkabu came from Sumatra to rule over the federation of small + states, each of which continued to be governed in all its local + affairs by its own chief and by the village and other councils + sanctioned by ancient custom. The Sumatran raja took the title of + Iang-di-per-Tuan of Sri Menanti. Although they bore the name of the + "Nine States," only six seem to have belonged to the federation during + the time of which history speaks. These are Sri Menanti, Johol, + Tampin, Rembau, Jelebu, and Sungei Ujong. Later the two latter + separated themselves from the confederation. Ancient tradition says + that the names of the nine states were originally Klang, Jelebu, + Sungei Ujong, Johol, Segamat, Pasir Besar, Naning, Rembau and Jelai. + Of these Klang was annexed by Selangor, Segamat and Pasir Besar by + Johor, and Naning by Malacca. During the last years of the 18th + century the Iang-di-per-Tuan appointed an Iang-di-per-Tuan Muda to + rule Rembau, and the state of Tampin was created to provide for the + family of the new chief. In 1887 the governor of the Straits + Settlements sent Mr Martin Lister to the Negri Sembilan, which had + become disintegrated, and by his influence the ancient federal system + was revived under the control of a Resident appointed by the governor. + The states which formed this new confederation were Johol, Ulu Muar, + Jempol, Terachi, Inas, Gunong Pasir, Rembau, Tampin and Gemencheh. + Prior to this, in 1873, owing to a civil war in Sungei Ujong, Sir + Andrew Clarke sent a military force to that state, put an end to the + disturbances, and placed the country under the control of a British + Resident. Jelebu was taken under British protection in 1886, and was + thenceforth managed by a magistrate under the orders of the Resident + of Sungei Ujong. In 1896, when the federation of all the Malayan + states under British control was effected, Sungei Ujong and Jelebu + were reunited to the confederation of small states from which they had + so long been separated and the whole, under the old name of the Negri + Sembilan, or Nine States, was placed under one Resident. + + The population of the Negri Sembilan, which according to the census + taken in April 1891 was only 70,730, had increased to 96,028 by 1901, + and was estimated at 119,454 in 1905. Of these 46,500 are Chinese, + 65,000 Malays, 6700 Tamils, and 900 Europeans and Eurasians. The + births registered slightly exceed the deaths in number, there being a + large Malay population in the Negri Sembilan among whom the proportion + of women to men is fair, a condition of things not found in localities + where the inhabitants are mostly Chinese immigrants. + + + Finance and Trade. + + The revenue of the Negri Sembilan amounted to only $223,435 in 1888. + In 1898 it had increased to $701,334, in 1900 to $1,251,366, and in + 1905 to $2,335,534. The revenue for 1905 was derived mainly as + follows:--customs $1,268,602, land revenue $145,475, land sales + $21,407, while the revenue farms contributed $584,459. The expenditure + in 1905 amounted to $2,214,093, of which $1,125,355 was expended upon + public works. The trade returns for 1905, which are not, however, + complete, show an aggregate value of about $13,000,000. The value of + the tin exported during 1905 exceeded $6,900,000, and the value of the + agricultural produce, of which gambier represented $211,000 and damar + $80,000, amounted to $407,990. + + + General. + + Seremban, the administrative capital of the Negri Sembilan, is + connected with Port Dickson by a railway line, owned by the Sungei + Ujong Railway Company, which is 24½ m. in length. It is also situated + on the trunk line of the Federated Malay States, and is thus joined by + rail to Selangor on the north and to Malacca on the south. Frequent + steam communication is maintained between Port Dickson and the ports + on the Straits of Malacca and with Singapore. + + For administrative purposes the Negri Sembilan is divided into five + districts, viz. the Seremban District, the Coast District, Jelebu, + Kuala Pilah and Tampin. Each of these is under the charge of a + European district officer, who is responsible to the Resident. The + Iang-di-per-Tuan lives at Kuala Pilah, but the capital of the + federation is at Seremban in Sungei Ujong, where the Resident is + stationed. The hereditary chiefs of the various states aid in the + government of their districts, and have seats upon the state council, + over which the Iang-di-per-Tuan presides. The watering-place of + Magnolia Bay, where excellent sea-bathing is obtainable, is one of the + pleasure resorts of this part of the peninsula. + +PAHANG, on the east coast of the peninsula, is situated between +parallels 2° 28´ and 3° 45´ N. and 101° 30´ and 103° 30´ E. It is +bounded on the N. by the independent native states of Kelantan and +Trengganu; on the S. by the Negri Sembilan and Johor; on the E. by the +China Sea; and on the W. by the protected states of Perak and Selangor. +The coast-line is about 112 m. in length; the greatest length is about +210 m., and greatest breadth about 130 m. The state is the largest in +the peninsula, its area being estimated at 15,000 sq. m. The ports on +the coast are the mouths of the Endau, Rompin, Pahang and Kuantan +rivers, but during the north-east monsoon the coast is not easy of +approach, and the rivers, all of which are guarded by difficult bars, +are impossible of access except at high tides. + + The principal river of the state is the Pahang, from which it takes + its name. At a distance of 180 m. from the coast this river is formed + by two others named respectively the Jelai and the Tembeling. The + former is joined 20 m. farther up stream by the Lipis, which has its + rise in the mountains which form the boundary with Perak. The Jelai + itself has its rise also in a more northerly portion of this range, + while its two principal tributaries above the mouth of the Lipis, the + Telom and the Serau, rise, the one in the plateau which divides Perak + from Pahang, the other in the hills which separate Pahang from + Kelantan. The Tembeling has its rise in the hills which divide Pahang + from Kelantan, but some of its tributaries rise on the Trengganu + frontier, while the largest of its confluents comes from the hills in + which the Kuantan River takes its rise. The Pahang is navigable for + large boats as far as Kuala Lipis, 200 m. from the mouth, and + light-draught launches can also get up to that point. Smaller boats + can be taken some 80 m. higher up the Jelai and Telom. The river, + however, as a waterway is of little use, since it is uniformly + shallow. The Rompin and Kuantan rivers are somewhat more easily + navigated for the first 30 m. of their course, but taken as a whole + the waterways of Pahang are of little value. The interior of Pahang is + chiefly noted for its auriferous deposits. Gunong Tahan is situated on + the boundary between Pahang and Kelantan. Its height is estimated at + 8000 ft. above sea-level, but it has never yet been ascended. Pahang, + like the states on the west coast, is covered almost entirely by one + vast forest, but in the Lipis valley, which formerly was thickly + populated, there is a considerable expanse of open grass plain unlike + anything to be seen on the western seaboard. The coast is for the most + part a sandy beach fringed with _casuarina_ trees and there are only a + few patches of mangrove-swamp throughout its entire length. + + + History. + + The ancient name of Pahang was Indrapura. It is mentioned in the + history of _Hang Tuah_, the great Malacca brave, who flourished in the + 16th century, and succeeded in abducting a daughter of the then ruling + house of Pahang for his master, the sultan of Malacca. Prior to this, + Pahang had been ruled by the Siamese. When Malacca fell into the hands + of the Portuguese in 1511 the sultan, Muhammad Shah, fled to Pahang, + and the present ruling house claims to have been descended from him. + The title of the ruler of Pahang was Bendahara until 1882, when the + present (1902) ruler, Wan Ahmad, assumed the title of sultan, taking + the name of Sultan Ahmad Maatham Shah. Up to that time the Bendahara + had been installed on his accession by the sultan of Riau, and held + his office by virtue of that chief's letter of authority. About 1855 + the father of the present sultan died at Pekan, and his son Bendahara + Korish, who succeeded him, drove Wan Ahmad from the country. After + making three unsuccessful attempts to conquer the land and to dethrone + his elder brother, Wan Ahmad at last succeeded in 1865 in invading the + state and wresting the throne from his nephew, who had succeeded his + father some years earlier. From that time, in spite of two attempts to + shake his power by invasions from Selangor which were undertaken by + his nephews Wan Aman and Wan Da, Bendahara Ahmad ruled his country + with a rod of iron. In 1887 he consented to enter into a treaty with + the governor of the Straits by which he accepted a consular agent at + his court. This treaty was finally signed on the 8th of October 1887. + In February of the following year a Chinese British subject was + murdered at Pekan in circumstances which pointed to the responsibility + of the sultan for the crime, and in October 1888 a Resident was + appointed to assist the sultan in the administration of his country, + that being, in the opinion of the British government, the only + guarantee for the safety of the life and property of British subjects + which it could accept. In December 1891 disturbances broke out in + Pahang, the nominal leaders of which were certain of the sultan's most + trusted chiefs. The sultan himself took no part in the outbreak, but + it undoubtedly had his sympathy, even if it was not caused by his + direct commands. The rebels were driven to seek safety in flight in + November 1892, but in June 1894 they gathered strength for a second + disturbance, and raided Pahang from Kelantan, in which state they had + been given shelter by the Mahommedan rulers. This event, added to the + occurrence of other raids from across the border, led to an irregular + expedition being led into Trengganu and Kelantan by the Resident of + Pahang (Mr Hugh Clifford) in 1895, and this had the desired result. + The rebel chiefs were banished to Siam, and no further breach of the + peace has troubled the tranquillity of Pahang since that time. Pahang + joined the Federated Malay States by a treaty signed in 1895, and the + sultan and his principal chiefs were present at the federal durbar + held at Kuala Kangsar in Perak in 1897. + + + Population. + + The census taken in April 1901 gave the total population of Pahang at + 84,113, of whom 73,462 were Malays, 8695 Chinese, 1227 Tamils and + other natives of India, 180 Europeans and Eurasians, and 549 people of + other nationalities. The population in 1905 was estimated at 100,000, + the increase being due to immigration mainly from the states on the + western seaboard. In former days Pahang was far more thickly populated + than in modern times, but the long succession of civil wars which + racked the land after the death of Bendahara Ali caused thousands of + Pahang Malays to fly the country. To-day the valley of the Lebir River + in Kelantan and the upper portions of several rivers near the Perak + and Selangor boundaries are inhabited by Pahang Malays, the + descendants of these fugitives. The Pahang natives are almost all + engaged in agriculture. The work of the mines, &c., is performed by + Chinese and foreign Malays. In the Lipis valley the descendants of the + Rawa Malays, who at one time possessed the whole of the interior in + defiance of the Pahang rajas, still outnumber the people of the land. + + + Finance and Trade. + + The revenue of Pahang in 1899 amounted to only $62,077; in 1900 to + $419,150. In 1905 it was $528,368. The expenditure in 1905 amounted to + $1,208,176. Of this sum $736,886 was expended on public works. Pahang + is still a source of expense to the federation, its progress having + been retarded by the disturbances which lasted from December 1891 + until 1895, with short intervals of peace, but the revenue is now + steadily increasing, and the ultimate financial success of the state + is considered to be secure. Pahang owes something over $3,966,500 to + Selangor and $1,175,000 to Perak, which have financed it now for some + years out of surplus revenue. The value of the imports in 1905 was + $1,344,346, that of the exports was $3,838,928, thus making a total + trade value of $5,183,274. The most valuable export is tin, the value + of which in 1905 amounted to $2,820,745. The value of the gutta + exported exceeded $140,000, that of dried and salted fish amounted to + nearly $70,000, and that of timber to $325,000. + + + General. + + The geological formation of the states lying to the eastward of the + main range of mountains which splits the peninsula in twain differs + materially from that of the western states. At a distance of about a + dozen miles from the summits of the mountains the granite formation is + replaced by slates, which in many places are intersected by fissures + of quartz, and in others are overlaid by vast thicknesses of + limestone. Those of the quartz fissures which have been exploited are + found to be auriferous, and several mining companies have attempted to + work the deposits. Their efforts, however, have not hitherto been + successful. A magnificent road over the mountains, with a ruling grade + of 1 in 30, joins Kuala Lipis, the administrative capital of Pahang, + to Kuala Kubu, the nearest railway station in Selangor. The road + measures 82 m. in length. Pekan, where the sultan has his residence, + was the capital of Pahang until the middle of 1898, when the + administrative headquarters were transferred to the interior as being + more central. None of these towns is of any size or importance. In the + Kuantan valley, which lies parallel to the Pahang River, a European + company is working tin lodes with considerable success. These lodes + are the only mines of the kind being worked in the Federated Malay + States. Pahang is fertile and well suited for agriculture of many + kinds. The rainfall is heavy and regular. The climate is cooler than + that of the west coast, and the full force of the monsoon is felt from + October to February in each year. For administrative purposes Pahang + is divided into four districts--Ulu Pahang, in which the present + capital is situated; Temerloh, which includes 80 odd miles of the + Pahang valley and the Semantan River; Pekan, which includes the coast + rivers down to Endau; and Kuantan. Each of these is under the charge + of a district officer, who is responsible to the resident. The + boundary with Johor and the Negri Sembilan was rectified by a + commission which sat in London in 1897-1898. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Journal of the Eastern Archipelago_ (Singapore); + _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_ + (Singapore); Maxwell, _Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute_, + vol. xxiii.; Swettenham, ibid. vol. xxvii; Clifford, ibid. vol. xxx. + (London, 1892, 1895, 1899); Swettenham, _About Perak_ (Singapore, + 1893); _Malay Sketches_ (London, 1895); _The Real Malay_ (London, + 1899); _British Malaya_ (London, 1906); Clifford, _In Court and + Kampong_ (London, 1897); _Studies in Brown Humanity_ (London, 1898); + _In a Corner of Asia_ (London, 1899); _Bush-whacking_ (London, 1901); + _Further India_ (London, 1904); De la Croix, _Les Mines d'etins de + Perak_ (Paris, 1882); Bluebook, C. 9524 (London, 1899); _The Straits + Directory_ (Singapore, 1906); Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900); + Skeat and Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ (London, + 1906). (H. Cl.) + + +II.--NON-FEDERATED STATES + +In 1909 a treaty was made between Great Britain and Siam, one provision +of which was the cession to the former of the suzerain rights enjoyed by +the latter over certain territories in the Malay Peninsula. These +territories consisted of the four Siamese Malay States: Kelantan, +Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis, very ancient dependencies of Siam, all of +which except Trengganu, were in a flourishing condition and had been +administered by British officers in the service of Siam for some years +prior to their transference. Though the four states were loyal to Siam +and wished to retain their former allegiance, the change was effected +without disturbance of any kind, the British government on assuming the +rights of suzerainty placing an adviser at the court of each raja and +guaranteeing the continuance of the administration on the lines already +laid down by Siam so far as might be compatible with justice and fair +treatment for all. The four states lie to the north of the Federated +Malay States, two on the east and two on the west side of the peninsula. + +KELANTAN.--This state on the east coast, bounded N. and N.E. by the +China Sea, E. by Trengganu, S. by Pahang and W. by Perak and Ra-ngé, +lies between 4° 48´ and 6° 20´ N. and 101° 33´ and 102° 45´ E. The +greatest length from north to south is 115 m. and the greatest breadth +from east to west 60 m. The area is about 5000 sq. m. The northern part +of the state is flat and fertile, but the southern district which +comprises more than half the total area, is mountainous and +uncultivated. + + Next to the Pahang, the Kelantan River is the largest on the east + coast. It is 120 miles long and is navigable for shallow-draft + launches and big country boats for about 80 miles, and for vessels of + 8 ft. draft for about six miles. Its principal tributaries are the + Galas, Pergau and Lebir. The Golok and Semarak rivers water the west + and east parts of the state, falling into the sea a few miles on + either side of the mouth of the Kelantan River. The climate of + Kelantan is mild and singularly healthy in the open cultivated + regions. The population is about 300,000 of which 10,000 are + aboriginal tribes (Sakeis and Jakuns), 10,000 Siamese and Chinese and + the rest Malays. The Chinese are increasing and natives of different + parts of India are resorting to the state for purposes of trade. Kota + Bharu (pop. 10,000) is the only town in the state. It lies on the + right bank of the river, about six miles from the sea. Since 1904 it + has been laid out with metalled roads and many public and private + buildings have been erected. The town is the commercial as well as the + administrative centre of the state. Tumpat and Tabar on the coast, + with population 4000 and 3000 respectively, are the places next in + importance after Kota Bharu. A network of creeks render communication + easy in the northern districts, the river and its tributaries afford + means of access to all parts of the south; 20 miles of road have been + made in the neighbourhood of Kota Bharu. Kelantan is connected by + telegraph with Bangkok and Singapore, and maintains regular postal + communication with those places. Rice cultivation is the principal + industry and is increasing rapidly. Coco-nut and betel-nut growing are + also largely practised. Much livestock is raised. About 400,000 acres + of land are under cultivation. Though reputed rich in minerals, past + misrule prevented mining enterprise in Kelantan until, in 1900, a + large concession was given to an Englishman and the country was opened + to foreigners. In 1909 three mining syndicates were at work, and + several others were in process of formation. Gold, tin and galena have + been found in several localities and during the years 1906-1909 28,000 + ounces of gold were dredged from the Kelantan River. The Kelantanese + are expert fishermen, some 30,000 finding employment in fishing and + fish-drying. Silk-weaving is a growing industry. Foreign trade, which + in 1909 reached the value of two and a half million dollars, is + chiefly with Singapore. Principal exports are copra, rice, fish, + cattle and gold; chief imports are cotton goods, hardware and specie. + The currency is the Straits Settlements dollar and small silver coin, + supplemented by a locally made tin coin of low value. + + By virtue of a mutual agreement made in 1902 Siam appointed a resident + commissioner to Kelantan and consented, so long as the advice of that + officer should be followed, to leave internal affairs to be conducted + locally. Under this arrangement a council of state was appointed, + departments of government were organized, penal, civil and revenue + laws were passed and enforced, courts were established and a police + force was raised. Though formerly of an evil reputation, the people + were found to be naturally peaceful and law-abiding, and serious crime + is rare. The state revenue, which was practically nothing in 1902, + amounted to $320,000 in 1907. Islamism was adopted about 300 years ago + but the old animistic superstitions are still strong. The state is + divided into _mukim_ or parishes, but the _imam_ no longer exercise + temporal authority. There are three schools at Kota Bharu, education + in the interior being in the hands of the imam assisted with + government grants. + + No historical records of Kelantan exist, and the state was not noticed + by the European merchants of the 16th and 17th centuries. Consequently + little is known of its early history beyond what is to be gathered + from brief references in the Malay annals and the old chronicles of + Siam. The sites of ancient towns and the remains of former gold + diggings are visible here and there, but all knowledge of the men who + made these marks has been lost. The present ruling family dates from + about 1790. Siam was frequently called upon to maintain internal peace + and in 1892 a royal prince was sent to reside in Kelantan as + commissioner. Complications brought about by the incapacity of the + ruler led to the making of the agreement of 1902 above mentioned, to + the fixing of a regular tribute in money to Siam, and ultimately to + the merging of the state from chaotic lawlessness into the path of + reform. On the 15th of July 1909 the state came under British + suzerainty and the commissioner of Siam was replaced by a British + adviser, from which date the liability to payment of tribute ceased, + though in all other respects the administrative arrangements of Siam + remained unaltered. + +TRENGGANU.--This state on the east coast, bounded N. and N.E. by the +China Sea, S. by Pahang and W. by Pahang and Kelantan, lies between +parallels 4° 4´ and 4° 46´ N. and 102° 30´ and 103° 26´ E. The greatest +length from north to south is 120 m., and the greatest breadth from east +to west 50 m. It has a coast-line of 130 m. and an estimated area of +about 5000 sq. m. There are several islands off the coast, some of which +are inhabited. The surface is generally mountainous. + + Principal rivers are the Besut, Stiu, Trengganu, Dungun and Kmamun, + none of which is navigable for any distance. The climate is mild and + fairly healthy. The population numbers about 180,000, almost all + Malays, and mostly clusters round the mouths and lower reaches of the + rivers. The capital, which is situated at the mouth of the Trengganu + River, contains, with its suburbs, not less than 30,000 people. + Difficulty of access by river and by land render the interior + districts almost uninhabitable. Communication is maintained by boat + along the coast. There are no roads and no postal or telegraphic + communications. + + The majority of the people are sailors and fishermen. Rice is grown, + but not in sufficient quantities to supply local needs. Much pepper + and gambier were at one time grown and exported, but about the year + 1903 agriculture began to fall off owing to prevailing insecurity of + life and property. Not much livestock is raised, the few head of + cattle exported from Besut being mostly stolen from across the + neighbouring Kelantan border. A successful tin mine under European + control exists in the Kmamun district, but as everything possible was + done in the past to discourage all foreign enterprise, the probable + mineral wealth of the country is still practically untouched. + Silk-weaving, carried on entirely by the women, is a considerable + industry. The silk is imported raw and is re-exported in the form of + Malay clothing (_sarongs_) of patterns and quality which are widely + celebrated. The manufacture of native weapons and of brassware was at + one time brisk but is declining. The trade of Trengganu is not + increasing. It is valued roughly at about one and a half million + dollars a year, is chiefly with Singapore, and is to a great extent + carried in Trengganu-built ships, which latter also do some carrying + trade for other states on the east coast. + + The Trengganu sultanate is one of the most ancient in the peninsula + and ranks with that of Riau. The state was feudatory to Malacca in the + 13th century and during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries its + possession was frequently disputed between Malacca and Siam. The + present sultan is the descendant of an ancient family, the members of + which have quarrelled and fought with each other for the succession + from time immemorial. The last serious disturbance was in 1837 when + the grandfather of the present sultan stole the throne from his + nephew. Until the acquisition of the state by Great Britain a + triennial tribute of gold flowers was paid to Siam, and this with + occasional letters of instructions and advice, constituted almost the + only tangible evidence of Siamese suzerainty. Of government there was + practically none. The sultan, having alienated most of his powers and + prerogatives to his relatives, passed his life in religious seclusion + and was ruler in no more than name. The revenues were devoured by the + relatives, a small part of those accruing from the capital sufficing + for the sultan's needs. There were no written laws, no courts and no + police. All manner of crime was rampant, the peasantry was mercilessly + downtrodden, but the land was full of holy men and the cries of the + miserable were drowned in the noise of ostentatious prayer. In fine, + Trengganu presented in the beginning of the year 1909 the type of + untrammelled Malay rule which had fortunately disappeared from every + other state in the peninsula. In July of that year, however, the first + British adviser or agent arrived in the state, which was shortly + afterwards visited by the governor of the Straits Settlements, who + discussed with the sultan the changed conditions consequent upon the + Anglo-Siamese treaty and laid the foundations of future reform. + +KEDAH.--This state, on the west coast of the peninsula, lies between +parallels 5° 20´ and 6° 42´ N., and is bounded, N. by Palit and Songkla, +E. by Songkla and Raman, S. by Province Wellesley and Perak, and W. by +the sea. The coast-line is 65 m. long, the greatest distance from north +to south is 115 m. and the greatest breadth 46 m. Off the coast lies a +group of islands, the largest of which is Langkawi, well peopled and +forming a district of the state. + + The total area of Kedah is about 4000 sq. m. The land is low-lying and + swampy near the coast except towards the south where the height known + as Kedah Hill rises from the shore opposite Penang, flat and fertile + farther inland, and mountainous towards the eastern border. The rivers + are small, the Sungei Kedah, navigable for a few miles for vessels of + 50 tons, and the S. Muda, which forms the boundary with Province + Wellesley, being the only streams worthy of notice. The plains are + formed of marine deposit, and in the mountains limestone and granite + preponderate. The population is estimated at 220,000, of whom about + 100,000 are Malays, 50,000 Siamese and Samsams and 70,000 Chinese and + Madrassis (Klings). There are three towns of importance. Alor Star, + the capital, on the Kedah river, 10 miles from the sea, in a flat, + unhealthy, but fertile locality, is a well laid out town with good + streets, many handsome public and private buildings, and good + wharfage for small vessels. The population is about 20,000, of whom + more than half are Chinese and the remainder government servants and + retainers of the local aristocracy. Kuala Muda (pop. 10,000) and Kulim + (pop. 8000) situated in the south, are unimposing collections of small + birch houses and thatched bamboo huts; the latter is the centre of the + Kedah tin mining industry. The bulk of the population is scattered + over the plains in small villages. A good road runs north from Alor + Star to the border of the state, a distance of 40 miles, and other + roads are being constructed. The state has 185 miles of telegraph line + and 75 miles of telephone line. Mails are closed daily at Alor Star + for Penang and there is a good internal postal service. The chief + industry is rice cultivation. Coco-nut, betel-nut and fruit + plantations are many, and the cultivation of rubber has recently been + taken up with prospects of success. The estimated area under + cultivation is about 300,000 acres. There are rice-mills at Alor Star + and at Kuala Muda. The principal exports are rice, cattle and tin. The + chief imports are cotton goods, provisions, hardware and raw silk. + Accurate trade statistics are not available. The ruler holds the rank + of sultan and is assisted in the government by a council and by the + British adviser who since the state passed from Siamese to British + protection in 1909, has replaced the officer formerly appointed by + Siam. The sultan comes of a family long recognized by Siam as having + hereditary right to the rulership. The penal and civil laws are + administered in accordance with the precepts of Islamism, the official + religion of the state. Though much has been done to improve the + courts, justice is not easily obtainable. A land registration system + is in force but is in a state of confusion, though a land law passed + in 1905 gives security of tenure over lands newly acquired. The mining + laws are similar to those of Siam. In 1905 the Siamese government + advanced two and a half million dollars to Kedah, to pay the debts of + the state, which sum was refunded by the British Government on + assuming the position of protector. The annual revenue is $1,000,000 + and the expenditure about the same. Chief heads of revenue are opium + and land tax. Many revenue monopolies, created in the past, have not + yet expired; but for this the revenue would be greater than it is. + There is no army. In 1906 the police service was reorganized under + British officers, resulting in great improvement to this department. + The state is divided into a number of administrative districts under + Malay officials. Each district comprises several _mukim_ or parishes, + the _imam_ of which exercise both spiritual and temporal control. + There are schools in the chief towns, but education has not yet been + seriously undertaken. + + Kedah was founded by colonists from India in A.D. 1200, about which + time the Siamese had subdued Nakhon Sri Tammarat and claimed the whole + Malay Peninsula. When the rise of Malacca shook Siamese authority in + the peninsula, Kedah oscillated between them, and on the conquest of + Malacca by the Portuguese, fell to Siam, though the capital was raided + and burnt by the Europeans. The ruler and his people were converted to + Islam in the 15th century. In 1768, the Siamese kingdom being + disorganized, the sultan of Kedah entered into direct political + relations with the Hon. East India Company, leasing the island of + Penang to the latter. Further treaties followed in 1791 and 1802, but + in 1821 Siam reasserted her control, expelling the rebellious sultan + after a sanguinary war. The sultan made several fruitless efforts to + recover the state, and at length made full submission, when he was + reinstated. In 1868 an agreement between Great Britain and Siam was + substituted for the treaties of the East India Company with the + sultan. The present sultan succeeded in 1881, and for 14 years + governed well, but in 1895 he began to contract debts and to leave the + government to his minions. The result was chaos, and in 1905 the + Siamese government had to intervene to avert a condition of + bankruptcy, adjusting the finances and reorganizing the general + administration to such effect that when, four years later, the state + became a British dependency, a government was found established on a + sound basis and requiring nothing but the presence of a firm and + experienced officer as adviser to maintain its efficiency and assist + its further advance. + +PERLIS (_Palit_).--This small state, consisting of the left bank +drainage area of the Perlis River, lies between Setul and Kedah, which +bound it on the N. and W. and on the E. respectively. It touches the sea +only round the mouth of the river. + + The population is about 10,000, Malays and Chinese. The chief town, + Perlis, is situated about 12 m. up the river. A good deal of tin is + worked, and rice and pepper are grown and exported. In the early part + of the 19th century Perlis was a district of Kedah, but during a + period of disturbance in the latter state it established itself as a + separate chiefdom. In 1897 Siam restored the nominal authority of + Kedah, but the measure was not productive of good. In 1905 the Siamese + government advanced a loan of $200,000 to Perlis, and appointed an + English adviser to assist in the general administration. This money + was refunded to Siam and the adviser relieved by a British officer + when the state became British in July 1909. The condition of the state + has improved, but the revenue, $80,000, is not sufficient for the + immediate needs of government. + + Authorities.--Norman, _The Far East_ (London, 1895); H. Clifford, in + the _Geographical Journal_ (London, 1896); Carter, _The Kingdom of + Siam_ (London, 1904); Graham, _Reports on Kelantan_ (Bangkok, + 1905-1909); Skeat and Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ + (London, 1906); Hart, _Reports on Kedah_ (Calcutta, 1907-1909); + Graham, _Kelantan, a Handbook_ (Glasgow, 1907). (W. A. G.) + + + + +MALAY STATES (SIAMESE). The authority of Siam, which at one time covered +the whole of the Malay peninsula, now extends southward to an irregular +line drawn across the Peninsula at about 6° 30´ N. Between that line and +the Isthmus of Kra, usually accepted as the northernmost point of the +Malay Peninsula, there lie some 20,000 sq. m. of territory inhabited by +a mixed population of Siamese and Malays with here and there a few +remnants of the aboriginal inhabitants clinging to the wilder districts, +and with a few Chinese settlers engaged in commerce. Formerly this tract +was divided into a number of states, each of which was ruled by a chief +(Siamese, _Chao Muang_; Malay, _raja_), who held his title from the king +of Siam, but, subject to a few restrictions, conducted the affairs of +his state in accordance with his own desires; the office of chief, +moreover, was hereditary, subject always to the approval of the +suzerain. The states formed two groups: a northern, including Langsuan, +Chaya, Nakhon Sri Tammarat, Songkla, Renawng, Takoapa, Pang Nga, Tongka +and Trang, in which the Siamese element predominated and of which the +chiefs were usually Siamese or Chinese; and a southern, including +Palean, Satun (Setul), Patani, Raman, Jering, Sai (Teloban), Re Nge +(Legeh), Yala (Jalor) and Nong Chik, in which the population was +principally Malay and the ruler also Malay. Four other states of the +southern group, Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis, of which the +population is entirely Malay, passed from Siamese to British protection +in 1909. + +With the gradual consolidation of the Siamese kingdom all the states of +the northern group have been incorporated as ordinary provinces of Siam +(q.v.), the hereditary _Chao Muang_ having died or been pensioned and +replaced by officials of the Siamese Civil Service, while the states +themselves now constitute provinces of the administrative divisions of +Chumpon, Nakhon Sri Tammarat and Puket. The states of the southern +group, however, retain their hereditary rulers, each of whom presides +over a council and governs with the aid of a Siamese assistant +commissioner and with a staff of Siamese district officials, subject to +the general control of high commissioners under whom the states are +grouped. This southern group, with a total area of about 7000 sq. m. and +a population of 375,000, constitutes the Siamese Malay States. A British +consul with headquarters at Puket, and a vice-consul who resides at +Songkla, watch over the interests of British subjects in the states of +the west and east sides of the peninsula respectively. Other foreign +powers are unrepresented. + + _Palean._--This small state on the west coast, bounded N. by the + province of Trang, E. by the Songkla division, S. by the state of + Setul, and W. by the sea, is about 900 sq. m. in area, and has a + population of about 20,000. It is attached for administrative purposes + to the province of Trang, and its people are chiefly engaged in the + cultivation of pepper, of which about 150 tons are annually exported. + A few tin mines are also worked. + + _Satun_ (_Setul_).--This small state, bounded N. by Palean, E. by + Songkla, S. by Perlis, and W. by the sea, contains about 1000 sq. m. + area with a population of about 25,000, Malays, Siamese and a few + Chinese. The principal production is pepper, which is exported in + junks and in the small Penang steamers which ply on the west coast of + the peninsula. In 1897 Setul was placed under the control of Kedah, + then a Siamese dependency, but the arrangement was not a success, and + in 1907 the Siamese government was forced, owing to prevailing + corruption and misrule, to restrict the powers of the chief and, + cancelling the authority of Kedah, to place him to some extent under + the orders of the high commissioner of Songkla. By the terms of the + Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909 about half of the state of Perlis was + added to Satun, an arrangement by which the importance of the latter + was considerably increased. + + _Patani._--The seven Malay states of Nawng Chik, Patani, Jering, Yala + (Jalor), Sai (Teloban), Raman and Ra-ngé (Legeh) were constituted from + the old state of Patani at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1906 + they were reunited to form the Patani administrative division of Siam, + but each state retains its Malay ruler, who governs jointly with a + Siamese officer under the direction of the Siamese high commissioner, + and many of the ancient privileges and customs of Malay government are + preserved. The group of States is situated between 5° 34´ and 6° 52´ + N. and 100° 54´ and 101° 58´ E. It is bounded N. by the China Sea, E. + by the China Sea and Kelantan, S. by Perak, and W. by Kedah. The total + area is about 5000 sq. m. The country is mountainous except close to + the coast. The principal rivers are the Patani and the Teloban, long, + winding and shallow, and navigable for small boats only. The + population is about 335,000, of whom the great majority are Malays. + Each state has its capital, but Patani (the headquarters of the high + commissioner) is the only town of importance. Communications are poor + and are chiefly by river, but roads are under construction. Patani and + Sai are in telegraphic communication with Bangkok and Singapore, and + regular weekly mails are despatched to those places. The area under + cultivation is small except round about Patani and in Nawng Chik, + where much rice is grown. Tin mining is a growing industry; many + Chinese own mines and several European syndicates are at work in + Raman, Ra-ngé and Patani, prospecting for, or mining, this metal. + Fishing and salt-evaporation occupy a large proportion of the + population. The annual export of tin is about 400 tons, and dried + fish, salt, cattle and elephants are other exports. Steamers up to 300 + tons maintain frequent communication with Bangkok and Singapore, and + the Patani roads afford good anchorage at all seasons. + + Mahommedan law is followed in the settlement of inherited property + disputes and of matrimonial affairs; otherwise the laws of Siam + obtain. Efficient law courts have been established in each state, and + there is a serviceable force of gendarmerie recruited from amongst + Malays and Siamese alike. The revenue amounts to about 600,000 ticals, + or £45,000 a year, one-third being payable to the rulers as private + income for themselves and their relatives, one-third expended on the + administration, and one-third reserved for special purposes, but it is + usually found necessary to devote the last-mentioned third to the + expenses of administration. Patani has been subject to Siam from the + remotest times. It is said that the old state adopted Islamism in the + 16th century, the chief, a relative of the kings of Siam, embracing + that religion and at the same time revolting to Malacca. It has + several times been necessary to send punitive expeditions to recall + the state to its allegiance. The present rulers are mostly descended + from the ruling families of the neighbouring state of Kelantan, but + the chief of Patani itself is a member of the family which ruled there + in the days of its greatness. Throughout the 17th century Patani was + resorted to by Portuguese, Dutch and English merchants, who had + factories ashore and used the place as an emporium for trade with + Siam. In 1621 an engagement took place in the Patani roads between + three Dutch and two British ships, the latter being taken after the + president of the British merchants, John Jourdain, had been killed. In + 1899 the border between the state of Perak and Raman was fixed by an + agreement between England and Siam, a dispute of old standing being + thereby settled, but the question was reopened in the negotiations + which preceded the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909, when a new border + line was fixed between British and Siamese possessions in the + Peninsula. (W. A. G.) + + + + +MALCHIN, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, +on the river Peene, between lakes Malchin and Kummerow, 28 m. by rail +N.W. of Neu-Brandenburg. Pop. (1900), 7449. It is, alternately with +Sternberg, the place of assembly of the Diet of Mecklenburg. Here are +the châteaux of Remplin, Basedow and Schlitz; a church dating from the +14th century, and a fine town-hall. The well-wooded and undulating +country, environing the shores of Lake Malchin, is known as the +"Mecklenburg Switzerland," and is increasing in favour as a summer +resort. A canal unites Lake Kummerow with the Peene. The industries of +the town include the manufacture of sugar and bricks, and brewing and +malting. Malchin became a town in 1236. + + + + +MALCOLM, the name of four kings of the Scots, two of whom, MALCOLM I., +king from 943 to 954, and MALCOLM II., king from 1005 to 1034, are +shadowy and unimportant personages. + +MALCOLM III. (d. 1093), called Canmore or the "large-headed," was a son +of King Duncan I., and became king after the defeat of the usurper +Macbeth in July 1054, being crowned at Scone in April 1057. Having +married as his second wife, (St) Margaret (q.v.), a sister of Edgar +Ætheling, who was a fugitive at his court, he invaded England in 1070 to +support the claim of Edgar to the English throne, returning to Scotland +with many captives after harrying Northumbria. William the Conqueror +answered this attack by marching into Scotland in 1072, whereupon +Malcolm made peace with the English king at Abernethy and "was his man." +However, in spite of this promise he ravaged the north of England again +and again, until in 1091 William Rufus invaded Scotland and received his +submission. Then in 1092 a fresh dispute arose between the two kings, +and William summoned Malcolm to his court at Gloucester. The Scot +obeyed, and calling at Durham on his southward journey was present at +the foundation of Durham Cathedral. When he reached Gloucester Rufus +refused to receive him unless he did homage for his kingdom; he declined +and returned home in high dudgeon. Almost at once he invaded +Northumbria, and was killed at a place afterwards called Malcolm's +Cross, near Alnwick, on the 13th of November 1093. Four of Malcolm's +sons, Duncan II., Edgar, Alexander I., and David I., became kings of +Scotland; and one of his daughters, Matilda, became the wife of Henry I. +of England, a marriage which united the Saxon and the Norman royal +houses. + +MALCOLM IV. (c. 1141-1165) was the eldest son of Henry, earl of +Huntingdon (d. 1152), son of King David I., and succeeded his +grandfather David as king of Scotland in 1153. He is called the +"Maiden," and died unmarried on the 9th of December 1165. + + See E. A. Freeman, _The Norman Conquest_, vols. iv. and v. + (1867-1879), and _The Reign of William Rufus_ (1882); W. F. Skene, + _Celtic Scotland_ (1876-1880); E. W. Robertson, _Scotland under her + Early Kings_ (1862); and A. Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. i. + (1900). + + + + +MALCOLM, SIR JOHN (1769-1833), Anglo-Indian soldier, diplomatist, +administrator and author, was born at Burnfoot on the Esk, near +Langholm, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, on the 2nd of May 1769. His father +was a humble farmer, but three of his sons attained the honour of +knighthood. At the age of twelve he received a cadetship in the Indian +army, and in April 1783 he landed at Madras, shortly afterwards joining +his regiment at Vellore. In 1792, having for some time devoted himself +to the study of Persian, he was appointed to the staff of Lord +Cornwallis as Persian interpreter, but two years afterwards was +compelled by ill health to leave for England. On his return to India in +1796 he became military secretary to Sir Alured Clarke, +commander-in-chief at Madras, and afterwards to his successor General +Harris; and in 1798 he was appointed by Lord Wellesley assistant to the +resident at Hyderabad. In the last-mentioned capacity he highly +distinguished himself by the manner in which he gave effect to the +difficult measure of disbanding the French corps in the pay of the +nizam. In 1799, under the walls of Seringapatam, began his intimacy with +Colonel Arthur Wellesley, which in a short time ripened into a lifelong +friendship. In the course of the same year he acted as first secretary +to the commission appointed to settle the Mysore government, and before +its close he was appointed by Lord Wellesley to proceed as envoy to the +court of Persia for the purpose of counteracting the policy of the +French by inducing that country to form a British alliance. Arriving at +Teheran in December 1800, he was successful in negotiating favourable +treaties, both political and commercial, and returned to Bombay by way +of Bagdad in May 1801. He now for some time held the interim post of +private secretary to Lord Wellesley, and in 1803 was appointed to the +Mysore residency. At the close of the Mahratta War, in 1804, and again +in 1805, he negotiated important treaties with Sindhia and Holkar, and +in 1806, besides seeing the arrangements arising out of these alliances +carried out, he directed the difficult work of reducing the immense body +of irregular native troops. In 1808 he was again sent on a mission to +Persia, but circumstances prevented him from getting beyond Bushire; on +his reappointment in 1810, he was successful indeed in procuring a +favourable reception at court, but otherwise his embassy, if the +information which he afterwards incorporated in his works on Persia be +left out of account, was (through no fault of his) without any +substantial result. He sailed for England in 1811, and shortly after his +arrival in the following year was knighted. His intervals of leisure he +devoted to literary work, and especially to the composition of a +_History of Persia_, which was published in two quarto volumes in 1815. +On his return to India in 1817 he was appointed by Lord Moira his +political agent in the Deccan, with eligibility for military command; as +brigadier-general under Sir T. Hislop he took a distinguished part in +the victory of Mehidpur (December 21, 1817), as also in the subsequent +work of following up the fugitives, determining the conditions of peace +and settling the country. In 1821 he returned once more to England, +where he remained until 1827, when he was appointed governor of Bombay. +His influence in this office was directed to the promotion of various +economical reforms and useful administrative measures. Leaving India for +the last time in 1830, he shortly after his arrival in England entered +parliament as member for Launceston, and was an active opponent of the +Reform Bill. He died of paralysis on the 30th of May 1833. + + Besides the work mentioned above, Sir John Malcolm published _Sketch + of the Political History of India since ... 1784_ (in 1811 and 1826); + _Sketch of the Sikhs_ (1812); _Observations on the Disturbances in the + Madras Army in 1809_ (1812); _Persia, a Poem_, anonymous (1814); _A + Memoir of Central India_ (2 vols., 1823); and _Sketches of Persia_, + anonymous (1827). A posthumous work, _Life of Robert, Lord Clive_, + appeared in 1836. See _Life and Correspondence of Sir John Malcolm_, + by J. W. Kaye (2 vols., 1856). + + + + +MALDA, a district of British India, in the Rajshahi division of Eastern +Bengal and Assam. Area, 1899 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 884,030, showing an +increase of 8.5 in the decade. The administrative headquarters are at +English Bazar (pop. 13,667) near the town of Old Malda. The district is +divided into two almost equal parts by the Mahananda river, flowing from +north to south. The western tract between the Mahananda and the main +stream of the Ganges is an alluvial plain of sandy soil and great +fertility. The eastern half is an elevated region broken by the deep +valleys of the Tangan and Purnabhaba rivers and their small tributary +streams. The soil here is a hard red clay; and the whole is overgrown +with thorny tree jungle known as the _katal_. Agricultural prosperity +centres on the Mahananda, where mango orchards and high raised plots of +mulberry land extend continuously along both banks of the river. The +Ganges nowhere intersects the district, but skirts it from its +north-western corner to the extreme south. The Mahananda flows in a deep +well-defined channel through the centre, and joins the Ganges at the +southern corner. Its tributaries are the Kalindri on the right, and the +Tangan and Purnabhaba on the left bank. The two principal industries are +the production of indigo and silk. The first has declined, and so has +the second as far as concerns the weaving of piece goods, but the +rearing of silkworms and the export of raw silk and silk thread are +carried on upon a large scale. No railway touches the district, but the +communications by water are good. + + Malda supplied two great capitals to the early Mahommedan kings of + Bengal; and the sites of Gaur and Pandua exhibit the most interesting + remains to be found in the lower valley of the Ganges. (See GAUR.) The + connexion of the East India Company with Malda dates from a very early + period. As far back as 1676 there was a factory there. In 1770 English + Bazar was fixed upon for a commercial residency, the buildings of + which at the present day form both the public offices and private + residence of the collector. + + + + +MALDEN, a city, including several villages, of Middlesex county, +Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Malden river, about 5 m. N. of Boston. +Pop. (1890), 23,031, (1900), 33,664, of whom 9513 were foreign-born, +3673 being English Canadians, 870 English, and 617 Swedes; (1910 census) +44,404. Malden had in 1906 a land area of 4.78 sq. m. It is served by +the Boston & Maine railroad, and by inter-urban electric railways. +Although it is largely a residential suburb of Boston--its post office +is a Boston sub-station--it has important manufacturing industries. The +most valuable manufactured product is rubber boots and shoes. The +capital invested in manufacturing in 1905 was $5,553,432; and the value +of the factory product, $11,235,635, was 70.2% greater than the value of +the factory product in 1900. Among Malden's institutions are the public +library (endowed by Elisha S. Converse), the Malden hospital, the Malden +day nursery, a Young Men's Christian Association, and a home for the +aged. A fine system of parks is maintained; the best known is possibly +Pine Banks. To the north and west is the Middlesex Fells, a state +reservation; about 60 acres of this and about 20 acres of the Middlesex +Fells Parkway lie within Malden. Malden, when first settled about 1640, +was part of Charlestown, and was known for some years as Mystic Side. It +was incorporated as a town under the name of "Mauldon" in 1640, and was +chartered as a city in 1881. The north part of Malden was set off in +1850 to form Melrose, and the south part in 1870 to form the town of +Everett. Malden was the birthplace of Adoniram Judson, the "apostle to +Burma." Michael Wigglesworth was pastor here from 1656 until 1705. + + See D. P. Corey, _History of Malden_ (Malden, 1899); and _Malden, Past + and Present_ (Malden, 1899). + + + + +MALDIVE ISLANDS, an archipelago of coral islets in the Indian Ocean, +forming a chain between 7° 6´ N. and 0° 42´ S. It consists of seventeen +atolls with an immense number of islands, of which some three hundred +are inhabited. In the extreme south are the isolated atolls of Addu and +Fua-Mulaku, separated from Suvadiva by the Equatorial Channel, which is +itself separated from the main chain of atolls by One-and-a-half-degree +Channel.[1] Following the chain northward from this channel, we have +Haddumati and Kolumadulu, after which the chain becomes double: to the +east the chief atolls are Mulaku, Felidu, South Malé, North Malé, +Kardiva (where the channel of the same name, 35 m. broad, partly breaks +the chain), and Fadiffolu. To the west are South Nilandu, North Nilandu, +Ari, South Mahlos, North Mahlos and Miladumadulu. To the north again are +Tiladumati and Ihavandifulu. Finally, to the north of Eight-degree +Channel is Minikoi, 71 m. from the nearest point of the Maldives, and +110 m. from that of the Laccadives to the north. The main part of the +archipelago, north of One-and-a-half-degree Channel, consists of a +series of banks either surrounded or studded all over with reefs (see J. +S. Gardiner, "Formation of the Maldives," in _Geographical Journ._ xix. +277 seq.). Mr Gardiner regarded these banks as plateaus rising to +different elevations beneath the surface of the sea from a main plateau +rising steeply from the great depths of the Indian Ocean. + +After the Portuguese, from about 1518 onwards, had attempted many times +to establish themselves on the islands by force, and after the +Maldivians had endured frequent raids by the Mopla pirates of the +Malabar coast, they began to send tokens of homage and claims of +protection (the first recorded being in 1645) to the rulers of Ceylon, +and their association with this island has continued practically ever +since. The hereditary sultan of the archipelago is tributary to the +British government of Ceylon. The population of the Maldives is +estimated at 30,000. All are Mahommedans. By Messrs. Gardiner and Cooper +they are classed in four ethnological divisions. (1) Those of the atolls +north of the Kardiva Channel. Here the reefs are generally less perfect +than elsewhere, seldom forming complete central lagoons, and as they +were formerly exposed to the constant attacks of the Mopla pirates from +India, the people are hardier and more vigorous than their less warlike +southern neighbours. They annually visited the coasts of India or +Ceylon, and often married Indian wives, thus acquiring distinct racial +characters of an approximately Dravidian type. (2) Those of the central +division, comprising the atolls between North Malé and Haddumati, who +are under the direct rule of the sultan, and have been more exposed to +Arab influences. They formerly traded with Arabia and Malaysia, and many +Arabs settled amongst them, so that they betray a strong strain of +Semitic blood in their features. (3 and 4) The natives of Suvadiva, +Addu, Mulaku and the other southern clusters, who have had little +communication with the Central Malé people, and probably preserve more +of the primitive type, approximating in appearance to the Sinhalese +villagers of Ceylon. They are an intelligent and industrious people, +growing their own crops, manufacturing their own cloth and mats, and +building their own boats, while many read Arabic more or less fluently, +although still believers in magic and witchcraft. The language is a +dialect of Sinhalese, but indicating a separation of ancient date and +more or less mahommedanized. + +The sultan's residence and the capital of the archipelago is the island +of Malé. From the earliest notices the production of coir, the +collection of cowries, and the weaving of excellent textures on these +islands have been noted. The chief exports of the islands besides coir +and cowries (a decreasing trade) are coco-nuts, copra, tortoise-shell +and dried bonito-fish. + +Minikoi atoll, with the numerous wrecks on its reefs, its lighthouse, +and its position on the track of all eastward-bound vessels, is a +familiar sight to seafarers in these waters. The atoll, which is +pear-shaped and disposed in the direction from S.W. to N.E. is 5 m. +long, with an extreme breadth of nearly 3 m., with a large but shallow +lagoon approached from the north by a passage two fathoms deep. The +atoll is growing outwards on every side, and at one place rises 19 ft. +above sea-level. The population, which numbers about 3000, is sharply +divided into five castes, of which the three highest are pure +Maldivians, the lower two the same as in the Laccadives. All are centred +in a small village opposite Mou Rambu Point on the west or lagoon side; +but most of the men are generally absent, many being employed with the +Lascar crews on board the large liners plying in the eastern seas. + + In 1899-1900 Messrs. J. Stanley Gardiner and C. Forster Cooper carried + out an expedition to the Maldives and Laccadives, for the important + results of which see _The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and + Laccadive Archipelagoes_, ed. J. S. Gardiner (Cambridge, 1901-1905), + also _Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society_, vol. xi. + pt. 1 (1900), and the _Geographical Journ._, _loc. cit._, &c. A French + adventurer, François Pyrard de la Val, was wrecked in the Maldives in + 1602 and detained there five years; he wrote an interesting account of + the archipelago, _Voyage de F. P. de la Val_ (Paris, 1679; previous + editions 1611, &c.). See also A. Agassiz, "An Expedition to the + Maldives" in _Amer. Journ. Science_, vol. xiii. (1902). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] These and other channels in the locality are named from their + position under parallels of latitude. + + + + +MALDON, a market town, municipal borough and port, in the Maldon +parliamentary borough of Essex, England, on an acclivity rising from the +south side of the Blackwater, 43 m. E.N.E. from London by a branch from +Witham of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 5565. There are east +and west railway stations. The church of All Saints, dating from 1056, +but, as it stands, Early English and later, consists of chancel, nave +and aisles, with a triangular Early English tower (a unique form) at the +west end surmounted by a hexagonal spire. The tower of St Mary's Church +shows Norman work with Roman materials. The other public buildings are +the grammar school, founded in 1547; the town-hall, formerly D'Arcy's +tower, built in the reign of Henry VI.; and the public hall. There are +manufactures of crystallized salt, breweries, an oyster fishery and some +shipping. On Osea Island, in the Blackwater estuary, there is a farm +colony for the unemployed. A mile west of Maldon are remains of Beeleigh +Abbey, a Premonstratensian foundation of the 12th century. They consist +of the chapter-house and another chamber, and are of fine Early English +work. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, +3028 acres. + +At Maldon (_Maelduna_, _Melduna_, _Mealdon_ or _Meaudon_) palaeolithic, +neolithic and Roman remains that have been found seem to indicate an +early settlement. It is not, however, an important Roman site. An +earthwork, of which traces exist, may be Saxon or Danish. The +Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates that Edward the Elder established a "burh" +there about 921, and that Ealdorman Brihtnoth was killed there by the +Danes in 991. The position of Maldon may have given it some commercial +importance, but the fortress is the point emphasized by the Chronicle. +Maldon remained a royal town up to the reign of Henry I., and thus is +entered as on _terra regis_ in Domesday. Henry II. granted the burgesses +their first charter, probably in 1155, giving them the land of the +borough and suburb with sac and soc and other judicial rights, also +freedom from county and forest jurisdiction, danegeld, scutage, tallage +and all tolls, by the service of one ship a year for forty days. This +charter was confirmed by Edward I. in 1290, by Edward III. in 1344, and +by Richard II. in 1378. In 1403 the bishop of London granted further +judicial and financial rights, and Henry V. confirmed the charters in +1417, Henry VI. in 1443, and Henry VIII. in 1525. Maldon was +incorporated by Philip and Mary in 1554, and received confirmatory +charters from Elizabeth in 1563 and 1592, from Charles I. in 1631, +Charles II. and James II. In 1768 the incorporation charter was +regranted, with modifications in 1810. + + + + +MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS (1638-1715), French philosopher of the Cartesian +school, the youngest child of Nicolas Malebranche, secretary to Louis +XIII., and Catherine de Lauzon, sister of a viceroy of Canada, was born +at Paris on the 6th of August 1638. Deformed and constitutionally +feeble, he received his elementary education from a tutor, and left home +only when sufficiently advanced to enter upon a course of philosophy at +the Collège de la Marche, and subsequently to study theology at the +Sorbonne. He had resolved to take holy orders, but his studious +disposition led him to decline a stall in Notre Dame, and in 1660 he +joined the congregation of the Oratory. He was first advised by Père +Lecointe to devote himself to ecclesiastical history, and laboriously +studied Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, but "the facts +refused to arrange themselves in his mind, and mutually effaced one +another." Richard Simon undertook to teach him Hebrew and Biblical +criticism with no better success. At last in 1664 he chanced to read +Descartes's _Traité de l'homme_ (_de homine_), which moved him so deeply +that (it is said) he was repeatedly compelled by palpitations of the +heart to lay aside his reading. Malebranche was from that hour +consecrated to philosophy, and after ten years' study of the works of +Descartes he produced the famous _De la recherche de la vérité_, +followed at intervals by other works, both speculative and +controversial. Like most of the great metaphysicians of the 17th +century, Malebranche interested himself also in questions of mathematics +and natural philosophy, and in 1699 was admitted an honorary member of +the Academy of Sciences. During his later years his society was much +courted, and he received many visits from foreigners of distinction. He +died on the 13th of October 1715; his end was said to have been hastened +by a metaphysical argument into which he had been drawn in the course of +an interview with Bishop Berkeley. For a critical account of +Malebranche's place in the history of philosophy, see CARTESIANISM. + + WORKS.--_De La recherche de la vérité_ (1674; 6th ed., 1712; ed. + Bouillier, 1880; Latin trans, by J. Lenfant at Geneva in 1685; English + trans. by R. Sault, 1694; and T. Taylor, 1694, 1712); _Conversations + chrétiennes_ (1677, and frequently; Eng. trans., London, 1695); + _Traité de la nature et de la grâce_ (1680; Eng. trans., London, + 1695); _Méditations chrétiennes et métaphysiques_ (1683); _Traité de + morale_ (1684; separate ed. by H. Joly, 1882; Eng. trans, by Sir J. + Shipton, 1699); several polemical works against Arnauld from 1684 to + 1688; _Entretiens sur la métaphysique et sur la religion_ (1688); + _Traité de l'amour de Dieu_ (1697); _Entretiens d'un philosophe + chrétien et d'un philosophe chinois sur l'existence et la nature de + Dieu_ (1708); _Réflexions sur la prémotion physique_ (1715). + + A convenient edition of his works in two volumes, with an + introduction, was published by Jules Simon in 1842. A full account by + Mrs Norman Smith of his theory of vision, in which he unquestionably + anticipated and in some respects surpassed the subsequent work of + Berkeley, will be found in the _British Journal of Psychology_ (Jan. + 1905). For recent criticism see H. Joly, in the series _Les Grands + philosophes_ (Paris, 1901); L. Ollé-Laprune, _La Philosophie de + Malebranche_ (1870); M. Novaro, _Die Philosophie des Nicolaus + Malebranche_ (1893). + + + + +MALER KOTLA, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks as one +of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence in 1809. +The territory lies south of Ludhiana. Area, 167 sq. m. Pop. (1901), +77,506, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. Estimated gross +revenue, £30,100. The military force numbers 280 men; and there is no +tribute. The town Maler Kotla is 30 m. S. of Ludhiana; pop. (1901), +21,122. The nawab or chief is of Afghan descent; his family originally +came from Kabul, and occupied positions of trust in Sirhind under the +Mogul emperors. They gradually became independent as the Mogul Empire +sank into decay in the course of the 18th century. In General Lake's +campaign against Holkar in 1805 the nawab of Maler Kotla sided with the +British. After the subjugation and flight of Holkar, the English +government succeeded to the power of the Mahrattas in the districts +between the Sutlej and the Jumna; and in 1809 its protection was +formally extended to Maler Kotla, as to the other Cis-Sutlej states, +against the formidable encroachments of Ranjit Singh. In the campaigns +of 1806, 1807 and 1808 Ranjit Singh had made considerable conquests +across the Sutlej; in 1808 he marched on Maler Kotla and demanded a +ransom of £10,000 from the nawab. This led to the interference of the +British, who addressed an ultimatum to Ranjit Singh, declaring the +Cis-Sutlej states to be under British protection. Finally the raja of +Lahore submitted, and the nawab was reinstated in February 1809. Owing +to the mental incapacity of nawab Ibrahim Ali Khan, the state was +administered in recent years for some time by the chief of Loharu; but +his son, Ahmed Ali Khan, was made regent in February 1905. + + See _Maler Kotla State Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1908). + + + + +MALESHERBES, CHRÉTIEN GUILLAUME DE LAMOIGNON DE (1721-1794), commonly +known as Lamoignon-Malesherbes, French statesman, minister, and +afterwards counsel for the defence of Louis XVI., came of a famous legal +family. He was born at Paris on the 6th of December 1721, and was +educated for the legal profession. The young lawyer soon proved his +intellectual capacity, when he was appointed president of the _cour des +aides_ in the parlement of Paris in 1750 on the promotion of his father, +Guillaume de Lamoignon, to be chancellor. One of the chancellor's duties +was to control the press, and this duty was entrusted to Malesherbes by +his father during his eighteen years of office, and brought him into +connexion with the public far more than his judicial functions. To carry +it out efficiently he kept in communication with the literary leaders of +Paris, and especially with Diderot, and Grimm even goes so far as to say +that "without the assistance of Malesherbes the _Encyclopédie_ would +probably never have been published." In 1771 he was called upon to mix +in politics; the parlements of France had been dissolved, and a new +method of administering justice devised by Maupeou, which was in itself +commendable as tending to the better and quicker administration of +justice, but pernicious as exhibiting a tendency to over-centralization, +and as abolishing the hereditary "nobility of the robe," which, with all +its faults, had from its nature preserved some independence, and been a +check on the royal power. Malesherbes presented a strong remonstrance +against the new system, and was at once banished to his country seat at +St Lucie, to be recalled, however, with the old parlement on the +accession of Louis XVI., and to be made minister of the _maison du roi_ +in 1775. He only held office nine months, during which, however, he +directed his attention to the police of the kingdom, which came under +his department, and did much to check the odious practice of issuing +_lettres de cachet_. The protest of the _cour des aides_ in 1775 is one +of the most important documents of the old régime in France. It gives a +complete survey of the corrupt and inefficient administration, and +presented the king with most outspoken criticism. On retiring from the +ministry with Turgot in 1776, he betook himself entirely to a happy +country and domestic life and travelled through Switzerland, Germany and +Holland. An essay on Protestant marriages (1787) did much to procure for +them the civil recognition in France. He had always been an enthusiastic +botanist; his avenue at St Lucie was world famous; he had written +against Buffon on behalf of the botanists whom Buffon had attacked, and +had been elected a member of the _Académie des sciences_ as far back as +1750. He was now elected a member of the _Académie française_, and +everything seemed to promise a quiet and peaceful old age spent in the +bosom of his family and occupied with scientific and literary pursuits, +when the king in his difficulties wished for the support of his name, +and summoned him back to the ministry in 1787. Lamoignon-Malesherbes +held office but a short time, but returned to his country life this time +with a feeling of insecurity and disquiet, and, as the troubles +increased, retired to Switzerland. Nevertheless, in December 1792, in +spite of the fair excuse his old age and long retirement would have +given him, he voluntarily left his asylum and undertook with Tronchet +and Desèze the defence of the king before the Convention, and it was his +painful task to break the news of his condemnation to the king. After +this effort he returned once more to the country, but in December 1793 +he was arrested with his daughter, his son-in-law M. de Rosambo, and his +grandchildren, and on the 23rd of April 1794 he was guillotined, after +having seen all whom he loved in the world executed before his eyes for +their relationship to him. Malesherbes is one of the sweetest +characters of the 18th century; though no man of action, hardly a man of +the world, by his charity and unfeigned goodness he became one of the +most popular men in France, and it was an act of truest self-devotion in +him to sacrifice himself for a king who had done little or nothing for +him. + + There are in print several scientific works of Malesherbes of varying + value, of which the most interesting is his _Observations sur Buffon + et Daubenton_, written when he was very young, and published with a + notice by Abeille in 1798. There exist also his _Mémoire pour Louis + XVI._, his _Mémoire sur la liberté de la presse_ (published 1809) and + extracts from his remonstrances, published as _Oeuvres choisies de + Malesherbes_ in 1809. For his life should be read the _Notice + historique_ (3rd ed., 1806) of Dubois, the _Éloge historique_ (1805) + of Gaillard, and the interesting _Essai sur la vie, les écrits et les + opinions de M. de Malesherbes_ (in 2 vols., 1818), of F. A. de Boissy + d'Anglas. There are also many éloges on him in print, of which the + best-known is that of M. Dupin, which was delivered at the Academy in + 1841, and was reviewed with much light on Malesherbes's control of the + press by Sainte-Beuve in the 2nd volume of the _Causeries du lundi_. + The protest of the _cour des aides_ has been published with + translation by G. Robinson in the _Translations and Reprints of the + University of Pennsylvania_ (1900). For his defence of Louis XVI. see + Marquis de Beaucourt, _Captivité et derniers moments de Louis XVI._ (2 + vols., 1892, Soc. d'hist. contemp.), and A. Tuetey, _Répertoire + général des sources manuscrites de l'hist. de Paris pendant la Rev. + fr._, vol. viii. (1908). + + + + +MALET, LUCAS, the pen-name of Mary St Leger Harrison (1852- ), English +novelist. She was the eldest daughter of Charles Kingsley, and was born +at Eversley on the 4th of June 1852. She studied at the Slade school and +at University College, London, and married in 1876 William Harrison, +rector of Clovelly. After her husband's death in 1897 she eventually +settled in London. She had already written several books--_Mrs Lorimer_ +(1882), _Colonel Enderby's Wife_ (1885), _Little Peter_ (1887), _A +Counsel of Perfection_ (1888)--when she published her powerful story, +_The Wages of Sin_ (1891), which attracted great attention. Her _History +of Sir Richard Calmady_ (1901) had an even greater success. Her other +novels include _The Carissima_ (1896), _The Gateless Barrier_ (1900), +_On the Far Horizon_ (1906). + + + + +MALHERBE, FRANÇOIS DE (1555-1628), French poet, critic and translator, +was born at Caen in 1555. His family was of some position, though it +seems not to have been able to establish to the satisfaction of heralds +the claims which it made to nobility older than the 16th century. The +poet was the eldest son of another François de Malherbe, _conseiller du +roi_ in the magistracy of Caen. He himself was elaborately educated at +Caen, at Paris, at Heidelberg and at Basel. At the age of twenty-one, +preferring arms to the gown, he entered the household of Henri +d'Angoulême, grand prior of France, the natural son of Henry II. He +served this prince as secretary in Provence, and married there in 1581. +It seems that he wrote verses at this period, but, to judge from a +quotation of Tallemant des Réaux, they must have been very bad ones. His +patron died when Malherbe was on a visit in his native province, and for +a time he had no particular employment, though by some servile verses he +obtained a considerable gift of money from Henry III., whom he +afterwards libelled. He lived partly in Provence and partly in Normandy +for many years after this event; but very little is known of his life +during this period. His _Larmes de Saint Pierre_, imitated from Luigi +Tansillo, appeared in 1587. + +It was in the year parting the two centuries (1600) that he presented to +Marie de' Medici an ode of welcome, the first of his remarkable poems. +But four or five years more passed before his fortune, which had +hitherto been indifferent, turned. He was presented by his countryman, +the Cardinal Du Perron, to Henry IV.; and, though that economical prince +did not at first show any great eagerness to entertain the poet, he was +at last summoned to court and endowed after one fashion or another. It +is said that the pension promised him was not paid till the next reign. +His father died in 1606, and he came into his inheritance. From this +time forward he lived at court, corresponding affectionately with his +wife, but seeing her only twice in some twenty years. His old age was +saddened by a great misfortune. His son, Marc Antoine, a young man of +promise, fell in a duel in 1626. His father used his utmost influence +to have the guilty parties (for more than one were concerned, and there +are grounds for thinking that it was not a fair duel) brought to +justice. But he died before the suit was decided (it is said in +consequence of disease caught at the camp of La Rochelle, whither he had +gone to petition the king), in Paris, on the 16th of October, 1628, at +the age of seventy-three. + +The personal character of Malherbe was far from amiable, but he +exercised, or at least indicated the exercise of, a great and enduring +effect upon French literature, though by no means a wholly beneficial +one. The lines of Boileau beginning _Enfin Malherbe vint_ are rendered +only partially applicable by the extraordinary ignorance of older French +poetry which distinguished that peremptory critic. But the good as well +as bad side of Malherbe's theory and practice is excellently described +by his contemporary and superior Regnier, who was animated against him, +not merely by reason of his own devotion to Ronsard but because of +Malherbe's discourtesy towards Regnier's uncle P. Desportes, whom the +Norman poet had at first distinctly copied. These are the lines:-- + + "Cependant leur savoir ne s'étend nullement + Qu'à régratter un mot douteuse au jugement, + Prendre garde qu'un _qui_ ne heurte une diphthongue, + Epier si des vers la rime est brève ou longue, + Ou bien si la voyelle à l'autre s'unissant + Ne rend point à l'oreille un vers trop languissant. + . . . . . . . . + C'est proser de la rime et rimer de la prose." + +This is perfectly true, and from the time of Malherbe dates that great +and deplorable falling off of French poetry in its more poetic +qualities, which was not made good till 1830. Nevertheless the critical +and restraining tendency of Malherbe was not ill in place after the +luxuriant importation and innovation of the _Pléiade_; and if he had +confined himself to preaching greater technical perfection, and +especially greater simplicity and purity in vocabulary and +versification, instead of superciliously striking his pen through the +great works of his predecessors, he would have deserved wholly well. As +it was, his reforms helped to elaborate the kind of verse necessary for +the classical tragedy, and that is the most that can be said for him. +His own poetical work is scanty in amount, and for the most part frigid +and devoid of inspiration. The beautiful _Consolation à Duperier_, in +which occurs the famous line-- + + Et, rose, elle a vécu ce que vivent les roses-- + +the odes to Marie de' Medici and to Louis XIII., and a few other pieces +comprise all that is really worth remembering of him. His prose work is +much more abundant, not less remarkable for care as to style and +expression, and of greater positive value. It consists of some +translations of Livy and Seneca, and of a very large number of +interesting and admirably written letters, many of which are addressed +to Peiresc, the man of science of whom Gassendi has left a delightful +Latin life. It contains also a most curious commentary on Desportes, in +which Malherbe's minute and carping style of verbal criticism is +displayed on the great scale. + + The chief authorities for the biography of Malherbe are the _Vie de + Malherbe_ by his friend and pupil Racan, and the long _Historiette_ + which Tallemant des Réaux has devoted to him. The standard edition is + the admirable one of Ludovic Lalanne (5 vols., Paris, 1862-1869). Of + the poems only, there is an excellent and handsome little issue in the + _Nouvelle collection Jannet_ (Paris, 1874). Of modern works devoted to + him, _La Doctrine de Malherbe_, by G. Brunot (1891), is not only the + most important but a work altogether capital in regard to the study of + French language and literature. Others are A. Gasté, _La Jeunesse de + Malherbe_ (1890); V. Bourrienne, _Points obscurs dans la vie normande + de Malherbe_ (1895); and the duc de Broglie's "Malherbe" in _Les + Grands écrivains français_. On his position in French and general + critical history, G. Saintsbury's _History of Criticism_, vol. ii., + may be consulted. (G. Sa.) + + + + +MALIBRAN, MARIE FÉLICITÉ (1808-1836), operatic singer, daughter of +Manoel Garcia, was born in Paris on the 24th of March 1808. Her father +was then a member of the company of the Théâtre des Italiens, and she +accompanied him to Italy and London. She possessed a soprano voice of +unusual beauty and phenomenal compass, which was carefully cultivated +by her father. She was only seventeen when, in consequence of an +indisposition of Madame Pasta, she was suddenly asked to take her place +in _The Barber of Seville_ at Covent Garden. She was forthwith engaged +for the remaining six weeks of the season, and then followed her father +to New York, where she appeared in _Othello_, _The Barber of Seville_, +_Don Juan_, _Romeo and Juliet_, _Tancred_. Her gifts as an actress were +on a par with her magnificent voice, and her gaiety made her +irresistible in light opera, although her great triumphs were obtained +chiefly in tragic parts. She married a French banker of New York, named +Malibran, who was much older than herself. The marriage was an unhappy +one, and Mme Malibran returned alone to Europe in 1828, when she began +the series of representations at the Théâtre des Italiens, which excited +an enthusiasm in Paris only exceeded by the reception she received in +the principal towns of Italy. She was formally divorced from Malibran in +1835, and married the Belgian violinist, Charles de Beriot; but she died +of fever on the 23rd of September 1836. + + See _Memoirs of Mme Malibran by the comtesse de Merlin and other + intimate friends, with a selection from her correspondence_ (2 vols., + 1840); and M. Teneo, _La Malibran, d'après des documents inédits_, in + _Sammelbände der internationalen Musik-Gesellschaft_ (Leipzig, 1906). + + + + +MALIC ACID (HYDROXYETHYLENE SUCCINIC ACID), C4H6O5, an organic acid +found abundantly in the juices of many plants, particularly in +mountain-ash berries, in unripe apples and in grapes. The acid potassium +salt is also found in the leaves and stalks of rhubarb. Since the acid +contains an asymmetric carbon atom, it can exist in three forms, a +dextro-rotatory, a laevo-rotatory and an inactive form; the acid +obtained in the various synthetical processes is the inactive form. It +may be prepared by heating racemic acid (see TARTARIC ACID) with fuming +hydriodic acid; by heating fumaric acid (q.v.) with water at 150-200° +C.; by the action of nitrous acid on inactive aspartic acid; and by the +action of moist silver oxide on monobromsuccinic acid. It forms +deliquescent crystals, which are readily soluble in alcohol and melt at +100° C. When heated for some time at 130° C. it yields fumaric acid +(q.v.), and on rapid heating at 180° C. gives maleic anhydride and +fumaric acid. It yields coumarins when warmed with sulphuric acid and +phenols (H. v. Pechmann, _Ber._, 1884, 17, 929, 1649 et seq.). Potassium +bichromate oxidizes it to malonic acid; nitric acid oxidizes it to +oxalic acid; and hydriodic acid reduces it to succinic acid. The +inactive variety may be split into the component active forms by means +of its cinchonine salt (G. J. W. Bremer, _Ber._, 1880, 13, 352). + + + + +MALIGNANT (Lat. _malignus_, evil-disposed, from _maligenus_), wicked, of +a malicious or wilfully evil disposition. The word was early applied by +the Protestants to the Romanists, with an allusion to the "congregation +of evil doers" (Vulgate _Ecclesiam malignantium_) of Psalm xxvi. 5. In +English history, during the Great Rebellion, the name was given to the +Royalists by the Parliamentary party. In the Great Remonstrance of 1641 +occur the words "the malignant partie, wherof the Archbishop (Laud) and +the earl of Strafford being heads." The name throughout the period had +special reference to the religious differences between the parties. In +medical science, the term "malignant" is applied to a particularly +virulent or dangerous form which a disease may take, or to a tumour or +growth of rapid growth, extension to the lymphatic glands, and +recurrence after operation. + + + + +MALIK IBN ANAS (c. 718-795), the founder of the Malikite school of canon +law, was born at Medina about A.D. 718: the precise date is not certain. +He studied and passed his life there, and came to be regarded as the +greatest local authority in theology and law. (For his legal system and +its history see MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) His life was one of extreme honour and +dignity, but uneventful, being given to study, lecturing on law and +acting as mufti and judge. Only two episodes stand out in his biography. +When Mahommed ibn 'Abdallah, the 'Alid, rose in A.D. 762 at Medina +against the 'Abbasids, Malik gave a _fatwa_, or legal opinion, that the +oath of allegiance to the 'Abbasids was invalid, as extorted by force. +For this independence he was severely scourged by the 'Abbasid governor, +who, apparently, did not dare to go beyond scourging with a man of his +standing with the people. The second episode gave equal proof of +independence. In 795 Harun al-Rashid made the pilgrimage, came with two +of his sons to Medina, and sat at the feet of Malik as he lectured in +the mosque. The story, legendary or historical, adds that Malik had +refused to go to the caliph, saying that it was for the student to come +to his teacher. Late in life he seems to have turned to asceticism and +contemplation. It is said that he retired from all active, public life +and even neglected plain, public duties, replying to reproaches, "Not +every one can speak in his own excuse" (Ibn Qutaiba, _Ma 'arif_, 250). +He is also entered among the early ascetic Sufis (cf. _Fihrist_, 183). +He died in Medina, A.D. 795. + + For a description of his principal book, the _Muwatta'_, see + Goldziher's _Muhammedanische Studien_, ii. 213 sqq. He wrote also a + Koran commentary, now apparently lost, and a hortatory epistle to + Harun al-Rashid. See further, de Slane's trans. of Ibn Khallikan, ii. + 545 sqq.; von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte_, i. 477 sqq.; Brockelmann, + _Gesch. der arab. Litt._, i. 175 sqq.; Macdonald, _Muslim Theology, + &c._, 99 sqq. and index; _Fihrist_, 198 seq.; Nawawi, 530 sqq. + (D. B. Ma.) + + + + +MALINES (Flemish, _Mechelen_, called in the middle ages by the Latin +name Mechlinia, whence the spelling Mechlin), an ancient and important +city of Belgium, and the seat since 1559 of the only archbishopric in +that country. Pop. (1904), 58,101. The name is supposed to be derived +from _maris linea_, and to indicate that originally the sea came up to +it. It is now situated on the Dyle, and is in the province of Antwerp, +lying about half-way between Antwerp and Brussels. The chief importance +of Malines is derived from the fact that it is in a sense the religious +capital of Belgium--the archbishop being the primate of the Catholic +Church in that country. The archbishop's palace is in a picturesque +situation, and dates from the creation of the dignity. The principal +building in the city is the exceedingly fine cathedral dedicated to St +Rombaut. This cathedral was begun in the 12th and finished early in the +14th century, and although modified in the 15th after a fire, it remains +one of the most remarkable specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe. +The massive tower of over 300 ft., which is described as unfinished +because the original intention was to carry it to 500 ft., is its most +striking external feature. The people of Malines gained in the old +distich--"gaudet Mechlinia stultis"--the reputation of being "fools," +because one of the citizens on seeing the moon through the dormer +windows of St Rombaut called out that the place was on fire, and his +fellow-citizens, following his example, endeavoured to put out the +conflagration until they realized the truth. The cathedral contains a +fine altar-piece by Van Dyck, and the pulpit is in carved oak of the +17th century. Another old palace is that of Margaret of Austria, regent +for Charles V., which has been carefully preserved and is now used as a +court of justice. In the church of Notre Dame (16th century) is Rubens' +masterpiece "the miraculous draught of fishes," and in that of St John +is a fine triptych by the same master. Malines, although no longer +famous for its lace, carries on a large trade in linen, needles, +furniture and oil, while as a junction for the line from Ghent to +Louvain and Liège, as well as for that from Antwerp to Brussels and the +south, its station is one of the busiest in Belgium, and this fact has +contributed to the general prosperity of the city. + +The lordship of Malines was conferred as a separate fief by Pippin the +Short on his kinsman Count Adon in 754. In the 9th century Charles the +Bald bestowed the fief on the bishop of Liége, and after being shared +between Brabant and Flanders it passed into the hands of Philip the +Bold, founder of the house of Burgundy, in 1384. During the religious +troubles of the 16th century Malines suffered greatly, and in 1572 it +was sacked by Alva's troops during three days. In the wars of the 17th +and 18th centuries it was besieged many times and captured by the +French, Dutch and English on several occasions. The French finally +removed the fortifications in 1804, since which year it has been an open +town. + + + + +MALLANWAN, a town in Hardoi district, the United Provinces, India. Pop. +(1901), 11,158. Under native rule the town possessed considerable +political importance, and upon the British annexation of Oudh it was +selected as the headquarters of the district, but was abandoned in +favour of Hardoi after the Mutiny. Saltpetre and brass utensils are +manufactured. + + + + +MALLARMÉ, FRANÇOIS RENÉ AUGUSTE (1755-1835), French Revolutionist, the +son of a lawyer, was born at Nancy on the 25th of February 1755. He was +brought up in his father's profession, and was appointed +_procureur-syndic_ of the district of Pont-à-Mousson. During the +Revolution he was elected by the department of Meurthe deputy to the +Legislative Assembly and the Convention, where he attached himself to +the Mountain and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was elected +president of the Convention on the 30th of May 1793, and by his weakness +during the crisis of the following day contributed much to the success +of the insurrection against the Girondists. He took an active part in +the _levée-en-masse_, and in November 1793 was given the task of +establishing the revolutionary government in the departments of Meuse +and Moselle, where he gained an unenviable notoriety by ordering the +execution of the sentence of death decreed by the revolutionary tribunal +on some young girls at Verdun who had offered flowers to the Prussians +when they entered the town. After the fall of Robespierre he joined the +group of "Thermidorians" and was sent on mission to the south of France, +where he closed the Jacobin club at Toulouse and set free a number of +imprisoned "suspects." On the 1st of June 1795 he was denounced and +arrested, but was soon set at liberty. In 1796 he was appointed by the +Directory commissioner for the organization of the departments of Dyle +and Mont-Tonnerre. Under the empire he was receiver of the _droits +réunis_ at Nancy, and lost his money in 1814 in raising a levy of +volunteers. Appointed sub-prefect of Avesnes during the Hundred Days, he +was imprisoned by the Prussians in revenge for the death of the maidens +of Verdun, and lived in exile during the Restoration. He returned to +France after the revolution of 1830, and died at Richemont +(Seine-Inférieure) on the 25th of July 1835. + + + + +MALLARMÉ, STÉPHANE (1842-1898), French poet and theorist, was born at +Paris, on the 18th of March 1842. His life was simple and without event. +His small income as professor of English in a French college was +sufficient for his needs, and, with his wife and daughter, he divided +the year between a fourth-floor flat in Paris and a cottage on the banks +of the Seine. His Tuesday evening receptions, which did so much to form +the thought of the more interesting of the younger French men of +letters, were almost as important a part of his career as the few +carefully elaborated books which he produced at long intervals. +_L'Après-midi d'un faune_ (1876) and other fragments of his verse and +prose had been known to a few people long before the publication of the +_Poésies complètes_ of 1887, in a facsimile of his clear and elegant +handwriting, and of the Pages of 1891 and the _Vers et prose_ of 1893. +His remarkable translation of poems of Poe appeared in 1888, "The Raven" +having been published as early as 1875, with illustrations by Manet. +_Divagations_, his own final edition of his prose, was published in +1897, and a more or less complete edition of the _Poésies_, +posthumously, in 1899. He died at Valvins, Fontainebleau, on the 9th of +September 1898. All his life Mallarmé was in search of a new aesthetics, +and his discoveries by the way were often admirable. But he was too +critical ever to create freely, and too limited ever to create +abundantly. His great achievement remains unfinished, and all that he +left towards it is not of equal value. There are a few poems and a few +pieces of imaginative prose which have the haunting quality of Gustave +Moreau's pictures, with the same jewelled magnificence, mysterious and +yet definite. His later work became more and more obscure, as he seemed +to himself to have abolished limit after limit which holds back speech +from the expression of the absolute. Finally, he abandoned punctuation +in verse, and invented a new punctuation, along with a new construction, +for prose. Patience in the study of so difficult an author has its +reward. No one in our time has vindicated with more pride the +self-sufficiency of the artist in his struggle with the material world. +To those who knew him only by his writings his conversation was +startling in its clearness; it was always, like all his work, at the +service of a few dignified and misunderstood ideas. + + See also Paul Verlaine, _Les Poètes maudits_ (1884); J. Lemaître, _Les + Contemporains_ (5th series, 1891); Albert Moekel, _Stéphane Mallarmé, + un héros_ (1899); E. W. Gosse, _French Profiles_ (1905) and A. Symons, + _The Symbolist Movement in Literature_ (1900). A complete bibliography + is given in the _Poètes d'aujourd'hui_ (1880-1900, 11th ed., 1905) of + MM. A. van Bever and P. Léautaud. (A. Sy.) + + + + +MALLECO, a province of southern Chile, once a part of the Indian +territory of Araucania (q.v.), lying between the provinces of Bio-Bio on +the N. and E., Cautin on the S. and Arauco on the W. Area, 2973 sq. m. +Pop. (1895), 98,032. It belongs to the rainy, forested region of +southern Chile, and is thinly populated, a considerable part of its +population being Araucanian Indians, who occupy districts in the Andean +foothills. Gold placer mining has attracted some attention, but the +output is small. The principal industries are cattle and wheat raising +and timber-cutting. The capital is Angol (pop., 7056 in 1895; estimated +at 7638 in 1902), a small town in the northern part of the province, on +the Malleco river, and a station on the Traiguen branch of the state +railway. Traiguen (pop., 5732 in 1895; estimated at 7099 in 1902) in the +southern part of the province is the second town in importance, and +Victoria (pop., 6989 in 1895; estimated at 10,002 in 1902), about 20 m. +E. of the last-named town, was for a time the terminal station of the +main line of the railway. + + + + +MALLEMUCK, from the German rendering of the Dutch _Mallemugge_ (which +originally meant small flies or midges that madly whirl round a light), +a name given by the early Dutch Arctic voyagers to the Fulmar (q.v.), of +which the English form is nowadays most commonly applied by our sailors +to the smaller albatrosses, of about the size of a goose, met with in +the Southern Ocean--corrupted into "molly mawk," or "mollymauk." A +number of species have been identified. _Diomedea irrorata_ of West Peru +is sooty-brown with white mottlings and a white head; _D. migripes_ of +the North Pacific is similar in colour but with white only near the eye +and at the base of the tail and bill; _D. immutabilis_ of Japan is +darker but has a white head. _D. melanophrys_ of the southern oceans has +been found in summer both in California, in England, and as far north as +the Faeroes. According to J. Gould the latter is the commonest species +of albatross inhabiting the Southern Ocean, and its gregarious habits +and familiar disposition make it well known to every voyager to or from +Australia, for it is equally common in the Atlantic as well as the +Pacific. The back, wings and tail are of a blackish-grey, but all the +rest of the plumage is white, except a dusky superciliary streak, whence +its name of black-browed albatross, as also its scientific epithet, are +taken. The bill of the adult is of an ochreous-yellow, while that of the +young is dark. This species breeds on the Falkland Islands. _D. bulleri_ +of the New Zealand seas is greyish-brown, with white underparts and rump +and ashy head. _Diomedea_ (or _Thalassogeron_) _culminata_ and +_chlororhyncha_ of the southern seas, _D._ (or _T._) _cauta_ of +Tasmania, _salvini_ of New Zealand and _layardi_ of the Cape resemble +_D. bulleri_, but have a strip of naked skin between the plates of the +maxilla towards its base. H. N. Moseley (_Notes of a Naturalist_, 130) +describes _D. culminata_ as making a cylindrical nest of grass, sedge +and clay, with a shallow basin atop and an overhanging rim--the whole +being about 14 in. in diameter and 10 in height. The bird lays a single +white egg, which is held in a sort of pouch, formed by the skin of the +abdomen, while she is incubating. The feet of _D. bulleri_ are red, of +_D. chlororhyncha_ flesh-coloured, of the others yellow. (A. N.) + + + + +MALLESON, GEORGE BRUCE (1825-1898), Indian officer and author, was born +at Wimbledon, on the 8th of May 1825. Educated at Winchester, he +obtained a cadetship in the Bengal infantry in 1842, and served through +the second Burmese War. His subsequent appointments were in the civil +line, the last being that of guardian to the young maharaja of Mysore. +He retired with the rank of colonel in 1877, having been created C.S.I. +in 1872. He died at Kensington, on the 1st of March 1898. He was a +voluminous writer, his first work to attract attention being the famous +"Red Pamphlet," published at Calcutta in 1857, when the Mutiny was at +its height. He continued, and considerably rewrote the _History of the +Indian Mutiny_ (6 vols., 1878-1880), which was begun but left unfinished +by Sir John Kaye. Among his other books the most valuable are _History +of the French in India_ (2nd ed., 1893) and _The Decisive Battles of +India_ (3rd ed., 1888). + + + + +MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?1705-1765), Scottish poet and dramatist, +the son of a Perthshire farmer, was born in that county, probably in +1705. In 1717 he went to the high school at Edinburgh, and some three +years later to the university, where he made the friendship of James +Thomson, author of _The Seasons_. As early as 1720 he began to publish +short poems in the manner of the period, a number of which appeared +during the next few years in collections such as the _Edinburgh +Miscellany_ and Allan Ramsay's _Tea Table Miscellany_, in which his +ballad "William and Margaret" was published in 1724. For some years from +1723 he was private tutor to the duke of Montrose's sons, with whom he +travelled on the Continent in 1727. His real name was Malloch; but this +he changed to Mallet in 1724. In 1735 he took the M.A. degree at Oxford. +He had already made the friendship of Pope, whose vanity he flattered in +a poem on _Verbal Criticism_, in 1733; and through Pope he became +acquainted with Bolingbroke and other Tory politicians, especially those +attached to the party of the prince of Wales, who in 1742 appointed +Mallet to be his paid secretary. After Pope's death, in 1744, Mallet, at +the instigation of Bolingbroke and forgetful of past favours and +friendship, vilified the poet's memory, thereby incurring the resentment +of Pope's friends. For his services as a party pamphleteer, in which +character he published an attack on Admiral Byng, Mallet received from +Lord Bute a lucrative sinecure in 1760. He died on the 21st of April +1765. Mallet was a small man, in his younger days something of a dandy +and inordinately vain. He was twice married; by his first wife he had a +daughter, Dorothy, who married Pietro Paolo Celesia, a Genoese +gentleman, and was the author of several poems and plays, notably +_Almida_, produced by Garrick at Drury Lane in 1771. + +Mallet's own works included several plays, some of which were produced +by Garrick, who was Mallet's personal friend. _Eurydice_, a tragedy, +with prologue and epilogue by Aaron Hill, was produced at Drury Lane in +1731; _Mustapha_, also a tragedy, had considerable success at the same +theatre in 1739; in 1740, in collaboration with Thomson, he produced the +masque _Alfred_, of which he published a new version in 1751, after +Thomson's death, claiming it to be almost entirely his own work. This +masque is notable as containing the well-known patriotic song, "Rule +Britannia," the authorship of which has been attributed to Mallet, +although he allowed it to appear without protest in his lifetime with +Thomson's name attached. His other writings include _Poems on Several +Occasions_ (1743); _Amyntor and Theodora, or the Hermit_ (1747); another +volume of _Poems_ (1762). + + In 1759 a collected edition of Mallet's _Works_ was published in three + volumes; and in 1857 his _Ballads and Songs_ were edited by F. + Dinsdale with notes, and a biographical memoir of the author. + + + + +MALLET, PAUL HENRI (1730-1807), Swiss writer, was born on the 20th of +August 1730, in Geneva. After having been educated there, he became +tutor in the family of the count of Calenberg in Saxony. In 1752 he was +appointed professor of _belles lettres_ to the academy at Copenhagen. He +was naturally attracted to the study of the ancient literature and +history of his adopted country, and in 1755 he published the first +fruits of his researches, under the title _Introduction à l'histoire du +Danemarck où l'on traite de la religion, des moeurs, des lois, et des +usages des anciens Danois_. A second part, more particularly relating to +the ancient literature of the country, _Monuments de la mythologie et de +la poesie des Celtes, et particulièrement des anciens Scandinaves_, was +issued in 1756, and was also translated into Danish. A translation into +English, with notes and preface, by Bishop Percy, was issued in 1770 +under the title of _Northern Antiquities_ (republished with additions in +1847). The book had a wide circulation, and attracted much attention on +account of its being the first (though a very defective) translation +into French of the _Edda_. The king of Denmark showed his appreciation +by choosing Mallet to be preceptor of the crown prince. In 1760 he +returned to Geneva, and became professor of history in his native city. +While there he was requested by the czarina to undertake the education +of the heir-apparent of Russia (afterwards the czar Paul I.), but +declined the honour. An invitation more congenial to his tastes led to +his accompanying Lord Mountstuart in his travels through Italy and +thence to England, where he was presented at court and commissioned to +write the history of the house of Brunswick. He had previously received +a similar commission from the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel for the +preparation of a history of the house of Hesse, and both works were +completed in 1785. The quietude of a literary life was rudely broken by +the shock of the Revolution, to which he was openly hostile. His +leanings to the unpopular side were so obnoxious to his fellow-citizens +that he was obliged to quit his native country in 1792, and remained in +exile till 1801. He died at Geneva, on the 8th of February 1807. + + A memoir of his life and writings, by Sismondi, was published at + Geneva in 1807. Besides the _Introduction to the History of Denmark_, + his principal works are: _Histoire du Danemarck_ (3 vols., Copenhagen, + 1758-1777); _Histoire de la maison de Hesse_ (4 vols., 1767-1785); + _Histoire de la maison de Brunswick_ (4 vols., 1767-1785); _Histoire + de la maison et des états du Mecklenbourg_ (1796); _Histoire des + Suisses ou Helvétiens_ (4 vols., Geneva, 1803) (mainly an abridgment + of J. von Müller's great history); _Histoire de la ligue hanséatique_ + (1805). + + + + +MALLET, ROBERT (1810-1881), Irish engineer, physicist and geologist, was +born in Dublin, on the 3rd of June 1810. He was educated at Trinity +College in that city, and graduated B.A. in 1830. Trained as an +engineer, he was elected M.Inst.C.E. in 1842; he built in 1848-1849 the +Fastnet Rock lighthouse, south-west of Cape Clear, and was engaged in +other important works. Devoting much attention to pure science, he +became especially distinguished for his researches on earthquakes, and +from 1852-1858 he was engaged (with his son John William Mallet) in the +preparation of his great work, _The Earthquake Catalogue of the British +Association_ (1858). In 1862 he published two volumes, dealing with the +_Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857_ and _The First Principles of +Observational Seismology_. He then brought forward evidence to show that +the depth below the earth's surface, whence came the impulse of the +Neapolitan earthquake, was about 8 or 9 geographical miles. One of his +most important essays was that communicated to the Royal Society (_Phil. +Trans._ clxiii. 147; 1874), entitled _Volcanic Energy: an Attempt to +develop its True Origin and Cosmical Relations_. He sought to show that +volcanic heat may be attributed to the effects of crushing, contortion +and other disturbances in the crust of the earth; the disturbances +leading to the formation of lines of fracture, more or less vertical, +down which water would find its way, and if the temperature generated be +sufficient volcanic eruptions of steam or lava would follow. He was +elected F.R.S. in 1854, and he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the +Geological Society of London in 1877. He died at Clapham, London, on the +5th of November 1881. + + + + +MALLET DU PAN, JACQUES (1749-1800), French journalist, of an old +Huguenot family, was born near Geneva in 1749, the son of a Protestant +minister. He was educated at Geneva, and through the influence of +Voltaire obtained a professorship at Cassel. He soon, however, resigned +this post, and going to London joined H.S.N. Linguet in the production +of his _Annales politiques_ (1778-1780). During Linguet's imprisonment +in the Bastille Mallet du Pan continued the _Annales_ by himself +(1781-1783); but Linguet resented this on his release, and Mallet du Pan +changed the title of his own publication to _Mémoires historiques_ +(1783). From 1783 he incorporated this work with the _Mercure de France_ +in Paris, the political direction of which had been placed in his hands. +On the outbreak of the French Revolution he sided with the Royalists, +and was sent on a mission (1791-1792) by Louis XVI. to Frankfort to try +and secure the sympathy and intervention of the German princes. From +Germany he travelled to Switzerland and from Switzerland to Brussels in +the Royalist interest. He published a number of anti-revolutionary +pamphlets, and a violent attack on Bonaparte and the Directory resulted +in his being exiled in 1797 to Berne. In 1798 he came to London, where +he founded the _Mercure britannique_. He died at Richmond, Surrey, on +the 10th of May 1800, his widow being pensioned by the English +government. Mallet du Pan has a place in history as a pioneer of modern +political journalism. His son JOHN LEWIS MALLET (1775-1861) spent a +useful life in the English civil service, becoming secretary of the +Board of Audit; and J. L. Mallet's second son, SIR LOUIS MALLET +(1823-1890) also entered the civil service in the Board of Trade and +rose to be a distinguished economist and a member of the Council of +India. + + Mallet du Pan's _Mémoires et correspondance_ was edited by A. Sayous + (Paris, 1851). See _Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution_ (1902), + by Bernard Mallet, son of Sir Louis Mallet, author also of a biography + of his father (1900). + + + + +MALLING, EAST and WEST, two populous villages in the Medway +parliamentary division of Kent, England, respectively 5 and 6 m. W. by +N. of Maidstone, with a station on the South-Eastern and Chatham +railway. Pop. (1901), East Malling, 2391; West Malling, 2312. They are +situated in a rich agricultural district on the western slope of the +valley of the Medway, and East Malling has large paper mills. At West +Malling are remains of Malling Abbey, a Benedictine nunnery founded in +1090 by Gundulf, bishop of Rochester. The remains, which are partly +incorporated in a modern building, include the Norman west front of the +church, the Early English cloisters, the chapter-house, gate-house (the +chapel of which is restored to use), and other portions. About Addington +near West Malling are considerable prehistoric remains, including +mounds, single stones, stone circles and pits in the chalk hills; while +at Leybourne are the gateway and other fragments of the castle held by +the Leybourne family from the 12th to the 14th century. + + + + +MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL (1849- ), English author, was born at +Cockington Court, Devonshire. He was educated privately, and at Balliol +College, Oxford. He won the Newdigate prize in 1872, and took a second +class in the final classical schools in 1874. He attracted considerable +attention by his satirical story _The New Republic_ (2 vols., 1877), in +which he introduced characters easily recognized as prominent living +men, Mark Pattison, Matthew Arnold, W. K. Clifford and others. His keen +logic and gift for acute exposition and criticism were displayed in +later years both in fiction and in controversial works. In a series of +books dealing with religious questions he insisted on dogma as the basis +of religion and on the impossibility of founding religion on purely +scientific data. In _Is Life Worth Living?_ (1879) and _The New Paul and +Virginia_ (1878) he attacked Positivist theories, and in a volume on the +intellectual position of the Church of England, _Doctrine and Doctrinal +Disruption_ (1900), he advocated the necessity of a strictly defined +creed. Later volumes on similar topics were _Religion as a Credible +Doctrine_ (1903) and _The Reconstruction of Belief_ (1905). He published +several brilliant works on economics, directed against Radical and +Socialist theories: _Social Equality_ (1882), _Property and Progress_ +(1884), _Labour and the Popular Welfare_ (1893), _Classes and Masses_ +(1896) and _Aristocracy and Evolution_ (1898); and among his +anti-socialist works should be classed his novel, _The Old Order +Changes_ (1886). His other novels include _A Romance of the Nineteenth +Century_ (1881), _A Human Document_ (1892), _The Heart of Life_ (1895) +and _The Veil of the Temple_ (1904). He published a volume of _Poems_ in +1880, and in 1900 _Lucretius on Life and Death_ in verse. + + + + +MALLOW, a market town and watering place of Co. Cork, Ireland, on the +Blackwater, 144½ m. S.W. from Dublin, and 21 N. from Cork by the Great +Southern and Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4542. It is a junction for +lines westward to Killarney and Co. Kerry, and eastward to Lismore and +Co. Waterford. The town owes its prosperity to its beautiful situation +in a fine valley surrounded by mountains, and possesses a tepid mineral +spring, considered efficacious in cases of general debility and for +scorbutic and consumptive complaints. A spa-house with pump-room and +baths was erected in 1828. The parish church dates from 1818, but there +are remains of an earlier building adjoining it. There are manufactures +of mineral water and condensed milk, corn-mills and tanneries. Mallow +received a charter of incorporation from James I. Its name was +originally Magh Allo, that is, Plain of the Allo (the old name used by +Spenser for this part of the river), and the ford was defended by a +castle, built by the Desmonds, the ruins of which remain. A bridge +connects the town with the suburb of Ballydaheen. Mallow is a centre for +the fine salmon fishing on the Blackwater. The climate is very mild. The +town was a parliamentary borough till 1885. It is governed by an urban +district council. + + + + +MALLOW, botanically _Malva_, the typical genus of the natural order +Malvaceae, embracing about sixteen species of annual and perennial +herbaceous plants, widely distributed throughout the northern +hemisphere. The mallows possess the reniform one-celled anthers which +specially characterize the _Malvaceae_ (q.v.). The petals also are +united by their base to the tube formed by the coalesced filaments of +the stamens. The special characters which separate the genus _Malva_ +from others most nearly allied to it are the involucre, consisting of a +row of three separate bracts attached to the lower part of the true +calyx, and the numerous single-seeded carpels disposed in a circle +around a central axis, from which they become detached when ripe. The +flowers are mostly white or pinkish, never yellow, the leaves +radiate-veined, and more or less lobed or cut. Three species are natives +of Britain. The musk mallow (_Malva moschata_) is a perennial herb with +five-partite, deeply-cut leaves, and large rose-coloured flowers +clustered together at the ends of the branched stems, and is found +growing along hedges and borders of fields, blossoming in July and +August. It owes its name to a slight musky odour diffused by the plant +in warm dry weather when it is kept in a confined situation. The +round-leaved dwarf mallow (_Malva rotundifolia_) is a creeping +perennial, growing in waste sandy places, with roundish serrate leaves +and small pinkish-white flowers produced in the axils of the leaves from +June to September. It is common throughout Europe and the north of +Africa, extending to western and northern Asia. The common mallow +(_Malva sylvestris_), the _mauve_ of the French, is an erect biennial or +perennial plant with long-stalked roundish-angular serrate leaves, and +conspicuous axillary reddish-purple flowers, blossoming from May to +September. Like most plants of the order it abounds in mucilage, and +hence forms a favourite domestic remedy for colds and sore throats. The +aniline dye called mauve derives its name from its resemblance to the +colour of this plant. + + [Illustration: Mallow (_Malva sylvestris_), 1/3 nat. size. + + 1. Flower in section. + 2. Stamens showing the union of the filaments into a common tube + (monadelphous). + 3. Fruit with persistent calyx. 1, 2 and 5 enlarged. + 4. Same seen from the back showing the 3-leaved epicalyx. + 5. Seed.] + + The marsh mallow (_Althaea officinalis_), the _guimauve_ of the + French, belongs to another genus having an involucre of numerous + bracts. It is a native of marshy ground near the sea or in the + neighbourhood of saline springs. It is an erect perennial herb, with + somewhat woody stems, velvety, ovate, acute, unequally serrate leaves, + and delicate pink showy flowers blooming from July to September. The + flowers are said to yield a good deal of honey to bees. The marsh + mallow is remarkable for containing asparagin, C4H8N2O3, H2O, which, + if the root be long kept in a damp place, disappears, butyric acid + being developed. The root also contains about 25% of starch and the + same quantity of mucilage, which differs from that of gum arabic in + containing one molecule less of water and in being precipitated by + neutral acetate of lead. It is used in _pâte de guimauve_ lozenges. + _Althaea rosea_ is the hollyhock (q.v.). + + The mallow of Scripture, Job xxx. 4, has been sometimes identified + with Jew's mallow (_Corchorus olitorius_), a member of the closely + allied order Tiliaceae, but more plausibly (the word [Hebrew: maluah] + implying a saline plant) with _Atriplex Halimus_, or sea orache. In + Syria the _Halimus_ was still known by the name _Malluh_ in the time + of Ibn Beitar. See Bochart, _Hieroz._ iii. 16. + + + + +MALMEDY, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, lying in a +wild and deep basin, on the Warche, 20 m. S. of Aix-la-Chapelle by rail +via Eupen. It contains two Roman Catholic churches, a modern town-hall +and a classical school. Its industries include tanning, dyeing and +paper-making. Pop. (1900), 4680. Malmedy was famous for its Benedictine +abbey, founded about 675, which was united with that of Stablo, the +abbot of the joint house being a prince of the empire. In 1802 the lands +of the abbey passed to France, and in 1815 they were divided between +Prussia and Netherlands. + + See Kellen, _Malmedy und die preussische Wallonie_ (Essen, 1897). + + + + +MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS, 1ST EARL OF (1746-1820), English diplomatist, +was born at Salisbury on the 21st of April 1746, being the son of James +Harris (q.v.), the author of _Hermes_. Educated at Winchester, Oxford +and Leiden, young Harris became secretary in 1768 to the British embassy +at Madrid, and was left as _chargé d'affaires_ at that court on the +departure of Sir James Grey until the arrival of George Pitt, afterwards +Lord Rivers. This interval gave him his opportunity; he discovered the +intention of Spain to attack the Falkland Islands, and was instrumental +in thwarting it by putting on a bold countenance. As a reward he was +appointed minister _ad interim_ at Madrid, and in January 1772 minister +plenipotentiary to the court of Prussia. His success was marked, and in +1777 he was transferred to the court of Russia. At St Petersburg he made +his reputation, for he managed to get on with Catherine in spite of her +predilections for France, and steered adroitly through the accumulated +difficulties of the first Armed Neutrality. He was made a knight of the +Bath at the end of 1778, but in 1782 he returned home owing to +ill-health, and was appointed by his friend Fox to be minister at the +Hague, an appointment confirmed after some delay by Pitt (1784). He did +very great service in furthering Pitt's policy of maintaining England's +influence on the Continent by the arms of her allies, and held the +threads of the diplomacy which ended in the king of Prussia's +overthrowing the republican party in Holland, which was inclined to +France, and re-establishing the prince of Orange. In recognition of his +services he was created Baron Malmesbury of Malmesbury (Sept. 1788), and +permitted by the king of Prussia to bear the Prussian eagle on his arms, +and by the prince of Orange to use his motto "Je maintiendrai." He +returned to England, and took an anxious interest in politics, which +ended in his seceding from the Whig party with the duke of Portland in +1793; and in that year he was sent by Pitt, but in vain, to try to keep +Prussia true to the first coalition against France. In 1794 he was sent +to Brunswick to solicit the hand of the unfortunate Princess Caroline +for the prince of Wales, to marry her as proxy, and conduct her to her +husband in England. In 1796 and 1797 he was at Paris and Lille vainly +negotiating with the French Directory. After 1797 he became partially +deaf, and quitted diplomacy altogether; but for his long and eminent +services he was in 1800 created earl of Malmesbury, and Viscount +Fitzharris, of Heron Court in the county of Hants. He now became a sort +of political Nestor, consulted on foreign policy by successive foreign +ministers, trusted by men of the most different ideas in political +crises, and above all the confidant, and for a short time after Pitt's +death almost the political director, of Canning. Younger men were also +wont to go to him for advice, and Lord Palmerston particularly, who was +his ward, was tenderly attached to him, and owed many of his ideas on +foreign policy directly to his teaching. His later years were free from +politics, and till his death on the 21st of November 1820 he lived very +quietly and almost forgotten. As a statesman, Malmesbury had an +influence among his contemporaries which is scarcely to be understood +from his writings, but which must have owed much to personal charm of +manner and persuasiveness of tongue; as a diplomatist, he seems to have +deserved his reputation, and shares with Macartney, Auckland and +Whitworth the credit of raising diplomacy from a profession in which +only great nobles won the prizes to a career opening the path of honour +to ability. He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his son James Edward +(1778-1841), under-secretary for foreign affairs under Canning; from +whom the title passed to James Howard, 3rd earl of Malmesbury (q.v.). + + Malmesbury did not publish anything himself, except an account of the + Dutch revolution, and an edition of his father's works, but his + important _Diaries_ (1844) and _Letters_ (1870) were edited by his + grandson. + + + + +MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS, 3RD EARL OF (1807-1889), English +statesman, son of the 2nd earl, was born on the 25th of March 1807, and +educated at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford. He led a life of travel for +several years, making acquaintance with famous people; and in 1841 he +had only just been elected to the House of Commons as a Conservative, +when his father died and he succeeded to the peerage. His political +career, though not one which made any permanent impression on history, +attracted a good deal of contemporary attention, partly from his being +foreign secretary in 1852 and again in 1858-1859 (he was also lord privy +seal in 1866-1868 and in 1874-1876), and partly from his influential +position as an active Tory of the old school in the House of Lords at a +time when Lord Derby and Mr Disraeli were, in their different ways, +moulding the Conservatism of the period. Moreover his long life--he +survived till the 17th of May 1889--and the publication of his _Memoirs +of an Ex-Minister_ in 1884, contributed to the reputation he enjoyed. +These _Memoirs_, charmingly written, full of anecdote, and containing +much interesting material for the history of the time, remain his chief +title to remembrance. Lord Malmesbury also edited his grandfather's +_Diaries and Correspondence_ (1844), and in 1870 published _The First +Lord Malmesbury and His Friends: Letters from 1745 to 1820_. He was +succeeded as 4th earl by his nephew, Edward James (1842-1899), whose +son, James Edward (b. 1872) became the 5th earl in 1899. + + + + +MALMESBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham +parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94½ m. W. of London by the +Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 2854. It lies on a ridge surrounded +on all sides except the north-west by the river Avon and a small +tributary. The church of St Mary and St Aldhelm, standing high, is a +majestic fragment consisting of the greater part of the nave (with +aisles) of a Benedictine abbey church. The ruined skeleton of the great +tower arches now terminates the building eastward. The nave is +transitional Norman, with a Decorated superstructure including the +clerestory. The south porch is one of the finest Norman examples extant, +both the outer and the inner doorways (especially the first) exhibiting +the typical ornament of the period in remarkable exuberance. With the +exception of a crypt, the monastic buildings have disappeared. In the +market square stands a fine market cross of the 16th century, borne upon +an octagonal battlemented basement. Early English fragments of a +hospital of St John of Jerusalem appear in the corporation almshouse. +Malmesbury has an agricultural trade, with breweries, tanneries and +manufactures of silk and pillow lace. It is governed by a mayor, 4 +aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 178 acres. + +Maildulphus, a Scottish or Irish monk, who came into England about 635, +built a hermitage near the site of the modern Malmesbury +(_Maildulphi-urbs_, _Maldelmesburh_, _Malmesbiri_) and gathered +disciples round him, thus forming the nucleus of the later abbey of +which Aldhelm his pupil became the first abbot. Æthelstan, who was +buried here (though his tomb in the church only dates from the 16th +century), rebuilt and endowed the monastery. Round the abbey the town of +Malmesbury grew up, and by the time of the Domesday Survey it had become +one of the only two Wiltshire boroughs. The first charter, said to be a +forgery, purports to have been given by Æthelstan. It granted to the +burgesses all privileges and free customs such as they held in the time +of Edward the Elder, with many additional exemptions, in return for help +rendered against the Danes. The castle built at Malmesbury during the +reign of Henry I. gave a further impetus to the growth of the town +during the 12th and 13th centuries. It was not incorporated, however, +until 1645, when it was made a free borough under the title of "aldermen +and burgesses of the borough of Malmesbury, County Wilts." By this +charter it was governed until 1885. The borough returned two members to +parliament from 1295 to 1832 when the number was reduced to one. Finally +in 1885 its representation was merged in that of the county. A grant of +a yearly fair on the 31st of March, the feast of St Aldhelm, was +obtained from William II., and another for three days from the 25th of +July from John. In 1792 fairs were held on the 28th of March, the 28th +of April and the 29th of June, but in 1891 they had ceased entirely. +John also granted a weekly market on Thursday. In the 16th and 18th +centuries it was held on Saturday, and in 1891 on the third Wednesday in +each month. In the middle ages Malmesbury possessed a considerable cloth +manufacture, and at the Dissolution the abbey was bought by a rich +clothier and fitted with looms for weaving. The trade in wool still +flourished in 1751. + + See _Victoria County History: Wiltshire_; and _Registrum + malmesburiense_ (1879-1880). + + + + +MALMÖ, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_län_) of +Malmöhus, on a small bay of the Sound, 384 m. S.S.W. of Stockholm by +rail. Pop. (1800), 38,054; (1900), 60,857. It is connected with +Copenhagen, 17¼ m. W. by N., by steam-ferry, the Sound being kept open +in winter by an ice-breaker. It is also the first important station in +Sweden on the Berlin-Stockholm route, which crosses the sea between +Sassnitz in Rügen and Trelleborg, 20 m. S.E. of Malmö. The town, which +stands upon a level plain, formerly had strong fortifications, of which +only the citadel (Malmöhus) remains; in it the earl of Bothwell was +imprisoned by Frederick II. of Denmark for some time after his departure +from Scotland in 1567. The town-hall (1546, largely restored in 1864) +contains a handsome chamber, the Knutssal, formerly used by the council +of the gild of Canute. The hall fronts the central square (_Stortorg_) +which is planted with trees and contains a colossal statue of Charles X. +by Johan Helenus Börjeson (b. 1835) erected in 1896. The most notable +church is that of St. Peter (_Peterkyrka_), dating in part from 1319. +Malmö is second to Stockholm as an industrial centre. There are +breweries and large works for the manufacture of machinery, among which +may be mentioned the Kockum mechanical works, with yards for the +construction of vessels of war, and others; of cotton and woollen goods, +gloves, chocolate, sweetmeats and tobacco. A large export trade is +carried on in butter and other agricultural produce, and matches. Coal +is the chief import. The harborage includes an outer harbour of 22 ft. +depth, and two inner basins admitting vessels of 21 ft. draught, with +dry dock and patent slip. Malmö returns four members to the second +chamber of the Riksdag (parliament). + +Malmö (Malmhauge, Malmey, Malmöye, Malmoughe), sometimes called _Ancona +Scanorum_ or _Ellenbogen_, first appears in history about the middle of +the 13th century. During the Hanseatic period it was the most important +commercial town on the Sound, but in the 16th and 17th centuries greatly +lost ground owing to the decay of its herring fisheries and the rise of +its rival, Copenhagen. Its modern prosperity is largely due to the +enterprise of Frans Snell, one of its merchants in the second half of +the 18th century, who first constructed the harbour. + + + + +MALMSEY, a strong sweet wine, originally made at Monemvasia (Gr. [Greek: +Monembasia]), Napoli di Malvasia, in the Morea, Greece. The name of the +place was corrupted in Med. Lat. into _malmasia_, whence the English +form of the word. The corruption malvasia gives the O. Fr. _malvesie_, +from which comes the alternative English form "malvoisie." The wine is +now made not only in Greece but also in Spain, Madeira and the Azores. + + + + +MALOCELLO, LANCILOTO ("LANZAROTE, the 'Lancelot Maloisiel' of the +French"), leader of the first of modern European oceanic enterprises. +This was a Genoese expedition, which about 1270 seems to have sailed +into the Atlantic, re-discovered the "Fortunate Islands" or Canaries, +and made something of a conquest and settlement in one of the most +northerly isles of this archipelago, still known (after the Italian +captain) as Lanzarote. According to a Spanish authority of about 1345, +the anonymous Franciscan's _Conosçimiento de todos los reinos_, +"Lancarote" was killed by the Canarian natives; but the castle built by +him was standing in 1402-1404, when it was utilized for the storage of +grain by the French conquerors under Gadifer de la Salle. To Malocello's +enterprise, moreover, it is probable that Petrarch (born 1304) alludes +when he tells how, within the memory of his parents, an armed fleet of +Genoese penetrated to the "Fortunatae"; this passage some would refer, +without sufficient authority, to the expedition of 1291. Malocello's +name and nationality are certainly preserved by those early _Portolani_ +or scientific charts (such as the "Dulcert" of 1339 and the "Laurentian +Portolano" of 1351), in which the African islands appear, for the first +time in history, in clear and recognizable form. Thus Dulcert reads +_Insula de Lanzarotus_ and _Marocelus_, the Laurentian map _I. de +Lanzarote_, against Lanzarote Island, which is well depicted on both +designs, and marked with the cross of Genoa. The _Conosçimiento_ (as +noticed above) explicitly derives the island-name from the Genoese +commander who perished here. Malocello's enterprise not only marks the +beginning of the oversea expansion of western Europe in exploration, +conquest and colonization (after the age of Scandinavian world-roving +had passed); it is also probably not unconnected with the great Genoese +venture of 1291 (in search of a waterway to India, which soon follows), +with which this attempt at Canarian discovery and dominion has been by +some unjustifiably identified. + + See the _Conosçimiento_, p. 100, as edited by Marcos Jimenez de la + Espada in the _Boletin de la sociedad geográfica de Madrid_, (February + 1877); _Le Canarien_ in P. Margry, _Conquête des ... Canaries_, p. + 177; M. A. P. d'Avezac in vol. vi., part ii., of _L'Univers_, pp. 1-41 + (_Îles africaines de l'océan atlantique_); C. R. Beazley, _Dawn of + Modern Geography_, iii. 411-413, 449, 451. + + + + +MALOLOS, a town and the capital of the province of Bulacán, island of +Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Pampanga Grande river. +Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Barasoain and Santa Isabel, 27,025. +There are thirty-eight villages, or barrios, of which eight had, in +1903, 1000 inhabitants or more. The principal language is Tagalog, but +Spanish is spoken to some extent. Malolos is served by the Manila & +Dagupan railway, and is a trade centre of considerable importance. The +cultivation of rice is an important industry. In 1898-99, during the +Filipino revolt, Malolos was the seat of the rebel government, but it +was captured and reduced to desolation in March 1899. In 1904 a new +municipal school building, a municipal market and a provincial building +were erected. + + + + +MALONE, EDMOND (1741-1812), Irish Shakespearian scholar and editor, was +born in Dublin, on the 4th of October 1741, the son of a barrister and a +member of the Irish House of Commons. He was educated at Trinity +College, Dublin, and was called to the Irish bar in 1767. The death of +his father in 1774 assured him a competency, and he went to London, +where he frequented literary and artistic circles. He frequently visited +Dr Johnson and was of great assistance to Boswell in revising and +proofreading his _Life_, four of the later editions of which he +annotated. He was intimate with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom he sat for +a portrait now in the National Portrait Gallery. He was one of Reynolds' +executors, and published a posthumous collection of his works (1798) +with a memoir. Horace Walpole, Burke, Canning, Lord Charlemont, and, at +first, George Steevens, were among Malone's friends. Encouraged by the +two last he devoted himself to the study of Shakespearian chronology, +and the results of his "Attempt to ascertain the Order in which the +Plays of Shakespeare were written" (1778) are still largely accepted. +This was followed in 1780 by two supplementary volumes to Steevens's +version of Dr Johnson's _Shakespeare_, partly consisting of observations +on the history of the Elizabethan stage, and of the text of doubtful +plays; and this again, in 1783, by an appendix volume. His refusal to +alter some of his notes to Isaac Reed's edition of 1785, which disagreed +with Steevens's, resulted in a quarrel with the latter. The next seven +years were devoted to Malone's own edition of Shakespeare in eleven +volumes, of which his essays on the history of the stage, his biography +of Shakespeare, and his attack on the genuineness of the three parts of +Henry VI., were especially valuable. His editorial work was lauded by +Burke, criticized by Walpole and damned by Joseph Ritson. It certainly +showed indefatigable research and proper respect for the text of the +earlier editions. Malone published a denial of the claim to antiquity of +the Rowley poems (see CHATTERTON), and in this (1782) as in his branding +(1796) of the Ireland MSS. (see IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY) as forgeries, he +was among the first to guess and state the truth. His elaborate edition +of Dryden's works (1800), with a memoir, was another monument to his +industry, accuracy and scholarly care. In 1801 the university of Dublin +made him an LL.D. At the time of his death, on the 25th of April 1812, +Malone was at work on a new octavo edition of Shakespeare, and he left +his material to James Boswell the younger; the result was the edition of +1821--generally known as the Third Variorum edition--in twenty-one +volumes. Lord Sunderlin (1738-1816), his elder brother and executor, +presented the larger part of Malone's splendid collection of books, +including dramatic varieties, to the Bodleian Library, which afterwards +bought many of his MS. notes and his literary correspondence. The +British Museum also owns some of his letters and his annotated copy of +Johnson's _Dictionary_. + + A memoir of Malone by James Boswell is included in the _Prolegomena_ + to the edition of 1821. See also Sir J. Prior's _Life of Edmond + Malone_ (1860). + + + + +MALONE, a village and the county-seat of Franklin county, in the +township of Malone, in the N.E. part of New York, U.S.A., about 60 m. +E.N.E. of Ogdensburg. Pop. (1890), 4986; (1900), 5935 (910 +foreign-born); (1905, state census), 6478; (1910), 6467. It is served by +the New York Central & Hudson River and the Rutland (N.Y. Central Lines) +railways. The village has a Memorial Park, Arsenal Green, on the site of +an arsenal and parade-ground sold by the state in 1850, a state armoury, +the Northern New York Institute for Deaf Mutes, Franklin Academy, St +Joseph's Ursuline Academy, and a detention-house for Chinamen entering +the state from Canada. From Malone tourists visit the Great North Woods, +in the Adirondack foothills, about 15 m. distant. Iron ore and Potsdam +sandstone are found near Malone. In the surrounding region hops, +potatoes, &c., are grown, and there are dairying and livestock +interests. The village is a centre for the collection of hides and +pelts. It manufactures woollen goods, paper and pulp, &c., and has +foundry and machine shops and car repair shops. Malone, being on the +line of communication between lakes Champlain and Ontario, was of +strategic importance in the war of 1812, and later was twice the +rendezvous of Fenians for attacks on Canada. The township of Malone was +settled and erected from Chateaugay in 1805. The village was first known +as Harison, was named Ezraville, in honour of Ezra L'Hommedieu, in 1808, +received its present name in 1812, and was incorporated in 1853. + + + + +MALONIC ACID, C3H4O4 or CH2(COOH)2, occurs in the form of its calcium +salt in the sugar beet. It was first prepared in 1858 by V. Dessaignes, +who obtained it by oxidizing malic acid (_Ann._, 1858, 107, p. 251). It +may also be obtained by oxidizing allylene and propylene with cold +potassium permanganate solution, by the hydrolysis of barbituric acid +(malonyl urea) with alkalis (A. Baeyer, _Ann._, 1864, 130, p. 143); by +the hydrolysis of cyanacetic acid (H. Kolbe, _Ann._, 1864, 131, p. 349; +H. Muller, _Ann._, 1864, 131, p. 352), and by the action of silver oxide +on [beta]-di-chloracrylic ester at 125° C. (O. Wallach, _Ann._, 1878, +193, P. 25) + + CCl2:CH·COOC2H5 + Ag2O + H2O = + 2AgCl + HOOC·CH2·COOC2H5. + +It crystallizes in monoclinic tables, and is readily soluble in water, +alcohol and ether. The acid melts at 132° C., and at a higher +temperature it rapidly decomposes into acetic acid and carbon dioxide. +When heated with bromine and water to 100° C. it forms tribromacetic +acid, some bromoform being produced at the same time. Malonic acid, as +well as its esters, is characterized by the large number of condensation +products it can form. In the presence of a dehydrating agent (such as +acetic anhydride), it combines with aldehydes to form compounds of the +type R·CH:C(COOH)2, or their decomposition products (formed by loss of +CO2) R·CH:CH·COOH. + + Many salts of the acid are known and, with the exception of those of + the alkali metals, they are difficultly soluble in water. Many esters + of malonic acid have been prepared, the most important being the + _diethyl ester_ (_malonic ester_), CH2(COOC2H5)2, which is obtained by + dissolving monochloracetic acid in water, neutralizing the solution + with potassium carbonate, and then adding potassium cyanide and + warming the mixture until the reaction begins. When the reaction has + finished, the whole is evaporated and heated to about 130°-140° C. and + then allowed to cool. The mass is then covered with two-thirds of its + weight of alcohol, and saturated with hydrochloric acid gas. The whole + is then poured into ice-cold water, extracted by ether and the + ethereal solution distilled (L. Claisen, _Ann._, 1883, 218, p. 131). + It is a colourless liquid boiling at 197°.7-198°.2 C. (W. H. Perkin). + It is a most important synthetic reagent; with sodium or sodium + ethylate it forms sodio-malonic ester, which reacts readily with alkyl + halides, forming alkyl malonic esters, which are again capable of + forming sodium derivatives, that by further treatment with alkyl + halides yield the di-alkyl malonic esters. These esters are readily + hydrolysed and yield the mono- and di-alkyl malonic acids which, on + heating, are readily decomposed, with evolution of carbon dioxide and + the formation of mono- and di-alkyl acetic acids. The scheme of + reactions is shown thus: + + R´I + CH2(COOR)2 --> CHN_a (COOR)2 --> CHR´(COOR)2 + | NaOH + \/ + CO2 + CH2R´·COOH <-- CHR´(COOH)2 + R´´I + [CHR´(COOH)2NaOH --> CNaR´(COOR)2 --> CR´R´´(COOR)2 + | + \/ NaOH + CO2 + CHR´R´·COOH <-- CR´R´´(COOH)2 + + When sodio-malonic ester is heated to 145° C., it undergoes + condensation, with elimination of alcohol and formation of the benzene + derivative, _phloroglucin tricarboxylic ester_. The addition of urea + to an alcoholic solution of sodio-malonic ester results in the + formation of barbituric acid (A. Michael, _Jour. pr. Chem._, 1887 [2], + 35, p. 456) The half nitrile of malonic acid is _cyanacetic acid_, + CN·CH·2 COOH, which, in the form of its ester, may be obtained by the + action of a solution of potassium cyanide on monochloracetic acid. The + solution obtained is neutralized, concentrated on the water-bath, + acidified by sulphuric acid and extracted with ether. It is then + converted into the lead salt, which is decomposed by sulphuretted + hydrogen and the solution is carefully concentrated (Th. Meves, + _Ann._, 1867, 143, p. 201). It melts at 70° C. and at higher + temperatures decomposes, with evolution of carbon dioxide and + formation of aceto-nitrile, CH3·CN. The true nitrile of malonic acid + is _methylene cyanide_, CH2(CN)2, which is obtained by distilling a + mixture of cyanacetamide and phosphorus pentoxide. It is a crystalline + solid, which melts at 29°-30° C. and boils at 218°-219° C., and is + readily soluble in alcohol and ether. + + + + +MALORY, SIR THOMAS, translator and compiler of the famous English +classic, the _Morte d'Arthur_. Previous to the publication of Professor +Kittredge's monograph, _Who was Sir Thomas Malory?_ the identity of this +writer remained an unsolved problem. Mr. Sidney Lee, in the _Dictionary +of National Biography_, was compelled to admit that he could find no one +of that name fulfilling the necessary conditions. Of direct evidence we +have very little; in the concluding passage of the book the author asks +the prayers of the reader for "Syr Thomas Maleore knyght," and states +that the book was ended "the ix. yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the +fourth." Caxton, in his preface, says that he printed the book "after a +copye unto me delivered whyche copye Syr Thomas Malorye dyd take oute of +certeyn bookes of frensshe and reduced it in to Englysshe"; in his +colophon he repeats this statement, adding that he himself is +responsible for the division of the work into books and chapters, and +that it was printed in 1485. It will be noted that Caxton does not say +that he received the book from Malory, only that he had received a copy +made by Malory; from this Professor Kittredge draws the conclusion that +the compiler was no longer living. The problem then is to find a Thomas +Malory who was (a) a knight, (b) alive in the ninth year of King Edward +IV. (Mar. 4, 1469-Mar. 3, 1470), and (c) who was no longer living in +July (or June) 1485. + +All these conditions Professor Kittredge finds fulfilled in the life of +Sir Thomas Malory, knight, of Newbold Revell (or Fenny Newbold), M.P. +for Warwickshire in 1445. The date of Sir Thomas's birth is uncertain, +but he succeeded his father, Sir John, in 1433 or 1434. Previously to +this he had served in France, in the retinue of the earl of Warwick, +most probably during the time that that nobleman held the office of +captain of Calais. It seems probable that he is also to be identified +with a "Thomas Malorie, miles," who in 1468 was, on account of the part +played by him in the Wars of the Roses, excluded with several others +from the operation of a pardon issued by Edward IV. As, however, on the +death of Sir Thomas on the 14th of March 1470, there was no difficulty +as to inheritance, his estates passing to his grandson, he must, if this +identification be correct, have come under the general amnesty of 1469. +It will be seen, therefore, that so far as it is in our power to state +the question this Sir Thomas Malory fulfils all the necessary +conditions. + +It is interesting to note that the career of the earl of Warwick in +France was marked by certain picturesque and chivalric features which +might well impress the imagination of a young retainer. John Rous, in +his _Life of Richard Earl of Warwick_, tells us that at a certain +tourney held near Calais at Christmastide, Earl Richard appeared three +days running in different armour, overthrowing his adversary on each +occasion--an exploit obviously imitated from the chivalric romances of +the period. + +The work with which Malory's name is connected is an abridged +compilation of the great body of Arthurian romance in its latest form. +The _Merlin_ (Vulgate and Suite), _Tristan_, _Lancelot_, _Queste_ and +_Mort Artus_ are all represented, the only branch omitted is that +dealing with the "early history" of the Grail, the _Joseph of Arimathea_ +and _Grand S. Graal_. Thanks mainly to the labours of Dr Oskar Sommer, +we can now assign the majority of the books to their separate sources, +although certain stories, such as the adventures of Sir Gareth under the +pseudonym of Beaumains, the handling of Sir Urre of Hungary, and the +details of the abduction of Guenevere by Meleagaunt, still remain +unidentified. But we do not yet know whether Malory himself was +responsible for this selection, or whether he found it ready to hand in +a MS., the "Frensshe Booke" to which he often refers. To make such a +compilation at first hand, considering the extent of the ground covered, +would involve an enormous amount of study and selection, and the access +to a very large library--conditions which scarcely seem to fit in with +the social position and activities of Sir Thomas. On the other hand it +is undeniable that the medieval copyists, at the instance of their +patrons, did make compilations from the various romances within their +reach, such as e.g. the enormous codex 112 (_fonds Franç._) of the +Bibliothèque Nationale, which includes large sections of the _Tristan_, +the _Lancelot_, and the _Merlin_ Suite. Taking into consideration alike +what Malory retains and what he omits, it seems most probable that he +was in possession, not of complete copies of the romances, but of one or +more volumes of compilations from these sources. + +From the point of view of matter it must be admitted that the _Morte d' +Arthur_ does not represent the Arthurian cycle at its best, but rather +in the period of its decadence; nor does Malory in any way endeavour to +overcome the difficulties caused by the juxtaposition of a number of +independent (and often contradictory) versions. This is especially +noticeable in his treatment of Gawain; in the section derived from the +_Lancelot_ and _Mort Artus_ he is a good and valiant knight, "a ful +noble knyghte as ever was borne," in those derived from the _Tristan_ +and the _Queste_, he is treacherous, dissolute, and a murderer of good +knights. + +The great charm of Malory's work lies in his style; stately, earnest and +dignified, it has lent to the relations between Lancelot and Guenevere a +character of truth and vitality in which the French original is wholly +lacking. Malory achieved a remarkable feat--he took the Arthurian story +in its worst and weakest form and he imparted to it a moral force and +elevation which the cycle, even in its earlier and finer stage, had, +save in the unique case of Von Eschenbach's _Parzival_, never possessed. +While genuine lovers of the Arthurian cycle must regret that the +romances should only be known to the great majority of English readers +through the versions of Malory and Tennyson, it is impossible to +withhold from the _Morte d' Arthur_ the admiration due to an +imperishable monument of English language and literature. + + See _Who was Sir Thomas Malory?_ G. L. Kittredge (_Harvard Studies and + Notes_, vol. v., 1896); _Morte d' Arthur_, ed. by Dr Oskar Sommer (an + exact reproduction of the original text in 2 vols.)--vol. iii. a study + on "_The Sources of Malory._" The sections on _Lancelot_ and _Queste_ + are unfortunately very inadequate; for these cf. _The Legend of Sir + Lancelot_, Grimm Library, vol. xii. (J. L. W.) + + + + +MALOT, HECTOR HENRI (1830-1907), French novelist and man of letters, the +son of a notary, was born at La Bouille (Seine Inférieure) on the 20th +of May 1830. He studied law at Rouen and Paris, but literature early +absorbed his attention. He collaborated in the _Biographie générale_ of +Didot, became literary critic of _L'Opinion Nationale_, and dramatic +critic of the _Lloyd français_. He is the author of a long series of +popular novels dealing with contemporary life, including: a trilogy of +domestic novels entitled _Victimes d'amour_ (1859, 1865, 1866); _Un Beau +frère_ (1869); _Madame Obernin_ (1870); _Le Docteur Claude_ (1879); +_Justice_ (1889). _Les Aventures de Romain Kalbris_ (1869) and _Sans +famille_ (1888) are excellent stories for children. A complete edition +of Hector Malot's works appeared in 1894-1897. He died at Vincennes in +July 1907. + + + + +MALOU, JULES ÉDOUARD XAVIER (1810-1886), Belgian statesman, one of the +leaders of the clerical party, was born at Ypres on the 19th of October +1810. He was a civil servant in the department of justice when he was +elected to the Chamber of Deputies by his native constituency in 1841, +and was for some time governor of the province of Antwerp. He was +minister of finance in the coalition ministry of J. B. Nothomb in 1844, +and formed with B. T. de Theux a Catholic cabinet in 1846, which was +overthrown in the Liberal victory of 1847. Malou then became a member +of the senate, and his party only regained ascendancy in 1870. The +extreme clerical ministry of Baron d'Anethan retired in December 1871 +after serious rioting in Brussels, and Malou was the real, though not +the nominal, head of the more moderate clerical administrations of de +Theux and Aspremont-Lynden (1870-1878). He was wise enough to disavow +the noisy sympathy of Belgian Ultramontane politicians with the German +victims of the _Kulturkampf_, and, retaining in his own hands the +portfolio of finance, he subordinated his clerical policy to a useful +administration in commercial matters, including a development of the +railway system. It was only after the fall of the ministry in 1878 that +he adopted a frankly clerical policy, and when he became chief of a new +government in June 1884 he proceeded to undo the educational compromise +of his predecessors in the Frère-Orban ministry. His legislation in +favour of the Catholic schools caused rioting in Brussels, and in +October the king demanded the retirement of MM. Jacobs and Woeste, the +members of the cabinet against whom popular indignation was chiefly +directed. Malou followed them into retirement, and died at Woluwe Saint +Lambert, in Brabant, on the 11th of July 1886. He was a financier of +great knowledge and experience, and his works (of which a long list is +given in Koninck's _Bibliographie nationale de Belgique_) include three +series (1874-1880) of memoirs on financial questions, edited by him for +the Chamber of Deputies, besides pamphlets on railroad proposals, mining +and other practical questions. His brother Jean Baptiste Malou +(1809-1864) was a well-known divine. + + + + +MALOUET, PIERRE VICTOR, BARON (1740-1814), French publicist and +politician, was born at Riom (Puy-de-Dôme) on the 11th of February 1740, +the son of a lawyer. He entered the civil service and was employed +successively at the French embassy in Lisbon, in the administrative +department of the duc de Broglie's army, as commissary in San Domingo +from 1767-1774, and, after his return to France, as commissary-general +of the marine. In 1776 he was entrusted to carry out plans of +colonization in French Guiana, but was superseded in 1779. On his return +to France he was well received at court, and the execution of his plans +in Guiana was assured. He became intendant of the port of Toulon, and in +1789 was returned to the states-general, where he soon became well known +as a defender of the monarchical principle. He emigrated to England in +September, 1792, but shortly afterwards sought in vain permission to +return to assist in the defence of Louis XVI. His name was erased from +the list of emigrants in 1801 by Napoleon, who restored him to his +position in the service and sent him to Antwerp as commissioner-general +and maritime prefect to superintend the erection of defence works, and +the creation of a fleet. He entered the council of state in 1810, but, +having offended the emperor by his plainness of speech, he was disgraced +in 1812. At the Restoration, Louis XVIII. made him minister of marine; +and he died on the 7th of September 1814. + + The most important documents for his domestic and colonial policy are + a _Collection de ses opinions à l'Assemblée Nationale_ (3 vols., + 1791-1792); and _Collection de mémoires et correspondances officielles + sur l'administration des colonies et notamment sur la Guiane française + et hollandaise_ (5 vols., 1802). + + + + +MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694), Italian physiologist, was born at +Crevalcuore near Bologna, on the 10th of March 1628. At the age of +seventeen he began the study of philosophy; it appears that he was also +in the habit of amusing himself with the microscope. In 1649 he started +to study medicine; after four years at Bologna he graduated there as +doctor. He at once applied to be admitted to lecture in the university, +but it was not till after three years (1656) that his request was +granted. A few months later he was appointed to the chair of theoretical +medicine at Pisa, where he enjoyed the friendship and countenance of G. +A. Borelli. At the end of four years he left Pisa, on the ground of +ill-health, and returned to Bologna. A call to be professor primarius at +Messina (procured for him through Borelli, who had in the meantime +become professor there) induced him to leave Bologna in 1662. His +engagement at Messina was for a term of four years, at an annual +stipend of 1000 scudi. An attempt was made to retain him at Messina +beyond that period, but his services were secured for his native +university, and he spent the next twenty-five years there. In 1691, +being then in his sixty-fourth year, and in failing health, he removed +to Rome to become private physician to Pope Innocent XII., and he died +there of apoplexy three years later, on the 30th of November 1694. +Shortly before his death, he drew up a long account of his academical +and scientific labours, correspondence and controversies, and committed +it to the charge of the Royal Society of London, a body with which he +had been in intimate relations for more than twenty years. The +autobiography, along with some other posthumous writings, was published +in London in 1696, at the cost of the Society. The personal details left +by Malpighi are few and dry. His narrative is mainly occupied with a +summary of his scientific contributions and an account of his relations +to contemporary anatomists, and is entirely without graces of style or +elements of ordinary human interest. + + Malpighi was one of the first to apply the microscope to the study of + animal and vegetable structure; and his discoveries were so important + that he may be considered to be the founder of microscopic anatomy. It + was his practice to open animals alive, and some of his most striking + discoveries were made in those circumstances. Although Harvey had + correctly inferred the existence of the capillary circulation, he had + never seen it; it was reserved for Malpighi in 1661 (four years after + Harvey's death) to see for the first time the marvellous spectacle of + the blood coursing through a network of small tubes on the surface of + the lung and of the distended urinary bladder of the frog. We are + enabled to measure the difficulties of microscopic observation at the + time by the fact that it took Malpighi four years longer to reach a + clear understanding of the corpuscles in the frog's blood, although + they are the parts of the blood by which its movement in the + capillaries is made visible. His discovery of the capillary + circulation was given to the world in the form of two letters _De + Pulmonibus_, addressed to Borelli, published at Bologna in 1661 and + reprinted at Leiden and other places in the years following; these + letters contained also the first account of the vesicular structure of + the human lung, and they made a theory of respiration for the first + time possible. The achievement that comes next both in importance and + in order of time was a demonstration of the plan of structure of + secreting glands; against the current opinion (revived by F. Ruysch + forty years later) that the glandular structure was essentially that + of a closed vascular coil from which the secretion exuded, he + maintained that the secretion was formed in terminal acini standing in + open communication with the ducts. The name of Malpighi is still + associated with his discovery of the soft or mucous character of the + lower stratum of the epidermis, of the vascular coils in the cortex of + the kidney, and of the follicular bodies in the spleen. He was the + first to attempt the finer anatomy of the brain, and his descriptions + of the distribution of grey matter and of the fibre-tracts in the + cord, with their extensions to the cerebrum and cerebellum, are + distinguished by accuracy; but his microscopic study of the grey + matter conducted him to the opinion that it was of glandular structure + and that it secreted the "vital spirits." At an early period he + applied himself to vegetable histology as an introduction to the more + difficult study of the animal tissues, and he was acquainted with the + spiral vessels of plants in 1662. It was not till 1671 that he wrote + his _Anatome plantarum_ and sent it to the Royal Society, who + published it in the following year. An English work under a similar + title (_Anatomy of Vegetables_) had been published in London a few + months earlier, by Nehemiah Grew; so that Malpighi's priority as a + vegetable histologist is not so incontestable as it is in animal + histology. The _Anatome plantarum_ contained an appendix, + _Observations de ovo incubato_, which gave an account (with good + plates) of the development of the chick (especially of the later + stages) in many points more complete than that of Harvey, although the + observations were needlessly lessened in value by being joined to the + metaphysical notion of "praedelineation" in the undeveloped ovum. + + He also wrote _Epistolae anatomicae Marc. Malpighii et Car. + Fracassati_ (Amsterdam, 1662) (on the tongue, brain, skin, omentum, + &c.); _De viscerum structura: exercitatio anatomica_ (London, 1669); + _De structura glandularum conglobatarum_ (London, 1689); _Opera + posthuma, et vita a seipso scripta_ (London, 1697; another edition, + with preface and additions, was published at Amsterdam in 1700.). An + edition containing all his works except the last two was published in + London in 1687, in 2 vols. folio, with portrait and plates. + + + + +MALPLAQUET, a village of France in the department of the Nord, close to +the Belgian frontier and about 10 miles S. by E. of Mons, famous as the +scene of the battle, September 1709, between the Allies under the duke +of Marlborough and Prince Eugène and the French commanded by Marshal +Villars, in which the former were victorious. The country to the west +and south of Mons is enclosed by a semicircular wall of woods and broken +ground, through which there are only two important gaps--that of +Jemappes (famous in 1792) to the west, and that of Aulnois, in which +stands the village of Malplaquet, to the south. In the latter gap and +the woods on either side Villars took up his position facing +north-eastwards, on August 29/September 9. The forces in presence, over +90,000 on each side, were exceptionally large, and the French army in +particular represented the spirit of its nation to a degree unusual in +the armies of that time. Villars was the best general in the service of +Louis XIV. and the veteran Marshal Boufflers, though senior to him, had +volunteered to serve as his second in command. Marlborough and Eugène +lay with their army between Mons and the French camps, which were almost +within cannon shot. Marlborough's own wish was for an immediate battle, +but he was opposed by the Dutch deputies at his headquarters, and even +by Eugène, so that it was only on August 31/September 11 that the attack +actually took place. Villars had made full use of his respite. The +French right stood at the fringe of the wood of Lanière, the left was +strongly posted in the midst of the wood of Taisnière, and across the +two and a half miles of open ground between the woods the position was +entrenched with several successive lines of works. The troops were +almost equally distributed along the whole line as usual, and the +cavalry was massed in rear of the infantry. In the Allied army the +mounted troops were also kept back, but for the most part distributed to +the various infantry commands. + +The intention of Marlborough and Eugène, when on the morning of the +battle they examined this formidable position, was to deliver the main +attack upon the French left wing, combining the assaults of several +columns on its front and flanks. In this quarter the French not only +held the interior of the wood but also were thrown forward so as to +occupy the edges of its north-eastern salient, and upon the two faces of +this salient Count Lottum (1650-1719) with the Prussians, and Count von +der Schulenburg (1661-1747) with the Austrian infantry were to deliver a +double attack, while farther to the Allied right a column under the +English General Withers was detached to make a wide turning movement +through the woods. Marlborough took command on the right, Eugène on the +left. The centre, which was intended only to observe the enemy until the +decision had been forced at the wood of Taisnière, consisted of Lord +Orkney's British corps and the prince of Orange's Dutch contingent. +These extended across the Trouée d'Aulnois as soon as the combined +attack of Lottum and Schulenburg opened. The general advance was covered +by a heavy cannonade, and the salient of the Taisnière wood was duly +attacked on its two faces by the Prussians and Austrians about 9 a.m. +They encountered a sterner resistance than in any of the battles and +combats of the past seven campaigns, for on this field the defenders +were fighting, not as hitherto for the interests of their king, but to +defend their country, and the regiments of Picardie and Champagne which +held the salient were the oldest and most famous of the French line. +Lottum attacked the works on the eastern edge, again and again without +success, until three British battalions had to be sent to reinforce him, +and Marlborough placed himself with a corps of cavalry in close support. +At last the entrenchments were stormed. Schulenburg, with the Austrians, +had by this time fought his way through the woods and undergrowth, and +the united force pressed back the French farther and farther into the +wood. Still, so stubborn was the defence and so dense the wood that the +impetus of the assault died away and the troops on both sides broke up +into small disconnected bodies, fighting too fiercely to be amenable to +superior control. + +[Illustration: After Hon. J. W. Fortescue, _History of the British +Army_, by permission of Macmillan & Co., Ltd.] + +But the French were not reinforced from their right wing as Villars +expected. The prince of Orange, far from merely observing the hostile +right as he had been ordered to do, committed his corps, very early in +the battle, to a serious assault upon it, which Boufflers repulsed with +enormous loss. The Dutch infantry never recovered from its casualties on +this day, and the memory of Malplaquet was strong even at Fontenoy +nearly forty years afterwards. Some Hanoverian troops which took part in +this futile attack suffered equally heavily. The only advantage to the +Allies--an advantage which, as it happened, counted for much--was that +Boufflers did not dare to send reinforcements to the hard-pressed left +wing. Thanks to this the Austrians and Prussians, with the English +detached to their aid, made steady progress in the wood of Taisnière. +Villars launched the "Irish brigade" to check the advance of the Allies, +and this famous corps charged into the forest. Villars, Eugène and +Marlborough personally led their troops in the encounter which followed. +Eugène was wounded, but refused to quit the field. Villars was more +seriously hurt, and after trying in vain to direct the fighting from a +chair was carried insensible from the field. At this crisis General +Withers, who commanded the force that had been ordered to turn the +French extreme left, and had fought his way through the forest, appeared +on the scene. The British 18th regiment (Royal Irish), encountering the +French _Royal Irlandais_, put it to the rout, and Villars's +counterstroke was at an end. The French maintained themselves on this +side only by the aid of troops drawn from the centre and right, and this +gave the Allied centre the opportunity which the prince of Orange had so +rashly anticipated. The great attack over the open was carried out, in +spite of the previous repulse, with the greatest determination. Preceded +by forty guns, the corps of the prince of Orange and Lord Orkney swiftly +carried the first line of works. The Allied cavalry then pushed out to +the front, and horse, foot and artillery were combined in the last +advance. Boufflers's cavalry masses, coming into play for the first +time, fought hard, and the struggle fluctuated with the arrival of +successive reserves on either side, but in the end, shortly before 3 +p.m., Boufflers (who had been in command since Villars's fall) decided +to retreat. The Allies had no troops left intact for the pursuit, and +those engaged had expended their last efforts. Moreover Boufflers, +experienced soldier as he was, drew off his men before they had lost +their order and discipline. + +Thus this "very murdering battle" as Marlborough called it--the last and +greatest pitched battle of the war--was almost barren of results. The +Allies lost not less than twenty thousand men, or nearly a quarter of +the whole force, the thirty battalions of the Dutch infantry losing half +their numbers. On the French side there were some twelve thousand +casualties. If further evidence were necessary to prove that the French +fought their hardest, it could be found in the fact that whereas in +almost every other battle, from 1660 to 1792, there were deserters and +prisoners by the thousand, at Malplaquet only 500 of the French fell +into the hands of the victors unwounded. + + + + +MALSTATT-BURBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province on +the right bank of the Saar (Sarre), which separates it from Saarbrücken. +Pop. (1900), 31,195. It lies in the midst of an important coal-mining +and industrial district, and is itself little more than a long and +narrow row of manufactories and workmen's houses. The largest factories +are engaged in the production of iron, steel and cement. There is a +large wharf on the river for the export of coal. + + Malstatt received municipal rights in 1321. These, however, were + afterwards resigned to the newer town of Saarbrücken, and in 1818 + Malstatt and Burbach were two small villages with a joint population + of only about 800. About the middle of the century the population + began to increase rapidly, in consequence of the development of the + mining industry of the district and the extension of the railway + system, and in 1874 the two villages were united to form a town. + + + + +MALT (O. Eng., _mealt_; O. Sax., _malt_; O. Teut., _maltos_; Mod. Ger., +_Malz_; Scand., _malt_; probably derived from the Sanskrit _mrdu_, soft, +thus having reference to the fact that malt is raw grain rendered soft +or tender), the name given to grain in which germination has been caused +to proceed to a certain stage and has then been arrested by the removal +of water and the application of heat. During this limited germination +enzymes are developed (see FERMENTATION), and the constituents of the +grain modified so that the finished malt, when ground and submitted to +the mashing process (see BREWING), differs from the original raw grain +in that the greater portion dissolves. This solubility is, however, a +direct one to a slight extent only; it is due for the most part to the +action of the malt enzymes, diastase, &c. on the constituents of the +grain, the main portion of which are of themselves insoluble. Thus +starch, the main constituent of all graminaceous seeds, probably exists +in the same condition in raw grain and in malt. When however the malt is +mashed, the starch is attacked by the enzyme diastase, and converted by +the process of hydrolysis into a mixture of soluble compounds, e.g. the +crystalline sugar, maltose, and a number of gummy substances known as +maltodextrins. But to a certain extent starch and other carbohydrate +substances are rendered directly soluble and diffusible during the +malting process, some of the products serving the respiratory needs of +the growing germ, others being assimilated by the plantlet and +reconverted into reserve carbohydrates in the tissues of the germ and +rootlets, whilst the remaining portions are retained as such in the +finished malt. Similarly certain of the nitrogenous constituents of the +grain, the proteïns, are broken down and rendered soluble by proteolytic +enzymes, the products being assimilated to a certain extent by the germ +and rootlets, by the cells of which they are again built up into complex +proteïns, whilst others remain in their simplified form. It is now known +that proteolytic enzymes exist in finished malt, and that, when the +mashing process is conducted under certain conditions, these are able to +degrade and render soluble some of the higher proteïns present in the +malt. When germination is allowed to proceed as it does when the grain +is planted in the soil, the whole of the contents are rendered soluble +by degrees and in turn assimilated by the growing plantlet. By the +limited germination which constitutes the malting process, however, the +balance of soluble compounds left in the finished malt is from 15 to 25% +of the total weight of the corn. + +Although other seeds of the natural order Gramineae are occasionally +malted, the greater portion of malt is made from the various species of +_Hordeum_, known by the name of barley (q.v.), bigg, or bere. Indeed +ordinary beer derives its characteristic flavour to the greatest extent +from barley malt. A small proportion of malted oats or malted wheat is +sometimes used in conjunction with barley malt for certain kinds of +beer, whilst rye, maize, and even rice are occasionally malted. Barley +is, however, the grain best adapted for making malt intended for brewing +beer, and accordingly some space will be devoted to a description of +those varieties of this grain which are used by the brewer. + +Barley belongs to the genus Hordeum, of which there are numerous species +and varieties. Linnaeus and the earlier botanists recognized six species +of cultivated barleys, but modern botanists usually consider all +cultivated barleys as belonging to one species to which the name _H. +sativum_ has been given. Körnicke regards _H. spontaneum_, a very long +thin-grained two-rowed barley (see below) which grows in the East, as +being the parent form; but E. S. Beaven inclines to the view that wild +species of more than one form were originally used as food and +subsequently cultivated. The last-named author has drawn up a scheme of +classification for the varieties and races of cultivated barleys. + +[Illustration: + + FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. + + / FIG. 1.--_H. hexastichum._ + | a. Three spikelets _in situ_ on the rachis, showing short + | internodes. + | b. Spike. Median spikelets uppermost, and with lower awns + | removed. + Six-rowed< c. Spike. Lateral spikelets uppermost, and with lower awns + barleys. | removed. + | FIG. 2.--_H. vulgare._ + | a. Three spikelets _in situ_ on the rachis, showing long + | internodes. + | b. Spike. Median spikelets uppermost. + \ c. Spike. Lateral spikelets uppermost. + + / FIG. 3.--_H. zeocriton._ + | a, d. Spikelets. Rachis edgewise, showing short internodes. + | b. Var. _zeocrithum_ (fan barley). Spike converging. + Two-rowed< c. Var. _erectum_ (Goldthorpe). Spike parallel. + barleys. | FIG. 4.--_H. distichum._ + | a. d. Spikelets. Rachis edgewise, showing long internodes. + | b. Var. _nutans_ (Chevallier). + \ c. Ouchak barley. + +Figures 1-4 redrawn from a paper by E. S. Beaven in _Journ. Fed. Inst. +Brewing_ (1902), 8. 542.] + +In an ear of barley the primary axis or rachis is divided into +internodes of which there may be any number up to forty. Each internode +bears three single-flowered spikelets arranged alternately on either +side of the rachis. In the six-rowed varieties the whole of these +spikelets attain maturity, whilst in the two-rowed varieties only one on +each side of the rachis, viz. the median, develops. British beer is +brewed principally from the malt made from home-grown two-rowed barleys. +Of late years, however, it has been found advantageous to employ a +proportion of malt made from the thinner and more husky foreign barleys, +mostly six-rowed varieties. The corns of two-rowed barleys are as a rule +plumper than those of six-rowed barleys. + + The most favourite barley for malting purposes grown in the United + Kingdom is the narrow-eared two-rowed _H. distichum_, commonly known + as Chevallier, from the name of the original cultivator, the Rev. John + Chevallier. Of late years the quantity of barley of the so-called + Goldthorpe type (_H. zeocriton_), used for malting, has increased. The + paleae or outer coverings of the corns of this variety are somewhat + "greasy" in appearance, and do not adhere so closely to the corn as in + the Chevallier. The corns of Goldthorpe barley possess a small dimple + or transverse furrow near the basal end. Further the basal bristle or + rachilla (the prolongation of the axis or point from which the corn + was originally developed) is invariably covered with long hairs, + whilst in the case of Chevallier it has generally very short hairs. In + the variety of Chevallier known as Archer, however, the rachilla has + somewhat long hairs. Further the corns of Chevallier barley lie nearly + vertical, that is almost parallel to the rachis, whereas in Goldthorpe + they are spread out at a greater angle, hence the name fan or peacock + barley given to that variety commonly known as sprat. It is believed + by some brewers that Goldthorpe barleys never yield malt of so high a + quality as do Chevallier barleys. On the other hand, when well + matured, Goldthorpes work evenly and freely on the malting floors; and + from an agricultural point of view they have the advantage of standing + up better against unfavourable weather conditions on account of their + stouter straws. Numerous fresh varieties of barley are continually + being introduced as a result of artificial cross-fertilization, but + cross-fertilization rarely if ever occurs naturally. + + Hungarian two-rowed barleys are excellent as regards quality, and + command a high price. The so-called Californian Chevallier and Chilean + Chevallier contain a certain admixture of the six-rowed _H. vulgare_. + + Of the imported thin barleys may be mentioned Brewing Californian, + Brewing Chilean, Danubian and Smyrna (Yerli), all for the most part + six-rowed varieties; also Ouchak, consisting principally of a + two-rowed variety. For the manufacture of grain spirit a malt of high + diastatic activity is required, and this is largely made from a very + thin barley shipped from Odessa. + + In the common six-rowed English barley or Scottish bere (_H. + vulgare_), the two lateral rows of spikelets springing from one side + of the rachis, either partially or entirely intersect and overlap the + alternate lateral spikelets which spring from the opposite side of the + rachis. This has given rise to the term "four-rowed barley." Figs. 1-4 + show some typical barleys in the ear. + + The production of new varieties by cross-fertilization has of late + years attained a degree of almost mathematical precision by the + application of the law of inheritance first discovered by Gregor + Mendel in 1865, and brought to light in 1901 independently by de + Vries, Correns and Tschermak. + +_Constitution of Barley._--A grain of barley is shuttle-shaped; the end +containing the germ which was originally attached to the rachis is known +as the proximal end, whilst the opposite end of the corn is called the +distal end. A deep furrow runs down the more convex side, which is +accordingly denoted the ventral side, the opposite side being +distinguished as the dorsal side. Within the ventral furrow at the +proximal end is the rachilla already referred to. The skin or husk of a +barleycorn consists of two paleae, one adhering to the dorsal side (the +palea inferior) and the other to the ventral side (the palea superior); +the former overlaps the edges of the latter. The awn or beard is merely +an elongation of the palea inferior. If the two paleae are removed from +a barleycorn after soaking it in water, it will be seen that there are +other skins completely enveloping the embryo and endosperm. These are +the true skins, and are known as the pericarp and the testa +respectively. It may here be mentioned that A. J. Brown has shown +recently that the embryo and endosperm of a barleycorn are enclosed in a +semi-permeable membrane, i.e. one which allows the passage of water to +the interior of the corn, but not of certain salts and acids. This +property appears to be associated with one of the layers of the testa. +Next to these skins will be seen the triple layer of thick-walled +square-shaped aleurone cells. + +The histology of the barleycorn is best studied by the examination of +sections under the microscope. The grain consists of two main portions, +the embryo or germ, and the endosperm, the storehouse of reserve +materials for the growing plant. + + The accompanying illustrations show portions of longitudinal sections + of a barleycorn magnified to different degrees. + + On examining fig. 5, which represents a section of the germ end of a + grain of barley cut through the ventral furrow, it will be noticed + that the rudimentary leaves, stem and roots are distinguishable. The + embryo lies embedded in a mass of cells, the part dividing it from the + endosperm being known as the scutellum. Special note should be taken + of the elongated cells known as the absorptive epithelial layer, which + has certain very important functions to fulfil during the process of + germination, notably in feeding the embryo when it begins to develop + into a young plant. Next to this, actually between the scutellum and + the endosperm, will be seen a layer of empty cells. These at one time + in the history and the development of the corn contained starch + granules, but this starch was absorbed during its later development by + the embryo. It will be observed further that the endosperm is filled + with a network of thin-walled cells closely packed with starch + granules, and smaller granules of proteïn matter (fig. 6). Nearest the + skin will be seen the triple layer of aleurone cells already referred + to (fig. 7). + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Median longitudinal section of a barleycorn +showing the germ and its appendages. + + a, Rudimentary leaves or plumules; + b, Rudimentary stem; + c, Rudimentary root; + d, Empty starch cells of the endosperm; + e, Absorptive epithelial layer; + f, Compressed layer of empty cells; + g, Starch cells (filled).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Section showing absorptive epithelial layer more +highly magnified. + + d, Walls of starch cells; + e, Epithelial layer; + f, Compressed layer of empty cells; + g, Cells filled with starch granules; + h, Cells of the scutellum.] + +_Germination._--The barleycorn in its resting stage is in a state which +may be described as one of dormant vitality; it respires very slowly +and thus loses weight during storage. The best and driest barleys are +said to lose 1.3% of their weight in the first year, 0.9% in the second, +and 0.5% in the third. The loss is considerably more with coarse and +damp samples. When the grain is steeped this dormant vitality gives +place to that complicated series of processes comprised under the +general term germination. When germination begins, enzymes are secreted, +and these act on the reserve materials, starch and proteïns of the +endosperm, converting them into simpler compounds, capable of diffusing +to various parts of the growing germ. Following this, starch and +proteïns are re-formed, the former being deposited in the tissues of the +germ and in the cells of the scutellum, which previously were almost +free from starch; the proteïn matter deposited in the latter disappears +to a considerable extent, and the protoplasmic content of the cells +assumes a very granular appearance. The pointed mass of cells +constituting the root-sheath is pushed forward by the root which +protrudes through the base of the grain. It is at this stage that the +barley is said by the maltster to "chit." After the first rootlet has +broken through the ends of the sheath, it is followed by others. The +cotyledonary sheath begins to elongate on the third or fourth day of +germination and ruptures the true covering of the seed; it then grows +upwards between this and the husk and forms the acrospire or "spire" of +the maltster. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Section showing the aleurone layer. + + g, Starch cells; + i, Aleurone layer; + k, Layers which collectively constitute the husk. + +[Figs. 5-7 from Sykes & Ling, _Principles and Practice of Brewing_ +(1907), Charles Griffin & Co., Ltd.]] + + According to Brown and Morris, when the first rootlet is breaking + through the sheath, starch begins to appear in the tissues of the + grain, also in the protoplasm of those cells which are nearest the + epithelial layer, and it gradually invades the deeper-seated cells. + Further the cellulose walls of the endosperm, situated immediately + above the secretory layer, are partially dissolved, the dissolved + matter passing into the scutellum, there to be transformed into + starch. Brown and Morris state that this process gradually extends to + the cellulose walls of the endosperm, and until these are affected + there is no evidence of any solvent action on the starch granules + themselves. Thus according to these authors the first enzyme to be + formed is one which dissolves cell walls, and it was consequently + termed by them a "cytohydrolyst." They assert further that the + so-called mealy or modified condition, which the maltster desires to + bring about to the fullest degree, depends on the extent to which the + cell walls have been affected, and they enter into a minute + description of the entire disappearance of these during the malting + process. On the other hand, J. Grüss has pointed out that the action + which takes place on the cell walls of the endosperm during + germination does not consist in their complete solution. Schulze has + shown that these cell walls consist of two carbohydrates, an araban + and a xylan. Grüss states that the araban is completely dissolved, + whilst the xylan is more or less unattacked. The cell walls become, + however, transparent so that they can only be seen in sections which + have been stained; Brown and Morris examined unstained sections. The + writer (A. R. Ling) has proved that the cell wall is present in the + most friable and well modified finished malt. + +_Condition._--Barley is bought in the open market solely on the evidence +of certain external signs, and judgment can only be acquired by long +experience. The corns should be plump, even in size, and the colour +should be uniform from end to end. The sample should have a sweet +odour, and it should be dry to the touch. The presence of light or +weevilled corns may be detected by the fact that they float in water. +Careless threshing or dressing is responsible for much damage done to +barley. In this way many of the corns may be broken, have the palcae +partly stripped off or portions removed along with the awn. All broken +and dead corns are prone to become mouldy on the malting floors, the +contagion thus presented becoming general. E. R. Moritz drew attention +in 1895 to the ill effects of close dressing, and more recently (1905) +the matter has been brought before the Highland and Agricultural +Society, chiefly through Montagu Baird, who with C. H. Babington was +instrumental in inducing the Board of Agriculture to publish a leaflet +recommending more careful methods of threshing barley. Close dressing +was at one time practised as a means of raising the bushel weight, and +thus giving a fictitious value to the barley. Immature barley feels cold +to the hand, has a greenish-yellow colour, and, when dry, a starved +wrinkled appearance. Over-ripeness in barley is distinguished by a white +dead appearance of the corn. Mature or dry grains slip through the +fingers more readily than unripe or damp ones. The contents of the +endosperm should present a white friable or mealy appearance when the +corns are bitten or cut in two with a penknife. The condition of the +grain may be determined by means of a mechanical cutter, which cuts a +certain number of corns (fifty or more) at one time. Some cutters are +constructed to cut the corns transversely, others to cut them +longitudinally. The so-called transparency test may be used for the same +purpose. It is carried out in an apparatus known as the diaphanoscope, +which consists of a box fitted with a sliding tray, furnished with a +certain number of shuttle-shaped holes (usually 500), each of such a +size as just to hold a barleycorn longitudinally. Into the portion of +the box below this tray an electric lamp is placed, and the corns are +looked at from above. Thoroughly mealy corns are opaque, whilst steely +corns are transparent. When certain portions of a corn are steely, these +present the appearance of lakes. By this means the percentage of mealy, +steely, or half steely corns in a sample may readily be estimated. + + E. Prior points out that steeliness of barley is of two kinds, one of + which disappears after the grain has been steeped and dried, and + therefore does not necessarily influence the malting value of the + sample, and the other which is permanent, and therefore retards the + modification of the corn. He proposed to determine what he called the + coefficient of mellowness of a sample of barley by means of the + formula:-- + + (M1 - M)100 + A = ----------- + M, + 100 - M + + in which A is the degree of mellowness, M is the percentage of mealy + corns in the original barley, and M1 is the percentage of mealy corns + after steeping and drying the barley. Prior points out that, generally + speaking, the degree of mellowness varies inversely as the proteïn + content. + + The physical differences between steely and mealy grains were first + investigated by Johansen, who arrived at the conclusion that mealiness + is always accompanied by the presence of air spaces in the endosperm. + Munro and Beaven confirmed and extended this. Their conclusions are as + follow: "Mealy grains have a lower specific gravity than steely + grains, and contain a larger amount of interstitial air. The total + nitrogen content of mealy grains is less than that of steely grains. + Steely grains contain a relatively high proportion of nitrogenous + substances soluble (a) in 5% salt solution, and (b) in alcohol of + specific gravity 0.9. Mealy barley modifies better than steely during + germination. The process of drying damp and under-matured barley + intact at 100° F. produced an apparent mellowing or maturation. Other + things being equal, maturation, which is physiologically a + post-ripening process, is correlated with the mealy appearance of the + endosperm." H. T. Brown and his collaborators point out that thin + sections of steely corns when examined under the microscope no longer + exhibit a translucent appearance, but show the mealy properties as + completely as if they had been cut from a mealy grain, and they + suggest that in a steely corn the whole of the endosperm is under a + state of tensile stress which cannot be maintained in the thin + sections. If, however, a thin section of a steely barley be cemented + to a slide with Canada balsam and then pared away with a razor, + steeliness and translucency may be preserved even in the thinnest + sections. The mealy appearance in the endosperm of barley is assumed + to be a direct consequence of the formation of interspaces around the + cell-contents and within the cell walls. Under ordinary conditions it + is conjectured that these interspaces are filled with air, but it is + pointed out that they can also be produced under circumstances which + suggest that they are at times vacuous or partly so. According to the + last-mentioned authors they appear to originate from a system of + stresses and strains induced within the endosperm by its gradual loss + of water, a break of continuity taking place which gives rise to these + interspaces when the cohesive power of the heterogeneous cell-contents + falls below a certain point. It is further suggested by them that the + most important factor in producing the stresses and strains is + probably the shrinkage of the starch granules as their water content + is reduced from, say, 40 to about 15%. It is pointed out, however, + that actual discontinuity in the cell-contents can only take place + when the tensile strength of the protoplasmic matrix in which the + starch granules are embedded has been surpassed, and this being so it + might be anticipated that those cells which contain the larger amount + of proteïn material would probably best resist the internal stresses + and strains, a deduction in close agreement with observed facts, + steely grains being as a rule richer in proteïn than mealy grains. + Brown and his co-workers determine the coefficient of mealiness of a + barley as follows: Five hundred corns are cut transversely in a corn + cutter and the percentage of mealy, half mealy and steely corns is + noted. The number 100 is taken to represent complete mealiness, 1 + complete steeliness, and 50 the intermediate class. If the percentage + of each class be multiplied by its special value, and the sum of the + products divided by 100, the result is the coefficient of mealiness. + By steeping and drying a very steely Scottish barley, the coefficient + of mealiness was raised from 29.7 to 87.1, whilst concurrently the + specific gravity fell from 1.417 to 1.289. + +Barley even of the same kind varies widely in its chemical composition, +but on an average the proximate constituents of British malting barleys +be within the following limits:-- + + Moisture 18 --12 per cent. + Nitrogenous matters expressed as proteïns 8 --15 " + Fat 2 -- 2.5 " + Starch 60 --65 " + Sugars 1.5-- 2.0 " + Gums 1.7-- 2.0 " + Fibre (cellulose) 5 -- 7 " + Ash 2 -- 2.5 " + +Any sample of barley which contains more than 20% of moisture would be +considered damp. The late Professor Lintner expressed the view several +years ago that a good malting barley should not contain more than 10% of +proteïn, but R. Wahl asserts that in America six-rowed barleys +containing a far higher percentage of proteïn are used successfully, +indeed preferably, for malting purposes. The only precise knowledge we +possess of the proteïn compounds of barley is due to the researches of +T. B. Osborne. According to this observer, barley contains the +under-mentioned compounds of this class in the following proportions:-- + + Soluble in water / Leucosin (albumin) \ 0.30 per cent. + \ Proteose / + Soluble in salt solution: Edestin (globulin) 1.95 " + Soluble in 75% alcohol / Hordeïn 4.00 " + \ Insoluble proteïn 4.50 " + ----- + Total 10.75 " + + It should be pointed out here that the above are only average values + for the particular samples of barley investigated. Undoubtedly the + nitrogenous constituents of different barleys vary widely in nature as + well as in amount. + +Raw barley contains enzymes, thus diastase of translocation, so called +by Horace T. Brown and G. H. Morris, and catalase (H. van Laer). +Proteolytic enzymes appear only to arise with the beginning of +germination; but it has been asserted that raw barley contains +proenzymes (zymogens), which can be rendered active by treatment with +dilute lactic acid at an appropriate temperature. The action of the +diastase of raw barley on starch has been studied by Julian L. Baker. + +Barley should not be cut until it is properly ripe, but over-ripeness is +much more to be guarded against by the maltster than premature cutting, +as it is accompanied by a loss in germinative power. Moreover, unripe +corn may to a certain extent be matured in stack, whilst a great +improvement in germinative capacity is frequently produced by sweating. +Very wet seasons are prejudicial to the ripening of the grain, and when +the latter is stacked in too moist a condition it is apt to become what +is known as mow burnt. Especially is this the case with barleys +containing large percentages of nitrogen and of high enzymatic +activities. Such barleys are denoted "warm" by M. Delbrück from their +tendency to heat when stored in a moist condition. The effect of this +heating is exhibited in the corns becoming black and discoloured at the +tips; they are then said to be magpied. Even in an otherwise dry season +a large amount of rain during harvest causes the corns to become +"weathered," whilst some of them begin germinating and rot. At the same +time heavy dews at night whilst the barley lies cut in the field, or +even a sprinkling of rain, assists in mellowing the grain, which often +in consequence works the more freely on the malting floors. Properly +harvested barley is all the better for remaining in stack for two or +three months, as was the practice in former years; if, however, it has +been stacked too wet the sooner it is broken down the better. + + It is difficult to give any specific test for ripeness, but a series + of observations has been made by H. T. Brown and F. Escombe. Samples + of barley were taken from the field on the 20th, 24th and 29th of + July, and on the 2nd, 6th and 10th of August, and preserved in spirit + so that they remained in the same state as when they were gathered. + Sections were then cut of these corns, when it was found that the + progress of maturation is attended by deformation and ultimate + disintegration of the cell nuclei. The change which is denoted by the + term nuclear senescence is said to begin in the starch-containing + cells, near the periphery of the corn, immediately underlying the + layer next to the aleurone layer. This deformation is followed by + complete disintegration of the nucleus, and at the end of seven or + eight days nearly the whole of the endosperm has been involved. Brown + and Escombe state that when this nuclear test is properly applied it + stamps as immature those corns in a sample which are manifestly unripe + owing to premature desiccation as well as those in which the ratio of + nitrogen to carbohydrate is unduly high, owing to an excess of + nitrogenous manure in the soil, or to sparser sowing with its + consequent reduction of root competition. This method, interesting + though it be, is not fitted for practical use, and the agriculturist + must rely as heretofore upon empirical methods for deciding whether or + not the grain has attained ripeness or maturity. + + The bushel weight is a useful criterion in arriving at an opinion + regarding the value of a sample of barley; but in basing judgment upon + this factor regard must be paid to the fact already mentioned that if + the grains be dressed closely the bushel weight is increased. The + reason of this is that with the removal of the awns the corns pack + more closely together. The best British malting barleys should weigh + 52-56 lb. per bushel, the standard weight for malting barleys being 56 + lb. + +During the storage of barley access of air is necessary, otherwise the +grain dies from asphyxiation. Sound barley after being kiln-dried +retains its vitality for a number of years; but the statement that the +corns found in the Egyptian mummy cases, in which they had remained for +several thousands of years, were still capable of germination, is +contrary to modern experience. Moisture must also be carefully excluded, +as it initiates germination in a few cells only of the endosperm and +causes heating. A constant repetition of wetting such as may take place +on account of alterations of the atmospheric temperature, which causes +moisture to be deposited, in the form of dew, may ultimately destroy the +vitality and foster the growth and development of mould fungi which +usually grow on broken and damaged corns. In this connexion the +advantage of screening and sweating of barley before storing it will be +apparent (see below). + + An immense amount of damage is caused to the grain, during storage, by + various insects, one of the most destructive of these being the common + weevil (_Calandra granaria_). When fully developed this insect + measures (1/6)th to (1/8)th of an inch in length, and is of a bright + chestnut colour. The larvae are fleshy legless grubs, shorter than the + perfect insect, with a series of tubercles along each side of the + body; the head is round with strong jaws. The pupa is white, clear and + transparent, showing the form of the future weevil. The female bores a + hole in the grain with her snout and deposits an egg. The larva when + hatched lives on the contents of the grain and undergoes its changes + therein. Windisch asserts that only barley which has ripened in the + granary is attacked by weevil. Grain which is only slightly attacked + should be kilned at a temperature of 122° F., which destroys the + weevil in all stages of development. To detect weevil in a sample of + barley, the grain should be spread out on a sheet of white paper in + bright sunlight. If weevils are present they soon appear, and betake + themselves to a position outside the sunlight, to which they are + averse. Treatment of the grain with carbon bisulphide has been + suggested as a means of destroying weevil; even if efficacious, + however, such a process could not be recommended on account of its + danger, carbon bisulphide being highly inflammable. The only practical + means of ridding a granary or shop of weevil is to clear out all the + grain and leave it empty for a year or more. + +The vitality of barley may be determined by causing a sample to +germinate in any of the well-known forms of apparatus devised for that +purpose, and counting the percentage of germinating and idle corns. The +germinative capacity of a sample of barley may frequently be raised by +sweating (see below), which, as already mentioned, brings about a kind +of artificial maturation. + +_Malting._--There are two systems of malting used in England: floor +malting and pneumatic or drum malting. These systems will be described +separately. + +A floor malting consists of a rectangular building of several storeys, +having the cisterns at one end and the kilns at the other. The uppermost +floor is devoted to barley. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Longitudinal section of 200 quarter malting at +Mortlake. (Julian L. Baker, architect.)] + + Figure 8 shows a longitudinal section of Messrs Watney, Combe, Reid & + Co.'s 200 quarter malting at Mortlake. The barley is carried to the + top of the building by the elevator A, where the screening and + dressing machinery is situated. After leaving these machines the grain + is conveyed on bands to the barley floors B and C. The floor C + contains also the steeping cisterns. The six working floors are D, E, + F, G, H, K. The floors are ventilated by louvres, N, N, N. The + cisterns are connected to the floors by means of plugs. The "pieces," + as they are termed, of germinating barley are gradually worked along + the floors to the kilns M, M, on to which they are loaded by rotary + bands. The fire-places O, O, are arranged so that the draught may be + easily controlled. The hot air and products of combustion pass up the + shafts P, P, to the hot-air chamber R, R, where they strike the baffle + plates S, S. These plates disperse the hot air and gases evenly + beneath the kiln floors T, T, through the green malt. After drying and + curing, the malt is allowed to cool and is then carried by bands to + the floor U, where by suitable machinery the coombs or rootlets are + removed. The finished malt is stored in the bins V, V, V. + +On arrival at the malting the barley has to be put through the following +operations seriatim: receiving, hoisting and weighing, rough screening, +drying and sweating, storing until required for use, screening, grading +and removing broken corns, steeping, couching, flooring, withering, +drying and curing, dressing and polishing, storing, weighing, sacking +and discharging the finished malt. + +In sweating barley the temperature should not be allowed to rise above +120° F.; it is usually conducted at 100° F.; and subsequently the barley +should be stored for some weeks before it is steeped. + +The capacity of a malting is described by the number of quarters which +are put through it every four days. A fifty quarter malting does not +merely mean that the cisterns have a capacity of fifty quarters, but +that this quantity of barley goes through the house every four days. The +average time the germinating barley is on the floors is twelve days, +and, as a rule, kilning occupies four days. If, as sometimes happens, +the malt has to be kept on the floors thirteen, fourteen, fifteen days, +or even longer, the malting is not being worked at the capacity under +which it is described, and the kilns may remain unused for a day or +more. Conversely, when the malt is loaded at less than twelve days, a +day or two has to be missed in steeping. In the former case when the +kilns are not being used for drying and curing malt, advantage may be +taken to utilize them for sweating barley. + +Steeping cisterns were formerly rectangular vessels, of slate, brick or +cement, from which the barley had to be discharged by shovelling it out. +The forms approved most at the present day are conical and constructed +of iron; they have arrangements at the apex of the cone, the lower +portion, for discharging the grain by gravitation. The steeping period +ranges from 48 to 70 hours; it varies according to the kind of barley, +and the time of the year. In some of the older maltings there are no +arrangements for heating the steep water, and in the winter steeping has +occasionally to be performed with water at a temperature near its +freezing-point. Steeping should be carried out at a temperature as near +as possible to 55° and not higher than 60° F. The usual practice is to +fill the cistern up to a certain height with water and throw the barley +into it, stirring it until it is about level; the heavy corns will then +sink directly to the bottom, whilst the light corns and refuse float on +the surface and may be skimmed off. During the time the barley remains +in the cistern it is usual to change the steep water two or three times, +generally at intervals of twelve hours or tides. The advantage of this +is not merely to keep the grain fresh and sweet, but to bring it into +contact with the air during the time it is taking up water. Aëration of +the steep has long been recognized in Germany as promoting germination, +and several arrangements are on the market enabling air to be passed +through the grain while it is in the cistern. It has been recommended by +Graham, Stopes, Moritz and Morris, and experimental evidence as to its +beneficial effects has been published by Windisch, Bleisch, Will, and +Baker and Dick. When the corn is steep ripe it contains some 60% of +water. Steeping does not consist, however, merely in the imbibition of +a certain amount of water; in order to bring about germination this +water must remain within the corn a certain length of time. Thus, +although it is quite possible to force the necessary amount of water +into the grain in less than the 48-70 hours usually taken up by the +steeping process, the grain is not steep-ripe until certain changes +initiated by the water have taken place, and these require time for +their completion. The following average data are useful to remember in +connexion with the steeping process:-- + + Amount of water in steep-ripe barley (about) 60%. + Matter removed from barley during steeping (about) 1.5%. + Increase in volume of barley due to water absorption (about) 18-20%. + + There has been much discussion as to the influence of saline matters + in water on the steeping process. The late Professor Lintner stated + that common salt in water tended to extract the nitrogenous + constituents of the grain, but impeded its germination. Mills and + Pettigrew found that waters containing calcium salts extracted a + minimum of nitrogenous compounds from the barley; they also came to + the conclusion that the esteem in which the Lichfield water is held + for steeping purposes is due to the presence of nitrates which, they + assert, have a stimulating effect on the subsequent germination of the + grain. The writer has added lime-water to the extent of one-third of + the total volume of water at the first change, believing it to promote + regularity of germination. Bearing in mind, however, the observations + of Adrian J. Brown, that the barleycorn is enclosed in a membrane + permeable to water but impermeable to most salts, it is difficult to + see how the saline constituents of water can have any effect except in + removing matter from the external portions of the grain and on those + corns which are broken. The apparent beneficial effect of lime-water + in the steep is probably entirely due to the removal of matters from + the husks or paleae. + +Malting floors may be constructed of cement, tiles or slate, the two +former being preferable to the latter. Ford, in 1849, recommended 200 +sq. ft. per quarter of barley steeped as the area of the working floors, +and he was quite convinced of the necessity of allowing ample floor +room, so that the grain could be worked on the slow, cool system. +Subsequently, however, maltsters reduced their floor area, and put the +grain rapidly through the malting, thus producing what is termed +"forced" malt. This kind of malt was, however, condemned by practical +brewers, and a chemical test whereby forcing could be detected having +been devised by E. R. Moritz and G. H. Morris, maltsters have been +compelled again to increase the area of their working floors. At the +present time the approved area may be placed at 175-200 sq. ft. per +quarter of barley steeped. The area is, however, largely ruled by the +kind of barley to be malted. + +After the barley has been thrown out of the cistern it is made up in a +rectangular heap 16-20 in. deep, called the "couch"; the object of this +is to enable it to gather heat and so start germinating. It usually +remains in couch for 12-24 hours, until in fact the interior portion of +the heap registers a temperature of about 60° F. During the days of the +malt tax the exciseman gauged the quantity of the barley while it was in +the couch. After couching the barley is spread thinly and evenly on the +floor, forming what is known as the young floor or No. 1 piece. The +first visible sign of germination is the sprouting of the rootlet, +termed "chitting," and this occurs either while the grain is on the +couch or on the young floor. As already mentioned, it may be quickened +by aerating the grain in the cistern. From the time the barley is first +cast out of the cistern up to the stage of the young floor, or No. 1 +piece, it has a pleasant ethereal odour resembling apples. Drs Thomson, +Hope and Coventry stated in the earlier part of the 19th century that +they distilled "spirits" from germinating barley at this stage. In the +light of our present knowledge it would not be surprising if alcoholic +fermentation were proved to occur within the grain at this stage, since +intramolecular or anaerobic respiration in certain vegetables has been +found to be due to alcoholic fermentation. + +The thickness at which the young floor is spread depends upon the +outside temperature and the nature of the barley. If the weather be +warm, or if there be a tendency for the barley to heat, the piece must +be spread all the thinner. At this stage the grain loses its external +wet appearance. When spread too thickly the grain will begin to sweat, +and the rootlets will be thrown out suddenly and unevenly. As a rule, +under these circumstances, the rootlets will be long and thin, when they +are said to be "wild." A piece which has been allowed to get into this +condition must at once be spread thinner. If the sweating has not +continued long, the harm done may be confined to increased loss by +respiration. The young floor is usually turned with a plough twice +during twelve hours, and it may be forked between whiles, but no hard +and fast rule can be laid down as to when this is necessary; it must be +left to the maltster's judgment, as it depends entirely on what is going +on within the grain. The object of turning is in the first place to +aerate the grain and freshen it, secondly to check excessive rise of +temperature, and thirdly to promote evenness of growth. Too frequent +turning is not to be advised. After remaining four days on the young +floor three or four rootlets should have appeared, and the acrospire +should have begun to grow up the back of the corn. The apple-like odour +of the piece then gives place to one resembling that of the common rush, +and this should continue the whole time that the malt remains on the +floor. On the fifth day the piece is next moved to No. 2 position, a +stage nearer the kiln. It is here that sprinkling is resorted to when +necessary. The amount of sprinkling and the time it is given cannot be +exactly prescribed. The amount may vary from two to five gallons per +quarter, and it should only be given when the rootlets, which ought to +be short and curly, and five or more in number, show signs of losing +their freshness. If an excessive amount of sprinkling be given forced +growth ensues. It is preferable not to add the whole of the water at one +time, but to divide it over two lots; and immediately after the piece +has been sprinkled it should be thoroughly and carefully mixed, +otherwise some of the grain will receive an undue proportion of water. +When all the sprinkling water has been given to the piece, which as a +rule should not be done later than at the sixth or seventh day of +flooring, the temperature should be kept down to about 55° F. by +turning. Too frequent turning may, however, detach the rootlet, and it +may cause the grain to lose its vitality prematurely, so that growth of +the acrospire stops. + +By about the eighth day of flooring the acrospire should be about +three-quarters up the corn. After this the germinating corn is moved +forward to No. 3 piece, which is at first spread as thinly on the floors +as in the previous pieces. Here it gradually dries and incipient +withering of the rootlets sets in. The only treatment which is now given +to the grain is to heap it up thicker and thicker by degrees until it is +ready for loading on the kiln. This increase in thickness of the piece +(now called the old piece) should not be too sudden, especially if the +grain be fresh in appearance and contain a large quantity of water. When +the piece is thickened up to say 10 in. in depth, while it is in a very +moist condition, heating and sweating take place, with additional growth +of acrospire and rootlet. Under such forcing conditions a large +production of sugar and degradation of the proteïns will take place. +When, however, the moisture has been gradually reduced before thickening +up, the rootlet dies off; and although increase of temperature may +occur, this is accompanied by little or no further growth of the +acrospire, action being confined to the mellowing of the grain by the +enzymes. When the malt is ready for loading on the kiln it should be +possible to break down the contents of each corn between the thumb and +finger. Opinions differ as to what the final temperature on the +withering floor should be. If the moisture content of the malt be about +50%, the piece must be kept thin to avoid sweating. But under these +conditions mellowing does not occur, hence the necessity of reducing the +moisture content gradually after the last sprinkling water has been +given. When the process has been conducted properly the temperature of +the old piece may be allowed to rise as high as 70° F. during the six +hours previous to loading. The moisture content of the green malt when +loaded should not be much above 40%. + +The endosperm of green malt which is ready for the kiln should be soft +and mealy, and should not exude moisture when pressed between the +thumb-nails, but should crumble and disintegrate to a chalky mass having +little or no adhesiveness. + + The foregoing observations are not to be regarded as hard and fast + rules, but they are simply intended to give some indications of the + malting process when it proceeds on normal lines; it may be that on + account of the presence of damaged corns the piece begins to develop + mould by about the tenth day, and it then has to be kept thin and + sometimes even loaded on kiln prematurely. + +The malt made for grain distillers, in which a high diastatic activity +is required, is manufactured on quite different lines from those above +indicated. It is often sprinkled late, and loaded on kiln often in a +sodden condition. In some cases sprinkling on kiln is resorted to, but +it is doubtful if this leads to the desired object. Other things being +equal, the smaller the corns--i.e. the greater number of embryos in a +given weight--the higher the diastatic activity of the malt. In +selecting a barley for the production of highly diastatic malt, the +diastatic power of the original raw grain is a factor of great +importance. + +_Kilning._--When loaded on kiln, malt intended for brewing ale and stout +is, if properly withered, in a moribund condition; nevertheless, during +the first stages of the kilning process a certain amount of vital +activity is manifested, and the malt undergoes mellowing by the action +of enzymes on the contents of the endosperm. If the malt be loaded while +the rootlets appear fresh on account of the presence of too much +moisture, rapid growth of the acrospire ensues, giving rise to overshot +corns, known in Germany as "hussars." To check this the moisture must be +rapidly removed by the passage of large volumes of air through the malt. +But under such circumstances mellowing does not occur. The ideal +conditions of kilning are when the malt has been properly withered on +the floors before loading, and, assuming that drying and curing occupy +four days, that 25-30% of the moisture be removed very gradually, this +occupying the first three days, at the end of which the malt is said to +be hand-dry. The thickness at which the malt is spread on the kiln +should not exceed 7-8 in., and until hand-dry (that is to say, reduced +to a moisture content of 12-15%) it should not be turned; if moved at +all (and that only is necessary when reek occurs), it should only be +lightly forked. The rate at which the temperature is raised depends +largely on the kind of malt to be made and the construction of the kiln. +If high flavour and colour are required, these are produced by keeping +the malt for several hours near a temperature of 160° F. while it still +contains 12-15% of moisture. If more than this amount of moisture be +present when the temperature reaches the limit just mentioned, the +conditions known as stewing would obtain, with the result that "forced" +malt would be produced. A certain amount of colour is produced at the +final temperature to which the malt is raised; but when such means are +relied upon for the production of the greater part of the colour, +reduction of extract and deficiency of flavour follow, the colour being +then almost exclusively the result of caramelization of the +carbohydrates. + +The so-called curing stage constitutes the last part of the kilning +process, and the malt must then be turned frequently to ensure +uniformity of action. Mechanical turners are exceedingly useful for this +purpose. Curing in a drum, as in the so-called pneumatic malting process +(see below), also effects satisfactory curing. + + The following table will give an idea of the kilning temperatures + usually employed for the three kinds of malt mentioned, but it must be + remembered that these temperatures are largely regulated by the + construction of the kiln and the amount of draught available. In this + connexion it may be mentioned that the final curing temperature is not + necessarily a criterion of the tint of the malt. A malt may have been + finished off at a very high temperature and still be a pale malt, + provided the moisture percentage has been sufficiently reduced in the + initial stages of kilning. + + Running + Pale Malt. Ale Malt. Amber Malt. + + 1st day temp. 90-100° F. 90-100° F. 90-100° F. + 2nd " " 100-120 100-120 100-130 + 3rd " " 120-130(10 hrs.) 120-130( 6 hrs.) 130-150( 6 hrs.) + 3rd " " 130-180( 8 " ) 130-150(12 " ) 150-160(12 " ) + 3rd " " 180-190( 6 " ) 150-180( 6 " ) 160-180( 6 " ) + 4th " " drop to 170(12 " ) 180-190(12 " ) 180-200(12 " ) + 4th " " 190-200( 6 " ) 200-220( 6 " ) + 4th " " drop to 180( 6 " ) drop to 190( 6 " ) + + + The average laboratory values obtained from malts of the descriptions + after about two months' storage should be as follows:-- + + Running + Pale Malt. Ale Malt. Amber Malt. + + Extract per standard quarter of + 336 lb. 95-98 lb. 94-96 lb. 94-96 lb. + Moisture about 2.0% in each case + Diastatic activity (Lintner) 30-35 20-30 8-10 + Tint (Lovibond 52 series neutral) 3-5 6-8 20-25 + +_Metabolic Changes._--All through the malting process metabolic changes +are proceeding, in which both carbohydrates and proteïns are concerned. +In its resting stage the embryo of a barleycorn is generally free from +starch; as soon as germination sets in, however, starch appears in the +scutellum, while the amount of sucrose there present increases, these +being apparently formed from maltose originating from the action of +diastase on the starch of the endosperm. Sucrose also augments in the +aleurone layer, but starch is never formed in the aleurone cells. These +changes occur when the malt is first loaded on kiln; indeed, at no part +of the malting process is there greater physiological activity. + +Kilning has been specially studied by J. Grüss, who divides the process +into four stages, the first being that at which the temperature limit is +113° F. It is characterized by a continuation of the living processes, +especially growth of the acrospire, which, as already stated, proceeds +too far if the malt be loaded too wet. In any case the rootlet dies +away. The metabolism of the carbohydrates already mentioned is +accompanied by that of the nitrogenous constituents, the reserve proteïn +of the sub-aleurone layer being attacked by proteolytic enzymes and +broken down into simpler compounds. This is a most important matter from +the point of view of the brewing value of barley, for the degradation +products of the proteïns are necessary constituents of wort as yeast +food. Moreover, unless proper modification of these proteïn bodies +occurs it is impossible to produce tender malt. A barley which contains +a high percentage of reserve proteïn is as a rule unfitted for malting +purposes, and indeed, the higher the proteïn content the greater the +difficulty the maltster experiences in dealing with it. Proteïn +hydrolysis requires the presence of a certain amount of moisture, and if +this be removed too rapidly by a forced draught at the early stages of +kilning the proteolytic enzymes cannot perform their function. If, on +the other hand, the grain be loaded in too moist a condition, and the +temperature be raised too quickly, the proteolytic enzymes lose their +activity and the proteïns remain for the most part unattacked. When +germination is allowed to proceed on the kiln too great degradation of +the proteïn occurs, and the malt is liable to produce fretty beers, on +account of the presence of an excessive amount of nitrogenous nutritive +matter, which leads to the development of disease organisms. + +The second stage of the kilning process, according to Grüss, is that at +which the temperatures range from 113° to 167° F. The life of the corn +is now suspended, but enzymatic processes continue. The starch is +further saccharified, and the dividing line of the aleurone layer at the +furrow is attacked, as are also the cell walls of the endosperm, which +are still intact, these being partially converted into gummy substances. +This change, however, also requires the presence of a certain amount of +moisture. If too much air be passed through the malt at this stage the +above-named dividing partition of the cell walls is not attacked. The +air may expand the grain to some extent and produce malt of a low bushel +weight, which, however, is not properly modified and cannot give +satisfactory results in practice. + +During the third stage of kilning, an enzyme, which Grüss claims to have +recognized, and which he denotes spermoxidase, is said to exert its +activity. + +Schönfeld has confirmed the discoveries of Grüss by practical +experiments. + + _Fuel._--The fuel used for drying and curing malt is either anthracite + or coke, and the greatest care is necessary in selecting it on account + of its liability to contain arsenic, which is to a greater or less + extent an invariable constituent of all coal. The fuel used for + malting purposes should not contain more arsenic than (1/20)th grain + per lb. Gas coke should on no account be used, unless it has been + proved to be sufficiently free from arsenic; but the best oven coke + frequently contains so little arsenic that it may be employed with + perfect safety, especially if it be mixed with a proportion (e.g. 5%) + of milk of lime, which retains the arsenic as calcium arsenate. In + Germany malt is, as a rule, dried and cured with hot air, whilst in + Great Britain the products of combustion are passed through the malt, + as it is believed that they exert a beneficial influence on the + flavour. The proportion of fuel used for drying and curing malt varies + according to the quality of the fuel and the construction of the kiln, + but on an average it may be placed at 50-80 lb. per quarter. + + [Illustration: + + [From Sykes & Ling, _Principles and Practice of Brewing_ (1907), + Charles Griffin & Co., Ltd.] + + Fig. 9.--Diagrammatic view of pneumatic malting, showing pneumatic + washing and steeping cisterns.] + + _Storing._--After the malt has passed through the curing stage it is + generally heaped up for a few hours. This is believed to increase its + flavour. The malt is then stripped from the kiln, and the rootlets, + technically known as the coombs, are removed. Formerly this was + effected by workmen treading the malt, who wore heavy boots for the + purpose. At the present time, however, the rootlets are usually + removed by machinery, special forms of which have been devised for + this as well as for dressing and polishing the malt. It is the custom + of some maltsters to store malt with the rootlets still attached; but + this is an objectionable practice, since malt coombs attract moisture, + and the presence of more than 3% of moisture in malt produces the + condition known as "slackness." When the malt is packed in bin it is + often covered with a layer of coombs, which then prevent access of + atmospheric moisture. Malt, to preserve its good qualities intact, + should be stored in bins made as nearly as possible air-tight, and it + should never be placed in bin until it is quite cool. It is probably + wrong to store malt in bins adjacent to the kilns, where it is kept at + a higher temperature than that of the surrounding atmosphere. During + storage of the malt a kind of mellowing occurs, the mechanism of which + is not understood. It is, however, known by practical brewers that the + best results cannot be obtained when new malt is used. + + _Premature Malting._--Several years ago Galland suggested germinating + barley in a drum, his idea being to do away with handling of the + grain, and also to be independent of changes of atmospheric + temperature. The latest development of this system, the so-called + Galland-Henning process of pneumatic malting, has been improved by Mr + R. Blair Robertson, and a diagrammatic view of the interior of one of + these maltings, showing the drums and conical steeping cisterns, is + shown in fig. 9. + + The drums are provided with a perforated channel for the passage of + air through the malt, which is packed in the annular space between + this channel and outside wall of the drum. Each drum is capable of + revolving on its axis, and there are arrangements for passing either + moist, saturated or dry air through the malt. The system as now + improved is capable of producing some of the best malt, especially if, + after germination has been completed in the drums, the green malt is + loaded on an ordinary kiln and the initial stages of kilning (see + above) conducted in the usual way; the curing, however, may be carried + out successfully in a special form of drum. + + _Yield and Weight._--The malting process is attended with a certain + amount of loss of dry substance of the barley, as follows:-- + + In the steep 1.5 to 2.0% + By respiration on floors and on kilns 3.0 " 5.0% + Coombs 3.0 " 4.0% + --- ----- + Total 7.5 " 11.0% + + In addition to this, barley, as already mentioned, contains from 15 to + 20% of moisture, whereas finished malt contains 1 to 2%. The total + loss in weight which barley undergoes in the malting process may be + put down at from 17 to 28%. Since, however, malt is lighter than + barley (and the quantity of both was in former years measured + exclusively by volume), it frequently happens that a given number of + quarters of barley yields a larger number of quarters of finished + malt. When this happens it is usual to speak of an increase having + been obtained. At the present time weight replaces measure for both + barley and malt, and although it is usual to speak of the quantity of + grain in terms of quarters, what is meant is not the measured quarter, + but so many weighed standard quarters. The standard quarter for + English malting barley is 448 lb. and for malt 336 lb. From this it + will be seen that when a given number of weighed quarters of barley + yields the same number of quarters of finished malt, the actual yield + is 75%, and there is then said to be neither increase nor decrease. As + a rule, in practical working the yield of malt varies from a 4% + decrease to a 10% increase, corresponding to an actual yield on the + original barley of 72 to 82.5%. + + J. Baverstock, an old writer, says that finished malt should weigh + one-fifth less than the barley from which it is produced. This + corresponds to a malting increase of about 7%, which is a high yield. + As a rule, foreign barley will give a greater malting increase than + English barley, because, on the one hand, the former usually contains + less moisture than the latter, and, further, because there is less + loss on the floors by respiration and rootlet growth. + + The yield of malt from barley may be determined in the laboratory in + an extremely simple manner. Since every grain of barley must yield a + grain of malt, if we know the respective weights of a definite number + of barley and malt grains, provided that this number is large enough + to represent the average, then obviously this gives the data requisite + for calculating the yield of malt from barley. The number of corns the + weight of which is determined for this purpose is usually 1000, and if + the weight of this number be determined on several different 1000 + corns, the average will closely approximate to the truth. Instead of + counting the corns by hand, an instrument may be used for this + purpose. + + If 1000 corns of a barley were found to weigh 42 grammes, and 1000 + corns of a finished malt from the same barley 32 grammes, then the + yield of malt is (32 × 100)/42 = 76.1, this corresponding to a 1% + increase. Assuming that the moisture content of the barley was 15% and + that of the finished malt 2%, 100 grammes of malt will contain 2 + grammes of moisture, and 76.1 grammes will contain (76.1 × 2)/100 = + 1.5 grammes moisture; therefore 76.1 grammes of malt contain 76.1 - + 1.5 = 74.6 grammes of dry matter. This was obtained from 100 - 15 = 85 + grammes of barley dry substance. Hence 100 parts of barley dry + substance will yield (74.6 × 100)/85 = 87.7 corresponding with a loss + of dry substance equal to 12.5% of the dry substance of the barley, or + with a loss of 10.7% on the barley containing 15% of moisture. + + The results obtained by this method of laboratory control when it is + accurately carried out agree very closely with those deduced from the + practical results of weighing the barley, malt and coombs in the + malting. + + _Special Malts._--In addition to the kinds of malt considered in what + precedes, there are others mostly used for imparting specific flavours + and colour to beers and stout. These are crystal malt, imperial malt, + brown or blown malt, and black or roasted malt. Crystal malt is grown + for a shortened period on the floors, and then placed in a wire + cylinder, which is rotated over a fire so that it is dried at a very + high temperature. The weight per quarter is from 250 to 280 lb. + Imperial malt is dried off on an ordinary kiln at a final temperature + of 240-270° F., but it is not allowed the usual length of time on the + withering floor. It is placed on the drying kiln in a layer not + exceeding one inch and a half in thickness. A moderate heat from burnt + wood is first applied until the bulk of the moisture has been driven + off, when the temperature is suddenly raised so that the grains swell + some 25% and the malt takes up a strong empyreumatic flavour from the + products of combustion. This kind of malt weighs 270-300 lb. per + quarter. Black or roasted malt is prepared by roasting malt in a + cylinder. Ford states that perfectly malted corn gives a colour of + less intensity and permanence than does partially malted corn, and + this has been confirmed by other observers. A certain quantity of the + so-called black malt is actually made from raw barley, but this gives + a product of inferior flavour. The weight per quarter of black malt + varies as much as from 215 to 290 lb. + + _Valuation._--For the valuation of malt the following determinations + are usually carried out: Extract per standard quarter, moisture, + diastatic activity by the Lintner process, tint, and matters soluble + in cold water. The physical examination of malt is also a matter of + importance, inasmuch as direct evidence is obtained thereby of the + modification of the malt. Among the methods adopted for this purpose + may be mentioned counting the percentage of corns in which the + acrospire has grown up to one-half, two-thirds and three-fourths the + entire length of the corn. In properly made malt the modification of + the endosperm should proceed _pari passu_ with the growth of the + acrospire. The sinker test is also useful when carried out in an + intelligent manner. Those corns which sink in water and lie flat are + improperly modified. Normal malt has a specific gravity less than + water and the corns have equal density throughout; consequently they + float horizontally in water. In forced samples the proximal ends are + frequently lighter than the distal ends, and the corns float + horizontally in water, with the germ directed upwards. The latter, + however, may in some cases fill with water, and the corns lie flat or + sink. This is a characteristic of over-modified malt. It will be seen + from these remarks that it is essential to carry out the sinker test + under standard conditions. The modification of the malt may also be + determined by means of the diaphanoscope already referred to under + Barley. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--M. M. W. Baird, _Journ. Inst. Brewing_ (1905), 11, 431; + J. L. Baker, _Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans._ (1902), 81, 1177; _The Brewing + Industry_; J. L. Baker and W. D. Dick, _Journ. Inst. Brewing_ (1905), + 11, 380; J. Baverstock, _Treatise on Brewing and Malting_ (1824); E. + S. Beaven, _Journ. Fed. Inst. Brewing_ (1902), 8, 542; R. H. Biffen, + _Journ. Inst. Brewing_ (1906), 12, 366; Board of Agriculture and + Fisheries (Leaflet 149); A. J. Brown, _Annals of Botany_ (1907), 21, + 79; H. T. Brown and G. H. Morris, _Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans._ (1890), + 57, 458; H. T. Brown and others, _Trans. Guinness Research Lab._ + (1903), vol.--pt. I. (1906), pt. II.; M. Delbrück, _Journ. Inst. + Brewing_ (1906), 12, 642; Ford, _A Treatise on Malting_ (1849); C. + Graham, Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts (1874); J. Grüss, + _Wochenschrift für Brauerei_ (1895), 12, 1257; (1896), 13, 729; + (1897), 14, 321, 409; (1898), 15, 81, 269; (1899), 16, 519, 621; (1902), 19, + 243; W. Johannsen, _Résumé. Comptes rendus trav. lab. Carlsberg_ + (1884), 2, 60; A. R. Ling, _Brewers' Journal_ (1904), 40, 741; E. J. + Mills and J. B. Pettigrew, _Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans._ (1882), 41, 38; + E. R. Moritz, _Journ. Fed. Inst. Brewing_ (1895), 1, 228; E. R. Moritz + and G. H. Morris, _A Textbook of the Science of Brewing_ (1891); J. M. + H. Munro and E. S. Beaven, _Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc._ (1900), 11, pt. + II., 5; T. B. Osborne, _Report_ of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment + Station (1894); H. Stopes, _Malt and Malting_ (1895); W. J. Sykes and + A. R. Ling, _Principles and Practice of Brewing_ (1907); H. Van Laer + _Bull. de la soc. chim. de Belgique_ (1905), 337; R. Wahl, _Amer. + Brewers' Rev._ (1904), 18, 89. (A. R. L.*) + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 17, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42854 *** |