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diff --git a/42826.txt b/42826.txt deleted file mode 100644 index fe70437..0000000 --- a/42826.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4494 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Austria, by Frederick Shoberl - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Austria - containing a Description of the Manners, Customs, Character - and Costumes of the People of that Empire - -Author: Frederick Shoberl - -Release Date: May 28, 2013 [EBook #42826] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIA *** - - - - -Produced by Sandra Eder, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - AUSTRIA. - - [Illustration: WOMEN of SLAVONIA.] - - - - - AUSTRIA; - CONTAINING A DESCRIPTION OF THE - MANNERS, CUSTOMS, CHARACTER AND - COSTUMES OF THE PEOPLE OF THAT EMPIRE. - - BY FREDERICK SHOBERL. - - - ILLUSTRATED BY TWELVE COLOURED ENGRAVINGS. - - - The proper study of mankind is man.--_Pope._ - - - Philadelphia: - PUBLISHED BY C. S. WILLIAMS. - W. Brown, Printer. - - 1828. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -On turning over the pages of this work, some readers may possibly be -surprised to find that so large a proportion of the engravings belong -to one of the countries composing the Austrian empire. When, however, -it is considered that a high degree of civilization tends to -assimilate the manners, amusements, and dress of the great mass of the -inhabitants of those countries in which it prevails; and that the -people of the German states of this empire are scarcely, if at all -surpassed in that respect by any nation in Europe; it will be evident -that they must exhibit fewer of those peculiar characteristics which -it is the object of this work to collect and delineate. - -Hungary stands in a very different predicament. Peopled by tribes -belonging to many different nations, whose distinctive habits, -manners, and prejudices have not been melted down by refinement and -cultivation, it affords much more ample materials for the pencil than -Austria, properly so called. For this reason, by far the greater part -of the embellishments have been selected from among the singular, -picturesque and romantic costumes of that kingdom and its dependant -provinces. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - - CHAP. PAGE - - I.--Provinces of the Austrian Empire--Their Extent and - Population 1 - - II.--Of the different Nations of the Austrian Dominions--The - Jews--The Germans--The Slavonians, including the Bohemians-- - The Slowacks--The Wendes and the Rascians of Illyria--The - Magyares or Hungarians--The Walachians--The Zingares or - Gipsies--The Armenians--The Greeks, Turks, &c. 2 - - III.--Religions--Roman Catholics--Greek - Church--Armenians--Protestants--Socinians--Jews--Mahometans 9 - - IV.--Character of the People of Austria 12 - - AUSTRIA, LOWER AND UPPER. - - V.--Inhabitants of Lower Austria--Manners of the People - of Vienna--Amusements--Houses--Population - and Mortality--Shops--Paved Streets--The Fire-Watch-- - Costumes of Upper Austria 16 - - STYRIA. - - VI.--Costume of the Inhabitants--The Johannaeum at Graetz 26 - - BOHEMIA. - - VII.--Costumes of the Bohemians 28 - - MORAVIA. - - VIII.--Costumes of the Inhabitants--Account of the Haunacks-- - Peasants of the Frontiers 30 - - THE TYROL. - - IX.--Migrations of the Tyrolese--Their Frankness--Their - Attachment to the House of Austria--Anecdote of the - Archduchess Elizabeth--Literary Turn of the Tyrolese-- - Their Extraordinary Honesty--Fondness for Pugilistic - Exercises and the Chase--Ancient Practice--Moral - Character--Superstition--Mechanical Genius--Persons and - Costumes--National Songs--Custom of visiting the Graves of - Relations--Marriage Ceremonies of the Tyrolese 32 - - HUNGARY. - - X.--Extent--Division--Constitution--Vast Estates of the - Magnats--State of the Peasantry--Their Indolence--Thievish - Disposition of the Herdsmen--Punishments--Hungarian - Prison--General Appearance of - the Peasants and their Habitations in different - Counties--Horned Cattle--Sheep--Village Herdsmen--Ravages - of Wolves--Granaries--Costumes 49 - - TRANSYLVANIA. - - XI.--Extent of Population--Manners of the Walachians--The - Gipsies--Costumes 70 - - BUKOWINA. - - XII.--Transfer of the Country to Austria--Extent--Population-- - Costumes 81 - - THE MILITARY FRONTIERS. - - XIII.--Military Constitution--Carlstadt Frontier--Banal - Frontier--Slavonia--Banat Frontier 86 - - GALICIA, OR AUSTRIAN POLAND. - - XIV.--Extent and Nature of the Country--Benefits resulting - to the People from the Partition of Poland--Cruelty - and Injustice of the Ancient System--Superior - Degree of Security enjoyed under the Austrian - Government--Mode of Building--Appearance - of a Polish Village--Inns--Jews--Uncleanliness of - the Poles 100 - - - - - LIST OF PLATES. - - - 1. Clementinian Women of Slavonia, _Frontispiece_ - 2. Peasant of Egra in Winter dress, _to face page_ 28 - 3. Peasant of the Mountains of Moravia 31 - 4. Tyrolese Hunter 37 - 5. Hungarian Peasant of the County of Weszprim 64 - 6. Armed Plajash 80 - 7. Boyar of Szered 82 - 8. Unmarried Female of Jackobeny 84 - 9. Female Peasant of Philippowan 85 - 10. Tanaszia Dorojevich, Vice Haram-Bassa of the Szeressans 88 - 11. Unmarried Female of Ottochacz 93 - 12. Unmarried Female of Glina 94 - - - - -AUSTRIA. - - - - -CHAPTER. I. - - PROVINCES OF THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE--THEIR EXTENT AND POPULATION. - - -The empire of Austria, one of the most extensive and powerful of the -states of Europe, is composed of provinces situated in Germany, Poland -and Italy, and embraces the whole of Hungary. - -The German dominions of this monarchy consist of Upper and Lower -Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Bohemia, Moravia, part of -Silesia, and the Tyrol and Salzburg. - -In Poland it possesses the kingdom of Galicia. - -The Hungarian states are: Hungary proper, Slavonia, Croatia, Dalmatia, -Transylvania and the Bukowina. - -In Italy, Venice and the Milanese form the Lombard-Venetian kingdom, -one of the brightest jewels in the crown of Austria. - -The extent and population of these provinces is shown in the subjoined -table. - -EXTENT AND POPULATION OF THE PROVINCES OF THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. - - German - Square miles. Inhabitants. - - The kingdom of Bohemia 956.80 3,203,222 - - The Margravate of Moravia 417.64} - The duchy of Silesia 86.85} 1,680,935 - - Austria below the Enns 363.65 1,048,324 - - Austria above the Enns, including - the circles of the Inn and - Hausruck and Salzburg 344.32 756,897 - - The duchy of Styria 398.98 799,056 - - The duchy of Carinthia 190.90 278,500 - - Illyria and part of Croatia 250.95 467,836 - - The Littorale, or Coast District 176.18 422,861 - - Tyrol and Voralberg 520.44 717,542 - - The Lombard-Venetian kingdom 867.50 4,111,535 - - The government of Dalmatia 274.94 295,089 - - The kingdom of Galicia 1526.12 3,755,454 - - Civil Hungary, Croatia and - Slavonia 4097.06 8,200,000 - - Civil Transylvania } 1,510,000 - Transylvanian Military } 1118.70 - Frontiers } 138,284 - - Banat Frontiers 186.00 171,657 - - Slavonian Frontiers 139.40 230,079 - - Warasdin Military government 67.40 107,217 - - Carlstadt Military government 166.40 188,906 - - Banal Regiments 54.20 95,442 - --------- ---------- - 12,204.48 28,178,836 - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - OF THE DIFFERENT NATIONS IN THE AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS--THE - JEWS--THE GERMANS--THE SLAVONIANS, INCLUDING THE BOHEMIANS--THE - SLOWACKS--THE WENDES AND THE RASCIANS OR ILLYRIANS--THE MAGYARES - OR HUNGARIANS--THE WALACHIANS--THE ZIGANIS OR GIPSIES--THE - ARMENIANS--THE GREEKS, &c. - - -The population of the Austrian dominions is composed of different -races, each having particular manners and even a peculiar language. -All these nations are far from being actuated by the same spirit, or -feeling the same attachment for the state to which they belong. This -is one of the great causes of the political weakness of Austria; a -weakness which has been sensibly manifested in all the wars of -invasion. United within a longer or a shorter period under the -authority of one and the same prince, they do not form one compact -whole. Thus the different inhabitants of the Austrian states have -neither the same interests nor the same feelings. The Hungarians, the -Bohemians and the Tyrolese, people extremely jealous of their -independence, do not consider themselves as being of the same nation -as the Austrians, whom most of them in fact deem beneath them, because -in general they possess greater vivacity and a more strongly marked -character. There is no spirit of unity among them, though all are -subject to the same sceptre. - -The principal nations distributed over the spacious dominions of -Austria are the Germans, the Slavonians, and the Magyares or -Hungarians properly so called. We also meet with Walachians, Ziganis -or gypsies, Greeks, and a few Armenians, French and Walloons; but -these form no important part of the population. There is another race, -which, though of foreign extraction, is widely spread over these -provinces as throughout every country in Europe, and that is the Jews. -These people, who form a distinct nation amidst all other nations, -swarm in the various provinces of the Austrian monarchy, with the -exception of Styria, Carinthia and upper Austria. Bohemia, Moravia, -Hungary and Galicia contain great numbers of them. Thus it is -calculated that there are 170,000 of them in Galicia, 130,000 in -Hungary, 50,000 in Bohemia, and 30,000 in Moravia. They are likewise -very numerous in Transylvania. - -It is very generally supposed in other countries that the greatest -part of the population of Austria consists of Germans: but this is by -no means the case. Austria, properly so called, is the only province -that is entirely peopled by Germans; all the others are more or less -inhabited by Slavonians, and the other races mentioned above. The -Germans are also diffused over Styria and Carinthia. In Bohemia, there -is but one circle, that of Ellbogen, which is entirely peopled by -them. Of Moravia they occupy only the part situated on the confines of -Austria and Silesia, as well as the districts to the south of the -circles of Znaim and Brunn. Still less numerous in Hungary, they are -scarcely met with excepting in certain villages in the counties of -Zips, Wieselburg, OEdenburg, Scharosch and Eisenburg. In -Transylvania there are more of them: but their number there is -inferior to that of the natives. In Galicia, if we except several of -the principal towns, we find no Germans but in a few villages whither -they have been sent by the government to introduce improvements into -the system of agriculture. Thus most of the wealthy citizens of Cracow -are Germans, of Saxon or Silesian extraction. - -The most numerous of all the races spread over the territories subject -to Austria is the Slavonian, now but little known by this generic -name, on account of the immense extent of country which it inhabits. -Interesting for more than one reason, the Slavonians are worthy alike -of the meditation of the philosopher and the researches of the -historian, as well on account of the vast space they occupy, as the -uniformity of manners which they have preserved in all ages, -notwithstanding the vicissitudes experienced by the governments to -which they were subject. The numerous traces left by their language in -various idioms in which we should never expect to meet with words of -Slavonic origin, render the study of it of great importance. - -The Slavonian race is divided into an infinite number of branches, -some of which are found exclusively in Russia and Poland, and others -in the Austrian dominions. To the latter belong the Tshechs, or -Bohemians, the Slowacks, the Poles, the Wendes, the Rascians, and the -Croats. - -The Bohemian language, spoken in Bohemia and Moravia, is but a dialect -of the Slavonian; but surrounded by German provinces, their -inhabitants have adopted an alphabet which differs very little from -that used in Germany. The Bohemian dialect is remarkable for its -richness, the softness of its pronunciation, and the facility with -which it adapts itself to the inflexions of song. It is daily -undergoing a change, however, from its mixture with the German; and -hence many words of the primitive Bohemian idiom are no longer -understood by the common people. The Bohemians are accounted one of -the most civilized of all the Slavonian races in the Austrian empire. -The Moravians also are distinguished for their mild and gentle manners -and their extraordinary industry. - -The Slowacks, the relics of the Moravian monarchy, which comprehended -Moravia and the north-western part of Hungary, are nearly confined to -those two countries. There are nevertheless some of them in Bohemia. -To those people particularly applies the observation of Schwartner, -who remarks, that of all the inhabitants of Hungary the Slowacks -multiply fastest. Wherever they settle, the Germans and Magyares -gradually disappear. Thus in the 14th century the mountainous part of -the county of Goemoer was entirely inhabited by Germans, whereas at -present the population consists exclusively of Slowacks. - -The Wendes, who are found in Carinthia, Carniola and Lower Styria, as -far as the frontiers of Hungary, belong also to the Slavonians. But -among all the Slavonian tribes, the Croatians have retained most of -their primitive manners and character. Originally of Bosnian -extraction, they are spread not only in Croatia, but also in Hungary. -At once soldiers and husbandmen, their religion and customs closely -resemble those of their neighbours the Transylvanians and Slavonians. -They form excellent light troops, and are fond of serving in the corps -of Hulans. - -The Rascians or Illyrians, the last branch of the Slavonians, appear -to be descended from the ancient Scythians. The name of Srbi which -they give to themselves, seems to indicate that they formerly -inhabited Dacia, the modern Servia. They principally inhabit -Transylvania and Hungary. There are many of them also in the county of -Warasdin, as well as in Croatia, where they form nearly a third of the -population. - -The language of the Slavonians is soft, sonorous and pleasing to the -ear. Though spoken by people who have not made any great progress in -the arts and sciences, it has nevertheless been brought to a high -degree of perfection. It has even assumed all the characters of a -modern language, and may claim a distinguished rank among those of the -most civilized nations. The turns of which it is susceptible, and the -inversions which it has in common with the Greek and German, render it -equally expressive and energetic. Copious and harmonious, it may vie -with the Italian in melody and softness, especially when it is sung. - -This language is more widely extended than any other language of -Europe. It is spoken throughout all Transylvania, Galicia, Hungary, -Moravia, Bohemia, and generally in all the provinces of Austria. It is -also very common in Lusatia, Silesia, Poland, Lithuania, Prussia, -Russia, Moscovy, and even in Sweden. It is met with along the whole -coast of the Adriatic, in Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, -Bulgaria and Turkey in Europe. It should however be observed, that -though all the inhabitants of these different countries speak the same -language, yet their various dialects differ not only in the -pronunciation and signification of many words; but also in a great -number of radical words which are not to be found in the neighbouring -dialects. The difference of these dialects is not governed, as might -be supposed, by the intercourse between nation and nation, since the -signification of words used by contiguous tribes frequently differs in -the most striking manner. Hence neighbouring nations do not perhaps -understand one another; whereas those which are wide asunder have no -difficulty to comprehend each other's meaning. Thus the Russian and -Cossack dialects vary but little from those spoken by the Bosnians and -the inhabitants of Ragusa, whose language differs so widely from that -of their neighbours, the Dalmatians, and the people of Carniola. In -like manner, the Russian idiom differs much from that of the Poles, -though the Russians are neighbours to that nation as the Bosnians are -to the Dalmatians. - -Next to the Slavonians and Germans, the Magyares or Hungarians are the -race most widely spread in the Austrian monarchy. They probably derive -their origin from Asia; and this conjecture seems to be strengthened -by the traces of Asiatic manners which they still retain. -Unenlightened and disliking the arts and commerce, they indulge that -indolence and apathy in which the people of Asia place their -happiness. In this respect then the character of the Magyares differs -widely from that of the Germans and Slavonians, who engage with ardour -in all sorts of speculations as well as retail trades. Hungary, -therefore, which they inhabit, would be a very poor country did not -the fertility of the soil confer on them an affluence which they -never would derive from their own exertions. - -The Magyares are spread as far as the coasts of the Adriatic: a small -tribe of them, known by the appellation of Szythes, is found near -Fiume living peaceably among the Illyrians. The great mass of the -nation, however, exists in Hungary, where the number of the Magyares -is estimated at about three millions and a half. - -The Walachians appear to be with the Slavonians the most ancient -inhabitants of the country watered by the Danube. In number, though -very much inferior to the latter, they equal the Magyares; at least in -the countries situated eastward of the Theiss. Naturally vain, these -people pretend to be descendants of the Roman colonists, who settled -from time to time in ancient Germany. They accordingly style -themselves _Rumani_, to indicate this noble origin. It is, however, -more probable that they proceed from a mixture of the ancient Dacians, -Romans and Slavonians. Their language in fact is composed of terms -more or less altered, which manifestly belonged to those different -nations. But a circumstance which shows that the groundwork of their -language is not derived from the Latin is, that their declensions and -conjugations have no resemblance to those of the latter: neither do -the terminations of the majority of their words correspond with those -generally observed in the Latin. - -Without arts, and almost without religion and civilization, the -Walachian peasants know no other wants and pleasures but those of a -roving life. They are in general suspicious, vindictive and disposed -to hate other nations; hence the Hungarians and Transylvanians treat -them exactly like slaves. The Walachians, like the Slavonians multiply -fast; and it is perhaps on this account that they are deemed dangerous -by the Hungarians among whom they live. - -The Ziganis or Ziguener, a roving or rather vagabond race, are very -numerous in the Bukowina, Hungary, Galicia, and Transylvania. In the -latter province they amount to more than sixty thousand; and out of -seventy thousand inhabitants who composed the population of the -Bukowina, when it was ceded to Austria in 1778, more than 10,000 were -Ziganis. Of the origin of these people, whose manners, habits and way -of life, perfectly correspond with those of the gipsies, nothing is -known with certainty; but the arguments of Grellman seem to render it -probable, that they are the descendants of the Hindoos expelled from -India at the time of Tamerlane's invasion in 1408 and 1409. Of the -period of their arrival in Hungary we are not informed, but they were -known in that country so early as 1417, about which time probably they -began to introduce themselves into Transylvania. The Ziganis in -general manifest more attachment to the Hungarians than to any other -nation, either because the manners of the latter approach nearest to -their own, or because they afford them more protection. - -The Armenians in the Austrian dominions are descended from those who, -towards the conclusion of the seventeenth century, removed from Asia -and settled in Transylvania, where there are now upwards of eleven -hundred families. Most of them dwell in the towns of Armienstadt and -Ebesfalva, the first of which was named after them. In the sequel -others of this nation fixed their abode in Hungary, where there is not -found any considerable community of of them excepting at Neusatz, in -the country of Bartsch. In Galicia also they are so numerous as to -have an archbishop at Lemberg, the capital of that province. - -The same causes which have transferred Armenians into Austria have -also brought thither Greeks, Macedonians and Albanians. The people of -these different nations indeed are not numerous, there being scarcely -six hundred families of them in Transylvania, in which province most -of them reside. Naturally industrious, these foreigners have proved -very useful to Austria, and the city of Cronstadt is indebted to them -for the establishment of several important manufactures. - -It is in Moravia alone that we find a few of those Walloon families, -who serve to remind the spectator of the glorious period when the -crowns of Austria and Spain were united on the same head. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - RELIGIONS--ROMAN CATHOLICS--GREEK - CHURCH--ARMENIANS--PROTESTANTS--SOCINIANS--JEWS--MAHOMETANS. - - -All the sects of the Christian religion are to be found in Austria, -and the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks, are more or less numerous in the -different provinces. Such a diversity of religious opinions cannot -fail to have a considerable influence on the minds and manners of the -inhabitants. - -The Roman Catholic is the religion both of the sovereign and of the -state. The great majority of the inhabitants of Austria profess this -religion, which was long the only one tolerated in the provinces -composing this empire. Joseph II. however, sensible of the injustice -of proscribing persons on account of their religious opinions, issued -an edict granting toleration to the professors of all creeds. Since -that time the different Christian sects, the Jews and even the -Mahometans, have enjoyed liberty of conscience in the Austrian -dominions. - -The archbishop of Vienna is the head of the civil, and the archbishop -of St. Poelten, of the military clergy. The latter alone has a right to -recommend to the emperor's nomination, persons qualified for military -ecclesiastical appointments, such as the chaplaincies of regiments and -fortresses. The archbishop and bishops are all members of the -metropolitan chapter. On the death of one of their number, the chapter -has a right to propose a successor for the nomination of the emperor, -who approves or rejects as he thinks proper, without allowing any sort -of interference on the part of the pope. Hence several of the sees are -at present vacant, as the government has found it convenient to -appropriate the large revenues attached to many of them to the -exigencies of the state. - -It would be difficult to state with accuracy the number of Catholics -in Austria; but so much is certain, that they compose at least -two-thirds of the population of the empire. The Protestants are not -numerous, excepting in Bohemia on the frontiers of Saxony. - -With the exception of Russia and Turkey, no country in Europe contains -so many professors of the Greek faith, as the dominions of Austria. -Some of these are termed united, as they acknowledge the pope for -their supreme head, while others have refused to become thus united -with the Catholics. They are chiefly to be met within Galicia, -Hungary, Croatia, and Transylvania. - -The Armenian christians have chosen Galicia in preference for their -new abode; but there are some also in Hungary and Transylvania. Almost -all of them are engaged in commerce. These people are remarkable for -their activity and industry, and such of them as do not make a -profession of the arts or trade, pursue agriculture with truly -laudable perseverance. Almost all those who have settled in Hungary -have adopted the latter: and the pains they have bestowed on a soil -naturally excellent, have been rewarded with such abundant crops, that -almost all of them have acquired in a short time a competence and even -wealth. - -Since the time of Joseph II. the Protestants, both Lutherans and -Calvinists, have enjoyed the free exercise of their religion in the -imperial dominions. The number of the former is estimated at about one -million and a half, and that of the latter two millions and a half. -Bohemia, Hungary, and Moravia are the countries in which they are most -numerous. Almost all of them are remarkable for their industry. - -There are many other religious sects in Austria. The province of -Transylvania alone is computed to contain upwards of forty-five -thousand Socinians or Unitarians, who enjoy the same rights and -privileges as the Catholics and Protestants. Most of these Socinians -are Hungarians or Szeklers, and their number throughout Hungary is so -considerable that they have founded one hundred and sixty churches. -Hungary has also afforded an asylum to the Mennonites and Anabaptists, -but though they are tolerably numerous there, as well as in -Transylvania, still they form but a small part of the population of -those two countries. - -The Jews in the Austrian states are not, as we have seen, so numerous -as it might be imagined. They amount to about three hundred thousand. -In order to make real citizens of them, the sovereigns conferred on -them the same prerogatives with the rest of their subjects. This wise -measure, however, has not excited in them any genuine love for their -country, or inspired them with the least zeal for the welfare of the -state. The Jews, as in the other countries of Europe, live insulated -amidst the nation to which they belong; and continue to form a -separate people, who never will mingle with any other race. Self is -their ruling principle, and private interest their sole study. Without -love to their sovereign, without concern for their country, they are -indifferent to every thing excepting money, which is the god of their -idolatry. Leading, wherever they are found, a wandering life, they -consider themselves rather as travellers than as citizens, whose -fortunes are dependent on the prosperity of their native land. - -The Austrian sovereigns, after conferring upon them the rights of -citizens, deemed it but fair that the Jews should, like all the other -classes of society, furnish soldiers for the public defence. This just -requisition they resisted, and it was necessary to employ force to -compel submission to this general measure. It was not without great -difficulty that fifteen hundred were levied in Galicia: some of them -served in the ranks, and others in the artillery and wagon-train. - -The active commerce subsisting between Austria and Turkey, brings a -great number of Turks into the former empire. All or nearly all of -them are merchants. The advantages which they enjoy gradually induce -them to settle in the country; but they are not yet sufficiently -numerous to have mosques. These Turks therefore are content to -practise their religion within their own houses; and when they do -meet, it is not so much to worship God as to smoke and chat together. -The coffee-houses of the Prater, and of Leopoldstadt, at Vienna, are -commonly full of these foreigners, who carelessly seated on handsome -divans, surrounded by sherbet and other liquors, and smoking long -cigars, exhibit a picture of oriental manners amidst a European -population. The stranger is equally struck by the splendour of their -dress, the fashion of which is so different from that of the close -garments of Europe. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE OF AUSTRIA IN GENERAL. - - -The south of Germany would be the most fortunate country in Europe, if -the government to which it is subject had not shown in many -circumstances a weakness that but ill accords with the wisdom of its -views. Temperate in its climate, fertile from the nature of its soil, -and happy in its institutions, it remains invariably in a monotonous -state of well-being, which is prejudicial to the activity of the mind -alone, not to the happiness of the citizens. The inhabitants of this -peaceful and fertile country have but one wish, that is, to live -to-morrow as they lived yesterday. This tranquillity which in Austria -pervades all classes of society is surely preferable to that agitation -and thirst of wealth which torment almost all ranks in other -countries. Thus industry, ease and domestic enjoyments are more highly -valued in Austria than elsewhere: there every thing is done rather out -of duty than for fame; and no man looks for the reward of his actions -in the empty popularity which merely flatters pride and vanity, -without ever gratifying the heart. - -A nation which has no other motive than a love of its duties must be -essentially a generous and an upright nation. What nation displays, on -the whole, more integrity and generosity than the Austrians? They -carry the love of their sovereigns to the highest pitch, and that -because they regard this love as the most sacred of duties. Let their -rulers be ever so unfortunate, their attachment is but the stronger, -and the greatest sacrifices seem to cost them nothing. - -The Germans in general, and the Austrians in particular, possess a -sincerity and a probity that are proof against every thing. These -valuable qualities originate as much in the excellence of their -institutions as of their hearts. Their tranquil and peaceful -disposition as well as their domestic habits, encourage in them a love -of order and union from which they never deviate. - -In consequence of this love of order the Austrians are remarkably neat -in their dress, so that you seldom see among them, as in other -countries, wretches in rags by the side of elegance and luxury. There -is not an Austrian peasant but possesses a decent suit of clothes, -boots, and a furred great coat for winter. Enter their habitations and -you will find the same neatness and cleanliness which are conspicuous -in their habiliments. In these rustic dwellings nothing announces -affluence, but on the other hand there is nothing to denote poverty -and indigence. When the lower classes of a nation are well dressed, -who can doubt its wealth and its prosperity? - -The Austrians have been generally considered as ceremonious, and as -attaching too much importance to the formalities of etiquette. -Foreigners have been apt to ridicule them on this account, without -reflecting that this adherence to forms and ceremonies is a result of -their love of order and decorum. It must nevertheless be confessed -that, if etiquette and the forms of politeness are more strictly -observed in Germany than in other countries, this is partly owing to -the prerogatives enjoyed there by the nobility. Though the line -between the classes is much more strongly marked than elsewhere, still -there is nothing offensive in that demarcation. The differences of -rank are confined to a few court privileges, and the right of -admittance to certain assemblies, which afford too little pleasure to -deserve much regret. In fact the grandees of Vienna, who are the most -magnificent and wealthy in Europe, are so far from abusing the -advantages they possess, that in the streets they suffer the meanest -vehicles to stop their brilliant equipages. The emperor himself, and -his brothers, when they go abroad drive quietly along in the file of -hackney-coaches, and take delight to appear in their amusements as -private individuals. - -As to the national character, there is but little opportunity for its -development in Austria, since the different nations who inhabit the -various provinces of that empire do not form a compact whole, and are -not all actuated by the same spirit. Two great causes, however, might -give a certain stimulus to the public mind, and also excite patriotism -in Austria; these are, the love of the country and of the sovereign; -and the felicity which all the inhabitants enjoy under protecting -laws. Husbandmen rather than traders, the Austrians are for this very -reason more attached to their native soil. The interests of the -country are in fact more closely connected with those of the -cultivator of the soil, than of the merchant, whose almost only object -is the success of his speculations, on which his precarious existence -depends. Agriculture is honoured in Austria, and the most illustrious -of its princes, as well as the sovereign himself, are fully sensible -of its importance to an empire possessing so fertile a soil. - -The Austrian nation is perhaps the most upright and the most moral of -any in Europe. There is not an Austrian, with the exception of the -higher class of society, but feels that morality is the genuine source -of domestic happiness and the guarantee of the peace of families. The -sacred ties of marriage are still respected; and how indeed could it -well be otherwise in a country where woman is devoted to her conjugal -duties and finds the reward of this devotedness in the scrupulous -fidelity of him who is its object! Conjugal love always leads to -maternal affection; and the Austrian women are all, or nearly all, -excellent mothers. They are not more ostentatious in their attachment -to their children than in their love for their husbands: so that the -name of her who sacrifices herself for the object of a pure and tender -affection remains for ever unknown to the world. Divorce, which -introduces a kind of anarchy into families, has never been sanctioned -by the laws of Austria, and this is not one of the least important -benefits that it owes to its legislation. - -The fair sex in Austria have in general auburn hair, delicate -complexions and large blue eyes, the united effect of which there -would be no withstanding, did not their modesty and simplicity command -respect, and temper by the charm of virtue the too powerful impression -of their beauty. They delight by their sensibility, as they interest -by their imagination. Without being too much addicted to the -cultivation of literature and the fine arts, they are no strangers to -the best productions of either; and when you have once gained their -confidence you are astonished at their knowledge, which they never -display but in spite of themselves. The Austrian ladies speak with -equal fluency all the languages of Europe; and in company they possess -in general a marked superiority over the men. - -These observations apply particularly to the women of the higher -classes: as to those of inferior rank, they can scarcely be surpassed -for goodness of disposition and purity of morals. The maternal love of -these rustics is too strong not to preserve them from those faults -which are unhappily too common among females of the same condition in -many other countries. Labour and the exercises of religion occupy them -entirely, and exempt them from those vices which are generated by -idleness. They are, however, charged, at least those of some -districts, with being too much addicted to spirituous liquors, and -with impairing by this indulgence their circumstances and their -health. - -The men are in general tall, well proportioned, and of a ruddy -complexion: but though few ordinary persons are to be found among -them, it is rarely that you meet with forms distinguished by that -higher sort of manly beauty which is frequently seen in the south of -Europe, and which furnished models for the finest statues of -antiquity. The Germans still answer the description given by Tacitus -of their ancestors: they are almost all fair and light complexioned: -and their souls do not possess the energy which their stature and -strength would seem to denote. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -AUSTRIA, LOWER AND UPPER. - - INHABITANTS OF LOWER AUSTRIA--MANNERS OF THE PEOPLE OF - VIENNA--AMUSEMENTS--HOUSES--POPULATION AND - MORTALITY--SHOPS--PAVED STREETS--THE FIRE-WATCH--COSTUMES OF - UPPER AUSTRIA. - - -The inhabitants of Lower Austria, in which the capital of the empire -is situated, are, with the Hungarians, the most fortunate of the -subjects of the imperial sceptre. Cultivating a fertile soil, and not -having, like the Styrians and the Tyrolese, to struggle incessantly -against an inclement climate, they are happy in their geographical -position; and they are in general deserving of it by the excellence of -their disposition. Harbouring none but the milder sentiments, they -have more gentleness than energy, and more good nature than elevation. -The Austrians are a simple and a hospitable nation; and the same -observation applies to their nobles, who never assume the German or -rather the Austrian pride, unless when they would enforce the -prerogatives of birth. A stranger has least to suffer from this -narrow-mindedness, which is becoming the less common, the more the -education of the higher classes is improved, and the more they learn -that true nobility ought to display itself in exalted sentiments -alone. - -It is natural to suppose that there must be a great difference between -the manners, customs and dress of the inhabitants of Lower Austria, -according as they reside in the country or in cities, or belong to the -working classes which, in Austria, as in other countries, have manners -peculiar to themselves. - -The manners of the higher classes in Vienna and in the other towns of -Lower Austria, are in general mild and simple; and they are found in -harmony with that good nature which is the most distinguishing feature -in the Austrian character. Though the nobility are not free from the -imputation of haughtiness and of attaching too much value to titles -and honorary distinctions, it cannot be denied that much hospitality -prevails among them as among the wealthy tradesmen. Many of the upper -classes keep open tables; and in many houses visitors are permitted at -all hours of the day and even until midnight, to partake alike of -every repast that is served up and of the conversation. - -It is alleged, and not without reason, that the people of Vienna are -rather too fond of good cheer. This is a general propensity of all -classes; so that those whose means will not permit them to have -delicacies are sure to indemnify themselves by the abundance of their -viands. The lower ranks always mingle with this indulgence a fondness -for other amusements, such as dancing and walking. The tradesman of -the capital takes great delight on a Sunday in a little country -excursion with his family; and as the parks of the grandees are open -to all comers, these are generally the places of rendezvous. He also -frequents the Prater and the public places of the metropolis; he looks -and listens with interest to all that passes, provided he is not -watched; for instead of wishing, like a Frenchman, for instance, to -attract attention, he feels uncomfortable as soon as he is noticed. -His whole happiness centres in himself and his numerous family, from -which he never likes to be parted. This picture of the happiness of -the people of Vienna is the more pleasing since it is not chequered, -as in most of the great cities of Europe, with the appearance of -squalid misery. In fact you can there distinguish but two classes, the -nobles and the citizens; all below them being blended by a certain -degree of luxury and ease with the latter. - -In winter, companies do not assemble about the stoves as round our -fire-places. The equable heat diffused by these stoves admits of their -breaking into groups in the different apartments, which thus assume -the appearance of a coffee-house. Servants in party-coloured liveries -hand round all sorts of refreshments and sometimes the mistress of the -house does the honours of it herself with an engaging attention that -charms a stranger. In general, however, she takes this duty on herself -only when she wishes to honour in a particular manner persons of -distinction or eminent travellers; at other times, leaving every -visitor to amuse himself as he pleases. In these societies, you -observe numbers of ribbons of all colours, and chamberlains' keys at -all pockets; these distinctions are so common that a person who has -none is almost a singularity. What renders these companies rather -irksome is the practice which prevails of not calling any one by his -name but only by his title. Thus you hear the persons about you -greeted by the appellations of baron, director, inspector, captain, -duke, or general; and remain ignorant of their real names unless some -friend takes the trouble to tell you who they are. - -The ladies, on these occasions, are almost always ranged in a circle, -chatting together or engaged in various works of embroidery, -frequently to the number of thirty or forty. The young men of Vienna -never make their appearance at these parties: hence their manners have -not the polish which the habit of keeping good company imparts, nor do -they pay those attentions which are due to the sex. In these companies -you only meet with a few young Austrian or foreign princes, who but -too frequently imagine that their rank exempts them from that delicate -politeness which virtuous women inspire and can duly appreciate. - -It is not to the want of accomplishments in the Austrian ladies, that -the indifference of the young men in regard to them must be -attributed, but to the unsociable habits of the latter. Their -education having been in general neglected, riding and hunting occupy -all the leisure which they do not pass at the coffee-houses, in -smoking and play. The rest of their time is devoted to the pleasures -of the table. With such a way of life and such habits, how is it -possible to keep up that tone of decency which it is necessary to -maintain in a select company? Nothing seems to them so difficult and -so irksome, and to avoid this unpleasant restraint, they keep away -from such societies altogether. - -Being thus left to themselves, the ladies of Vienna can do no other -than seek the company of the foreigners whom they find possessed of -amiable manners and information. Flattered by their attentions, and -tired of the society of men, which is generally monotonous enough in -Austria, the stranger exerts himself still more to please. He feels a -deeper interest in studying their character; the better he becomes -acquainted with it, the more he esteems them; and he is astonished -that females so gentle, so lovely, and so fascinating, should be -forsaken by those whom they are so well qualified to delight. - -The young men of rank at Vienna, having in general no occupation, and -as we have seen shunning company, are but too apt to yield to the -seductions of the gaming-table. Numerous instances of the fatal -effects of this baneful passion might be related; but circumstances of -this nature are too common in most other civilized countries to appear -extraordinary. - -The picture of the manners and amusements of the higher classes at -Vienna, drawn by Dr. Bright, is interesting. - -Morning calls, says that traveller, are not considered of the same -importance in Vienna as in London. When a stranger has been properly -introduced into a family, he usually receives a general invitation, of -which he is expected to avail himself. Accordingly he calls in the -evening; and if the lady of the house or any of the family be at home, -he is admitted, and then, as it happens, meets others, or is the only -visitor. Easy conversation or cards, music and tea, chess or enigmas, -fill up the evening; or if the party be numerous, dances and -refreshments, the rehearsal of poetry, or other exercises of mind or -body, enliven the visit and dispel the unpleasant restraints of -society. - -The evening amusements in Germany are very various, and sometimes -almost fall under the denomination of puerile. Not content with -requesting young ladies to recite verses, they will sometimes invert -the natural order of things and compel children to act plays, while -grown people will play cross-questions and crooked answers; or -standing in a circle, and holding a cord in their hands, pass a ring -from one to the other, while some one of the party is required to -discover in whose possession it is to be found. - -Acting riddles is a favourite game, and one which is well calculated -to amuse those who are wisely resolved to be amused when they can. A -certain portion of the company retire into an adjoining room, where -they concert together how best to represent by action the different -syllables which compose a word, and the meaning of the whole word. -They presently return, and carrying on their preconcerted action, -require the company to resolve the riddle. Thus, for instance, on one -occasion the word determined upon was _Jumeaux_. Some of the actors, -coming from their retirement, began to squeeze a lemon into a glass, -calling the attention of the company very particularly to it by their -action, thus representing _Ju_. Others came forward imitating the -various maladies and misfortunes of life, thus acting the syllable of -_meaux_. Then finally tottered into the circle an Italian duke and a -Prussian general, neither less than six feet in height, dressed in -sheets and leading-strings, a fine bouncing emblem of _Jumeaux_. - -Dinner-parties, though not the regular every day amusements of life in -Vienna, are not uncommon. There is much similarity in the style of -dinners throughout Germany, and it has some points of peculiar -excellence. The table is generally round or oval; so that each guest -has means of intercourse with the whole party, even when it is large. -It is covered for the greater part with a tasteful display of sweets -or fruits; two places only being left near the middle for the -substantial dishes. Each person is provided with a black bottle of -light wine, and every cover, even at a _table d'hote_, is furnished -with a napkin and silver forks. The first dishes which occupy the -vacant spaces are always soups; they are quickly removed to the -side-tables and distributed by the servants. In the mean time, the -next dish is placed upon the table, taken off, carved, and carried -round to the guests in precisely the same manner; and so on till every -thing has been served. The plates are carefully changed, but the -knives and forks very generally remain throughout the greater part of -the dinner, or, at best, are only wiped and returned. The dishes are -so numerous and the variety so great, that, as every body eats a -little of every thing, they seldom take twice of the same. - -The succession of luxuries is not exactly as with us. An Englishman is -somewhat surprised to see a joint of meat followed by a fish, or a -savoury dish usurp the place of one that was sweet. To conclude the -ceremony, each servant takes one of the sweetmeat ornaments off the -table, and carries it, as he has done with the other dishes, to all -the guests. - -During all this time the conversation is general and lively, and -beyond a doubt much more interesting than that which is heard on -similar occasions and in similar society in England, where its current -is perpetually interrupted by the attention which every one is bound -to pay to the wants and wishes of persons at the most distant part of -the table. While the sweetmeats are served, a few glasses of some -superior kinds of wine, which have likewise been distributed at -intervals during the dinner, are carried round; and then the company, -both ladies and gentlemen, rise at the same time by a kind of mutual -consent, which, as the rooms are seldom carpeted, occasions no -inconsiderable noise. To this succeeds a general bowing and compliment -from every one to each of the company individually, each hoping that -the other has eaten a good dinner. This peculiar phrase is precisely -the counterpart of another always employed on the parting of friends -about mid-day, each expressing a sincere hope that the other will eat -a hearty dinner. This is the most usual form of civility in Vienna. - -The party then adjourns to another apartment, where coffee is served -and where it is frequently joined by other visitors, chiefly men, who -come without particular invitation, to pay their respects or to -converse on business, in the manner of a morning call, and who prolong -their stay as the movements of the first party indicate: for an -invitation to dinner by no means necessarily implies that you are to -spend the evening or any part of it at the house or that the family -has no other engagement as soon as dinner is concluded and the guests -have taken their coffee and liquors. - -As the dinner is early, being always between twelve and five, the -remainder of the evening is employed in various pursuits. A drive in -the Prater or to some place of public resort, a visit to the theatre, -or a succession of the calls just described, employ the evening; or, -if the dinner has been very early, the party resumes the occupations -and business of the day. - -The time and duration of the performances at the theatres are very -convenient. They begin about six and conclude a little after nine. -The greatest decorum prevails during the representation, the -police-military, that is police-officers, in a particular kind of -livery and wearing swords, being stationed in all the avenues. Thus a -person going with a wish to hear the play is not disappointed by those -brawls which scarcely ever fail to interrupt the performance in our -English theatres; nor is there any part of the house to which a party -of the most delicate females might not resort with the greatest -propriety. - -The theatrical performances are continued throughout the whole year, -with the exception of the days prohibited by the Catholic calendar, on -many of which, however, concerts, public rehearsals, and a species of -exhibition called a _Tableau_ are permitted. The latter amusement, -being scarcely known in this country, requires some notice. - -The object of these exhibitions is, to represent by groups of living -figures the compositions of celebrated sculptors or painters. With -this view that part of the apartment or theatre, beyond which the -_Tableau_ is to be placed, is darkened, and on raising a curtain, the -figures are discovered dressed in the costume which the painter has -given them, and firmly fixed in the attitude prescribed by his pencil. -The light is skilfully introduced and other objects arranged so as to -give as nearly as possible the effect of the original painting. After -some time the curtain drops to give the performers time to rest, and -to relieve themselves from the painful attitudes which they are -frequently obliged to preserve; and the curtain again drawn up -discovers them still in their characteristic postures. When the -spectators are supposed to be satisfied with one picture another is -introduced, and thus several are exhibited in succession. This -generally forms only part of the evening's amusement, and is either -accompanied by a theatrical performance, or if in private by dancing -or music. - -An interesting variety of this entertainment was witnessed by Dr. -Bright. In the midst of a brilliant assembly, the folding-doors of -another room were suddenly thrown open, and what appeared to be a -beautiful collection of wax-figures was displayed to the delighted -eye. They were placed on pedestals, in recesses, or in groups around -the room. They represented heathen deities, or the gnomes and fairies -with which the poets have peopled the regions of imagination, with all -their emblematical accompaniments, and their dresses, which were -selected with the greatest taste. These figures were represented by -persons whom nature had favoured in a distinguished manner; they -preserved an unmoved firmness of attitude, and nothing interrupted the -illusion they intended to create but the animation of their eyes, and -the smile which sometimes dimpled the cheek even of the rooted Daphne. -To assert that this exhibition was beautiful were to degrade its -charms; it seemed to throw a magic spell over the spectators, and the -great difficulty was to induce them to retire when it was actually -necessary to relieve the figures from the painful position in which -they stood. - -The houses of Vienna are in general rather small than large; the -palaces of the grandees alone being spacious. Most of the houses are -of brick or wood covered with slate, and some with shingles. As a -measure of precaution, however, the police forbids the use of the -latter; so that whenever a house is repaired it must be roofed with -slate or tiles. The houses in the city only are from four to six -stories high: those of the suburbs occupy more ground but are not so -lofty. Here the mansions of the great, of very simple and sometimes -very whimsical architecture, have handsome gardens attached to them. -The interior is not so commodiously arranged as it might be. The walls -are more commonly painted in fresco than papered. The furniture is not -in general costly, excepting in the palaces of princes or the mansions -of bankers or wealthy merchants, whose opulence enables them to -command all the elegances as well as the conveniences of life. -Simplicity, neatness and perfect cleanliness, which are far to be -preferred to tawdry magnificence, are every where observable. - -Fire-places are almost unknown in the private houses of Vienna, and a -stranger is surprised not to find any even in the kitchens. - -Vienna is composed of two distinct parts, the city properly so called -and the suburbs, the latter being separated from the former by large -ditches and high walls. The total population is about 225,000 souls. -It is at present on the increase, in consequence of the important -advantages derived by Austria from the late wars. This city, however, -is not a healthy residence, notwithstanding the high winds which -usually prevail there, and which tend to promote salubrity. Instances -of longevity are much more rare in this than in other capitals. In -general the mortality is as one to fifteen annually, which is nearly -three times as great as that of the British metropolis. Though this -effect may be partly owing to the attachment to the pleasures of the -table for which the people of Vienna are proverbial, yet, it must also -be in part ascribed to the climate, which is extremely variable, -frequently changing in the course of few hours from the extreme of -heat to that of cold, and the air, unless ventilated daily by a breeze -about two hours before noon is said to become pestilential. The spring -water also is insalubrious, being apt to occasion bowel complaints to -strangers; and the water of the Danube is so thick and muddy that it -cannot be drunk unless filtered. - -The numerous benevolent institutions in Vienna and the comforts -enjoyed by the lower classes seem to argue that this great mortality -is owing rather to the climate than to any other cause. The humane -mind is not here shocked by the appearance of that squalid misery -which excites as much disgust as pity, and the number of mendicants -with which most other large cities are infested. But if the lower -classes here are better off than in some other countries, it is -chiefly owing to their superior morality and good conduct, which -secure them from indigence and want. - -The shops of Vienna are not decorated with that profusion and luxury -which are displayed in those of London and Paris. They are neat and -simple; and though they may contain a considerable variety of goods, -yet frequently a square glazed case of patterns hanging at the door is -the only mark by which the nature of a shopkeeper's dealings is -estimated. The shops, therefore, contribute but little to the -embellishment of the streets in which they are situated. - -The streets of the _city_ properly so called are paved with a light -gray sienite brought from Hungary and Bohemia, or with a very hard -species of granite furnished by the mountains of Upper Austria. Both -these species of stone are susceptible of a high polish, and they are -wrought into a variety of ornamental articles, particularly -snuff-boxes. The streets of the suburbs, being unpaved, are in winter -almost impassable on account of the mud, and not the most pleasant in -summer, owing to the clouds of dust raised by the winds which sweep -through them. - -Vienna possesses the advantage of being traversed in all directions by -subterraneous canals, which run into the Danube, and into which all -the impurities of the city are carried by regular drains and sewers. -It is well lighted at night, when a horse and foot patrole are -employed to protect the lives and properties of the citizens, a duty -in which they are ably seconded by the fire-watch, chiefly consisting -of invalid soldiers, who are not capable of active military service. -Armed with long staves, they walk through the streets of Vienna, -crying the hour, and at twelve o'clock adding, _put out your fires and -shut your doors!_ A hat of tin slouched behind and turned up before, -covers the head, and that the wearer may be known again, it is marked -with a particular number or letters. In this manner it is easy to -ascertain any individual who may have neglected his duty or exceeded -his orders. A loose drab coat is also marked by a number. Pantaloons, -boots or gaiters according to the season, a leathern apron, and a -leathern bucket, slung behind to be ready in case of fire, complete -the costume of one of these watchmen. - -The inhabitants of the villages surrounding Vienna have nearly the -same manners and costume as those of the capital following similar -professions. The remark is equally applicable to the people of Upper -Austria. Among the peasantry in both, the men universally wear low -broad-brimmed hats, as a protection both from rain and sun, and a kind -of half-boots. The breeches, usually of a dark colour, are suspended -by coloured braces put on over the waistcoat, and a broad belt -encircles the waist. A jacket of dark-coloured cloth covers all; a -black handkerchief is worn round the neck, and the stockings are blue, -a colour for which these people appear to have a predilection. - -The handkerchief which covers the head and over which the hat is put, -is a peculiarity in the costume of the women of these provinces. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -STYRIA. - - COSTUME OF THE INHABITANTS--THE JOANNAEUM AT GRATZ. - - -In Styria the costume of both sexes is singular. The head-dress of the -women of its capital, Graetz, and the neighbouring villages, such as -maid-servants and daughters of inferior tradesmen or small farmers, -generally consists of a cap of heavy gold lace, in the shape of a -helmet, not unlike that worn by women of the same class in Vienna. In -their forms these caps vary a little, the sides being frequently very -broad, and opening wide backward almost in the manner of a butterfly's -wings. The gold is often richly varied with alternate stripes of -embossed silver lace, or with embroidered figures: others wear a cap -of the same form, made of black silk and lace, while others again have -the black silk richly worked with flowers. - -Most of the female peasants in the surrounding country wear broad hats -of light coloured felt, nearly resembling those of Holland in shape, -and like them lined with linen, which is brought over to cover half of -the upper surface of the brim. This lining is generally of some dark -colour. All wear double handkerchiefs about the neck and shoulders, -and a tight bodice of some gay colour cut low in the back, with a -triangular false cape running in a point nearly to the waist. - -The countrymen likewise wear broad hats encircled by a ribbon or a -wide gold lace; a coloured silk handkerchief about the neck, and a -fancy waistcoat, with ornamented braces on the outside, by which the -dark-coloured breeches are suspended. Their stockings are blue, and -they wear neat half-boots lacing before in a point. On week-days they -have jackets, but on holidays wear long frock coats of some dark -cloth, generally green, and ornamented with many large shining -buttons. - -We cannot quit this province without directing the the attention of -the reader to an institution of recent establishment, which Dr. Bright -pronounces to be the most interesting at Graetz; this is the Joannaeum, -which takes its name from the archduke John, its founder. This prince, -who has distinguished himself by his love of knowledge perhaps above -any prince in Europe, and who is truly worthy of the high situation in -which his birth has placed him, and of the estimable imperial family -of which he forms a part, had pursued with unceasing assiduity an -investigation into the resources both natural and political of Styria. -He had himself surveyed every romantic scene, gathered every mountain -flower, estimated the capability of every rich valley, and drawn his -conclusions as to what was excellent and what still remained to be -improved; and wishing to make the stores he had collected and the -information he had gained of substantial use to the country, he -determined to present his valuable collections and library to the -inhabitants of the capital, that they might afford the means of -instruction to the people, and prove an encouragement to further -research. The Archduke accordingly gave the whole of this treasure, -consisting of an herbal which contained fourteen thousand specimens, -and a large store of minerals, an extensive library, philosophical -instruments and manufactured produce to the town of Graetz. These were -deposited in a large building, formerly a private house, purchased for -the purpose, and in the course of a year or two lectures on chemistry, -botany, mineralogy, astronomy and manufactures, were established; a -reading room was likewise opened and supplied with above fifty -different periodical scientific publications. The example of the -Archduke soon induced several other persons to contribute towards -completing so desirable an object; and among other liberal -contributors, Count von Egger presented his library and a valuable -cabinet of natural history. - -At this institution lectures are given on mineralogy, botany and -chemistry, astronomy, mechanics and the means of resuscitating persons -apparently drowned. This last course of lectures has lately been -appointed to be held in all the institutions for the higher branches -of education in the Austrian dominions, and is frequently delivered -on Sunday. Although the Joannaeum was originally quite unconnected -with the public education of the country, the students of medicine -have lately been permitted to avail themselves of certificates from -the professors, to forward their claims to academic honours at Vienna. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -BOHEMIA. - - COSTUMES OF THE BOHEMIANS. - - -The name of Bohemia is derived from that of the Boji, a Celtic nation -which inhabited this country at the period to which the earliest -historical records of it relate. Notwithstanding the numerous -resources possessed by the inhabitants in the fertility of the soil, -in the mines, the forests and the different manufactures established -in the course of the last century, the country is not very -flourishing. The peasantry being reduced to the state of serfs, the -apathy and indolence consequent on servitude, cause Bohemia to swarm -with mendicants and vagabonds. - -Among these are a great number of gipsies, who in some parts of Europe -are erroneously denominated Bohemians. - -The costumes of Bohemia differ considerably from those of Austria, -properly so called. The annexed engraving represents a young peasant -of the environs of Egra. These are a handsome race of men, with fine -open countenances. - -Their dress combines simplicity and elegance. Wide trowsers in the -Turkish fashion, reaching to the middle of the leg, contrast by their -dark colour as well as by their amplitude, with the short, tight -waistcoats. The under-waistcoat, or rather a sort of stomacher, which -is left uncovered by the two open upper waistcoats, is the article of -their dress in regard to which they are most particular. - -In winter these villagers wear over all a long brown cloth surtout. -The hat has a broad brim and a low crown, round which is tied a -coloured ribbon. From their earliest childhood they are habituated to -smoking, and they are seldom seen without pipes in their mouths, -especially in winter. - -[Illustration: PEASANT of EGRA _IN WINTER DRESS._] - -The wives and daughters of peasants in general employ dark-coloured -stuffs only for their apparel. In cold weather they wear a cap of fur, -or of woollen, round which a muslin handkerchief is tied behind. Their -stockings are of a dark colour; the shoes are black with red heels: -the quarters are bordered with a piece of the latter colour, which -turns down over the instep. - -The principal piece of finery in the dress of these women is the -girdle, in which they are particularly studious of elegance and -richness. It fastens both before and behind, and from the middle hangs -a broad band of the same material and similarly ornamented, which -passes in a semicircle sometimes to the right, at others to the left. - -The wedding apparel of the young female peasants of this part of -Bohemia is remarkable. Everywhere else a wedding is an occasion of -rejoicing and gaiety not only to the new-married couple, but also to -such of their relations and friends as are invited. Not so at Egra. -There the bride would be deemed guilty of an act of unpardonable -indecorum, if she were to appear in a white dress, or to give -additional splendour to her apparel by pearls, jewels, or laces. -Marriage, being considered in this country as the most important and -solemn act of life, is celebrated with the utmost gravity. Every -thing, therefore, that bears the resemblance of ostentation is -avoided: the bride is attired in her usual black dress, to which is -added a cloak of the same colour, reaching to the knees and not unlike -that used in the rest of Europe at funerals. She holds in one hand a -rosary, and in the other a veil which is to cover her during the -ceremony; and in the most modest and devout attitude she proceeds to -the church. - -In summer the inhabitants of these parts go very lightly clothed. The -men have but one open waistcoat, which leaves the bosom exposed; the -women wear a corset without sleeves, a petticoat, a blue apron and a -handkerchief of the same colour about the neck. The head is covered -with a white handkerchief, which is tied behind. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -MORAVIA. - - COSTUMES OF THE INHABITANTS--ACCOUNT OF THE HAUNACKS--PEASANTS - OF THE FRONTIERS. - - -The costume of the inhabitants of Moravia resembles more or less that -of the people of the contiguous countries. In the centre of the -province the men generally wear jacket, waistcoat, and pantaloons of -one colour, hussar boots, and a hat, the broad brim of which is cocked -behind and slouched before. - -The women dress nearly in the style of the Austrian peasants, but in -winter they wear over the laced corset and gown a sort of hussar -jacket of cloth bordered with fur, while gaiters or boots defend their -feet and legs from cold and damp. - -Near Olmuetz there is a small tract of country, extending about five -square German miles, and inhabited by a tribe of people called -Haunacks, or Haunachians, who are supposed by the native statistical -writers to be the pure descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants of -Moravia. They derive their name from the small river Hauna. Their -history is rather obscure, but they are undoubtedly a Slavonic tribe. - -In stature they are short, but strong and muscular; and being simple, -temperate, and plain in their habits, they attain in general a very -advanced age. By the neighbouring Germans they are reproached as being -slothful and averse to bodily labour; while they themselves boast of -the fertility of their soil, and look down with contempt upon the -other inhabitants of Moravia as an inferior set of beings, to whom -nature has been more niggardly of her gifts. Their mode of living is -frugal and highly primitive. The flesh of the hog joined with -hasty-pudding is their favourite viand, and beer their only beverage. - -The young women are remarkable for the grace and elegance of their -forms, and the neat adjustment of their dresses, which are extremely -picturesque and show off to great advantage the considerable share of -personal beauty with which the wearers are gifted. Their summer dress -consists of a large white linen cap, the lappets of which, bordered -with lace and embroidered with red silk, fall over their shoulders. -Their long hair is suffered to float in tresses; or, when the cap is -laid aside, is gracefully twisted and tied over the head with knots of -ribbons. A coloured corset, laced before shows the shape to advantage. -Their well turned ankles are set off with white or red stockings, and -black shoes with red heels. - -[Illustration: PEASANT of the MOUNTAINS of MORAVIA.] - -The dress of the men consists of a round hat adorned with ribbons of -various colours; a waistcoat commonly green, embroidered with red -silk, encompassed by a broad leathern girdle, with brown pantaloons -attached to the vest by means of large buckles; and boots. This is -their summer costume, but in winter they cover the head with a large -and singularly shaped fur cap, and throw over their shoulders an -undressed sheep or wolf-skin, in the absence of which they wear a -brown woollen cloak with a large hood, like that of a Capuchin Friar. - -On the frontiers of Hungary the costume of the peasant of Moravia -partakes of the style of dress usual in the former country. A -broad-brimmed, low-crowned hat covers his head; the short coat, which -in shape resembles the surcoat of the ancient knights, is girt round -the waist by a leathern girdle: and he carries his bundle slung behind -him from a shoulder-belt. He wears tight pantaloons, and stockings, -round which are twisted the strings that fasten his sandals, as -represented in the engraving. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE TYROL. - - MIGRATIONS OF THE TYROLESE--THEIR FRANKNESS--THEIR ATTACHMENT TO - THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA--ANECDOTE OF THE ARCHDUCHESS - ELIZABETH--LITERARY TURN OF THE TYROLESE--THEIR EXTRAORDINARY - HONESTY--FONDNESS FOR PUGILISTIC EXERCISES AND THE - CHASE--ANCIENT PRACTICE--MORAL - CHARACTER--SUPERSTITION--MECHANICAL GENIUS--PERSONS AND - COSTUMES--NATIONAL SONGS--CUSTOM OF VISITING THE GRAVES OF - RELATIONS--MARRIAGE CEREMONIES OF THE TYROLESE. - - -The most striking feature in the character of the Tyrolese is their -love of independence and their attachment to their native land. The -intense cold, however, that prevails in the elevated valleys, in -general compels their inhabitants to quit them in winter, when they -repair to the neighbouring towns to pursue their different -professions. Thus villages, nay even whole valleys are at times nearly -deserted, except by the aged men, the women and the children. At -stated periods, therefore, these mountaineers emigrate in bodies of -thirty or forty, and spread themselves over Italy, Bavaria, and -Austria. Some of them become excellent carpenters, others skilful -smiths, and it is seldom that they do not follow more than one trade. -They are particularly addicted to the mechanical arts. The young lads -hire themselves to tend cattle. On the return of summer and the -approach of harvest-time, these mountaineers set out for their -respective hamlets, joyfully carrying with them their little savings. -They collect in companies and march to the sound of the bagpipe, which -at a distance announces their coming. All run out to meet them, and -they rarely pass through a village without being supplied with -refreshments. In this manner they travel forward till they reach their -humble homes, where they forget their hardships and fatigues in the -affectionate embraces of their wives, children and relations. - -The industry of the Tyrolese does not suffer them to be content with -these migrations occasioned by the inclemency of the climate. They -travel all over Germany with aromatic and medicinal plants, carpets, -gloves, chamois-skins, steel trinkets, or wooden wares carved with the -utmost delicacy. These commodities they carry chiefly to Vienna, being -encouraged by the favourable reception given to them by the -inhabitants, who are delighted with their frankness and good humour. -The Tyrolese always speak what they think without reserve or disguise. -Like our Quakers they address every one, not excepting the emperor -himself, in the second person singular; and they question the -sovereign without the least ceremony respecting his intentions in -regard to their country. When these plans do not harmonize with their -ideas, they censure them with the utmost freedom. There have been -instances of their carrying their complaints to the foot of the -throne, and remonstrating with a liberty which to courtiers must -appear very extraordinary. - -To the honour of the sovereigns of the house of Austria, it must be -confessed that any of their subjects may obtain a private audience of -them with less difficulty than in other states an interview can be -gained with a minister. If I were to select, says a British traveller, -from among the eulogies which have been passed on monarchs, the most -glowing traits, assisted by the warmest efforts of imagination, I -might not, perhaps make a deeper impression upon the mind of the -reader, than by the simple recital of the fact, that it is the habit -of the Austrian ruler to admit into his presence and to personal -interview every individual of his realm. One day in every week is -devoted to this sacred duty; when the emperor, with the first dawning -of the morning, attends in a private apartment to receive petitions -and complaints from the mouths of even the poorest of his subjects. He -listens to them freely, and though he seldom judges finally at the -moment, shows his sympathy and declares his feeling in their behalf. - -The known frankness and intrepidity of the Tyrolese induced Austria to -grant them great liberty. Never, indeed, was government more paternal -than that of Austria in regard to the Tyrol. Hence all the inhabitants -went into mourning when the fortune of war transferred them a few -years since to another power, which, by its ill-judged measures, only -strengthened their attachment to their former sovereign. The struggle -which they made in his behalf against the united force of France and -Bavaria shows what exertions a nation fighting for independence is -capable of making, and will occupy a conspicuous place in the history -of those wars which have lately distracted Europe. The general peace -which put an end to these hostilities, crowned the wishes of the -faithful Tyrolese, and replaced them under the Austrian sceptre. - -As the most trivial circumstances frequently impart a clearer insight -into the character of an individual or a nation than those of more -importance, the following authentic anecdote may be worth recording. -The archduchess Elizabeth, aunt to the present emperor of Austria, who -was so much beloved that the people of Vienna always called her -_Unsere Liese_, (_Our Bess_) took a particular fancy to milk with her -own hands the beautiful cows which she had collected at Schoenbrunn. -She had heard the Tyrolese highly extolled for their skill and -cleverness in this operation, and therefore had several herdsmen -brought from the Tyrol, that they might instruct her in the milking -and general management of cattle. The first who arrived, seeing the -princess engaged in milking her cows, gazed at her in silence for a -few moments, and then burst out into the exclamation: "Get thee gone, -thou awkward baggage! why, thou wouldst not earn salt to thy -porridge!" After he had thus politely driven away the princess, he -fell to work and milked the whole herd in less time than the -archduchess would have done a single cow. During the course of this -extraordinary instruction, these men never could be persuaded to -soften their language or to use less frankness in their expressions. -So far, however, from displeasing by their freedom, they had some -difficulty to obtain permission to return to their native mountains. - -The Tyrolese who travel into Germany, to carry on a little traffic in -drugs and peltry, have in general several partners. At any rate the -husband never goes without his wife, nor the brother without his -sister. It is very rarely that a man is seen by himself disposing of -his commodities. They have not failed to observe that the costume of -their women excites the curiosity of strangers, and they judiciously -avail themselves of it that they may find a better market for their -merchandise. When they settle at Vienna, almost all of them adopt the -trades of carpenter or mason. - -A singular fact, and which serves to show the natural bent of this -nation, is, that there is scarcely a Tyrolese peasant but has his -library, however small. Though it contains perhaps no more than thirty -or forty volumes, still it affords proof of a fondness for study. The -Bible, the Lives of the Saints, a history of their country, or of -Austria, together with a few geographical works, compose the -generality of these rustic libraries. So strong is their hankering for -news, that many of those in easy circumstances take in the Inspruck -newspaper; which, in the long winter evenings, furnishes them with -subjects for discussion and comments, in which their own country is -not forgotten. - -Theft and robbery are so uncommon in Tyrol, that locks are almost -unknown, at least in the villages. The doors of their habitations have -no other guard than the mutual integrity of the inmates. The peasants -therefore have merely a latch, which is raised by means of a bit of -packthread, and this method of closing the entrance to their cottages -is adopted solely to keep the cattle out of them. A hundred times, -says a traveller, have I stopped at inns where there was no key -whatever, and yet I never lost any thing. At Vienna, and in other -parts of Germany also, the Tyrolese bear the highest character for -honesty and integrity, and there is no instance of any of them having -abused the confidence reposed in him. - -Such is their respect for the memory of deceased relatives and -friends, that they scarcely ever go out of mourning for them. A person -who should violate this custom would be considered as degenerate. It -is not uncommon to see a widow wear mourning all her life for her -husband, or a daughter for a mother. If this practice attests the -excellence of their hearts, the mourning assumed by them on account of -the misfortunes which befall their country equally proves the ardour -of their patriotism. When I visited the Tyrol, says a French -traveller, after the war in 1809, I asked a peasant why the people -were all in mourning. "Look at our towns," replied he, "you see that -they are in ashes; and can you still ask why we are in mourning?" A -nation endowed with such qualities, cannot fail to be deeply -interesting to every enlightened mind and to every generous heart. - -The Tyrolese peasants are mostly robust, and attach more value to -vigour of body than to beauty of form. From their infancy they addict -themselves to exercises best calculated to increase the strength and -suppleness of their limbs. Some, after the example of the ancient -Greeks, are professed wrestlers, and pursue the exercise with such -ardour, that if they were to neglect it for some time their health -would suffer. Hence they seldom pass a week without challenging other -champions, and they will go many miles either to be actors in, or -witnesses of such matches. - -Pugilistic exercises have in consequence become an amusement -inseparable from rustic weddings, fairs and parish festivals. They -were formerly frequent in the vicinity of Inspruck, the capital of the -country; but the police took advantage of the quarrels which they -occasioned, to apprehend the combatants and force them to enlist in -the army for life: so that it is only in the remote districts that -they can indulge without fear in their favourite diversion. - -The dress of the Tyrolese wrestlers is nearly the same as that of the -other villagers, excepting that they never wear either collar or -cravat, to deprive their adversaries of the advantage of seizing them -by that part of the dress. The rest of their clothes, indeed, affords -abundant scope for laying hold, as they have not yet adopted the -practice of oiling their bodies like the combatants of Greece at the -Olympic games. - -These men have an extremely shrill war-cry, and are known by the -cock's feathers in their hats, the number of which always corresponds -with that of the victories they have won. In regard to this point they -could not easily practise deception; for the man who should set up a -claim in contradiction to public notoriety, would become an object of -derision, and pay dearly for his usurped finery. - -[Illustration: TYROLESE HUNTER.] - -We are not exactly informed of the use of the thick pewter ring which -they wear on the little finger of the right hand, and which they call -the ring of combat. It is not considered fair for these wrestlers to -grasp their adversary with their hands; they strive to make him lose -his balance, to throw him down, and then snatch from him the feathers -which he has won in preceding contests. In the intervals of rest they -are furnished with a pipe, which they regard as an infallible medium -for recruiting their strength. - -The chase is another amusement to which the Tyrolese are passionately -attached, and which they pursue from their earliest infancy. Each -village has a spot set apart for firing at a mark; and here boys begin -to practise as soon as they can hold a gun. - -The hunting of the chamois, which is indisputably the most arduous and -difficult species of sport, since that animal frequents only the -highest mountains, is what the Tyrolese takes most delight in. Lightly -clad, having a large green hat to screen him from the sun, his gun -slung at his back or in his hand, and equipped in the manner -represented in the opposite plate, he traverses the deepest valleys -and climbs the most rugged mountains. Here he frequently passes -several successive days. A stick, terminating with an iron spike, is -indispensably necessary for supporting him on the steep acclivities of -the mountains. His game-bag, covered with velvet, serves him for a -pillow at night; it contains some provision, a small speaking-trumpet, -and a couple of cramp-irons to assist him in climbing perpendicular -rocks. Some of these men have been known to cut their feet on purpose -that the blood from the wounds might cover the smooth surface of the -rocks and prevent their slipping. - -A very interesting custom formerly existed in the Tyrol. The -wealthiest of the peasants advanced to such young men as appeared to -be most industrious, active, and intelligent, a sum of money, to be -laid out in the productions of the country, and which were to be sold -or exchanged for foreign commodities. Sometimes the fulfilment of -these commissions required a voyage beyond sea. The agent, having -procured his goods, set out furnished with every thing calculated to -ensure the success of the enterprise. Having disposed of his -merchandise, he returned home, called together his employers, and -delivered to them the proceeds of the goods with which he had been -entrusted. Each took up the sum he had contributed, and the overplus -belonged to the young factor. This practice, now unfortunately fallen -into disuse, affords a strong proof of the integrity of these honest -mountaineers. - -The Tyrolese has in general all the art of a man experienced in the -ways of the world, with the simplicity of a child, and in consequence, -perhaps, of the injuries done to him by foreign nations, he is become -more mistrustful. Still he will never commit a base action out of -resentment: his soul is too proud and too elevated to employ such -disgraceful means. If he attacks, it is always openly. Courageous and -persevering, he spares no exertion to attain his aim. Great in -adversity, he is not cast down by it; prosperity always finds him -proof against its dangerous illusions: his country and her -independence are all that he prizes. He cannot regret wealth, for he -possesses it not: he is a stranger to pleasures, excepting those that -arise from the relation of husband and father: hardships do not affect -his robust frame, accustomed to all sorts of privations, and inured to -the inclemency of winter. Thus from his earliest youth he climbs the -glaciers barefoot, and that he may be the more unrestrained in his -motions, he never covers his knees with any garment. Finally, the -first sports of his childhood consist in gliding from the tops of the -mountains in light sledges: an amusement which, were he less expert, -would expose his life a thousand times to the most imminent danger. - -These people, so kind and so hospitable to the unarmed stranger, or to -him who needs their protection, are most formidable to the invader of -their country, or the violator of their ancient institutions. Bold and -skilful marksmen, accustomed to the use of arms and to the chase, they -soon become excellent soldiers, whose address is equal to their -courage. It must be confessed, however, that as regular troops, the -Tyrolese display greater bravery on the mountains than in the plains, -where they imagine that they have not the same advantages. - -Faithful husbands and tender fathers, the Tyrolese have in general a -warm affection for their families: and lawsuits, or quarrels -respecting property, seldom disturb the harmony that prevails among -them. The simplicity of their manners is as remarkable as that of -their character, and a spirit of religion contributes not a little to -keep it up. Their devotion may sometimes go to the length of -superstition, but never to that of fanaticism. Besides, it cannot -prove dangerous, since it is confined to the belief in the existence -of spirits and malignant genii. This belief is chiefly current among -the peasantry of the elevated districts; hence the village girls dare -scarcely go abroad after dark for fear of falling into snares laid for -them by mischievous spirits. There is no sound, even to the rustling -of the leaves of the trees, shaken by the evening breeze, but -proclaims to their exalted imaginations the presence of ghosts. Thus -their superstitious notions animate all nature. To protect themselves -from the power of these imaginary beings, many Tyrolese of both sexes -engrave the figure of Christ, or of some saint upon their flesh, by -pricking it with a needle and rubbing gunpowder into the punctures; -and this they consider as a permanent safeguard. Some, however, who -are more enlightened or less credulous, adopt these figures merely by -way of ornament, a practice similar to the tattowing common among most -of the South Sea islanders. - -The active and lively disposition of the Tyrolese urges them to -imitate whatever they see. It may almost be said that they become -mechanics by intuition; at any rate, no sooner do they experience the -want of any instrument, than they set about making it, and though, -perhaps, rude and clumsy, it always answers the purpose for which it -was designed. Thus at their summer habitations on the mountains, -however elevated their situation, you find small hydraulic machines, -which work the stones required by the herdsmen to sharpen their -implements, or to grind the corn necessary for their subsistence. -Sometimes they connect a moving wheel with the piston used in -churning. In another place you see a cradle rocked with a motion the -more gentle as it is produced by a fall of water moderated with art. -In short, a stranger who visits their country, perceives, at every -step, the extraordinary turn of these people for the mechanical arts. - -In addition to the instances of ingenuity mentioned above, it is not -uncommon to find in the valleys of the Tyrol, painters, makers of -musical instruments, and other machinery, who, without any instruction -whatever, have produced truly astonishing things. There are peasants -who, in the long winter evenings, have constructed piano-fortes, -rather complicated instruments, and that merely from the notion -acquired by a short examination of one. Neither should it be forgotten -that the first good map of the country, which it is so difficult to -survey, was produced by a native of the mountains of Tyrol, Peter -Anich, a herdsman. - -Considered merely with reference to their persons, the Tyrolese are -remarkable people. An expressive and animated countenance, bright -piercing eyes, and a tall robust figure, are the principal -characteristics by which they are distinguished. Their step is rather -heavy, owing to their habit of continually ascending mountains. Hard -labour imparts strength and vigour to their limbs. Their hair, almost -always of a light colour, falls in graceful locks over their -shoulders. A certain air of dignity, which admirably becomes their -masculine features, and their elegant costume, heighten the expression -of their faces, and set off the beauty of their forms. The hat, -commonly of straw, bordered with ribbons of different colours, and -adorned in a picturesque manner with feathers, is worn covered with -fine green silk by the single men, but generally black by such as are -married. A short waistcoat and jacket fit tight upon the body. Broad -braces, ornamented with figured work and crossing over the bosom, -support, what in this case may justly be denominated small-clothes, -since they seldom reach lower than the middle of the thigh. Stockings, -either plaited or embroidered with silk of different colours, show off -a handsome leg; and the shoes, equally light and elegant, are adorned -with ribbons always of a different colour from themselves. Gold or -silver buckles are sometimes worn in them. - -Rarely unarmed, they are scarcely ever seen without a gun slung at -their shoulder and a goat-skin knapsack. At once a military and an -agricultural people, the Tyrolese are always ready to relinquish the -plough and the herdsman's staff for the musket. To give a more -masculine character to the countenance, they shade the lips with long -and thick mustaches; and in some districts let part of the beard grow, -which gives a degree of fierceness and wildness to their look. - -The females are rather fair than handsome: their persons are more -remarkable for strength than elegance. In general of a serious -disposition, their countenance, nay, their very smile, have a degree -of gravity, so that the impression which they produce at first sight -is by no means prepossessing. Their costume has frequently an elegance -and a lightness that are extremely becoming. Green or black hats -bordered with ribbons of different colours, and a velvet cap, compose -their winter head-dress. In summer they let their long light tresses -flow over their shoulders, or turn them up and fasten them at the back -of the head with long pins. A corset laced before covers the bosom, -and on this part of their dress they bestow particular pains, some -decorating it with lace, and others working upon it a variety of -designs in silk of different colours. Short petticoats, seldom -reaching to the middle of the leg, are remarkable in general for their -lively colours and their numerous plaits, which, however, are so -disposed as not to hide the contours of the body. Stockings of a light -colour, set off by embroidered clocks, have an elegant and graceful -appearance. - -In some of the mountainous districts, the women, in order to be the -less encumbered in their laborious occupations, have adopted the use -of drawers with such scanty petticoats as to fall considerably short -of the knee. Out of mere singularity, they load their legs with -stockings, so plaited, as to give them a clumsy appearance. These -stockings, being too thick to be covered by shoes, have no feet, so -that the ankles are left quite bare. This practice occasions swelling -of the legs or pains in the feet; but nothing can induce them to -relinquish it, such is the influence of habit among all the nations of -the earth. - -The colour of the dress of the Tyrolese is different in every valley. -The women in the environs of Hall and Inspruck, in general wear gowns -half black and half blue, which produce a singular effect. The head is -covered with a very lofty pyramidal cap, commonly of quilted cotton, -decorated with transverse stripes. In summer they exchange this -awkward head-dress for an elegant hat, and leave the hair loose. - -The young girls have a remarkably simple costume. A ribbon tied round -the top of the head constitutes the only head-dress. The throat and -upper part of the neck are uncovered; but a handkerchief of -rose-coloured crape is fastened together over the bosom. A broad -ribbon passing round the waist is tied behind. A white corset with -sleeves, a short green petticoat, and scarlet worsted stockings -complete the dress of these peasants. - -The women of this part of the Tyrol have such a predilection for red -and blue stockings, that they seldom wear them of any other colour. -When these stockings are not plaited, they load them with embroidery -and all sorts of whimsical figures. With the women, the stockings, -corset and girdle, are the articles in which finery is particularly -studied, as the hat, the waistcoat, and the braces are with the men. - -The manners of the women of the Tyrol are gentle and sedate. Equally -chaste wives and tender mothers, they devote themselves entirely to -their household affairs and to the care of their children. Constant in -their sentiments, the man whom they once love is the object of their -everlasting affection. Kind to all around them, they are not shy at -the appearance of a stranger. On the contrary, when he approaches -their habitation the mother sends her daughters to meet the traveller, -and with engaging modesty they offer him fruit and present him with -flowers. When once introduced into the cottage, the whole family -throngs around him; the most delicious milk assuages his thirst, while -a dish of smoked meat is prepared to appease the hunger excited by the -keen air of the mountains. - -Naturally quick and hasty, the Tyrolese prosecutes with heart and soul -whatever he takes in hand. His dances alone, by their irregularity and -vivacity, sufficiently attest the vehemence of his character. The -music which excites him to pleasure is so brisk, that he can scarcely -follow the measure. In short, these people cannot do any thing in a -cool and quiet manner: if they fight, it is with an ardour which never -allows them to calculate the danger; and when they indulge in -pleasure, they give themselves up to it entirely. Is the country in -danger? mourning is in every heart, and arms are in every hand: their -very apparel acquaints the stranger with their feelings and their -thoughts. - -The national songs of the Tyrolese likewise prove the violence of -their passions. Always lively and gay, they frequently pass from low -natural tones to the highest sharps. From the expressions of these -songs, you may know that they belong to men wandering in vast -solitudes, and whose strains, crossing deep valleys, excite the voices -of the herdsmen on the opposite hills. It is to this wildness and -irregularity that the national airs of the Tyrol owe the celebrity -which they have acquired. What traveller, who has ever witnessed the -sensations they produce, could hear them without emotion! - -The same man whom we have seen pursuing with such ardour, the innocent -pleasure of a rustic dance, listens to the truths of religion with -such profound respect, that in the attitude of devotion you would not -know him again, or be tempted to believe that he is animated -alternately by two different spirits. But that you may be able to -appreciate his sensibility, follow him when at the decline of day, he -leads his family from his humble abode to the tombs of his -forefathers. Bareheaded, with downcast eyes and the chaplet in his -hand, he walks first as the monarch of the family. Sometimes, indeed, -he leads by the hand the youngest of his boys, while the elder follow. -After them appears the mother, covered with a veil and surrounded by -her daughters, who learn from her that modesty is woman's brightest -ornament. On reaching the grave of the person whose loss they deplore, -they all kneel down and pray for that eternal repose in behalf of the -soul of their friend, which will one day be solicited for themselves. -After a few short prayers, the eldest of the boys rises, and thrice -sprinkles holy water on the grave; all then strew over it flowers -mingled with their tears. A practice so general, and which is repeated -every day, cannot but have a strong tendency to preserve the -prevailing simplicity and purity of manners. - -The marriage ceremonies of the Tyrolese are not less interesting. It -is seldom that young people marry from motives of interest, or in -consequence of previous arrangements between the parents. It is in -their walks, or at their rural meetings, that they become acquainted. -When mutually agreeable, they respectively promise faith and love, and -give each other their hand in ratification of this first contract. -This promise made in the utmost purity of heart satisfies the lovers. -Never is the chaste damsel of the Tyrol known to repent the -acknowledgment of her secret sentiments to him to whom she has avowed -them, nor the latter to take an improper advantage of this confession. - -When once engaged by mutual vows, the young people have nothing more -to do than to acquaint their parents with the object of their choice. -It is seldom that the latter throw any impediment in the way of the -happiness of their children. The circumstances which too frequently -oppose the union of families in our polished societies cannot exist -among people who are content with the possession of a few head of -cattle and a few acres of land, for which, moreover, they have to -dispute with the snow on the mountains. - -The lover, hurried away by his passion and his natural impetuosity, -warmly extols the qualities of his mistress, and spares no pains to -obtain from his parents an approval of the sentiments by which he is -animated. The old folks, naturally more cool, seldom decide at once: -but to satisfy themselves of the sincerity of their son's attachment, -they put it to the test in various ways. These trials differ with the -age and character both of the son and of the father. Some send their -sons into Switzerland, Bavaria, or Italy, with various productions of -the country which they are to dispose of there, and to interest them -in the success of the enterprise they give up to them all the profit. -"Go," say their parents, "earn thy wife. To be a good father, a man -must be able to get bread for his children." - -Not less dutiful as a son than ardent as a lover, the young Tyrolese -never opposes the commands of his parents. How painful soever it be to -him to leave his mistress and his beloved mountains, he departs, but -not till he has presented the idol of his heart with a pledge of his -fidelity in the ribbons that adorned his hat. He, moreover, places in -her bosom the flower which renews the memory of love, and which for -that reason is named _forget-me-not_. The damsel gives him in return -the girdle which encircles her waist, and in which she has secretly -embroidered the initials of the name of the favoured youth. The most -amorous swains do not quit the hamlet till they have played upon the -rustic bagpipe some plaintive ditty, to which their mistress listens -surrounded by her female companions, who are ever ready to share her -sorrows. - -Other fathers subject their sons to trials of shorter duration, -sending them for a few months to the herdsmen's huts on the high -mountains. Here the youths tend the herds and flocks, and strive as -much as possible to increase the produce from them by their -management. They also gather bilberries and the leaves of the spike -(_valeriana celtica_) which has such a delightful smell. These -occupations render them robust, and habituate them to fatigue. The -spike grows only on the tops of the second-rate mountains and on the -steep sides of those which are crowned with snow. This aromatic plant -is exported to the East, where its perfume is destined to delight the -voluptuous inmates of the seraglio. The roots of the gentians also are -collected on the mountains, and from these they extract the juice, -which yields a spirit that is highly esteemed. - -The wealthier Tyrolese have recourse to other means to assure -themselves of the sincerity of the attachment of their sons. They take -them out into companies where they are likely to meet young females -worthy of their notice; but if the sight of fresh objects produces no -change in their sentiments, the parents no longer withhold their -consent. - -The day on which the damsel's hand is formally solicited, is a -festival not only for the two families but for the whole hamlet. The -Tyrolese in general regard each other as brothers. The father of the -young man arrays himself in his best apparel. Laying aside the jacket -suitable for working days only, he puts on a coat decorated with -ribbons of various colours. By his dress and the pleasure that -sparkles in his eyes, it is evident that he is going on a joyful -errand. He takes with him his younger sons, who carry baskets in which -his first presents are deposited. In one he places honeycombs, the -fragrance of which is heightened by the sweet-smelling thyme and other -aromatic Alpine plants, with which they are surrounded; and puts into -another the finest fruits of the season, not forgetting some cakes -made by a beloved daughter. - -On reaching the damsel's abode, the father is introduced by the uncle -or the nearest relative. Here he finds the family of his future -daughter-in-law assembled. All present rise and salute him. "Welcome, -my friend!" says the head of the family to him. "What motive brings -thee among us?"--"As thou art a father," replies the visitor, "let me -put a question to thy daughter."--With these words he steps up to her, -kisses her on the forehead, and thus addresses her: "God bless thee, -lovely girl, who remindest me of the days of my youth. I have a son; -he loves thee. Wilt thou make my declining years happy?" - -The Tyrolese girls, equally modest and affectionate, can, it is said, -rarely find words to answer this flattering question, so that their -mothers are almost always obliged to be the interpreters of their -sentiments. The lover is then introduced by a young companion: he -enters, bringing the fruits of his industry and constancy, which he -deposits at the feet of his new mother, whose affection he solicits. -The kiss of peace assures him of the kindness of the parents by whom -he is adopted, and the first salute granted by his mistress bespeaks -the ardour of her love. - -The young companions of the bride likewise receive a kiss from the -bridegroom and wishes for their future happiness. The most intimate of -her friends then conducts the bridegroom to his destined spouse and -retires; on which the spokesman of the family rises and begins a long -harangue on the good qualities of the young man. Though rarely -listened to by the young folks, who have much to say to one another, -he nevertheless relates with emphasis the various trials to which the -bridegroom has been subjected, and concludes with congratulating the -damsel on having inspired him with a passion so strong as to surmount -them all. - -The young females then sing stanzas suitable to the occasion, after -which the company partake of a frugal repast consisting of bread, -cheese, fresh butter, and goats' or ewes' milk, together with a few -glasses of Meran or Brixen wine, or among the more opulent, of -Hungarian wine. This repast being finished, the youths escort the -bridegroom home with songs and the sound of the rustic flute. At dusk, -the bridegroom serenades his beloved with a plaintive tune under her -window, mingling the sounds of his voice with those of the bagpipe. - -The wedding-day at length arrives, and gaiety pervades the hamlet. -From the general rejoicing, a stranger would suppose all the -inhabitants to belong to the same family. When the bride lives at a -village remote from the residence of the bridegroom, the latter -repairs thither, accompanied by a numerous party, demonstrating the -harmony and brotherly love which prevail among the Tyrolese. To -beguile the length of the way, the young lads stop now and then and -join in the merry dance. On reaching the place of their destination, -they repair to the abode of the bride, and while they enter, the -musicians play the nuptial air. The music ceases, and the schoolmaster -addresses a complimentary speech to the bride, who then delivers to -the bridegroom the ribbons for his garters in token of his future -authority. These ribbons the bridemaid attaches to his dress; he gives -her a kiss, and, according to custom, she embraces him in return. - -The procession then repairs to the church, headed by the musicians; -next come the young men, and then the young women, who are followed by -the bride and bridegroom. The former is dressed in white, with a -nosegay of flowers selected by her lover in her bosom. She is placed -on his right, and is attended by her bridemaid, as is the bridegroom -by his man. Then come the parents and relations of the parties, whose -serious looks and grave demeanour form a striking contrast with the -wild mirth and frolicksome pranks of those who close the procession. - -On reaching the church, a devout silence is observed by the whole -assembly. The service begins, but before the priest pronounces the -nuptial benediction, the young couple, falling on their knees before -their parents, receive their blessing. On their return home, they are -congratulated by their friends, who then partake of an entertainment -provided for the occasion. When this is over, the head of the family -rises, and after he has said grace, he offers up a prayer for the -prosperity of the new-married couple; to give a still more solemn -character to this pious ceremony, he pictures in glowing colours the -virtues of their forefathers. Nor does he forget to pray for the -parents whom death has snatched from them. The speaker resumes his -seat, and when the tears of affection have ceased to flow, the -cheerful songs of the young people awaken other emotions. - -Impatient for the pleasures of the dance, the latter slip away by -degrees to the meadow or the room prepared for dancing. How desirous -soever the young couple may be to follow, they must not stir, till the -father of the family taking hold of the bride and the mother of the -bridegroom, conduct them to their companions. Here, seated side by -side, they receive the congratulations of the young men, among whom -the bride distributes flowers from a basket. By these flowers they -prognosticate their future fortunes. If the honeysuckle or the Alpine -lily falls to their share, they promise themselves extraordinary -prosperity. The periwinkle and the rhododendrons betoken a happy, -tranquil life; but the foxglove and the daphne are omens of -misfortunes and afflictions. The young damsels then come to express -their good wishes, and the bridegroom distributes among them ribbons, -the different colours of which are in like manner supposed to indicate -their future lot. - -Next morning they do not fail to pay a visit to the young couple, -because they attach great importance to the possession of a few -flowers from the wreath that encircled the brow of the bride. To her -greatest favourites she gives the pins which fastened the wreath, and -these they regard as tokens that they shall be happily married -themselves. Thus does hope reign among this people of brothers, and -associate by propitious omens future happiness with present felicity. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -HUNGARY. - - EXTENT--DIVISION--CONSTITUTION--VAST ESTATES OF THE - MAGNATS--STATE OF THE PEASANTRY--THEIR INDOLENCE--THIEVISH - DISPOSITION OF THE HERDSMEN--PUNISHMENTS--HUNGARIAN - PRISON--GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE PEASANTS AND THEIR HABITATIONS - IN DIFFERENT COUNTIES--HORNED CATTLE--SHEEP--VILLAGE - HERDSMEN--RAVAGES OF WOLVES--GRANARIES--COSTUMES. - - -The kingdom of Hungary, the superficial area of which exceeds four -thousand German square miles, and which contains nearly nine millions -of inhabitants, is a highly interesting country both in a geographical -and a moral point of view. If the observer cannot help admiring the -abundance and extraordinary variety of its natural productions, -neither can he behold without astonishment the diversity of the races -composing its population, and the differences which prevail in their -manners, customs, and religion. The variety in costume is not less -striking, as we shall hereafter have occasion to show. - -Civil Hungary, Croatia and Slavonia, are divided into four districts -comprehending fifty-two counties. - -Hungary is an hereditary but limited monarchy, the crown of which has -been held since 1527 by the house of Austria. The king possesses many -important rights and prerogatives, but at the same time the rights and -privileges of the Hungarian nobility also are numerous and extensive. -The nobility alone are designated in the language of the state by the -appellation of the Hungarian people, and they are distinguished in a -peculiar manner from the nobles of all other European nations by the -circumstance, that the grants of their privileges have suffered least -from the changes of time, and that the characteristic features of -these rights, now in the nineteenth century, approach nearer than any -to those of the nobles in the days of the crusades. - -This constitution bears a nearer resemblance to our own in its earlier -periods, as it regards the king, the magnats or grandees, and the -deputies in diet assembled, than that of any of the northern nations: -yet it differs widely from it in all that relates to the lower order -of the people, whose interests have been completely overlooked, and -who are still in nearly the same state of villanage that prevailed in -most parts of Europe during the feudal ages. - -The country in general is parcelled out among the magnats, some of -whom possess estates of immense extent. In considering a Hungarian -property, says Dr. Bright, we must figure to ourselves a landed -proprietor possessing ten, twenty or forty estates, distributed in -different parts of the kingdom, reckoning his acres by hundreds of -thousands, and the peasants upon his estates by numbers almost as -great; we must remember that all this extent of land is cultivated, -not by farmers, but by his own stewards and officers, who have not -only to attend to the agricultural management of the land, but to -direct to a certain extent the administration of justice among the -people; we must farther bear in mind, that perhaps one-third of this -extensive territory consists of the deepest forests, affording a -retreat and shelter not only to beasts of prey, but to many lawless -and desperate characters, who often defy for a great length of time -the vigilance of the police--we shall then have some faint conception -of the situation and duties of a Hungarian magnat. - -The same writer, in his interesting _Travels in Hungary_, describes -the singular manner in which land is possessed and distributed in this -country. No man can possess land who is not a noble of Hungary: but as -all the family of a nobleman are also noble, it is calculated that one -out of every twenty-one individuals in the nation is of this class. -The lands descend either entire to the eldest son, or are equally -divided among the sons, or in some cases among the children of both -sexes: so that many of the nobles become by these divisions extremely -poor, and are obliged to discharge all the duties of the meanest -peasant. If any of these nobles wish to sell an estate to a stranger, -however high in rank, even to a noble of the Austrian empire, -application must first be made to the surrounding proprietors to learn -whether they wish to purchase at the stipulated price. If they -decline, a stranger may purchase it for a period of thirty years, at -the end of which time any branch of the family which sold it, however -distantly related, may oblige the stranger to surrender his bargain. -This system is carried so far, that in many cases though the purchaser -be a Hungarian noble, the family of the former possessor can reclaim -it after thirty years, on payment of the original price, together with -expenses incurred in the buildings and improvements made during that -period. The litigation, ill-will and evils of every kind to which such -laws give rise are beyond calculation. - -The peasants on these estates were formerly bound to perform -indefinite services, on account of supposed grants and privileges, -likewise little understood. The empress Maria Theresa put the whole -under certain regulations, which left less arbitrary power in the -hands of the lord. She fixed the quantity of land upon each estate -which was to remain irrevocably in the possession of the peasantry, -giving to each peasant his portion called a _session_, and defining -the services which he should in return perform for his lord. The only -points determined, however, were, the whole quantity of land assigned -to the peasants; and the proportion between the quantity of land and -the quantity of labour to be required for it. The individual peasants -are not fixed to the soil, but may always be dismissed when the -superior finds cause; nor is it of necessity that the son should -succeed the father, though usually the case. The peasant has no -absolute claim to a whole session; if the lord pleases he may give but -half or a third of a session, but in this case he cannot require more -than one-half or one-third of the labour. The quantity of land -allotted to a whole session is fixed for each county. In the county of -Neutra, for instance, it varies, according to the quality of the soil, -from twenty to thirty _joch_, each equal to nearly an English statute -acre and a half; and of these sixteen or twenty must be arable and the -rest meadow. - -The services required of the head of the family for the whole session -are one hundred and four days' labour during the year, if he work -without cattle, or fifty-two days if he bring two horses or oxen, or -four if necessary, with ploughs and carts. In this work he may either -employ himself, or if he prefer and can afford it, may send a servant. -Besides this he must give four fowls, a dozen eggs and a pound and a -half of butter; and every thirty peasants must give one calf yearly. -He must also pay a florin for his house; must cut and bring home a -_klafter_ of wood; must spin in his family six pounds of wool or hemp -provided by the landlord; and among four peasants the proprietor -claims what is called a long journey, that is, they must transport -twenty _centners_, each one hundred pounds weight, the distance of two -days' journey out and home; and besides all this, they must pay -one-tenth of all their products to the church, and one-ninth to the -lord. - -Such are the services owed by the peasant, and happy would he be were -he subject to no other claims. Unfortunately, however, the peasant of -Hungary has scarcely any political rights, and is considered by the -government much more than by the landlord, in the light of a slave. By -an unlimited extension of the aristocratical privilege, the noble is -free from every burden, and the whole is accumulated on the peasant. -The noble pays no tribute, and goes freely through the country, -subject to neither tolls nor duties; but the peasant is liable to -tribute, and though there may be some nominal restrictions to the -services due from him to government, it may safely be asserted, that -there is no limit in point of fact to the services which he is -compelled to perform. Whatever public work is to be executed, not only -when a road is to be repaired, but when new roads are to be made, or -bridges built, the county-meeting gives the order and the peasant -dares not refuse to execute it. All soldiers passing through the -country are quartered exclusively upon the peasantry. They must -provide them without recompense with bread, and furnish their horses -with corn, and whenever required by a particular order, they must -provide the person bringing it with horses and means of conveyance. -Such an order is always employed by the officers of government, and -whoever can in any way plead public business as the cause of his -journey, takes care to provide himself with it. In all levies of -soldiers, the whole falls upon the peasant, and the choice is left to -the arbitrary discretion of the lord and his servants. - -This system is not calculated to satisfy either the landlord or the -peasant. The benefit derived by the latter is by no means -proportionate to the sacrifice which the former is obliged to make. -The quantity of land appropriated to the peasant is enormous: still he -labours unwillingly, and of course ineffectually, under the idea that -he works from compulsion and not for pay. In order to do all the -farming work upon a given estate by the peasants, nearly one-half of -the land capable of cultivation is portioned out among the labourers; -nay there are estates every acre of which is occupied by the peasants, -the landlord receiving nothing but the tenths and other casual -services, unless he has occasion to send them to labour on some other -of his estates. On other properties again there are no peasants--and -this appears to be the state of things most desirable to the -proprietor--so much so, that there are instances even where peasants -have been on an estate, in which the lord has almost neglected to -require their services, finding his labour better performed by hired -servants. - -If, however, the landlord have little reason to be satisfied, still -less can the peasant be supposed to rejoice in his situation. On a -failure of his crops, the latter, who has nothing but his field, -starves or becomes a burden to his lord. Though the lord can legally -claim a certain quantity only of labour, yet there are numberless -pretexts on which he can demand more and be supported in those -demands. The administration of justice is in a great degree vested in -his own hands. There are many little faults for which a peasant -becomes liable to be punished with blows or fines, but which he is -often permitted to commute for labour. In fact, these things happen so -frequently, and other extorted days of labour, which the peasant fears -to refuse, occur so often, that, instead of estimating his labour at -one hundred and four days, we should come much nearer to the truth -were we to double that amount. Should, however, the lord or his agents -have too strong a sense of justice to transgress the strictness of the -law, still they can at any time call upon the peasants to serve for -pay, and that not at the usual wages of a servant, but about one-third -as much. Add to all this the services due to the government; the cases -in which a peasant is obliged to be six weeks together from his home, -with his horses and cart, carrying imperial stores to the frontier, -and it will be evident how dearly he pays for the land which he holds -as the only return for his labour. - -After this explanation we cannot be surprised to learn that a marked -feature in the character of the Hungarian peasant is indolence. This -observation applies particularly to those of the counties around the -Platten Lake. The equality and the savage life to which the people are -here accustomed when pasturing their cattle in the forests are -probably the chief causes of the frequent robberies that occur. Though -robbers by profession, subsisting entirely on the fruits of their -depredations abroad, still far the greater number are cattle-keepers -under the various names of Tsikos, Gulyas, Juhasz, or Kanasz. - -The latter are particularly notorious, and scarcely one person worthy -of trust is to be found among them. The herdsmen are usually mere -thieves, stealing cattle when they can, and plundering travellers when -good opportunities present themselves. Those on the contrary who have -no other occupation than to seek booty, and live constantly in the -forest, steal cattle only when driven by necessity; the plunder of -the traveller, whom they frequently murder, being their principal -object. Jews and butchers are more particularly exposed to their -attacks: the officers of the crown and the nobles are safe from a -dread of the inquiry which in such cases would not fail to be -instituted. They generally hail a carriage with a demand of money, -styling themselves _szegeny legeny_, or poor fellows. The little -solitary public houses suffer much from them, for when they can obtain -nothing elsewhere they enter them and eat and drink without paying. -Such houses are in consequence extremely unsafe, and the more so -because the innkeepers are frequently connected with the robbers -either as receivers or accomplices. In order to put a stop to this -evil, pursuits are often instituted by the county, when some of the -offenders are generally taken, but the extent of the county and the -insufficient strength of the police prevent their total extermination. - -In slight offences rather against good order than against law, the -_hofrichfer_, or steward of a magnat, may at all times punish a -peasant with stripes. For this purpose he is provided with a machine -like a low table, on which the culprit lies, with two iron cramps at -one end for confining the wrists, two at the other for securing the -ankles, and a large one in the middle to pass over the back. Stretched -out in this helpless situation, the culprit receives a certain number -of stripes on the bare back with a stick. A notorious robber taken in -the act may be put to death. When the case is not so clear, and -confession cannot be obtained from the accused by examination, -recourse is had to the discipline just described; and should this -expedient also fail, and there be strong presumption of guilt, the -prisoner is brought to trial before a court composed of servants of -the lord and a few respectable freemen. From the decision of this -court, which is completely under the influence of the magnat, appeals -indeed lie to higher courts, and capital punishment cannot be -inflicted without the sanction of those courts and also of the king. - -Dr. Bright draws a striking but most revolting picture of a Hungarian -prison. The place chosen for the confinement of prisoners, says that -writer, is usually close adjoining to, or forms part of the dwelling -of the lord: and as they are generally employed in labour, the -traveller seldom approaches the house of a Hungarian noble who -possesses the _jus gladii_, without being shocked by the clanking of -chains and the exhibition of these objects of misery loaded with -irons. The prison itself is never concealed from the curiosity of -strangers; I should almost say that it is considered a boast, a kind -of badge of the power which the lord possesses. One of the best I saw -was at Keszthely. It forms an insignificant part of a large low -building immediately opposite to the entrance of the castle, in which -are the residences of several inferior officers of the estate. Under -the guidance of the keeper of the prison I entered by a door well -barred and bolted. Instantly seventeen figures all in the long -Hungarian cloak, rose from the ground on which they were sitting. -Besides themselves, the room, which was not above twelve feet square, -presented no one object--no table, bed or chair. It was ventilated and -lighted by several small grated windows high up in the sides of the -walls. The prisoners were most of them young men: some had been tried, -others had not; and some had been confined seven or eight years. Their -crimes were very different; but no difference was made in the mode of -treating them, excepting as to the number of lashes they were to -receive at stated times, or the number of years they were to be -imprisoned. Such was their residence in the day-time when they did not -go out to work. We next proceeded to the dungeon in which they are -confined during the night, the gaoler taking the precaution to -disguise unpleasant smells by carrying a fumigating pot before us. On -opening an inner door we entered a small room, in the corner of which -lay two women on beds of straw. In the middle of the floor was an iron -grate. This being opened by my guide, he descended first by means of a -ladder, with a lamp in his hand, by the light of which I perceived -that we were in a small antichamber or cell, from which a door opened -into the dungeon, the usual sleeping-place of all the male prisoners. -It was a small oblong vaulted cave, in which the only furniture was -two straw mattresses. A few ragged articles of dress lay near the -place where each prisoner was accustomed to rest upon the naked floor. -In one corner of the room was a large strong chain, and about a foot -and a half from the ground round the whole vault were rings let into -the wall. The prisoners at night having laid themselves upon the -ground, the chain is put through the irons which confine the ankles of -three of them and is passed into a ring in the wall: it is then -attached to three more, and is passed through a second ring, and -continued in this way till a complete circuit of the room is made. The -ends of the chain are fastened together by a padlock, by which the -whole is firmly secured. It was painful to reflect that in this state -some of these wretches had already passed their nights during seven -years. - -The general appearance of the peasants and of their habitations in the -vicinity of Presburg, is thus described by the same intelligent -observer:-- - -No one peasant has proceeded in the arts of life and civilization a -step farther than his neighbour. When you have seen one you have seen -all. From the same little hat, covered with oil, falls the same matted -long black hair, negligently plaited or tied in knots; and over the -same dirty jacket and trowsers is wrapped on each a cloak of coarse -woollen cloth or sheep-skin still retaining its wool. Whether it be -winter or summer, week-day or sabbath, the Slavonian of this district -never lays aside his cloak or is seen but in heavy boots. Their -instruments of agriculture are throughout the same, and in all their -habitations is observed a perfect uniformity of design. A wide muddy -road separates two rows of cottages which constitute a village. From -among them there is no possibility of selecting the best or the worst: -they are absolutely uniform. In some villages the cottages present -their ends, in others their sides to the road: but there is seldom -this variety in the same village. - -The interior of the cottage is in general divided into three small -rooms on the ground-floor, and a little space in the roof destined for -lumber. The roof is commonly covered with a very thick thatch: the -walls are whitewashed, and have two small windows toward the road. -The cottages are usually placed a few yards distant from each other. -The intervening space, defended by a rail and gate or a fence of -wicker-work towards the road, forms the farm-yard, which runs back -some way and contains a shed or out-house for cattle. - -The cottages of the peasants of a village belonging to Count Hunyadi, -in the county of Neutra, are thus described:-- - -The door opens in the side of the house into the middle room or -kitchen, in which is an oven constructed of clay, and various -implements for household purposes which generally occupy this -apartment fully. On each side of the room is a door, communicating on -one hand with the family dormitory, in which are the two windows that -look into the road. This chamber is usually small but well arranged: -the beds in good order, piled upon each other, to be spread on the -floor at night, and the walls covered with a variety of pictures and -images of our Saviour, together with dishes, plates, and vessels of -coarse earthenware. The other door from the kitchen leads to the -store-room, the repository of the greater part of the peasant's -riches, consisting of bags of grain of various kinds, both for -consumption and for seed, bladders of tallow, sausages and other -articles of provision, in quantities which it would astonish us to -find in an English cottage. We must, however, bear in mind, that the -harvest of the Hungarian peasant anticipates the income of the whole -year, and that, from the circumstances in which he is placed, he -should be compared with our farmer rather than with our labourer. The -yards or folds between the houses are generally much neglected, and -dirty receptacles of a thousand uncleanly objects. Light carts and -ploughs with which the owner performs his stated labour; his meagre -cattle; a loose rudely-formed heap of hay, and half a dozen ragged -children, stand there in mixed confusion, over which three or four -noble dogs, of a breed somewhat resembling the Newfoundland, keep -faithful watch. - -The habitations of the peasantry in the villages in the vicinity of -Keszthely, in the county of Szalad, are built of clay, not regularly -thatched, but covered with straw held down by poles laid upon it. The -inclosures round the houses and yards are formed of reeds, and the -village bell is raised upon a pole in a case like a pigeon-house. - -In the district between the Drave and the Muhr, called the Murakoes, -the houses are larger and higher, having a complete upper floor. The -roof generally projects four or five feet beyond the wall in the -front, where it is supported by wooden pillars which rest upon large -beams of timber, and thus a gallery is formed the whole length of the -house. This passage, slightly raised above the ground, is usually much -wider about the centre of the front, where the building recedes: and -here the females of the family often sit at a table working. The walls -of this part of the cottage are covered on the outside with shelves, -upon which the dishes and household utensils are arranged. Such is the -habitual honesty of the people of this district, that these articles -remain there in perfect security, without the protection of the -numerous watch-dogs which guard the most insignificant cottage in -other parts of Hungary. In some cases the passage is much larger, and -the house being built in the form of an L, it is continued along the -end and the two internal fronts. Between the pillars of this rude -piazza a shelf is constructed and a cupboard fixed containing a vessel -of water for domestic use. - -All the fences toward the road and those of the yards are of strong -wicker-work thatched on the top with straw and reeds. In the yards -stand several small buildings of the same materials, intended as -houses for poultry, or as drying places for maize, together with large -wooden hutches for pigs and an oven of clay and stone covered by a -penthouse. The cottage kitchen is unusually convenient, and most of -the cookery is carried on by means of the ordinary hearth-fire of -Germany, to which is added an oven as part of the kitchen furniture. - -Many of the roads in this part of the country are bordered on each -side with mulberry trees, which have been planted as common property, -with a view to the breeding of silk-worms. Considerable pains have -here been taken to encourage that branch of industry, which -nevertheless is not very flourishing. - -The native Hungarian breed of horned cattle bears much resemblance to -the wild white species which was formerly found in Britain. They are -large, vigorous, and active, of a dirty white colour, with horns of -prodigious length, exceeding in this respect even the long-horned -breed of Lancashire. The oxen are admirably adapted for the plough, -uniting to all the qualities of the ordinary ox, a very superior -degree of activity. - -Buffaloes are bred in Hungary for the same purposes as other horned -cattle. The milk which they give is richer than other milk and the -quantity considerable. As beasts of labour they are excessively -strong, but slow and unmanageable. The number kept in Hungary and -Transylvania is estimated at 70,000. - -Bredetzky, a Hungarian writer, observes that Buffaloes are extremely -valuable for their skins, which are employed at Rhonasech in forming -the bags in which salt is raised from the mines. He also speaks of -their ferocity and the difficulty of killing them in terms which would -almost lead us to suppose them to be in a state of nature in that part -of the country. The operation of shooting the Buffalo, says he, is -curious but extremely dangerous, for in no other way can they be -secured on account of their wildness. It is not possible to kill them -with an axe like other cattle. They are first driven with great care -from the inclosure in which they have been kept, and a shot is -levelled by a person concealed exactly at the forehead. If he misses -his aim, the animal with the most tremendous fury darts away so -swiftly that dogs can scarcely overtake him, and any one who stands in -his way is inevitably killed. - -The original breed of Hungarian sheep is the real _Ovis Strepsiceros_ -of naturalists, covered with very coarse wool and bearing upright -spiral horns. Improvement on this stock by crosses with other -varieties, and the Spanish in particular, is become so general, that a -flock of the native race is seldom to be met with, excepting on the -estates of the clergy. The wool is now an important object of -commerce. It was calculated that in 1802, above twelve million and a -half pounds (each pound being equal to one pound and a quarter of our -weight) was exported from Hungary. A large portion goes to Austria, -and is manufactured there or sent to more distant markets; and much of -the wool sold in England as Saxon wool, is actually the produce of -Hungary, exported in spite of the heavy duty which it pays on leaving -the Austrian dominions. - -Some idea of the extraordinary care bestowed by the great landed -proprietors on the improvement of their flocks may be formed from the -following brief sketch of the system pursued by Count Hunyadi, who -possesses about seventeen thousand sheep. - -At each of the head-quarters for these animals, there are well-built -sheds having brick pillars at certain distances, which leave about -half the side open, and thus admit a free circulation of air during -summer, and afford easy means of excluding the cold in winter. The -height of the sheds is about seven feet to the springing of the roof, -and they are divided by little racks into such spaces as are necessary -for the division among the flocks. Racks are also arranged round the -whole, so that all the sheep can conveniently feed at them. The floor -is covered with straw, and the upper layer being continually renewed, -a dry, warm bedding is obtained. In these houses the sheep are kept -almost incessantly during the winter, that is, from November till -April, and are then fed three times a day upon dry food. They are -watered twice a day from a well close at hand. Even in summer the -sheep are driven under cover every evening, and they are conducted -home in the day-time, when it rains or the heat is oppressive. They -always lamb in the house; the ewe being placed on this occasion in a -little pen by herself, where she remains unmolested. These pens, about -three feet long and two wide, are made of hurdles. Owing to this care -they never lose a lamb. The number of persons employed is about one -man to every hundred sheep, and each of them considers his flock as -his family and pride. - -The result of all this attention has been a success which could -scarcely have been anticipated. A conception can hardly be formed of -flocks more uniformly excellent. It is of course the wool and not the -carcase, which is the great object in a country so poor and so thinly -peopled as Hungary. The sheep are strong and healthy, and for the -Spanish cross large; their fleeces perfect, and even the tail and legs -covered with good wool. Three pounds, (about three pounds and three -quarters of our weight) is the average produce of each sheep: but -some, and particularly the rams, yield six or seven. The whole of the -wool, without any separation, and only washed on the back of the -sheep, is sold at the rate of from three shillings to four shillings -and sixpence sterling for each Hungarian pound; and the consequence is -that from flocks, which, if covered with the ordinary wool of the -country, might be expected to yield fifteen or twenty thousand gulden, -not less than fifty thousand is now annually produced. - -Count Hunyadi has also taken great pains to improve the breed of his -horses at his estate at Urmeny, in the county of Neutra; and with a -view to ascertain the progress which he makes, and at the same time -from a desire of exciting the country to exertion, he has instituted -races on the English model. Solicitous to infuse into his own -peasantry a spirit of improvement in this particular, he appoints a -day on which their horses alone run, and gives rewards to the -successful competitors. His stables are a fine range of buildings, -with wooden floors, and contain from thirty to forty horses, chiefly -crosses of the Arabian and Transylvanian breeds. His breeding stud is -kept at a farm a few miles distant. Other proprietors of estates are -beginning to understand the object and to appreciate the advantages of -the plan of this spirited nobleman. - -It is the custom throughout all Hungary, for the inhabitants of each -village to commit their cattle to the care of a herdsman who, at a -certain hour in the morning, drives them to the common pasture and -brings them home at night. He carries a wooden trumpet, nearly four -feet in length, exactly resembling the instrument usually put by -artists into the hand of Fame. With this trumpet, the sound of which -is harsh, he gives notice of his approach, and the peasants turn their -cattle out of their yards that they may join his drove. In the evening -when he conducts his motley crew of horses, cows, sheep, and goats -back to the village, each individual finds, as it were instinctively, -the cottage of his master, and quietly retires to his accustomed -stall. The peasants pay the herdsman a small sum for each animal, but -part of this remuneration is always made in grain or bread. - -The ravages of wolves among the cattle, especially in the -neighbourhood of woody mountains, are extremely serious. In all the -frontiers these animals are much dreaded. In the hard winter of 1803, -no fewer than 1533 head of cattle were devoured by them in the single -district of the Wallacho-Illyrian regiment, which gave rise to some -attempts to destroy them by poison, as the Turks are known to do by -means of the _aconitum napellus_. The _nux vomica_ was here employed, -and not without success. - -When much distressed for food, the wolves will sometimes attack the -cottages of the peasants. An instance of this kind is related by Dr. -Bright to have occurred not long before his visit at Leutschau. A -woman who had two children, the one about twenty years of age, the -other much younger, had just quitted her cottage in the morning, when -a wolf rushed upon her and tore her face dreadfully: then leaving the -first object of its rage, the animal fixed upon the child, and in an -instant lacerated its head and deprived it of both eyes. The elder son -alarmed, flew to the spot, and seizing the wolf by the throat, held it -at bay for some moments; but being unable to maintain the unequal -conflict, became himself the object of attack: the hungry beast fixed -his fangs deep in his neck. The cries of the unhappy victims brought -some assistance to the spot, and the wolf made his escape. As soon, -however, as the necessary aid had been afforded to the sufferers, an -active pursuit was instituted and the animal was discovered in a -thicket. A young man levelled his piece: it missed fire, and the wolf -was in the very act of springing on its pursuer, when it was brought -to the ground by a well aimed blow of a cudgel. - -The mode of storing wheat generally adopted in this country is very -objectionable. After being beaten out, often by the feet of horses and -oxen, it is deposited in holes in the ground, where it is kept during -the winter. There it acquires a strong mouldy smell, which, indeed, -goes off in some degree by exposure to the air. These holes are dug of -a circular form and about three feet deep; and an excavation is made -of such dimensions that a man can sit in it to stow away the grain and -assist in bringing it to the surface when required. This done, a fire -is kindled in it to harden the sides, which are afterwards lined with -straw. When the grain is thus stowed, straw is placed upon the top, -and earth thrown in to fill up the entrance hole, which forms the -neck, as it were, of the cave, and a little heap of earth remains -pointing out the spot; or a piece of wood is stuck in it as a mark. -There is scarcely a village near which a number of such hillocks are -not to be seen. - -We shall now present the reader with an account of the costumes -prevailing in different parts of the country. - - -PEASANT OF THE COUNTY OF WESZPRIM. - -The figure in the annexed engraving represents the costume of the son -of a wealthy Hungarian peasant of the county of Weszprim in his Sunday -apparel. He has just filled his pipe, but is supposed to have been too -deeply engaged in conversation to light it. The nosegay in his hat was -probably snatched from the bosom of some pretty girl in coming from -church, and this is the usual prelude to a more intimate acquaintance. -The leathern tunic of a light colour hanging loosely from his -shoulders, adorned with curious patterns and trimmed with fur, is the -ordinary costume of a wealthy rustic. - -The costume of the noblemen of Hungary, which partakes largely of that -here exhibited, is described as being singularly picturesque. It -consists of a large broad-brimmed hat, slouched behind, an -ornamental jacket and light pantaloons of bright blue, with a number -of silver buttons, Hessian boots, a girdle round the waist, from which -hangs a tobacco-pouch, and a green mantle descending from the -shoulders. - -[Illustration: HUNGARIAN PEASANT of the County of Szolnok-Weszprim.] - - -FEMALE PEASANT OF THE COUNTY OF WESZPRIM. - -To the dress of the unmarried daughter of an opulent peasant of the -county of Weszprim, when decked out in her holiday finery, the -flowered corset and numerous necklaces essentially belong. Her red -shoes, which have frequently white heels, are rendered still more -conspicuous by the work in front, and the blue stockings are adorned -with red and white clocks. Her head is uncovered, and merely encircled -with a bandeau of black velvet. - -The matrons are less studious of ornament: their corset, shoes, and -stockings, are generally quite plain. When they go abroad, they cover -the head with a white cloth, which hangs down over the back and -shoulders, and wear over their other garments a blue cloth jacket with -long sleeves, open in front and bordered with fur. - -The women of the county of Neutra dress nearly in the same manner: -wearing short pelisses of blue cloth lined and bordered with fur or -wool, and white handkerchiefs closely bound about their heads. - - -A CZIKOS. - -In the Hungarian language, the term _Czikos_ or _Tsikos_, signifies a -keeper or tender of horses. - -Mezoehegyes is an imperial domain in the county of Csanader, where, -during the reign of the emperor Joseph II. in 1785, a stud of horses -was established. This institution is unrivalled in Europe both for its -magnitude and value. The establishment, when complete, consists of -nearly 17,000 horses and upwards of 700 men, of whom 238 are Csikoses. - -They are a handsome, not very tall, but robust and muscular race of -men, inured to all sorts of privations, and enduring them with the -greatest ease, owing to the small number of their wants. These are -almost confined to bread, bacon and tobacco, which is with them a -necessary of life. If to these the Csikos can add a pudding of -maize-flour and a bit of fresh pork, he has nothing more than a pint -of wine to wish for. - -The dress of these men is as simple as their fare. A wide shirt and -loose trowsers of coarse linen, a high felt cap, and convenient boots -of horse hide, a leathern girdle, a curiously worked tobacco-pouch of -sheep-leather, with its accompaniments, are all that they need, -besides a sheep-skin with the wool on, which serves both for garment, -tent and bed. The linen garments become extremely dirty from long -wearing, for when once on they are never taken off till they drop to -pieces and are replaced by new ones. The reader will not be surprized -at this, when he knows that these men are obliged to pass -three-fourths of the year on the moors, without any other shelter than -the firmament of heaven, and therefore cannot possibly be provided -with a wardrobe. - -Their dexterity and strength, and the courage which they display in -their vocation are truly astonishing. In order to be able duly to -appreciate these qualities, it is necessary to have witnessed the -scene which takes place, when the owner of a herd of wild horses -orders some of them to be caught. The animals are first driven very -adroitly into a large inclosure. Here the owner or purchaser points -out which of them he wishes to have caught, on which some of the -Csikoses go with long ropes having nooses at the end, among the -horses, and endeavour to fling the nooses over their heads. In this -attempt the Csikos generally succeeds at the first trial. He then -throws the animal upon the ground, where he is held down by his -comrades, and in this state a bridle is quickly put on him. The -conqueror places it between his legs; the rope is loosed, the horse -springs like lightning from the ground, with the Csikos on his bare -back, and holding by the mane. The furious beast darts off at full -speed: the undaunted rider lets him run and even applies his whip from -time to time, till his steed, weary with the length of his course, -slackens his pace. The Csikos then begins to exert himself and to make -use of the bridle. Man and horse return home exhausted with hunger, -thirst and fatigue; the latter is conducted for the first time into a -stable, where the operations of breaking commence while the former -relates to his comrades over the smoking board the adventures of his -hazardous journey, on the steed winged by rage and terror. - -Besides the Csikoses there are other classes of herdsmen denominated -from their particular occupation Gulyas, cowherds; Juhasz, shepherds; -and Kanasz, swineherds. - -The mode of life of these herdsmen, who are brought up from childhood -to this occupation, and during the summer seldom approach the -habitations of men, appear to have debased them so much, that even in -this country, uncivilized as it is, they are considered as a tribe of -savages. - -The dress of these cattle-keepers in the county of Schuemegh, -consisting of a shirt and wide trowsers of coarse linen as already -described, is rendered stiff and of a dark dirty colour by the grease -with which it is purposely imbued. Their object in thus besmearing the -clothes is to render them more durable, and to prevent vermin from -harbouring in them, as well as to defend the person from the bites of -gnats: but whatever the object may be, they are seldom changed before -they are ready to fall in pieces. The feet are enveloped in wool, over -which they fasten on the sole a piece of leather by straps. Besides a -round hat, frequently ornamented with a ribbon, and a large mantle of -thick coarse woollen cloth, for here they seldom use sheep-skin -cloaks, they are provided with a leathern pocket, hanging by a broad -belt over the shoulder, and carry, for offence and defence, a small -axe with a long handle. The broad belt by which the pocket hangs is -generally adorned with two or three rows of shining metal buttons, for -which these herdsmen are so eager, that they have been often known to -fall upon travellers for the sake of them alone. The axe serves them -in place of a stick, and in time of need becomes a formidable weapon -against man or beast. They understand the management of this -instrument so well, that at the distance of twenty or thirty paces -they seldom miss a mark set up against the trunk of a tree. Their -skill in this exercise is derived from constant practice while their -flocks are feeding.--These men are still more careful in besmearing -the hair of their head with grease than even their dress, and they -then tie it up in knots hanging on each side below the ear. - - -PEASANT OF BOCSKO, IN THE COUNTY OF MARMAROS. - -The county of Marmaros forms a strong contrast with the rest of -Hungary. In regard to situation it might justly be denominated the -eastern Highlands, the principal valley alone being conveniently -habitable. The rest of the country consists of bare mountains and -forests: hence the population bears no proportion to the extent of -this country. It is chiefly remarkable for its rich salt-works, which -furnish 30,000 tons of salt annually, and its numerous mineral -springs. - -The woodcutter of Bocsko in the county of Marmaros, whose axe is his -only companion, frequently abides for weeks together in the immense -forests, to earn wherewithal to satisfy his scanty wants, partly by -cutting wood for fuel, which he conveys at a very moderate rate to -Szigeth, the capital of the county, and partly by furnishing timber -for salt-rafts. - -His apparel is of coarse hempen stuff; in winter he dresses rather -warmer, but even then his bosom is uncovered and icicles may be seen -hanging from it, without prejudice to the health of this hardy -Highlander. His shoes consist of a piece of tanned ox-hide, which is -fastened on the foot with a leathern thong, and just serves to keep it -from the ground. - - -UNMARRIED FEMALE PEASANT OF BOCSKO, IN THE COUNTY OF MARMAROS. - -The unmarried female appears in all her finery. Her head is encircled -with a metal hoop adorned with beads and flowers. Round her neck she -wears several necklaces of coral, and a black and red silk -handkerchief covers her bosom. Over this she sometimes throws another -of larger dimensions, which, from the variety of its colours and -forms, resembles a piece of patchwork. The red boots are worn only on -extraordinary occasions, and the owners generally carry them in their -hands to church, to protect them from the wet which would stain them -indelibly. It is well known that the same practice prevails among the -females in the Highlands of Scotland. - - -MARRIED FEMALE PEASANT OF BOCSKO, IN THE COUNTY OF MARMAROS. - -The married woman is more simply clad: yet the embroidery on her loose -jacket without sleeves, trimmed with fur, and on the short sleeves of -her chemise, drawn tight round the arm below the elbow, show that the -cares of a family have not rendered the matron wholly negligent of -personal decoration. Her head-dress consists of a handkerchief tied -under her chin, and she goes according to the custom of the country on -ordinary occasions, without shoes or stockings. - -The women of this part of Hungary are remarkable for their industrious -disposition: they are never idle, but even in their walks carry with -them a portable distaff, and ply the spindle without intermission. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -TRANSYLVANIA. - - EXTENT AND POPULATION--MANNERS OF THE WALACHIANS--THE - GIPSIES--COSTUMES. - - -The grand principality of Transylvania, about one-sixth of the extent -of Hungary, contains a population of about a million and a half. It -presents as great a diversity of nations and religions as Hungary, -being inhabited by Hungarians, Germans, Walachians, Greeks, Servians, -Armenians, Bulgarians, Poles, Slowaks, Jews, and Gipsies, and -containing, besides the four religions established by law, namely, -those of the Catholics, Reformed Lutherans, and Unitarians, also -disunited Greek Christians and Jews. The Armenians and united Greeks -are numbered among the Catholics. It may naturally be supposed that -the variety of nations may be perceived in the variety of their -peculiar costumes, of which we shall present some specimens. - -The Walachians, a great number of whom are spread throughout the -Hungarian counties, are the most numerous race of the inhabitants of -Transylvania. They may be divided into three classes. To some of them -all the rights of nobility have been granted by different kings and -princes of the country. They are ranked with the noble Hungarian -landholders and enjoy the same rights; and among them are found -several families of importance. Others belong to the class of knights -who, on account of certain military services entrusted to them at -different times, have obtained limited privileges of nobility: but by -far the greater part of the Walachians are, like other peasants, bound -to the service of the owner of the estate on which they live. Besides -these, there are two Walachian frontier regiments, and a third part of -the Szekler hussars is formed from this nation. - -The Walachians are considered as one of those races which are -tolerated in Transylvania, and according to the laws of that country -cannot possess the rights of free citizens: but the free families are -reckoned among the number of that established nation in whose -territory they reside. Their religion is the Greek church, either -united or not united, the former being in the proportion of about two -to nine of the latter. - -The total number of Walachians in the Austrian dominions is calculated -at 1,600,000: of whom 900,000 inhabit Transylvania, 550,000 Hungary, -150,000 the Bukowina. The latter are, more correctly speaking, -Moldavians, but they differ little in language and manners from the -genuine Walachians. - -The Walachian is short in stature, but of a compact muscular frame of -body. The savage mode of life to which he is accustomed from his -earliest infancy enables him to bear hardships with fortitude. Heat -and cold, hunger and thirst, make no impression upon him. His features -are strong and expressive, his hair dark and bushy. His countenance on -the whole is not disagreeable, and both men and women, as well as -girls of great beauty, are often seen among these people. They arrive -early at maturity, yet frequently live to an advanced age. At -seventeen or eighteen the Walachian marries a wife who is seldom above -thirteen; before he is thirty he is a grandfather, so that the race -multiplies rapidly, and the Walachians are already more numerous than -all the other inhabitants of Transylvania. - -In regard to character the Walachians are sly, reserved, cunning, -revengeful and indolent. With the appearance of the greatest -simplicity they well know how to profit by every opportunity of -overreaching their neighbours. Indolence is a failing of the men -rather than of the women, who perform all the labour of the house, -make clothes for the whole family, and frequently afford their -husbands much assistance in agriculture: whereas the men, after -performing the most indispensable operations of the field and -vineyard, pass the remainder of their time in idleness. The natural -indolence of the Walachians receives much encouragement from the -frequent holidays of the Greek church, which they usually spend in -prayer, drinking and sloth. To work on such days would be criminal. - -They are much addicted to drink, and the Walachian will frequently -consume in wine and brandy in a few hours the produce of the labour of -a week. If he is fortunate enough to find a pipe or violin, in -addition to a full pitcher, he seldom ceases from revelry till he is -quite intoxicated, and is carried home senseless. It rarely happens -that many Walachians are assembled under such circumstances without -fighting, for they are very quarrelsome when drunk. - -The idleness of their disposition is naturally connected with an -inclination to plunder; and if the Walachians are not such professed -thieves as the gipsies, they never suffer a favourable opportunity to -pass, and are particularly dexterous at stealing cattle; so that many -laws passed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are directed -against them by name, and at the present time the inhabitants of the -countries in which they reside take strong precautions to prevent -their depredations. When they leave their homes, for fear of -punishment or to avoid military service, they often retire to the -forests and mountains, where, singly, or in bands, they become the -terror of the country. Perfectly acquainted with every hiding-place -and every by-path, they are always ready to fall upon passing -travellers, or to plunder lonely houses and villages, exercising the -most inhuman cruelties: and in spite of the greatest precaution on the -part both of the civil and military power, it is generally long before -the depredators can be secured or expelled from their haunts, -especially as the inhabitants are prevented by fear of a cruel revenge -from affording effective assistance. - -The Walachians are in the highest degree superstitious, but make no -scruple of employing shocking oaths on every trifling occasion. The -stupidity and avarice of the greater part of the clergy, who find a -rich source of profit in the ignorance of the common people, tend to -encourage the failings and depravity of their flock. The ignorance and -want of cultivation in the inferior Walachian clergy exceeds all -belief; and there can be no doubt that the first step towards an -improvement in the morals of the people must be a reform in that -order. - -The habitations of the Walachians are small and confined; their towns -are generally built of mud and timber, very seldom of stone. The -houses have seldom more than one room, besides which there are a small -kitchen and an oven. The stable and other buildings belonging to a -peasant's yard, are universally ill built, low and dirty. They keep -their grain in pits; and some sorts, particularly maize, in wicker -baskets, suspended on a pole some feet above the ground, and protected -by a lid of the same material, covered with straw. They pay little -attention to gardening, and besides a few vegetables irregularly -planted, nothing is to be found in their gardens but fruit-trees, -which are left entirely to the care of nature. - -The internal arrangements of their houses are extremely simple. The -furniture consists of the family-bed, formed of straw, sacks and -coverlets, or according to the circumstances of the possessor, of -feather-beds and bolsters, with covers ornamented with coloured -stitch-work, which are objects of extraordinary luxury. Besides these -articles they have commonly a rude table, benches arranged round the -room, and one or two wooden chests, adorned with rudely painted -flowers, in which they keep their clothes and other valuables. -Pitchers, plates and dishes are ranged or hung against the wall, -together with pictures of Greek saints, before which lamps of coloured -glass are sometimes suspended. The windows are very small, and the -light is usually admitted through a piece of bladder instead of glass. - -Of all rural employments, the Walachians are most attached to the -rearing of cattle. Their natural indolence causes them to prefer this -to all other occupations. All the changes of weather, and all the -privations to which the life of a herdsman is subject, in distant and -uninhabited countries, which he is forced to explore in order to find -good pasture for his cattle, are easily borne by the Walachian, whose -bodily frame has been hardened from his childhood; and the exemption -from labour, which he enjoys as he follows his herd, renders the -difficulties he has to encounter still less irksome. - -The Walachian cultivates the field or the vineyard only when the -climate or other circumstances prevent him from attending to the -breeding of cattle. The grain chiefly grown by him is maize, a -principal article of diet in Hungary, because it is more productive -than any other kind of corn. Still the produce of the fields and -vineyard seldom exceeds his immediate wants; while on the other hand, -the Walachian cattle-breeders amass property. They have but little -inclination for handicraft-business and the trades which are carried -on in towns; probably because in former times they were not suffered -to become members of any of the companies or guilds. This disability -was removed in 1802, and much benefit is expected to result from this -measure. - -The women spin and make the greater part of their own clothing and -that of their families. A stranger, seeing a Walachian woman going to -market with a basket of goods upon her head, and spinning with her -distaff as she trudges along, would be apt to conceive a favourable -idea of the industry of these people, which, however, is soon lost on -a nearer acquaintance, particularly as it respects the men. - -The clothing of the Walachians varies in many points according to the -district in which they reside; but may generally be described as -follows:--The summer dress of the men consists of a short coarse shirt -with wide open sleeves, which reach partly over the thighs and hang -outside of the trowsers. - -The latter, of coarse white woollen cloth, or in summer sometimes of -linen, are very large and descend to the ankles. Round their feet they -wrap rags, and over them put a piece of raw hide, bound on with thongs -and thus fastened to the foot and leg above the ankle. Instead of -these sandals, the more wealthy wear short boots reaching to the calf -of the leg. Round the waist the shirt is bound by a leathern girdle, -generally ornamented with brass buttons, in which they carry a knife, -a flint and steel, and a tobacco-pipe. Over the shirt is sometimes -thrown a jacket of coarse brown woollen cloth. They wear the hair -short, suffering it to hang down a little way in the natural curls. -None but old men, or such as from their situation or office are -particularly entitled to respect, suffer the beard to grow. Among the -common people this usually takes place after the age of forty, and -such persons are distinguished by the appellation of _moschule_, -grandfather. The head is generally covered with a woollen or white -cloth cap, or a low round hat; but while the Walachian is in mourning -he always goes bare-headed, be the weather what it may. He carries a -knapsack, containing provisions and necessaries, slung across the -shoulders, and a strong stick in his hand. - -The women wear a long shirt reaching to the knees, and ornamented at -the bosom and sleeves with coloured stitches. From a small girdle are -suspended two aprons, one before and the other behind. These are -somewhat shorter than the shirt, and are made of striped woollen -cloth, bordered below with fringe. Over the shirt the bosom is often -covered with a stomacher of cloth or leather. They also wear, -particularly in winter, under their shirts, long wide drawers; and in -the mountain districts cover their feet with the sandals already -described, but commonly wear boots in the plain. The girls have no -covering on the head, but their hair is plaited in braids, which are -disposed cross-wise on the head, and fastened with pins. Married women -wear head-dresses of white linen, and the richer part of them of -muslin. - -The Walachian women are very fond of ornament. They paint their cheeks -red, and this addition is deemed even by the poorest essential to -beauty. They often colour the eyebrows black, and wear ear-rings of -different kinds: but the chief ornament of the rich consists of -several necklaces of silver or sometimes gold coins, instead of which -the poor use base coins and glass beads, strung on threads and hung -round the neck and breast. Their number is indefinite, and they -frequently reach quite to the girdle. The embroidery also upon their -shirts and their many coloured aprons is esteemed by them an -indispensable part of ornamental attire. - -Children of both sexes wear in summer nothing but a long shirt -reaching to the ankles. In winter they are seldom better clothed, and -may be seen playing and leaping about in their shirts in the snow. At -the age of six or seven years, they begin to dress like men and women. - -In winter the Walachian provides himself with a sheep-skin cloak with -the wool turned inward, and having a fur cap instead of a hood; or he -throws over him a white or brown cloth mantle, which descends to the -knees, and has a large hood to put over the head in bad weather. Under -this cloak he wears his usual dress. The women likewise wear -sheep-skin cloaks with sleeves; lined inside with wool and adorned -outside with coloured patches and coarse embroidery, and held -together in front by laces and buttons. - -The gipsy tribe is also very numerous in Transylvania. They may be -divided into two classes, the itinerant and the stationary. The former -having no fixed habitations, wander in summer and winter from one -place to another. In summer they generally live in tents; in winter in -wretched huts of clay, or in holes which they excavate to the depth of -a few feet in the declivity of the hills, and cover with branches, -moss and turf, to protect themselves from the weather. It is easy to -conceive how miserable the inside of one of these dwellings must -appear. Air and light are almost wholly excluded; and the only -apartment is a cave, in the centre of which is a fire serving at the -same time for warmth and cooking. Household and culinary utensils are -scarcely to be expected. The inmates sit, eat and sleep on the bare -ground, or at best lie on a heap of rags. On a fine winter day they -open their cavern for a few hours to the sun; but if the weather is -cloudy they keep themselves shut up, nestle round the fire, cook and -divide the food which chance or theft has placed at their disposal, -and pass the remainder of the day in chatting and smoking, for the -latter of which they have a particular predilection. Men, women and -even children know no greater happiness than to smoke tobacco out of a -short pipe, or to chew a piece of the wooden pipe when it has been -well impregnated with the essential oil of tobacco. - -Their furniture seldom consists of more than an earthen pot, an iron -pan, a spoon, a water-jug, a knife and sometimes a dish. If the father -is a smith, which is most frequently the case, he has a pair of small -hand-bellows, a stone anvil, a pair of pincers and a couple of -hammers. Add to this a knapsack, a few rags for clothing, a tattered -tent, formed of a piece of coarse woollen cloth, and this is a -complete inventory. But if he is so fortunate as to possess besides -these an old foundered horse, he puts the whole establishment on its -back, and thus rambles from place to place. - -The wandering gipsy is generally clothed in rags, and the women are -more remarkable, if possible, for their want of cleanliness than the -men. Wrapped in their tattered garments, which scarcely suffice for -decency, carrying their infants in a piece of cloth suspended from -their shoulders, and driving before them the elder children, naked, or -at most covered with a torn shirt, they visit in all their filth, -particularly during fairs, the towns and villages, to dispose of the -paltry produce of their labour, or rather under that pretext to -exercise their skill in pilfering. Their stations are generally by the -road side, where the naked children lie and beg; or by following -travellers, by tumbling and by locking the wheels of carriages, they -obtain a trifle or seize an opportunity of purloining something. Their -usual occupation is making coarse iron articles. Some cut spoons, -shovels and little troughs out of wood; others make brooms of twigs, -weave baskets, and gather herbs, rushes, or juniper-berries. In this -manner they contrive to gain a scanty subsistence, and if, after -providing absolute necessaries, there is any surplus, it is expended -in brandy of which they are very fond. - -The settled gipsies, who are termed _Neubauern_, or new peasants, live -much better than their wandering brethren. They reside in the -outskirts of suburbs and villages, where they herd together, and their -habitations contain a greater variety of conveniences than the dens -described above. Their occupations are in general those of the -wandering tribe. The greater part are smiths, and in spite of their -imperfect apparatus they perform their work well. They visit also the -neighbouring towns and villages to mend iron and copper utensils: -others make a profession of music, and pass in companies from place to -place. Some of them are tolerable performers, and collect large -contributions from parties which amuse themselves with dancing and -other festivities: others are engaged in mending shoes and in working -in wood, or assist in agricultural occupations, in which, however, -they are seldom industrious. They are usually employed as -executioners, and in the business of flaying animals which have died a -natural death. The women mostly trade in old clothes, in which the men -assist them; or they levy a tax on the superstition of the peasantry -by fortune-telling and pretensions to magic. Another occupation in -which they are much engaged in Transylvania is gold-washing, in the -many rivulets of the country which yield that metal. - - -UNMARRIED FEMALE OF THOROCZKO. - -Thoroczko, pronounced Torotzko, is a village in the county of Thorda, -with an iron mine which is not wrought by means of regular shafts, but -by passages cut in the side of the mountain. The inhabitants are -Germans from Styria, who have settled here to work in the mine, but -have ceased to speak their native language; and Hungarians belonging -to the Unitarian church. - -The females of this place are distinguished from their neighbours by -their head-dress, by the singular and tasteful embroidery on their -chemises and corsets, by the red sash which encircles the waist, and -by the peculiar manner in which they plait their petticoats. They wear -occasionally a blue cloak, without arm-holes, plaited like the -petticoat. - - -UNMARRIED FEMALE OF OBERASCHA. - -The head-dress of the young female of Oberascha, or more correctly -Obrasa, is composed of variegated ribbons, which are fastened round -the head, and the ends of which hang loose over the bosom and -shoulders. Above each ear are generally fixed a couple of peacock's -feathers. Round the neck she wears a fine sort of net-work to which -are hung pieces of silver coin. The gown is adorned with embroidery -on the shoulders. To the red sash which holds the black apron are -attached several rings, probably tokens of love. Red boots complete -her costume, the general appearance of which proclaims her a -Walachian. - - -A PEASANT OF OBERASCHA. - -The inhabitants of Oberascha and the environs, are distinguished from -other Walachians by the custom of wearing their hair tied in a club on -the right side, and also by their tight pantaloons, and half-boots -turned down at the top. The shirt, which the Walachians wear over the -pantaloons, is fastened on holidays round the waist by a variegated -scarf and a leathern belt, decorated with a profusion of metal studs, -from which are suspended the tobacco-pouch, flint and steel. - - -AN ARMED PLAJASH, OR GUARD OF THE FRONTIERS. - -In Transylvania, as well as throughout all Hungary, proper precautions -are taken for the security of travellers against the attacks of -banditti. The guards employed to patrole the roads for this purpose -are called by different names in different parts of the kingdom. In -Transylvania they are styled Plajashes, from the Walachian word -_Plaja_, a foot-path, or road. The duty of these Plajashes is to -escort travellers and goods over the mountains, which are frequently -very unsafe: hence they always appear completely armed. Their weapons -consist of a musket, two large sharp knives or daggers, and the -national _buzogany_, or mace. They carry their ammunition, tobacco, -materials for striking a light and other articles attached to their -belt. In other respects their dress resembles that of the Walachians, -to whom they indeed belong. - -[Illustration: ARMED PLAJASH.] - -Upon the whole, there is scarcely any country in which travelling is -safer than in Transylvania, because the inhabitants of every place are -responsible for all the losses and injuries which travellers may -sustain in its territory. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE BUKOWINA. - - TRANSFER OF THE COUNTRY TO - AUSTRIA--EXTENT--POPULATION--COSTUMES. - - -Bukowina, formerly part of Moldavia, was subdued in 1769 by the -Russians, but restored to the Ottoman Porte at the peace concluded in -1774. In the same year Austria took military possession of this -province, and by the convention of the 12th of May, 1776, it was -formally ceded to that power. It derives its name from the numerous -forests of beech which it contains, that tree being called in the -Slavonian language _buk_. Its greatest length is about 150 miles, and -its extreme breadth 80. The soil is fertile, especially between the -rivers Pruth and Dniester, and in the valley of Szucsawa; and the -mountainous parts are interspersed with rich and extensive -pasture-grounds; but on account of the early frosts and the long -duration of the winter, the only crops that can be raised there are -oats, barley, and potatoes. - -At the time of the occupation of this province by Austria in 1776, it -contained no more than eleven or twelve thousand families. The -conscription of 1817 exhibited a total of nearly forty-two thousand -families, and upwards of two hundred thousand souls. These are -composed of Moldavians, or original inhabitants, Ruthenians, Germans, -of whom there are eighteen colonies, Hungarians Armenians, -Lipowanians, or Philippowanians, Gipsies and Jews. - - -A BOYAR, or GENTLEMAN OF THE BUKOWINA. - -In the Bukowina every gentleman or proprietor of land is called Boyar. -The usual dress of this class is faithfully represented in the -opposite plate. A long blue pelisse, with short sleeves, covers the -under-garments, which consist of wide red trowsers, a blue striped -shirt, and a broad belt, in which a knife is stuck, and from which -hangs a handkerchief. The head is covered with a red Servian cloth -cap. - -The Boyar here represented, is an inhabitant of the town of Szered; he -is supposed to have just quitted his house, and appears in a -contemplative attitude. - - -A PEASANT OF THE BUKOWINA. - -The usual costume of the peasants of the Bukowina, consists of white -or red trowsers, a shirt, the wide, open sleeves of which are -embroidered at the wrist, and over that an open waistcoat bordered -with fur. With a pouch slung over his shoulder, and a long handled -hatchet, which supplies the place of a stick, in his hand, he -usually proceeds to his work in the fields and woods. - -[Illustration: BOYAR of SERET.] - -According to the regulations of Gregory Gyka, prince of Moldavia, the -holders of land are bound to labour twelve days in the year, and the -holders of houses six days, for their lord, besides paying him the -tithe of all their field-crops and fruit, and also of the produce of -their gardens when they deal in such articles. According to ancient -custom, every vassal holding grants of land gives, moreover, as a -yearly acknowledgment, a hen, and a certain quantity of yarn; and if -he keeps a cart or wagon, he must carry home for his lord a load of -wood from his forest, or if there be none on his domains, from that -which lies nearest to them. - - -WOMAN OF SZUCSAWICZA. - -Szucsawicza, pronounced Szutzawitza, is celebrated as the ancient -residence of the princes of Moldavia. On a hill near the place are -still to be seen the ruins of a strong castle which they inhabited. It -seems to have been destroyed by violence, probably in one of the -frequent incursions of the Turks and Poles into this province. Whether -the destruction of this castle, or as some assert, the commands of the -Porte, caused the princes of Moldavia to change their place of abode, -we shall not pretend to determine. So much at any rate is certain, -that, till the middle of the sixteenth century, the Woywodes or -Hospodars of Moldavia resided at Szucsawicza; and consequently it was -not till the latter half of that century that they removed from this -place to Yassy. - -On a gentle eminence near the town there is a convent of monks of St. -Basil, belonging to the not united Greek church, which, in regard to -the number of its members, predominates in the Bukowina. This edifice -stands in a dreary, melancholy country, and makes an extraordinary -impression on the traveller with its numerous towers, crosses, and -bells, and the paintings on the outside of the church. It is -surrounded by walls and towers, as a defence against sudden attacks of -banditti; and owes its existence to the pious donations of several -Moldavian princes who are interred in it. - -The women of Szucsawicza wrap a handkerchief about the head, and wear -trowsers, slippers turned up at the toe, and a jacket bordered with -fur in the Greek fashion. In their manners and customs these people -closely resemble the Moldavians. - - -UNMARRIED FEMALE OF JAKOBENY. - -Jakobeny is a place situated in the mountains and inhabited by miners. -The females of the lower class here as every where else, are fond of -finery. To the decorations of their persons belong indispensably -numerous necklaces and other ornaments made of beads, coins, crosses, -rich embroidery, and in summer fresh flowers and sprigs of plants for -their hair. The gown is coloured and striped, and a red sash encircles -the waist. - -The engraving represents an unmarried female; the dress of the married -woman is destitute alike of ornament and taste. The coarse gown is -commonly of a dark colour with blue stripes, and in cold weather they -wear over it a loose shapeless brown coat. - - -FEMALE PEASANTS OF PHILIPPOWAN. - -We have already observed that the Lipowanians, or Philippowanians, -form a particular class of the inhabitants of Bukowina. They belong to -the Russian Raskolniks, and to the not united Greek church. They -removed about the year 1785, from the Black Sea into the -Bukowina, and obtained of the emperor Joseph II. the free -exercise of their religion. They are a peaceable, industrious and -active people, addicted to agriculture, and partly subsist by the sale -of fresh and dried fruit, fish, and cordage of their own manufacture. -They are extremely skilful in draining wet, marshy lands, inhabit -three villages, and are among the different sects of the eastern -church what the Moravians are among the Protestants. - -[Illustration: UNMARRIED FEMALE of JACKOBERG.] - -[Illustration: FEMALE PEASANTS of PHILLIPPOWAN.] - -The appearance of the Philippowanians produces an agreeable impression -on the stranger. They are in general tall and well-shaped, and both -sexes usually wear long cloth coats carefully buttoned from top to -bottom. The women have stiff caps over which they tie a large -handkerchief. A bandeau embroidered with gold encircles the forehead. -The gown, without sleeves, is either green or red, bound round the -waist with a sash, and the feet are covered with red or yellow -buskins. The annexed engraving represents two females of this -district, and displays the front and back of their rich dress, which -bears a strong affinity to the Ottoman costume; the only features -seemingly peculiar to the subjects before us being the ornamented -shift sleeves. - -The Lipowanians have but little intercourse with the other inhabitants -of the country: at least, if they can help it they will not admit -strangers into their habitations. Should a person, nevertheless, have -obtained access through accident or against their will, they consider -the spot where he has sat or stood as contaminated till they have -purified it in their own way. They never eat with any stranger. They -have particular plates, vessels, and utensils for guests, and when -they entertain a person they press him to eat all that is set before -him, or throw away what is left. They are forbidden to use tobacco and -snuff, and suffer no inn or public house to be kept among them. - -It is surprising with what care these people keep both the ceremonies -and the doctrines of their religion profoundly secret. They have no -priests but only a teacher called _daskal_: they acknowledge the -authority of no oriental ecclesiastic, but profess to belong to a -church of their sect in Moldavia, where all their marriages are -solemnized. No traces of burial-grounds are to be found among them, -and hence it is conjectured that they burn their dead. Their churches -in Moldavia are in all respects like the other churches of the East, -excepting that they are surmounted by three triple crosses, the lowest -cross-bar of which is placed in an oblique direction. - -The Philippowanians are said to have derived their name from one -Philip, who was first servitor in a Russian convent, then became a -monk, and aspired to the rank of superior. Being disappointed in this -scheme, he accused his brethren of having swerved from the ancient -faith; and having made proselytes of about fifty of his colleagues, he -seceded from the convent, built another, and thus became the founder -of a new sect. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE MILITARY FRONTIERS. - - MILITARY CONSTITUTION--CARLSTADT FRONTIER--BANAL - FRONTIER--SLAVONIA--BANAT FRONTIER. - - -The border of the Austrian empire from Povile on the coast of the -Adriatic Sea to the Northern frontiers of Dalmatia, and thence through -Croatia, Slavonia, the Banat and Transylvania, to Bukowina, has a -military constitution peculiar to itself. In this tract, containing -nearly a million of inhabitants, the men capable of bearing arms must -always hold themselves in readiness to abandon the plough and home, -for the purpose of averting the dangers with which they are threatened -by rapacious neighbours, or by commodities impregnated with -pestilence. - -The inhabitant of the frontiers, at once a husbandman and a soldier, -holds his lands on condition of taking up arms when required. In -Transylvania he is the absolute proprietor of the ground he -cultivates: in the Banat, Slavonia and Croatia, he is bound by certain -restrictions somewhat like those of the feudal tenures of old, without -however being obstructed in the enjoyment of the fruits of his -industry. - -The perfidy of an individual draws down punishment on himself alone: -his family still retains its right to the possession of his lands, and -this right also devolves to females when they marry of their own -choice, and continue to reside upon them; nay even when there is not a -male left in the house capable of bearing arms, still the land is not -taken away. - -As all the males capable of bearing arms are not called out at once, -and every house cannot furnish the number proportioned to the land -belonging to it, some other method of equalizing the burdens has been -found necessary. To this end a moderate tax is levied upon the land, -and from this fund a certain allowance is made to each person while in -actual service. Towards the repairing and keeping up of the public -works, such as buildings, roads and the like, each inhabitant of the -frontiers performs gratuitously a certain quantity of labour -proportionate to the extent of his land. - -Agriculture and the breeding of cattle are the principal resources of -the inhabitants of the frontiers. In order that the most necessary -trades may not be wanting, particular places are appointed where the -mechanic, artist, tradesman and merchant may exercise their respective -professions without being subject to military duty. These places are -called military communities, and have regular municipal institutions -like other towns. - -The rest of the frontier territory is divided into regimental -districts, of which seventeen are appropriated to infantry, one to -cavalry, and one to the Pontoneers or Watermen. Each regimental -district contains on an average from forty to fifty thousand souls. -Out of the males fit for service in each district two battalions are -formed in time of peace. The house to which each man on duty belongs, -furnishes him with food and clothing, and the state with arms and -ammunition. In peace his chief occupation consists in protecting the -frontiers from the incursions of the Turks, the depredations of -banditti, and the introduction of the plague and contraband goods. - -These men are stationed in watch-houses partly of masonry and partly -elevated on high poles, which are erected along the whole frontier at -such moderate distances that one post can alarm and assist the other -in case of emergency. This chain of posts is strengthened, when the -danger of attack or of infection by the plague becomes more imminent. - - -CARLSTADT FRONTIER. THE VICE-HARAM-BASSA OF THE SZERESSANS. - -Besides the frontier cordon there is in the Carlstadt and Banal -frontier a chosen band of clever, trusty, and tried guards called by -the ancient appellation of Szeressans. They go according to -circumstances either singly or in companies, on foot or on horseback -to discover the most secret plans and stratagems of their rapacious -Turkish neighbours, which they seldom fail to counteract and -frustrate, and are particularly ingenious in the discovery of -concealed plunder. - -The chief of these Szeressans is styled Haram-Bassa. When fully -equipped, he wears a sort of red uniform coat and waistcoat, blue -pantaloons, and a sharp-pointed cap of green cloth, turned up with a -red and white striped stuff. His arms consist of a musquet, with which -he hits his man with never failing certainty at the distance of three -hundred paces, a pair of pistols for nearer objects, a Turkish knife -and a sword for close quarters; and on busy days there is none of -these weapons perhaps but what he employs. In bad weather a wide red -mantle with a hood covers both his person and his arms. - -[Illustration: TANASZIA DOROJEVICH. _VICE HAROM-BASSA OF THE -SERISCHANS._] - -The second in command, called Vice-Haram-Bassa, is represented in the -annexed plate. He is armed like his superior, but appears here in his -ordinary dress. His pipe is his constant companion. His horse, with -his red mantle thrown carelessly over the saddle when he dismounts, is -his constant companion and grazes by his side. The horse in this -country is seldom allowed a feed of oats; grass in summer and hay in -winter constitute the whole of his subsistence. But little attention -is paid to him in other respects, nay more frequently the horse is -teased and ill used by his master; hence he is generally unsteady and -shy, and a stranger must use great caution in riding him. These -animals are small, hardy, and sure-footed, and are extremely useful -for carrying moderate loads over the mountains, and for riding in -steep, rugged, and scarcely beaten roads. They have their own pace -which the rider must let them pursue, or he is more likely to be -dismounted than to make them stir from the spot. - -In the mountains of Croatia the horses are seldom employed for -draught; and it is at the risk of life or goods that they are -harnessed to any vehicle. If, however, by coaxing, this point has been -accomplished, and the driver has set them a-going, he cannot answer -for their proceeding. Each pulls a different way; the rotten harness, -perhaps, botched together at the moment when it is wanted, snaps at -the least strain; the drivers, generally as numerous as the horses, -are as far from agreeing as the latter. The utmost confusion of course -arises on the least accident. The men invoke all the saints and all -the devils to their assistance: in the most fortunate event, the -vehicle is left behind, but more commonly it is broken to pieces. -Whoever, therefore, values a whole skin will do well not to trust -himself in this mountainous region to any vehicle without the greatest -precaution. On the high road from Carlstadt to Zeng the traveller will -find horses trained to draw, but not in the by-roads in the interior -of the country. - -In their manners and way of life, as well as in their clothing and -arms, the people of the frontiers hold an intermediate place between -the Oriental and the European. The husbandman goes out armed to his -agricultural labours, and with trembling he commits the seed to the -bosom of the earth. Unless he keeps constantly on the watch the green -corn is either cut down or fed off; and when the farmer has reaped his -scanty crop he is frequently obliged to fight his way home with it. - -In winter the frontiers are more safe, and the duty of guarding them -is less arduous than in summer. The footmarks in the snow betray the -retreat of the robber, and there is no friendly thicket to shelter -him: he is therefore not very willing to venture forth amid tempests -and intense cold for the sake of a precarious and uncertain gain. On -the other hand, the inclemency of the weather renders the service of -the frontier posts more severe. Nothing but the iron constitutions of -these men could withstand the incessant changes of temperature. One -day perhaps a furious north or north-east wind brings snow, covers all -the roads and freezes every limb: the next an equally tempestuous -south-east, produces a thaw and suddenly inundates the country. The -houses, slight and unsubstantial, suffer from both, and the roofs and -out-buildings are destroyed by the fury of the storm. - -Amid these incessant changes, the winter in these elevated regions is -unhealthy and destructive. When the storm keeps all inhabitants -closely imprisoned in the smoky huts, the frontier-man on duty at his -post, frequently receives a visit from a hungry wolf prowling about in -quest of prey. Thus engaged in an incessant conflict with a rude -nature and savage neighbours, is it surprising that these people -should have advanced no farther than a half-civilized state! - - -UNMARRIED FEMALE OF THE DRAGATHAL. - -The features and dress of the unmarried female of the Dragathal belong -to Italy; but the Croat and the Wende are here mingled with the -Italian. Language, manners, and costume indicate the intermixture of -nations between Trieste and Zeng, and exhibit in visible gradations -the transition from one to another. - -The districts of the regiments of Licca and Ottochacz are intersected -by bare, craggy mountains, which form a broken elevated tract not -unlike in appearance to the deserts of South Africa. These mountains -consist chiefly of chalk, naked and rugged at the top, and bearing -lower down a scanty vegetation. The valleys and plains are covered -with a thin layer of mould, but are in part as dreary as the mountains -which surround them. - -The elevated situation, the vicinity of the sea, and the want of wood, -expose this country to the fury of the tempests and to all the -caprices of the weather. For weeks together bleak north and north-east -winds prevail; all at once they change to milder, but equally violent -gales from the south and south-east. As the temperature suddenly -varies with the change of the wind, from the most intense cold to -thaw, or a mild day is succeeded by a frosty night, so also the falls -of rain or snow are generally sudden and excessive. - -In these parts the cottages must be built low, and the nearly flat -roof of boards, fastened with long projecting wooden pins, must be -farther secured by very heavy stones--a precaution employed for the -same reason among the mountains of Switzerland. The soil must never be -lightened for the reception of the seed, otherwise it would scarcely -fail to be blown away like dust. The poor, shallow, hard ground -therefore can scarcely be expected to produce good crops; and such as -it does bear are exposed to other dangers before they attain maturity. -Millet, the favourite grain of the husbandman, is frequently cut off -by a single frost in the beginning of September. - -Under such circumstances, the fruitful and middling years could not -make amends for the unfavourable seasons even to an industrious -people, and much less to the inhabitants of these frontiers, who are -apt to consider labour as not belonging to their vocation. The -government is in consequence frequently obliged to step in to their -relief, and to save them by abundant supplies from starvation. - -Regularity and perseverance are not virtues of these people. Like men -in a state of nature they are fond of variety and of extremes. -Military service, hunting, the transport of wares on horses, and -traffic on the cordon are occupations which they like: domestic and -agricultural employments are too tedious and quiet, and these -therefore in general fall to the share of the women. - -If, however, one of these men goes out at all to the fields, he first -chats away some hours by the side of the fire in the middle of the -floor; and when he is urged to repair to his work, he coolly replies, -that a wise man never leaves his house till the sun is over his -fields. He is remiss at every kind of labour; whether he is using the -hoe, the axe, the trowel, or the spade, he handles it as though he -were afraid of hurting the implement. To him work is worse than severe -want. The wife on the other hand is incessantly employed. All the -apparel worn by herself, her husband, and her children, is, with some -trifling exceptions, her own work. She spins, dyes, and weaves the -linen and woollen stuffs for this purpose, and makes them up into -garments, besides washing and attending to her house and kitchen. The -shoes alone, made of untanned hide, are the work of the man. Hard -labour and early marriages cause the women to lose all the charms of -youth much sooner than in many other countries. - -The character of the country from Trieste to Zara is uniformly the -same. The width of the plain, which intervenes between the sea and the -range of naked mountains, alone distinguishes the nature of the -country in this long tract, and determines the degree of vegetation -peculiar to each spot. The Draga of the Fiume is destitute of the -majesty of wood, and of the refreshing verdure of extensive -pasturages. The olive, the fig-tree and the vine indeed here furnish -their valuable fruit, but they confer neither affluence nor the -appearance of it. - -[Illustration: UNMARRIED FEMALE of OTTOCHACZ.] - - -UNMARRIED FEMALE OF OTTOCHACZ. - -The annexed plate represents an unmarried female of Ottochacz. She -wears a long open jacket without sleeves, neatly embroidered on the -edges, and her hair, carefully plaited in tresses, is covered with a -cap of red cloth. The apron universally exhibits a variety of gay -colours. Married women are distinguished from virgins by wearing one -of these aprons behind as well as before, and a large cloth resembling -a mantle over the head and shoulders. - -In Upper Croatia, in the county of Warasdin, for example, the dress of -the women considerably resembles the above, but is more elegant. On -the head is placed a large square of white linen, forming a roll in -front, one fold falling over the back and two lying on the shoulders. -The margins are adorned with borders of coarse lace two or three -inches deep. The vest is of woollen cloth, fitted to the body, without -sleeves, and descending below the knees, where it is trimmed with a -few coloured stripes, generally red and bordered by fringe or lace. -The white shift-sleeves hang large and loose, and are likewise -ornamented with coarse lace. The vest is of two kinds, either opening -on the sides or before, so as to display the laced front of a bodice -held together by clasps, formed of bunches of coloured glass beads. -Below the vest about two inches of a white petticoat appear, and below -this another petticoat neatly plaited; and beneath all, boots either -of black or yellow leather. They likewise wear coarse linen shawls -folded round their shoulders and arms. - - -BANAL FRONTIER. - -The districts of the two Banal regiments are situated on the decline -of the mountains into the plain. They present a great diversity of -ground and scenery. Considerable forests, beautiful valleys, and -extensive pastures succeed each other; and notwithstanding the change -of country, the character of the inhabitants remains the same. - -The indigence and want of activity prevailing among the people of -these districts has been ascribed, and not unjustly, to the excessive -magnitude of the houses. The village of Boroevich was formerly at -least inhabited almost exclusively by the family after which it was -named, and there were houses which contained from fifty to one hundred -inmates. Such houses furnished many men for the service, but at the -same time they were nurseries of discontent and crimes. - -Before the division of families was authorized by law, the father of -each with his immediate offspring remained in the original habitation. -On the marriage of any of his descendants, the new couple built -themselves a tenement contiguous and a chamber without a window. Here -they slept and deposited what belonged to them exclusively. The father -still retained and managed the general property. In his house were the -common fire and table for the whole family, no individual being -allowed to cook for himself. This separation, however, promoted -neither peace nor prosperity: the law therefore interfered and fixed -the principles for the partition of too large family-communities. Time -will soon show how much the industry and morality of these people have -been improved by this measure, without any prejudice to the service. - - -UNMARRIED FEMALE OF GLINA. - -In the annexed representation of a young female of Glina, we again -observe the red cap, but of a different form from that shown in the -last engraving. In this instance it merely covers the crown of the -head, the hair of which is tressed on each side and turned up behind. -The tresses are frequently adorned with shells, metal rings, and other -trinkets, and the costume in general resembles in cut and fashion that -of the upper frontiers. - -[Illustration: UNMARRIED FEMALE of GLINA.] - - -WOMAN OF DUBITZA. - -False tresses, hanging down low and covered with a handkerchief, give -a peculiar character to the head-dress of the women in the environs of -Dubitza. The apron is fastened on by a belt decorated with coins; the -wide, open sleeves of the chemise are neatly bordered with embroidery, -and over it is worn a long open jacket. - -The river Unna here forms the boundary between the Turkish and -Austrian empires. The decayed fortress of Dubitza itself, on the right -bank of that river, belongs to the former. Nature has rendered the -valley watered by the Unna one of the most fertile and delightful of -the abodes of man. The hills gently rise on each bank of the river, -which has a strong navigable current, and vegetation finds a rich soil -to their very tops. The climate too is mild; but man is the only -obstacle to the improvement of these advantages. The Turks and Turkish -subjects in this valley have long been reckoned the most pestilent -disturbers of the tranquillity of their neighbours. Being eternally at -variance among themselves, it is not surprising that they should annoy -the inhabitants of the Austrian frontiers. - - -SLAVONIA. - -In many parts of the Banal frontier the country and its inhabitants -strongly remind the spectator of the upper regimental districts, but -the scene is totally changed on entering Slavonia. These frontiers are -marked by great rivers and by sandy and muddy marsh-land. Here the -husbandman does not dread the fury of tempests, but the inundation of -waters. The genial warmth of a climate more than mild produces a -profusion of the finest fruits. The soil supplies man with abundance -of corn and wine, and animals with rich herbage. The very forests -support besides various species of game hundreds of thousands of -monstrous swine, great numbers of which are sent to the capital, and -thus contribute not only to the subsistence but to the opulence of the -inhabitants. The river Save, which forms the Southern boundary of the -country, and facilitates commercial communication, protects the -Slavonian from the incursions of his predatory neighbours better than -fortifications and sentinels. What nature affords and industry -acquires, he therefore enjoys in peace and security. He is in -consequence much more civilized and assiduous than his neighbours on -the Western frontiers; his dress is neater, his food and implements -are superior, his cattle are better treated and better fed; in short -every thing about him denotes greater affluence. - -For the sake of greater security, and to accelerate civilization, the -scattered houses were collected into villages upon the road. The -inhabitants now enjoy in peace the benefit of this regulation; and the -traveller blesses that power, which commanded the roads to be planted -with trees which, while they afford him a refreshing shade from the -intense heat, supply the inhabitants with food for the lucrative -silk-worm. - -Attempts have been made in other parts of Hungary to rear this insect, -and with considerable success, owing to the encouragement afforded by -government. The greatest yearly produce was in 1801, when the royal -silk-establishments yielded about eighteen thousand pounds weight, and -those of private individuals about three thousand. By far the greater -part comes from the military frontiers. - - -CLEMENTINIAN WOMEN. - -At the beginning of the last century emigrants from Bosnia, calling -themselves Clementinians, settled in the villages of Hertkovze and -Nikinze in the Peterwardein regiment. Their earlier history and the -origin of their name are involved in obscurity: but so much is -certain, that their ancestors migrated thither from Albania, and were -there converted to the Catholic religion. They differ from their -neighbours in language, customs, religious ceremonies, way of life and -physiognomy. - -The frontispiece to this volume represents females belonging to this -tribe. The figure in the middle exhibits a bride in her wedding -attire: on her left stands one of her companions in her usual holiday -apparel: and both are listening attentively to the instructions of the -industrious housewife on the left of the print. From the coronet of -feathers which adorn the head of the bride, and reminds us of the -natives of Guinea and Mexico, to the neat slipper of fish-skin which -covers the foot, all is of native material and workmanship. The women -spin, weave, dye, and make all their apparel and personal ornaments -with peculiar neatness. They attend with truly commendable assiduity -to the household concerns, while the men till the ground. -Distinguished by purer morals, and therefore more highly respected, -they consider it beneath them to mingle their blood with that of the -other inhabitants of the frontiers; but conduct themselves invariably -as a peaceable tribe among unsettled and turbulent neighbours. - - -BANAT FRONTIER. - -The sandy surface of that part of the Banat which lies between the -Danube and the Lower Nera, is very little elevated above the level of -those rivers, by which, when they are swollen, it is in a great -measure inundated. In the south-east corner of the German Banat -regiment, the loose sand is drifted into moving hills. It has not -unfrequently buried fields and houses, and occasioned the gradual -desertion of whole villages; but by judicious plantations it is now -confined within narrower limits. One of the most fertile of tracts, -the granary of the frontiers, is thus enclosed between dry sand and -morasses. A motley mixture of settlers, Germans, Hungarians, -Slavonians of various tribes, and Walachians, live together in a small -district of the German Banat regiment, and mostly retain the language, -costume, manners and way of life of their respective ancestors. - - -PEASANT OF THE BANAT FRONTIER. - -The coat and pantaloons of the Walachian, the original native of the -country, in his holiday dress, are of white cloth, the ornaments being -neatly worked by the women in coloured worsted. In fashion this dress -resembles the costume of his progenitors, the ancient Dacians, as -delineated on Trajan's pillar. The head is covered either with a round -hat, or the still more ancient sheep-skin cap. - -The Walachian styles himself a Roman in his language, which is a -medley of corrupt Latin and Illyrian; but it is very rarely that Roman -valour can be discovered in him. He dislikes the military profession, -and it is very long before he becomes habituated to its hardships: but -yet none endures with greater fortitude, sufferings and privations -which cannot be avoided. His wants are very moderate. He cheerfully -and thoughtlessly consumes what he has as long as it lasts, and -afterwards fasts with exemplary resignation. He does not always duly -respect the property of others, but cheerfully shares what he -possesses with those who need relief. - - -WOMAN OF THE BANAT. - -The Walachian women, like those of Croatia, being obliged to perform -the operations of agriculture as well as to attend to the domestic -concerns, lose at an early age all traces of beauty. Those of the -pleasant valley of Saska, are distinguished by more polished manners, -a more healthy look, and superior cleanliness and neatness in dress, -from the inhabitants of the plains. - -In the mountains contiguous to this valley are coppermines wrought by -German settlers, the example of whose industry and consequent comforts -has not been wholly lost on their Walachian neighbours. - -The head-dress, somewhat resembling a soldier's cap, and the two -aprons, one before and the other behind, distinguish the matron from -the unmarried female. In addition to all her other occupations, the -wife is obliged to take her infant children with her wherever she -goes, whether to her work in the fields, to church, or to visit a -neighbour. The infant is laid in a low open box, to which are attached -cords, by means of which it is slung over the shoulder of the mother. - -If a tree happens to be near, the box is suspended from it by the -cords, and the infant swings as in a hammock, while the mother does -her work in the fields. - -The house, built of wood and earth, affords but scanty room for the -family of the Walachian and the young cattle which lodge under the -same roof. He was formerly an utter stranger to stables, barns, and -granaries. Like the Tartar, when his old situation no longer suited -him, he drove his cattle farther, packed up his habitation and his -furniture and utensils, and fixed his abode in another place. Pains -were long taken to excite in him a taste for more solid and spacious -dwellings, in the hope of habituating him to a permanent residence and -its advantages; and they have not been unsuccessful. In the upper -valley of the Nera and of the Almasch, on the woody hills bordering -which the Walachian long roved about for the sake of the pasturage -they afforded, are now to be seen regular villages, with houses of -masonry, barns and stables. - -The cultivation of corn and the breeding of cattle are almost the only -resources of their inhabitants. The people of the Almasch, however, -pursue another occupation of a peculiar kind, that is, the feeding of -snails, which they collect in the woods in spring, keeping them in -particular spots in their gardens surrounded with ditches till winter, -and then selling them. They are known far and near by the name of -Caransebes snails. - -Dr. Bright saw at Keszthely a pen for snails, which are in request in -Hungary as well as in Germany, as an article of food. This pen was -formed by boards two feet high, the upper edge of which was spiked -with nails an inch long and half an inch asunder. This barrier the -animals never attempt to pass. The snail, the _helix pomatia_, is in -great demand at Vienna, where sacks of them are regularly exposed in -the market for sale. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -GALICIA, OR AUSTRIAN POLAND. - - EXTENT AND NATURE OF THE COUNTRY--BENEFITS RESULTING TO THE - PEOPLE FROM THE PARTITION OF POLAND--CRUELTY AND INJUSTICE OF - THE ANCIENT SYSTEM--SUPERIOR DEGREE OF SECURITY ENJOYED UNDER - THE AUSTRIAN GOVERNMENT--MODE OF BUILDING--APPEARANCE OF A - POLISH VILLAGE--INNS-JEWS--UNCLEANLINESS OF THE POLES - - -The kingdom of Galicia is that part of Poland which, on the partition -of that monarchy among its more powerful neighbours, fell to the share -of the house of Austria. It contains upwards of fifteen hundred German -square miles, and not far short of four millions of inhabitants. - -The country chiefly consists of a sandy plain situated at the northern -foot of the lofty mountains which separate it from Hungary, -Transylvania and the Bukowina by one of their secondary ramifications. -The soil of the plains of Galicia is nevertheless more irregular than -that of Hungary. It is infinitely diversified by hills of no great -elevation, but in some parts of extreme fertility. - -Much as it has been the fashion to deplore the "fatal partition" of -Poland, and to execrate the powers concerned in it, we have now the -satisfaction to know that to the Poles themselves this measure has -proved one of the greatest blessings. Every individual has gained by -it, excepting a few selfish, pampered magnates, who abused their -overgrown power, and inflicted perpetual misery on the serfs whom -Providence had subjected to their rule. - -If ever there was a country where "might constituted right," that -country was Poland. The most dreadful oppression, the most execrable -tyranny, and the most wanton cruelties, were daily exercised by the -nobles on their unfortunate peasants. Dr. Neale in his Travels adduces -a few facts which prove but too clearly their miserable condition. - -The life of a peasant was held of no greater value than that of one of -his horned cattle; and if his lord killed him he was merely fined a -hundred Polish florins, or two pounds sixteen shillings of our money. -If, on the contrary, a man of low birth presumed to raise his hand -against a nobleman, death was the inevitable punishment. If any one -dared to question the nobility of a magnat, he was required to prove -his assertion, or doomed to die: nay, if a powerful man took a fancy -to the field of his humbler neighbour and erected a land-mark upon it, -and if that land-mark remained three days, the poor man lost his -possession. - -The atrocious cruelties habitually exercised almost exceed -credibility. A Masalki caused his hounds to devour a peasant who -chanced to fright his horse; a Radzivil had the belly of one of his -serfs ripped open, that he might thrust his feet into it, in the hope -of being cured of a malady with which he was afflicted. Still there -were laws in Poland, but how were they executed? A peasant, going to -the market at Warsaw, met a man who had just assassinated another: he -seized the murderer, bound him, and having placed him in his wagon -together with the body of his victim, he went to deliver him up to the -nearest Starost. On his arrival, he was asked if he had ten ducats to -pay for his interference, and on his answering in the negative, he was -sent back with his dead and living lumber. After this fact, the reader -will not be surprised to learn, that it cost a merchant of Warsaw -fourteen hundred dollars to prosecute to conviction and execution two -robbers who had plundered him. - -To this injustice were joined the most barbarous ignorance and -superstition. In 1781, the Starost Potocki, in passing through a -village, learned that on the following day, a person accused of -sorcery was to be burned alive. He examined the accused, inquired the -hour at which the execution was to take place, and returned home to -make preparation for preventing this legal murder, by carrying off the -prisoner when on his way to the stake. The magistrates of the village -received intimation of his design, and hastened the execution, so that -when Potocki arrived, he had the mortification to find that the man -had already been sacrificed. - -Nor were this ignorance and this superstition confined to any -particular class or order: in these respects people of the highest -rank were perfectly on a level with the meanest serfs. A Polish -baroness who had gained notoriety both at home and in France by her -spirit of intrigue and the wit of her correspondence, was in the habit -of burning frankincense and sprinkling her apartments with holy water -whenever a thunder storm approached her castle.--One day, when in -spite of these pious precautions the lightning struck and threw down -her chimneys, she had recourse to an expedient which she regarded as -infallible, namely, the burying round her house thirty copies of the -Gospel of St. John; a custom still piously practised on Christmas-day -in all the churches in Poland. - -The morals of the people, were then, as they still continue to be, -nearly at the lowest point of debasement. Female chastity is a virtue -unknown in Poland. Among persons of all ranks, from the highest to the -lowest, with very few exceptions, the most dreadful licentiousness -prevails. The men are equally profligate; and debauchery of every kind -prevails among them to a degree unknown in other countries of Europe. -Education is in general much neglected, the lower classes being unable -to obtain the means of instruction: and among the higher, where no man -is assured of the legitimacy of his offspring, a total indifference -prevails as to the training of the doubtful brood. They are therefore -neglected from their cradles, and left to the indulgence of every -passion, undisciplined, untutored and uncontrolled. Endowed by nature -with great personal beauty, the young Polish noble makes the tour of -France and Germany, engrafts the vices of every capital that he visits -on his own native stock; and after dilapidating his revenues returns -to his paternal estate with a train of French cooks, valets, parasites -and all the paraphernalia of modern luxury, to wallow in sensuality, -and to die prematurely of acquired disease. - -Such is the picture of the Poles drawn by Dr. Neale, who adds two -facts tending to show the superior degree of security enjoyed by the -humbler classes under the Austrian government to that afforded them -while under the Polish sceptre. - -During the reign of Stanislaus Poniatowsky, a petty noble having -refused to resign his small estate to Count Thisenhaus, the latter -invited him to dinner as if desirous of adjusting the affair in an -amicable manner. While the knight, elated at such an unexpected -honour, was assiduously plying the bottle, the count despatched some -hundreds of peasants with axes, ploughs and wagons, ordering the -village, which consisted only of a few small wooden buildings, to be -pulled down, the materials carried away, and the plough passed over -the ground which the village had occupied. This was accordingly done. -The nobleman, on his return home in the evening, could not find either -road, house or village. The master and his servant were alike -bewildered, and knew not whether they were dreaming or had lost the -power of discrimination: but their surprise and agony were deemed so -truly humourous, that the whole court was delighted with the joke. - -As a contrast to this story, related on the authority of Baron -Uklanski, himself a Pole, the reader is presented with the following -fact, which happened in Galicia, after the _cruel partition_:-- - -A peasant with his wife and children, belonging to the estate of the -Starost Bleski, having fled into Austrian Poland, the Starost -assembled a party of horsemen and carried off his serf, inflicted on -him a hundred stripes and threw him into a dungeon. The emperor -Joseph II., having been informed of this circumstance, caused his -ministers to demand reparation from the king of Poland, who replied, -that it did not depend on him, but on his permanent council. The -emperor, not satisfied with this evasive answer, sent a party of two -hundred dragoons to bring back both the Starost and the serf to -Zamoic, where they were taken before an Austrian court of justice. The -Starost was sentenced to pay a thousand crowns as an indemnity to the -peasant, and a fine of five thousand to the Austrian exchequer. The -hundred blows which he had inflicted on the peasant were repaid to him -on his own person, and he was sent back to his own estate with all due -respect. - -Galicia, like Poland in general, abounds in wood, but stone, -particularly freestone, is very scarce. Hence log huts are the general -habitations of the peasantry. Architecture of course is still in its -infancy. Every peasant in fact is his own mason and carpenter. -Provided with a hatchet, he enters the nearest wood, fells as many -trees as he wants, carries them to the site of his future dwelling, -and splits each trunk into two beams. Four large stones mark the -corner of an oblong square, and constitute the base upon which the hut -is raised, by placing the beams in horizontal layers, with the flat -sides inward; a sort of mortice being cut in each about half a foot -from the end to receive the connecting beams. A kind of cage is thus -constructed, usually about twelve feet by six, and moss is thrust -between the logs to exclude the wind and rain. Two openings are left, -one for the door, and the other, with the aid of a few panes of glass -or a couple of sheets of oiled paper, forms a window. At one of the -corners within are placed four upright posts, round which are entwined -some twigs covered with mud or clay to form a square area, in which is -built an oven of the same materials; and this, when hard and dry, -serves the peasant for kitchen, chimney, stove and bed. The roof is -closed in with rafters and twigs bedaubed with a thick coating of -clay, and covered over with a close warm thatch extending over both -gable ends. To finish this rude hut, the walls are sometimes extended -a few feet in a still rougher style, to form a sort of vestibule, -which serves also for carthouse or stable, and occasionally a second -is added to serve as a barn. In the whole building there is perhaps -scarcely a bolt, lock, hinge or any article of metal. Yet this is the -dwelling of a Polish serf, and contains himself and his family and all -his goods and chattels. - -If the proprietor happens to be a little more affluent, his hut may -contain an oven of glazed earthenware, and two bed-rooms with boarded -floors, the walls whitewashed, and the doors secured with locks. If he -be a Jew, the house is still larger; the roof better, and covered with -shingles instead of thatch; the windows are a degree wider; and if he -be an innkeeper, there is a long stable, with a coach-entrance at each -end, which serves for barn, stable and cow-house. - -The gentry give to their wooden house greater capacity, and a form a -little more symmetrical. The walls within are perhaps stuccoed and -washed with distemper colours, and externally plastered and -whitewashed. The door of entrance occupies the centre and is covered -with a rude porch, raised on four posts, and the front may contain -three or four windows. - -Such are the elementary parts of a Polish village, and nothing under -heaven can be more miserable, dirty and wretched, than the whole -assemblage externally as well as internally. All the inns in Galicia -are kept by Jews, and both these and the post-houses are always -situated in the public squares, which occupy the centre of every town. -These squares are also the market-places for horned cattle, and have -never been cleansed since their first formation: hence they are -absolute quagmires of filth, the putrid effluvia from which are almost -insufferable. - -Happy, says Dr. Neale, is the traveller, the dimensions of whose -carriage admit of his occupying it during the night! what abominations -will he not escape! He relates, that though his companion and himself -carried with them into these Jewish inns fur skins of their own to -sleep on, yet the noisome smells from the damp earthen floors were -frequently so powerful and disgusting as to keep them awake; and -there were a thousand other nameless annoyances more easily imagined -than described. - -From the centre of the roof of these houses is always suspended a -large brass chandelier, with seven branches: this is the sabbath lamp, -which is regularly lighted every Friday evening at sun-set, when all -the fires are carefully extinguished, and not re-kindled till the same -hour the next evening. Underneath it stands a long table soiled with -grease, occupying the middle of the apartment; around it are ranged -several wooden benches, with one or two rotten chairs, and a cushion -stuffed with hay. In the huts of the peasants a sort of shovel, slung -from the roof is loaded with tallow: a lock of flax is placed upon it, -and being lighted serves for a lamp. - -The best food to be obtained at these inns is nearly as disgusting to -strangers as the lodging they afford; and the only thing to be -commended in Galicia is the state of the high-roads; these are -excellent, of a good breadth, well levelled, and kept in admirable -repair. But these, and every thing else that is not absolutely -abominable, are the creation of the Austrian government; for -previously to the first partition of Poland, in 1772, they were as -miserable as the inns. - -In no country in Europe have the Jews obtained such firm footing as in -Poland, where Casimir the Great, at the instigation of his Jewish -mistress, Esther, took them, four centuries ago, into his especial -favour and protection. Enjoying privileges and immunities which they -possess in no other region, with opportunities of engaging deeply in -traffic and accumulating immense fortunes; masters of all the specie -and most of the commerce of Poland; mortgagees of the land, and -sometimes masters of the glebe--the Jewish interlopers appear to be -more the lords of the country then even the Poles themselves. - -All the distilleries throughout Poland are farmed out to Jews, who pay -large sums to the nobles for the privilege of poisoning and -intoxicating their serfs. Mr. Burnett states, that when he was in -Poland, a company of Jews paid to Count Zaymoski the sum of three -thousand pounds sterling annually for the mere privilege of distilling -spirituous liquors on the largest of his estates, which, to be sure, -comprehends at least four thousand square miles. Hence some estimate -may be formed of the enormous quantity that is consumed. - -When Joseph II. obtained possession of Galicia, that judicious prince -perceived the necessity of limiting the privileges of the Jews. He -took from them the power of cultivating the lands belonging to the -serfs subject to contributions, and prohibited them from keeping inns -and distilling spirits: but at his death these regulations ceased to -be enforced, and the Jews have since been silently regaining their -former influence. - -The inns, as has been already observed, are now altogether in their -hands, as well as the fabrication of ardent spirits and liqueurs. They -have all the traffic in peltry, the precious metals, diamonds and -other jewels, and they are also the principal agents in the -corn-trade. Of late years many of these Jewish families who had -amassed great wealth by commerce, having affected to abjure their -religion and to embrace the Catholic faith, have been ennobled and -permitted to purchase extensive estates: still true, however, to their -own nation, they have built large towns and villages on these estates, -and peopled them exclusively with Jewish families; for from a singular -instinct the Poles seem to detest their fellowship, and generally herd -together in their own miastas. - -The enjoyment of liberty and civil rights seems to have produced a -strong effect on the physical constitution and physiognomy of the -Hebrew race, and to have bestowed on them a dignity and energy of -character, which we may look for in vain in the Jews of other -countries. The men, clothed in long black robes reaching to their -ankles, and sometimes adorned in front with silver agraffes, their -heads covered with fur caps, their chesnut or auburn locks parted in -front, and falling gracefully on their shoulders in spiral curls, -display much manly beauty. In feminine beauty, the women are likewise -distinguished; but beauty is not uncommon among the Jewesses of other -countries. When looking at them, says Dr. Neale, seated, according to -their usual custom, on a wooden sofa, by the doors of their houses, -on the evenings of their sabbath, dressed in their richest stuffs and -pearl head-dresses, I have imagined that I could trace a strong -resemblance between their present head-ornaments and those sculptured -on the heads of the Egyptian sphynxes. Nor do I think it at all -improbable, that the dresses of the Hebrews of both sexes in Poland, -are at this day nearly the same as those of their ancestors when they -quitted the "house of bondage." - -Without having visited Poland, and had ocular demonstration of the -filth and abominable uncleanliness of the inhabitants, it seems -difficult to believe the accounts which have been given of them. The -floors of the houses of the lower classes consists of clay or earth -always damp, and from which the heat of the stove draws up a perpetual -vapour of the most offensive odour, which, as their windows are never -opened, circulates continually. Both sexes sleep together like pigs on -the straw or furs, upon the sides and tops of their ovens, without -undressing themselves. They eat few vegetables, and their diet -consists of every putrescent animal food, with bad bread, diluted -copiously with spirituous liquors. Such a diet necessarily predisposes -them to imbibe readily every contagious poison, which, when once -received, is propagated among them with the rapidity of combustion -itself. Thus it is related, that when the plague was brought into the -country in 1770, in consequence of the hostilities between the Turks -and Russians, all the peasants of a village belonging to Prince Adam -Czartoriski were swept off by it in one day. - -Generally without medical assistance, the wretched creatures are -abandoned to their fate; and such is the callous selfishness of the -great majority of the Polish nobles, that instead of attempting to -meliorate the condition of their serfs, all their ingenuity is -exhausted in ministering to their debaucheries and increasing their -own overgrown incomes, by throwing the temptations of drunkenness in -their way. Bishops and nobles are joint proprietors of all the inns, -and the greater the drunkenness of the peasantry, the larger are the -returns to the lord of the soil. - -THE END. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Austria, by Frederick Shoberl - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AUSTRIA *** - -***** This file should be named 42826.txt or 42826.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/8/2/42826/ - -Produced by Sandra Eder, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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